-------
17
^^^
cs)
•*-^


















^^
"O
4)
3
a
4-*
C
o
u



CN|
4)
3
rt
H
























4)
U
^
3
Principle Food Soi

In
4)
£
e
3
en




00
C;

C
a
in








i-t
41
4J
C

£









^-t
n)
r.
tn




4)
OO
rt
CO
41
J
03
4)
u
41
a
co
o>
3
M
cd
Aquatic insects
Crustaceans
Copepods
Cladocerans
My sis
Amphipods-Gamm
IH
4)
4-*
nl

a
4)
4)
Q
IM
fl) - 0/1
*» S c
nj C ;:
5 c ?
3 rt g
4) #
? i« rt (n
0 « 00
--< <" en o
"3 TJ ^ ^
-c c 5 «
co id <«H id


M
4)
4J
(t
5

id
• •H
4)
t*
Pontopo
Rotifers
Cladocerans
Copepods
Small eggs
Fish of all sizes
IH
4)
4-*
n)
*
0
4)
41
Q


)H
U
4-1
0]



















a
m

4)
Q




b
o
m








^_
o
o
ro
J ^
o a
O 4)
-1 T)
In
o
o
_ in
° *>
0 rt
"
1 X
4H 4_l
o a
INI 4)
— T3



nln
o
O
- iT»
o
8 *
f^i
i x;
— *J
o a
INI 4)
— 13


i w
« i-
c^"S
1/3 C
b >H
fNl

]

1
4
1



C

>
^
a
i
•4
u. s
^n d,
3^ >"
o
^ rt
^j
nl C
js "H




































4-1
a)
(1)
H )

u-(
O

en
^
o
o
•M ' 	 '
« a M .

LI
Q

(0
0)
•r-t
C



^
4) C
T3 -H




o
4->




a, ^
= 3
•-> <






1.
C
(H








                   as
                   4)

-------
                                   18
sculpins, and the one white fish that was collected. Although Pontoporeia
has been reported as an important food for alewives and occurs commonly
in the area, it was not heavily used by the alewives captured in the study.
Shoreline minnows, white  suckers, and smelt fed heavily on chironomid
larvae.  Yellow perch and smelt fed more frequently  on forage fish in the
Waukegan area than at Zion.  Zooplankton (cladocerans and copepods) were
used by more fish at Waukegan than at Zion, except for the alewife.73

            The relative frequency of fish eggs in the stomachs of nine
species showed a rather wide utilization of fish eggs  for food. The fish eggs
were probably  the eggs of more than one species, since they "were found  over
such a long period, from March through October.  Alewives, smelt, and
perch were found in the  area during their anticipated time of spawning, and
the eggs of these species were  probably among those commonly found in the
stomachs.

            Reference 122 states "Although no  direct data  exist,  it is ques-
tionable if  the waters  off the Zion site could provide grounds suitable for
spawning of any fish on a large scale  due to the ever-present scouring
action of waves.  Spawning presumably occurs  in protected harbors where
there are quiet waters."  Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife  records42
for various fish spot-checked by trawling at 3-40 fathom depths off Waukegan
from  1967  to 1971 (October, November, April and May)  suggest that, except
for smelt,  alewife and bloater,  the ratio of young to adult is much less than
50%.122

            Plankton net tows have shown that this area does not  contain
significant amounts  of either fish larvae or pelagic fish eggs, yet analysis
of stomach contents suggests that spawning of some species may take place. 3

            Supplement  IV of the Zion Environmental Impact Report2 states,
"Based on  preoperational monitoring  accomplished thus far, it appears
fairly certain that spawning grounds for lake trout and  white fish do not
exist in the Zion area.  Preoperational studies have shown that adults of
these species are absent from  the predicted area of discharge during spawn-
ing season."

            Recent collections  by state fisheries and game personnel have
shown the  species of fish  listed in Table 3 to be present at the Point Beach
and Kewaunee  area.98 This was confirmed by gill-net sampling by Bio-Test
Laboratories in 197 I.70

            The most abundant sport  fish found in the area during 1971 -was
the lake trout.70  Virtually all had been stocked in Wisconsin waters by
Federal or State agencies, as indicated by their  clipped fins.  The bulk of
the fish taken were year-class V (1966) fish.  They were predominant in the
spring and fall; year-class III and IV fish were more in evidence during  the
summer months.

-------
       CO

       o
               0)
               0)
               I/)
               I
                     1
                      o
                     iH
                     PQ
                      cd
                     U
                                 19
                                  CO
       JH
       rt
       0)
               f-i
               0)
               
                                   4->
                                  •H
                                         "I
                      O
                      8
                      PQ
                            PQ
                                   O
                            1
CO
 o
I

-------
                                  20
           Stomach analysis of the lake trout revealed alewives comprised
57%, by volume, of the total food items.  Other items included smelt, shiners,
and sculpins.  A large number were taken with empty stomachs.  This oc-
curred during October 1971, when they were near spawning conditions.70

           Reference 129 states there are no known spawning or nursery
grounds for fish in the area of the Point Beach Power Plant site.  Samples
taken from the Point  Beach discharge flume by the Wisconsin Department
of Natural Resources, between March and May 1971, resulted in a total catch
of eight sculpin, two samples with a "few" smelt eggs, and one  possible
salmonid egg.129

            During a  3-yr period (1968-1970) of preoperational surveys
conducted by the State of Michigan9 in the area of the Palisades Plant,
28 species of fish were captured^by gill netting, seining,  or trawling.  Gill-
net catches were dominated by alewives (55%) and yellow perch (39%).
Shoreline seining disclosed a predominance of longnose dace and spottail
shiners. Aside from alewives, the trawl catches  were composed princi-
pally of smelt, trout, perch, and bloaters.  Among the salmonids, the total
catch for 3 yr was 32 lake trout, 8 coho salmon,  and 10 chinook salmon,
nearly all of which were from plantings made at nearby Port Sheldon and
New Buffalo.96 There were significant diurnal differences in the catches.

            Perch was the most abundant game fish sampled throughout the
summer and fall.  Since no young-of-the-year perch -were captured, it was
postulated that they were inhabiting the zone 3- 18 ft deep, an area that was
not sampled.96 Very few adult alewives were taken in the inshore area dur-
ing daytime seining, but large numbers were captured at night  on
May 14,  1970.

            Bloaters were the only species of Coregonus caught in any
abundance during  the 3-yr period.  Only four lake herring  were taken
during the test period.

            A Great Lakes  Fishery Laboratory cruise report  described
fishing to locate spawning grounds of lake trout and white fish in south-
eastern Lake Michigan.   "Catches (during November  1971) of ripe, spent,
and gravid female lake trout in several areas off Benton Harbor (D. C. Cook
Plant site), South Haven (Palisades Plant site), and Saugatuck suggest that
this species spawned in large numbers along the  entire  southeastern shore
of Lake Michigan.  All males were in spawning condition.  Of 183 fish over
23 inches long, 31% had  healed lamprey scars and 1.1% had fresh wounds.

            "The only whitefish taken were a single female off New Buffalo
and 6 ripe males off  Saugatuck.  The evidence ... suggests that whitefish
spawn in suitable  locations (probably mostly reefs) along the southeastern

-------
                                  21
Lake Michigan shore, but not in great numbers.  Fairly large catches of
lake trout were made off New Buffalo and Saugatuck in the December nets.
Nearly all were males."19

            Fish, taken inshore at the Bailly Plant site (September 19-20,
1970) by seining, included about 200 yellow perch, less than 3 in. long,  sev-
eral small bluegills, two small largemouth bass, and several species of
unidentified minnows.91  Fish taken in gill nets included 88 yellow perch,
two white suckers, and one  longnose  sucker. Yellow-perch age groups were
III, IV, V, and VI with twice as many females as males.  The perch were
feeding  primarily on crayfish (from extensive areas of rip-rapping in the
area) and other fish.

            Additional fish  data specific to the Cook Plant area are given
in Ref. 65.  A tabulation of  the 1970 catch data for game fish taken off of
Berrien  County, Michigan (site of the Cook Plant), revealed the following
abundance percentages:  smelt, 62%; perch, 31%; chinook salmon, 6%; and
trout (lake,  brown, rainbow, and steelhead), 4%.

       2.   Plankton

            Generally, Lake Michigan has low algae populations compared
with those of most surface  waters, with centric diatoms predominating.14
During the summer, however,  the southeast sector of the  lake  contains
algae close  to the shoreline of the type commonly found in eutropic situa-
tions.87   There is an apparent relationship between the areas of the lake
shore,  where nuisance algae occur,  and the  proximity of sources of plant
nutrients contributed by major tributaries.119

            The background data on plankton in the Zion-Waukegan area were
summarized as follows:26

            "Water samples for plankton counts  were collected in the Zion
area in April  1968, and in August, October and December 1969, and monthly
since.  Despite a problem in comparing population because different  sam-
pling techniques were used, the species of plankton identified in the spring
of 1968 were similar to  those of 1969 and subsequent studies ... .

            "In August  1969, the plankton population near  Zion was composed
of green algae, blue-green  algae, diatoms, protozoans, and crustaceans with
the diatoms usually comprising more than 80 percent of the total plankton.
This plankton population was not evenly distributed in the water column but
was most numerous at the  15 to 20 foot depth.

            "In October  1969, the total plankton population was similar in
composition to that observed in August.  Diatoms usually comprised  more
than 75 percent of the total plankton population at all depths sampled. In

-------
                                  22
addition to members of the genera Fragilaria and Tabellaria, species  of
Asterionella were observed more frequently in the October  samples.  Al-
though temperatures were similar throughout the water column, the plankton
populations were most numerous at the 10 to  13 foot depth.

            "Plankton samples taken during December,  1969, were obtained
from a much wider section of the lake than earlier samples and are there-
fore believed to more accurately represent the existing population.  Most of
the samples were taken between the 5 and 15 foot depths, ... .  The total
population was composed of the same planktonic forms observed in August
and October, 1969; however, the diatoms  comprised more than 90 percent
of the population (rather than 75 percent).  The diatoms Tabellaria and
Fragilaria were  still represented; however, species of Stephanodiscus re-
placed Asterionella as a dominant form.

            11 The 1970 and 1971 studies to determine the thermal effects on
both phytoplankton and zooplankton found  in the Waukegan area produced
comparable data on planktonic population to those in the Zion study. With
respect to phytopiankton, these more extensive studies confirmed earlier
observations and led to the conclusion that most species encountered were
classical  to Lake Michigan, however, the diatom Stephanodiscus hantzschii-
tenuis  was a notable exception. It was found to be the most dominant species
in April, May and June  and has been associated with organic enrichment
(Stoermer and Kopczynska, 12  1967).7   This species also represents more
than 5  percent of the August and  September populations."

            It should be noted that the relative  abundance of diatoms meas-
ured by the Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories in the Zion-Waukegan area in
August, October, and December 1969 (80, 75, and 90%, respectively), con-
trasts  sharply with the  data  of Schelske and Stoermer,107 which indicated
that diatoms comprised  10% of the phytoplankton samples taken from the
midlake part of southern Lake Michigan during the  summer of 1969.

            A more detailed reporting69 of plankton samples obtained in the
Zion-Waukegan area from April to  December  1971 revealed the following:
Chrysophyta (golden-brown algae) was the most abundant algae division.
Diatoms,  the most numerous of which were Fragilaria crotonensis,
Stephanodiscus binderanus, S. hantzschii-tenuis, Rhizosolenid eriensis,
Asterionella formosa, and Tabellaria flocculosa,  comprised more than 90%
of the  April-August population, about 50% of the September-October popula-
tion, and  more than 70% of the November-December population.  The Cyano-
phyta (blue-green algae) was the  second most abundant, the percentages
rangingfrom 0.2 to 42% of the phytoplankton.  Chlorophyta (green algae) had
an abundance of  0.2-7.6% of the total phytoplankton.

            The  largest standing crops of diatoms were observed in April,
May, and June when temperatures were below 56°F,  with inshore waters

-------
                                   23
containing more than offshore waters.  The temperatures at this time were
above what is considered optimum for several of the dominant species.

            Comparison of Chrysophyta populations with the concentrations
of silicon dioxide, total phosphate, and  nitrate-nitrogen revealed (a) that
silica increased gradually in the spring and then declined concurrently with
decreasing diatom populations during August  (the quantity of silica generally
declines as  diatom populations increase), (b)  total phosphates decreased
gradually from June through October, and minimum amounts coincided with
the fewest diatoms, (c) nitrate-nitrogen remained uniform from May through
September and increased during  the fall (this may be attributed to a reduced
uptake of nitrates by phytoplankton during a period of minimum population
growth).69

            The blue-green algae comprised less than 5% of the phytoplank-
ton from April through August 1971.  However,  from September through
December, percentages at various sampling locations varied from  11 to 67%
of the phytoplankton, primarily due to an increase of Collosphaerium
naegelianum.  It was noted that blue-green algae populations did not exceed
25% of the total during  the 1970-  1971 study.

            Zooplankton data acquired by the  Industrial Bio-Test Labora-
tories were summarized  as follows: "Additional data on zooplankton, also
obtained in 1970 and 1971 studies, revealed that the most common classes
present in Lake Michigan near the Zion station were copepods,  cladocerans
and to a lesser extent,  rotifers.  The most abundant zooplankton crustacean
in Lake Michigan, the  Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi, was found  to be the
dominant species representing the copepods.  Other common copepods  ...
were Eurytemora affinis (present in large numbers in September and
October), Cyclops vernalis (quite common in  October and present in low
numbers in September), and Diaptomus ashlundi (found  in moderate numbers
in January and December and again only in significant numbers in
September).  The most abundant  Cladocera throughout the study was found
to be the Bosmina longirostris.  Daphnia retrocurva and Ceriodaphnia
quadrangula were also  present in significant numbers in August. Rotifers
were represented predominantly by Conochilus  and Asplanchna
priodonta ... . "26

            A more detailed reporting 9 of zooplankton studies in 1971 stated
that a seasonal variation was  clearly observed.  "The major portion of the
zooplankton community was composed of copepods during the  spring months.
Then, with the higher water temperatures of July through September, the
cladocerans predominated.  As the water temperature decreased, the
copepods again predominated."69

            Plankton samples obtained at the  Kewaunee site in 197 I70 re-
vealed that diatoms were the most abundant members of the phytoplankton,

-------
                                  24
followed by blue-green algae and green algae.  The diatoms were most
abundant in May (91%), and the fewest numbers were observed in November
(66%).  Blue-green algae comprised 2-26% of the population,  the lowest and
highest values occurring during May and November, respectively.  The
larger counts were due to an increase in Coelosphaerium naegelianum.
Green algae and miscellaneous forms always accounted for  less than 8% of
the total.  These results are similar to the Zion studies.

           The five most abundant  species were  Fragilaria pinnata,
F. crotone sis, Tabellaria flocculosa, Coelosphaerium naegelianum, and
Stephanodiscus hantzschii-tenuis. All are diatoms except the blue-green
algae C_.  naegelianum.

           Zooplankton samples were obtained in the Point Beach and
Kewaunee areas by The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee126" 128 and  at
Kewaunee by Bio-Test Laboratories.70   The Bio-Test data identified  13
species of cladocerans,  11 species of copepods, and two immature stages
of copepods during 1971.  This included small numbers of five genera not
reported in The University of Wisconsin data of 1969   and three genera not
reported in the 1971 data.128

            The most  numerous species identified in the Bio-Test studies
at Kewaunee were Bosmina longerostris, Chydorus sphaericus, Cyclops
bicuspidatus  thomasi,  and two species of Daphnia; The University of
Wisconsin data from Point Beach and Kewaunee listed Bosmina, Cyclops,
Diaptomus, Daphnia and rotifers as the  most abundant.  Both studies  found
numerous  copepod nauplii.  The rotifer  population was reported to be much
higher in  1971 than in 1969  and  1970.128'70

            Dr. Ayers conducted limnological studies at the Cook Plant site
in 1969 and 1970.  On  July 10, 1970, phytoplankton samples  were obtained
at 53 stations.  The 53 samples contained 59 dominant or  codominant (six
stations had  two species of approximately equal numerical  superiority)
groups, of which 49 were diatoms.7   The number  of samples in which the
various species were  dominant  are  Tabellaria fenestrata  (32), Cyclotella sp.
(seven), Milosira  sp. (six),  and  Fragilaria crotonensis (four).  The species
Milosira  sp. and Cyclotella sp.  were most dominant in the surf zone, and
F.  crotonensis was more dominant  in stations farthest offshore.

            The investigators made the  following comments concerning
their data:5

            a.   "There appears to  be an increase (in numbers of species,
                at least) of blue-green  algae from spring into fall.
            b.   Green algae appears to have a peak in  late  summer  that
                may or may not be supported by subsequent data.
            c.   The persistence of flagellates is unexpected and may or
                may not be supported by subsequent data."

-------
                                   25
           Examining their data for river-associated phytoplankters, they
concluded that the evidence from the July 10 survey shows no demonstrable
effect of the St. Joseph River on the Cook Plant phytoplankton.7

           Variations from station to  station in the diversity index, number
of species, and organism density, during the July  10, 1970, tests forced them
to conclude "that small water masses,  each with different biotic characteris-
tics, move through the Cook Plant area."7

           Zooplankton data obtained on July 10,  1970, also indicated a
patchiness from station  to station,  but  it was not as pronounced as phyto-
plankton patchiness.  Although the Cyclopoid copepods were occasionally
present in the greatest numbers, Bosmina cladocerans dominated the sam-
ples most frequently.  The most abundant zooplankters had the following
sample frequencies:  Cyclopoid copepods (eight),  Diaptomus  copepods (none),
Bosmina cladocerans (37), Polyphemus cladocerans (two), and Asplanchna
rotifers (none).7

           Copeland and Ayers34 provide an interpretation of biological  data
obtained during lakewide sampling during 1969 and 1970.  "Inspection of the
phytoplankton data  tends to confirm the general trends observed in  other
studies.  In general, total phytoplankton abundance was greater  near the
south end of the lake and near  shore than in the northern  end and in the  cen-
tral lake.  This was the  expected situation.  However, relative abundance of
the various algal groups did not follow the expected pattern.  In only about
half of the samples did diatoms represent more than half the algal cells
present.  Their relative abundance was lowest at some of the open lake
stations, particularly toward the northern end. When diatom abundance was
low, the green algae usually were found to be high, and vice versa.  The
other groups tended to remain at rather  low levels except for an occasional
peak in the blue-green's  and dinoflagellate s, but these peaks  seldom repre-
sented more  than 50% of total phytoplankton.  Since phytoplankton abundance
can rise and  fall  rather  quickly, and since samples from  different stations
in this study  were widely spaced in time, even within a single cruise, it is
unwise to draw any more detailed conclusions from this data."

           Copeland and Ayers34 interpret zooplankton data obtained during
lakewide sampling  in the following manner.  "Comparison of the zooplankton
data with other studies is particularly  difficult because of differences in
sampling techniques and schedules used  by various investigators.   The list
of species present  was as expected, and  few anomalies were present in  their
relative abundance.  Either the Calanoid copepods (especially Diaptomus) or
the Cyclopoid copepods were usually the most abundant group, although  they
were outnumbered  in a few samples by Daphnia.   Total zooplankton abun-
dance fluctuated greatly from sample to  sample,  and no clear temporal  or
geographic trends  could be seen."

-------
                                   26
       3.   Periphyton

           "Periphyton are  defined as the  complex assemblage of aquatic
organisms, especially green and blue-green filamentous algae, that  grow
attached to permanent substrates such as rocks, logs, steel pilings, etc. in
shoreline  areas.  In addition to the larger algae, there are less obvious
diatoms, many bacteria, protozoa, and invertebrate animals which constitute
the periphyton community.  Under normal conditions periphytic growth is
considered to be beneficial because it is a food source to many fish  or fish
food organisms.  Some of the bottom feeding fish, such as carp and  suckers,
will browse directly on the filamentous algae.  Forage fish feed on the proto-
zoa and invertebrates.  As the algae die and decompose, the organic material
released becomes nutrients for other algae and invertebrates, all of which
constitute the aquatic food chain of the littoral  area.

            "It is only when the periphyton growth exceeds the rate  at which
fish and invertebrates can assimilate it into the normal food chain that the
growth becomes excessive and a nuisance.  Excessive growth can create
problems, both aesthetically and practically, when the filamentous algae
break away and float onto beaches to decay, enter municipal waterworks, or
clog equipment maintained in the lake."

            Periphyton samples, collected from natural substrates in the
Zion area in 1969 (no month given), indicated that the filamentous green
algae,  Cladophora, was the most common organism in the periphyton
community.28

            A more thorough study74 summarizes the results  of periphyton
samples collected from April 1970 to March 1971 from both permanent and
artificial  substrates near the Zion Station and the  Waukegan Station.  Peri-
phyton growth was measured from May until November, at which  time a
combination of ice, water temperature less than 50°F, and stormy weather
inhibited growth.

            Permanent substrate growths were characterized by the cold-
water genera Ulothrix and Stigeoclonium in the spring and Cladophora in
the summer.   Cladophora  glomerata dominated during July and August and
was found on most substrates through  October, at which time Ulothrix zonata
reappeared.   The appearance and disappearance of diatoms and blue-green
algae had no such clear-cut trend.74

            The cold-water genera Ulothrix and Stigeoclonium grew abun-
dantly on artificial substrates before the appearance of Cladophora.
Cladophora first appeared on the artificial substrates at Zion in June, be-
came abundant in July, and disappeared in August.  Ulothrix was the most
abundant green algae in the  Zion area from August through November.
The Waukegan intake  supported  Cladophora during  July and August, although
it was not abundant.

-------
                                  27
            Cladophora persisted on the permanent substrates until October,
but its growth on the artificial substrates occurred only during July and
August.  This differential persistence demonstrated the value of studying
both substrates.74

            Abundant diatom growth of several  species occurred near Zion
during the entire sampling period.  In contrast, abundant growth at the
Waukegan intake occurred only during spring and summer months and was
limited primarily to two species. The data indicate that diatoms have a
limiting upper temperature for maximum growth between 55 and 70°F, with
a sharp inhibition at temperatures above 70°F.74

            The Zion area did not support abundant blue-green algae  growth
during any season. Abundant growth in the Waukegan intake was restricted
to the period from July to  October.  The report postulated that blue-green
algae growth is  not expected to increase near Zion after startup because the
underwater, offshore discharge is designed to prevent warm water from
reaching the nearshore substrates suitable for  periphyton growth.

            Chlorophyl _a and  biomass data indicate the largest amount of
periphyton growth on artificial substrates  was supported in the Waukegan
intake canal during August and September.  The water temperatures were
between 67 and 70°F.  After September, periphyton growth was greater on
artificial substrates in the Zion area.  Except for  an early October chloro-
phyl ^ analysis, the late September to November growth near Zion was sig-
nificantly larger than  growth  in the warmer waters near Waukegan.74

            Diatoms were  the most abundant-form of periphyton in the
Kewaunee and Point Beach areas. Fragilaria was the most abundant  diatom
represented by nine species.  _F. vaucheriae •was the most abundant species
in studies using plexiglass substrates,126"128'131"133 whereas samples from
natural substrates near Kewaunee in 1971  showed  _F. vaucheriae to be in
low abundance.70  The difference was most likely attributed to the different
substrates,  (in general, there is a lack of permanent substrates  along the
shoreline in that area.)

            Bio-Test  studies70 reported periphyton samples taken from
wooden pilings and riprap contained strands of  filamentous green  and blue-
green algae intermixed with several species of diatoms.  The most obvious
species of filamentous green algae was Ulothrix zonata,  which was more
abundant in May and November than in August.  (The University of Wisconsin
studies were limited to periphytic diatoms.)

            There are few results of periphyton studies to report for 1970-
1971 that are specific to the southeastern  shore of Lake  Michigan. Two
periphyton samples were obtained from a  6-ft-deep, plastic, subsurface
float in October  1969.5 The samples were only qualitatively examined to

-------
                                   28
determine the dominant periphyton types in the Cook Plant area in the fall.
The periphyton were very sparse and were dominated by diatoms  of the
genera Gomphonema, Nitzschia, Synedra, Achnanthes, and  Cymbella.  The
dominant diatom was Gomphonema sp., though Melosira varians was also
quite abundant.  One green algae, Stigeoclonium, was present in some num-
bers.  No Cladophora was present.

           A very brief tabulation of the dry weight per square meter of
approximately one month's growth of periphyton in the Palisades area, dur-
ing May-August 1969,  is given in Ref. 30.  No  species identification is
reported.

           Periphyton samples were obtained at the Bailly Station site in
September and October 1970.  These data were taken in the presence of the
thermal discharge from the  existing Bailly Plant and therefore will be dis-
cussed in Section III below.

       4.   Benthos

           In April 1968 and August, October, and December 1969, bottom
organisms were collected off Zion at offshore distances out to 5600 ft.
The 1969  samples were generally similar in composition to the samples
collected and reported by Beer and Pipes in April 1968.13  The benthic or-
ganisms found in the  Zion area were generally dominated by crustaceans,
but oligochaete worms were most numerous in the shallower  areas.  The
fingernail clams (Pelecypoda), Sphaeriidae, and the snails (Gastropoda)
usually composed less than  15%  of the benthos found.2

           In depths shallower than 10  ft, benthic populations at Zion were
almost nonexistent, probably as  the result of scouring by 'wave action and
the frequent  shifting of bottom sediments.  At depths of 10-20 ft, oligo-
chaetes (aquatic worms)  became the most abundant organism. Tubificids
were the most abundant shallow-water species, and Stylodrilus heringianus
was reported as the most abundant deeper-water species.  In waters deeper
than 20 ft, the burrowing amphipod, Pontoporeia affinis, became  the domi-
nant benthic  representative.2

           Samples obtained at  Zion from April through  December 1970
showed the benthic populations peaking (approximately  tripling) during July
and August, because of reproduction, and then slowly declining during the
fall months.   Pontoporeia affinis was the dominant organism, accounting  for
50-83.4%  of the total population.  Oligochaete worms, midges (Chironimidae),
and fingernail clams (Sphaeriidae) ranked second, third, and fourth,
respectively.2

           Samples obtained during 1971  confirmed crustaceans (Ponto-
poreia affinis) as the most abundant benthic organism,  with population

-------
                                   29
densities similar to those of 1970.  Oligochaetes, consisting primarily of
tubificids,  composed the  second most abundant category, with fingernail
clams third. Snails and insect larvae together composed only about  10%  of
the total benthos.  The tubificid population density was somewhat higher  in
1971 than in 1970.  The total benthic population densities varied  among vari-
ous sampling areas, but no clear  trends were apparent throughout the year.

            Low numbers of benthos were collected during  1971, at depths
less than 20 ft, from the  clay and rock substratum  that underlies the shallow
waters near Kewaunee.  Chironomidae (midge larvae) was the predominant
group of organisms, probably because of its ability to construct  cases and
avoid being swept away by wave action. Different chironomid genera, with
the exception of Heterotrissocladius, were observed each season. °

            Reference 121 cites (without reference) a brief study of the ben-
thos at Point Beach in 1968:  "The Point Beach benthos was so depauperate
that use of benthic organisms as indicators (for long  range environmental
effects) was abandoned."

            Benthic samples were obtained at the Point Beach Power Plant
at monthly intervals, from May through August 1971 by Argonne National
Laboratory.109  The samples, obtained from depths of less than 40 ft, con-
firmed that the benthic population was very sparse. Unlike the conditions
at Kewaunee, the most common organism collected was the amphipod,
Pontoporeia affinis, with population densities  of 0-100 organisms/m2.  This
density is extremely low compared to data from Zion, where population
densities ranged from 4000 to 16,000/m2 (Ref. 77).

            Bottom samples for benthic invertebrates were collected in the
Palisades area from May 1968 to October 1970.30   The benthic samples were
typical of those found in Lake Michigan, the major  taxonomic groups being
amphipods (primarily Pontoporeia sp.), aquatic earthworms (Oligochaeta),
freshwater  clams (Sphaeriidae), aquatic insects (primarily Chironomidae),
flatworms  (Turbellaria), leeches  (Hirudinea), and hydra (Coelenterata).
Densities of the amphipods, oligochaetes and pelecypods increased with in-
creasing depth.  Chironomidae were the predominant organisms at depths
less than 20 ft.119

            The abundance of benthic organisms was  low in the Bailly region,
as compared with other  aquatic life  in Lake Michigan.  Of the organisms
present during September and October 1970,  oligochaete worms  (Tubificidae),
comprised 52% of the total benthic organisms. Most  of the species of oligo-
chaetes present were characteristic of eutrophic, but not grossly polluted,
waters.  The two genera  of midge larvae present, Chironomus and
Cryptochironomus,  are characteristically found in eutrophic and polluted
sediments.  The  amphipod, Pontoporeia affinis,  is  a cold-water  form and
                           	            Q 1
found only at the station in deepest water.

-------
                                  30
           Ayers found that limited sampling for benthos in the Cook Plant
area, during  1969 and part of 1970, was difficult to interpret.5  In a report7
on the initial phase of a large-scale sampling program at the Cook site on
July 1970, he concluded the benthic macrofauna increased strongly with depth
between 15 and 80 ft. Chironomids were present in low abundance over much
of the area and dominated the benthos in depths less than about 20 ft.5

           Reference 34  summarizes lakewide benthos data acquired during
1969 and 1970 in  the following way.  "The benthos samples were also about
as expected from previous studies.  In most cases,  total benthos abundance
was between 1000-5000 organisms per square meter, but it occasionally was
much higher.  Only 3 stations (Sheboygan,  Zion,  and 20 miles southeast of
Waukegan) had very high benthos abundance, and even these had more nor-
mal abundance on at least one cruise. Beeton,   in reviewing the  work of
other investigators, mentioned that the proportions  of amphipods  and oligo-
chaetes reported in the fauna had shifted from 48/39%  respectively to
65/24% between 1931-32 and 1963-64. In the present samples,  however, the
proportion was nearer to  the earlier figures stated  above than to the latter.
This may be  due  in part to selection against small forms, especially oligo-
chaetes, by the sampling and sorting process used on the present study."

           The lack of benthos in the inshore areas of Lake Michigan was
confirmed by Copeland  and Ayers34 in their description of changes  in their
sampling  locations.   The station at the Kewaunee Nuclear Plant was moved
to 3.5 miles offshore because at 1 mile the sediments were hard and un-
sampleable with  little or no benthos; the Point Beach Station was  moved to
4 miles offshore  for these same reasons; the Bailly Nuclear Plant  station
was moved to 2 miles offshore because, while the sediment was sampleable,
there was little or no benthos.

-------
                                   31


             III.  STUDIES RELATED TO THERMAL PLUMES

A.  Physical Characteristics

       Before one can assess the biological or ecological impact of waste-
heat discharges on a particular receiving body of water, it is necessary to
first determine the  "natural state," biological and physical, of the water
body.  This matter has been pursued in the preceding section. The next
step in evaluating the impact requires the identification of the areal extent
and temporal behavior of the temperature changes within the  body of water
induced by the heated additions.  This  section lists and briefly reviews
those references that have provided this kind of information,  either from
direct physical measurements or from model predictions. As indicated in
the Preface, the reference material will for the most part be limited to
subject matter directly related to the Lake Michigan environment.

       The major source of heat input into the Lake  is, of course, solar
energy.  Each spring and summer it raises the temperature  of large vol-
umes of lake water from 32  to about 70°F. Man obviously has no control
over this  source.  Rivers and streams are also sources of heat input dur-
ing certain times  of the year. Man has some control over these  sources
by the way he uses them for cooling.  He may also increase their absorp-
tion of solar energy by impounding them behind dams or by reducing their
shade by deforestation.  Other significant sources of heat input are, of
course, industrial and municipal uses of the water, over which man has
complete  control.

       The lakewide physical effects  of man-made thermal discharges
(primarily electric-utility generating stations, steel plants, and municipal
waste-water treatment plants) have been analyzed by Asbury.3 The studies
showed that if all  the waste heat projected for the year  2000 were mixed
throughout the lake, the lake  surface temperature -would have to increase
only 0.1°F to dissipate it.  The increased evaporation loss would be
810 cu ft/sec,  compared to  a natural evaporation loss of about
40,000 cu ft/sec.

       Figure 3 shows an inventory of the major heat sources for
Lake Michigan. It includes major rivers, principal  industrial sources, and
steam-electric power plants contiguous to Lake Michigan. The black semi-
circles represent the estimated thermal-plume  areas associated with the
peak thermal discharges.  The plume areas extend from the point of dis-
charge to the place where the heated water cools to  1.8°F above the natural
ambient lake--water temperature. The size of each plume was calculated
using estimated or known flow and temperature  information for a particular
source, together with a phenomenological model for predicting plume areas
proposed by Asbury and Frigo.4  River-plume areas were computed from
the maximum monthly thermal-discharge rates  associated with the rivers

-------
32
                        00

-------
                                   33
over the period of record (1965-1969).  These maximums occurred some-
time in the summer when river-water temperatures are naturally higher
than the lake temperatures.  The river inputs -would be relatively smaller
on an average basis.

        Thus  Fig. 3 visually contrasts peak plume  areas associated with
natural and manmade thermal discharges to the lake.  In some situations,
municipal, industrial,  and power -plant heated effluents are discharged to
a river that is  a tributary to Lake Michigan.  Under these circumstances,
it was not possible  to separate the contributions of each source to the
plume area shown in the figure.  Each of these  situations is marked with
an asterisk.  The power-plant sources have been singled out by name;
other sources have been designated by the fact that they are municipal (M),
industrial (I), natural (R), or  combinations of these sources.  The numbers
refer to the radius  of the semicircles, in feet, that have the same areas as
the thermal plumes they represent.

        1.  Field Data

           An observation of the  sinking-plume phenomena at the
Point Beach Plant was reported by Hoglund and Spigarelli.59  Temperature
recorders were placed on the bottom  of Lake Michigan near the plant dis-
charge.  Analysis of the data  revealed that the discharge water interacted
with the lake bottom as long as the ambient lake temperature was 39.2°F
or less. When the  ambient lake temperature exceeded 39.2°F, there  was
little indication of temperature perturbations on the bottom as a result of
the thermal discharge.  The data are  presented in terms of the percentage
of the  time the  various recorders were  influenced by the plume.  The pos-
sible biological implications of this work are discussed later  in this  section.

           Ten thermal plumes have  been mapped at the Waukegan Plant
by Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories over a period from February 21, 1970,
to June 2, 1971.66-68 The plume dataware obtained by boat transverses,
vertical profiles being taken at stationary boat locations. Data locations
were determined using boat radar equipped with a variable-range finder.
Wet- and dry-bulb  air temperatures were acquired, along with ambient
wind direction  and  speed.  Power-plant  factors such as plant electrical
loading, condenser  water flow, and intake and discharge temperatures were
also obtained.  The data were presented in graphical form generally  with
horizontal  sections  showing isotemperature contours.   In most instances,
vertical cross  sections of the plume also showing  isotherms were provided.
The plumes were obtained on the folio-wing dates:  February 21, 1971 (shows
sinking-plume  phenomena); April 23,  1970; May 19,  1970; May 27,  1970;
August 24, 1970; September 30, 1970;  October 21,  1970; November  11,  1970;
February 16, 1971  (sinking plume);  and June  2, 1971 (cooperative field day).

           The Bio-Test authors have  summarized their field investiga-
tions by indicating  that the Waukegan  plumes are quite variable in size,

-------
                                   34
configuration, and general characteristics, and are most influenced by •wind
and wind-induced currents.  They observed that the plumes appeared to re-
spond quickly to wind-induced current movement and were principally di-
rected in a downwind direction.  They  stated that the outer perimeters of
the plumes were found difficult to locate, mainly because of the tempera-
ture variability of the ambient water.  They stated further that the heated
effluent affects the lake-bottom temperature only a short distance from the
outfall,  except "when the wind blows parallel to the shore or slightly onshore,
causing the plume to remain in shallow water close to the shore. Heated
water was found to extend more than a mile downwind on such occasions
with a strong along-shore breeze.

           The heated-plume •water was stated  to rise quite rapidly after
the initial momentum of the  discharge velocity was reduced.  When winter
lake ambient temperatures were either at or near freezing, the plume was
stated to sink to the lake  bottom and to spread over the floor.  It -was found,
however, that the plume mixed with the ambient water quite rapidly under
these conditions.

           Consumers Power Company has  available two documents sum-
marizing 1970 and  1971 in-house thermal-plume temperature surveys per-
formed  at various company plants  throughout Michigan.31'32  Of particular
interest are  those studies relating to plants on Lake Michigan.  The 1970
field surveys consisted of making temperature measurements at various
water depths throughout an established grid of marker buoys  in the survey
area. The temperatures  acquired  were plotted as a function of position for
particular depth levels, and  isotemperature contours were then drawn.
Power-plant  operating data in the form of plant  electrical output, condenser
cooling-water flows, and cooling-water intake and discharge temperatures
were recorded. Ambient wind speed and direction, air temperature,  and
relative humidity were the atmospheric variables recorded.

           Three temperature surveys were performed at the J. H. Campbell
plant on July  10, August 26,  and September 9, 1970.  Only water  surface
temperatures •were measured on these three field days. On September 9,
vertical temperature measurements •were additionally made at five stations.
Two temperature surveys were performed at the B. C. Cobb plant,  located
on Muskegon Lake, which empties  into Lake  Michigan. The surveys were
made on July 16 and July  17.

           The 1971 field surveys were somewhat more extensive  in that
the surveys also  included water chemical sampling and drift-bottle studies.
The water  sampling results  were not included in the report.  Three field
studies  were performed at the Big Rock Point Plant:   June  30, July 1, and
July 2,  1971.  Six field studies were made at the  J. H. Campbell Plant:
June 17, June 18, July 7, July 8, August 3,  and August 4,  1971.  Five studies
were made at the B. C. Cobb Plant:  June 23, June 24, June 25,  August 5,
and August 6, 1971 .

-------
                                  35
            In a brief summary of these plume measurements, the report
stated that the heated-plume •water •was buoyant and spread into relatively
thin layers on the surface of the receiving waters.  The extent of mixing
with adjacent waters was stated not to be well defined; however, it appeared
that maximum mixing occurred after the plume had cooled down to within
5.4°F of the ambient receiving water.

            A compilation of 1971 field data gathered by Argonne National
Laboratory relating to physical measurements of thermal discharges for
several power plants sited on the lake have  been reported by Frigo and
Frye.51  The field investigations basically consisted of temperature,  water
current,  and meteorological measurements.  Water temperatures were
measured by boat using  a submerged boom with probes attached at various
depths .

            Ambient water current and meteorological information consist-
ing of wet- and dry-bulb air temperatures, and wind speed and direction
were  typically recorded for each plume investigation. Power-plant operat-
ing data were acquired from utility personnel.  The report also describes
plume measurements made using airborne infrared imagery techniques.  A
study of the sinking-plume phenomenon was also described.

