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                          Section 2
             PREPARATION OF PROJECT DESCRIPTION
                 AND STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES
                   2.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This section describes the information that should be
addressed in the "project description and statement of
objectives" section of a field activities plan.  The infor-
mation discussed below is applicable to all such plans, but
it should be modified to meet the needs of a specific
project.

A section entitled "project description and statement of
objectives" should be included in all response activity
plans; such a section is required in the quality assurance
and sampling plans for remedial investigations and in work
plans for Field Investigation Team  (FIT) operations.
Project descriptions are also used as input to the site
safety plan.  The project description defines the goals of
the project and describes how the information necessary to
meet the project goals will be obtained.  The project
description should provide the reader with enough informa-
tion to judge the appropriateness and adequacy of the
quality assurance, work, or sampling plans.  The project
description and statement of objectives are integral ele-
ments in the development of data quality objectives, which
are qualitative and quantitative statements that outline the
decisionmaking process for remedial responsibilities and
specify the data required to support those decisions.
Extensive guidance on development of data quality objectives
exists  (OSWER Directive 9355.0-7B) and will not be repeated
within this document.
                      2.2  DEFINITIONS

Analytical parameters.  Chemical constituents and levels of
detection required for sample analysis.  Parameters also
include field measurements (e.g., pH, groundwater levels),
engineering soils data (e.g., soil permeability, particle
size analysis), and Contract Laboratory Program  (CLP)
Special Analytical Services  (SAS) components.

Quality Assurance Project Plan  (QAPjP). The policies,
organization, objectives, functional activities, and
specific QA and Quality Control  (QC) activities designed to
achieve the data quality goals of the specific project(s) or
continuing operation(s).

Sample matrix.  Media from which the sample is collected
(e.g., soil, groundwater, surface water).
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Sampling plan.   A program of action that is developed prior
to field activities and that describes the methods and pro-
cedures for obtaining representative portions of the
environment being investigated.

Site Manager (SM) .   The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.   The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
                     2.3  APPLICABILITY

Remedial response activities, such as field investigation
and sample collection, require a written plan that should
include a project description.  The description should be
included in its entirety and may not be referenced from
another document.
                    2.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The Site Manager or designated person who is responsible for
writing the work plan, sampling plan, or quality assurance
project plan is also responsible for the section on project
description and statement of objectives.
                        2.5  RECORDS

The project description and statement of objectives
constitute the record.  Pertinent information that is used
to develop the project description should be recorded and
maintained by the SM.

Such information would include results of previous site
investigations; any environmental permits associated with
the site; tax records; results of inspections by other
state, local, or federal agencies; newspaper accounts;
records from community relations interviews; aerial photog-
raphy  (such as those typically available from the Environ-
mental Photographic Interpretation Center); and any other
data that will assist the SM in developing the project
description and statement of objectives.  It is important,
particularly on projects involving enforcement activities,
that adequate records be kept to document the process by
which project objectives were derived.  Project objectives
determine sampling strategy and are directly related to the
final costs of the response activities, the adequacy of the
feasibility study, and the success of the remedial
alternative.  Meeting notes, telephone conversation records,
assumptions regarding interpretations of work assignments,
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and other records pertaining to the development of the
project description and statement of objectives should be
maintained in a manner that will allow the SM and project
team to reconstruct the decisionmaking process that led to
the stated project objectives.
                       2.6  PROCEDURES

The project description should be site-specific and include
at least the following items:

     o    Site description and history
     o    Schedule of activities
     o    Intended data usage
     o    Identification of sample matrices and parameters
     o    Sample design description and rationale

Each of these items is described below.

2.6.1  SITE DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY

The site description should include all pertinent physical
and land use information.   Maps, drawings, and photographs
should be included, if available.  The following information
should be provided:

     o    Size including area within facility boundaries and
          the extent of contamination above defined thresh-
          olds, if known  (See also Section 17 for discus-
          sion of background levels used as a defined
          threshold.)

     o    Specific location description including directions
          and distances from nearby towns

     o    Surrounding geography  (e.g., town, city, county,
          or state boundaries and jurisdictions; power
          lines; railroads;  roads; and topography)

     o    Physical description including the following:

               Geologic conditions
               Soil types  and depths
               Surface water hydrology
               Groundwater hydrology
               Flora
               Fauna
               Terrain

     o    Onsite conditions (e.g., the presence of pits,
          ponds, tanks, drums, standing water, buildings,
          and wells)
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     o    Climatological description for the region and for
          site-specific parameters,  such as wind speed and
          direction,  precipitation patterns, and freezing
          conditions

     o    Demographics and surrounding land use (e.g.,
          agricultural, industrial,  or residential; populace
          at risk;  and transportation patterns)

Relevant historic facts about the site should be included in
the project description.  Following are examples of useful
historic information:

     o    Past and present uses of the site

     o    Identification of onsite facilities and
          description of activities at these facilities
          including any facilities that have been demolished
          and any subsurface facilities (e.g., tanks,
          utilities,  and vaults)

     o    Onsite disposal and materials handling practices

               Areas  used for disposal and methods of
               disposal (tanks, drum, pit, pond, lagoon,
               landfill, land treatment, etc.)

               Material storage or transfer facilities and
               areas  onsite, including spills or dumps

     o    Description of wastes onsite

               Quantity
               Physical state
          -    Chemical identification, if known
               Location

     o    Prior complaints or agency actions concerning the
          site including any permits held by the site   (Per-
          mit applications are also of interest, even if no
          permit was  awarded.)

     o    Prior sampling activities onsite or near the site,
          and the resultant data  (This information should
          be evaluated in terms of the confidence held in
          the data and of the intended usage of that data.)

     o    Prior remedial or response activities

     o    Prior accidents or incidents onsite, such as
          fires, explosions, or chemical releases
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A detailed site history should be completed before
initiating any activities onsite.  A brief summary of the
site history, which includes information that may affect
sampling plans, work plans, the site safety plan, or the
quality assurance plan, should be included in the project
description.  The reliability of the information should be
assessed, and the acceptability of the existing data for
intended use should be determined.

2.6.2  SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIES

The project schedule should include project milestones, such
as the startup date for the project, field investigation
dates, the data review period, and dates when reports are
due.  The activity(s)  addressed by quality assurance and
work sampling plans should be identified.  The expected
start and finish dates for the project and the field work
must be stated.  A diagram, flow chart, or critical path
chart should be included to help the reader understand the
project.

2.6.3  INTENDED DATA USAGE

To determine whether the work, sampling, and quality
assurance plans will generate data that meet the project
objectives, it is necessary to define the types of decisions
that will be made, identify the intended use of the data,
and design a data collection program.  Data quality objec-
tives (DQO) are defined as "an integrated set of thought
processes which define data quality requirements based on
the identified end use of the database"  (OSWER Directive
9355.0-7B).  The DQOs are useful in developing a sampling
plan and analytical plan so that sufficient data of known,
defensible quality are obtained to assist the decisionmakers
in arriving at sound decisions concerning remedial response
activities.  The DQO,  based on the intended use of the data,
will assist in determining the appropriate detection limits,
analytical methods, and sample handling procedures (chain-
of-custody requirements, as well as preservation and holding
times) .