            Plume measurements were made at the Point Beach Plant dur-
ing March and April (sinking-plume study),  on May 20,  June 25, and July 20;
two plumes on July 21 and August 31; two plumes and an airborne infrared
imagery study on September 1; two plumes on October 28;  and a near-field
jet study on November 3, 1971.  Two plume  measurements were made at
the Waukegan Plant on June 2.  This was part of a cooperative field effort
and is described separately in this section.  Plume data were also obtained
at the State Line Plant on August 4 as part of another cooperative effort.
Most  of the data  obtained at the various plant sites were reported in  graphi-
cal form.  The  figures present horizontal and vertical plume sections •with
isotherms drawn on 1°C  intervals. The authors indicated that the datawould
be used as input  to analytical modeling efforts within their organization.

            A joint field day was conducted at the Waukegan Plant on June 2,
1971, to compare,  among other things,  various plume measurement tech-
niques.52  The results  showed rather remarkable  agreement between plume
isotherms measured by  two different organizations using in situ measure-
ments obtained from moving boats.  An airborne infrared mapping of the
plume was only  in fair agreement with the other two after the infrared data
were  corrected  to  account for plume-measurement time differences.

            Thermal-plume temperature studies (September 19 and Octo-
ber 28,  1970) were reported on for the  Bailly Power Station.91  The tem-
perature measurements  were made by taking surface and vertical temperature
profiles at numerous offshore sampling positions in the lake.  Meteorological

-------
                                  36
parameters such as wind speed and direction, cloud cover, air temperature,
and relative humidity were recorded in addition to the plant operating pa-
rameters of electrical output, cooling water flows,  and cooling water intake
and discharge temperatures.  The data were presented in conventional iso-
therm plots, but for the surface isotherms only.

           Scarpace  and Green have reported on a series of studies using
airborne infrared imagery techniques to map thermal plumes at the
Point Beach and Edgewater Power  Plants.105  In this preliminary reporting
they pointed out a rather  interesting and apparently not uncommon plume
phenomenon which is  readily apparent in an infrared  image  of the Point Beach
plume shown in Fig. 4.  The discharge temperature during infrared mapping
was  stated to be 78.3°F; the intake  on the ambient water temperature was
6l.5°F.   Thus the  darker  areas within the figure represent higher tempera-
ture conditions.  The  authors  attribute the wavelike patterns to "thermal
fronts"  moving outward from  the discharge since they have  thermal pictures
of the plume every 5 min and  can therefore follow frontal motion.

           The authors also noticed cyclic temperature  oscillations at a
fixed location within the Point Beach plume at a depth of 9 ft. Although it
was  not stated whether  these in situ measurements were  made concurrently
•with the infrared measurements, the authors  believed that such bulk-
temperature oscillations  suggest that the thermal fronts  are not just a sur-
face phenomenon. Infrared techniques would measure only the temperature
of the first tens of microns of the surface water.

           In a more recent paper,106 Scarpace and Green discuss additional
infrared plume measurements made at the Point Beach Plant between Sep-
tember  14 and  17, 1971, and additionally  speculate  on plausible explanations
for the  presence of the  thermal fronts. Apparently the fronts seem to be
the strongest in very calm weather and are not evident during high-sea ob-
servations. The strength of the fronts seems to vary from day to day.
Horizontal plume  temperature gradients larger than 0.9°F/ft were said to
be observed with frontal motion. It was also observed that  secondary waves
were superimposed on the thermal fronts.  The secondary waves were dis-
covered with near-infrared photographs; they  were just barely visible with the
infrared imagery.  Explanations for the secondary waves were also discussed.

            In summary, the authors felt that the  presence of moving  ther-
mal fronts adds a significant  dimension to the already complicated biological
and  physical aspects  of heated discharges.

           A comprehensive  infrared study of three  power -plant sites on
Lake Michigan was reported on by Stewart, Brown, and  Polcyn.110  The
broad purpose  of the  study was to conduct multispectral  diurnal surveys
of power-plant effluents into Lake  Michigan and to  investigate, where pos-
sible, the various effects and interactions between  these plumes  and the

-------
37
                                            J=
                                             u  "•
                                             CD  4J
                                               o
                                            tl °
                                            C ^D
                                            •H r-l
                                            O
                                            PM  4J

                                            U-l  00

                                                0)
                                             00   O
                                             CO  Oli-H


                                                i-H  O

                                             S^tJ
                                             C      0)

                                             cd  g  o>
                                             oS-o
                                            d)      cd
                                            C  4J -H
                                            •H  C T)
                                            tJ  cd  id
                                             oo
                                            •H

-------
                                   38
natural ecology of the lake.  Specifically, the report furnished (a) plume
imagery data, (b) an analysis of imagery gathered on growth and movement
of the thermal  bar, (c) a study of wind effects on plume distribution, and
(d) a study of the relationship between the thermal bar, natural river out-
falls, and power-plant discharge.s.

            Infrared scans were made on the J. H. Campbell Plant on
April 22, 23, and 30 and May 28, 1971.  The data showed extreme plume
variability, dependent on wind speed and direction and wind history. Com-
plete plume reversals within a 2-hr period were noted; subtle changes were
noticed in a span of 25 min.

            The Michigan City Plant was studied on  April 23, April 30,
May 7,  and May 28, 1971 .  The smallest plume occurred on the day of the
strongest winds.  A wave pattern in the April 23 data was noticed.  (These
"waves" looked much  like the thermal fronts described by Ref. 106.)

            The Bailly Plant was investigated on April 23, April 30, May 7,
and May 28,  1971.  The April 23 data shows some thermal-wave-pattern
structure in  the plume.

            Some of the  imagery data for the plants  were presented in three
unique forms as a result of  computer analysis of the data.  In one form the
plumes were shown contoured into discrete temperature contour bands, the
sum of these bands representing a mosaic  for the entire plume. The sec-
ond display form involved color-coded temperature  contours.  The  third
display form involved the use  of computer  symbol signatures combined with
color overlays to denote the temperature contours.  The data results were
also tabulated to provide plume  areas for a particular 1 F temperature
interval.

            A bibliography of thermal-plume field investigations conducted
on large lakes  was reported on by Tokar.114  This report was a state-of-
the-art survey, which attempted to  identify existing  thermal-plume field
data that  could be  used to support or  verify analytical plume-modeling ef-
forts associated-with heated-water  discharges into the Great Lakes.  The
report is somewhat dated in that most of the reviewed plume data, with a
few exceptions, were of a 1970 origin or earlier. Nevertheless, much of
what the report concluded on the plume field investigations up to 1970 is
perhaps appropriate even to this date.

            The author concluded that the major difficulties associated with
using existing field data for  validating or improving analytical predictive
methods are:  (a)  The transient nature of the plumes makes it difficult to
obtain truly characteristic data by normal techniques,  (b) Many partial
investigations of thermal plumes are being performed by a number of
groups, often at the same location.  Dilution of effort appears to be  common.

-------
                                   39
(c) Different mathematical models require different kinds of data, so that
data that are sufficient for one study may not be sufficient for another.

            The report also provided an inventory of all the major power
plants sited on the Great Lakes and information indicating plant siting in
terms of electrical output versus state  and lake distribution.

       2.   Mathematical Modeling

            In two  reports, one by Asbury  and Frigo4 and  the other by
Frigo,53 thermal-plume field data were used to  develop and  validate a sim-
ple phenomenological relationship for predicting the surface areas of ther-
mal plumes in lakes.  According to the  authors, the relationship they obtained
represents a useful rule  of thumb for predicting surface areas of buoyant
plumes from surface discharges.  The actual relationship was presented
as an eyeball data  fit on log-log graph paper.

            An analytical expression for the  data  of Asbury  and Frigo was
obtained by Elliott and Harkness43 using a  least-squares fit.  Their rela-
tionship is

                          A      I0'297
                          A xlO-2j    ,

where 6 and 9O are the plume excess temperatures at any point within the
plume and at the immediate point of discharge,  respectively, A is the total
area, in square feet, of the plume up to the 8 excess isotherm, and Q  is
the volumetric discharge rate, in cubic feet per second, of the  cooling water.

            In Ref. 53, Frigo correlated much of Argonne  National
Laboratory's 1971 plume field data, taken  at various Lake Michigan-sited
power plants, with the phenomenological model. All the new data fell within
the data scatter envelope of the phenomenological relationship,  and it was
concluded that the  validity of the relationship was further  strengthened.

            A state-of-the-art report concerning  the mathematical model-
ing of thermal discharges into large lakes was  reported on by Policastro
and Tokar.92 Sixteen analytical models were  critically reviewed discussing
individual model treatment of geometric, kinematic, hydrodynamic,  and
thermodynamic variables.  The models reviewed  did not represent all of
those that could be used for lake applications.  Therefore  a  bibliography of
other models holding potential merit in this regard was also included.  One
of the models reviewed has  been used to make plume temperature predic-
tions for the Zion Station discharges into Lake  Michigan.  All the material
in the report is highly technical, including its six pages of conclusions  and
observations.
—  =  1.0 - 0.456

-------
                                  40
           A workbook containing computational procedures in the form
of nomograms for estimating the temperature distribution and physical
spread of heated discharges originating from submerged discharges has
been authored by Shirazi and Davis.108

       3.  Hydraulic Modeling

           Hydraulic-model studies of the proposed Zion Station Unit 1 dis-
charge have been made by the Alden Laboratories.'26'78  The purpose of
these studies was to determine the temperature-dilution patterns and ef-
fects of the condenser cooling-water discharge on Lake Michigan. The
model was adjusted and operated to reproduce prototype conditions at the
point of discharge.  The test facility and test procedures were designed to
simulate field conditions expected at both Zion discharge structures.  The
tests were conducted for a variety of conditions of lake depth and flow.
The test results were presented in pictorial form showing water-temperature
distributions in  the vicinity of the discharge in plan and vertical views.

           The analytical-plume-modeling efforts for the Zion Station are
also given in Ref. 26.  Together they form a complementary set of data and
are discussed in relation to each  other  in testimony given at the Illinois
Pollution Control Board Hearings on January 24, 1972, by D. W. Pritchard."
Dr. Pritchard pointed out that the analytical-modeling results  overestimated
plume lengths in relation to the hydraulic-modeling results for the higher
excess isotherms.  For lower excess temperatures (<9°F), the two forms
of modeling were said to be in complete agreement.  The plume areas pre-
dicted by the two modeling techniques show the analytical method to predict
larger areas by a factor of 1.65.

           Alden Laboratories have also performed hydraulic-modeling
studies  for the D. C.  Cook Plant.    An undistorted model was  used with a
1/75-scale ratio to model the discharge region as accurately as possible.
The experimental features  of the  tank limited the hydraulic-modeling re-
sults to the equivalent of 4000 ft in either direction along the shore and out
to 4000  ft offshore.  Preliminary  trials indicated that the 3°F excess iso-
therm (used  in -water-quality regulations) could not be closed within the
tank, so analytical procedures were used to complete the task. Most of the
information gathered thus far was performed on the basis of the discharge
structures using three discharge  slots. Tests  are currently being per-
formed on the basis of using two  slots per discharge.

        4.   Effects on Shoreline Ice

            The main source of information on shore ice development and
destruction,  and on the potential effects of thermal discharges on this ice,
is work by Ayers.8  During the winters  of 1969-70 and 1970-71, aerial
photographic  ice-reconnaissance  surveys of the entire  shoreline of

-------
                                   41
Lake Michigan were performed to observe and photograph the alongshore
ice and open-water areas in the vicinity of nuclear and fossil-fuel power
plants.  On-foot photographic records of the shore ice conditions were ob-
tained  at the Cook Plant site and at  the sites of existing thermal discharges.

            As a result of these activities, Ayers  has derived abundant evi-
dence that the shore ice along the Lake Michigan shore has a complex
structure called "the storm icefoot,  lagoon, and outer barrier."  The method
of formation and details of this compound structure are discussed in Ref. 8.

            Ayers et al.  state that evidence from two winters of ice studies
"does not show that  discharges of waste heat cause extensive melting of
shore ice with the resulting exposure of the beaches to wave erosion. In-
stead,  the data show that the usual outfall structure, a sheet-pile flume
leading out  into  the water, will have  shore  ice continuing up to the very
sides of the flume ... (However) At Campbell there has been,  both winters,
a considerable area of shore  ice melted, but beach erosion has not been
evident."8

            Using an analysis of lake currents and wind-direction patterns,
Ayers  et al. concluded that during two-thirds of the winter the Cook Plant
plume •will not have  significant contact with the shore ice and the natural
processes of ice-building and  ice-destruction will be in control.  "The
Cook Plant  thermal  plume appears, at this time, to be an ice-destructive
force potentially operative about a third of the time in winter.  During this
time it will  be a destructive force wandering randomly along  the shore,
staying in contact with the shore ice for very limited periods at any local
point.  Since its ice  destructive force will always  be preceded and followed
by the  natural forces of ice-building and ice-destruction, we conclude that
the effect of the Cook plume on local shore ice  will be only a  limited dimi-
nution  in the amount of ice present."8

B.  Biological Characteristics

       Coutant36 summarized the concern about thermal discharges as
follows:

        "We visualize  the power plant as a  large artificial predator acting
on these populations.  Our opinion has been molded by laboratory experi-
ments which have shown that  thermal shocks may lead to death or induce
secondary effects that ultimately  affect survival of the organism or its
population.  We  may fail to realize, however, that these devastating results
are not obligatory in the entrainment process.  Rather, they occur only as
a result of specific combinations  of temperature and duration of exposure."

       This section describes studies performed  and testimonies presented
that are relevant to  these effects  of  "temperature and duration of exposure"

-------
                                  42
on aquatic organisms.  Many of these organisms are of immediate impor-
tance to man through commercial fisheries, sport fisheries, or biological
nuisances.     Others are important as  food-chain contributors to  those
species of more direct interest. Still others are  important components  of
the entire ecosystem, -without which other processes in the  lake could not
proceed.119

       A division -was made in this report between thermal-plume effects
and intake and discharge effects.  Problems with  fish kills on intake  screens
and mechanical damage due to pumping were easily relegated to the section
on intakes and discharges.  However, some of the temperature-related ef-
fects, such as periphyton growth and fish behavior, were not clearly  sepa-
rable into the specific sections.  Thus, a somewhat arbitrary decision was
made to describe those studies  that were performed primarily in  the intake
or discharge in the section on Intake and Discharge Effects. Those studies
that included lake measurements as -well as intake and discharge measure-
ments are reported here .

       1.   Waukegan Power Plant

           A number of studies of the  biological  effects of thermal dis-
charges have  been undertaken by the Bio-Test Laboratories for Common-
wealth Edison. The  studies use the heated discharge of the Waukegan
power plant.

           Following preliminary studies in 1968, reported by Beer and
Pipes,13 fish  collections were made near the Waukegan and Zion areas
from March through October 1970.  Thirteen species were taken in the
Waukegan area and 1 7 in the Zion area.73  The most  dominant fish were
alewife, smelt, spottail shiner,  chub, and yellow perch.  The data  indicated
that alewive s  seemed  to prefer  the warm discharge water throughout the
test period; the coho salmon seemed to prefer it only during the spring.

           During 1971, alewive s were again the most abundant in the
sampling area, with very large  concentrations in  the discharge during
August and September. A heavy concentration of adult spottail shiners
was observed in the  Waukegan discharge in June, but no  young-of-the-year
were taken in subsequent samples.

           Fish  that were present throughout the year in both the Waukegan
intake and discharge canals were carp, goldfish, and white  suckers.  Sport
fish taken during early spring  and late  fall included brown trout, rainbow
trout, and coho salmon. They were found mainly  in the intake  canal, though
a few were captured in the discharge.72

           Phytoplankton samples taken in May to September  1970 indicated
no significant differences in total population densities between the intake and

-------
                                   43
discharge canals.  Offshore densities were somewhat lower than the  canal
densities.  Diversity and evenness indexes showed little  difference among
populations in the intake, discharge, and offshore during the  sampling pe-
riod.28  These results were essentially confirmed during the 1971 studies.72

            Monthly sampling of zooplankton in and out of the Waukegan
plume was carried out from June through  October  1970.  Generally, there
were more  organisms  inside than outside  the plume.

            Ayers6 conducted  studies at the Waukegan Station on June 30,
1969  (intake temperature, 55°F; outfall temperature, 6l.9°F), and found an
apparent phytoplankton kill of 10%.   There was no evidence of heat-stimulated
recovery in the near region of the plume.  The population-density ratio,
with respect to  a station 2000 ft from the outfall, was 0.6:1.6

            The zooplankton numbers indicated similar trends with the pop-
ulation density reduced 15% at the outfall and a ratio (plume/outfall)  of
0.2:1  at 2000 ft.6

            "In  summary, the biological data show kill-off of both phytoplank-
ton and zooplankton in passage through the plant. In both types of plankton
there appears to have been continuation of die-off between the  outfall and
the nearby portion of the plume.  Benthos  results showed nothing attribut-
able to the plant except bottom scour due to currents in the  intake and
outfall."6

       2.   Point  Beach Power Plant

            The plankton, periphyton, and  benthos communities of inshore
waters were sampled near  the Point Beach Nuclear Plant by Argonne
National Laboratory, during 1971, to determine the biological effects of the
thermal  discharge.109 With respect  to phytoplankton, it "was concluded from
vertical  tows for plankton that no significant differences existed between
plume and  nonplume water  in  terms  of plankton biomass. However, fluoro-
metric analysis of phytoplankton samples  showed considerable variation
in chlorophyl a  concentration  (proportional to phytoplankton productivity)
at the sampling stations. Initially (nearest the discharge), there seemed
to be an  inhibition  in chlorophyl _a_.  Approximately 1400 ft from the dis-
charge an increase had occurred, and at greater distances the levels de-
creased  to  near ambient  concentrations.   A significant increase in
chlorophyl a concentration  was observed in the plume in July,  when an up-
welling resulted in elevated nutrient concentration.

            With respect to periphyton, its growth was significantly greater
at the three stations nearest the discharge.  Growth at all other stations
was similar to that at the control areas.  Periphyton productivity, as meas-
ured  by 14C uptake, was significantly higher at a station  5000 ft from the

-------
                                   44
discharge than at the control station and at a station nearer the discharge.
The elevated temperature near the discharge apparently did not stimulate
periphyton production during the period of the study.

            Fish were routinely collected by Argonne National Laboratory102
from  several locations, including the discharge canal, the  beach zone near
the discharge,  and a control beach zone approximately 2 miles north of the
Point Beach plant.  Hand seining was used in the  shallow beach zones, and
scuba divers speared large fish in the discharge  canal.  This  sampling dis-
closed that  during the summer months of May through July, alewives  were
the most abundant fish in the discharge  canal and the beach zone.   Dense
schools were observed in the  discharge canal  and often out into the lake as
far as 150 yards from the discharge.  Carp were the most commonly  ob-
served fish, both in the discharge and beach zones.  Schools of 10-30  fish
swam in and out of the discharge  canal along the  sides and bottom through
temperature gradients of up to 18°F.  Suckers were observed each time
divers entered the discharge (June-September).  Smallmouth  bass of vari-
ous sizes were observed only in the discharge.  Trout and salmon -were not
observed in the discharge channel during the higher-temperature  periods
(>7Z  F).  Trout and salmon also frequented the near-field plume region as
evidenced by good catches made by boat  fishermen.

            The spatial distribution of fish in and around a thermal plume
•was observed by Argonne National Laboratory during tests to examine the
feasibility of acoustic fish-locating equipment. On  October 28, 1971,  si-
multaneous  echo-sounding and temperature measurements were made as
a boat traversed through the Point Beach Nuclear Plant thermal plume.
Observations were made in daylight and  after  dark.  The major difference
observed between  the day and night runs was the  presence of  a large num-
ber of schools  of fish during the day and the complete absence of  schools
during the night. The number  of individual fish observed at night  is almost
seven times greater than during the day.  In general, during both  the day
and night series, the  majority  of fish (species unknown) were  in water less
than  55°F, and  at no time were fish detected in plume water warmer than
59°F. Many fish, however,  have been observed in the discharge canal in
much higher temperatures.103

            An interesting study of the effect of thermal discharges on the
swimming patterns of coho  salmon past the  Point Beach Nuclear Plant has
been released by The University of Wisconsin - Madison.57  The fish -were
tracked by underwater telemetry  equipment and a special temperature-
sensitive ultrasonic transmitter attached externally to the fish. All fish
tracked in 1971 were adult coho salmon captured at Algoma, Wisconsin.
The fish were displaced 23  miles south-ward and  released for tracking at
a point approximately 0.9 mile southeast of the Point Beach water-intake
structure.

-------
                                   45
            Preliminary analysis of the 1971 tracking data indicates that
three general patterns of movement -were followed by the  fish tracked in
the Point Beach area;  1) Five fish closely followed the shore line and def-
initely did encounter the plume; 2) two fish swam approximately 0.3-
0.6 mile offshore  and may or may not have come  into contact with the
plume; and 3) four fish definitely did not encounter the plume.

            Of the five fish that definitely contacted the thermal plume,  two
made a course change of about 90° at a point considered to be the location
of the plume interface and subsequently swam  approximately parallel to the
interface.  At the  location of course change of  these fish,  the temperature
increase across the plume interface was from 52 to 59°F  in the first case,
and from 55 to 61 °F in the second.  A third fish twice encountered the plume
edge very  near the hot -water -discharge  structure, and upon  each contact
changed  swimming direction by 180°. The temperature rise  across  the
plume  interface in this area was from 59 to 70 F.  The fish was swimming
north-ward at 1.6 ft per second.  Immediately before first  contacting the
plume, his speed increased to 2.5 fps. After first contact with the plume,
the fish changed direction and swam south, approximately 0.1 mile,  at
0.8 fps.  After turning northward again, he was swimming at 0.7 fps while
approaching the plume for a second time.  After the second contact, the  fish
swam 0.75 mile southward at 2 fps  before  turning north and approaching
the discharge area a third time.  The transmitter signal was then lost after
the fish had been tracked to  within 0.2 mile of  the discharge  structure.  The
tracking signal was also lost from two other fish -which had entered  the
plume  area before sufficient data on their  behavior at the  plume interface
could be obtained.

            Of the other fish that encountered the plume,  all  four exhibited
a marked increase in swimming speed during the track segment immedi-
ately preceding contact with the plume.   Three of these fish were lost in
the plume  due to transmitter failure, but the fourth was tracked through the
plume.  While passing through the plume, this  fish decreased its swimming
speed slightly from 2.3  to 2  fps.  Two of the fish that were among those  lost
in the plume due to transmitter failure -were later captured in their  home
stream area (Algoma, Wis.) by sport fishermen.

            The effect upon fish resulting from power -plant shutdowns dur-
ing emergency or  normal situations were referred to briefly in Ref. 129.
It was  stated that  it was significant to note that operating  experience for the
first six months at the Point Beach Station showed that with 20 shutdowns,
occurring  primarily in the winter months, no fish are known to have been
killed and  no other adverse effects -were observed.

       3.   Blount Street Plant (Lake Monona)

            A study to assess  distributional responses of  fishes to operation
of a power plant with  once-through cooling on Lake Monona was reported by

-------
                                   46
Neill and Magnuson.80 Integration of field and laboratory results suggested
that  fishes were distributed within the outfall area according to their dif-
ferent temperature preferences.  Preferred temperatures of six
Lake Monona fishes were measured by allowing each of several specimens
to behaviorally regulate the temperature of its tank.  The midpoint of the
preferred (laboratory-determined) temperature range agreed well with the
median  body temperature of the fish as measured in the  outfall area dur-
ing afternoon tests.  For example, carp, 89.2 (laboratory)/87.1 °F (field);
blue gill, 86.5/84.9°F; large mouth bass, 84.4/85.5°F; black crappie, 82.9/
82.9°F;  rock bass, 81.1/81.5°F; and yellow perch, 74.1/80.8°F.   (For yellow
perch, temperatures below 79.7°F were not available in the  outfall area.)

            Temperature was a major factor governing fish distribution in
that  fish tended to be most abundant in that  part of the habitat having tem-
peratures within the species-preferred range of temperature as determined
in the laboratory. Disparate distribution of some specific fish species of
different size resulted from the  influence of factors other than size-related
differences in preferred temperature. For example, spatial segregation
between young  and adults of two  species, carp and yellow bass, probably
did not  reflect  size differences in preferred temperature.  Adult carp were
concentrated in the outfall area during summer, but the young carp were
not, even though thermal regulatory behavior of  young  carp  indicated that
they preferred temperatures between 86 and 92.3°F, temperatures avail-
able only in the outfall area.  Young yellow  bass avoided the outfall  area;
larger yellow bass were relatively abundant there and were particularly
concentrated near the jets.  Yet,  large yellow bass stayed near the bottom
in water not much warmer than the reference areas "where  the young lived,
indicating that  temperature alone was not the dominant factor.  Water -
velocity effects were offered as  one explanation for the above -mentioned
behavior.  Explanations  of this behavior were not offered in the  report.80

            Laboratory  experiments80 'with  bluegills and yellow perch con-
firmed  that fish may be  attracted to food-rich environments, but suggested
that the attraction to food does not override the behavioral  thermal  regu-
lation.  Provided an environment with the preferred temperature is  avail-
able, the  fraction of  time spent in a food-rich  environment is likely to
decrease abruptly as the temperature diverges  from the preferred.   Fishes
may, however, briefly foray from an  environment offering the preferred
temperature, but not food, into cooler or warmer  (even lethally warm)
water where food is available.

        4.   Michigan City Station

            Biological data-were obtained from  the intake, outfall, and sta-
tions 400 and 1000 ft from the outfall, at the Michigan City Station on
June 28, 1969.6 The temperatures were: intake,  64°F; outfall, 77.4°F.  The
data indicated  some kill-off of phytoplankters because the outfall population

-------
                                   47
density was 14% less than that of the intake. Phytoplankton densities in the
plume were larger than those in the outfall.  The ratio was 2.45:1 at 400 ft
and 1.34:1  at 1000 ft.  Some of the increase was associated with the blue-
green algae, Oscillatoria, and the yellow-brown alga Dinobryon,  but the in-
vestigators could not tell if it was due to plant heat or  to foreign water
masses drifting in  from the southwest.

            The zooplankton showed a  decrease from intake to discharge of
2.9:1,  and many dead or broken organisms •were 'observed in the  outfall
sample. Zooplankton densities in the plume, relative  to the outfall, varied
from  5.3:1 to 0.2:1. As in the phytoplankton data, Ayers  et al.  were unsure
whether drifting water  masses affected the data.

            The waste heat from  the Michigan  City Generating Station did
not appear to affect the benthic organisms.

            Table 4 summarizes  direct measurements of the time required
for a  plastic bag, nearly filled with water, to travel from the mouth of the
plant  outfall to a point where ambient lake temperature was reached.5  The
short duration  of bag drifts was unexpected. Ayers et  al. indicate that,
even in larger  plumes, the  duration of the  greater than ambient tempera-
tures is probably too brief to trigger  excess algae blooms.5

        5.   Bailly Plant

            Field data were obtained on two days during September and
October 1970 at the Bailly Plant,  located between Michigan City and Gary,
Indiana. The purpose was to compare samples of the pertinent biological
parameters obtained from the plume area  and  the adjacent ambient waters.
A  summary of  the results91  indicated higher concentrations  of diatoms,
dinoflagellates, and blue-green algae  in samples taken from the warm water.
However, concentrations of golden-brown algae (other  than diatoms) and
green algae were similar for samples both inside and outside the plume.
Concentrations of green algae increased with decreasing distance from
Burns Ditch.  The growth was higher  near shore than 4000 ft offshore.91

            The periphyton showed greater concentrations of Cladophora
glomerata both within the thermal plume and in adjacent  areas than in areas
along the  southwest shore of the lake.91  Zooplankton were three  to four
times  more abundant within the thermal plume than outside  it.  In general,
most  forms found in the plume are  characteristic of eutrophic conditions.
The most abundant organism was the  cladoceran, Daphnia retrocurva, fol-
lowed by the copepod, Eurytemora affinis.  Individuals of these species
found within the plume  were infested -with fungus, whereas those  collected
outside did not exhibit any fungus.91

            A large concentration of yellow perch were found in the plume
at the  time of sampling.  The intake/discharge temperatures were  66/81°F

-------
                                    48
                   M -H
                   Q H
                          C  C
                          •H -H
                          e  a
                          o oo
                          fl CM
                                              •H
                                               6

                                              CM
                                               B
                   S p.
                   € 01
             A  O
             O iH
                                 in
                              O
                              o
                              o
                          csl
                          cs
                                            O
                                          \ ^^
                                            o
                                        CO O
                                        in in
    o
    o
    o
 • «\  M
co  o
oo  r^
                    C
                    ct)

                    (11
                    O  CD
                    CO  4-J
                    t-l  ctl
                           r-( O
                           •H CN
                           c« *--
                                                CO O
                                                PQ iH
                                                       CJ

                                                       C O
                                                       ctf r^
                                                       60-^
                                                       •H r^
                                                       Si r-\
                                                       CJ *^
                                                       •H O
                                                       S .H

-------
                                   49


on September 19 and 52.3/66.2°F on October 28, 1970.  It was speculated
the fish may have been attracted by the greater abundance of zooplankton
in the region of the thermal plume.

       6.   J. H. Campbell Plant

            A biological survey in the vicinity of the J. H. Campbell Plant
was performed by the Michigan Water  Resources Commission116 during
August 11-13, 1970.  The plant was operating with an intake  temperature
of 63°F and a discharge temperature of 77°F. Bottom trawling for fish re-
vealed no consistent differences between plume and nonplume areas.  Most
of the fish collected were young-of-the-year smelt. Yellow  perch were
next in abundance.

            Large amounts of filamentous green algae, Cladophora, were
collected in the trawl  through the plume area.  The origin of the algae was
unknown.

            Plankton algae  samples exhibited no gross numerical differences
or changes in community structure between the discharge and ambient
waters.116

            Results  from the benthic sampling indicated a statistically sig-
nificant increase in  number of species found near the  discharge canal. Al-
though there was a slight increase in total population near the discharge
area, the population samples were not  significantly different from the con-
trol points.  It was speculated that the  use of nutrient-laden  water from the
Pigeon River, for cooling, may have caused the increase in  species.11

            It was concluded116 that the  increased benthic productivity in
the plant's outfall was the only adverse effect that could be attributed to
the warm-water discharge.

       7.   Miscellaneous Studies

            Several  papers have been published during the last two years
that provide  laboratory temperature-tolerance  data for several
Lake  Michigan fish. Edsall et .al_.41 tested juvenile and young  adult  bloaters
for tolerance to high temperatures.  The "ultimate" upper lethal tempera-
ture (the lethal temperature that cannot be increased by increasing the ac-
climation temperature) for the juvenile bloaters was  80.1°F, slightly higher
than that for the young adult bloaters.  The thermal tolerance of juvenile
bloaters was slightly less than that of brook trout,  but higher than that of
other Salmonidae.

            Brungs17 reported the exposure  of fathead minnows  to  elevated
water temperatures of 78.8-93.2°F.  He found that reproduction was more

-------
                                  50
sensitive than survival, growth, or egg hatchability in assessing the effect of
temperature   The number of eggs produced/female, the number of eggs/
spawning, and the number of spawnings/female were gradually reduced at suc-
cessive temperatures above  74.3°F. No spawning or mortality occurredat
89.6°F which was the lowest temperature where growth was apparently reduced.

           McCormick et al.82 studied the thermal requirements of cisco
larvae by determining growth rates, mortality, and net biomass gain as a
function of temperature.  Temperatures between 55.4 and 64.4°F were rec-
ommended as most suitable for sustained production of larval cisco. The
24-hr median lethal temperature for ciscos  acclimated to 37.4°F was 67.6°F.

           The avoidance mechanism, or selection of preferred tempera-
tures, as described above, was also illustrated in an experiment described
by Raney104 during testimony before the Michigan Water  Resources
Commission.  He cited one test in which six alewives, acclimated at 77°F,
chose 82°F water when given the choice between 74 and 82°F, and chose
80 F water when the alternative was 86 F.  In  a similar test, six other  ale-
wives, acclimated at 77°F, chose  83°F water over 75°F -water and then chose
80°F water when 86°F was the alternative.  He said, "This illustrates the
expected reaction of a species, such as an alewife,  if and when it comes
close to a heated plume."

           Testimony by Lauer79 before  the Michigan Water Resources
Commission  included data related to several aspects of thermal effects on
lake biota. Concerning phytoplankton,  experiments have shown the diatom,
Asterionella  formosa, was capable of one division per day at 50°F and two
divisions per day at 68°F. Under optimum growing conditions, some algae
are capable of  three generations per day.  Most algae species studied have
a lethal temperature in the range of 91-H3°F, the majority being near  111°F.
Diatoms that require cooler  temperature (stenotherms) are generally most
sensitive to temperature  change  and can withstand  an 18°F temperature
change.

           Lauer79 stated that at none  of 10 operating power plants had he
observed a discernible shift  in species diversity resulting from the water
temperature  increase.  He attributed this to the relatively short exposure
time of the organisms to  the heated -water.

           The doubling time of zooplankton crustaceans such as copepods
and cladocera  is very dependent on temperature.79  Doubling times of 0.2-
2 days have been observed for these organisms at temperatures of approxi-
mately 77°F.  The population turnover  rate (100% replacement by a new
crop) may  be as rapid as 4 days  or less at 77°F, and up to 22 days  or longer
when temperatures  are lower. Twenty-five  of a 28% average loss per day
at summer temperatures has been observed to be due to predation.  The
maximum temperature tolerance of the majority of zooplankton species
studied range between 86 and 95°F.

-------
                                   51
            Using lake-bottom temperatures measured continuously during
March and April 1971 during a study of the  sinking-plume phenomenon at
the Point Beach Plant, Hoglund and Spigarelli59 used the data of Colby and
Brooke25 to predict the hatching time of lake herring  eggs subjected to the
observed temperatures during their incubation period. For the conditions
studied (2000 ft from discharge, 21 ft deep), the calculations predicted the
lake herring emergence would be advanced  about 7 days as a result of ex-
posure to the sinking plume.

            A rather significant development related  to the problem of
power -plant design and site selection has been reported by Coutant.  He
described steps being taken to develop quantitative mathematical predict-
ability of detrimental biological effects of thermal discharges.  For instance,
a "survival nomogram"  (a graphical representation of lethal temperatures
versus time, -with acclimation-temperature  parameters) may be prepared
for many aquatic species for which sufficient data may be available.  Then,
with the  aid of  a time-at-temperature graph, developed by analyzing the
velocities and temperatures an organism will experience while passing
through the plant and plume, one may determine if lethal conditions will  be
experienced by the organism being studied.   If this type  of analysis is per-
formed during  the design stage of  the plant, then engineering changes that
affect the temperatures  or  velocities may be incorporated to minimize the
problem. For  those who prefer the mathematical approach, these data are
easily converted to a set of regression equations.

            With the  acquisition of sufficient data related to sublethal effects,
such as equilibrium loss and increased susceptibility to predation, the meth-
od described above may be used to estimate the probability of these effects
or to design the plant to minimize  them.

            If accepted,  this approach clearly defines the type of laboratory
and field  data that must  be  acquired to make full use  of its utility.

-------
                                  .52


                IV.  INTAKE AND DISCHARGE EFFECTS

A.  Inventory of Designs

       Summary operational data for most power plants on or in the prox-
imity to Lake Michigan can be found in either the Department of the Army,
Corps of Engineers, "Application for Permit to Discharge or Work in
Navigable Waters and their Tributaries-Eng Form 4345," or in the Federal
Power Commission's Statement Form, "Steam-Electric Plant Air and Water
Quality Control Data for the Year ended December 31,  1971, FPC Form 67."
Both of these forms contain fairly comprehensive submissions from the
various utilities concerning cooling-water operational data for their various
power plants.

       The Army Corps permit application  must be completed by any person
or entity seeking to  directly or indirectly discharge or deposit refuse matter
into navigable waters or their tributaries. The policy has been to interpret
the discharge of waste heat as refuse, and, therefore, utilization  of once-
through condenser cooling by electrical power-generating facilities requires
the submission of a  corps application.

       The FPC form contains information  on air as well as water quality-
control data. The form must be completed for every steam-electric station
having a generating  capacity of 25 MWe or greater that belongs to an elec-
trical utility system with a capacity equal to or greater than 150  MWe.  It
is also required if the 25-MWe plant lies  within a National Air Quality
Control Region, regardless of whether the facility is part of a larger
system.

       Space limitations  preclude the incorporation of the complete Corps
and FPC forms for  all the major  steam-electric power plants sited on or
next to the Lake.  Only selected facts from these documents have been in-
cluded here to  give  the reader a perspective for the relative sizes between
the various individual operating plants and their respective  cooling-water
requirements.   Table 5 presents these selected data for those plants with
a 75-MWe  nameplate rating or greater.  The rationale for selecting the
75-MWe rating is suggested by EPA's specific cognizance of heated dis-
charges greater than 0.5  x 1 O9 Btu/hr. A 0.5 x 109-Btu/hr thermal-
discharge rate roughly corresponds to the waste-heat discharge from a
33% efficient, 75-MWe nuclear plant. Table  5  is not inclusive for yet
another reason.  Heated effluents are being  discharged into  the Lake, either
directly or  indirectly, by several industrial facilities  such as U.S. Steel
South Works in  Chicago, Inland Steel, Youngstown Steel, American Oil,
Union Carbide,  and  others in the industrial  sectors  along the Indiana
shoreline.

-------
                                                             53
LO

 CD
        g
       I
       -r?
       4-)
        rt
        SH
        S
       i—I
       PH

        rH
        CD


       I
C
o
4-> OO
O -H
PH rC

co
*

•8
cO
£

4->
(X
CD
CD
1
•5
CD
«


E
c3
•H
i— *
i—*

£4























CD
i
^y
^
g
rH
(X



fc
~



in
;*
0
CD
t-i
C_>

I







cd
PQ

C
CD
CD

CJ


























6
H




O

^-

to

&/

00
"*
o
i-H

PH

O

LO


LO
,
(NJ
CTl
IO
















f — N

j|
V 	 1
00

•H

cS
CD
4-1
cO
r-H
CX

z



CSJ
»
00
LO
csl
















o
LO
rsi













t — ^
CD
"^
§
•H
4_)
cO
CD
£
CJ

CD
2
CD
^^
^
rH
•rH
3
•K



LO
VD

















^3-
^O





















^
o\°
v^ 	 /

o
§
UH
4J

i— 1
PH


LO
CTl
r-H




CTl
i-H
• H
O
CTi
r-t

CN1
CTl
i— 1





r--
CNJ
CTl
i-H












C
0
•H
4_>
CO
&
j_)
%

PH
MH
O

CO
CD

.-H
CO
• H
•H
1 — i



°1
00
^f




O
^o
iH



1^,
to
rH


CTl
•
OO
^*

















to
rH
•f/^-
' — '
4_>
i/l
O


4— *
g
rH
PH
rH
I-H
CO
CD



£
^
O rH
CTl








to
LO
•
to



f —
to
•
(^4 O^
*o















(/)
CD
*o~v cz
|0 CD
at
\™ /
s
t/) uy
8 o

e €
CD 0
4-> 4-)
(/) t/1
X X
CO CO
00 00
q c
•P -H
r-H i-H
O O
8 8




i-H CTl
to ^^
LO



to o
to o




to to
tO r-H
"*




i-H LO
to t--
to






o\° / — \
v_/tO
I
X ^>
U i-H
C ><
CD £
•H fX
(J CJ
•H v— '
PJ 6
i-H
£ ^-*
C CD
.C cO
P S
4-> bo
C C
CO "H
i-H i-H
PH 0
T3 U
CD

1 1
ij S^
i/) ,3



LO
*
(NJ




00
*



i-H
•
^^




LO
•
(SI




f — \
CTi
i
O
i-H
X
3
£S


(D

^H
cd
pC
u
•H
Q
i-H
c
CD

P
•
W
Cg
S
CD
CO
"3
CJ
rH
CO
U
4C
•K

i-H
•
CTl




to
CTl
rH




0
(SJ



to
•
to
i-H








PL?
O
v — ^

CD
t/1
• rH
DM

rature
CD

CD
H
»
V
CO
TJ

• H
Q
"4-1
O
C
O
•H
U
3


i-H
s
o
JC,
CO


£

M"*(
s

S
ri
en
m
<4H
o
CD
c
•H
rH
CD
!H
o
t~*
CO

















CD
•a
4J
c
r— <
MH
o
C
O
•H
CO
U
O


                                                                                                                   I
                                                                                                                   •H
                                                                                                                   O
                                                                                                                   •H
                                                                                                                   MH
                                                                                                                   "4-t
                                                                                                                   w
                                                                                                                    cO   cO

-------
•8
nt
LO

 (U
rH



3
,X
I
(H
U
°

fr
p^
r-t
£

•8
•H
(/)
8
3

(_
(U
4-1
c5
a
5
f


r o
r--
v£>
r_4

S


5 §
£ ~
71
•H

o3
».
rH
• 1O
CO

c3
OO

^\
co "r


to
o at LO
oo LO 01
O> rH


OO
vO
rH LO Ol
00 VO rH
rH


O
tsl
O CM O>
O tO rH
rH




r-l
to
rH rH O1
Tt LO rH
CM

LO
Tfr
cxi to i-l
O OO
CM CM

1-^
LO
rH 00
• •
rH O !•*•
«* CM

f-.
LO
LO
•
OO


O
o
LO tO

*^ CO ^"
LO rH
Q)
oo r- -3
• • iH
t-. oo r>- CM co
tO CM rH rH
CM O
rH JZ
CO
V
0)
tO CM O

OO CM rH tO O
»O rH CM C
*
(U
.5
O tO rH
0)
O C7* CM OO M
to t-^ o
* £

(U
c
•H
LO O- rH
o
00 O to O) (H
CM «O CM O
$
2
•H
rH
2
rB
CO

fe
>
•£
0)
c
•H
rH
(U
rH
O
€


F
(H
O
X
42
S
                                                                                                                   o
                                                                                                                  • H
                                                                                                                   w
te of
Est
Cite
ses
Rate
rH
P-.

 fH
 (U


I



i
rH
                                                                                                                   W   O



                                                                                                                   5   <§


i
z
4-*
rH i
O, t-


CD
OO
£j
•H

§
rH
OH


Plant Operation
<4H
O
f-c
Cfl
0)
r— H
CO
4J
•H
HH


°|0
rH
X
0)
O
U
i
rH
OH
rH
i— 1
CO
FH
0)
S


^ — \
rH
X
O
U

Jr
^
•H
rH
O
o


in
1
S
O

0)
X
c/}
OO
.s
rH
Q


fr
g
•H
U
t— 1
CO
0)
4_l
rH
ex.
I

1
(JJ


o
U
rH
U<
cu
oo
Coolin
c
1
S


Thermal Discharge (Btu/hr x 10 )
,
0)
4-*
Cfl
rH
3
rH
Cfl
U
*
•K
0?
CD
•H
CO
!H

CO
4->
S
rH
OH
rH
t~- rH
Ol -H
rH t/1
(/>
T3 o
0) UH
4->
CO «*f>
-ta CM
rH
E 00
12 1
10 3
&. w
cr i/i
O cO
tcfl
rH
g 3
O iH
(H CO
IX, CJ
•K «
4C




ted from Thermal Discharge Rate and
CO
*Calcul
4C
*

-------
                                                  55
T3
I
4-J
I
 d»
rH

•i
H
rH
r-t

-g
•H X
•g rH
rt
5C U
Q
.§ «
•i M
O
O c
+J B
rt oB
•P X
53
§
oo
CD

i3 **
rt
S




c
o
• H -
txl ~


O
01
p.
M
3
CO
v_> \O
in
^ ^- o o>
rH O CM rH



CT>
CM in o CM
D*~ OO ^^ CT^
Cft in rH



to
tO OO vO CM
^ OO if) Cf^
O in rH
rH


I/)
tto

O
rH
v — i . •>
CM
CO I*-*
O Ch
CM rH


CD
.s
in «et rH CT> CD
• • • • rH
O4CMCM intOCMO O
in to CM ,d
rf W

s
in -H
CM in tO rH
. . . CD
m CM \o to o} m to JH
CM t-~ tO CM rH O
rH 00 -C
to

\O CD
oo en in C
. -H
I-^^trH tOtOintO rH
to \o to r- r-t Q)
rH OO rH
Q
jC



(D
•** to o m o SH
CM tO O rH CM O
•* in X
rH !/l

fS


H

Initial















C'

X

^ — '

I
§
rH
O.

Overall















fo
x
•be-
v — ^

4«>
in
8
in
^^

rH
O
3













(/)
CD
i
X*
PH

^|

US'
0
1
X

1
rH
O
o
U







/""\
2^t
§•
c

•H
O
•H
<4-l
UH
rH
{rt
B
P
0)
rH
PH
13
CD
Estimat








o"^
o
rH
^^
|^T
CXn
t—J
s^*/
§
rH
UH

rH
CD

•H
rH
a

i

i
o
rH
X
FH
fG
"^^.
w
S
Vw^
CD
bO
t^
rt
^ f*
"tj
• H
Q
rH
rt
c
rH

g
IH
O
Qt
^
13
U
•P
Calcula
•K

















(U
00
rH
rt
fj
•H
Q
Mn
0
C
Locatio:





















CD
3
C
HH
M-t
O
C
Locatio:






rH
f*^
>H
13
CD

Trt
*r3

^
1
i/)

tn
o
CJ

jj '


•P
C/)

P
rH
OH

iH
•H
in


**O
f^J
rH

DO
S
If.
t/1
CD

Calculated
4T


CD
+->
3
CD
00
JH
rt
-5
i/>
•H
Q

rH

*—;
ft
3
e
5
£
IH

Calculated
i*
•K

-------
56
Cook Palisade:
gman Covert
TJ
• -H
U r<
Q m

•H

S
oo r
•H
•s
•H
G
0
rH (•<
i-H O
•H -4-*

CQ fl>
6



















i
TO
§
rH
OH


O
o
1 '

0
o
CM
CM



rH
rH
CM




\o
rH













I
v— /
00
.5
4->
S

rH
Hsjf



fSJ
\O
^O O1
O} rH










g
-H
4_t
rH
4-1
cB
tH
OH
S? m
>-' O

rH rH
O CO
U >H
CO
Plant F
Initial


rH
r-
rH

LO
00



0>
cr>
rH t-~
Q) O
CM

CM
^3 C7>

O% ro
00













/— -\
v^jPlo
V9- X— •*
V_/
4-> tO
V) O
a ^

4-t Q}
C j *
ro  4->
1 ^ — '
x S &

•H OH CO

•fH v-— ' Tj
UH IA
^H S -H
W 0 O
i-H
rH (JL, rH
C L« CS
4) 4-» 4)
fH ^rj f^
4J M .
G C X4
Oj .^ (n
rH rH ^fc
OH 0
O Tl
T3 CJ O
U 4-»
4-> g CO
4-» X rH
(/) CO cO
U4 S U
*
4C
LO
i-H
• M
•*
rH



O
to'
rH


^G
•
CT>
P^






^
O
V 	 /
cu

od

I
fH

fc
d)"
^
w
^B
*y
d>

Calcuia
4C
4C
rH
(U
(/)
^4H
O


0
c
•H
(U
o
co

rH
o
x:
w
<+-!
m
o












U

cO
•s
•H
Q

O
c
Locatio:


rH
0>
C/l
m
MH
0


(1)
r§
s
o
co

S
o
^5
in
MH
MH
O














0)
1
c
1— t

MH
O
c
Locatio:


                                                        I
                                                        •H
                                                        O
                                                        I
                                                        <«
                                                        O

                                                        0>

                                                        CO   CU
                                                        &   g
                                                        *W   rH
                                                        0)   UH
                                                        •H   rH
                                                        U   0>

                                                        1   «

                                                        8   5
                                                       rX  *^
                                                        w   S
                                                        cd   co
                                                       4J
                                                       CO   OJ

                                                       4->   CO
                                                        C  0,
                                                        OH
                                                        •H   i
                                                        (/)   (3
                                                   
-------
                                                                  57
                                                                                                                                  g
 3
S
*.	i
tn
 CD

I
O
3
OO
•H
f^
O
0
03
rH
rH
(U
X)
£j
w
QJ

•
^c
•
>-5





















CO
^
4J
rH
OH


ive Muskegon * Charlevoix
511 75 (PWR)
rH
O 0
LO
•P vO
l/l
4r


















/^^v
0)

V 	 '
•H
•P
3
o
•p
n)
rH
OH
£ 2


tO rH
LO l~^
vO vO
tO vO
to

LO \O
en t^
^j-















/— v
o>
V 	 /

§
•H
•P

CU
1 S?
\ — /
0)
bO (H
cO O
f-i P
^> pj
< U.
X 4J
•H CO
CO rH
*

vO
rH
OO
CTl
(Nl

cn
rH














A
O
•H
r<
0)
O*

4->
S
rH
OH
MH
0
CO
(U

f—J
•H
•H
rH


rH
to
rH

Ch
OO


















( 	 (,
\o
rH
X

v~/
^^>
V)
8
1
(X

rH
rH
CO
IH
1


rH
LO




















VI
CD
/— \  in
X X
CO CO

bO bO
.S .S
rH rH
O O
o o


rH
to
to

OO
to










S

s^
£)
e
CD
•H
U
•n
<4H
UJ
,_(
CO
p3
(U

•p
g
rH
OH
-o
H)

2
t/>
w


OO
LO
o

o
o
to









f 	 S
to
1
o
rH
.X.
*g^
pi
Q
£
6
f~H
PH

^H
0)
4->
CO
bO
C
• H
rH
8
u

g
1
i


LO
O
o
to
,
(Nl






cr>
t
o
rH
X
r*
«
> — '

CD

^H
CO
-5
in
• H
Q
rH
cO
pj
CD

TJ
IJ
rt
rH
U
rH
CO
U
*
*
to
(Nl
OO
rH
to
,
en
rH










U?
O
\ — /

(U
01

2
S
3
to
t-H

&
fl\
H
0)
p
cO
-3
o
rH
CO
U
*

S
o
I/I
MH
O
c
o

co   fl>

 4->   rt

 cH
rH   CD
OH   M

rH   CO

     •5
 t/i   in
 O  -H
UH  Q
                                                                                                                                       0)
                                                                                                                           •8   -|   P



                                                                                                                            fcl   I/)    r-c
                                                                                                                            O   CJ   L,
                                                                                                                                       0)
                                                                                                                            a   3   3
                                                                                                                            O   rH   rH
                                                                                                                            (H   CO   CO
                                                                                                                           UH   U   U
                                                                                                                           •K    «    «
                                                                                                                                 1&    4C
-------
                                   58
       To better understand the mechanisms of power-plant cooling, the
current design features of the cooling systems for five major nuclear
power plants sited on Lake Michigan will now be described.

       1.   Kewaunee Plant Cooling System

           The condenser cooling-water system for the Kewaunee Plant
is shown schematically in Fig. 5. Briefly,  the  cooling water is withdrawn
from the lake at three intake ports located  about 14 ft  below the lake sur-
face. Steel trash grills with 1-ft-square openings are installed above the
intake openings to prevent large debris from entering  the system.  In addi-
tion, an air-bubble screen around the periphery of the intake structure
discourages possible fish penetrations.  Most of the intake structure and
the entire 10-ft-dia intake pipe  leading from the structure to the plant is
buried below the bottom of the lake.  The cooling water is drawn through
the intake ports, in a downward direction, at about 0.9 fps.  It flows by
action of gravity through the 10-ft-ID intake pipe and empties into the
forebay of the screenhouse.  The water velocity in the intake pipe at full
flow is about 11 fps.  The  screenhouse forebay acts as a stilling basin to
reduce the water velocity before the water  passes through a bar or  trash
grill (size unknown) and the traveling or rotating screens.

           Each traveling screen has a 3/8-in. mesh. Each screen is a
continuous belt constructed of screening panels with a shelf at the lower
edge of each panel.  The screen is rotated  upward in a plane normal to the
waterflow direction.  Any debris larger than about 3/8 in. is thus "caught"
by the  screen, and as the screen moves upward out of the flowing water,
the debris falls off into the shelves.  These shelves are backwashed auto-
matically, the debris being sluiced to a strainer casket, where it is collected
and  eventually removed for onsite burial.  A hypochlorinating system is  pro-
vided to inject sodium hypochlorite,  if necessary, into the inlet of the travel-
ing screens to prevent the buildup of bacterial slime on the condenser tubes.

           After the water passes through the screens, it is still within a
large basin, which helps to distribute the waterflow evenly to the circulating-
water-pump intakes located at the bottom of the basin. The circulating-
water pumps then deliver this water to the condenser.  While the circulating
pumps are operational, the water surface level in the  basin is liable to be
many feet below the lake surface level, which allows lake water  to be drawn
into the intake system by gravitational flow.

            As the cooling water flows through the  condenser it picks up
heat. The heated cooling water is returned to the lake by means of a dis-
charge  basin located at the shoreline.  The basin is approximately 40 ft wide
at the shoreline discharge point.  During the winter, to control the formation
of ice in the  system, the  circulation flow will be reduced to 287,000 gpm
with a corresponding rise in temperature of the cooling water  of about 29°F.
-------
<
o
                                        59
                                                                                                (0
                                                                                                00
                                                                                                c
                                                                                                o
                                                                                                o
                                                                                               o

                                                                                                M
                                                                                                0)
                                                                                                CO
                                                                                                a
                                                                                                0)
                                                                                               T3

                                                                                                §
                                                                                                0)


                                                                                                I
                                                                                                4J
                                                                                                n)

                                                                                                §
                                                                                                ^2
                                                                                                a
                                                                                                en
                                                                                                o
-------
                                   60
Under this operation, a portion of the discharge water is returned to the
intake via a 10-in. recirculation line. Figure 6  shows the intake and dis-
charge structures in much greater detail.

       2.  Point Beach Plant Cooling System

           The condenser cooling-water system for the Point Beach Plant
is schematically shown in Fig. 7. The Point Beach Plant has two generating
units and, therefore, two  independent condenser cooling systems. The in-
take structure  is made of steel piling forming a hollow cylindrical structure,
standing upright on the lake bottom,  and filled with staggered limestone
blocks.  In addition, thirty-eight 30-in.-dia pipes pass through the intake
structure about 5 ft above the lake bottom.  The lakeside ends of these pipes
are covered with lyj x 2-in. gratings. Figure 8  is an isometric view of the
intake design.  Most of the intake water flows through the void spaces be-
tween the limestone blocks.  The isometric  sketch is not correctly drawn,
because the blocks are shown closely fitted  when in reality they are  some-
what more randomly oriented.

           During normal, as opposed to wintertime, operation, both 14-ft-
dia intake pipes are used to conduct  the water to the plant  screenhouse
forebay. At full flow,  the water  velocity in both intake pipes  can approach
5.4 fps.  After  entry into  the forebay, the'water  passes through bar  grates
spaced about 2 in. apart,  then through traveling  screens using 3/8-in. mesh
size.  The design water velocity through the  screens  is about 1.1 fps.  The
debris collected on the traveling screens is sluiced to a strainer basket
having 3-in.-square openings.  The small-sized debris and the wash water
are returned to the Unit 2. discharge flume.   After passing through the
traveling screens,  the water divides between the circulating pump intakes
for the two units.  From  this  point on, the two cooling systems are inde-
pendent, each having its own pumps, condensers, and discharge structures
(outfalls).  Both discharges are nominally 35-ft-wide canals extending out
into the lake approximately 150 ft.  Each outfall is at a 60°  angle with shore.
The average water discharge velocity within the flume is about 2.2 fps.

            During winter operation, or whenever the intake water tempera-
ture falls below 40°F,  108,000 gpm of the discharge water  is  recirculated
to the intake structure to prevent the formation of ice in the cooling system.
This is accomplished  by  reversing the flow in one of the 14-ft intake pipes.
At this time, the other pipe will maintain a  higher intake flow of 428,000 gpm.
Under these flow conditions and while at full plant power, the temperature
rise for  the cooling water will be about 31.5°F,  instead of the normal 19.3°F
rise.

        3.   Zion Station Cooling System

            The schematic flow diagram for the Zion Station condenser
cooling system is shown  in Fig. 9.  Details  of the intake structure are shown
-------
61
-------
           62
3
   «, §
   UJ UJ
   Q- >
     LTl
           <_)

           u_
           or
           O
           00
  _ uj O
  I ^ O
                  or
           °2 a: or
           ^
                     a:
                     UJ
                     g
8—  — ,—- x

•—• LU CM Is- CVJ CVJ
              O
              oo
              UJ

              0
                 •<.  »
                        0)
                        n)
                        cu
                        PQ
                        C
                        •H
                        O
                        o

                        o


                        a
                        o
                        CO
                         00
-------
63
-------
                                                                64
<

n:
o
                                                                                                                                   •rl
                                                                                                                                   d
                                                                                                                                   4-1
                                                                                                                                   to
                                                                                                                                   00

                                                                                                                                   .5
                                                                                                                                   t-H
                                                                                                                                   O
                                                                                                                                   o
                                                                                                                                   u

                                                                                                                                   VJ
                                                                                                                                   0)
                                                                                                                                   tfl

                                                                                                                                   0)

                                                                                                                                   "d
                                                                                                                                   o
                                                                                                                                   u

                                                                                                                                   d
                                                                                                                                   o

                                                                                                                                   N

                                                                                                                                   U-l
                                                                                                                                   O

                                                                                                                                   o
                                                                                                                                   •iH
                                                                                                                                   4J
                                                                                                                                   
-------
                                   65
in Fig. 10.  The inlet ports are about  1 7 ft below the water surface.  The
roof structure is located above the two large intake ports to prevent vortex
motions in the inlet water, as well as to provide more of a horizontal ve-
locity gradient around the intake. Water not only enters through the larger
two center ports but additionally through 45 small-diameter holes  located
around the periphery of the intake.  These smaller ports serve a double
purpose.  In the wintertime, warm discharge water is recirculated through
them to prevent system icing.   These smaller ports eventually lead to the
center intake  pipe shown in Fig. 10, via a common  plenum,  the thawing box.
All three  16-ft-dia intake pipes lead to the forebay. At full circulating flow,
the average water-intake velocity at the two larger ports will be 2.47 fps
while the  16-ft intake pipes will have  a 5.6-fps average flow velocity.

            An isometric drawing of one of Zion's 12 traveling screens is
shown in Fig.  11. The  bar grill has vertical 2-in. openings. The flow ve-
locity will be  1.2 fps  at the grill face  and  about 2 fps  at the  traveling screens.
After passing through the screens, the water is  withdrawn by the respective
circulating pumps for each unit and eventually is discharged to the lake about
760 ft offshore.  The  total transit time from intake to discharge is about
2 min.  The discharge  structure for Unit 2 is  shown in Fig. 12. The dis-
charges are 154 ft on either side of the centerline for the intake pipes.
Each structure consists of a rectangular box with outlet louvers located  on
the offshore end and on the side away from the intake pipes. The outlet from
the discharge  structure consists of 14 ports roughly  7 ft wide by 3 ft high.
The ports  are directed  so as to form a 45° angle with both the  intake lines
and the  shore.

            During winter operation, part of the discharge water is recir-
culated  to  the  intake structure by flow reversal  in the central  16-ft-dia
intake pipe. The cooling-water circulation rate and temperature rise for
winter were not specified.

       4.   D. C. Cook Plant Cooling System

            The condenser cooling-water  system for  the Cook  Plant is sche-
matically shown in Fig. 13.  The intakes are surrounded by octagonal-
shaped, heavy  structural frames provided with bar racks and 8 by  8-in.
grating  on all sides.  The top of each frame is covered with a  steel roof.
At full flow, the intake  water velocity through the grating interstices will
be 1.27  fps. Figure 14  shows a vertical view of a typical intake structure
along with the  grills of parallel vertical bars with 2|-in. openings  between
them.  The water velocity through the grills is about 1 fps.  The traveling
screens have  3/8 - in. - square openings, and the water velocity through the
screens will be at most 2 fps.   The  debris collected by the screens will be
removed as solid waste.  Units 1 and 2 have different condenser cooling-
water flow requirements due to differences  in turbine designs.
-------
                                                  66
               Note.  Pipes shall hove a minimum 30' cover
  $. EL. 551.7'
r- I.G L 0 1955
                           r
                              Approx lake bed
                                        L.W. Datum
                                        EL.576.8'
                                        IG.LD. 1955
               Sheet piling
                                            o            500'
                                                  Scale
                           £ ice melting ports all
                           around in thawing box
                                        tIntake structure
                intake structure
                    Framing in concrete
                    typ all around —
                            16 0' intake line
                                                                       Detoil B
                                                                                      Intake
EL. 567.5
    
-------
67
                                                           vO
                                                           CM
                                                             to
                                                             c
                                                             01
                                                             0)
                                                             t-l
                                                             o
                                                             en
                                                             g
                                                             •H
                                                             N
                                                             00
                                                             •H
-------
68
                                                CN
                                                  01


                                                  4J
                                                  O
                                                  3

                                                  •U
                                                  CO

                                                  0)


                                                  n)

                                                  o
                                                  to
                                                  •H
                                                  O

                                                  CM
                                                  o
                                                 •H
                                                 Csl
                                                  60
                                                 •H
-------
                        co     S
                        CO
                        E     d
                                                      69
5
o
LU


<
                                                                                                                 C


                                                                                                                 i
                                                                                                                 4-1
                                                                                                                 e
                                                                                                                 0)
                                                                                                                to

                                                                                                                 00
                                                                                                                 C
                                                                                                                •r-t
                                                                                                                .H
                                                                                                                 O
                                                                                                                 O
                                                                                                                O
                                                                                                                
-------
70
                                    vO
                                      fi
                                      o
                                      en


                                      §
                                      4-1
                                      (0
                                      >%
                                      en

                                      a)
                                      O
                                      O
                                      CJ
                                      g
                                      O
                                      00
                                     •H
-------
                                   71
            Specific details concerning the discharge-structure designs are
lacking.  It is known that the structures will be located about 1198 ft offshore
and will be submerged.  The lake depth at the discharge locations will be
about 16 ft.  Each structure will extend about 4 ft above the lake bottom
and will have  two horizontal slot openings to produce a water-jet exit ve-
locity of 1 3  fps.  Details concerning the orientation of the jet openings are
not given.  Figure 15 shows a plan view in detail of the Cook circulating
water system. The cooling-water transit time from the circulating pump
discharge to the  condenser inlet is about 35 sec. The transit time through
the condensers is about 6  sec and from the condenser outlet to the point of
discharge into the lake is  about 184 sec.

            Winter-season deicing capability is provided by recirculating
a portion of the warmed discharge water from either Unit  1 or 2 through
the center 16-ft-dia intake pipe in which flow will be  reversed.   Close in-
spection of Fig. 15 can show how this is accomplished by appropriately
manipulating roller gates  and sluice  gates in the screenhouse.   Specific
flow and temperature data for the cooling system operating in the winter
mode was not given.

       5.   Palisades  Plant Cooling System

            The schematic for the Palisades Plant condenser cooling sys-
tem is shown  in Fig. 16.  Cooling water is withdrawn from the  lake  at about
3300 ft offshore.  The  intake consists of a vertical 11-ft-dia pipe, with its
opening located about 6 ft  from the lake bottom. A 60-ft-wide, 60-ft-long,
12-ft-high box is centrally located over the  intake.  The box has a steel
plate for its top and 2-in.  vertical bars, spaced 10 in. apart, around the
sides.  The  trash rack located inside the screenhouse consists of a  grating
with vertical bars about 1  in. apart.  The discharge canal is a structure
about 37 ft wide at the shore, opening to 100 ft at the  point of discharge,
about 108 ft from shore.  The average discharge velocity across the 100-ft-
wide opening will generally be less than 2 fps.  The cooling-water transit
time from the condenser header to the point of discharge into the lake is
roughly 25 sec.

            During winter operation, about 17,000 gpm  of discharge water
will be withdrawn from the discharge canal  and returned to the  intake.
A special pump will be used for this purpose.

B.  Biological Effects

       As stated in Section III.B, this section includes  summaries  of studies
performed primarily in the intake and discharge canals. Similar types of
studies that included measurements in the lake part  of  the plume are re-
ported in the above-mentioned section.  Therefore, reference to both sec-
tions will be necessary for a complete review.
-------
72
                                                 vO
                                                   Csl
-------
                      CO
                      Q_
                                73
                             00
x/x//
o
3:
en
  <
  O
                                                              00
o
o
u

M
0)
en
C
Hi
Td
C
o
u

CO
01
T3
n)
w
•H
                                                              n)


                                                              I
                                                              o
                                                              C/l
                                                              00
                                                              •rH
-------
                                   74
       The biological  effects on organisms passing through the pumps and
condensers were studied by the Bio-Test Laboratories at the Waukegan
Generating Station during 1971,72  Phytoplankton samples taken during this
period indicated no significant differences in total population densities be-
tween the intake and discharge canals. (Ayers et al. reported an apparent
10% phytoplankton kill in his Waukegan measurements. )

       Initial findings of the effects of zooplankton passing through the con-
densers7  showed an average mortality of 5.8% due to mechanical  effects
and another 1.6% due to thermal stress.  (Comparisons were  made with and
without heat addition in the condensers.)  Even in July and August, when the
discharge water reached a maximum temperature of 88°F, 90% of the zoo-
plankton  survived.  Other studies10' »58)90 (some of which relate to salt-
water) were cited as showing that water temperatures below 99°F have little
effect on the  survival rate of most zooplankton. However, they found over
80% mortality when  this temperature was exceeded.72

       Size was found to be an important factor in the mortality rates.
Zooplankton exceeding a length of 0.9  mm suffered 17% mortality;  smaller
organisms suffered  only 4% mortality.7
       Reference 72  cited studies that showed, "Organisms subjected to a
sudden temperature rise occasionally assume a condition of complete in-
activity simulating death.  However,  within a few hours after being returned
to temperatures far below their lethal level,  these 'dormant1 organisms
would resume their normal active conditions."   The zooplankton popula-
tion at the Waukegan Station showed an average recovery rate of 1.4% 4 hr
after entrainment,  resulting in a total mortality of only 6% from condenser
passage.

       Preliminary studies  at Waukegan indicated condenser passage had
little if any  lethal effect on zooplankton egg viability. Results from Sep-
tember to December 1971  showed, in each of four species tested, egg via-
bility increased from 1 to  7% as a result of passage  through the condenser.72

       Periphyton samples collected from April  1970 to March 1971, from
artificial substrates  in the Waukegan intake and discharge canals, indicated
more rapid  growth in the warm discharge water during June and July.  The
increased growth was due  to nonfilamentous green algae, periphytic diatoms,
and filamentous blue-green algae, and not to  forms of Cladophora. Growth
in the discharge canal was reduced during midsummer  when water tempera-
tures exceeded 70°F.  After  September the growth again increased, but was
not as  large as that which occurred on substrates located away from the
influence of the warmed water.74

       Samples taken during 1971 (Ref. 72) showed that, as  in the 1970
study,   the  dominant members of the periphyton community in both the
-------
                                   75
intake and discharge canals were diatoms.  Despite some differences in
distribution and abundance of particular species between the intake and
discharge,  the total species, composed mainly of diatoms, was often quite
similar. The green algae species, Stigeoclonium,  which was found to be
abundant in the discharge canal only in late June 1970, proliferated in both
canals in the 1971 sampling period. It was abundant in the intake when
temperatures ranged from 50 to 60°F, but also  grew well in the discharge
temperatures of 70-79°F.  Both the intake and discharge supported much
larger growths of periphyton  in December 1971 than in December 1970.

        The thermal discharge from the Point Beach Nuclear Plant has been
the subject of a number of studies  since the unit went into operation in
December  1970.  Reference 128 describes a prelim-nary  study, primarily
to develop  experimental techniques, that used the two separate cooling sys-
tems to study the mechanical damage  and combined mechanical-thermal
damage on phytoplankton and  zooplankton.  Although experimental difficulties
were experienced, the preliminary results  indicated no significant mortality
to phytoplankton. Samples of zooplankton taken from the intake and discharge
of both  units were similarly surveyed, and  results show  that the physical
damage incurred by passage through the plant was more critical  than the
thermal impact.  That is, the lethal effects of heating and pumping were
essentially the  same as the effects of pumping alone. The percentage of
animals killed by the  entrainment experience varied from 8 to 19%, de-
pending upon the season.121

        Testimony given at the Wisconsin hearings125 by Dr. Wright,
Westinghouse Environmental  Systems Department, described results of
studies  (unreferenced) by his organization at "a variety of locations through-
out the  United States." Problems related to flow were generally  more sig-
nificant than those related to  the increased temperatures.  Phytoplankton
survive both the passage through the condenser and the residual time in the
thermal plume  and still maintain their photosynthetic activity. In some
cases, there was an increase in the productivity within the plume.  Depend-
ing on the species and life stages sampled, a 5-20% loss in mobility of
zooplankton was observed as  a result of passage through the pumps and
condenser.

        Studies  on whitefish egg entrainment and effects on phytoplankton
and zooplankton productivity, as a  result of passage through the intake
structures, pumps, and condensers, were reported by the EPA Grosse He
Laboratory.44  Samples were taken daily  at the  Big Rock Nuclear Plant
during November 1971 and at the Escanaba Power  Plant  during November 30-
December  4, 1971. These plants were chosen because of their proximity
to whitefish spawning  grounds.

        After pumping  more than 6 million gallons  of intake water at the
two plants, the  investigators reported finding no eggs at  the Big Rock intake
-------
                                   76
and an insignificant number in the Escanaba intake.  The results on phyto-
plankton productivity were inconclusive because of a low and variable
population density at  the intake.44

       The low live/dead zooplankton ratio at the  Big Rock Plant inlet
indicated that damage was inflicted on the zooplankton while being drawn
through the intake pipe  (2000 ft offshore) or the population was adversely
affected  by severe storms during the sampling period.  The differences in
the live/dead ratios  between the inlet and discharge was equivalent  to a
55% mortality of the population observed. The mortality would  be 29% if
the discharge live/dead ratio were applied to the forebay population.  They
concluded,  "Regardless of whether the  mortality is 29 or 55%, there ap-
pears to be significant  population mortality."

       The live/dead zooplankton ratios obtained at the Escanaba Plant
were much higher than  those observed  at Big Rock.  The higher  survival
rate could have resulted because of less stress imposed upon the orga-
nisms  by the  shoreline  intake.  The data indicated a 7% mortality in
passing through the plant.

       Brauer _et al.    studied the influence of the intake and outfall on the
distribution and abundance of zooplankton in Lake Monona.  Sampling on
13 days in the summer  and fall of 1969 and 1970 showed that Diaptomus,
Daphnia  and  cyclopoid  copepods were two to seven times  as abundant in
the water near the outfalls as in the control area.  The  maximum zooplank-
ton density occurred in or very near the discharge currents, which sug-
gested that the animals were being brought into the plume area  rather than
being produced in situ.  Observations that a many-fold increase in zooplank-
ton density took place in periods as short as  6 hr  after  the pumps were
started,  plus  the fact that the ratio of young to adult animals in  the  outfall
samples was  not noticeably high, support the conclusion that the organisms
were brought into the area via the intake. This continuous input of  zoo-
plankton simulated a rapid local production of zooplankton and probably
contributes to a higher  concentration of fishes in the  outfall area than in
the reference area.1

       The  studies indicated that judicious location of intakes (at a depth
of minimum  organism  densities) is  one way in which  a power company
could reduce  its  biological  effects.

       Personnel of the Wisconsin Department oi Natural Resources col-
lected samples from the  Point Beach discharge  canal to determine  to what
extent fish eggs and fry were drawn through the cooling-water system.
Samples were collected on 14  days during March 3-May 27, 1971. The
specimens recovered consisted of one  sculpin (partially deteriorated), a
few smelt eggs, and one salmonid egg (white).  Since  whitefish and lake
herring  are late fall  and  winter  spawners, the sampling was discontinued
-------
                                   77
until November, at which time sampling "was performed twice a week until
March 1972. This time the specimens consisted of 4-| smelt (2-3 in.),
two salmonid eggs (white), and one small unidentified egg.  The investi-
gators concluded from these studies  that the intake and discharge structures
from the Point Beach  Unit No. 1  are  of negligible concern to the spawning
grounds, eggs, and fry of whitefish and lake herring in Lake Michigan.

       Operating  experience with entrainment of fish during interim opera-
tion  at low power  is summarized in Ref. 119 for the Palisades Nuclear
Plant.  The principal mortality was sculpins in January and February 1972.
The  total number  of fish impinged on the screens and counted daily from
February 24 to March 26, 1972,  ranged from zero for 22  days  up to 15  per
day for 10  days.119

       A large fish kill was repo'rted at the J. H. Campbell Plant in early
February 1971.  The circumstances were  summarized in a  Michigan Water
Resources Commission memorandum.117  (1) The problem had existed for
7-10 days.  (2) A rough estimate was that  several hundred thousand fish had
been killed by impingement on the screens.  (3) The species were mostly
gizzard shad, with some alewives and yellow perch. It was speculated  that
attraction  of fish to the warm water that was discharged to  prevent ice jams
in the intake channel was the cause of the  problem.

       The occurrence of gas-bubble disease in fish in the  discharge of a
power  plant in North Carolina was  reported by the North  Carolina Wildlife
Resources Commission.38 Gas-bubble disease can occur when the blood of
a fish becomes supersaturated with gases. This condition may result when
a fish at equilibrium with air-saturated water is subjected to an increase
in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or both. More commonly, gas-
bubble disease develops when a fish is exposed to an environment super-
saturated with dissolved gases.

       Gill nets, electrofishing,  and  midwater trawls were  used to obtain
monthly fish samples  at the Duke Power Company Marshall Steam Station.
Three  species of fish  were found to be afflicted with the disease during the
winter of 1969-1970, whereas 13 species showed symptons during the winter
of 1970-1971.  "Pop-eye" was the major diagnostic feature  observed in the
majority of cases. Relatively few fishes had bubbles on their head or fins,
or in the mouth or the viscera. 8

       Several fish mortalities involving  a few hundred black crappie were
observed during late February 1971.  The symptoms exhibited by the dying
fishes  implicated  gas-bubble disease as a principal factor.38

       Marcy 37 reported on the  survival  of fish larvae in the discharge
canal of the Connecticut Yankee  Atomic Power Plant.  The plant cooling
water, heated to about 22°F above ambient river water, is discharged into
-------
                                  78
a 1.14 mile long canal before returning to the Connecticut River.  Non-
screenable fish larvae less than 0.6 in. in length, were sampled at the
plant intake and discharge, and at three points along the canal.  The studies
revealed that no fish of nine species entrained in the  condenser cooling-
water system survived passage to the lower end of the canal when water
temperatures were above 86°F.  The survival rate  immediately after
passing through the plant was 34.5% when the discharge temperature was
82°F and 16.6% when the discharge temperature was 92°F.  The majority of
dead specimens were mangled, and this condition was more apparent in
larger specimens.  When the discharge temperature was 95°F, 100% mor-
tality occurred during passage through the plant.
-------
                                   79


                V.  ALTERNATIVE COOLING METHODS

A.  Environmental Impact

       At the September 28, 1970, Workshop Session of the Third Lake Michi-
gan Enforcement Conference, a report, entitled "Feasibility of Alternative
Means of Cooling  for Thermal Power Plants Near Lake Michigan" was
entered into  record  by Federal EPA representatives.  The object of this
report was to establish the engineering and economic feasibility of various
closed-cycle condenser cooling methods that could alternatively be used in
the place of once-through cooling. The report examined the situation for
a modern 40% efficient 1000-MWe fossil plant (or some plant with an equiva-
lent thermal discharge loading) sited along four shoreline reaches of
Lake  Michigan.  The alternatives considered were:  mechanical  and natural-
draft  evaporative  cooling towers, mechanical and natural-draft "dry"  cooling
towers, cooling  ponds, and spray canals.  Representative meteorological data
for the four reaches of the  lake were obtained and then used as input data
to computer  codes to generate engineering performance and monetary cost
data for  the alternatives.

       The report concluded that the alternative cooling systems considered
are feasible  alternatives to once-through cooling around Lake Michigan, and
the impact of alternative cooling systems on the  environment appears to be
minor.  Those potential problems that do exist -with the alternatives could
be avoided, or at least alleviated, through proper site  selection and engi-
neering design.

       Several  specific studies have been made concerning the possible
environmental impact of alternative  cooling systems for the major nuclear
power stations sited on the Great Lakes.  Presently, four of the  12 U.S.
nuclear stations, either operating or under construction on the Great  Lakes,
•will use  closed-cycle  cooling in the form of evaporative towers.  Two of
these plants  are situated along Lake Michigan, and the  other two on Lake Erie.
Although this report is primarily concerned with Lake  Michigan, it was
felt that  much of the environmental rationale concerning the installation of
closed-cycle cooling at the two Lake Erie plants could  be equally germane
to Lake Michigan  issues.

       The following pages contain information extracted either from util-
ity environmental reports or from U!S. AEC environmental statements made
on nuclear power  plants pursuant to the National Environmental  Policy Act
of 1969.  The information is qualitative in nature. Nevertheless, this  infor-
mation is presented to give the reader additional perspective on the environ-
mental issues surrounding  closed-cycle cooling.

       1.   Davis-Besse Station

            The 915-MWe Davis-Besse Station, on Lake Erie, will use a
single 493-ft-tall  natural-draft tower.115  Studies of the climatic effects of
-------
                                  80
an earlier proposed 370-ft tower, by Travelers Research Corporation,
indicated that the tower would "emit a highly visible but elevated plume,
which will, on the average, persist 1.2-2.3 miles downwind.  It may, in
cold weather, persist as much as 20 miles downwind an estimated 6% of
the time (22 days)." The visible plume would touch the ground less than
2%  of the time, on an annual  basis.  During rare winter conditions the tower
plume could cause  some icing on structures at or near ground level,  at a
distance of 1-2 miles from the tower, in the downwind direction.