Possible uses for the data are listed below.

     o    Confirm suspected contaminants or concentrations
          of contaminants.

     o    Qualitatively assess the nature and extent of
          contamination.

     o    Design additional sampling campaigns.

     o    Implement operable units involving cleanup and
          removal.
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     o    Compare with established criteria (e.g.,  drinking
          water standards and National Pollution Discharge
          Elimination System (NPDES)  requirements).

     o    Assess exposure, endangerment,  and risks.

     o    Screen or select remedial alternatives.

     o    Use as input to the conceptual  design of remedial
          technologies.

     o    Use in future enforcement actions and litigation.
          The applicable legislation (CERCLA,  RCRA,  TSCA,
          etc.) should be identified.

The specific purpose of the site investigation should be
stated.  The use of the data as a qualitative or quantita-
tive measure should be specified.  Discrete quantitative
requirements for the data, such as a level of detection
required for comparison with health criteria,  should also be
specified.

2.6.4  IDENTIFICATION OF SAMPLE MATRICES  AND PARAMETERS

Identification of the appropriate sample  matrices and param-
eters should be included in the project description.  A
table similar to Exhibit 2-1 may suffice.  A listing of com-
pounds should be included.  Any special sample handling
requirements (e.g., filtering and dry weight analyses)
should be identified in this section.  Parameters for
special analytical services and geotechnical and
hydrogeological investigations should also be identified.

2.6.5  SAMPLING DESIGN DESCRIPTION AND RATIONALE

A brief description of the sampling design and rationale
should be included in the project description.  DQO guidance
addresses sampling design description and rationale.  If DQO
guidance is followed, a single scoping section covering
anticipated remedies, data requirements,  and sampling should
result.  The sampling design description should include
potential sampling locations and parameters.  A rationale
for choosing the sampling points, number of samples, medium
of sample (air, soil, or water), sampling methods, amounts,
preservation techniques, and chemical parameters should be
discussed.  Sample containers, preservation techniques, and
shipping methods should be selected in accordance with the
latest EPA and Department of Transportation (DOT) require-
ments.  Sections 4, 5, and 6 of this compendium contain
information on these procedures; however, consultation with
EPA and DOT is strongly recommended.
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                               Exhibit 2-1
                           SAMPLING FOR XYZ SITE

                                          Target
                                       Compound List
                                                a
                       Target             Inorganics            Special
                   Compound List        Tasks I & II Metals      Analytical
                      Organics          Task III Cyanide         Services
                 (No. x Freq. = Total)   (No. x Freq. = Total)  (No. x Freq. = Total)

Groundwater
  Monitoring Well        19 x 2 = 38          19 x 2 = 38
  Residential Wells      10x2=20           5x2= 10         5x2= 10

Surface Water
  Water                 6x1=6            6x1=6
  Sediment              6x1=6            6x1=6

Soils
  Chemical             46 x 1 = 46          46 x 1 = 46             -
  Physical                 -                  -            25 x 1 = 25°
 Groundwater samples  to be analyzed for total cyanide and total metals will not be
 filtered before analysis.  An aliquot will be filtered in the field before sample
 preservation, and will be analyzed for soluble metals and soluble cyanide. Detection
 limit requirements are specified in "QAPjP for XYZ Site, Appendix A, Analytical
. Requirements."
0
 SAS will be used to  analyze residential well samples for ammonia, nitrates, and nitrites.
c
 10 Atterberg limits, 15-grain-size distribution.
                  2.7   REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

No  specific regional variances  have been identified;
however,  all future  variances will be  incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium.   Information  on
variances may become dated  rapidly.  Thus,  users  should
contact  the regional EPA RPMs for full details on current
regional  practices and requirements.
                     2.8   INFORMATION SOURCES

U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.   "Data Quality
Objectives:   Development Guidance for  Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Site Remedial  Response Activities."   OSWER Directive
9355.0-7B,  Sections  B,  C,  D, and F.  Washington,  D.C.:
Hazardous  Site  Control  Division.   1 April  1987.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Guidance for
Preparation of Quality Assurance Project Plans.  QAMS,
005/80.  Washington, D.C.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Guidance for the
Development of a Quality Assurance Plan.  Prepared by
Regional Team:  Juanita Hillmar (Region VIII), Ho L. Young
(Region IX),  and Barry Towns (Region X).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Preparation of
State-Lead Remedial Investigation Quality Assurance Project
Plans for Region V; Guidance.Quality Assurance Office^
Chicago, Illinois.
WDR146/002
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                          Section 3
                IMPLEMENTING FIELD ACTIVITIES
                 3.1  GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

3.1.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

Section 3 addresses several areas including the control of
contaminated materials generated during fieldwork, orga-
nization of the field team, decontamination, and general
health and safety considerations.  This section provides
general information on those topics in individual
subsections that identify their relevant scope and purpose,
definitions, and applicability.  The section lists
information sources for specific guidance.  Fieldwork
encompasses the activities associated with preliminary
assessments/site inspections (PA/SI), site investigations,
remedial investigations (RI), feasibility study pilot or
bench tests, and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) inspections.  Guidance on these activities is
voluminous and will not be presented here.  The Site Manager
(SM) must also be guided by the state and local laws, codes,
rules, regulations, and ordinances, as well as by any
site-peculiar guidance such as consent decrees.

3.1.2  DEFINITIONS

Office of Safety and Health Administration  (OSHA) 1910.120.
OSHA Interim Final Rule on Hazardous Waste Operations and
Emergency Response.  OSHA Standard 29 CFR 1910.120 as
released on 19 December 1986 in the Federal Register.

Site Manager (SM).  The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.  The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manger or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).

3.1.3  APPLICABILITY

The procedures contained in Section 3 are applicable to
field activities that involve hazardous materials (as
defined by the OSHA standard)  and are a potential for
personnel exposure.

3.1.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

Activities that fall under the scope of OSHA 29 CFR
1910.120, as defined in that standard, must comply with the
requirements of that standard.   The SM is responsible for
coordinating all efforts with the assigned Health and Safety
Officer (HSO)  [also known as Site Safety Coordinator  (SSC)
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or Site Safety and Health Officer (SSHO)]  to achieve and
maintain compliance.

3.1.5  RECORDS

The documents required by OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 must be
completed, maintained, and made available as described in
that standard.  These records include medical surveillance
documents, health and safety plans,  and all other required
documentation.  The retention time for these documents is
significant—30 years or more.  Site Managers must rely on
the administrative personnel associated with their corporate
or agency health and safety programs to provide for reten-
tion of records.  These procedures should be clearly
delineated within the program.

3.1.6  Procedures

Appropriate procedures are specified in the subsequent
subsections.
            3.2  CONTROL OF FIELDWORK-GENERATED
                    CONTAMINATED MATERIAL

3.2.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

Field investigation activities often result in the
production or migration of contaminated materials
(investigation-derived waste) that must be properly managed
to protect the public and the environment, as well as to
meet legal requirements.  This subsection deals with the
proper management of contaminated materials.

The objective of this guideline is to provide general
reference information on the control of contaminated mate-
rials.

3.2.2  DEFINITIONS

Contaminated material.  Any of the field investigation's
by-products that are suspected of being contaminated or are
known to be contaminated with hazardous substances.  These
by-products include such materials as decontamination
solutions, disposable equipment, drilling muds and cuttings,
we11-development fluids, well-purging water, and spill-
contaminated materials.

3.2.3  APPLICABILITY
The SM should assume that hazardous wastes generated during
an investigation will require compliance with federal
requirements for generation, storage, transportation, or
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disposal.  In addition, there may be state regulations that
govern the disposal action.