           More recent studies were performed by NUS Corporation for the
actual 493-ft-high tower under construction at the  Besse site.115 Two-year
site meteorological data were correlated with Toledo meteorological data,
which, in turn, were used to  predict the environmental effects of the opera-
tion of the cooling tower. Computer codes were used to calculate plume
rise, dispersion, and transport on an hourly basis  upon input of hourly
meteorological data. The results were examined to determine consistency
with the actual Besse site meteorological data and the occurrence of local-
ized lake breeze effects, and also to assess anomalous situations of plume
downwash. The NUS analysis concluded that the average visible vapor
plume would be 1.5 miles long.  Visible plumes longer than 5 miles were
estimated to  occur only  3% of the total hours of the year.  As long as the
plume remained aloft during these periods, the plumes would represent
only an aesthetic problem.

           It was further estimated that there could be a maximum annual
increase of 3.5 hr  in the occurrence of fog  conditions resulting from tower
operation.  An annual average of 831 hr of fog occurs naturally; therefore
the 3.5-hr figure represents a 0.42% increase.  The increased occurrence
of fog  conditions does not represent discrete cases of induced fog, but
rather the possibility of fog  occurring earlier and lasting longer thannormal.
Lake breeze effects could increase the possibility of fog calculated for the
study; however, this effect was not considered to be significant.

           Predicted increases in induced fog under icing conditions were
estimated to be less than 1 min at maximum. Lake breeze  effects were not
considered to change the icing calculations since the lake breeze is not a
major effect during the winter, when the lake surface is generally warmer
than the land surface.

           Downwash conditions resulting in the plume being brought to
ground elevation were calculated to occur as often as  12.8%  of the time
(1121 hr/yr), with  most  hours occurring under offshore winds.  The winter
downwash could possibly result in icing on surfaces less than 3000 ft away
at a rate of 0.03-0.07 in. of ice per hour.  These downwash calculations
reflected maximum limits of occurrence and actual observations at operating
natural draft towers in this country have not confirmed downwash behavior.
-------
                                   81
            The Environmental Report115 stated that the temperature excess
of blowdown effluent over the ambient Lake Erie receiving water will be
limited to a maximum of 20°F by supplying ambient lake water to a collecting
basin to dilute the tower blowdown.  The maximum quantity of heat dis-
charged to the lake is expected to be no greater than 1.38 x 108 Btu/hr, as
opposed to 62.10 x 108 Btu/hr for once-through cooling. This  corresponds
to a 45 to 1 reduction in heat input to the lake.  The blowdown  will enter the
lake through an offshore high-velocity discharge with a normal flow of
9225 gpm.  On occasions the flow may reach as high as 13,800 gpm.

            Tower drift was estimated to be  a negligible problem since the
expected drift losses would  be 0.01% of the tower circulating flow, or 48 gpm.
For an assumed tower  concentration factor of two and an assumed lake water
salt content of 225 ppm, the  maximum amount of salt deposited on the land
was estimated to be 3.7 x 10~4 (lb/yr)/sq ft,  assuming a uniform  salt distri-
bution over a 10-square-mile area.  Assuming a 30.5-in. annual rainfall,
the  salt concentration was estimated to be  2  ppm if  all the salt deposited
was taken by the rain.  Terrestrial effects arising from drift losses were
therefore assumed to be of little  concern.

            The Environmental Report also addressed the potential impact
of the tower on bird kills.115  Collision kills with the tower by  migratory
waterfowl were considered to be  most likely at night or during times of
heavy fog,  but in any event,  they were assumed to be minor in relation to
the  total migratory populations.  Resident birds were not expected to be
destroyed by collisions with the tower.

        2.   Enrico Fermi Plant

            The Fermi Plant environmental report indicates that two
natural-draft evaporative towers, approximately 400 ft high, will be used
for  condenser cooling.39  The report stated that the  possible effects of the
towers  on the local environment can be conveniently considered to be of
two kinds:  (l) presence of water from the  towers in the form  of plumes,
fog, icing,  or precipitation;  and (2) influence  on natural condensation and
precipitation processes.  The report states,  "The quantitative assessment
of the two kinds of effects at this time can  be made  only from  observations
of releases from similar cooling towers in similar  climates and from
incomplete theoretical calculations."

            Two early independent analyses of the extent of the tower
plumes indicated that an airport two miles west of the plant might be
influenced at most by 8-18 hr/yr. The diffusion models used to calculate
these distances were credited with yielding unusually conservative values
because they did not  take into account the plume's inherent buoyancy.
Additional estimates of the plume's horizontal extent were gained from
observations of the Keystone natural-draft towers in western  Pennsylvania.
-------
                                   82
For a six-month observational period, the plumes on only 1 1 different days
extended as much  as a mile.  Although the climate in the  Keystone plant
area is  somewhat  different from that of southeastern Michigan, it is  be-
lieved that the Keystone information offers a realistic idea of what can be
expected at the Fermi site.39

            Minor modifications  of the microclimate in the vicinity of the
Fermi site, resulting from plume shadowing, were anticipated. However,
the actual effects or the magnitude of  these effects has not been assessed.
Fog formation was only discussed in a qualitative way. The inference was
that it would take an unusual set  of meteorological conditions to bring the
tower plumes to the ground.

            Ground icing conditions were stated to possibly arise under
either of the following conditions:  (l) With strong winds  (>25 mph),  there
is a potential of downwash icing in the immediate vicinity of the towers,
provided that there is the additional joint occurrence that objects downwind
are below 32°F and the  atmosphere has a high relative humidity.  An analy-
sis of 10-yr records of hourly observations at the Detroit City Airport
showed that the  joint occurrence of the above-mentioned  conditions occurred
for less than 0.1% of the observations.  In any event, the  extent of icing in
this manner should be confined to an area two to four tower heights  down-
wind. (2) Lake breeze  circulations during early  spring were also hypothe-
sized as being the second possible means for causing ground icing.  No
estimates were  given as to the potential number  or duration of these periods.
This issue, according to the report, awaits successful application of numer-
ical models presently being formulated.

            Comparative calculations  were made assuming that if all the
water evaporated from both towers over a year were evenly deposited over
a 25-square-mile  area, it  would amount to 1.4 in. of precipitation. This  is
compared with a normal annual rate of about 31 in.  The  report went on to
state  that observations  of actual cooling towers  rarely show observable
precipitation, and when precipitation did occur,  it was not established
whether it was the result of natural processes being stimulated by tower
effluent.

            The influence of tower effluents on natural condensation  and
precipitation processes was discussed. Although the total amount of heat
and water released from a cooling tower is  small in comparison to a small
shower, the nature of the atmosphere is such that at times small.perturba-
tions  may give rise to more extensive reactions.  Several were enumerated
and discussed:

            a.   Cumulus or stratocumulus clouds induced to form sooner,
                or last longer, or grow denser and  deeper.
            b.   Natural fog induced to last longer.
-------
                                   83


            c.   Natural precipitation induced to increase locally at other
                times.
            d.   Thunderstorm activity induced to either increase or de-
                crease, depending on the nature of the atmosphere.

Our understanding of the natural process of condensation and precipitation
is far from complete.39  Therefore the extent  to which a cooling tower
affects the above processes cannot be reliably estimated from a theoretical
standpoint.  However, actual observations show that increases in local
cloudiness are common in some areas.  Changes in precipitation were
small and much less frequent.  Additionally, no reports of thunderstorm
modifications are known to date.  Further elaboration on the above four
items was given within the report39 but, again, only from a qualitative
viewpoint.

            Tower blowdown is  returned to Lake  Erie at the shoreline.  The
blowdown's  temperature excess is expected to range between 12 and 23°F.
The maximum heat discharged in this manner is  expected to be less than
0.78 x 108 Btu/hr, or 1.5% of the once-through requirement. The returned
water will have roughly three times the concentration of dissolved solids
(500 ppm) than appear locally in the lake.  Additionally, free chlorine will
be present in concentrations estimated to  be less than 0.1 ppm.

            It is estimated that  a maximum  total  of 19,500 gpm will be
evaporated and lost  by drift from the towers and a  small pond used in the
closed cooling system.  Drift from both towers is expected to be less than
a maximum of 0.1%  of the tower circulating flow.  By assuming the 0.1%
figure, together with a solids-concentration factor  of three, the investiga-
tors estimated that the dissolved solids emitted to  the atmosphere would
be less than 5300 Ib per day.

       3.   Zion Station

            Several  recent studies have investigated closed-cycle cooling
systems  for nuclear power plants along Lake  Michigan.  The first  such
study was that of the Sierra Research Corporation  in which evaluations
were  made to determine the possible environmental impact of operating  the
2200-MWe Zion Nuclear Generating Station  with evaporative cooling towers ,26
Several cooling-tower configurations were considered for the Zion site:
70 mechanical-draft tower cells, each 60 ft  high, 70 ft wide, and 40 ft deep;
10 combination mechanical-natural-draft towers  250 ft high and  300 ft  in
diameter; five natural-draft towers, 350 ft high and about 300 ft  in diameter;
and three natural draft towers 500 ft high and about 500 ft in diameter.

            Basically, the calculations made for fog frequencies required
the input of tower design parameters together with historical meteorological
data for the Zion site.  Since the requisite meteorological data were not
-------
                                  84
available for the Zion site, recourse was made to U.S. Weather Bureau
data, gathered at the Chicago (Midway) and Milwaukee airports, which pro-
vided tabulations of the frequency of various combinations of temperature,
humidity,  and wind speed.  Atmospheric stability and wind assessments
required for the tower fog calculations were obtained from determinations
made by the NUS corporation for the Zion plant in relation to radiological
dispersion issues.

            The results show that ground fog, as a result of mechanical-
draft tower operation,  could  be expected somewhere around the plant
(which may include Lake Michigan as well) a maximum of 650 hr/yr.  It
was stated that a ±20% variation in this number could be expected in any
given year due  to natural variability.  The maximum frequency at any one
point was  calculated to be 90 hr/yr at 1.5-2.5  miles north of the plant
using Milwaukee meteorological data.  Chicago meteorological data also
show a maximum frequency in that location but only 50 hr/yr. Using
either  the Chicago or Milwaukee  data, the investigators predicted that
fogging would most likely occur from northwest through the north and
easterly directions.  Predicted fog frequency is  least to tht, v»eol of Zion
station. Fog-frequency estimates as a result of tower operation  for various
towns or locations were given as:  Waukegan Airport,  20-40 hr/yr; the
town of Zion, about 25 hr/yr; Waukegan, 18 hr/yr; Winthrop Harbor and
along highways northwest of  the site, 40-60 hr/yr; and the lake shore
1-2 miles north of the plant, 50-90 hr/yr.

            Most occurrences of fog would be between 0 and 34°F.  The
winter months, December, January, February, and March, show the highest
fog frequency; June, July, and August the least.  The most favorable hours
for fog formation are from. 3 to 7  A.M.  The greatest majority of all
cooling-tower fogs should be observed between 12 midnight and 10 A.M.
Most fogging episodes were  said to be short-lived, with a duration of
2-4 hr. Very few  situations  are expected with a persistence over 6 hr.
A fog duration of up to  12 hr or more could infrequently occur when the
tower fog  mixes with natural fog.  The  report concludes that if an average
duration of 3 hr is assumed  for a  fogging episode as a result of tower opera-
tion, then the mechanical-draft towers  would produce ground fog  on a  maxi-
mum of 25 days/yr at any one point.

            The fog frequencies computed for the taller towers were  con-
siderably lower, decreasing  with tower  height.   For the 500-ft-tall towers,
estimated ground fog frequencies  ranged from 5-40  hr/yr, the distance of
maximum frequency being 12.4 miles from the  site.  Ground-fog  frequencies
for the  350-ft towers were estimated to occur  between 15 and 75  hr/yr,
9.31 miles being the distance of maximum frequency.  Fog frequencies for
the 250-ft tower were 25-100 hr/yr, the distance of  maximum frequency
being 7.4 miles. With fog persistence of 2-4 hr, individual fog episodes
were expected to occur 5-30 days/yr with these taller towers. The pre-
dicted  ground-fog  frequencies are significantly lower with increasing  tower
-------
                                   85
height, and when fog does occur it generally occurs further from the plant
with increasing height. However, because ground-fog frequencies  are less
with the taller  towers, this does not imply that the tower plumes will dissi-
pate close to towers.  Rather, plumes from the towers will frequently per-
sist for distances as great as  10-20 miles, but only rarely will these plumes
contact the ground.  The distribution of fog from these taller towers with
respect to the time of the day, the month, and the direction were stated  to
be similar to the mechanical-draft situation.

           A summary chapter in the  Sierra Report  was devoted to inter-
preting the results.  Although the  physics of the problem formulation is
based on accepted and understood models, these models nevertheless have
never been verified against long-term  tower tests and should therefore  be
interpreted as  state-of-the-art estimates.  It was  estimated that the calcu-
lated values should be correct to-within ±25%, at a confidence level of 95%.

           Natural fog at Milwaukee and Chicago  (Midway) averages 260 and
160 hr/yr, respectively.  It was estimated that about  35% of the tower-fog
cases would coincide with measurable  natural fog.  When fogs  occur together,
the fog density would naturally be greater in the tower plume.  In general,
the intensity  of the fog at the ground under  such situations should produce
visibilities in range of 200-1000 ft, that of dense natural fog.

           Since most tower fogs would occur when temperatures are
below freezing, some  icing was anticipated whenever the supercooled fog
made contact with solid objects at the ambient temperature. But, because
fog situations will seldom last longer than several hours,  heavy icing of the
kind that would endanger  vegetation or  structures would not be expected.
The report cautioned,  however, that any icing on highways  could be a
serious hazard.

           The Sierra report mentioned that under certain wind conditions
downwash and aerodynamic distortion,  not only from  the towers themselves
but also from nearby plant building structures, could to a  small extent
increase the  frequency of ground fog.  The number of such incidents would
decrease  with increasing tower height.  Such effects could be minimized
with the 500-ft towers.

           The Environmental Report26 summarized additional problems
that could result from cooling-tower operation.  Since the  Waukegan air-
port is about 3.25 miles  away, it was suggested that both the vapor plumes
and tall towers, if used,  could represent aircraft hazards.  It was further
suggested that the water evaporated by the towers (66 cfs) might legally be
construed as a Chicago area water diversion and hence apply against the
3200 cfs  internationally allocated for the Illinois-Lake Michigan diversion.
The report additionally pointed to the undesirable  aesthetic impact  of
either  the resultant tower plumes or the towers themselves, particularly
-------
                                   86
the taller ones. Tower blowdown and drift problems were not pointed to as
being significantly consequential. The blowdown thermal-discharge rate to
the lake would be  roughly 0.96 x 108 Btu/hr, compared to 150 x  108 Btu/hr
for once-through cooling.

            Several  other alternative  closed-cycle cooling systems were
investigated for the  Zion station:  a 3000-acre cooling pond, a 300-acre
spray pond, and dry cooling towers.  The  3000-acre pond was ruled out
because land use in  the area precluded everything except a possible loca-
tion several miles west  of the site.  Because of  elevation changes and
distances involved, the pumping-energy requirements of this alternative
would reduce  the capability of the station  more than any other evaporative-
type alternative.  In addition, the pond site would require a number of
residences  and farms to be displaced. The 300-acre spray-pond alternative
was rejected, partially because of available land limitations and partially
because potentially severe  fogging and icing problems were anticipated.
The dry cooling towers were rejected as being viable alternatives, primarily
because of excessive costs.

            The Illinois  State Water Survey published a document summa-
rizing their findings  concerning the potential effects of cooling -tower efflu-
ents on the  atmosphere with emphasis on  the Zion Plant.62  A literature
search was made  covering  basically three topical areas:  fog and icing,
clouds and precipitation, and severe weather. More attention had been
given in the literature to fog and icing problems associated with tower
effluents than any other  potential weather effects. The report stated that,
"The majority opinion appears to be that fog and icing are usually minor
problems with natural-draft towers employing evaporative  cooling, since
these towers usually extend to heights of 350 ft or more into the atmosphere
so that the plume  seldom, if ever, sinks to ground level.  Mechanical-type
towers release their effluent at a much lower level (50-75 ft) and in a  much
more turbulent condition due to fan-forced ejection, so that there appears to
be a high probability of tower-induced fog and icing at or near the ground
on occasions.  However, the frequency of  such occurrences cannot be
assessed accurately with existing observational data."62

            Very little quantitative data on the effects  of cooling towers on
clouds and precipitation could be found.  The report stated,  "Occasional
observations of light drizzle or snow attributed  to tower effluents have
been reported.  Also, there have been several reports of tower  plume  con-
tributing to cloud  formation downwind; apparently, these are usually
stratus-type clouds  and  observations  of cumulus developments have been
rare.  A few mathematical  calculations have been made to determine the
cloud and precipitation producing potential of cooling tower plumes, but no
meteorologically acceptable analyses have been made  to assess  quantita-
tively the possibility that these plumes augment precipitation and cloud
systems associated with naturally occurring storms."62
-------
                                   87
            The literature provided little information on any observed or
calculated effects of towers on severe weather.  The report concluded,
"From consideration of atmospheric physics and dynamics, one would
expect that any severe weather event resulting from cooling tower effluents
would be attained only through a triggering or stimulation effect."  In another
paragraph the report went on to state, "In general, we conclude from avail-
able information in the literature that a very distinct void exists in our
knowledge of the effects of cooling tower  plumes on clouds and precipitation,
with regard to both initiation and stimulation of these weather events.
From climatological observations and cloud physics research, it is  known
that cumulus clouds and rain showers or  thunderstorms can be triggered by
small inputs of energy.  Consequently, it  is extremely important that re-
search be  initiated to combine existing knowledge of plume and cloud prop-
erties  into mathematical models that will provide reliable quantitative
estimates  of the  plume effect on downwind clouds and rainfall."

            The report summarized several specific findings related to
Zion itself.  Calculations showed that the amount of moisture that could be
added to the atmosphere from Zion would be very small compared to
natural fluxes in storm clouds.  However, the addition of tower effluents
could occasionally result in additional precipitation and possibly other
undesirable intensification of naturally occurring weather events.

            The meteorological effects from the interaction between
cooling-tower effluents and lake breezes  in the  Zion area were stated to
"likely result in  additional snowfall under certain synoptic weather
conditions." The analyses indicated that  in spring "there would be days
where  a  cooling tower plume would thicken on existing naturally occurring
fog, but most of the  time this fog would not persist more than 1  to 2 miles
inland.  Only  very occasionally would a weather situation exist in which
convective storms could be intensified by the lake breeze-tower  plume
interaction.  Again,  the general conclusion must be  that accumulated
knowledge is insufficient at this time to define  in quantitative terms the
effects of the interaction of cooling tower plumes with a lake-influenced
atmosphere. "6z

            A numerical model was used  to estimate the amount of additional
rain or snow, under steady light rain or  snow conditions, that would result
from tower operation at Zion.  The results showed that the tower plume
could lead to a small rainfall  (trace amounts) within a few thousand feet of
the tower.  The  additional rainfall amounts were said to be trivial, a fraction
of 1% annually.  Predictions on snowfall  indicated that the total annual snow-
fall would  be increased 1-2 in. within this lake-effect zone.  There were also
some indications using the model that the tower  plumes could trigger a
thunderstorm under special weather conditions.
-------
                                   88
            Under a section titled, "General Conclusions and Recommenda-
tions" the report stated, "At this time meteorologists have not acquired
adequate information to define in quantitative terms the meteorological
consequences of the large amounts of heat energy and water  vapor that are
released into the atmosphere from cooling towers associated with nuclear
power plants. The interaction between tower effluent and the atmosphere
is very  complex and dependent upon local conditions of climate  and topog-
raphy	  Although it was not the purpose of this report to compare the
meteorological consequences of lake and atmospheric  dissipation of waste
heat, the authors consider it appropriate at this point to present several
relevant facts pertaining to this problem. First, it is  much  more difficult
to establish the meteorological consequences of atmospheric dissipation
of waste heat from large nuclear power plants than it is to evaluate the
meteorological ramifications of once-through cooling on Lake Michigan.
This is  because in both time and space the lake  is much more stable with
respect to its meteorological properties	  Secondly, the  lake cooling
spreads out the heat dissipation over a much longer time period than
cooling  towers and, therefore, localized effects  on the weather are likely
to be less pronounced with lake cooling  than with cooling towers. Strictly
from the meteorological standpoint, it appears that environmental effects
are likely to be no greater, and probably smaller, with dissipation of
waste heat into Lake Michigan compared with atmospheric release from
cooling  towers."  2

       4.   Point Beach Station

            Alternate  closed-cycle cooling systems  were investigated for
potential use at the  1046-MWe Point Beach nuclear station in Wisconsin.129
It was estimated than  an 850-acre pond would be required for this purpose.
The most significant environmental impact of this alternative was stated
to be the elimination of land resources that presently support agricultural
activities and small-game shelters.

            With evaporative cooling towers, it was  recognized that
natural-draft tower plumes seldom return to the ground; thus the occur-
rence of ground-level fog or icing would be negligible.  Some enhancement
of cloud formation and precipitation was suggested.  Two natural-draft
towers, each 370 ft high and 400 ft in diameter,  were contemplated for the
Plant.  With the natural-draft towers, it was  stated that there would be a
significant objectionable aesthetic impact. The  towers would be three
times the height  of the tallest existing structures.  With mechanical-draft
towers the occurrence of fog would be more frequent.   Four tower assem-
blies, each  73 ft wide, 60 ft high,  and 360 ft long, were  considered.

            The report129 indicates that the normally observed ground  fogs
are quite thin near the lake and suggests that the fogs  created by
mechanical-draft towers would probably extend from the ground to the tops
of the towers and for a considerable distance downwind of the towers.
-------
                                   89
Conditions favoring this occurrence "would be limited mixing or inversion
breakup (fumigation)." Whenever onshore breezes were present, there
•would be the likelihood that some of the moisture from the towers "could
settle on forests and crop lands.  When ambient temperatures are low
enough, the moisture could freeze on tree limbs and lower story vegetation
and could affect the wildlife cover." It was also indicated that "there would
undoubtedly be some effect on seasonal crop characteristics due to increased
moisture."  The environmental impact for the alternative cooling systems is
contrasted against once-through cooling in Table 6.129

            In the Point Beach Environmental Statement,121 it was  estimated
that a visible tower plume would be seen during much of the year:  at least
50% of the year for mechanical draft towers and 95% of the year for natural-
draft towers. Most of the plumes would occur close to the facility. How-
ever, under restrictive conditions the plumes could extend downwind as far
as 30-40 miles  for the natural-draft towers and as far as 15-20 miles for
the mechanical-draft towers.  Although the  actual size of the plume and the
distance it persists depend on meteorological factors, the plume will  roughly
be cigar-shaped and, under restrictive conditions,  would have a maximum
width of about 2 miles and maximum depth of about 1000 ft.  Further, it
was anticipated that cooling towers would increase the amount of fog at a
particular point on the order  of 1-11 and 5-75 hr/yr at the point of maxi-
mum effect for  natural and mechanical draft towers, respectively.

            Ground-fog calculations for the alternative 850-acre cooling
pond indicated that ground plumes would extend from the  pond to  1, 5, and
10 miles on the order of 45, 30, and 5 hr/yr, respectively.121 The maximum
number of hours per year of fog due to the cooling  pond at any point at
1, 5, and 10 miles is estimated to be 8, 5, and less than  1 hr/yr, respec-
tively.  Pond fogging will occur almost exclusively in the winter,  and the
incremental  environmental impact in terms of contributing  to reduced
visibility and icing should be  inconsequential in relation to the occurrence
of natural fog.

            A spray canal system was  additionally  investigated.  The plant
would require a 30-acre canal with about  140  spray modules. A crude
analysis was performed which indicated that potential fogging and icing
resulted in occurrences of approximately 150, 80,  20, 4 hr/yr at 1/2,  1,
5, and 10 miles  from the canal, respectively.121

       5.   Kewaunee Plant

            Several closed-cycle  alternative cooling systems were investi-
gated in  relationship to the 540-MWe Kewaunee Plant in Wisconsin.130
A single 450-ft-high, 480-ft-dia, natural-draft evaporative tower  and
three parallel banks of mechanical-draft towers, each bank 50 by 350  ft,
were proposed as alternatives to  once-through cooling.  In a Westinghouse
study concerning evaporative towers for the Kewaunee site, the potential
-------
                                                              90
M-l

 O
          a    g
          $   3
                                                  U ,O,O MH
                                                  CO H H O
 cfl

 C
                                1
                                                          "O  co

















VO
(U
H
•8
H
v>l
T-l
CO
t-l
O
4->
O
n)
Pn

c
o
•H
CO
•H
O
0)
Q
60
C
•H
|
O
O

t-
t-
4-1
M-t
cQ
Q
,_,
(0
1-
3
4J
CO
2









e
i
5
4-»
m
cd
^
Oi
•«»
*T
O
i/)
**
rj
C
•H
4->
•H
3









1
O
LO
iO
vO
•^J-
£
4->
)-.
CO
4-)
l/l
4-1

^
§
•H
4-1

g
4-1
s
2
«






2
to
V)
X
"8
V)
0
CJ
X
i-H
CO
•H
U
c
V)
Wl
UJ
*






1
in
X
T)
0>
in
£
•a

o
f- •
ro cO
0)
4-1 V-
•H 0»
§|
^i
r-j H
- — "O
•K






0
X
X
1
CQ
O
V)
Q)
3

                        8O


                        u b
                          §0
                        X tt •
                                                                                           CO    U

s
4->
t-i
O
"4-1
I/)
0)
t-.
£
0
*


u
cO
&
f
 -C
oo
o
•§
OO
c
-tH
u
u

l—t
I
'5
V)
1
'S.
^

1-4 5 '
on oo
se ^
cO
1

CO
0)

*u
1






u
!
JD
OO
H
OO
0>
#


O
4-1 in
S§
•6 ^i
^ 0.
UTJ
D, S
S Ul
0)
U ^
«-> 3
n *J
t, u
1 5
•S ^









OJ
H
§
U-
 t/) in
c **- t-
•S0?,
32-5
C •"-« *-•
• H *> H
4J 2
c a> S
M •^•a
ID 00 C
in c: co
cO ft
0) U  c

m ;
Q. J
1) X (i
iu • H c
^H C
>fl J
i u c
•-J > n
                                                                                                                  1
                                                                                                                          s     a   -H
4_>
a
VI
CO
u
<-i
g
•5


Q
2 V
s3
»
r-t
s
4-1
U
V
U-i
IH
01
0)

JD
V)
1
£
t-
TJ

UH
§

4-)
cO
OJ
DC
g




00
c

o

ITD
g
4-1
O
4-1
a
f
cO
c
o
H
H
1



*->
V)
8



(0
• H
t-,
4-J
M-.
C
0)
a
a
u
C


0) .O —i
•^ si
rvation
5! °
§•2
u in

« ^
cO ui
8S

JH
a
4-*
CO
o
l/l

O)

1
in
g
u

in
n)




4-1
a
f
0)

4_)



(0 4->
l«

4-1
^ D
-4 .O
X
"-1 X
*: •§
s a
a -3

4_l (J
^-t "O 0)
«? g C
os 3 H
•H -rH g 03
ED H 4-)
0» CT C iQ
6£ SS
t
a
Is
v
u
|
0) 0>
4-1 C
CO H
l-i CO
o +->
S3
s «




<1J
3


C
4JC
                                                  •8  .2
-------
                                  91
environmental impact of such towers was discussed and most of the following
material on towers have been abstracted from this report.124

            The meteorological effects of evaporative towers were con-
sidered. Icing and fogging could occur and cause problems on nearby roads
or in the plant's electrical switchyard about  10 days annually. This did not
count the number of times the tower plumes might influence natural fogging
or icing conditions by making them more severe or  of longer duration in
the vicinity.  Cooling-tower drift problems were discussed and implied to
be of minimal consequence off site.  Except for certain tower chemicals,
"Watering lawns in residential areas with average city water would result
in as much or more dissolved solids deposit as  would drift from cooling
towers  using Lake Michigan water." Drift was calculated to add roughly
400 Ib of dissolved solids per year  in the plant vicinity.

            Slowdown, while singled out  as an environmental issue, was
only discussed briefly by noting that it contains  not only increased con-
centrations  of dissolved solids, but also  some chemicals.

            The Westinghouse report additionally provided a quantitative
evaluation of the potential biological impact of cooling towers as contrasted
against  once-through  cooling for the Kewaunee Plant.  Through a series of
rather simple calculations and arguments, it was shown, based on con-
servatively  assumed population, fractional capture,  and mortality estimates,
that a maximum fish kill of 7650 Ib/yr can be expected with once-through
cooling. Closed-cycle tower cooling was stated to result in zero fish kill.
The fish-kill equivalent  of plankton mortality (including  meroplankton)
resulting from plant operation was  also calculated using estimated values
of lake  plankton biomass, cooling-system flow rates, fractional losses in
the condenser and in the towers and plumes, and a two-to-one fish-to-
plankton-kill biomass ratio. The  estimated maximum values of fish kill
due to once-through and closed-cycle cooling -were Z900 and 236 Ib/yr,
respectively.  The net estimated overall fish and fish-equivalent kill
range was stated to be 1680-10,550 Ib for once-through  cooling and 120-
Z70 Ib for closed-cycle cooling.  10,550 Ib/yr represents an average of
30 Ib/day.  A calculation was made to show that the  increased fuel-energy
cost alone, resulting from, closed-cycle tower operation versus once-
through cooling, amounts to $600,000/yr. This figure corresponds to a
biological cost of  10,550 minus 270 or 10,280 Ib of fish per year, or about
$60/Ib.  This figure was then compared to the cost of fish produced at a
hatchery', $1.50/lb.  The report concluded that,  "The great disparity in
the cost per pound of fish suggests  that better commitment of total resources
could be made by building fish hatcheries instead of cooling towers."  The
environmental impact of various alternative  cooling-tower schemes for the
Kewaunee Plant is summarized in Table 7 as abstracted from the Westing-
house Report.
-------
                                             92
                                         Table  7

                     Environmental Impact of Various Cooling Modes
Area of Impact
Fish



Plankton



Fuel Resource

Effluents to
Air and Land

Effluents to
Water (Plume)





Parameter
Flow Rate, GPM
Air Screen Effectiveness, 1
Fish Capture at intake, %
Fish Transport Mortality, I
Estimated Annual Damage, Ib/year
Condenser Mortality, %
Cooling Tower Mortality, \
Plume Mortality, 1
Meroplankton Mortality, Ib/year
Estimated Equivalent Fish Damage Ib/year
Heat Rate Btu/Kw-HR
Fuel Penalty for Towers, %
Fog Persistence Due to Towers, Days/year
Drift, GPM
Salt Fallout, Ib/acre/year
Chemical Release
Radionuclide Release, pCi/1
Thermal Plume:
Discharge Temperature Above Ambient, °F
Acres Affected at +1°
Acres Affected at +4°
Acres Affected at +10°
Acres Affected at +18°
Once -through
413,000
0-501
0.34
100
2300-7650
10-20
0
10-201
725-1450
1450-2900
10,440
0
0
0
0
Nil
5

20
2720
252
7
0.7
Closed-Cycle
Cooling Towers
28,000
0-501
0.0017
100
1-32
10-20
100
4-8
59-118
118-236
11,070
6
10
400
400
Nil
89

20
141
72
28
4
1
 These values are assumed or estimated based on scant data; values should be verified by field
 or laboratory work.

210CFR-20 Limit = 100 pCi/1
 10CRF-50 Limit = 20  pCi/1
-------
                                   93
            A cooling-pond alternative, between 650 and 1500 acres, was
investigated for the Kewaunee Plant.130  The most significant environmental
impact of the pond would be the removal of 650- 1500 acres of crop and
pasture land.  A spray canal was  also considered for the plant. No particu-
lar environmental impacts  were cited for the  spray canal other than sug-
gesting that fish damage  similar to that of cooling towers can be expected
as a result of blowdown to the lake.

       6.   Bailly Station

            An evaporative natural-draft cooling tower will be used at the
Bailly Generating Station in Indiana for its 685-MWe nuclear unit.91  Two
possible adverse meteorological effects resulting from tower operation
were cited:  fog and drift.  Calculations for the southern  end  of Lake Michigan
indicated, "relative humidity  and  temperature combine in such a manner that
there is a high probability of  producing fog from a  cooling tower only 0.11%
of the time (0.4 days  per  year)."  The probability for ground  fog from a
natural-draft tower was stated to be even lower.

            Three atmospheric conditions were  discussed that could con-
ceivably limit the plume  rise from a tower and thereby increase the poten-
tial for contributing to natural fog:  a strong atmospheric temperature
inversion, the presence of a high  wind, and tower downwash.  The report
considers none of these three to be credible mechanisms for contributing
to natural fog.  Two types of atmospheric temperature inversions--a
surface-based radiation inversion and a subsidence inversion--were also
considered as potential mechanisms for causing  a plume to be trapped at
low levels and thereby possibly contributing to existing natural ground
fogs. These were subjected to qualitative arguments, and it was concluded
that the tower plume  would very likely penetrate the radiation inversion  or
rise to a sufficient height in a subsidence inversion (~1000 ft) insuring that
a natural-draft tower plume would not likely play a  contributing role in
existing ground fog.  In citing reference material within the report, the
investigators stated that, "Surveys of operating  cooling towers in the
United States and in Europe confirm that natural draft cooling towers do
not cause or intensify ground fogging conditions."

            Drift and evaporative losses from the Bailly tower are estimated
to be about 7100 gpm or 15.6  cfs.  This quantity was stated to represent  only
about 0.04% of Lake Michigan's natural evaporative losses over the entire
lake. It was therefore assumed that the Bailly tower losses will have no
significant impact on the  lake.

            Tower  blowdown was  not expected to be a  problem since most
of the impurities in the blowdown water will be the same as those in the
lake. Some chemical treatment of this water, mainly  in the form of
sulfuric acid and chlorine (hypochlorite ions), is anticipated.  The investi-
gators, however, estimated this to be of such  low concentrations when dis-
charged that no adverse effect on the lake is expected.
-------
                                   94
           The possible synergistic effects resulting from the combination
of the cooling-tower plume with existing atmospheric constituents were dis-
cussed.  It was felt that since no such adverse effect has been documented
at other natural-draft cooling -tower installations and since the regional
air-pollution indices  are stable or declining, this would not be a problem.
Consideration was also given to the possible effects associated with the
tower plume  blending with the  stack effluents from the  operating fossil-
fired units at the Bailly site.  The speculation is that sulfur dioxide in the
stack effluents could be oxidized and then combined with the tower vapor to
form an acid mist. The statement was made that since other larger coal-
fired plants with natural draft  towers have not reported any adverse effects,
no problem is anticipated at Bailly.  Further arguments were  developed
stating that the oxidization of sulfur dioxide in a combined plume could be
catalized by  certain fly-ash constituents. Since the Bailly fossil units
remove 99%  of the fly ash through electrostatic  precipitators, it was
inferred that this would reduce the probability of acid mist.

           Mechanical-draft cooling towers were also considered as an
alternative to natural-draft towers.  Land-area  requirements  for the
mechanical towers were estimated to be roughly 23 acres, as  opposed to
4.5 acres for natural-draft towers.  This excess land area for the
"economical arrangement" of  mechanical-draft  towers at the  Bailly site
is not available;  therefore this alternative was rejected.  From an environ-
mental point of view, mechanical-draft towers were noted to have a greater
probability of producing ground fog than natural-draft towers.  Since the
Bailly site is located in an industrial area near  a highway, this potential
problem could be significant.  It was stated that mechanical-draft towers
are best suited for areas where  fog is unlikely or in sparsely settled areas.

            Cooling ponds, spray ponds, and cooling canals were noted as
having a potential for producing  ground fog  and  for evaporating more water
than cooling  towers.  They were primarily rejected as  alternatives because
of limited land availability. Dry  cooling towers were also mentioned as  an
alternative.  They were rejected, however,  because their use  would signifi-
cantly decrease the plant efficiency unless special turbines could be made
available. The requisite turbines could not be fabricated in time to meet
the unit's operating date.  The towers were additionally rejected because
there was some  doubt whether a dry-tower system could be physically
incorporated into the Bailly site because of its anticipated size.

            Once-through cooling was also considered  for the new Bailly
unit with either a shoreline or offshore discharge.  It was indicated that a
detailed cost-benefit analysis  would probably show this option to be the
best choice.  It was rejected as a viable alternative since it was believed
that once-through cooling  might be prohibited on Lake  Michigan in accord-
ance with the recommendations of the Third Lake Michigan Enforcement
Conference.  The utility stated that even though no existing law prohibits
-------
                                   95
once-through cooling, it could ill afford an operating-license delay of -well
over one year as recently experienced by the Palisades Plant and then end
up installing duplicate facilities.

       7.   D.  C. Cook Plant

            The environmental report for the 2200-MWe Donald C. Cook
Nuclear Plant   outlines four alternative cooling systems which could be
used to backfit the present once-through system.  It was estimated that a
cooling pond would have to be at least 5000 acres and have a minimum
depth of 8-12 ft.  This alternative was  considered totally impractical, since
land acquisitions of the required area are not readily or realistically
available in the surrounding scenic dunes area.  The sandy soil in the
general area would not be suitable to retain water without the costly instal-
lation of asphalt or some comparable material.  The pond was estimated
to consume roughly 40,000 gpm of lake water, three-quarters of it through
evaporation and the remainder through seepage losses.  Aesthetically the
pond would be the most desirable  of the alternatives considered.  From an
ecological  point of view, there would be no significant effect other than
those anticipated from the displacement of farm and recreational  land.

            Two natural-draft evaporative towers, each 500 ft high and
520 ft in diameter,  were considered as another alternative. The towers
would consume about 30,000 gpm of water.  The meteorological effects
resulting from the discharge of this quantity of water vapor from two
localized points 500 ft above the ground were said to be unknown.  Under
certain atmospheric circumstances the plumes could cause fogging and
contribute  to icing conditions in the winter.  The  report states that this
alternative would constitute  a significant aesthetic intrusion along the
scenic shoreline and would completely destroy the low-profile Cook Plant
design. During cold weather the vapor plume would be visible several
thousand feet in the air, again an aesthetic cost.  From a land-use point of
view the two towers would require the leveling of 40 acres of presently
undisturbed dune land.

            Fourteen mechanical-draft towers, each 73 ft wide, 400 ft long,
and 60 ft high, were considered for the Cook Plant as another alternative.
The mechanical-draft system would consume' about 30,000 gpm of lake
water when in operation. The system would also require some 90 acres of
dune land for installation. One  of the major disadvantages of a mechanical-
draft-tower system is discharging the water vapor and droplets at a
relatively low altitude above ground; this  could result in serious icing
problems on plant-access roads and on public highways.  Since mechanical
towers have such a low profile, they would not detract from the plant's
low profile. However, because  of their bulk, they might have  a significant
adverse effect  upon the plant's appearance from the lake.  Ecological
effects on the lake from blowdown discharges from either the mechanical-
or natural-draft towers  were thought to be insignificant.
-------
                                  96
            Dry cooling towers were discussed, but they were not con-
sidered a viable alternative for a plant the size of Cook.  The report in-
dicated that even if they were feasible they could not be used at the Cook
Plant because the steam turbines presently installed could not operate
with them.