The work plan for a site investigation must include a
description of control procedures for contaminated mate-
rials.  This plan should assess the type of contamination,
estimate the amounts that would be produced, describe con-
tainment equipment and procedures, and delineate storage or
disposal methods.  Adequate budget must be allocated for
these purposes.  As a general policy, it is wise to select
investigation methods that minimize the generation of con-
taminated materials.  The handling and the disposing of
potentially hazardous materials are expensive; however, the
consequences and penalties for improper handling are
significant.

3.2.4  RESPONSIBILITIES
The Site Manager or designee is responsible for identifying
as contaminated any material that was generated onsite and
for implementing the procedures used to control and dispose
of such material.

3.2.5  RECORDS

If onsite or offsite testing is conducted on the
contaminated material, appropriate chain-of-custody and sam-
ple analysis forms must be prepared as described in other
sections of this compendium.  If it is determined that
wastes generated onsite are hazardous, the appropriate RCRA
manifest and disposal forms must be completed as discussed
in Subsection 3.2.6.2.  The SM must determine who will be
designated as the generator of the contaminated material.
Typically, an EPA official should be designated as the
person to sign items such as manifests.

3.2.6  PROCEDURES

Provided below is a broad description of the sources of
contaminated material that can be generated onsite, plus a
general discussion of the current procedures used to control
and dispose ot contaminated materials that are fieldwork
generated.

3.2.6.1  Sources of Contaminated Materials and Containment
Methods

Decontamination solutions.  Decontamination solutions and
rinses must be assumed to contain the hazardous chemicals
associated with the site unless there are analytical or
other data to the contrary.  The solution volumes could vary
from a few gallons to several hundred gallons in cases where
large equipment requires cleaning.
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Small amounts of rinse solutions, such as those generated by
the personnel decontamination station (PDS),  are best stored
in 55-gallon drums (or equivalent containers)  that can be
sealed until ultimate disposal at an approved facility.  As
a rule of thumb, use of a temporary PDS will generate 55 to
110 gallons of decontamination solution per day for every
five persons using it.  The addition of showers and clothes
washing machines associated with a more permanent facility
will generate as much as 1,000 gallons per day per every
five persons.  If the amounts generated by a PDS exceed one
or two 55-gallon drums each day, a larger-capacity above-
ground storage vessel, such as a fiberglass tank or collaps-
ible rubber bladder, should be considered.  If individual
drums are used, they should be marked with sufficient infor-
mation so that personnel can determine what contaminants may
be present.  This information should be based on the analyt-
ical results from the sampling campaign.  Alternately, sam-
ples can be analyzed from each drum.  However, the cost of
analysis may exceed the cost of disposal.  Larger containers
may be sampled and analyzed in a cost-effective manner.  If
the suspected contamination is acceptably low, the fluids
can be allowed to drain back onsite or can be released to
local sewers—with the permission of the appropriate author-
ities.  In some rare instances, contaminated fluids may be
released back to the site.

Larger equipment, such as backhoes and tractors, must be
decontaminated in an area that has a method of controlling
and collecting the spent fluids.  A decontamination area for
large equipment can consist of a shallow depression lined
with plastic, which is covered with clean sand or gravel, or
the area may be a bermed concrete pad with a floor drain
leading to a holding tank.  The amounts generated by typical
equipment cleaning devices  (steam jenny and hydro-blaster)
usually exceed 500 gallons per cleaning.  Spill prevention
and containment measures should be implemented for the
larger fluid containers or if many drums of fluid are left
onsite.  Protection from vandals is also needed.

Disposable equipment.  Disposable equipment that could be
contaminated during a site investigation typically includes
tools, rubber gloves, boots, broken sample containers, and
chemically resistant clothing.  These items are small and
can easily be contained in 55-gallon drums with removable
lids.  Secure containment within the containers is provided
by sealing them at the end of each work day and upon project
completion.  Additionally, containers are labeled in
accordance with the applicable Department of Transportation
 (DOT) regulations on hazardous materials under 49 CFR
172.304.  Adequate protection from vandals, theft, and
adverse weather must be provided for all containers.
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Drilling muds and well-development fluids.  Drilling muds
and we11-development fluids are materials used when install-
ing groundwater monitoring wells.  Their use could result in
the surface accumulation of contaminated liquids and solids
that require containment.  Monitoring wells are often placed
in uncontaminated areas to determine if hazardous chemicals
have migrated below ground.  Materials from these wells
require especially careful management since they threaten
contamination of otherwise clean property.

The volume of drilling and well-development fluids requiring
containment will depend on the number of wells, diameters
and depths, groundwater characteristics, and geologic for-
mations.  There are no simple mathematical formulas avail-
able for accurately predicting these volumes.  It is best to
rely on the experience of hydrogeologists and/or reputable
well drillers who are familiar with the local conditions and
the well installation techniques selected.  These individu-
als should be able to estimate the volume of contaminated
fluid to be contained.  Since rough estimates may be
involved, managers shall always be prepared to halt drilling
or other well-development operations if more containment
capacity is needed.  For example, over one million gallons
of contaminated fluids have been generated during pump tests
of monitoring wells.

Drilling fluid (mud) is mixed and stored in a container
commonly referred to as a mud pit.  This mud pit consists of
a suction section from which drilling fluid is withdrawn and
pumped through hoses down the drill pipe to the bit and then
back up the hole to the settling section of the mud pit.  In
the settling section, the fluid velocity is reduced by a
screen and by several flow-restriction devices, thereby
allowing the well cuttings to settle out of the fluid.

The mud pit may be either a portable aboveground tank,
commonly made of steel, or a stationary pit that is in the
ground.  The aboveground tanks have a major advantage over
pits in the ground because the tanks isolate the contam-
inated fluids from the surface environment.  The tanks are
also portable and can usually be cleaned easily.

As the well is drilled, the sediments that accumulate in the
settling section must be removed.  Removal is best done by
shoveling sediments into drums or other similar containers.
When the drilling is complete, the contents of the above-
ground tank are likewise shoveled or pumped into drums, and
the tank is cleaned and made available for reuse.

If in-ground pits are used, they shall not extend into the
natural water table.  They shall also be lined with a
bentonite-cement mixture followed by a layer of flexible
impermeable material such as plastic sheeting.  To maintain
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its impermeable seal, the material used must be nonreactive
with the contaminants.  An advantage of the in-ground pit is
that well cuttings do not necessarily have to be removed
periodically during drilling because the pit can be made
deep enough to contain them.  Depending on site conditions,
the in-ground pit may have to be totally reexcavated and
refilled with uncontaminated natural soils when the drilling
operation is complete.

When the aboveground tank or the in-ground pit is used, a
reserve tank or pit should be located at the site as a
backup system for leaks, spills, and overflows.  In either
case, surface drainage shall be such that any excess fluid
can be controlled within the immediate area of the drill
site.  In-ground pits must also be barricaded and lighted to
prevent accidents.

The containment procedure for well-development fluids is
similar to that for drilling fluids.  The volume and weight
of contaminated fluid will be determined by the method of
development.  When a new well is bailed to produce clear
water, substantially less volume and weight of fluid will
result than when backwashing or high-velocity jetting is
used.

Spill-contaminated materials.  A spill is always possible
when a site investigation involves opening and moving con-
tainers of liquids.  Contaminated sorbents and soils result-
ing from spills will have to be contained and cleaned up.
Small quantities of spill-contaminated materials are usually
best contained in drums, while larger quantities can be
placed in lined pits or in other impermeable structures.  In
some cases, onsite containment may not be feasible and
immediate transport to an approved disposal site will be
required.

3.2.6.2  Disposal of Contaminated Materials

Actual disposal techniques for contaminated materials are
the same as those for any hazardous substance—incineration,
landfilling, and/or treatment.  The problem centers around
the assignment of responsibility for disposal.  The respon-
sibility must be determined and agreed on by all involved
parties before the fieldwork starts.

If testing conducted on a waste that was generated onsite
(RCRA extraction, organic screening, inorganic and organic
analysis, etc.) shows that the waste is nonhazardous, the
material can be handled as a non-RCRA waste and disposed of
onsite at the direction of EPA.  For hazardous waste mate-
rials, onsite disposal should not be practiced.  The mate-
rial should be properly packaged and disposed of in a
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RCRA-approved offsite facility.  The same procedure applies
to residuals of samples (see Section 5 for a discussion).
                                                x
A majority of the waste material generated during onsite
activities is hazardous.  Either it is a health hazard, or
the waste material, when tested, fails the RCRA extraction
tests.  In these instances, EPA has provided guidance for
the disposal of these materials.  The guidance, in the form
of a memorandum dated 13 December 1984 from Russel H. Wyer
of EPA Headquarters, provides the general procedure for
disposing of RCRA waste material from hazardous waste facil-
ities.  Site-specific disposal options are developed by con-
sulting with the EPA regions through the EPA RPM and by
specifying disposal actions in the work plan.

3.2.6.3  Waste Storage and Management

Wastes generated through investigative activities (e.g.,
drilling) are governed by RCRA requirements with regard to
packaging, labeling, transporting, storing, and record-
keeping.  These requirements are stated in 40 CFR 262
entitled "Standard Applicable to Generators of Hazardous
Wastes."  However, some state laws have primacy over RCRA
requirements.  To determine this, the appropriate state
agency must be contacted.   A list of the state environmental
agencies has been attached for this use and appears as
Exhibit 3-1.

Wastes that are accumulated through onsite activities are to
be stored in a secure location that is under the control of
the operator.  Therefore,  to meet this requirement,  it is
common practice for the waste-staging area to be located
onsite.  Wastes generated from offsite activities, such as
wells, are addressed in standard 40 CFR 262.34(c).  This
standard states the generator "may accumulate as much as

55 gallons of hazardous waste or 1 quart of acutely hazard-
ous waste...in containers at or near any point of generation
where wastes initially accumulate, which is under the con-
trol of the operator of the process generating the
waste...."  Offsite wells are typically areas that cannot be
considered to be under the operator's control.  Therefore,
the operator must place the wastes in containers and then
label, manifest, and transport these wastes to the onsite
staging area.

The maximum duration for storing wastes onsite is 90 days
without a permit or without having interim status, provided
that the stored wastes meet the RCRA requirements for con-
taining and labeling.  Storage duration beyond 90 days
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                                        Exhibit 3-1
                          LISTING OF STATE ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES
ALABAMA
Department of Environmental
  Management
State Capital
Montgomery, AL  36130
205/271-7700

ALASKA
Department of Environmental
  Conservation
3220 Hospital Dr.
Pouch 0
Juneau, AK  99811
907/465-2600

ARIZONA
Division of Environmental
  Health Services
Department of Health Servs.
1740 W. Adams St.
Phoenix, AZ  85007
602/255-1130

ARKANSAS
Department of Pollution
  Control and Ecology
8001 National Dr.
Little Rock, AR  72209
501/562-7444

CALIFORNIA
Resources Agency
1311 Resources Building
1416 9th St.
Sacramento, CA  95814
916/445-5656

COLORADO
Department of Natural
  Resources
718 State Centennial Bldg.
1313 Sherman St.
Denver, CO  80203
303/866-3311

CONNECTICUT
Department of Environmental
  Protection
117 State Office Bldg.
165 Capitol Ave.
Hartford, CT  06106
203/566-2110

DELAWARE
Division of Environmental
  Control
Department of Natural
  Resources and
  Environmental Control
R and R Complex
89 Kings Highway
P.O. Box 1401
Dover, DE  19903
302/736-4764
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Environmental Control
  Division
Housing and Environmental
  Regulation Administration
Department of Consumer and
  Regulatory Affairs
505 North Potomac Building
614 H St., NW
Washington, DC  20001
202/767-7370

FLORIDA
Department of Environmental
  Regulation
Twin Towers Building
2600 Blair Stone Rd.
Tallahassee, FL  32301
904/488-4805

GEORGIA
Environmental Protection
  Division
Department of Natural
  Resources
825 Trinity-Washington Bldg.
270 Washington St., SW
Atlanta, GA  30334
404/656-4713

HAWAII
Office of Environmental
  Quality Control
550 Halekauwila St.
Honolulu, HI  96813
808/548-6915

IDAHO
Division of Environment
  Department of Health
  and Welfare
Towers Bldg.
450 W State St.
Boise, ID  83720
208/334-4059

ILLINOIS
Environmental Protection
  Agency
220 Churchill Rd.
Springfield, IL  62706
217/782-3397

INDIANA
Environmental Management
  Board
State Board of Health
Health Bldg.
1330 W. Michigan St.
Indianapolis, IN   46206
317/633-8404
IOWA
Department of Water, Air,
  and Waste Management
Henry A. Wallace Bldg.
900 E. Grand Ave.
Des Moines, IA  50319
515/281-8854

KANSAS
Division of Environment
  Department of Health and
  Environment
Bldg. 740, Forbes Field
Topeka, KS  66620
913/862-9360, Ext. 283

KENTUCKY
Department of Environment
Natural Resources and
  Environmental Protection
  Cabinet
Ash Bldg., 18 Reilly Rd.
Frankfort, KY  40601
502/564-2150

LOUISIANA
Department of Environmental
  Quality
700 State Land and Natural
  Resources Bldg.
625 N. 4th St.
P.O. Box 44066
Baton Rouge, LA  70804
504/342-1265

MAINE
Department of Environmental
  Protection
Ray Bldg., AMHI Complex
Hospital St.
Mail to:  State House,
  Station 17
Augusta, ME  04333
207/289-2811

MARYLAND
Maryland Environmental
  Service
Department of Natural
  Resources
60 West St.
Annapolis, MD  21401
301/269-3351

MASSACHUSETTS
Executive Office of
  Environmental Affairs
Leverett Saltonstall  State
Office Bldg.
100 Cambridge St.
Boston, MA   02202
617/727-9800
                                            3-8

-------
                                        Exhibit 3-1
                                        (continued)
MICHIGAN
Department of Natural
  Resources
Stevens T. Mason Bldg.
7th Floor
P.O. Box 30028
Lansing, MI  48909
517/373-2329

MINNESOTA
Environmental Quality Board
100 Capitol Square Bldg.
550 Cedar St.
St. Paul, MN  55101
612/296-2603

MISSISSIPPI
Bureau of Pollution Control
Department of Natural
  Resources
Southport Mall
Hwy. 80-W at Ellis Ave.
P.O. Box 10385
Jackson, MS  39209
601/961-5171

MISSOURI
Division of Environmental
  Quality
Department of Natural
  Resources
1915 Southridge Dr.
P.O. Box 1368
Jefferson City, MO  65102
314/751-3241

MONTANA
Environmental Sciences Division
Department of Health and
  Environmental Sciences
W.F. Cogswell Bldg.
Lockey St.
Helena, MT  59620
406/444-3948

NEBRASKA
Department of Environmental
  Control
State Office Bldg.
301 Centennial Mall, S.
P.O. Box 94877
Lincoln, NE  68509-4877
402/471-2186