       8.   Palisades Station

            The Environmental Statement for the 715-MWe Palisades
Nuclear Generating Station119 discusses several closed-cycle  cooling
alternatives to the plant's presently used once-through system.  (The plant
will be backfitted by November  1973 with mechanical-draft towers as part
of a settlement with interveners  at a licensing hearing.)  The  closed-cycle
cooling alternatives considered were mechanical- and natural-draft  evapo-
rative towers,  dry towers, and cooling and spray ponds.  One  of the principal
impacts of the  evaporative towers was considered to be the addition  of
chemicals to the lake via blowdown and the addition of chemicals and water
to the surrounding land as a result of drift. (The blowdown issue is  dis-
cussed in more detail in Section VI of this  report and will not be covered
here.) The Environmental Statement concluded that once-through cooling,
with appropriate modifications to the present facility,  would cause less of
an impact on the lake than that resulting from the Palisades Plant operating
with cooling towers.

            The report mentioned several advantages of natural-draft
towers over mechanical-draft systems:  reduced requirement for corrosion
inhibitors, less drift, and a long-term monetary cost  advantage. The dis-
advantages of a natural-draft tower for the Palisades location were thought
to be the  aesthetic impact of a 400-ft-high structure on the naturally scenic
sand dunes and the possibility that a tall tower would disperse fog and drift
and cause icing over a wide area beyond the plant site. There was a greater
possibility for  the plume from a tall tower to affect traffic on nearby high-
ways; plumes from a mechanical-draft system would be expected to  pri-
marily affect onsite areas.  Dry cooling  towers were dismissed as a viable
alternative for the Palisades  Plant primarily because  the existing turbine
and condenser  system could not accept backfitting without a rather severe
penalty in plant operating efficiency and  further the state of the art on dry
towers is still  in its infancy for an installation the size of the Palisades Plant.
Cooling and spray ponds were also considered as  alternatives.  The  cooling
pond would require a minimum of 1000 acres, and building the pond in the
immediate plant vicinity would require the destruction of the  scenic  sand
dunes.  The possibility of building a pond about a mile inland was also con-
sidered; however, this alternative would have meant destroying 1000 or
more acres of agriculturally productive  land.  These were felt  to be
unacceptable alternatives by the utility.  The spray pond was  rejected
because  its reliability was thought to be  too variable under  changing
meteorological conditions.  The  loss of 30 acres of dune  land required for
the pond, the great possibility of local icing during winter operation,
-------
                                   97
unknown drift problems, and the possibility of fogging under adverse
humidity conditions were significant adverse effects making the spray
pond an undesirable alternative.

            NUS Corporation evaluated the potential environmental impact
of operating the Palisades Plant with either a 490-ft-high, 485-ft-base-
dia, natural-draft  tower  or two 50-ft-wide, 470-ft-long, 62-ft-high,
mechanical-draft towers.33 Requisite meteorological data for the Palisade's
site were obtained from Muskegon County Airport, located about 70 miles
north of the site.  The meteorological data were analyzed to determine
under what  conditions evaporative towers could produce or intensify local
fog conditions.

            Natural fog frequencies were  correlated against the time of
day, the month of the year, atmospheric stability, wind speed, cloud cover,
and the relative humidity defect (defined as the difference between saturated
relative humidity and the ambient relative humidity).  Fog conditions are
dependent on wind  direction and more likely to occur for winds from the
east through southwest directions.  Also fog is more  likely to occur  under
neutral and stable  atmospheric conditions, particularly between 10:00 P.M.
and 9:00 A.M., and is most often observed with some cloud cover.  The
relative humidity defect was the single parameter of  greatest importance
in fog formation.  For defect values approaching  zero, there was a 90%
or greater probability that fog conditions  were observed.  The report
stated,  however, that fogs do exist and can form under conditions when the
relative humidity defect is different from zero, that is,'when the atmosphere
is unsaturated.  It  was  determined that the probability of fog formation could
be adequately represented by a single relationship with the relative humidity
defect.

            Calculations were  performed that yielded estimates of visible
plume persistence, the possibility for induced fogging and icing,  and poten-
tial downwash events.  With regard to the persistence of a visible plume,
it was felt that the  phenomenon represents only an aesthetic problem.

            The proposed mechanical-draft facility was  found to have a
lower incidence of long plume  lengths.  About 45% of the visible plumes
were  calculated to be dissipated within 350 ft  of the towers. Visible plume
lengths longer than 2 miles were estimated to occur for five of the total
hours of the year.

            For the proposed natural-draft tower, visible plumes longer
than 2 miles were  estimated to occur as frequently as 44%  of the total hours
of the year, 65% of these  hours occurring during  the winter season.  In
terms of the aesthetic effects of the visible plume, the areas of greatest
potential concern were the communities of Covert and South Haven.  The
estimated percentage of the time the visible plume was  calculated to pass
-------
                                  98
over these towns was presented in tabular form in the NUS report.33  For
Covert, conditions favoring the downwash of tower plumes over the nearest
major highway 1-196 were investigated.  The frequency of such possible
occurrences for the natural-draft tower were estimated at 2 hr of fogging
and 0.2  hr of icing during the spring, 0.3 hr of fogging during the fall, and
2.7 hr of fogging and 2.2 hr of icing during  the winter.  These calculations
were stated to be upper limits because observations of actual cooling-tower
installations have not confirmed such downwash phenomena.  The report
indicated  that mechanical-tower  operation under conditions  favoring  down-
wash would not affect highway 1-196 but only roads and structures on the
plant site.

            The probability of induced fogging, calculated for the mechanical-
draft tower, indicated an increase  of natural-fog duration a maximum of
14 hr/yr,  6.25 miles northeast of the site.  This was the maximum value in
any direction.  There are 798 hr of fog occurring naturally in the vicinity;
the median duration of each fog episode is 2 hr. An increase of 14 hr of
duration was then compared with the average  fog beginning 1 min earlier and
lasting  1 min longer. This was thought not to be a significant overall change.
The natural-draft tower was found not to induce ground-level fog.  The
probability of induced icing was examined.   The results  showed similar
percentages to increased fog probabilities and therefore were not considered
a significant problem.  Again the natural-draft-tower results indicated no
increase.

            Several  recently published reports in the  open literature contain
information relevant to this  survey.  These are  now considered.

        9.    Natural- draft-tower  Operating  Observations

            A final  report describing a cooling-tower field study at the
1800-MWe Keystone Generating Station in western Pennsylvania was pub-
lished in January 197 I.113  The purpose of the study was to describe  and
evaluate the potential effects that emissions of water  vapor and heat  from
325-ft-high, natural-draft, evaporative-cooling towers have  on the  local
environment and climate.  During the period of field observations in
September, November,  and December 1969, when the  Plant was operating
at one-sixth of its design capacity, no adverse weather effects due  to the
operation of the facility were shown conclusively.  Drift drizzle beneath
the towers was not  detected, nor was any increase in ground-level  humidity
underneath the plume path.   Long-term pre- and posttower climatological
data from nearby meteorological stations were studied,  and  only in one
situation was  a possibility of precipitation  enhancement noted for the two-
year period analyzed.

            General observations had shown the visible tower plumes nor-
mally to rise to an altitude of about 650 ft and travel  downwind another
650 ft before evaporating. During  periods  of high humidity and low
-------
                                   99
temperatures (25-30°F), the plume was observed for thousands of feet
downwind.  Casual observations indicated infrequent cloud initiation during
periods of otherwise clear skies. However, the tower plume would often
merge with low stratus clouds. In addition, the tower plume mingles with
the stack effluent from the fossil-fired generating units.  Mixing  of the two
plumes was confirmed by the presence of acid droplets in the visible por-
tion of the cooling-tower plume.

            The report concluded that the full environmental effects of
natural-draft towers could not be stated conclusively from the study because
the actual field observations were intermittently made over one season only,
the plant  was not  operating  at or near full power, and field instrumentation
was lacking in several essential  areas.

            Hosier   reported on a single fogging incident observed during
two years of investigation at the  Keystone Plant in which a plume reached
the ground in the  vicinity of the natural-draft towers. It  was surmised that
an inversion on this occasion was just  at the proper height and strength to
confine the plume and its vertical oscillations within the  inversion.  Photos
taken from an aircraft on the same  day and within  several  minutes of  the
Keystone ground-fog incident showed that the injection of water vapor and
condensation nuclei by steel mills in the Pittsburgh area resulted in fog and
a dense cloud extending a hundred miles downwind. The  steel mills were
apparently injecting their effluents at the same level as the surrounding
terrain through many small-diameter sources.  Hosier stated that had a
power plant injected effluents at  the same level,  a  similar  result would have
been expected.

            Decker37 has reported on the relative probability of evaporative
cooling systems to produce sufficient ground fog to obstruct visibility. The
results of his survey are given below in the order  of increasing probability
of surface fogging.  This information was obtained from observational data.
         Type of Cooling System
    Tall, natural-draft towers, standing
    fully equipped with drift eliminators .
    Tall, natural-draft towers, alone
    but without drift eliminators.
    Tall, natural-draft towers, close to
    fossil-fueled smokestacks emitting
    acid-producing stack gases.

    Mechanical-draft towers emitting
    at low level.

    Slack water, ponds, and lakes, and
    spray ponds.
          Probability of
      Obstructing Visibility
Extremely low, virtually zero.
Low, but likely to occur with high
humidity and stagnation.
Low to substantial, depending on
prevalence of wind direction and
spacing of stack and tower(s).

Substantial, but highly variable de-
pending upon wind and orientation
or grouping of units.
Low to substantial, depending upon
the stagnation of  the atmosphere and
confinement of humidified air.
-------
                                  100
            Colbaugh et al.,24 in an interim report, noted that there is a
lack of quantitative information for the reliable assessment of the  effects
of cooling-tower plumes on the environment.  For this reason, a compre-
hensive field investigation of natural-draft-tower plumes was initiated at
the Tennessee Valley Authority's 2808-MWe coal-fired Paradise Power
Plant in Kentucky.  The plant has three natural-draft towers, each 436 ft
high and 321 ft in diameter at the base.  Tower circulating flow is
290,000 gpm. The towers are  designed to reduce the cooling  water to
72°F at yearly average atmospheric temperatures of 57.4°F dry bulb and
52.2°F wet bulb and a cooling range of 27.5°F.

            General field observations of plume behavior were initiated in
December 1969.  A more comprehensive program began in January 1971
to collect, compile, and analyze plume configurations under various mete-
orological conditions. Preliminary results  were presented for observations
made during 130 days throughout the 1970 calendar year.  These are shown
in Table 8.  The  data show considerable monthly variation in  plume length.
Preliminary evaluation of more  recently gathered data has revealed no
significant adverse effect that can be attributed to tower operation. On one
occasion, however, there was a measurable increase in the temperature
and moisture content downwind of the visible plume, with mist being
detected both under the visible plume and downward.

       10.  Drift Observations

            Two recent documents have reported on drift measurements
made on mechanical- and natural-draft towers using different experimental
methods for drift determination.  Reference 47 associated the commonly
used drift emission  rate  of 0.2% of the tower circulating flow as possibly
originating  with  early developmental tower  studies and before efficient
drift-eliminator designs  were put into practice.  Measurements made on
a commercial mechanical-draft  tower (fan diameter, 28 ft; circulation
flow, 12,500 gpm; range, 23°F; approach,  7°F) indicated the tower  to have
a 0.005%  drift rate.  A more extensively studied mechanical-draft tower
(fan diameter,  18 ft; circulation  flow, 6050 gpm; range, 10°F; approach,  7°F)
was investigated using a  laser-scattering technique and an isokinetic-
sampling technique.  The laser-scattering technique yielded a drift rate
of about 0.0055%; the isokinetic method gave about 0.0076%.   A natural-
draft hyperbolic-tower (no specifications  were given) determination showed
drift to be around 0.005% via isokinetic sampling.  The laser-scattering
method yielded drift percentages around 0.00012% for particles larger
than 145 u,m. The 0.005% drift rate was said to be best representative of
state-of-the-art natural-draft towers.

            In  Ref. 75, isokinetic sampling was conducted on  the Homer  City
natural-draft cooling tower.  The tower is a counterflow design with a full
circulating flow of 208,000 gpm.  The tower is stated to be 389 ft high with
a 276-ft-dia base.  Measurements indicated the drift for the tower under
full rated conditions to be 0.0025%.
-------
                101



















00

 J
 +J <
OJ C
C Co
rH O,
CL, bO
M C
!-i 

5 (X }H
H Q)
 H
rt
& 1*
£ rH
< 8
u
LOOOCMTfrLOvOO^LO
rH vO rH rO

OCTiOt^vO^-OOf^LO
tSI CTl rH rH •*


OOlO'a-vOOOOOO
tOCT>LO rH"!tLOrHLO


CMra-CT>
• • • •
fVlrHf^l
                                                                   o

                                                                   T3
                                                                   o
                                                                   o
                                                                    6
                                                                   g
                                                                   •H
                                                                   4->
                                                                   rt
                                                                   a>
                                              i   oo
3   -8
 r<   (H    X
J-3   ex.  J3
OO   O,  +->   >
3    
-------
                                  102
           A guaranteed drift level of 0.002% has been used for two natural
draft cooling towers recently sold to the Potomac Electric Power Company
for its Chalk Point Station.2

       11.  Theoretical Predictions

           Portman97 has reported on an analytical study for  analyzing the
downwind extent of fog from a cooling-canal spray for a steady wind blowing
perpendicular to the canal.  His analysis was conservative in that it should
overestimate the downwind extent of fog and the frequency of occurrence for
a particular distance.  The analysis showed that the plume extent downwind
decreases with increases in air temperature, diffusion intensity, and wind-
speed variation with height, and with decreases in air water-vapor content,
canal temperature, canal length, and efficiency of vapor transfer to air at
the canal.

           The analysis  was applied to an  800-ft canal at  55 and 75°F, these
temperatures being representative of winter hot-water temperatures of a
once-through and a closed-cycle cooling system, respectively.  With the
Detroit City Airport temperature-wind-humidity statistics, a  spray canal
in the Detroit area operating at 55°F all year would produce a fog at  1 mile
distance less than 2.5% of the time.  For a  canal at 75°F, the value is less
than 10%. It  was emphasized that these estimates  should be regarded as
upper limits.

       12.  Feasibility

           Dry natural-draft cooling towers each 394 ft high  with a
357-ft-dia base are being operated in Razdan, Soviet Armenia.1   The power
plant  consists of three 200-MWe units, each matched  with  a natural-draft
dry tower.  One tower has been in  service  since January 1971.  Apparently,
the success of the Razdan operation is leading to the development of  hard-
ware  and dry natural-draft towers for 800- to 1200-MWe unit capacities.

B.  Monetary Costs
       To aid in evaluating the impact of the Lake Michigan thermal-
discharge  regulations proposed at the March 24,  1971, session of the
Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference, federal  representatives presented
a summary outlining EPA's position concerning the status of existing
facilities  that would or would not  have to consider alternative cooling
schemes to be in compliance  with the proposed regulations.  However,
little specific data were presented to permit an evaluation of the cost of
implementating these regulations. This section summarizes available  cost
information as abstracted from recent documents.

       The report entitled "Feasibility of Alternative Means of Cooling for
Thermal Power Plants Near Lake Michigan," presented at the Lake Michigan
Enforcement Conference in September 1970, discussed  closed-cycle  cooling
-------
                                  103
systems and estimated the costs for using them.  Tables 9 and 1095 sum-
marize these costs in terms of utility-rate increases to the average resi-
dential customer. These tables are based on the assumption of newly
constructed 1000-MWe fossil and nuclear power plants and show the effects
of low (Case I), normal (Case II), and high (Case III) values of the economic
factors involved in the analysis.  These two tables were not intended to
demonstrate the costs associated with the backfitting of existing plants,  but
rather represent cost estimates  for power plants originally designed to
accommodate these alternatives.

        The cost of backfitting cooling facilities was subsequently discussed
by Mr. Tichenor  at the recent Michigan,84 Wisconsin,125 and Indiana  3 state
hearings.  An Edison Electric institute report, referenced in his testimony,
suggested that retrofitting an existing plant using evaporative towers would
cost $10-12/kW.  A Mr.  Woodson134 was cited as estimating the capital cost
of converting an 800-MWe plant from once-through to closed-cycle cooling
at about $3,000,000,  or $3.8/kW. Mr. Warren,  of the FPC, was cited95 in
estimating the cost of backfitting all of the 15,000 MWe of capacity existing
and under construction on Lake Michigan as $150,000,000 or $10/kW.  How-
ever, according to the testimony, none  of the above estimates included the
cost of reduced generating capacity, increased fuel costs, and increased
operating and maintenance expenditures. According to the testimony,  these
items  could add an additional $10-15/kW in equivalent capital investment
to the  initial capital investment.  Adding these costs to the initial capital-
cost values shows a  range of backfitting costs  of $14-27/kW.  Given a plant
load factor of 80% and a  fixed charge rate of 14%, a $14-27/kW range  is
equivalent to an increase in busbar cost of about 0.3-0.6 mill/kW-hr.

        Mr. Tichenor cited an American Electric Power Service Corporation
estimate for backfitting the D. C. Cook Nuclear plant with natural-draft
cooling towers.  An initial capital investment of $32,000,000 or  about
$15/kW "was quoted.   The company estimated the  summer capability loss
to be 80 MWe.  According to the  testimony, if this capacity loss was made
up with an equivalent amount of gas-turbine peaking units, the capability
loss would require a capital investment of $8,000,000. Adding to this  an
equivalent investment of $5/kW for operation and maintenance and increased
fuel expenses, the total backfitting capital cost was estimated to be $24/kW
($52,800,000 for the  2200-MWe plant).  With an 80% load factor  and a  14%
fixed-charge rate, the increase in busbar cost was  indicated to  be approxi-
mately 0.5 mill/kW-hr.

        Cost figures  were cited for the  Palisades Nuclear Power Plant to
backfit with mechanical-draft towers and radioactive-emissions-control
equipment:  $15,000,000 in capital equipment, with $3,000,000 annually
being required for the fixed  charges on the capital, reduced efficiency, and
increased operation and maintenance costs. With an assumed 80% load
factor, $3,000,000/yr corresponds to a busbar cost of 0.6 mill/kW-hr.
-------
                                      104
                                    Table  9
                Increase In Busbar Cost Over Once-Through Design
                              (Fossil Fueled Plants)
95
                                           Cost Increases (Mills/KW-HR)
Case
I
II
III
Case
I
II
III
(Mills/KW-HR)
4.57
5.94
7.53
Plant Capital
Cost ($/KW)
110
135
160
Wet
Mech.
Draft
0.079
0.096
0.117



Wet
Nat.
Draft
0.142
0.179
0.218
Economic Factors
Fixed Charge
Rate (4)
11
14
17
Cooling
Pond
0.012
0.021
0.039
Fuel
(*/l



Spray
Canal
0.049
0.058
0.070
Cost
O6 Btu)
25
30
35
Dry
Mech.
Draft
0.46
0.58
0.70
Land Cost
($/Acre)
250
500
1000
Dry
Nat.
Draft
0.43
0.53
0.64



 Case

  I-N
 II-N
III-N
         Case

          I-N
         II-N
        III-N
                                    Table  10
                 Increase  in Busbar  Cost Over Once-Through Design S5
                                 (Nuclear Plants)
                                           Cost  Increases (Mills/KW-HR)
Busbar Cost Wet
Once-Through Mech.
e (Mills/KW-HR) Draft
M 4.37 0.085
N 5.83 0.108
M 7.60 0.135
Economic Factors
Plant Capital Fixed Charge
Cost ($/KW) Rate (4)
135 11
160 14
185 17
Wet
Nat.
Draft
0.138
0.177
0.219
Fuel Cost
(*/106 Btu)
15
19
24
Cooling
Pond
0.021
0.033
0.061



Land Cost
($/Acre)



250
500
1000
-------
                                  105
       Cost estimates were also presented for modifying existing discharge
designs to conform with mixing zone limitations. Tennessee Valley Authority
data on the 3450-MWe Browns Ferry plant indicated that a backfitted diffuser
system would cost an additional $2,900,000 (roughly equivalent to 0.02 mill/
kW-hr).  Modifications to the once-through system  for the 2600-MWe
Cumberland Plant were estimated to cost $4,100,000 (about a 0.03 mill/kW-
hr busbar cost equivalent).

       Estimates for backfitting the 1047-MWe  Waukegan and the 944-MWe
State Line plants with modified discharges were given as  $9,000,000 and
$11,500,000,  respectively.20 With plant-load factors of 65% and a fixed-
charge rate of 14%, the increase in busbar costs were calculated to be
about 0.2 and  0.3 mill/kW-hr,  respectively.

       In summary, Mr. Tichenor's testimony given at the  three state
hearings concluded that:

       1.  For power plants initially designed to accommodate closed-
cycle condenser cooling systems, the increase in busbar costs over once-
through cooling is expected to be around 0.2 mill/kW-hr for an evaporative
tower  system (nominally a  1% residential rate increase).

       2.  The increased cost for backfitting with  an evaporative tower
system is estimated to be around 0.6 mill/kW-hr (nominally a  3% resi-
dential rate increase).

       3.  Increased costs due to modifying existing discharges range
widely from 0.02 to 0.3 mill/kW-hr (nominally a 0.1-1.5% residential rate
increase).

       These busbar costs  were related to the average residential consumer
around Lake  Michigan by assuming the consumer pays  roughly 20 mill/kW-
hr for his electrical power.

       1.  Pulliam Plant
            Evan W. James, Wisconsin Public Service Corporation, stated
at the Wisconsin hearings125 that decreasing the heat content of the 392-MWe
Pulliam plant discharge by 50% would cost some $3,770,000 in capital in-
vestment.  Annual costs, including carrying this investment, operating costs,
and maintenance costs, were stated to approximate $1,035,000 annually.  If
the plant went to a completely closed system rather than a tempering sys-
tem, the above costs were stated to roughly double.

        2.   Kewaunee  Plant
            Backfitted mechanical-draft cooling towers at the 540-MWe
Kawaunee Nuclear Plant were estimated by Mr. James to be $10,000,000 in
construction costs.    Tower operation was stated to decrease the capacity
-------
                                  106


of the plant by 7.1% and the efficiency by 3.8%.  The cost of these towers in
terms of investment, losses in plant performance, and operation and main-
tenance was stated to be about $3,650,000 annually. This revenue  require-
ment expressed as an evaluated cost was given as $24,300,000.

           The Kewaunee Environmental Report130 listed additional cost
figures  for backfitted cooling  schemes.  For a single, natural-draft evapora-
tive  tower, the  added construction costs for tower installation would be
$16,902,000.  Annual operating costs and capacity makeup were  said to cost
around $2,037,000 per year. The total additional annual cost for backfitting
to a  natural draft tower would then be  $4,577,000 per year.

           For mechanical-draft towers, backfitting costs were stated to
be $10,118,000  in construction or, equivalently, $1,510,000 per year. Annual
operating and maintenance costs, together with makeup of capacity, were
said to be $2,105,000.  Thus the total additional annual cost resulting from
the backfitting of mechanical-draft towers is $3,615,000.

           The costs that would result from backfitting with a cooling lake
were estimated to be $18,068,000 in capital costs or, equivalently,  $2,700,000
annual cost.  Operating and maintenance and capacity makeup costs were
given as $2,675,000 per year.  The total incremental annual cost resulting
from the backfitting  of a cooling lake is  thus given as $5,375,000 per year.

           A spray-canal system was also investigated.  The capital in-
vestment in such a system was  estimated to be $11,410,000, or when con-
verted to an annual cost, $1,710,000 per year for amortization and  interest.
Operating and maintenance costs, together  with generating capacity makeup,
were estimated to add an additional $2,208,000 per year.  The total annual
cost for a backfitted spray-canal system was given as  $3,918,000.

       3.  Point Beach Plant

           Testimony given at the Wisconsin hearings125 by Mr. Patterson,
Sargent and Lundy Consulting Engineers, estimated the construction costs
of backfitting the 1046-MWe Point Beach Plant at $23,510,000 for a cooling
lake, $22,936,000 for a mechanical-draft evaporative-tower system, and
$31,797,000 for natural-draft evaporative towers. These costs reflect
interest and estimated escalation charges and, in addition, land  purchases
for the cooling-lake  alternative. With the costs  for capability and efficiency-
loss makeup and operating and maintenance expenses evaluated  on  a present-
worth equivalent-investment basis, the evaluated cost of the  cooling lake
was  estimated to be  $49,759,800; the mechanical-draft tower system,
$45,350,000;  and the natural-draft towers, $56,493,400.

           The Environmental Statement for the Point Beach Plant121 pro-
vided additional information on the estimated yearly costs  of backfitting the
-------
                                   107
entire plant with alternative cooling systems: $7,600,000 per year for
mechanical-draft towers, $9,500,000 per year for natural-draft towers,
$9,100,000 per year for a spray-canal system, and $9,200,000 per year for
a cooling  lake.

       4.   Zion Station

            The Environmental Report for the Zion Station2  discusses the
economic costs associated with backfitting the Plant with six alternative
cooling schemes. The  costs represent additional capital investments,
capital-investment equivalents for loss of capability, and added operating
costs to implement the particular alternative. For mechanical-draft cooling
towers, the estimated installation costs were $72,000,000, with loss  of
capability and operating expenses estimated  to be $45,000,000, totaling
$117,000,000.

            For natural-draft towers, the installation costs were estimated
to be $79,000,000, with capability loss and operating costs amounting to an
equivalent $45,000,000, totaling $124,000,000.

            Installation charges on dry mechanical-draft cooling towers
were estimated to be $343,000,000, with" anadditional $103,000,000 required for
capability loss and operating expenses, yielding $446,000,000 for the present
total worth.  The addition of specially constructed spray ponds and even
spray devices within the lake itself were considered along with a cooling lake
as the remaining alternatives.  No cost estimates were made for these.

            The reader should be aware of the fact that the Zion cost
estimates were based on specialized tower designs. Air traffic in the
Zion vicinity requires limitations on the  maximum tower height; 250 ft  was
used as a design basis.

       5.   Waukegan and State Line Plants

            Cost estimated  for backfitting the Waukegan and State Line
Power Plants with subsurface high-velocity discharges were presented in
a letter from O.  D. Butler,  Commonwealth Edison, to the Chairman of the
Four-State Enforcement Conference.20 The letter stated that the  initial
capital investment, including escalation,  contingency, and top allowances
for backfitting  the Waukegan Station with mechanical- and  natural-draft
cooling towers, would be (as revised)  $14,174,000 and $19,448,000, re-
spectively.  With the equivalent capital investment for operating expenses
and loss in capacity included, the total cost of backfitting the Waukegan
station with towers was given as $21,390,000 and $25,755,000,  respectively.

            For the  State Line Plant,  the total costs for  backfitting with
mechanical- and natural-draft towers were estimated to be (as corrected)
-------
                                  108
$37,128,000 and $51,195,000, respectively. The estimated capital investment
alone for the State Line plant towers was given as $26,983,000 and
$38,657,000, respectively.

       6.    Michigan City Plant

            Mr. C.  W. Kern, Northern Indiana Public Service Company, pro-
vided a capital-cost estimate of $14,227,491 for backfitting the 719-MWe
Michigan City Generating Station with an evaporative-tower system.63  This
plant has four units; one 500-MWe unit is currently under construction.
Much of the cooling-system facilities originally designed for this unit were
still usable for the  closed-cycle tower system, and this estimate reflects
the situation.  No other information concerning operating expenses or
capacity makeup costs were given.

       7.    Bailly Nuclear  Plant

            In the Environmental Statement for the 685-MWe Bailly Plant,120
two cooling schemes  were discussed: a natural-draft evaporative tower (to
be used at  the facility) and  an alternative once-through system.  The capital-
cost differential between the tower and the once-through system was given
as $7,000,000.  The operating-cost differential evaluated  on a present-worth
basis, assuming a 30-year  plant life and  discount rate of  8.75%,  showed the
tower to require an additional  $4,000,000; the total evaluated cost differ-
ential thus was $11,000,000. The  Bailly plant is currently under initial
phases of construction. Hence these cost estimates are for a new facility
with the cooling system optimized for both alternatives; i.e., these are not
backfitting-cost differentials.

       8.    D. C. Cook Plant

            Testimony by John Tillinghast, Indiana & Michigan Electric
Company,  concerning backfitting the D. C.  Cook Plant with evaporative-
cooling towers was given at the Michigan hearings.84  The capital cost for
natural-draft towers  was  stated to be $55,935,000, including interest and
escalation. (These figures update information given earlier  on the D. C.
Cook Plant.) In addition to this, $6,000,000 per  year was estimated to
account for operating and power-loss replacement costs.  These costs were
translated  to the consumer by  proposing  that they could be divided equally
among the  358,545 utility customers. With this  so done, the  bills of these
customers were stated to increase on the average between 7.5 and 9%, or
by about $41 per year.

            The Environmental Report65 for the  Cook Plant added that the
cost of backfitting the plant with mechanical-draft towers would be about
$63,000,000. An annual penalty of about $3,400,000 would be incurred as
the result  of losses in plant efficiency.  The cost of backfitting the plant
with a cooling pond was said to be about $60,000,000.  A significant  loss in
-------
                                   109
plant efficiency would result with pond operation.  This loss, when translated
into  dollars, represented an additional operating cost of about $6,000,000
per year.

       9.   Palisades Plant
            Cost estimates for backfitting the 700-MWe Palisades Power
Plant with evaporative towers perhaps represents the best information
currently available, since this plant is actually effecting a change from
once-through to mechanical-draft cooling towers. In a letter from R. C.
Youngdahl, Consumers Power Company,  to L. R. Rogers, USAEC,
Mr.  Youngdahl estimated the  capital cost of backfitting with a mechanical-
draft tower system as $20,000,000 and the increased annual operating cost
as $4,500,000.  In the Environmental Statement for the Palisades Plant,119
the 4.5-million-doliar value was used to  calculate an equivalent present-
worth value of  $47,000,000 based upon a  30-year plant life and a  8.75%
yearly discount rate.  The incremented cost of the mechanical-draft towers,
backfitted over the presently  installed once-through system, was then
estimated to be $67,000,000 on a present-worth basis. Relative costs cited
the report for backfitting with high-velocity onshore or offshore  discharges
ranged from 1 to 5 million dollars,  respectively.

       10.  General Observations
            John Z. Reynolds,  Consumers Power Company, testified at the
Michigan hearings84 concerning the cost of outfitting Consumer's  750-MWe
system,  present and proposed, with towers.  He estimated that $76,000,000
would be required in capital costs  and $73,000,000 additional would  be
required to account for the 3-5% system-capacity losses.  Total annual
costs, including fixed charges, added  fuel costs, and operating and main-
tenance costs were estimated to be about $31,000,000 per year. Total
capital costs, including equivalent  costs, were projected to be about
$244,000,000.

            Mr. Wayne Wingert, Detroit Edison  Company,  testified at the
Michigan hearings84 that it would require about $200,000,000 in capital cost
to convert  the Detroit  Edison System  to closed-cycle cooling.  He stated
that this investment, including operating costs, maintenance, etc., would
result in a total annual cost  of $43,000,000 or roughly an increase of 12%
in production cost per kilowatt hour, which would mean slightly less than
a 6% direct increase in the customer's bill.
-------
                                   110


                        VI.  CHEMICAL INPUTS

A.  Summary of Power-plant Effluents

       Only limited information is available as to the chemical effluents
discharged  to Lake Michigan from the power plants  around its shoreline.
Significant data are available in the applications for permits to discharge,
submitted to the Army Corps of Engineers.  The operators of all power
plants have  been requested to file such applications  within the past year.
Of the 27 power plants discharging, or to discharge  into Lake Michigan or
near the mouth of its streams,  18 applications  were available at the  time
they were reviewed in the Region V EPA Office.

       Examining the information in the applications revealed a number of
inconsistencies and a substantial lack of the  information required.  Chemical
analyses of  intake and effluent water were  not available with precision ade-
quate to allow the calculation of incremental loads by direct subtraction,
except in unusual circumstances. The best information, and it is believed
the most pertinent, was given in the applications for Plants No. 13, 14, and
16, the proposed Zion Nuclear Plant,  and the operating Waukegan and
State Line Plants.  For these cases, chemical constituents actually added
or expected to be added to the coolant streams were identified and numer-
ical values  given. Accordingly, the effluents of all other plants were pro-
rated on the basis of the data for these three.  (Due  to variability in  the
composition of the effluent from the sluicing operation, the data in the
application for the Waukegan Plant lacked internal consistency; for this
reason, upon request, Commonwealth Edison provided average analyses
for eight monthly samples,21 and these data were used in the calculations.)
This procedure uses  the tacit assumption that water-treatment practices
and procedures are the same for all the  other plants as for those for -which
the data are available. This is not entirely true, and the magnitude of the
inaccuracies cannot be evaluated at this  time.  Nevertheless, the  results,
summarized in Table 11, are probably approximately correct and of suffi-
cient value to justify their publication.

       Two separate categories were established, nuclear and coal-fired.
In each category, the prorating was done in terms of the average  power
level at which the plants were operated,  calculated,  and shown for 18 of the
plants in Table 5. The input information was the average megawatt-hours
per day output of the  plants, as provided by the  power companies  on  the
Corps of Engineers applications. These numbers were believed to be
inaccurate in a few cases and were  not available in  several other cases
In these instances, an overall average operating megawatt level was
assigned as  follows:  Using plant capacities from Federal  Power  Commis-
sion statistics,49 average plant  factors -were  calculated for the available
12 coal plants (52.7%) and two nuclear plants (64.0%). The coal-plant
average was multiplied by the plant capacity to  obtain the average mega-
watt levels for the remaining coal plants, and the nuclear-plant average
-------
                                Ill
No.         Plant Name
                              Fe       K       Mg       Zn
1 Escanaba
2 Pulliam
3t Kewaunee
4t Point Beach
5 Manitowoc
6 Edgewater
7 Port Washington
8 Conmerce
9 Wells
10 Valley
11 Lakeside
12 Oak Creek
13t Zion
14 Waukegan
15 Winnetka
16 State Line
17 Dean H. Mitchell
18 Bailly (Coal)
19t Bailly (Nuclear)
20 Michigan City
21t Donald C. Cook
22t Palisades
23 James de Young
24 J. H. Campbell
25 B. C. Cobb
26 Bayside
27t Big Rock
TOTAL
0
7
0
0
1
8
8
1
0
6
3
31
0
19
Q
19
7
10
0
7
0
0
1
16
11
1
0
156
2
31
2
4
5
36
38
• 3
1
27
15
145
7
87
2
86
32
48
2
30
8
3
4
73
50
2
0
743
0
3
19
38
1
4
4
0
0
3
2
16
69
10
0
10
4
5
24
3
80
31
0
8
5
0
3
342
0.02
.30
.04
.08
.05
.35
.38
.03
.01
.26
.15
1.43
.15
.86
.02
.85
.32
.47
.05
.30
.17
.07
.04
.72
.49
.02
.01
7.64
     *Avg.  power assigned f
           other nuclear 01
    **Calculated from P04 i
           Form 67 for 196S
     tNuclear
-------
                                   112
•was multiplied by the capacities  to obtain the average megawatt levels for
the remaining nuclear plants.  These values are given in the third column
of Table 11 .

        There was an additional source of information for estimating the
total phosphorus  added to the lake.  Several of the plants had filled Federal
Power Commission Form 67 for the year 1969, showing the quantity of
phosphate added to the boiler makeup water for the year.  If essentially all
this phosphate is discharged to the lake,  then the numbers calculated from
this source of information should be about the same as  those obtained by
prorating the experience at Zion, Waukegan, and State Line. The numbers
in column 8 were  derived in this fashion  from those FPC  Form 67's avail-
able in  the Region V EPA Office. There  is substantial deviation from the
prorated numbers in perhaps one-third of the entries; these may be ex-
plainable in terms of variations  in local practices.

        Examination of the numbers in  Table 11  shows that whenall  27 plants
are operating, about 63,000 Ib/day of total solids can be expected to  be added
to Lake Michigan.  This is some  11,400 tons/yr.  Based on 173 x 1012 cu ft
of water in Lake  Michigan, this corresponds to 0.002-ppm/yr increase in
solids content. The total nitrogen content of the discharges can be expected
to be  about 70 Ib/day,  and the total phosphorus  content some 40 Ib/day.

        The numbers given for boron discharged are  probably less accurate
than the others . The discharge occurs for pressurized-water nuclear plants
whenever there is a leak between the primary and secondary coolant cir-
cuits .  For design purposes, the Commonwealth Edison Co. estimated that a
small leak would occur for 2 weeks per year.  These numbers were then
prorated for the  other pressurized-water nuclear plants.  For the  two
b oiling -water reactor  plants, zero is entered.  The quantity of the  objec-
tionable chromium is small, of the  order of 0.25 Ib/day.  The aluminum
and zinc are primarily addedat coal-burning plants, where they are leached
from the fly  ash.

        In spite of the uncertainty in the numbers reported in Table  11, it is
shown that coal-fired plants discharge more chemicals into the lake per
megawatt than do  nuclear plants. In the table the ratio is greater than 14.
The most important contributing factor to this is the sluicing of ashes and
fly ash at the coal-burning plants and the discharge of the sluicing water
to the lake.

B.  Standards Applicable to Power Plants

        The Environmental Protection Agency draft final report on steam-
generating plants9 identifies manufacturing processes  systems, and waste
loads under  the following categories:
-------
                                  113
   3.3  Standard Manufacturing Processes
              3.3.1.1  Chlorination
              3.3.1.2  Filtration
              3.3.1.3  Clarification
              3.3.1.4  Lime-Soda
              3.3.1.5  Ion Exchange Processes
              3.3.1.6  Evaporation
              3.3.1.7  Reverse Osmosis
        3.3.2  Boilers
        3.3.3  Condenser
        3.3.4  Condensate Treatment
        3.3.5  Ash Handling

   3.4  Auxiliary Processes

        3.4.1  Condenser Cooling Water Heat Disposal Systems
              3.4.1.1  Once-through Condenser Cooling
              3.4.1.2  Cooling Device on Condenser Discharge with
                      Re c ir culation
              3.4.1.3  Cooling Device on Condenser Discharge
              3.4.1.4  Cooling Device on Condenser Discharge with Partial
                      Re circulation and/or Dilution
        3.4.2  Service Water Systems
        3.4.3  Sewage Plants
        3.4.4  Cool Storage
        3.4.5  Oil Leakage
        3.4.6  Hydrovactors
        3.4.7  Other On-site Activities
        3.4.8  Accidental Potential Pollution Sources
   3.5  Typical Future Manufacturing Processes

   3.6  Normal In-plant Pollution Control

4. Standard Raw Waste Loads

   4.1  Concept of Standard Raw Waste  Load

   4.2  Waste Load Data Sources
   4.3  Standard Raw Waste Loads from Standard Manufacturing Processes

        4.3.1  Water Treatment
        4.3.2  Boiler
        4.3.3  Condenser
        4.3.4  Condensate Treatment
        4.3.5  Ash Handling

   4.4  Standard Raw Waste Loads from Auxiliary Processes
        4.4.1  Heat Disposal Systems
        4.4.2  Service Water Systems
        4.4.3  Other Waste Water Sources
-------
                                  114
Typical waste loads are tabulated, and some methods of reducing quantities
of waste are outlined.   The standards are intended to facilitate consideration
of the effects of power  plants on the environment.