NEVADA
Division of Environmental
  Protection
Department of Conservation
  and Natural Resources
221 Nye Bldg.
201 S. Fall St.
Capitol Complex
Carson City, NV  89710
702/885-4670
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Environmental Protection
  Division
Office of the Attorney
  General
State House Annex
25 Capitol St.
Concord, NH  03301
603/271-3679

NEW JERSEY
Department of Environmental
  Protection
John Fitch Plz.
P.O. Box 1390
Trenton, NJ  08625
609/292-2885

NEW MEXICO
Environmental Improvement
  Division
Health and Environment
  Department
Crown State Office Bldg.
725 St. Michael's Dr.
P.O. Box 968
Santa Fe, MM  87504-0968
503/984-0020, Ext. 200

NEW YORK
Department of Environmental
  Conservation
50 Wolf Rd.
Albany, NY  12233-0001
518/457-3446

NORTH CAROLINA
Division of Environmental
  Management
Department of Natural
  Resources and Community
  Development
Archdale Bldg.
512 N. Salisbury St.
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC  27611
919/733-7015

NORTH DAKOTA
Environmental Health Section
Department of Health
102 Missouri Office Bldg.
1200 Missouri Ave.
Bismarck, ND  58501
701/224-2374

OHIO
Ohio Environmental Protection
  Agency
Seneca Towers
361 E. Broad St.
P.O. Box 1049
Columbus, OH  43216
614/466-8318
OKLAHOMA
Department of Pollution
  Control
1000 N.E. 10th St.
P.O. Box 53504
Oklahoma City, OK  73152
405/271-4677

OREGON
Department of Environmental
  Quality
Yeon Bldg.
522 S.W. 5th Ave.
P.O. Box 1760
Portland, OR  97207
503/229-5696

PENNSYLVANIA
Department of Environmental
  Resources
Fulton Bank Bldg., 9th Fl.
200 N. 3rd St.
P.O. Box 2063
Harrisburg, PA  17105
717/787-2814

RHODE ISLAND
Department of Environmental
  Management
83 Park St.
Providence, RI  02903
401/277-2771

SOUTH CAROLINA
Division of Environmental
  Quality Control
Department of Health and
  Environmental Control
415 J. Marion Sims Bldg.
2600 Bull St.
Columbus, SC  29201
803/758-5450

SOUTH DAKOTA
Department of Water and
  Natural Resources
Joe Foss Bldg.
523 E. Capitol Ave.
Pierre, SD  57501
605/773-3151

TENNESSEE
Bureau of Environment
Department of Health and
  Environment
TERRA Bldg.
150 9th Ave., N.
Nashville, TN  37203
615/741-3657
                                            3-9

-------
TEXAS
Environmental Protection
  Division
Office of the Attorney
  General
Executive Office Bldg.
411 W. 13th St.
P.O. Box 12548, Capitol Sta.
Austin, TX  78711
512/475-1101

UTAH
Division of Environmental
  Health
Department of Health
Social Services Bldg.
150 W. North Temple St.
P.O. Box 2500
Salt Lake City, UT 84110-2500
801/533-6121

VERMONT
Agency of Environmental
  Conservation
Heritage II Complex
79 River St.
Montpelier, VT  05602
802/828-3139

VIRGINIA
Council on the Environment
903 Ninth St. Office Bldg.
9th and Grace Sts.
Richmond, VA  23219
804/786-4500

WASHINGTON
Washington Department of
  Ecology
St. Martin's College
Mail Stop PV-11
Olympia, WA  98504
206/459-6168

WEST VIRGINIA
Department of Natural
  Resources
669 State Office Bldg. 3
1800 Washington St., E.
Charleston, WV  25305
304/348-2754

WISCONSIN
Department of Natural
  Resources
General Executive Facility  II
101 S. Webster St.
P.O. Box 7921
Madison, WI  53707
608/266-2121

WYOMING
Department of Environmental
  Quality
Herschler Bldg., 4th Fl.
122 W. 25th St.
Cheyenne, WY  82002
307/777-7938
      Exhibit 3-1
      (continued)

AMERICAN SAMOA
Environmental Quality
  Commission
Office of the Governor
Pago Pago, AS  96799
Country Code 684/633-4116
  and 633-4398

GUAM
Guam Environmental Protection
  Agency
P.O. Box 2950
Agana, GU  96910
Country Code 671/646-8863,
  8864, and 8865

PUERTO RICO
Environmental Quality Board
204 Del Parque St.
P.O. Box 11488
Santurce, PR  00910
809/725-8898 and 723-1617

VIRGIN ISLANDS
Division of Natural Resources
  Management
Department of Conservation
  and Cultural Affairs
P.O. Box 4340
Charlotte Amalie,
  St. Thomas, VI  00801
809/774-3320
                                           3-10

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alters the status of the controller from a generator of haz-
ardous waste to an operator of a storage facility.  Such a
change in status subjects the operator to compliance with
RCRA requirements stated in 40 CFR Parts 264 and 265.  A
final concern is that, during dismantling, the storage area
will need to be sampled  (e.g., soil sampling) to determine
that no releases of hazardous substances occurred during
storage.

Questions on the interpretation of the requirements for
storing and handling hazardous substances can be directed to
the RCRA Hotline (1/800/424-9346).

Provided below is an outline of the suggested procedures for
disposal of investigation-derived wastes.

1.   Determine whether or not investigation-derived wastes
     will be generated during the project.  If yes, obtain
     RCRA EPA Notification of Hazardous Waste Activity Form
     (Form No. 8700-12).  If no, note the decision in the
     work plan.

2.   Obtain a RCRA generator provisional number from the EPA
     Remedial Project Manager (RPM).

3.   Fill out the provisional number questionnaire and
     submit it to the EPA RPM.

4.   Contact waste transporters and disposers to request
     bids for their services; obtain necessary documentation
     required by a company for those services.  (All com-
     panies require the filing of some type of waste data
     sheet.)  A bid will not be awarded until a waste char-
     acterization,  including data, is provided to the trans-
     porter/disposer.  These forms can be found in the
     Hazardous Waste Services Directing; Transportation,
     Disposal Sites, Laboratories, and Consultants published
     by J.J. Keller Associates(414/722-2848).

5.   Obtain necessary state/federal shipping and disposal
     manifest forms.   (A manifest is required from the state
     where the waste originated.)

6.   Conduct field activities.

7.   Sample and characterize waste.  This step includes all
     RCRA parameters plus special analyses such as TCDD.

8.   Receive analysis from laboratory.
                            3-11

-------
9.   Complete waste data sheets, and submit them to
     potential transporters and disposal facilities.

10.  Receive bids for transportation and disposal
     activities.

11.  Prepare EPA Form 8700-12, including waste
     characterization data for sign-off by designated EPA
     official.  (Note:  Materials generated are considered
     to be EPA wastes, and an EPA employee must sign off on
     all paperwork.)

12.  Prepare state and federal shipping and disposal
     manifest forms for signature by EPA personnel.

13.  Award subcontract for waste transportation and
     disposal.

3.2.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future determined variances will be incorporated within
subsequent revisions of this compendium.  Information on
variances may become dated rapidly.  Thus, users should
contact the regional EPA RPMs for full details on current
regional practices and requirements.

3.2.8  INFORMATION SOURCES

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976.


             3.3  ORGANIZATION OF THE FIELD TEAM

3.3.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

The objective of this subsection is to provide the roles and
responsibilities of field team members who conduct remedial
response activities at hazardous waste sites.

3.3.2  DEFINITIONS

None.

3.3.3  APPLICABILITY

The primary function of the field investigation team is to
gather information according to the approved work plan.
These guidelines describe the components and duties of team
members and suggest the numbers of members that are neces-
sary for the field team to safely meet the stated goals of
the investigation.  These guidelines are applicable to field
work involving hazardous waste disposal sites.
                            3-12

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3.3.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA Occupational Safety and Health
Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities presents
a generalized approach to personnel organization for remedi-
al response activities (see Exhibit 3-2 taken from that
publication)  and provides an excellent summary of the
responsibilities of each of the named positions.

Typically, at least eight roles may be required for a field
investigation team:  SM,  field team leader, site safety
officer, personnel decontamination station operator/
equipment specialist, communications supervisor, initial
entry party,  work party,  and emergency response team.

The number of roles needed at each site is dictated by the
potential hazards and the specific needs of the site.  Dual
role assignments may be acceptable when hazardous substances
and physical  conditions at a site are well documented and
the nature of the work is limited.

3.3.4.1  Site Manager

The SM is responsible for the following:

1.   All the  team does or fails to do

2.   Preparing and organizing project work

3.   Selecting team personnel and briefing them on specific
     assignments

4.   Coordinating with the EPA RPM, who is responsible for
     obtaining the owner's permission to enter the site

5.   Coordinating with the field team leader to complete the
     work plan

6.   Completing final reports and preparing the evidentiary
     file

7.   Establishing safety and equipment requirements that are
     to be met, and monitoring compliance with those
     requirements

8.   Coordinating with the lead agency

9.   Assisting in quality assurance efforts

Some of these responsibilities may be delegated to the field
team leader and the site safety coordinator.
                            3-13

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                                        Exhibit  3-2
              GENERALIZED APPROACH  TO PERSONNEL ORGANIZATION
                     FOR SITE INVESTIGATION  AND RESPONSE
                                  Government Agency
                                      Oversight
                                                                    OFFSITE
          Multidisciplinary
             Advisors
                          Lead Organization
                            Senior-Level
                            Management
                                                      Medical Support
                                       Project
                                     Team Leader
                                                                              ONSITE
UJ
(/)
V)
111
Field Team
 Leader
Command Post
  Supervisor
Decontamination
 Station Officers
Rescue Team
        Work Party
                         <
                         O
                       • Scientific • Financial
                        Advisor    Officer

                       • Logistics  • Photographer
                        Officer
                                 Security
                                 Officer
                           Record-
                           keeper
                                                        • Public Information
                                                         Officer
Site Safety and
 Health Officer
      OFFSITE
      AND ONSITE
      AS NEEDED
                    • Bomb Squad Experts   • Firefighters
                             • Communication
                               Personnel

                             • Environmental
                               Scientists
                             • Evacuation
                               Personnel
                                            Hazardous
                                            Chemical
                                            Experts

                                            Health Physicists

                                            Industrial
                                            Hygienists
                                                Meteorologists

                                                Public Safety
                                                Officer

                                                Toxicologists
                                            3-14

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3.3.4.2  Field Team Leader

The field team leader is responsible for the overall
operation and safety of the field team.  As mentioned
earlier, this role can be filled by the SM or the designated
representative.  The field team leader may join the work
party in the exclusion zone.  The field team leader is
responsible for the following:

1«   Execution of the site work plan

2.   Safety procedure compliance through coordination with
     the site safety officer

3.   Field operations management including coordination with
     laboratories and subcontractors

4.   Community relations, typically through state and
     federal liaison officials

5.   Site control

6.   Compliance of field documentation and sampling methods
     with evidence collection procedures

3.3.4.3  Site Safety Officer

The site safety officer is responsible for safety procedures
and operations at the site.  The site safety officer is
responsible to whoever is responsible for safety in the
organization rather than to the field team leader or SM.
This reporting system provides for two separate lines of
authority, thereby allowing decisions based on safety to be
represented on an equal basis with decisions based on the
pressures for accomplishing the investigation according to
schedule.

The site safety officer either remains on the clean side of
the exclusion area while monitoring the work party and site
activities or may accompany the downrange team to supervise
hazardous work.  The site safety officer is also responsible
for the following:

1.   Determining of the level of personal protection
     required

2.   Updating equipment or procedures based on new
     information gathered during the site inspection

3.   Changing the levels of protection based on site
     observations (Subsection 3.3.4)

4.   Monitoring compliance with the safety requirements
                            3-15

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5.    Stopping work as required to protect personal worker
     safety or where noncompliance with safety requirements
     is found

6.    Determining and posting emergency telephone numbers
     (including poison control centers)  and routes to capa-
     ble medical facilities; arranging for emergency trans-
     portation to medical facilities

7,    in conjunction with the SM,  notifying local public
     emergency officers (i.e., police and fire department)
     of the nature of the team's  operations and coordinating
     the team's contingency plan  with that of the local
     authorities

8.    Informing personnel other than team members who want
     access to the potential hazards of the site

9.    Entering the exclusion area  in emergencies when at
     least one other member of the field team is available
     to stay behind and notify emergency services (or after
     the emergency services have  been notified)

10.  Examining work party members for symptoms of exposure
     or stress

11.  Determining that each team member has been given the
     proper medical clearance by  a qualified medical consul-
     tant; monitoring team members to determine compliance
     with the applicable physical requirements as stipulated
     in the health and safety program

12.  Maintaining communications and line-of-site contact
     with the work party

13.  Providing emergency medical  care and first aid as
     necessary at the site

3.3.4.4  Personnel Decontamination Station Operator/
Equipment Specialist

The personnel decontamination station (PDS) operator/
equipment specialist functions in two roles that do not
require concurrent attention.  The equipment specialist role
requires the following:

1.    Determining that equipment is properly maintained and
     operating

2.    Inspecting equipment before  and after use

3.    Obtaining the required equipment before arriving at
     work site
                            3-16

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4.   Decontaminating personnel, samples, and equipment that
     return from the exclusion area

The role of PDS operator/equipment specialist includes the
following responsibilities:

1.   Designing and setting up the PDS

2.   Preparing the necessary decontamination solutions so
     that chemical contamination is not transported into the
     clean area by equipment, samples, protective clothing,
     or personnel

3.   Managing the mechanics of removing contaminated
     clothing from the work party

4.   Properly disposing of discarded contaminated clothing
     and decontamination solutions

3.3.4.5  Communications Supervisor

The communications supervisor functions as the clearinghouse
for communications.  This person does not enter the exclu-
sion area to assist the work party.  Should an emergency
arise, the communications supervisor notifies emergency
support personnel by phone, radio, or some other
communication device to respond to the situation.  Depending
on the team size and the nature of the emergency, the
communications supervisor may be needed to assist the site
safety officer in effecting a rescue.  Usually, the
communications supervisor assists the PDS operator/equipment
specialist in operating the PDS during an emergency and the
site safety officer in taking emergency medical measures.
The field team leader may assume the position of
communications supervisor.

The communications supervisor is also responsible for the
following:

1.   Maintaining a log of communications and site
     activities, such as duration of work periods with
     respirators or movement of personnel and equipment onto
     and off the site

2.   Assisting the site safety officer in sustaining
     communication and line-of-sight contact with the work
     party

3.   Maintaining good community relations in the absence of
     the field team leader, usually by referring questions
     to the appropriate head agency liaison officer
                            3-17

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4.   Assisting the site safety officer and PDS operator/
     equipment specialist as required

The communications supervisor may also be responsible for
logging and packaging for transport the samples taken by the
work party.  This person also maintains a weather watch and
provides security for the emergency response vehicle and
other equipment.