C.  Chemicals for Removal of Organic Deposits in Condensers and Process-
    Water Systems

       When natural waters are passed through circuits of the kind used in
power plants, fouling deposits that interfere with the flow of water and heat
form onall surfaces with which the water comes in contact.  These deposits
may be in the form of hydrous oxides of metals, suchas iron and chromium;
they may be  scales, such as carbonates or sulfates of calcium and magne-
sium; or they may be organic in nature.  The  organic deposits are formed
by the deposition of living organisms, followed by their continued growth.
In the presence of  sunlight, the organic deposits are typically algal, whereas
in unirradiated heat-transfer equipment, they are typically bacterial.

       For  removal of the  slime formed in power-plant condensers  and
other heat exchangers  (such as those in the process-water  systems),
chlorine, added to the  cooling water, has been found to be effective and in-
expensive.  In most power plants, it is injected into the cooling water in the
form of elemental chlorine or in the  form of a strong  solution of sodium
hypochlorite for a few relatively brief (10 or  1 5 min typically) periods per
day. This system is called shock defouling.  A considerable fraction of the
organisms in the deposits are killed, and the organic material and much of
the  scale are dislodged and carried out in the cooling water.  Organic ma-
terial formed on all parts of the system downstream of the condenser reacts
with residual chlorine and helps to reduce its level at the point of discharge
to the lake.

       In addition to its toxicity to the slime bacteria, chlorine has  the ad-
vantage that it is chemically unstable in water and is quickly degraded in
nature.   This reaction is catalyzed by light; the data of Hancil and Smith,56
as treated by Draley,40 show that under the laboratory ultraviolet illumina-
tion, the time in seconds to reduce the concentration of free chlorine from
c0 to c is t  = 7.8  In (c0/c).  This advantage is partially lost if ammonia is
present in the cooling water, since the chloramines  formed by reaction be-
tween ammonia and chlorine have longer lifetimes in natural waters than
does the free chlorine (which exists in the form of hypochlorous acid or the
hypochlorite ion).

        The optimum utilization of chlorine for defouling  would require that
the  chlorine  and chloramines be decayed or dissipated before discharge of
the  effluent stream to the lake (or other natural bodies of  water in more
general  terms). A common chlorination practice, though  by no means
universally practiced,  which helps to achieve this condition, is  to have the
total circulating-water stream divided into parts, only one of which is
chlorinated at a time.  The remixing of the chlorinated and unchlorinated
-------
                                   115
streams then leads to the removal of chlorine by the so-called chlorine-
demand constituents  of the untreated water.  It is also possible to remove
residual chlorine chemically by adding reducing agents such as sodium
sulfite or bisulfite.  For example, in one  installation a ratio of sodium bi-
sulfite to residual chlorine of 3.8:1 decreases the residual chlorine level
from 1 to below 0.1  ppm in less than 5 sec.89

       The use of chlorine and the problems pertinent to the avoidance of
significant toxic  doses to the lake (or other receiving waters) are the sub-
jects of the recent analysis by Draley.40  The need for (a) standards,
(b) discharge monitoring, and (c) development of calculational  knowledge
and skills are emphasized.

       Significant new publications related to chlorine and its toxicity con-
cern standards and the effects of dilute solutions on fishes.

       In the area of standards, the Michigan Water Resources Commis-
sion, Water Quality Control Division, issued in the  spring of 1972 an
Interim Effluent  Standard for Industrial Discharges of Chlorine (to be re-
viewed as to adequacy and suitability on or before  December 1972).85  It
specifies  that "Waste streams shall contain not more than 0.05 mg/£ of
total  chlorine (free and combined) in the discharge  to receiving waters
after utilizing available dilution and at a point to be determined by the
Chief Engineer of the Commission, where application of chlorine is on a
continuous basis; or  contain not more than 0.5 mg/t of total chlorine (free
and combined) in the discharge to receiving waters after utilizing available
dilution and at a  point to be determined by the Chief Engineer of the Com-
mission, where continuous application of  chlorine will be limited to not
more than 30 minutes during any 2-hour period."

       On December 20, 1971, William A. Brungs  forwarded to
Mr.  Francis T. Mayo, Regional Administrator for  EPA Region V,
"Water Quality Criteria Recommendations for Residual Chlorine in Re-
ceiving Waters for the Protection of Fresh Water Aquatic Life," by the
Staff  of the National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.45  Four
separate levels of residual chlorine, that would be applicable to
Lake Michigan or other receiving water,  were identified, in terms of tox-
icity and usage.  During  continuous use at 0.01 mg/liter  or less, trout
reproduction and some important fish food organisms would probably not
be protected and the  situation could be partially lethal to  sensitive life
stages of sensitive fish species.  For continuous usage at 0.002 mg/liter
most aquatic organisms  should be protected.   For  intermittent use at
0.1 mg/liter,  not to  exceed 30 min/day; or 0.05 mg/liter, not to exceed
2 hr/day, significant kills of aquatic organisms should not occur and the
aquatic ecology should not be adversely affected.  These recommendations
require the use of the amperometric titration method; some of the other
methods commonly used in the determination of residual  chlorine have
been shown to be inaccurate.  The National Water Quality Laboratory
-------
                                   116


recommendations were reissued about June 1972.46  There were no changes
in the specific recommendations.  The text was modified, apparently with
the  objective of assisting the  reader in considering possible applicability of
the  criteria.

       The  same document summarizes  the literature that is most perti-
nent to quantitative effects of low levels  of residual  chlorine on a number
of varieties of fish species.   Twenty-four references are given.  Dr. Brungs
has prepared a more extensive literature review on the  effects of residual
chlorine on  aquatic life.18  Covered are the aqueous  dilute solution chemis-
try  of chlorine, its  effects on aquatic life, chlorinated wastewater treatment
plant effluent, chlorination for antifouling, and results of standard bioassays.
The following general statements resulted from the  review:  (1)  Tests of
residual chlorine toxicity should be conducted using continuous-flow bioas-
say procedures and the most  precise, sensitive, and appropriate analytical
method for determining residual chlorine; (2) typical environmental vari-
ables do not significantly affect residual  chlorine toxicity, although at lower
pH  toxicity may be  increased as a result of the greater proportion of free
chlorine present, but this difference is slight; (3) trout,  salmon, and some
fish-food organisms are more sensitive  than warm-water fish, snails, and
crayfish; (4) chronic  toxicity  effects on growth and reproduction occur at
much lower concentrations  than acutely lethal concentrations; (5) most of
the  lethal effects of residual  chlorine occur within 12-24 hr, with lethal
effects of free chlorine being more rapid than those of chloramines;
(6)  chlorination of wastewater results in a variety of chlorinated com-
pounds in addition to  chloramines, and this aspect needs much greater re-
search emphasis; (7) residual chlorine is more persistent than the few
minutes  or hours indicated by some authorities; (8)  dechlorination with
sodium bisulfite, sodium thiosulfate, and sulfur dioxide, among others,
greatly reduces or eliminates toxicity due to  residual chlorine, and the po-
tential chronic toxicity resulting from such additional treatment requires
further research; (9) substitutes for chlorination of wastewaters or cooling
waters  should be used whenever feasible, but only after  adequate acute and
chronic toxicity studies  to determine the potential environmental impact of
the  substitutes, and their efficacy as adequate disinfectants must be verified.

        The  Staff of the Michigan Water Resources Commission has under
way a program to assess, under field conditions, the effects of chlorinated
condenser cooling water on aquatic life.  Truchan and Basch118 have re-
ported observation of a major fish kill and concomitant analyses for total
residual chlorine near the Karn-Weadock power plant complex near the
mouth of the Saginaw River.  A maximum 1.36 mg/liter  of residual chlorine
was detected during the  period of measurement (corresponding to  the time
of addition of chlorine in the  plant).  This study shows that intermittent dis-
charges  of chlorine from power plants can be acutely toxic to fish life in the
discharge channel, perhaps partly because fish sometimes congregate in the
vicinity of plant-water discharges.  Caged fish studies at the same plant
•were reported by Basch and Truchan11 and Wuerthele and Truchan.135
-------
                                  117


Short-term tests at chlorine levels up to 0.4 mg/liter were run.  Fathead
minnows suffered no mortality during the exposure periods.  Rainbow trout,
however, suffered 90% mortality after exposure to an average total residual
chlorine (TRC) concentration of 0.106 mg/liter for  16.18 hr out of the 62-hr
test period.  Mortality was also observed after the  second exposure for
5.52 hr out of the 29-hr test period.  Acknowledging the fact that the fish in
the study were caged and could not avoid the discharge, the results do indi-
cate that intermittent low-level discharges of chlorine from power plants
can be toxic to certain fish species resident in the discharge area.

       Massey, also of the Bureau of Water Management, described the
avoidance of chlorine discharges and the killing of fish at the Big Rock Point
power plant in May 1972.81  The TRC level  in the  discharge channel rose,
briefly out of control due to a malfunction,  to a maximum measured value
of 3.05 mg/liter.  The highest readings obtained in  the plant by
Consumers  Power personnel using the  orthotolidine color comparator
was 0.2 mg/liter TRC.  Instances of  apparent incorrectly low readings
through the  use of the orthotolidine comparator have also been recorded
at other sites.

       Fish kills due to chlorine discharge in power-plant circulating
water have also occurred in other water  bodies, including salt water.
Fairbanks, Collings and Sides48 have reported such events  in the
Cape  Cod Canal.

       The  Michigan Bureau of Water Management has  also done caged-
fish field research downstream of municipal wastewater-treatment plants.
In one study, sponsored by EPA, toxicity to rainbow trout has been shown
at distances up to 0.8 mile downstream.  Fathead minnows appeared
adversely affected up to 0.6 mile downstream.  Total residual chlorine
concentrations less than 0.1 mg/liter were toxic to fathead minnows.  The
rainbow trout 96-hr total residual chlorine PL-50 concentration below
two plants was 0.023 mg/liter.86

       Alternatives to chlorine defouling, receiving increasing attention,
are mechanical methods of removing fouling deposits.  Mechanical devices
can consist of balls, plugs,  or brushes; they are blown through the tubes of
heat exchangers such as steam condensers by the force of the flowing fluid
or by mechanical devices.  Automatic systems  are  offered by Amertap
Corporation and American M. A. N. Corporation.  The Amertap system
circulates sponge-rubber balls in a special bypass  cooling-water stream.
The M. A. N.  System uses nonmetallic brushes, which are restrained in
the tubes by plastic baskets attached to the ends of  each tube. By revers-
ing the flow of the cooling water, the operator can automatically  "shoot"
the tubes with the brushes.  The Amertap system has  received most favor-
able attention by American power companies; it is being installed in
Commonwealth Edison's Zion Nuclear plant.
-------
                                  118
       American experience with the Amertap system is limited, and it is
not yet possible to say whether it will provide a desirable substitute for
chlorine defouling in all situations.  In particular, the entrainment of small
debris sometimes leads to plugging when the debris and the ball enter a
tube at the same time and restricts flow when it is entrapped in the ball-
collecting device.  Mechanical treatment is not ordinarily used in other
places in power plants where defouling is required. Of particular note  are
the service-water systems used to remove heat from a number of auxiliary
items of equipment at a typical plant.  The installation of mechanical sys-
tems for each of these heat exchangers has been unattractive, and plants
using mechanical treatment for condenser tubes still chlorinate service-
water systems. In these cases it remains necessary to  examine the con-
centration of residual chlorine after dilution with the main circulating-water
stream.  At Zion the resulting solution is more  dilute than the maximum
appropriate concentration in the EPA-re commended criteria.

D.  Chemicals  for Treatment of Water-Steam System

       Steam-boiler systems are typically treated with  chemicals to mini-
mize the formation of scale and corrosion products on steam-generator
surfaces and to minimize corrosion in the remainder of the system. Makeup
water is characteristically highly purified to minimize  the amount of scale-
forming  chemicals,  such as dissolved calcium and magnesium. Reducing
agents such as hydrazine and sulphite are commonly added to maintain  very
low oxygen contents (oxygen accelerates corrosion of the steel system).
Phosphate is added to help tie up the small residual amounts  of calcium
and magnesium and to serve as a corrosion inhibitor. Morpholine is added
as a volatile corrosion inhibitor that will distil with the  steam and protect
return piping.  Chromate has been used in some systems because of its
effectiveness as a corrosion inhibitor.  Since the last Enforcement  Confer-
ence, no hew information considered valuable to the Lake Michigan problem
has been encountered.

E.  Chemicals  for Treatment of Cooling Towers and Ponds

       The use of cooling towers simplifies  the treatment of waste heat,
but adds complexity in  water  treatment. Cooling -tower  recirculating sys-
tems, and in particular  the towers themselves, have corrosion and  fouling
problems that are more difficult to treat adequately than once-through
cooling systems.  Bacterial and algal slimes sometimes  grow rapidly on
the aerated cooling-tower circuits.  Some companies are now trying to
develop new and optimized chemical treatments.  Although there has been
no universally used chemical treatment of recirculating circuits, and
hence no standard content of additives in the blowdown, a group of chemical
additives is commonly encountered.  Mixtures of chromate, zinc, and phos-
phate are commonly used for corrosion control.  Microbial problems are
controlled by addition of chlorine,  hypochlorites, and nonoxidizing organics,
such as  chlorophenols,  quaternary amines, and organometallics.  Silt
-------
                                  119
deposition is controlled by use of polymers such as lignin-tannin disper-
sives,  polyacrylamide, polyacrylates, polyethyleneimine, and other poly-
electrolytes.  Acid or alkali is used for pH control, and organic phosphorus
compounds such as organic phosphates, aminomethylene phosphonate, and
polyesters are often used to control corrosion and scale formation and to
provide dispersing effects.54

       The Atomic Energy Commission, in its  environmental statement
for the Palisades Plant,119 has warned of the possibility that cooling towers
might prove, overall, more adverse to the environment than once-through
cooling and discharge to Lake Michigan. The following is quoted from the
Summary and Conclusions section of that document:

       "The  use  of the (cooling) towers reduces impingement, entrainment
and thermal impact on fish and other aquatic biota.  However, they intro-
duce a long-term adverse impact of chemicals  from continuous blowdown ...
of concentrated salts which would accumulate in Lake Michigan over the
long-term operation of the cooling towers and cause serious degradation
of the water quality of Lake Michigan in the  vicinity of the Plant.  The in-
creased concentration would result in phosphate enrichment of the lake
water and reconcentration of zinc and chromate in biota.

       "Cooling towers introduce terrestrial environmental impacts on
flora and fauna  ... from chemicals deposited by the drift, evaporation ... of
lake water, fogging under certain meteorological conditions, and icing in
the winter.  Although the (Palisades) towers are hidden from view, they
will cause an adverse aesthetic effect from the lake side  and will have a
noise impact on the area.

       "(For Palisades) the cooling towers will not only require an increase
in capital and operating costs of the order of about $67,000,000 but will re-
sult in a decrease of about 3% in net  electrical  output due to the electrical
power  required for the fans in the towers."

       These statements are supported by an appended 18-page review
and evaluation of "Cooling Tower Chemicals--Potential Environmental
Degradation."  Also included is a discussion of blowdown treatment to re-
move the  toxic elements chromium and zinc. Commercially available
methods for these removals could be applied to recirculating cooling water
system blowdown.

       There are some notable differences between the treatment of re-
circulating cooling-tower circuits with chlorine and the treatment of once-
through circulating-water circuits with chlorine. Since the chlorine in the
recirculating circuit must not only clean the condenser tubes, but also the
surfaces in the cooling tower, it is no longer possible to add chlorine only
to the extent necessary to last for passage through the condensers.  Instead
it is necessary to overcome the total chlorine  demand in the entire
-------
                                  120
recirculating system, both in the form of dissolved chemicals and organic
deposits on surfaces.  Chloramines, produced by the reaction of free
chlorine with nitrogen-bearing compounds, are lost to a considerable
extent by volatilization in the aeration while passing through the cooling
tower.55 It is also possible to chlorinate by adding enough free chlorine
to initiate the "breakpoint"  reaction, in which the chloramines are oxidized
to nitrous oxide, which is in turn lost by aeration.  The techniques and the
operating procedures for cooling-tower circuits have not yet been well
established, and remain to be optimized. Additionally it will be necessary
to establish some procedure in which the residual chlorine in the recircu-
lating cooling water is not discharged to the natural body of water through
the  blowdown during periods of chlorination. Possibly blowdown could be
suspended for periods; plants now being built have included holding ponds
in the blowdown circuit so there is time for chlorine decay before dis-
charge.  Separately pumped dilution streams are possible, and chemicals
could be added to remove the residual chlorine. No cooling-tower recircu-
lating cooling circuits are operating on Lake Michigan.  The Palisades  Nu-
clear Plant, the Bailly Nuclear Plant, and the Michigan City Plant are
planning to operate in this fashion.

        No cooling ponds are proposed for use on the shores of Lake Michigan.
For other installations,  such cooling ponds have effected certain simplifi-
cations. Short-term chemical additions are discharged,  in a more dilute
form, over a. longer period of time.  Unstable chemicals  like chlorine are
typically completely decayed away before  reaching the point of blowdown,
and so are not  significantly present in the plant discharge.
-------
                                  121
                            REFERENCES

 1.  Anonymous, "Dry Cooling Tower Uses Steel Structure," Electrical
    World, April 1, 1972.

 2.  Anonymous, "Contract," Electrical World, May 1, 1972, p.  106.

 3.  Asbury, J. G., "Effects of Thermal Discharges on the Mass/Energy
    Balance of Lake Michigan," ANL/ES-1, July 1970.

 4.  Asbury, J. G., and Frigo, A. A.,  "A Phenomenological Relationship for
    Predicting the Surface Areas of Thermal Plumes in Lakes," ANL/ES-5,
    April 1971.

 5.  Ayers, J.  C., et al., "Benton Harbor Power Plant Limnological Studies,
    Part VII, Cook Plant Preoperational Studies, 1970," Special Report
    No. 44, Great Lakes Research Division, The University of Michigan,
    Ann Arbor, Michigan, March 1971.

 6.  Ayers, J.  C., et al.,  "Benton Harbor Power Plant Limnological Studies,
    Part IV:  Cook Plant Preoperational Studies, 1969," Special Report
    No. 44, Great Lakes Res. Div., The University of Michigan, 1970.
 7.  Ayers, J.  C., et al.,  "Benton Harbor Power Plant Limnological Studies,
    Part IX, The Biological Survey of 10 July 1970," Special Report No. 44,
    Great Lakes Research Div., The University of Michigan.
 8.  Ayers, J.  C., O'Hara, N. W., and Yocum, W. L., "Benton Harbor Power
    Plant Limnological Studies, Part VIII, Winter Operations 1970-1971,"
    The University of Michigan, Great Lakes Research Division, Special
    Report No. 44, June  1971.
 9.  Aynsley, E., and  Jackson, M. R., "Industrial Waste Studies: Steam
    Generating Plants."  Draft final report of Freeman Laboratories, Inc.,
    for the Water Quality Office of the Environmental Protection Agency,
    May 1971.
10.  Badger, R. G., and Roessler, M. A., "An Ecological Study of South
    Biscayne Bay and Card Sound,"  Zooplankton, pp. 1-29,  Progress Re-
    port to U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and Florida Power and Light
    Company, University of Miami,  1971.

11.  Basch, R., and Truchan, J., A Caged Fish Study on the Toxicity of In-
    termittently Chlorinated Condenser Cooling Waters  at the Consumers
    Power Company's J. C. Weadock Power Plant, Essexville,  Michigan,
    December  6-10, 1971.

12.  Beer, L. P., "Natural and Unnatural Water Temperatures in Zion-
    Waukegan, Illinois Area of Southwest Lake Michigan," Proc. 14th Conf.
    Great Lakes Res. 1971, International Assoc. Great Lakes Research,
    1971, pp. 507-521.
-------
                                  122
13.  Beer, L. P., and Pipes, W. O., "A Practical Approach, Environmental
    Effects  of Condenser Water Discharge in Southwest Lake Michigan,"
    Commonwealth Edison Co., Chicago, Illinois, 1968.

14.  Beeton, A. M., "Changes in the Environmental and Biota of the Great
    Lakes," in Eutrophication:  Causes, Consequences, Correctives,
    National Academy of Science, 1969, pp. 150-187.

15.  Bersamin, S. V., "A Preliminary Study of the Nutritional Ecology and
    Food Habits of the Chubs (Leucichthys) and Their Relation to the Ecol-
    ogy of Lake Michigan," Papers of Michigan Academy of Science, Arts
    and Letters XLIII:  1958, pp. 107-118.
16.  Brauer, G., Neill, W., and Magnuson, J. J., "The Effects of a Power
    Plant on the Distribution and Abundance of Zooplankton Near the
    Plant's  Thermal Outfall," The University of Wisconsin, Water  Re-
    sources Center, February 1972.
17.  Brungs, W. A., "Chronic Effects of Constant Elevated Temperatures
    on the Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas Rafinesque)," Trans.
    American Fish. Soc., Vol. 100, No.  4, October 1971, pp. 659-664.
18.  Brungs, W. A., Literature Review of the  Effects of Residual Chlorine
    on Aquatic Life, prepared for submission for publication to Journal
    Water Pollution Control Federation, second  draft,  June 1972.

19.  Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Great Lakes  Fishery Labora-
    tory, Ann Arbor, Michigan, R. V. Cisco Cruise XII, 1971.
    Lake Michigan, November 16-December  4.

20.  Statement of O. D. Butler, Commonwealth Edison Company, to  the
    Four State Enforcement Conference  c/o Murray Stein, Environmental
    Protection Agency, concerning additional evidence for the record of
    the conference meeting of March 23-29,  1971, dated April 23, 1971.
21.  Chun, K. C., Commonwealth Edison, Letter to Draley, J. E., Argonne
    National Laboratory, August 17, 1972.
22.  Churchill, M. A., and Wojtalik,  T. A., "Effects of Heated Discharges:
    The TVA  Experience," Nuclear News, September 1969, pp.  80-86.

23.  Coker,  R.  E., "Reaction of Some Freshwater Copepods to High Tem-
    peratures, With a Note Concerning the Rate  of Development in Relation
    to Temperature," J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc.  50:  pp. 143-159, 1934.
24.  Colbaugh,  W. C., Blackwell, J. P., and Leavitt, J.  M., "Interim Report
    on Investigation of Cooling Tower Plume Behavior," Presented at the
    American Institute of Chemical Engineering 68th National Meeting,
    Cooling Tower Symposia, Houston,  Texas, February 28-March 4, 1971.
25.  Colby,  P. J., and Brooke, L. T., "Survival and Development of Lake
    Herring (Coregonus artedii) Eggs at Various Incubation Temperatures,"
    Biology of Coregonid Fishes, University  of Manitoba Press, Winnipeg,
    Canada, 1970.
-------
                                  123
26. Commonwealth Edison Company and Battelle Columbus Laboratories,
    Environmental Impact Report:  Supplemental Information to the Zion
    Environmental Report, Supplement II, December 3, 1971.

27. Commonwealth Edison Company and Battelle Columbus Laboratories,
    Environmental Impact Report:  Supplemental Information to the Zion
    Environmental Report, Supplement IV, April 13,  1972.

28. Commonwealth Edison Company, Zion Nuclear Power Station Environ-
    mental Report, May 17, 1971.

29. Consumers Power Company, Environmental Report:  Operating License
    Stage for Palisades Plant, October 9, 1970.

30. Consumers Power Company, "Supplemental Information on Environ-
    mental Impact of Palisades Plant," AEC Dkt. No.  50-255, August 18, 1971,

31. Consumers Power Company, Environmental Activities Department,
    "1970  Water Quality Studies," no date or publication number given.

32. Consumers Power Company, Environmental Activities Department,
    "1971  Water Quality Studies," no date or publication number given.
33. Consumers Power Company, Supplemental Information on the Environ-
    mental Impact of Palisades Plant, August 18, 1971.

34. Copeland, R. A., and Ayers, J.  C., "Trace  Element Distributions  in
    Water, Sediment,  Phytoplankton,  Zooplankton and Benthos of
    Lake Michigan," ERG Special Report No. 1, Environmental Research
    Group, Inc., May  1972.

35. Coutant, C. C., and Goodyear, C. P., "Thermal Effects (Biological):
    A Review of the Literature of 1971 on Wastewater and Water Pollution
    Control," Journal of Water Pollution Control, June 1972.
36. Coutant, C. C., "Effects on Organisms of Entrainment in  Cooling  Water:
    Steps Toward Predictability," Nuclear Safety, Vol. 12, No.  6, 1971,
    pp. 600-607.
37. Decker,  F.  W., "Probabilities of Cooling System Fogging," Presented
    at the  American Institute of Chemical Engineering 68th National Meet-
    ing, Cooling Tower Symposia, Houston,  Texas, February  28-March 4,
    1971.
38. DeMont, D. J., and Miller, R. W., "First Reported Incidence of Gas-
    Bubble Disease in the Heated Effluent of a  Steam Generating Station,"
    North  Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, Division of Inland
    Fisheries, October 1971.

39. Detroit Edison Company, Environmental Report for Enrico Fermi
    Atomic Power Plant Unit 2,  Construction Permit Stage, September 1971.

40. Draley, J. E.,  "The Treatment of Cooling Waters with Chlorine,"
    ANL/ES-12, February 1972.
-------
                                  124
41.  Edsall, T. A., Rottiers, D. V., and Brown, E. H., "Temperature Toler-
    ance of Bloater (Coregonus hoyi)," Journal Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 2_7:
    pp. 2047-2052, 1970.

42.  Edsall, T. A., Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Letter to
    Marshall, J., Argonne National Laboratory, October 1, 1971.

43.  Elliott, R. V., and Harkness, D. G., "A Phenornenological Model for the
    Prediction of Thermal Plumes in Large Lakes,"  Presented at the
    Fifteenth Conference for Great Lakes Research,  Madison, Wisconsin,
    April 5-7, 1972.
44.  Environmental Protection Agency, Grosse He Laboratory,
    "Lake Michigan Entrainment Studies: Big Rock Power Plant,
    November-December 1971,"  Grosse He Laboratory Working Report
    No. 1, January 1971.
45.  Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Laboratory,
    Memorandum from  Assistant for  Water Quality Criteria, NWQL, to
    Mr. Francis T. Mayo, Region V, EPA, December 20, 1971, "Water
    Quality Criteria Recommendations for Residual Chlorine in Receiving
    Waters for the Protection of Fresh Water Aquatic Life."

46.  Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Laboratory,
    "Water Quality Criteria Recommendations for Total Residual Chlorine
    in Receiving Waters for the Protection of Fresh  Water Aquatic Life,"
    not dated--issued about 1972.

47.  Environmental Systems Corporation, "Development and Demonstration
    of Low-Level Drift  Instrumentation," Environmental  Protection Agency,
    Water Pollution Research Series  161 30GNK10/71.
48.  Fairbanks, R. A., Collings,  W. S., and Sides, W.  T., An Assessment  of
    the Effects of Electrical  Power Generation  on Marine Resources in the
    Cape Cod Canal, Mass. Dept. Natural Resources, Div.  of Marine
    Fisheries, March 13, 1971,  p. 48.
49.  Federal Power Commission, Steam-Electric Plant Construction Cost
    and Annual Production Expenses; Twenty-second Annual Supplement--
    1969.

50.  Fish  and Wildlife Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior,
    "Physical and  Ecological Effects of  Waste Heat on Lake Michigan,"
    September 1970.

51. Frigo, A. A., and Frye, D. E., "Physical Measurements of Thermal
    Discharges into Lake Michigan: 1971," ANL/ES-16 (to be published).

52. Frigo, A. A., and Romberg, G. P., "Thermal-plume Dispersion Studies.
    Field Data Acquisition,"  Reactor Development Program Progress
    Report:   November  1971, ANL-7887, pp. 9.1-9.4, December 29,  1971.
-------
                                  125
53.  Frigo, A. A., "Prediction of Surface Plume Areas Associated with
    Heated Discharges into Large Lakes  - A Phenomenological Model,"
    Presented at the Fifteenth Conference of the International Association
    for Great Lakes Research, Madison,  Wisconsin, April 5-7, 1972.

54.  Carton, R., EPA, Corvallis, Biological Effects of Cooling Tower
    Blowdown, talk prepared for presentation at 71st National Mtg. Am.
    Inst. Chem. Engrs., Dallas, February 20-23,  1972.
55.  Griffin, A. E., and  Baker,  R. J., The  Break-point Process  for Free
    Residual Chlorination, J. New England Water Works Assn.,
    September 1959.

56.  Hancil, V., and Smith, J. M., Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop 10,
    pp. 515-523, 1971.

57.  Hasler, A. D., e_t atL, "Movements and Residence of Larger Great Lake
    Fishes in Thermal Plumes from Electric Power Plants," The Univer-
    sity of Wisconsin, Laboratory of Limnology (Sea Grant Progress
    Report), date unknown.

58.  Heinle, D. R., "Temperature and Zooplankton," Chesapeake Science,
    Vol. 10,  1969, pp. 186-209.
59.  Hoglund, B., and Spigarelli, S.,  "Studies of the Sinking Plume
    Phenomenon," Proceedings of Fifteenth Conference on Great Lakes
    Research, International  Association of Great  Lakes (in press).

60.  Hosier, C. L., "Wet Cooling Tower Plume Behavior," Presented at the
    American Institute of Chemical Engineering 68th National Meeting,
    Cooling Tower Symposia, Houston, Texas, February 28-March 4, 1971.

61.  Hough, J. L., et al., "Lake  Michigan Hydrology near Palisades Park,
    Michigan," 1967.

62.  Huff, F. A., Beebe, R. C.,  Jones,  D. M. A., Morgan, G. M., Jr.,  and
    Semonin, R. G., "Effect  of Cooling Tower Effluents  in Atmospheric
    Conditions in Northeastern Illinois,"  Illinois Water  Survey, Urbana,
    Illinois,  Circular 100, January  1971.

63.  Indiana, State of, Stream Pollution Control Board, In the  Matter of:
    Proposed Amended Rules SPC  4-R and SPC 7-R and Proposed New
    Rule SPC 12, August 23, 1971.
64.  Indiana & Michigan Electric Company, Supplement No.  2 to Environ-
    mental Report for Donald C. Cook Nuclear Plant, April 12, 1972.

65.  Indiana & Michigan Electric Company, "Supplement  to Environmental
    Report for Donald C. Cook  Nuclear Plant,"  November 8,  1971.

66.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., "Report to Commonwealth
    Edison Co. on Lake Michigan Thermal Studies Near Waukegan and Zion
    Stations, Project VII; Preliminary Report, Feb.-Aug.,  1970,"
    June 17, 1971.
-------
                                  126
67.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc.,  "Report to Commonwealth
    Edison Co. on Lake Michigan Thermal Studies Near Waukegan and
    Zion Stations, Project VII; First Report, Sept. 1970-Feb. 1971,"
    June 17, 1971.

68.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc.,  "Report to Commonwealth
    Edison Co. on Lake Michigan Thermal Studies Near Waukegan and
    Zion Stations, Project VII; Final Report, Mar.-June, 1971,"
    June 17, 1971.

69.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc.,  "Field Study Program of
    Lake Michigan in the Vicinity of the Waukegan and Zion  Generating
    Stations, April-December 1971," April  27, 1972.

70.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc.,  " Preoperational Thermal
    Monitoring Program of Lake Michigan near Kewaunee Nuclear Power
    Plant:  January-December 1971," April 14, 1972.
71.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc.,  "Phytoplankton Study,  Pre-
    liminary Report, March-July,  1970," IBT No. W8956, Project  III, 1971.

72.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc.,  "Intake-Discharge Experi-
    ments  at Waukegan Generating Station,  Project XI, April-
    December, 1971," May 8, 1972.
73.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc.,  "Fish Field Study for
    Lake Michigan, Project VII, Final Report March through October,  1970,"
    June 17, 1971.

74.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc.,  "Field Studies on Periphyton
    Growth near Zion and Waukegan Stations, Project V, April  1970-
    March 1971,"June  16, 1971.

75.  Jersey Central Power & Light Company, Environmental  Report for the
    Forked River Nuclear Station Unit 1, Attachment 5, January 1972.
76.  Krueger, R.  K.,  "A Report on the Study to  Determine the Effect of the
    Point  Beach Nuclear Power Plant on Whitefish and Lake Herring Eggs
    and Fry in Lake Michigan,"  Wisconsin Department of Natural Re-
    sources Report, date unknown.
77. Lamble, M. O., "Optimum Summer Environmental Conditions for
    Pontoporeia Affinis in Lake Michigan,"  Abstract of 14th Conference on
    Great  Lakes Research, International Association for Great Lakes
    Research (1971), p. 106.
78. Lantz, C. H., and Lisauskas, R. A., "Zion  Discharge Model Study:
    Zion Station Commonwealth Edison Company of Illinois," Alden Re-
    search Laboratories, Worchester Polytechnic Institute,  Holden,
    Mass., 01520,  January 1971.

79. Lauer, G.  J., Statement on Temperature Standards for Lake Michigan,
    Michigan Water Resources Commission, Lansing, Michigan,
    June 24, 1971.
-------
                                  127
80.  Neill, W.  H., and Magnuson, J. J., "Distributional Ecology and Behav-
    ioral Thermoregulation of Fish in Relation to Heated Effluent from a
    Steam-Electric Power Plant (Lake Monona, Wisconsin)," The Univer-
    sity of Wisconsin, Water Resources Center, Madison, Wisconsin,
    March 1972.

81.  Massey, A., A Survey of Chlorine  Concentrations  in the Consumers
    Power Company's Big Rock Point  Power Plant Discharge Channel,
    May 23,  1972.

82.  McCormick, J. H., Jones, B. R., and Syrett, R. F., "Temperature Re-
    quirements for Growth and Survival of Larval Ciscos  (Coregonus
    artedii)," Jour. Fish.  Res.  Bd., Canada, Vol. 20, No. 6,  1971,
    pp. 924-927.

83.  Menon, A. S., Dutka, B. J,, and Jurkovic, A. A., "Preliminary Bacte-
    riological Investigation of the Lake Ontario Thermal Bar,"  Proc. 14th
    Conf. on Great Lakes  Res.  1971, Internat. Assoc.  Great Lakes Res.,
    1971, pp.  59-68.

84.  Michigan, State of, Michigan Water Resources, Proposed Revisions to
    Interstate and Intrastate Water Quality Temperature Standards for Pro-
    tection of Fish and Aquatic Life, Public Hearing, Lansing, Michigan,
    June 24, 1971.

85.  Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Quality Control Division:
    Interim Effluent Standard for Industrial Discharges of Chlorine, issued
    Spring 1972.

86.  Michigan Department  of Natural Resources, Bureau of Water Manage-
    ment,  "Chlorinated Municipal Waste  Toxicity to Rainbow Trout and
    Fathead Minnows," EPA Grant No. 18050GZZ (abstract only), released
    June 1972.
87.  Michigan Water Resources Commission, "Report  on Water  Pollution
    Control in the Michigan Portion of the Lake Michigan Basin and Its
    Tributaries," 1968.

88.  Nebeker, A. V., "Effect of Water Temperature on Nyphal Feeding Rate,
    Emergence and Adult  Longevity of the Stonefly (Pteronarcys dorsata),"
    Jour. Kans. Entmol. Soc., Vol. 44, No. 1, 1971, pp. 21-26.

89.  Nelson, G. R.,  EPA Research Chemical Engineer  at Corvallis, Oregon,
    letter to J.  E. Draley, Argonne National Laboratory, May 23, 1972.

90.  Normandeau, D. A., "The Effects of Thermal Release on the Ecology of
    the Merrimack River,"  (in a report to Public Service Company of
    New Hampshire, pp. 199-210), Institute Res. Services, St. Auselin's
    College, New Hampshire, 1970.

91.  Northern Indiana Public Service Company, Bailly  Generating Station
    Nuclear-1 Environmental Report,  March 22, 1971.
-------
                                  128


 92.  Policastro, A. J., and Tokar, J. V., "Heated-Effluent Dispersion in
     Large Lakes:  State-of-the-Art of Analytical Modeling.  Part 1.
     Critique of Model Formulations," AN L/ES-11, January 1972.
 93.  Proceedings of the Conference on the Pollution of Lake Michigan and
     Its Tributary Basin, Third Session Reconvened, Chicago, Illinois,
     March 24-25,  1971 (3 volumes).

 94.  Proceedings of the Conference on the Pollution of Lake Michigan and
     Its Tributary Basin, Third Session Reconvened in Workshop Sessions,
     Chicago, Illinois, September  28-30-October 1-2, 1970 (5 volumes).

 95.  Proceedings of the Third Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference,
     Workshop Session, Volume 1, September 28, 1970.
 96.  Patriarchi, M. H., "Effects of Heated Discharges from Nuclear Power
     Plants on Fish Populations,ir Progress Report, July 1,  1969 to June 30,
     1970, State of  Michigan,  Dept. of Natural Resources, Proj.  No. F-28-
     R-4, 1970.
 97.  Portman, D. J., "Spray Cooling Canal Fog in Steady Wind," A Report
     for the Detroit Edison Company, Engineering  Research Department,
     May 1971.

 98.  Pott, R. J., and Threinen, G. W., "Surface Water Resources of
     Kewaunee County," Wisconsin Conservation Dept., Madison,
     Wisconsin, 1966.

 99.  Pritchard, D.  W.,  Testimony Given Before the Illinois Pollution Con-
     trol  Board Concerning the Application of Commonwealth Edison
     Company for Permits for Zion Units  1  and  2 at Zion Station, PCB  71-
     328, Waukegan, Illinois,  January 24,  1972.
100.  Rodgers, G. K., "The Thermal Bar in Lake Ontario, Spring 1965, and
     Winter, 1965-1966," Proc. 9th Conf. on Great Lakes Research, The
     University of  Michigan,  Great Lakes  Research Div. Publ. 15, 1966,
     pp. 269-374.
101.  Rodgers, G. K., "Field Investigation of the  Thermal Bar in
     Lake Ontario:  Precision Temperature Measurements," Proc. 14th
     Conf. Great Lakes Research 1971, International Association Great
     Lakes Res.  1971, pp. 618-624.

102.  Romberg, G. P., and Prepejchal, W., "Observations of Fish at Point
     Beach Nuclear Plant," in Radiological Physics Division Annual Re-
     port: Environmental Research, January through December 1971,
     ANL-7860, Part III, pp.  118-120.
103.  Romberg, G. P., and Spigarelli, S. A.,  "Acoustic Location Techniques
     to Study  the Distribution of Fish in the Vicinity of a Thermal Plume,"
     in Radiological Physics  Division Annual Report:  Environmental Re-
     search, January through December 1971, ANL-7860, Part III,
     pp. 121-130.
-------
                                  129
104.  Raney, E. C., "Heated Discharges and Fishes in Lake Michigan in the
     Vicinity of the Donald C. Cook Nuclear Plant," presented to Michigan
     Water Resources Commission, Lansing, Michigan, June 24, 1971.