3.3.4.6  Initial Entry Party

The initial entry party enters the site first, employing
specialized instrumentation to characterize site hazards.
To become familiar with the conditions and dangers associ-
ated with the site, the field team leader should usually be
a part of the initial entry party.  The major purpose of
this team is to measure existing hazards and to survey the
site to ascertain if the level of personal protection
determined from preliminary assessment, site inspection, or
site screening study must be adjusted.

The initial entry party can consist of as few as two people
(using the "buddy system")  if a nonsparking cart or other
device is used to transport all the instrumentation.  Three
or four people are able to do the job more efficiently.

3.3.4.7  Work Party

The work party performs the onsite tasks necessary to
fulfill the objectives of the investigation (e.g., obtaining
samples or determining locations for monitoring wells).  No
team member should enter or exit the exclusion area alone.
The work party consists of a minimum of two individuals, and
any work party should follow the buddy system.  Aside from
the safety considerations,  it is much easier for two persons
dressed in protective clothing to perform such tasks as
notetaking, photographing,  and sampling.

The number of individuals in the work party varies.  Often,
several teams may be working simultaneously at several dif-
ferent sampling efforts.  In cases where a number of activ-
ities are taking place simultaneously or where activities
are widely separated, the site safety officer may be supple-
mented with several assistants assigned to each of the
smaller work teams.  Depending on the nature of the hazards
onsite, the work team safety officer may perform concurrent
duties (photography, air monitoring, headspace analysis,
sample logging) that would not interfere with the primary
duty of maintaining safety.

In cases of multiple or widely separated work teams, a means
of communication among the teams, the site safety officer,
and field team leader is vital.
                            3-18

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3.3.4.8  Emergency Response Team

Some means of providing emergency assistance to workers in
the exclusion zone must be established for every site.  Most
often, the site safety officer has that responsibility.
Extensive assignments requiring long hours and large work
parties may necessitate the use of a standby emergency
response team.  Members of the emergency response team are
"half-dressed" in the appropriate protective gear so that
they can quickly enter the exclusion area in an emergency.
This team is particularly valuable at sites where protective
equipment produces stress and heat loads on the work party
and where the rotation of workers provides a rested group of
workers able to respond to the emergency without increasing
the team size.

3.3.5  RECORDS

Records normally kept for field activities are identified in
other sections of this manual.  For details, see the
following sections:

     Section 4—Sample Control, Including Chain of Custody
     Section 5—Laboratory Interface
     Section 17—Document Control

3.3.6  PROCEDURES

The different guidelines that exist for organizing field
operations are based generally on the size of the field team
used.

Team size depends on site organization, levels of
protection, work objectives, and site hazards.  Team members
can always be added according to the roles required.

3.3.6.1  Two-Person Team

The two-person team is the minimum for a hazardous-substance
site investigation, and the team's capabilities are very
limited.  Such a team should never enter an uncharacterized
hazardous-substance site.  The two-person team is best
suited for offsite surveys and inspections or for obtaining
environmental (nonhazardous, offsite) samples.  Verifying
accuracy of aerial photographs by ground surveys, inspecting
files, or interviewing can all be accomplished by the two-
person team.  The two-person team can also conduct RCRA
inspections at facilities that have an OSHA-approved safety
program.
                            3-19

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3.3.6.2  Three-Person Team

The three-person team is recommended for sites requiring
Level C (air-purifying respirators)  protection and, in some
cases, at sites requiring Level B (supplied-air respirator)
protection.  (Levels of protection are discussed in the
NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA guidance manual and are set forth in the
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 regulations.)  This team is composed of
a field team leader; an individual fulfilling the combined
functions of PDS operator/equipment specialist, site safety
officer, and communications supervisor; and another indi-
vidual  (buddy)  to enter the site with the field team leader.

The three-person team is used where extensive PDS procedures
are not required and where the likelihood of needing emer-
gency rescue is low.  This field team is best used where the
primary objective is to map, photograph, or inventory.

Considerable care and thought are necessary before a
three-person team is employed on a site, because each indi-
vidual has numerous responsibilities.  In the event of an
accident, the third member does not enter the site to offer
emergency assistance until outside assistance has been sum-
moned; even then, entry should be made only when absolutely
necessary.

3.3.6.3  Four-Person Team

Most short-term Level B operations can be conducted with a
four-person team.  These operations would include work on
active sites where facility personnel are present or on
inactive sites with potentially IDLH  (immediately dangerous
to life and health) atmospheres.  The objective of a
four-person team at a site requiring Level B protection
might include limited sampling of ponds, soils, or open
containers and inspections? at sites known for poor
housekeeping (i.e., sites with a history of spills, leaks,
or other accidents).

The team consists of the standard two-person work party, a
combination site safety officer and PDS operator/equipment
specialist, and a communications supervisor who may assist
in the PDS operation.  Because life-threatening hazards are
assumed or known to be present at a Level B site, it is
essential that all personnel be fully acquainted with their
duties.  During an emergency, the communications supervisor
stays in the support area to maintain communication while
the site safety officer/PDS operator/equipment specialist
enters the exclusion area to aid the work party.  Once the
work party is in the contamination reduction area, the com-
mand post supervisor can offer assistance on the PDS or pro-
vide  fresh equipment from the support area.  During the work
in the exclusion area, team members may rotate individual
assignments.
                            3-20

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3.3.6.4  Five-Person Team

The five-person team is the typical minimum size for most
Level A and Level B operations or for operations when known
percutaneous hazards exist or when there is an absence of
historical information.  The site hazards that necessitate
Level A protection, combined with the limitations and
stresses placed on personnel by wearing Level A protection,
require a full-time PDS operator/equipment specialist who
can also serve in emergency response.  In the event of a
serious emergency such as a fire, explosion, or acutely
toxic release, both the site safety officer and the PDS
operator/equipment specialist may need to enter the exclu-
sion area dressed in Level A gear.  The communications
supervisor remains in the support area to direct outside
help to the site and then to assume the functions of PDS
operator/equipment specialist.

3.3.6.5  Teams of Six or More

Certain hazardous-substance site activities may require
operations that necessitate larger or alternating work
parties and additional support personnel in the contamina-
tion reduction area.  A seven-person team, for example,
employs the basic structure of the five-person team plus an
additional work party for alternating work loads.  The
eight-person team includes an additional PDS operator/
equipment specialist to assist in the continuous decon-
tamination tasks that are involved with alternating work
parties and to decontaminate and pack samples as they are
received.

It is not unusual to employ teams of 12 where such tasks as
drum opening may require three work parties working concur-
rently.  This operation may involve teams to move the drums,
open the drums, and sample and reseal them under rigorous
safety procedures.  Larger teams can be designed with addi-
tional work parties and support personnel to safely gather
the site data and ensure communication and site control.

On some sites, many individuals will be required for
concurrent operations, such as building demolition or wastes
excavation, that will also entail the use of mobile heavy
equipment.  It is not feasible to provide a "buddy" to the
operators of such equipment.  Rather, a number of site
safety observers  (two usually will suffice) may be estab-
lished at vantage points (rented scaffolding located onsite
is ideal) to observe the equipment operators and the
ground-based workers simultaneously.  By means of radios or
visual and audible signals, the site safety observers can
assist in "directing traffic," a particularly important
safety procedure where the protective gear interferes with
hearing and vision.
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3.3.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

In Region VI, the site safety officer for the Field
Investigation Team (FIT)  cannot downgrade the level of
protection without consulting the FIT regional safety
coordinator.  No other region-specific variances have been
identified.  All subsequent variances will be incorporated
within Revision 01 of this compendium.  Because information
on variances may become dated rapidly, users should contact
the regional EPA RPMs for tull details on current regional
practices and requirements.  Regional variations of team
organizations should be established by coordinating the work
plan with the EPA RPM.