105.  Scarpace, F. L., and Green, T., "The Use of a Thermal Line Scanner
     in the Remote Sensing of Water Pollution," The University of
     Wisconsin Sea Grant Program, Technical Report No.  13, 1972.

106.  Scarpace, F. L., and Green, T., "On Rapid Changes and Periodic
     Temperature Structure in  Thermal  Plumes," The University of
     Wisconsin, Institute for Environmental Studies, Remote Sensing
     Program, Report No.  17, May 1972.

107.  Schelske, C. L., and Stoermer, E. F., "Phosphorus, Silica,and Eutro-
     phication of Lake  Michigan," Symposium Nutrients and Eutrophication,
     The Limiting Nutrient Controversy.  Amer. Soc.  Limnol. Oceanog.,
     Spec. Symp.  No. 1, Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas.
108.  Shirazi, M.  A., and Davis, L. R., "Workbook of Thermal Plume Pre-
     diction, Volume 1, Submerged Discharge,"  National Environmental
     Research Center,  Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis,
     Oregon, April 1972 (Preliminary).
109.  Spigarelli, S. A., and Prepejchal, W., "The Effects of a Thermal Dis-
     charge on the Inshore Biological Communities of Lake Michigan," in
     Radiological Physics Division Annual Report:  Environmental Re-
     search, January through December  1971, ANL-7860, Part III,
     pp. 109-117.
110.  Stewart, S. R., Brown, W.  L., and Polcyn, F.  C.,  "Multi-spectral
     Survey of Power Plant Thermal Effluents  in Lake Michigan," Willow
     Run Laboratories, The University of Michigan, April  1972.
111.  Stoermer, E. F., "Near-Shore Phytoplanktori Populations in the
     Grand Haven, Michigan Vicinity During Thermal  Bar  Conditions,"
     Proceedings Eleventh Conf. on Great Lakes Research, 1968,
     pp. 137-150.
112.  Stoermer, E. F., and Kopczynska, "Phytoplankton Populations in the
     Extreme Southern Basin of Lake Michigan, 1962-63,"  Proc. 10th Conf.
     Great Lakes Res.  1967, Intl. Assoc.  Great Lakes, 1967, pp.  88-106.

113.  Stockham, J., "Cooling Tower Study," IIT  Research Institute, Chicago,
     Illinois, Final Report No.  C 6187-3,  January  1971.
114.  Tokar, J. V., "Thermal Plumes in Lakes:  Compilations of Field
     Experience," ANL/ES-3, August 1971.

115.  Toledo Edison Company, Supplement to Environmental Report, Davis-
     Besse Nuclear Power Station, Volume 2, September 3, 1971.
116.  Truchan, J. G.,  "Biological Survey of Lake Michigan in the Vicinity  of
     the Consumers Power Company's Campbell Plants Thermal Discharge,"
     Michigan Department of Natural Resources, January 22, 1971.
-------
                                  130
117.  Truchan, J., "Fish Mortality at the Consumers Power  Go's. Campbell
     Plant,"  Michigan Water Resources Commission Memorandum,
     February 17, 1971.
118.  Truchan, J., and Basch, R., A Survey of Chlorine Concentrations in
     the Weadock Power Plant Discharge  Channel, October  21, 1971.

119.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, "Final Environmental Statement
     Related to Operation of the Palisades Nuclear Generating Plant,"
     June 1972.

120.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Draft Environmental Statement  for
     the Bailly Generating Station Nuclear-1, July 1972.

121.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Final Environmental Statement
     Related to Operation of Point Beach Nuclear Plant Units 1 and 2,
     May 1972.

122.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Draft Environmental Statement  for
     the Zion Nuclear Power Station Units 1  and 2, June 1972.
123.  Weiler, R. R.,  and Coker, R., "Some Chemical Effects of the Thermal
     Bar in Lake Ontario," Abst. of  14th Conf.  on Great Lakes Res. 1971,
     Internat. Assoc.  Great Lakes Res.,  1971, pp.  208-209.

124.  Westinghouse Electric Company, Environmental Systems  Department,
     "Performance  and Environmental Aspects of Cooling Towers," a
     report to:  Wisconsin Public Service Company, August 9,  1971.

125.  Wisconsin,  State of, Department of Natural Resources, Hearing to
     Consider Revising Thermal Standards for Lake Michigan to Conform
     with the Recommendations of the Lake Michigan Enforcement Confer-
     ence, Madison, Wisconsin, August 13 and  17, 1971.

126.  Wisconsin Electric Power Co. and Wisconsin-Michigan Power Co.,
     "Environmental Studies  at the Point  Beach Nuclear Power Plant,"
     PBR#1, March 1970.
127.  Wisconsin Electric Power Co. and Wisconsin-Michigan Power Co.,
     "Environmental Studies  at the Point  Beach Nuclear Power Plant,"
     PBR#2, April  1971.

128.  Wisconsin Electric Power Co. and Wisconsin-Michigan Power Co.,
     "Environmental Studies at the Point  Beach Nuclear Power Plant,"
     PBR#3, April  1972.

129-  Wisconsin Electric Power Company  and Wisconsin-Michigan Power
     Company, Supplement to Applicants' Environmental Report to the
     Point Beach Nuclear Plant Unit 2, Operating License Stage,
     November 1971.

130.  Wisconsin Public Service Corporation Environmental  Report for the
     Kewaunee Nuclear Power Plant, Operating License Stage, January 1971
     and Revised November 1971.
-------
                                  131
131.  Wisconsin Public Service Corp., "Environmental Studies at the
     Kewaunee Nuclear Power Plant," June 1970.
132.  Wisconsin Public Service Corp., "Environmental Studies at the
     Kewaunee Nuclear Power Plant," July 1971.
133.  Wisconsin Public Service Corp., "Environmental Studies at the
     Kewaunee Nuclear Power Plant," May 1972.

134.  Woodson, R. D., "Cooling Towers for Large Steam-Electric Gener-
     ating Units,"  pp. 351-380 in Eisenbud, M., and Gleason, G., Eds.,
     Electric Power and Thermal Discharges, Gordon and Breach Publ.,
     New York, 1970.

135.  Wuerthele, M., and Truchan, J., A Continuous Flow Bioassay on the
     Intermittent Discharges  of Chlorine at the Consumers Power Com-
     pany's J.  C. Weadock Power Plant, Essexville, Michigan, December 6-
     10, 1971.

136.  Youngdahl, R. C., Consumers Power Company, correspondence with
     Rogers, L. R., U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, concerning Palisades
     system modification costs, letter dated February 8,  1972.
137.  Marcy, B. C., Jr., "Survival of Young Fish in the Discharge Canal of
     a Nuclear Power Plant," Jour. Fisheries Res. Board of Canada,
     Vol. 28, No. 7, July 1971, pp.  1057-1060.
-------
                                       	513





 1                            D. Bryson



 2   Michigan and reports from the open literature were cited if



 3   they were judged to be particularly relevant and as time



 ^   permitted.



 5             The report discusses the physical and biological



 6   aspects of thermal discharges.  A section on "Ambient Lake



 7   Conditions" describes preoperational field studies, thermal



     bar measurements, and general lake wide  phenomena that are



 9   pertinent to powerplant siting considerations.  A section on



10   "Studies Related to Thermal Plumes" describes field measure-



11   ments of the physical and biological characteristics of thermal



12   discharges, summarizes mathematical modeling techniques, and



13   describes some laboratory tests on the biological effects of



14   heated water.  An "Intake and Discharge Effects" section



15   summarizes operational data from most of the powerplants on



     Lake Michigan, describes the intake and outfall designs of



17   the five major nuclear facilities sited on the lake, and dis-



     cusses biological effects observed at various powerplants.



19             The report also discusses alternative cooling



     systems.  A section on "Cooling Towers, Ponds and  Spray



     Canals"  describes several analyses of closed-cycle cooling



22   systems  as reported in some of the Environmental Impact



 ^   Statements and  summarizes  available data on  estimated  costs



     of original installations  and backfitting.   Chemical dis-


25
     charges  from both fossil-fired and nuclear powerplants are
-------
                                                              514





 1                            D. Bryson



 2   tabulated in the section on "Chemical Inputs."  This section



 3   also describes chemicals used in condensers, process water



 4   systems, cooling towers and ponds, and reports on recent



 5   experiments to study the biological effects of various con-



 6   centrations of these chemicals.



 7             The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, in the



 8   process of establishing nationwide  effluent guidelines for



 9   the Refuse Act Permit Program, has reviewed large quantities



10   of data on the effects of cooling water discharges on the



11   aquatic environment.  From the beginning, it has been recog-



12   nized that the effects of cooling water discharges are



13   dependent on many factors in addition to that of temperature



14   increase.  These factors include such variables as intake



15   and outfall, location and design, quality of the cooling



16   water supply and receiving waters, biological importance of



17   the affected area, chemical discharges associated with



1&   plant operation, etc.



19             It became obvious that a single effluent require-



20   ment for the entire Nation was neither feasible nor desir-



21   able*  For this reason, EPA has established the policy that


op
     all discharges to the aquatic environment involving waste


oo
     heat must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, taking into



2/f   account that some discharges must be evaluated collectively


25
     due to their combined impact on the receiving water.
-------
                                                                515




                              D.  Bryson



               In my statement are copies of EPA's thermal  policy



     as stated by Mr, John Quarles,  Assistant Administrator for



     Enforcement and General Counsel,  dated May 12,  1972.   Also



 5   attached is a speech by Mr.  Quarles that relates to this



 6   subject.



 7             To determine the impact of this policy on thermal



     discharges to Lake Michigan,  one  must conduct a thorough



 9   assessment of each major heat source individually and



10   collectively due to any combined  impacts that may occur.



11             In summary, I want to state that the position of



12   the Environmental Protection Agency on the question before



13   the conference today remains unchanged from that as issued



14   by Mr. Ruckelshaus in May of last year.  We are here today



15   to listen to any new testimony that is pertinent to the issue,



16   but I repeat again:  The position of the U.S. Environmental



17   Protection Agency remains as stated in the Enforcement



     Conference recommendations.



19             In brief summary, that  position is:  that  certain



20   controls on items such as mixing  zones, intake velocities,



21   and so on, need to be placed on appropriate powerplants.



22   in addition, there should be a nonproliferation of new



23   powerplants on Lake Michigan,  in addition to general  con-



     trols, and limitations should be placed on large volume



  '   heated water discharges by requiring closed-cycle cooling
-------
   	516





 1                            D. Bryson



 2,   systems using cooling towers or alternative cooling systems



 3   on all new powerplants.



 4             That concludes my statement,  Mr. Chairman.



 5             MR. MAYO:  Are there any questions or comments from



 6   the conferees?



 7             MR. McDONALD:  Mr. Bryson,  in your summary of the



 8   Argonne report,  you did not indicate whether you felt there



 9   was substantial  new technical information either supporting



10   closed-cycle cooling systems or not supporting those systems.



11   Would you comment on the significance of this report in



12   those terms?



13             MR. BRYSON:  The information contained in the



14   Argonne report,  by itself, does not present any new evidence



15   that would support the requirement for closed-cycle cooling



16   systems, when you consider the entire lakewide   basin.  The



17   information contained in the report deals with individual



1°   powerplants,with studies around those individual powerplants.



•*-9             While  it does include indications of damage, I



20   would have to say that it does not show that there is an



21   overwhelming case of damage from these powerplants on an


22 '
     individual plant-by-plant basis.


23
               MR. MAYO:  Any other questions, gentlemen?



24             MR. PURDY:  Yes.



25             MR. MAYO:  Mr. Purdy.
-------
     	517



                              D. Bryson


               MR. PURDY:  Mr. Bryson,  with,  say,  respect to the


     thermal question as it relates to an enforcement conference


     proceeding, in this session to date we have talked about


     many other problems including the, say,  nutrient problem,


     and the conference, in that case, made a finding that the


     nutrient problem, as it existed, was such that there was, in


     fact, an injury to the health  or welfare of  persons in a State
                                                                  i

     other than that in which the discharge originated and, as such,

10   became a matter under the  enforcement conference proceedings.


11             Now, with respect to the thermal question, has


12   this conference made a finding that the  existing thermal dis-


13   charges are  causing an injury in Lake Michigan that affect


14   the health and welfare of  persons in another State?


15             MR. McDONALD:  I think maybe I can answer that


16   question, Mr. Purdy.


17             You are right  in saying that anything within  the


     enforcement  conference that would be within the Jurisdiction


19   has to affect the health or welfare of citizens of  another


20   State if  it  is an interstate action, which this is.


21              I  think the conferees,  in their  wisdom, last


22   time, and in their  recommendations to the  Administrator,


     indicated that they felt that  there was  sufficient  concern


     about the health and welfare of citizens in  the  States


     other than those in which  the dischargers  were located, to
-------
 1                            D. Bryson
 2   include this as a specific conference recommendation.
 3             However, apart from that specific conference
 4   recommendation, there are other opportunities that the
 5   Federal Government has to support the recommendation, and
 6   those are?
 7             1.  Under the Refuse Act Permit Program, each of
 B   the  dischargers, or proposed future dischargers, is and
 9   will be required to obtain a discharge permit.  We will have
10   an opportunity at that time to assess whether there is com-
11   pliance with the conference recommendation, as a Federal
12   matter.
13             2.  Also, we have the opportunity with the Atomic
14   Energy Commission hearings to comment and intervene on
15   specific hearings to the extent that this Agency feels such
16   an intervention should take place.
17             So I think perhaps since the last session of the
13   conference, when the permit program was in its real infancy
19   — that is the Refuse Act Permit Program — it is starting
20   to mature now — there is pending legislation that very
21   likely may see passage in the immediate future.  I think
22   there are other opportunities above and beyond the enforce-
23   ment conference — or the Federal Government, speaking
2^   strictly as one entity — to tackle this question, if the
2'   question of health and welfare, under the conference
-------
   	519
                                                        —




 1                            D. Bryson



 2   jurisdiction became a central point.



 3             MR. PURDI:  Well, really, I would like to attempt



 4   to place in perspective the action, as I feel the conferees



 5   meant it to be at the last conference, and that this con-



 6   ference has been used as a mechanism by which we, the States



 7   that border on Lake Michigan and the Federal Government,



 8   could arrive at some sort of coordinated position, from



 9   the matter of adopting water quality standards for thermal



10   discharges into Lake Michigan.  And, as I have interpreted



11   some of the information that I have read, it appears that



12   there is a feeling by some that at least some of the con-



13   ferees, including me, did not carry through with our commit-



14   ment to this enforcement conference.



15             At the last session, as it relates to the



16   recommendations of this conference session, yes, I did



17   agree that this should be the conferees' recommendations to



1°   the Administrator, that these recommendations should be sent



^•9   to the various States for their adoption under State law as



20   water quality standards, and that the States initiate pro-



21   cesses under their State laws to do so.  In our  case and in


Op
  *  I the other cases, the various States have done that.  I  did



  ^   not commit the State of Michigan to adopting those as water



  ^   quality  standards at the last session of this conference.


2S
  ^   I could  not  do that.
-------
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
 7
 a
 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
                                                                520
                         D. Bryson
          MR. McDONALD:  Well, I think you made that clear
at the last conference and other conferences you have been
in, that you are the Executive Director of the Commission
and you go back to your Commission to present a recommenda-
tion, and there has been, of course, a substantial difference
in the recommendation that the conference adopted versus
the proposed water quality standards that you have sent the
Federal Government.
          MR. PURDY:  Yes.
          MR. McDONALD:  We recognize that.
          MR. MAYO:  Are there any other comments, gentlemen?
          Thank you, Mr. Bryson.
          Mr. Bryson will announce the following presenta-
tions that will be made as part of the Federal portion this
morning,
          MR. BRYSON:  In preparation for the reconvened
session of the conference, the Environmental Protection
Agency wanted to get a feeling for the serious dischargers
around the lake as to how they are in compliance with the
conference recommendation; specifically, the conference
recommendation dealing with the 3° limit at the 1,000 foot
zone around a discharge point.
          We had our National Field Investigation,s Center
perform a flyover on Lake Michigan for us using
-------
                                                              521





                              A. Dybdahl




 2   infrared film to photograph each of the dischargers around



 3   the lake*



               At this point, I would like to call upon Mr,



 5   Arthur Dybdahl from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency



 6   to present a summary of his findings on that flyover,



 7             Mr. Dybdahl




 $



 9                 STATEMENT OF ARTHUR W. DYBDAHL,




10              NATIONAL FIELD INVESTIGATIONS CENTER,



11                     OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT,



12             U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY,



13                       DENVER, COLORADO




14



15             MR. DYBDAHL:  Mr. Chairman, conferees and ladies



16   and gentlemen.  My name is Art Dybdahl.  I am with the



17   National Field Investigations Center —



               MR. MAYO:  Excuse me.



19             MR. DYBDAHL:  Yes, sir.



20             MR, MAYO:  You might adjust that microphone a



21   little bit for your height.  That is better.



22             Please proceed,




               MR. DYBDAHL:  Again, my name is Art Dybdahl.  I



     aju with the National Field Investigations Center, which is




     a part of the Office of Enforcement, U.S. Environmental
-------
                                                               522
 1                          A, Dybdahl
 2   Protection Agency.
 3             I was requested by the Federal conferees to make
 4   a brief statement upon my qualifications in regard to this
 5   particular effort and any future efforts,
 6             By education, I am a physicist, a graduate of the
 7   University of Nebraska.  I have spent the past 6 and a half
 3   years dealing with specific topics within the field of
 9   aerial reconnaissance.  I spent nearly 2 years out of school
10   with the General Electric Company in radar research and
11   development, and I spent 4 years with the McDonnell-Douglas
12   Corporation in the design and development of reconnaissance
13   equipment on the U.S. versions and British versions of the
14   Phantom aircraft.
15             Okay.  Now that I have told you what I do, I would
16   also like to tell you that I make errors, and call to your
17   attention my report of which Mr. Bryson said I would present
1&   only a summary.
19             The report will be submitted to the record, as if
20   read, in its entirety, with one correction.  That correction
21   is this:  I had identified a thermal source within Muskegon
22   Lake as the B. C. Cobb powerplant.  We discovered, with the
2^   help of the S and A people within Region V of EPA that that
2/f   is not the B. C. Cobb powerplant; instead it is the Warren
2-*   Paper Company.
-------
                                            	523

 1                            A.  Dybdahl
 2             So, I request,  at  this time,  Mr.  Chairman,  the
 3   record be held open for 7 days so that  I may make that
 4   correction and submit a formal report.
 5             MR. MAYO:  What page on the report does the cor-
 6   rection fall on?
 7             Is that Figure 6 on page 13?
               MR. DYBDAHL:  That is one of  them, yes, sir
 9             It would be page 11, the title; page 13 which is
10   Figure 6; and page 14, which is Figure  7; and in the table
11   within the summary.
12             This particular mission was flown last Thursday
13   afternoon, a week ago today.  We obtained the imagery late
     Friday afternoon and we had to have the report prepared for
15   this conference by Monday of this week.  Due to this
     urgency, the error was attributed to that, through misiden-
17   tification of that particular company.
               At this time, I would like to present the summary
     from this report, and a brief statement on how the particular
20   imagery was  recorded.
               (Mr. Dybdahlfs revised report follows in its
22   entirety.)
23
24
25
-------
      ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

           OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT
           REMOTE SENSING STUDY

                    OF

            THERMAL DISCHARGES

                    TO

              LAKE MICHIGAN



WISCONSIN - ILLINOIS - INDIANA - MICHIGAN
   National  Field Investigations Center
             Denver, Colorado
                   and
                 Region V
             Chicago, Illinois

              September 1972
-------
     A summary of the information contained in



this report was presented at the Fourth Session



of the Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference on



September 21, 1972.
-------
                        TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter                                                            Page

          TABLE OF CONTENTS	      i

          LIST OF FIGURES	    iff

    I      SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	      1

   II      INTRODUCTION 	      4

  III      RESULTS OF THERMAL DATA ANALYSIS  	      7

          Wisconsin Electric Power Company  -  Oak Creek
               Power Station	      7

          Wisconsin Electric Power Company  -  Lakeside
               Power Station	      8

          Wisconsin Electric Power Company  -  Port Washington
               Power Station	      8

          Wisconsin Electric Power Company  -  Edgewater
               Power Station	      9

          Wisconsin Electric Power Company  -  Point  Beach
               Power Station	      9

          Fox River Wisconsin (Lake Winnebago to Green  Bay).  ...     10

          Michigan Consumers Power Company  -  B.  C.  Cobb
               Power Station	     10

          Muskegon Lake, Michigan (western  area)  	     10

          Michigan Consumers Power Company  -  J.  H.  Campbell
               Power Station	     12

          Michigan Consumers Power Company  -  Palisades
               Power Station	     12

          Northern Indiana Public Service - Michigan City
               Power Station	'.	     13

          Northern Indiana Public Service - BaMly  Power
               Station	     13

          Northern Indiana Public Service - Mitchell
               Power Plant	     ]k
-------
                   TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Chapter                                                             Page

          Industrial  Discharges in the Vicinity of the
               Indiana-Illinois State Line 	     15

          Commonwealth Edison Company - Stateline
               Power Station	     15

          Commonwealth Edison Company - Uaukegan
               Power Station	     16
                                ii
-------
                         LIST OF FIGURES

                                                             Following
Number                                                         Page

   1       WEPC OAK CREEK POWER STATION 	       7

   2      TEMPERATURE PROFILE ABOUT PORT  WASHINGTON
               POWER PLANT	       8

   3      WEPC EDGEWATER POWER STATION 	       9

   4      WEPC POINT BEACH POWER STATION  	       9

   5      THERMAL DISCHARGE INTO FOX RIVER 	      10

   6      MUSKEGON LAKE INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGE  	      10

   7      THERMAL PLUME, MUSKEGON LAKE INTO LAKE
               MICHIGAN	      10

   8      INDUSTRIAL THERMAL DISCHARGE 	      11

   9      MCPC CAMPBELL POWER STATION	      12

  10      NIPS MICHIGAN CITY POWER PLANT	      13

  11       NIPS BAILLY POWER STATION	      13

  12      INDUSTRIAL THERMAL DISCHARGE 	      13

  13       INDUSTRIAL THERMAL DISCHARGE 	      14

  14       NIPS MITCHELL POWER STATION	      15

  15       INDUSTRIAL THERMAL DISCHARGE	      15

  16       INDUSTRIAL THERMAL DISCHARGE 	      15

  17       INDIANA-ILLINOIS SHORE MAP 	      15

  18       CEC STATELINE POWER STATION	      16

  19       CEC WAUKEGAN POWER STATION 	      16
                               iii
-------
                   I.  SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS


     An aerial reconnaissance study was conducted along pre-designated

segments of the shoreline of Lake Michigan on September 14, 1972.  The

purpose of this remote sensing study was to document the extent of

thermal discharges from the major electric power plants over the area

extending from Muskegon, Michigan, to Twin Creeks, Wisconsin.   A total

of ten power stations were in operation at the time of flight  while

three others were not in operation.

     At the Third Session of the Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference,

Recommendation No. 1  was adopted by the Conferees representing Indiana,

Michigan, Wisconsin,  and the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency which

stated that:

          "Applicable to all waste heat discharges except
          as noted above:'*) At any time, and at a maximum
          distance of 1,000 feet from a fixed point adjacent
          to the discharge, (agreed upon by the State and
          Federal regulatory agencies), the receiving water
          temperature shall not be more than 3°F above the
          existing natural temperature nor shall the maximum
          temperature exceed those listed below whichever  is
          lower."

The maximum "surface to three-foot depth" temperature recommended for

September is 80°F.  Recommendation No. 1 was interpreted in this report

to include all power plants discharging directly to Lake Michigan or

within three miles of the shoreline.

     Thermal data obtained at a distance of 1,000 feet from the outfall,

for each of the ten power stations which were in operation on September 1
^Municipal waste and water treatment plants, and vessels.
-------
1972 are summarized in the following table:


                                     Surface Temperature Increase Over
                                     Lake Background at 1,000 Feet From
Power Plant                          	Discharge	

Oak Creek                               11.5°F (7.4°F at 2,000 feet)

Port Washington                         Violation not ascertained

Edgewater                               5.5°F (4°F at 2,000 feet)

Point Beach                             5-5°F

J. H. Campbell                          12°F (6°F at 2,000 feet)

Michigan City                           7°F (7°F at 2,000  feet)

Bailly                                  10.5°F (5°F at 2,000 feet)

Mitchell                                k°F

Stateline                               3.5°F

Waukegan                                6.58F (4°F at 2,000 feet)


Nine of the above plants were violating the recommended 3°F maximum

temperature increase at the distance of 1,000 feet.  In addition, six of

the power plants were also violating this permitted 3°F increase  even at

a distance of 2,000 feet from the plant discharge.   None of the discharges

caused the surface temperature of the receiving water, at  the 1,000-feet

point, to exceed the maximum allowable surface temperature limit  for

September of 80°F.

     Furthermore, Recommendation No. 3, adopted at the Third Session  of

the Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference, stated that:

          "Discharge shall be such that geographic areas
          affected by thermal plumes do not overlap or
          intersect.  Plumes shall not affect fish spawn-
          ing and nursery areas nor touch the lake bottom."
-------
In the vicinity of the Indiana-Illinois state line, eight thermal  dis-



charges were recorded, one of which was the Commonwealth Edison Stateline



Power Plant.  The discharge temperature levels from each of the other



unidentified waste sources were considerably higher than that of the



Commonwealth Edison Stateline Plant.  It was observed that the thermal



plumes from these various waste sources were overlapping in most cases,



which is in violation of Recommendation No. 3 as stated above.



     From the above data, it must be concluded that the recommendations




of the Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference are not being met by many



sources of thermal and industrial discharges within the Conference area.
-------
                        II.  INTRODUCTION






     An aerial remote sensing study of the thermal discharges to Lake



Michigan was conducted on \b September 1972 between the hours of 1300-



1500 CDT.  This effort was requested by the Enforcement Division, Region



V, EPA.  The study area included waters affected by discharges from the



following electric power generating facilities/areas of interest:



     ..Wisconsin Electric Power Company - Oak Creek Power Station.



     ..WEPC - Lakeside Power Station.



     ..WEPC - Port Washington Power Station.



     ..WEPC - Edgewater Power Station.



     ..WEPC - Point Beach Power Station.



     ..Fox River, Wisconsin (Lake Wlnnebago to Green Bay).



     ..Michigan Consumers Power Company - B. C. Cobb Power Station.




     ..Muskegon Lake, Michigan (Western Area).



     ..Michigan Consumers Power Company - J. H. Campbell Power Station.



     ..Michigan Consumers Power Company - Palisades Power Station.



     ..Northern Indiana Public Service -  Michigan City Power Station.



     ..Northern Indiana Public Service -  Bailly Power Station.



     ..Northern Indiana Public Service -  Mitchell Power Station.



     ..Commonwealth Edison - State Power  Station.



     ..Commonwealth Edison - Waukegan Power Station.



The location of each power station is shown on the map which appears at




the back of this report.



     The thermal  data were recorded by an infrared line scanner (IRLS) on



board a USAF RF-^C (Phantom)  aircraft. Two such aircraft were utilized
-------
during this study.  The temperature resolution of  this  scanner  is  0.1°



Centigrade.



     The IRLS will record only surface temperatures  in  water.   Water is



opaque to this region of the intermediate infrared band.   The maximum



depth penetration in either fresh or salt water is 0.01  cm.  Therefore,



a submerged thermal  discharge can be detected from an aircraft  with an



infrared line scanner only if all or part of the warm wastewater reaches



the surface of the receiving body of water.



     The thermal data were recorded on 5"inch film in the form  of  a



thermal map.  At the time of flight, ground  truth, in the form  of  surface



water temperatures,  was obtained for each power station location.   The




cooling water inlet  and discharge temperatures, and in  most  cases  back-




ground water surface temperatures of Lake Michigan,  were obtained  and



provided by EPA, Region V.  If the background surface temperatures were




not obtained by ground measurements, then the background temperature was



extrapolated from the film by a process explained  in Section I I I of this



report.  These temperature values served as  an absolute reference for the



calibration, and subsequent analysis of the  airborne thermal data, expeci-



ally for the surface waters 1,000 feet distant from the respective points



of thermal discharges.  The accuracy placed  upon these  temperature values,



as given in this report,  is ±l°Fahrenheit.  Once the calibration described



above has been affected, this accuracy becomes a relative number which  is



not dependent upon or a function of any particular temperature  value within




the established temperature limits.  This accuracy does not  include the



respective accuracies of the terrestrial instrumentation used  by the ground



truth personnel to obtain the Lake Michigan  surface water, inlet and
-------
discharge temperatures.  These values would, to a good approximation, add



to the ±1°F given above to form a total accuracy for a given temperature



value presented.



     The wind velocity, at all locations within the flight regime was



5 to 15 knots from the north as determined by the ground truth personnel.



The respective power station discharge flow rates at the time of flight,



were also provided by ground truth personnel.
-------
              III.  RESULTS OF THERMAL DATA ANALYSIS






     All data interpretations and analyses were carried out on the



original negative from the infrared line scanner.   Results of the thermal



analyses for each respective power station discharge are presented as



fo11ows:



A.  Wisconsin Electric Power Company - Oak Creek Power Station



    1.  The inlet water temperature was 62°F as provided by ground truth.



    2.  The discharged water temperature at the exit was 76°F, also



        provided by ground truth.



    3.  The thermal plume is shown in Figure 1.



    4.  A thermal transect was optically made along a line approximately



        500 feet from and parallel to the shore within the main body of



        the plume.  The temperature vs distance from discharge along the



        transect is given in the table below:



                                                 Temperature
Distance °F
Discharge Exit
815 feet
1,000 feet
2,100 feet
3,225 feet
4,070 feet
5,415 feet
6,885 feet
8,515 feet
9,795 feet
76
76
73.5
69.4
67
69.5
66.6
65-5
63.0
62.5
-------

                          Jl*  »• tft * _
CREEK POWER STATION

-------
                                                                      8






    5-   The overall  length of  the plume  was  9,900  feet  with  respect  to



        the discharge.



    6.   The maximum width of the plume was  1,220 feet at  a point  4,5^0



        feet from the discharge.



    7.   The discharge flow rate at the time  of  flight was 858,000 gallons



        per minute (gpm).




B.   Wisconsin Electric Power Company ~ Lakeside Power Station



    1.   This plant was not discharging at the time of flight.



C.   Wisconsin Electric Power Company - Port  Washington  Power Station



    1.   The temperature of the Inlet water  from Lake Michigan  was 60°F.



    2.   No pronounced thermal  plume was  detected  in this  area.  The  shore-



        line in the vicinity of the power station, is shown  in Figure 2.



        The power station is located adjacent to  the rectangular  projec-



        tions (from the shoreline) on the southern side.  Two-dimensional



        scan was made on the IR film within  this  area at  the points  shown



        in Figure 2.  Ground truth reported  that  the plant's discharge



        water temperature was  6?°F on 1^ September 1972,  1300-T»00 CDT



        local.   The highest surface water temperature  in  this  area was



        located approximately  0.5 statute miles south  (left) of the  rec-



        tangular area.  Its value was 66°F.   The  thermal  plume may have



        been dispersed significantly before  reaching the  water's  surface,




        or otherwise, the station may have ceased  discharging, prior to



        the time of flight.  This would  explain the temperature variation



        over the 2.5 square mile area.
-------
o
   o
   SO
        sO
        SO
    O  -"
        o
        LA
        so
           o
           LA

      O   —'
           sO
                                            CM
LU
a:
o.
ro

0)
._
E

-------
    3.   In the  literature  published by  the Argonne National Laboratory,



        the power  station  discharge position  is  located at the point



        indicated  in  the figure.




D.   Wisconsin Electric Power  Company  -  Edgewater Power Station



    1.   No ground  truth was provided  for  this power  station.




    2.   The thermal  plume  is  shown  in Figure  3.



    3.   The plume  is  4,070 feet  long  and  its  maximum width from  shore  is




        1 ,030 feet.



    4.   If the ambient background water temperature  were  60°F,  then  the



        optical  analysis shows  that  the temperature  at the 1,000-foot




        mark, from the discharge point  as shown  in  Figure 3>  would  have



        been 65-5°F.   The  warmest area, also  shown  in Figure  3,  would  be



        68.5°F.   The temperature at  2,000 feet from  the outfall  within



        the plume would be 64°F and  that  from 3,800  feet  would  be 6l°F.



E.   Wisconsin Electric Power  Company  -  Point  Beach  Power  Station



    1.   The inlet  for this power station  is 2,000 feet from shore in



        Lake Michigan and  is  submerged.  The  inlet water  temperature was



        52°F at  the time of flight.



    2.   The thermal  plume  is  shown  in Figure  k.



    3.   Only the southernmost discharge location was being used at  the



        time of  flight.



    4.   The temperature of the heated water at the  discharge  was 68°F  as



        provided by ground truth.




    5.   The background surface water temperature, in  this  area of Lake



        Michigan,  was approximately  6l°F. This  value was achieved  by
-------
        -
ER STATION
-------
R STATION
-------
                                                                     10
        temperature calibration curve extrapolation based upon the data



        (film densities vs ground truth temperatures) recorded in the



        vicinity of the other power station located along the Wisconsin



        shore of Lake Michigan.



    6.  The temperature, within the plume as shown in Figure 4, of the



        surface water 1,000 feet from the discharge point was 66.5°F




        and at 2,800 feet was 62.8°F.




    7.  The discharge flow rate was given as 391,000 gpm.



F.  Fox River Wisconsin (Lake Winnebago to Green Bay)



    1.  Only one thermal discharge was detected in the Fox River.  Its



        location is shown in Figure 5.  This thermal plume did not originate



        from the WPSC Pull 1am Power Station which is located near the mouth




        of the river on the northern bank.



    2.  The temperature of the surface water in the canal, shown in



        Figure 5, is estimated to be 71°F and the river water to be 60°F.



        This is achieved from the data given in the vicinity of power



        station located on the western shore of Upper Lake Michigan.



    3.  No ground truth was provided in this area.



G.  Michigan Consumers Power Company - B. C. Cobb Power Station



    1.  The B.  C. Cobb power station was not covered during this mission.



H.  Muskegon Laj
-------
-------
I
-------
                LAKE
              MICH!?AN
USKEGON LAKE
ICHIGAN
-------
                                                                 11






2.  The presence of two thermal  plumes was detected on  the lake's



    southern shore as shown in Figure 6.   A magnified scale of these



    plumes is presented in Figure 8.   No  ground truth was provided



    for this area.



3-  The thermal  map of the outflow of the Muskegon Lake waters into



    Lake Michigan is also shown  in Figure 7.  There was a definite



    thermal  plume as shown in the far right side of this figure.



    This thermal  plume extended  southward for a considerable distance.




    By the temperature calibration curve  extrapolation  technique



    discussed in previous sections, the ambient (background) water



    surface temperature of Lake  Michigan  was determined to be approxi-



    mately 6l°F at the time of flight. This temperature value is based



    upon an optical correlation of the film densities  in this location



    with known temperatures/film densities for other power station



    locations within the upper Lake Michigan vicinity.   The surface



    temperatures are provided below:



           Point Number         Surface Temperature in  °F



                1                           73



                2                           70.5



                3                           72



    Point 1  is 300 feet from the ends of  the parallel breakwaters.



    Points 2 and 3, respectively, are 300 feet and 1,100 feet from



    the ends of the converging geometrical breakwater pilings.



    Points 1, 2,  and 3 are shown in Figure 7-
-------
-------
                                                                     12
I.   Michigan Consumers Power Company - J.  H.  Campbell  Power Station



    1.  The temperature of the inlet water was 65°F.   This  temperature




        was obtained, as a part of the ground truth,  from the canal  labeled



        "intake water" in Figure 9 which is a thermal  map of this  area.




    2.  This plant was discharging at two  locations  in the small  channel




        labeled "thermal discharge" in Figure 9.   Ground truth information




        provided that the southernmost location was  discharging water




        whose temperature was 708F.  The northern location discharge water



        temperature was 79°F.  The airborne data  show that the plumes




        were well-mixed in the channel within 265 feet from the northern




        discharge point.




    3.  The surface temperature in the channel, between the 90° bend



        and the above-mentioned mixing area, was  79°F.



    k.  The surface temperature of the channel water at its mouth was




        73°F.



    5.  The surface temperatures of the plume waters in Lake Michigan,



        1,000 feet and 2,000 feet respectively, from the mouth of the




        channel were 72°F and 66°F.  The former point is shown in Figure  9.



    6.  The surface temperature of the background receiving waters in



        Lake Michigan was 60°F.  This temperature value was obtained by



        temperature calibration curve extrapolation  since no ground truth



        was provided in this area.




J.   Michigan Consumers Power Company - Palisades  Power Station




    1.  This power station was not in operation at the time of flight.
-------
ORIGINAL SCALE 1-
-------
                                                                     13






K.  Northern Indiana Public Service - Michigan City Power Station



    I.  The inlet water temperature was 67°F which was provided by



        ground truth.




    2.  The discharge water temperature was 77°F as provided by ground



        truth.



    3.  The location of the power station and the thermal plumes are




        shown in Figure 10.



    4.  Within the thermal  plume, the following temperatures are provided:




        Distance from Discharge (ft)        Surface Temperature (°F)




                   500                                 75-5




                 1,000                                 7^



                 2,000                                 Ik




                 2,500                                 73



    5.  Traces  of the thermal  plume could be seen as far as 2.8 miles




        from the point of discharge.



L.  Northern Indiana Public Service - Bailly Power Station




    1.  The inlet water temperature was 68.5°F at the time of flight



        which was provided  by  ground truth.



    2.  The temperature of  the discharge water was 83°F also provided by



        ground  truth.




    3.  The thermal  plume is shown in Figure 11  to the left of the




        industrial area (labeled Plume No.  1).  A lower altitude thermal




        map of  this  plume is shown in Figure 12.




    A.  The temperature of  the surface water 1,000 feet, 2,000 feet from




        the discharge was 79°F and 73.5°F,  respectively.
-------
-------
-------
                                                                       14
 10.  Industrial  Thermal  Discharges
     a)  Three industrial  thermal  discharges  and  the  resultant  thermal
        plumes are shown in  the  left  center  of Figure  15.  There was
        no apparent surface  plume overlapping in this  area.  The
        plumes were dispersing  in a southerly direction.   Wind was
        from the west northwest  at 3  to  8  mph.   The  northern most
        discharge, of the three,  reportedly  originates within  the
        U.  S. Steel Corp., Waukegan Plant.
 H•  Commonwealth Edison - Waukegan Power  Plant
     a)  The temperature  of the discharge water,  at the mouth of the
        plant's  canal, was 64.4°F as  provided by ground  truth.
     b)  The surface temperature  of the background waters  of Lake
        Michigan was 46.4°F  as  provided  by ground truth.   This value
        was measured at  a point  approximately 1,400  feet  north of
        the canal  and 400 feet  into the  water from shore.
     c)  The thermal plume is shown in Figure 15. The  surface  tempera-
        ture of  the plume, at the 1,000  feet and 2,000 feet points
        shown in Figure  15,  was  62.5°F and 49.8°F respectively.
        The temperature  increase  of the  surface  water  within the plume,
        at the above mentioned  paints, was 16.1°F and  3.4°F respectively.
     d)  The wind was from the west northwest at  5 mph.
     e)  There was  a thermal  discharge located approximately 4,140  feet
        south along shore from  the power plant discharge  as indicated
        in  Figure  15.  The identity of the source of the  thermal
        discharge  is unknown.  There  was significant overlapping
 	of this  plume with the power  plant's plume as  indicated,
NOTE: ZnT^ ',r''°"5  of the  t
-------
-------
                                                                     15


N.  Industrial Discharges in the Vicinity of the Indiana-Illinois State

    Line

         At this point in the report, a brief description is also given

    of the industrial thermal discharges in the vicinity of the Indiana-

    Illinois state line.   This discussion is based upon Recommendation

    No. 3 adopted by the Third Session of the Lake Michigan Enforcement

    Conference, which states that:

              "Discharge shall be such that geographic areas
              affected by thermal plumes do not overlap or intersect.
              Plumes shall  not affect fish spawning and nursery
              areas nor touch the lake bottom."

         The aforementioned area contains thermal plumes which violate the

    intent of Recommendation No. 3.  The respective industrial thermal

    plumes are shown in the right side of Figures 14, 15, and 16.  These

    particular thermal maps represent the areas depicted in Figure 17

    which is a portion of the Chicago 1:250,000 (Sectional) USGS map.

    The overlapping of thermal plumes is especially evident in the left

    and center of Figure 16.  The plumes found in the center of this

    figure are significantly hot.  The plumes are seen to be dispersing

    along the shore to the right as indicated by the label "dispersion

    zone.''

0.  Commonwealth Edison Company - Statellne Power Station

    1.  The temperature of the inlet water from Lake Michigan was 70°F

        as provided by ground truth.

    2.  The temperature of the discharge water was 79°F also provided by

        ground truth.
-------
     IOOO FEET
KE MICHIGAN
-------
DISCHARGE
                          LAKE MICHIGAN
                            FIGURE 15
VL THERMAL DISCHARGE
-------
                                                          ST JOSEPH 7 Ml

                                                             p/19 w  30'|
INDIANA-ILLINOIS  SHORE
                                Kmgsbuiy Ordnance plant]1  j
                                       V        75'
-------
                                                                     16






    3.   The thermal  plume is  shown  in  Figure  18  on  the  far  left  side.  The



        other thermal  plumes, as  depicted,  originate  from industrial




        sources.



    k.   The thermal  plume was travelling  to the  reader's  left.   The



        surface temperature of the  water  1,000 feet from  the discharge,



        within the plume, was 73-5°F.



    5.   The discharge flow rate was 516,000 gpm.



P.  Commonwealth Edison Company - Waukegan  Power Station



    1.   The temperature of the inlet water  from  Lake  Michigan was  72°F



        as provided by ground truth.



    2.   The temperature of the discharge  water was  8l°F also provided



        by ground truth.



    3.   The thermal  plume is  shown  in  the right-center  of Figure 19.



        The thermal  plumes, indicated  in  the left center  of the  Figure



        are reported to be caused by industrial  sources.




    k.   The surface temperature of  the water,  within  the  plume,  was  78.5°F



        and 76°F at points 1,000  feet  and 2,000  feet, respectively,  from



        the discharge.



    5-   The overall  length of the plume was 2.1  miles.



    6.   The discharge flow rate was 720,000 gpm.
-------
I
I
-------
                         TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter                                                            Page
           TABLE OF CONTENTS	      i
           LIST OF FIGURES	    ill
    I      SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 	      1
   II      INTRODUCTION  	      3
  III      RESULTS OF THERMAL DATA ANALYSIS  	      7
           17 OCTOBER 1972 FLIGHT	      7
           1.  Northern Indiana Public  Service -
                    Michigan City Power Plant  	      7
           2.  Northern Indiana Public  Service -
                    Bailly Power Plant  	      7
           3.  Industrial  Thermal  Discharges  	      7
           4.  Industrial  Thermal  Discharges  	      8
           5.  Northern Indiana Public  Service -
                    Mitchell  Power Plant 	      8
           6.  Industrial  Thermal  Discharges  	      8
           7.  Commonwealth Edison Company -
                    State  Line Power  Plant	      9
           8.  Industrial  Thermal  Discharges  	      9
           9.  Commonwealth Edison Company -
                    Waukegan Power Plant 	      9
           19 OCTOBER 1972 FLIGHT	      9
           1.  Michigan Consumers  Power Company -
                    Palisades Power Plant   	     10
           2.  Northern Indiana Public  Service -
                    Michigan  City  Power Plant  	     11
           3.  Northern Indiana Public  Service -
                    Bailly Power Plant  	     11
-------
 4.  Industrial Thermal Discharges 	   12

 5.  Northern Indiana Public Service -
          Mitchell Power Plant 	   12

 6.  Thermal Discharges -
          Union Carbide and American Oil Companies .  .   12

 7.  Thermal Discharges - Inland Steel and
          Youngstown Sheet and Tube Companies  ....   13

 8.  Commonwealth Edison -
          State Line Power Plant	   13

 9.  Industrial Thermal Discharges 	   13

10.  Industrial Thermal Discharges 	   14

11.  Commonwealth Edison -
          Waukegan Power Plant 	   14
                        11
-------
                 PULLIAM WPSC
                 392.5  MWe
                 GREENBAY, WIS

POINT  BEACH  NUG  NO. 1 & 2 WEPC
1030 MWe,  PWR'S
TWO CREEKS, WIS
              EDGEWATER WPLC
              460 MWe
              SHEBOYGAN, WIS

        PORT WASHINGTON WEPC
        400 MWe
        PORT WASHINGTON, WIS

              LAKESIDE WEPC
              344.7 MWe
              ST. FRANCIS, WIS
               OAK CREEK WEPC'    %&
               1670.0  MWe
               OAK CREEK, WIS
                      WAUKEGAN CEC
                      1107.8  MWe
                      WAOKEGAN, ILL

                     STATE LINE CEC
                     964 MWe
                     HAMMOND,  IND
                     DEAN  H. MITCHELL NIPSC
                     414.3 MWe
                     GARY,  IND
                                                                                             50
                               SCALE IN MILES
   LAKE

MICHIGAN
B. C. COBB CPC
531 MWe
MUSKEGON, MICH

.1. H. CAMPBELL CPC
647 MWe
PIGEON LAKE, MICH
                         PALISADES  NUC NO. 1 CPC
                         840 MWe, PWR
                         SOUTH HAVEN,  MICH
                     CITY NIPSC
             615.6 MWe
             MICHIGAN CITY, IND

         WILLY NIPSC
          615.6 MWe
          DUNE ACRES, IND
                                    MICH
                                    ~IND~
         LOCATION MAP  LAKE MICHIGAN  ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION STATIONS
-------
   ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

        OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT
        REMOTE SENSING STUDY

                 OF

         THERMAL DISCHARGES

                 TO

            LAKE MICHIGAN


    ILLINOIS - INDIANA - MICHIGAN
National Field Investigations Center
          Denver, Colorado
                 and
              Region V
          Chicago, Illinois

            October 1972
-------
                       LIST OF FIGURES
                                                        Following
Number                                                     Page
  1      Northern Indiana Public Service -
              Michigan City Power Plant  	        7
  2      Northern Indiana Public Service -
              Bailly Power Plant 	        7
  3      Northern Indiana Public Service -
              Mitchell Power Plant 	        8
  4      Commonwealth Edison Company -
              State Line Power Plant	        8
  5      Industrial  Thermal  Discharges 	        8
  6      Industrial  Thermal  Discharges 	        9
  7      Commonwealth Edison Company -
              Waukegan Power Plant 	        9
  8      Michigan Consumers  Power Company -
              Palisades Power Plant  	       10
  9      Northern Indiana Public Service -
              Michigan City  Power Plant  	       11
 10      Northern Indiana Public Service -
              Bailly Power Plant 	       11
 11       Northern Indiana Public Service -
              Mitchell Power Plant 	       12
 12      Industrial  Thermal  Discharges 	       13
 13      Industrial  Thermal  Discharges 	       13
 14      Industrial  Thermal  Discharges 	       13
 15      Commonwealth Edison -
              Waukegan Power Plant 	       14
 16      Thermal  Map Trace	       14
-------
                   I.  SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
     An aerial reconnaissance study was conducted along the shoreline
of Lake Michigan from South Haven, Michigan in a clockwise manner
through Waukegan, Illinois.  The flights were carried out during the
afternoon hours on 17 October 1972 and 19 October 1972.
     A total of six power plants were in operation during the course
of this study.  Thermal data, obtained at a distance of 1,000 feet
from the respective discharge position along shore, for the MCPC -
Palisades Power Plant and the CEC Waukegan Power Plant are presented
as follows:
     Power Plant             Surface Temperature Increase over
                             Lake Michigan Background at 1,000
                             feet from Discharge on 19 October
                             1972.
     Palisades               14.3°F (12.2°F at 2,000 feet)
     Waukegan                16.1°F (3.4°F at 2,000 feet)
     The 1,000 feet value stems from the Recommendation No. 1 adopted
by the Third Session of the Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference.
This recommendation reads:
     "Applicable to all waste heat discharges except as
     noted above:(*) At any time, and at a maximum distance
     of 1,000 feet from a fixed point adjacent to the
     discharge, (agreed upon by the State and Federal
     regulatory agencies), the receiving water temperature
     shall not be more than 3°F above the existing natural
     temperature nor shall the maximum temperature exceed those
     listed below whichever is lower."
The maximum "surface to three-foot depth" temperature recommended for
October is 65°F.  The Palisades Power Plant was also in violation
of this 65°F temperature value at the 1,000 feet point.
*Municipal waste and water treatment plants, and vessels.
-------
     Violations could not be ascertained for the remaining four
power plants due to the lack of adequate surface water temperature
data.  On 19 October 1972, the CEC State Line Power Plant was not
covered due to low level clouds in the immediate area.
     Numerous violations of Recommendation No. 3 were recorded
(during both flights) in Gary/Calumet, Indiana, Calumet Harbor,
Illinois and Waukegan, Illinois areas.  This recommendation reads as
     "Discharge shall be such that geographic areas affected
     by thermal plumes do not overlap or intersect.  Plumes shall
     not affect fish spawning and nursery areas nor touch the
     lake bottom."
     From the data given in this report, it must be concluded that
Recommendations No. 1  and No. 3 of the Lake Michigan Enforcement
Conference are not being fulfilled by many sources of thermal and
industrial discharges within the Conference area.
-------
                         II.   INTRODUCTION
     An aerial remote sensing study of the thermal  discharges to Lake
Michigan was conducted on the following dates:
     1)  17 October 1972, 1400-1530 hours CDT
     2)  19 October 1972, 1500-1630 hours CDT
     This effort was requested by the Enforcement Division, Region V,
EPA.  The study area included waters affected by discharges from
electric power plants and industrial sites from South Haven, Michigan
to Waukegan, Illinois.  The power plants covered were
     ..Michigan Consumers Power Company - Palisades Power Plant
     ..Northern Indiana Public Service - Michigan City Power Plant
     ..Northern Indiana Public Service - Mitchell Power Plant
     ..Commonwealth Edison -  State Line Power Plant
     ..Commonwealth Edison -  Waukegan Power Plant
The location of each power station is shown on  the map which appears
at the back of this report.  Each industrial discharge will be
identified herein by company  to the extent possible and geographical
location.
     The thermal data were recorded by an infrared line scanner (IRLS)
on board a USAF RF-4C (Phantom) aircraft.  Two  such aircraft were
utilized during this study.  The temperature resolution of this scanner
is 0.1° Centigrade.
     The IRLS will record only surface temperatures in water.  Water
is opaque to this region of the intermediate infrared band.  The
-------
maximum depth penetration in either fresh or salt water is 0.01 cm.
Therefore, a submerged thermal discharge can be detected from an
aircraft with an infrared line scanner only if all or part of the
warm wastewater reaches the surface of the receiving body of water.
      The thermal data were recorded on 5-inch film in the form of a
thermal map.  At the time of flight, ground truth, in the form of
surface water temperatures, was obtained for each power station
location.  The cooling water discharge temperatures and, in some
cases, background water surface temperatures of Lake Michigan,
were provided by EPA, Region V.  These temperature values served as
an absolute reference for the calibration, and subsequent analysis
of the airborne thermal data, especially for the surface waters 1,000
feet distant from the respective points of thermal discharges.  The
accuracy placed upon these temperatures values as given in this
report, is +1"Fahrenheit.  Once the calibration described above
has been effected, this accuracy becomes a relative number which
is not dependent upon or a function of any particular temperature
value within the established temperature limits.  This accuracy
does not include the respective accuracies of the terrestrial
instrumentation used by the ground truth personnel to obtain the
Lake Michigan surface water and discharge temperatures.  These
values would, to a good approximation, add to the +_ 1°F given above
to form a total  accuracy for a given temperature  value presented.
-------
    The approximate scale of the thermal  maps is as follows:
    1)  17 October 1972 flight - 1:32,435
    2)  19 October 1972 flight - 1:29,600
These values were obtained from the original  negatives.
    The first EPA flight, carried out in  Lake Michigan,  occurred on
14 September 1972.  The results of that study were presented  at the
Fourth Session of the Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference held in
late September 1972.  The purpose of the  September Study was  to docu-
ment the extent of the thermal discharges from electric  power plants
into Lake Michigan from Muskegon, Michigan along shore in a clockwise
direction to Twin Creeks, Wisconsin.  The study revealed violations of
Recommendations No. 1 and No. 3 adopted by the Third Session  of the
aforementioned Conference.  These recommendations read as follows:
Recommendation No. 1
    "Applicable to all waste heat discharges except as noted  above:(*)
    At any time, and at a maximum distance of 1,000 feet from a fixed
    point adjacent to the discharge, (agreed upon by the State and
    Federal regulatory agencies), the receiving water temperature
    shall not be more than 3°F above the existing natural temperature
    nor shall the maximum temperature exceed those listed below which-
    ever is lower."
The maximum "surface to three-foot depth" temperature recommended  for
September is 80°F.
Recommendation No. 3
    "Discharge shall be such that geographic areas affected by
    thermal plumes do not overlap or intersect.  Plumes shall
    not affect fish spawning and nursery areas nor touch the
    lake bottom."
*Municipal waste and water treatment plants, and vessels.
-------
    The purpose of the October study, which is the contents of this
report, was to further document the violations of the above-mentioned
recommendations by thermal discharges in the area from South Haven,
Michigan (Palisades Power Plant) along shore clockwise to Waukegan,
Illinois (Waukegan Power Plant).  For the month of October, the
maximum "surface to three-feet-depth" temperature, of Recommendation
No. 1, is 65°F.
    It is worthy to note that the accuracy of the instrumentation used
to measure the surface water temperatures 1n Lake Michigan, by ground
personnel, has been given as 0.1"Centigrade.
-------
             III.  RESULTS OF THERMAL DATA ANALYSIS

     All data interpretations and analyses were carried out on the
original negative from the infrared line scanner.   Results of the
thermal analyses for  each respective thermal  discharge are presented
as follows:
A.  17 OCTOBER 1972 FLIGHT
     No ground truth was obtained for this flight.   The U. S. Weather
Service at Chicago O'Hare Field stated that the wind velocity at the
time of flight was from the northwest at 8 to 10 mph.  Each of the
industrial or power plant discharges are discussed  qualitatively
only, due to the lack of surface water temperatures.
1.  Northern Indiana Public Service - Michigan City Power Plant
    a) The plant's discharge and the resultant thermal  plume are
       shown in the center of Figure 1.  The plume  measured 2,850
       feet in length along shoreline to the west and 1,230
       feet in width with   respect to the shoreline.  It was
       dispersing in a westerly direction.
2.  Northern Indiana Public Service - Bailly Power  Plant
    a) The plant's thermal discharge and resultant  plume are shown
       in Figure 2.  The length and width of the plume were 4,050 feet
       and 1,000 feet respectively.  The plume was  dispersing along
       the breakwater to the west of the discharge.
3.  Industrial Thermal Discharges
    a) In the eastern-most rectangular slip, as indicated in the
       center of Figure 2, a large thermal discharge was recorded.
-------
NORTHERN INDIANA PUBLIC SERVICE
      Michigan City Power Plant
                                            FIGURE 1
-------


FIGURE 2
-------
                                                                       8
       It is seen that the hot water filled most of the area
       behind the breakwater.  The identity of the company producing
       the discharge is unknown.
    b) Three thermal discharges are indicated in the canal located
       to the west of the rectangular slips in Figure 2.  The identity
       of the company producing the discharge is unknown.
4.  Industrial  Thermal Discharges
    a) A total  of five thermal discharges, from industrial sources,
       are shown in Figure 3.  The eastern-most three and western-most
       two reportedly originate from within the facilities of the
       U.S.  Steel Corporation.  The western-most thermal plumes
       do intersect each other which is in violation of Recommendation 3
       adopted  by the Third Session of the Lake Michigan Enforcement
       Conference.
5.  Northern Indiana Public Service - Mitchell Power Plant
    a) The plant's thermal discharge and resultant plume are indicated
       in Figure 3.  The length of the plume measured approximately
       3,370 feet and extended 1,070 from shore into Lake Michigan.
       The plume was dispersing in an easterly direction along shore.
6.  Industrial  Thermal Discharges
    a) The thermal discharges from
       0 Inland Steel Company
       0 Union  Carbide Company
       0 Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company
       0 American Oil Company
       are indicated in Figures4 and 5.  The respective thermal
       plumes were overlapping each other.  The overlap is also
       indicated in the aforementioned figures.
-------
                             ERLAP
NORTH
                                     FIGURE 3
-------
                                                               524





 1                            A. Dybdahl



 2             MR. DYBDAHL:  An aerial reconnaissance study was



 3   conducted along certain segments of the shoreline of Lake



 4   Michigan on September 14, 1972.  The purpose of this remote



 5   sensing study was to document the extent of thermal dis-



 6   charges from electric powerplants from Muskegon, Michigan to



 7   Twin Creeks,  Wisconsin.  A total of 10 powerplants were in



     operation at the time of the flight; 3 other powerplants



 9   were not in operation; and the B. C. Cobb plant, which I



10   just mentioned, was not recorded.  It is located in the



11   further reaches back in Lake Muskegon, and that is where our



12   aircraft turned around to make another run, so we missed



13   that particular target.



14             The particular aircraft used for this mission was



15   an RF-^C which is owned and operated by the U.S. Air Force.



16   The RF-^C is commonly known as the Phantom.



17             The particular device used to record this imagery



     or this thermal information was an infrared line scanner.



19   it was not photographically recorded.  This particular



20   infrared system has a resolution capability of plus or minus



21   0,1° C. which is to say if we look at two targets whose



     respective temperatures are 0.1° apart, we will be able to



     distinguish them on film.



 ^             The particular recording media of this system is



     5-inch film — is of film 5 inches wide, which I will show
-------
   	525
 1                            A. Dybdahl
 2   you in a few minutes — and it represents the permanent
 3   record from that particular flight.
 4             The particular accuracies of the temperature
 5   values given within this report have been calculated as
 6   plus or minus 1° F.
 7             At the time of flight, at all reporting stations,
 8   the wind velocities were from the north at 5 to 10 knots
 9   in velocity — this was not included in the report but will
10   be in the formal report.
11             As Mr. Bryson said, at the Third Session of the
12   Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference, a recommendation was
13   adopted by the conferees representing Indiana, Michigan,
14   Wisconsin, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
15   stating that:
16             "Applicable to all waste heat discharges except
17   as noted above:  At any time, and at a maximum distance of
     1,000 feet from a fixed point adjacent to the discharge,
19   (agreed upon by the State and Federal regulatory agencies),
     the receiving water temperature shall not be more than 3° F.
     above the existing natural temperature nor shall the maximum
22   temperature exceed those listed below, whichever is lower."
               The maximum "surface to 3-foot depth" temperature
24   recommended for September was B0°  F.  Recommendation No. 1
  5   was interpreted, within this report, to include all power-
-------
   	526





 1                            A. Dybdahl



 2   plants discharging directly to Lake Michigan or within 3



 3   miles of the shoreline.



 4             Thermal data at 1,000 feet from the outfall for



 5   each of the 10 powerplants in operation on September 14»



 6   1972, are summarized as follows:



 7             The Oak Creek plant:  The difference in temperature



 8   at 1,000 feet from the discharge was 11.5° F., again, plus



 9   or minus 1° F.



10             The Port Washington plant:  A violation could not



11   be ascertained because the surface discharge was not present



12   at the time of flight.



13             The Edgewater Plant:  The difference was 5.5° F.



14             The Point Beach plant:  Also 5.5° F.



15             And in Muskegon Lake, as was previously mentioned,



16   there were 2 thermal plumes, who have been attributed to



17   the Warren Paper Company; one plume exceeded the 3° limit



1^   in the respective values of 7.5° F. and 14° F.



19             The J. H. Campbell plant:  12° F.



20             The Michigan City plant:  7° F.



21             The Bailly plant:  10.5° F.



22             The Mitchell Plant:  4° F.



               The Stateline powerplant, which is located near



2/f   the Illinois-Indiana State line:  3.5° F.



2 5             The Waukegan plant:  6.5° F.
-------
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
 7
 a
 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
 	527
                          A. Dybdahl
           Ten of the plants were violating the recommended
  3°  F. maximum temperature increase at a distance of 1,000
  feet.   In addition, as shown in the table, six of the power-
  plants  were  violating the 3° increase at 2,000 feet from the
  discharge.   None of the above discharges were exceeding the
  allowable temperature for September of 80° F.
           Within the same session of the Lake Michigan
  Enforcement  Conference, Recommendation 3 adopted stated that:
           "Discharge shall be such that geographic areas
  affected by  thermal plumes do not overlap or intersect.
  Plumes  shall not affect fish spawning and nursery areas nor
  touch the lake  bottom."
           In the vicinity of the Indiana-Illinois State
  line, eight  thermal discharges were recorded, one of which
  was the Commonwealth Edison Stateline powerplant.   The dis-
  charge  levels  from each of the other waste  sources were con-
  siderably greater  than that of the  Commonwealth Edison State-
  line plant.   Furthermore, the thermal plumes from vthese
  waste sources  were overlapping in most  cases.  This is a
  violation of the  first part of Recommendation  3  stated
I  above.
           And,  at  this time,  I would like  to go to the
  overhead projector and  show you  this particular piece of
  imagery.  Can we  kill the  lights for a  moment, please?  I
-------
   	523




 1                            A. Dybdahl



 2   hope everyone can see that.



 3             MR, MAYO:  Just a moment.  Is there a way that you



 4   can address the material from the podium, Mr, Dybdahl?



 5             MR. DYBDAHL:  Will this be acceptable, Mr.



 6   Chairman?



 7             MR. MAYO:  Yes.



 S             MR. DYBDAHL:  All right.  As I had mentioned, the



 9   Stateline  powerplant's  particular location is  at  this



10   point.  This is their thermal plume in this respective area



11   drifting downshore.



12             Okay.   One industrial thermal  discharge —  the



13   settling of which  is located  — is at  this point.




     First, let me explain that —


15             MR. MAYO:  Excuse me, Mr. Dybdahl.  For  the  pur-



     poses of clarity for the audience, could  you give  just  a


17
     general briefing of the  geography of the  area,  where you are



     in Lake Michigan?


               MR. DYBDAHL:  Okay.   I am at the position on the



     shoreline that is adjacent to the Indiana-Illinois State



     line, or, if you will, on the southwest corner of the lake.


22
               In this particular imagery, the black signifies


23
     higher temperatures; the white areas, lower temperatures.



     This is a particular photographic type of film, and it is a


25
     black and white negative, so heat discharges show up much
-------
                                                  	  529





 1                            A. Dybdahl



 2   darker than the ambient temperatures of the background area



 3   of Lake Michigan which you see at the top of the picture.



 4             Now, again, at the far left is the Stateline



 5   powerplant discharge, /and its respective thermal plume



 6   drifting to your right.  In this particular respective area,



 7   at the right of the photograph, there are two thermal dis-



     charges.  As one can see, they are a much darker gray in



 9   these two locations than the powerplant itself.   These two



10   particular thermal discharges are intersecting,  overlapping,



11   which one may consider, and their respective thermal plumes



12   are drifting in a direction to our left and at a certain



13   point right here (indicating), the two are meeting each



14   other.



15             Incidentally, on these powerplants yesterday we



     made — or on the industrial sources, we made an attempt to



17   identify the respective companies belonging to these dis-



     charges.



               The discharger at this particular point has been



     identified to me as that of the American Oil Company refinery



               This one, we are unable to state whom that belongs


22
     to.  (Indicating)


23
               If I may, please, I would like to go to the other


24
     reaches of this particular area and then return to that.


25
               In this particular area, there is a thermal
-------
                                                               J2Q,
 1                            A, Dybdahl



 2    discharge at this location, at this particular location,



      at  this location, at this location, this location, and in



      the apex of the  slip at this location (indicating).



 5             It has been identified to me that these outfalls



 6    along this respective shoreline belong to the Inland Steel



 7    Company, and the outfalls on this respective side of the



      channel belong to the Youngstovm — I think it is called



 9    Sheet and Pipe Company.  (Indicating)



10             MR. HENRI:  So what?



11             MR. DYBDAHL:  So, the point that I want to make



12    is:  These discharges are considerably warmer than the



13    powerplant  in this particular area, and I wanted to bring



14    it  to the attention of the conferees possibly for future



15    investigation.



16             If there is one of the conferees that might know,



      i would like to know who this outfall belongs to — this



      particular one in this location (indicating), at this point



19    here.  I am sorry this isn't brighter.



20             MR. MILLER:  Well, I have trouble with your map.



2-1-    I am from Indiana, and this is where it would be located,



 2  !  but the map is not an accurate pictorial representation of



 ^    the shoreline, which is part of the problem.


2L
 *             But there are two discharges this side of

    i
25  '
 J    Youngstown Sheet and Tube which we have known and have been
-------
 X                            A, Dybdahl
 2   reported to the conference, which are American Oil and Union
 3   Carbide.
 /,,             MR. DYBDAHLs  One belongs to Union Carbide, you
 5   are saying?
 6             MR. MILLER:  Well, I canft tell from your map.
 7             MR. DIBDAHL:  I have the maps here if you wish to
     see them.
 9             MR. MAYO:  That can be identified, and I think for
10   purposes of the discussion it may not be worth pursuing that
11   particular point at this time.
12             As I get your commentary, Mr. Dybdahl, what you
13   were seeking to demonstrate by using this specific piece of
14   imagery was that there exist in the area thermal discharges
15   which exceed that of the Stateline plant*
16             MR. DYBDAHL:  Exactly.  And the fact that they do
17   intersect each other or overlap each other.
               One other point I would like to make:  It has been
19   identified to me that at this particular location is a water
20   filtration plant (indicating) possibly for the city of
     Chicago, and it is sitting within the thermal plume dis-
     persion zone.   So, depending on where their intakes are,
21
 '   they could be taking in warmer water than lake ambient.
 *             MR. MCDONALD:  Mr. Dybdahl, how far does the dark
25
 '   area extend from shoreline in terms of heat?
-------
                	 532




 !                            A. Dybdahl



 2             MR. DTBDAHL:  This respective distance here would b



 -3    approximately 1,200 to 1,400 feet from shore, on an average,



 ^             MR. MILLER:  What were the wind directions when



 c    these were taken?



 6             MR. DYBDAHL:  The wind directions from the north



 7    at  10 knots was the information that was given to me.



 #             MR. MILLER:  This can account for the dark picture



 9    because  the American Maize and Union Carbide are in a cove




10    that is  protected on both sides, and we have known that they



11    overlap  for a long time.



12             MR. MAIO:  Are there any questions, gentlemen?



13             Mr. Purdy.



14             MR. PURDY:  Yes.  Of this particular map or the



15    report?



16             MRe MAYO:  The report of Mr. Dybdahl.



17             MR. PURDY:  Okay.  What do you mean by "ground



IB    truth"?



19             MR. DYBDAHL:  What I mean by "ground truth" is



20    respective surface temperatures of the water in the par-



21    ticular  target area that we were working in.



22             MR. PURDY:  At the time the picture was taken?



23             MR. DYBDAHL:  At the time of flight, yes.  This



24    was coordinated with the U.S. Coast Guard, and EPA, Region



25    v — U.S. EPA Enforcement Branch.
-------
          	J33



                              A. Dybdahl



 2             MR. PURDY:  I recognize that you have mentioned



 •2 j  the  error in the identification of the B. C» Gobb plant and

   i!
 i  i  the  S. T. Warren Company in Muskegon Lake, but as those con-
 " I !
   I '

 5 ji  elusions relate to the discharge of S. T. Warren Company,



 0   could you tell me where the "ground truth" was taken?
   |i

 7             MR. DYBDAHL:  -The "ground truth" on those respec-



 g   tive points was given to me by Mr. Howard Zar, and how he



 9   obtained it I am not really certain.  Let me pass that to
   i j


^Q   him  at this time.



11             MR. ZAR:  We obtained "ground truth" of that area



12 i  from Consumers Power Company — the supply and intake dis-



i;;   charge, temperature and flow from their plants along the



14 '  Michigan shore for the period of time during which the



15 j  flight was conducted.                                         j



16 i            MR. PURDY:  So, then, really from this standpoint,  '
                                                                   i
                                                                   i
17   since the "ground truth" was taken from a different point

   I

18   than what you are looking at in the film, that the conclusion^



19 i  that are reached in this report do not really even properly



20 |  reflect the plume from the S. T. Warren Company.  Would this
   i

21 j  be  correct?
   I


22             MR. DYBDAHL:  The inlet discharge temperatures



23   were given for the B. C« Cobb plant.  That was mentioned as



     an  error.  Indeed the respective film densities in that  lake



25   were analyzed, and it is not representative of the B. C.
-------
                                                               534
1
                               A.  Dybdahl
 2 j   Cobb plant,  but  it  is felt that it is representative of the


   ii

 3 ji  paper company.

   !]

 4  ;           MR. PURDY:   Is not  the "ground truth" data used
   j


 5  I  to  develop your  temperatures  from the densities of the



 6    film?



 71,           MR. DYBDAHL:   Yes,  sir, that is very true.  When



 8 i|  we  are analyzing this particular data, we collect the "ground
   i i


 9 |   truth" from  all  around the lake area, and respective — what



10    we  determine —-  calibration curves are made up, where we take



11    the high points,  low points,  and we are able to extrapolate



12    temperatures in  between.  Each of these are prepared or
   !


13    checked on that  curve and in  this particular case they fell

   11

1A- i   right on the calibration curve.  It is an error in location.



15  ;  The B. C. Cobb plant was not  recorded.



1^             MR. PURDY:   Well, I am confused as to how you



17    could make up a  calibration curve from data from one point
    i
   I

1° i|  and looking  at the  film at a  different point.



               MR. DYBDAHL:   This  can be done by an optical



      analysis back in our laboratory in Denver.  It is something



      that we carry out for each and every source.


22 i
   i|           In several cases, I might add at this point,


23 ji
   ';   the inlet and discharge temperatures were not given in terms


2k ii
   !   of  Lake Michigan surface waters.  In other words, if the



   |j  inlet was submerged,  the temperature at that point will not
-------
     	531
 I                            A.  Dybdahl
 2   be the same as that on the surface.  It may not be the same,
 3             We have ways of — by using the same system, same
 4   aircraft, same altitude — to extrapolate data from other
 5   points by measuring film densities optically,  and in the
 6   use of the calibration curves of finding relative surface
 7   temperatures in a given area.  And in the cases of these
 $   particular — one comes to mind — the inlet temperature
 9   was 52° F.», which was a submerged inlet.  The surface temper-
10   ature of Lake Michigan, at that particular point, was 60°,
11   so the comparison was made to the  surface temperature of
12   Lake Michigan in that area, not to  the inlet temperature of
13   52°.
14             MR, PURDY:  Yes,  As I understand, you used the
15   "ground truth" data to make your calibration curve,
16             MR. DYBDAHL:  Yes, that  is true,
17             MR. MILLER:  Mr, Chairman,
!S             MR, MAYO:  Mr, Miller.
19             MR. MILLER:  Where were  the  ambient  temperatures
20   obtained?
21             MR. DYBDAHL:   I am sorry.  Where  were the  ambient
22
    I temperatures what?
23             MR. MILLER:  Obtained,
2^             MR. DYBDAHL:   They were  obtained all around Lake
     Michigan from Michigan City to the Wisconsin-Illinois border,
-------
           	536
                              A. Dybdahl
      and from the respective power companies.  This information
      was provided to me by Region V, EPA.
 4             MR. MILLER:  Does the plus and minus 1 apply to
 5    all these figures on Table 2?
 6             MR. DIBDAHL:  Yes, and plus or minus 1 is limited
 7    to my particular accuracies and not to the accuracies of the
      temperature-measuring devices which would be thermistor or
 9    thermometer or whatever.
10             MR. MILLER:  You are really saying, like Mitchell
11    plant,  that this could be 3 as well as 4, as you have in your
12    table.
13             MR. DYBDAHL:  I gave you the value of 4°.
14             MR. MILLER:  Yea.
15             MR. DYBDAHL:  It could be from 3 to 5, yes.
16             MR. MILLER:  You don't have ambient air tempera-
17    tures in the southern part where you talked about the two
      discharges that were much higher than the discharges from
      Stateline.
20             MR. DYBDAHL:  If memory serves me correctly, I
21    have  the air temperature at the Bailly plant and at the
22    Mitchell plant, which was 64° F. in the afternoon of
      September 14, 1972.  We had wind velocities and air temper-
 ^    atures.
               MR. MILLER:  Part of my problem, then, is coming
-------
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
 7
 8
 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
IB
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
	537
                         A. Dybdahl
 back to  development of how you would obtain the ambient water
 temperature.
          MR. DYBDAHL:  Well, I have surface temperatures
 that were taken for me from a boat or from the end of a
 pier,
          MR* MILLER:  In this area as well?
          MR. DYBDAHL:  Yes, at the time of flight.
          MR. MILLER:  My real problem in this area, which
 is  not depicted very well upon the material shown, is that
 if  you had  a north shore north wind, you have a piling up
 of  the water in this area, and you are in a shallow cove,
 and this could make considerable difference in what you show
 in  this  particular region.
          MR. DYBDAHL:  That is exactly right and that can
 be  seen  in  the film.
          At 3,000 feet, I would have the capability of
 recording on the  ground or on the water, if you will, a
 track 10,300 feet wide, so I am able to get well beyond
 that in  the ambient waters of Lake Michigan.  What you just
 said can easily be  seen on the film, yes.
          MR. MAYO:  Any other comments or questions?
          MR. SCHRAUFNAGEL:  Yes.  Schraufnagel from Wisconsir
          We have a problem here in orienting ourselves also
 on  some  of  the locations in addition to the one in Michigan.
-------
 1
 2
 3



 4



 5



 6



 7



 8
 9
10
11
12
13



14



15



16
17
19
20
21
                              A. Dybdahl



     The so-called powerplant installation at Port Washington



     doesn't square with anything that we know of as far as the



     powerplant installation is concerned,



               Also, the Pulliam powerplant — it is in the pic-



     ture, but it doesn't show as a thermal plume from the Pulliam



     plant.  A thermal plume is shown from a lagoon discharge



     about a half a mile or a mile away.



               We have done a certain amount of thermal imagery



     ourselves and generally I agree that your report — the data



     was available fairly rapidly, and it doesn't — a number of



     these instances do not seem to reflect the conditions that
     we find.
               We have examined — the two installations are in
     error, the Pulliam plant and
               MR. MAYO:  Which page are you referring to?  Are



     you referring1 to a particular page in the report?



               MR. SCHRAUFNAGEL:  On page 4, that installation



     cannot be the Port Washington powerplant.  And on page 10,



     the Pulliam powerplant is located perhaps — it is on the



     opposite side of the stream, practically on Green Bay, and



     it is not where the thermal plume is shown in the picture.



               MR. DIBDAHL:  I would like to comment on this,


2L
 *   Mr. Chairman, if I may.



               In the case of the latter, this thermal discharge
-------
     	539



                              A. Dybdahl


     shown in Figure 5 is not that of a powerplant;  it is the


     only one I found on the Fox River when I was asked to fly


     that area.  It is not reported as a powerplant; it is merely


     a thermal discharge that was seen at the time of flight.


               MR. SCHRAUFNAGEL:  The thermal plume shown is


     actually in a boat slip.


               MR. DYBDAHL:  That is fine, but it is definitely


 9   there.


10             And in your first question, as identified to me,


11   that was indeed the Port Washington powerplant, and based on


12   the information that was given to me.  As you can see, I did


13   not report a surface discharge in that area.  That particular


14 j  picture represents an optical transect of the film in this


15   particular area.  We did that because we could not find a


16   definite thermal discharge at the surface.


17             This particular infrared light scanner can only


1°   see surface waters; it cannot penetrate.  The maximum depth


     that it can see into the water is 0.01 of a centimeter.


     Freshwater and salt water signatures make no difference upon


     the indication of what we see.  So if there is not a thermal


     plume on the surface, I cannot see it with the system nor


     any other airborne system can see it.

Ol I!
  ^             MR. BLASER:  Mr. Chairman, I have a question.


25             MR. MAYO:  Yes.
-------
   	540

 1                             A.  Dybdahl
 2             MR. BLASER:  Will  we  be getting copies of the
 3   photographs,  completely  scaled,  so that we can make our
 4   measurements?
 5             Illinois  did not agree to  the definition of the
 6   plume,   Illinois  allows  an irregular surface area up to the
 7   equivalent  radius of 1,000 square feet.  So we are going to
 #   have to  scale it  ourselves and  find  out if this is a viola-
 9   tion of  Illinois  or not,
10             MR. DYBDAHL:  Yes. In the formal report that
11   I  have asked the  record  be held open for, actual print of
12   the imagery we  saw  here  will be included, captioned, and
13   scaled.
14             MR. BRYSON:  Will  these be actual photographs or
15   will they be renditions  of the  photographs?
16             MR. DYBDAHL:  No,  they will be prints.
17             MR. BRYSON:  They  will be  the actual photographs?
IS             MR. DYBDAHL:  The  actual photographs.
19             MR. MAYO:  Any other  questions, gentlemen?
20             Thank you, Mr. Dybdahl.
21             MR. BRYSON:  The next Federal presentation will be
22   by Mr. Yates Barber from the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
     and Wildlife.
24
25
                                           ttU.S.Government Printing Office: 1974 — 751-197
-------