3.3.8  INFORMATION SOURCES
Office of Safety and Health Administration, 29 CFR 1910.120
"Interim Final Pulo for Hazardous Wnste Operations and
Emergency Response."  19 December 1986.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Occupational Safety
and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site
ActivitfeTIDeveloped by NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA.October
1985.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  "Standard Operating
Safety Guides."  Memorandum from William Hedeman, Jr.
19 November 1984.
                    3.4  DECONTAMINATION

3.4.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

Personnel conducting activities that involve hazardous
substances may have their personal protective gear contam-
inated by those substances through the course of the work
effort.  In addition, equipment may become contaminated.
Since such contamination is not always easily discernible,
it is necessary to assume that all personnel and equipment
working in the area  (where the presence of such substances
is known or suspected) have been contaminated.  Effective
decontamination procedures are implemented to minimize the
potential for cross contamination  (the transfer of contami-
nants, usually from one sample to another, by improperly
decontaminated sampling equipment, containers, or devices
such as drill rigs); offsite contaminant migration  (the
transfer of contaminants to areas outside the exclusion
zone, usually by improperly decontaminated equipment); or
personnel exposure from improperly decontaminated protective
gear.
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The subsections below present a general discussion ot
decontamination issues.  Detailed guidance on methods,
techniques, procedures, equipment, and solutions exist in
the documents shown in Subsection 3.4.7.  The SM and site
safety officer should study and reference these documents
when preparing the decontamination procedures.

3.4.2  DEFINITIONS

Decontamination.   The process of neutralization, washing,
rinsing, and removing exposed outer surfaces of equipment
and personal protective clothing to minimize the potential
for contamination migration.

Cross contamination.  The transfer of contaminants from
their known or suspected location into a noncontaminated
area; a term usually applied to sampling activities.

3.4.3  APPLICABILITY

The procedures in this subsection apply to activities where
the potential exists for exposures of personnel and equip-
ment to hazardous substances.

3.4.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The SM is responsible for determining the type of
decontamination facility to be used onsite, the solutions to
be employed, and the methodologies to be used in determining
the effectiveness of the decontamination approach.  The SM
is assisted by the field team leader and site safety offi-
cer.  Onsite, the field team leader is responsible for
implementing the decontamination plan by providing materials
and staff members.  The site safety officer oversees the
decontamination process and provides verification of the
effectiveness of the procedures.  The decontamination plan
should be presented or referenced in the work plan and
Quality Assurance Project Plan  (QAPjP).

3.4.5  RECORDS

The QAPjP and work plan document the decontamination
approach.  The use of equipment cleaning blanks, decon-
tamination rinse blanks, and other quality control proce-
dures serves to document the effectiveness of the cleaning
before and the decontamination after working onsite.  The
site safety officer typically furnishes documentation of
equipment decontamination for those items leaving the site
(see Exhibit 3-3).  Such documentation is typically required
by EPA for government-owned equipment.  In some instances,
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                         Exhibit  3-3
         DOCUMENTATION OF EQUIPMENT DECONTAMINATION
Contract No:	      Site Manager:
Work Assignment:	      Firm:
Project No:	      Phone  No:
Site Name/Location:
The following items of  (government-owned)  (corporate-owned)
(rental) equipment have been  decontaminated following the
procedures detailed in the  Site  Safety Plan dated 	,
(as modified on 	) .   Additional information on the
procedures used is contained  in  (list site logs, work plans,
photographs, etc.	)_.
                       Manufacturer's or     Dates of     Date of
Equipment Nomenclature    EPA Serial Number       Use        Decon.
SIGNED:

	 DATE:  	
Site Safety Coordinator


	 DATE:  	
Site Manager/Field  Team  Leader

Note:  Attach tags  to  the  decontaminated EPA-owned equipment
showing the date of decontamination,  the SSC's initials, and
the work assignment/project number(s).
                             3-24

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such as decontaminating a drill rig normally used by a sub-
contractor for water well installation, the SM may need to
arrange for laboratory testing of wipe samples before docu-
menting the "cleanliness" of a piece of equipment.

3.4.6  PROCEDURES

Numerous procedures are used in decontaminating people and
things.  The most effective procedure is contamination
avoidance, that is, the use of procedures or materials to
minimize or eliminate the potential for contact with contam-
inants.  Personal protection gear and standard operating
procedures are used to protect workers; other techniques
include encasing instruments and equipment in disposable
outer wrappings (plastic sheeting), using disposable
sampling devices, or isolating the contaminants.

Decontaminating procedures include flushing with water or
other solvents; using pressure or steam jets; heating, flam-
ing, or baking items; scraping, rubbing, or grinding away;
or, most simply, disposing of the item after determining
that the cost in time and staff necessary for
decontamination is not acceptable or that decontamination
would not be effective.  Several documents offer detailed
guidance on procedures (see below).

3.4.7  INFORMATION SOURCES

Chapter 10, Decontamination, of the Occupational Safety and
Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities
developed by NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA.October 1985.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  "Decontamination
Techniques for Mobile Response Equipment Used at Waste Sites
(State-of-the-Art Survey)."  EPA/600/52-85/105.  January
1986.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Guide for
Decontaminating Buildings, Structures, and Equipment at
Superfund Sites.  EPA/600/2-85/028.March 1985.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Field Standard
Operating Procedures #7 Decontamination of Response
Personnel.  January 1985.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  "Standard Operating
Safety Guides."  November 1984.
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        3.5  GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

3.5.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

Field activities at hazardous waste sites are conducted
according to detailed health and safety procedures.  These
procedures are developed in accordance with the implementing
regulations for Public Law 91-596, the Occupational Health
and Safety Act of 1970, contained in 29 CFR Part II (29 CFR
1910.120, 1910.126, 1910.134, 1910.141, 1910.165, and
1910.1200, among others).  Following standardized health and
safety procedures will reduce the possibility of accidents
or excess exposures of onsite workers to hazardous materials
while allowing field activities to be carried out in a
uniform manner.  The purpose of this subsection is to out-
line several standard health and safety field procedures
that are normally used in the conduct of remedial response
activities.  Site-specific health and safety requirements
are detailed in health and safety plans developed for each
onsite visit.  The general procedures to meet health and
safety requirements are described below.

3.5.2  DEFINITIONS

None.

3.5.3  APPLICABILITY

This procedure is applicable to onsite activities that are
carried out at hazardous waste sites by field personnel.

3.5.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The Site Managers are ultimately responsible for the health
and safety of workers onsite.  They are assisted by the site
safety officer.

The site safety officer is responsible for developing safe
work procedures for onsite and offsite assessment and for
monitoring compliance with those procedures.  The site
safety officer obtains and implements the site safety plan.

The field team leader is responsible for the overall
operation of the field team.  The field team leader works
with the site safety officer to conduct operations in com-
pliance with the site safety plan.

Field team members are responsible  for conducting tasks in
accordance with the site safety plan developed for the
activity.  Field team members are also responsible for
reporting to the field team  leader  any information that may
have an  impact on the health and  safety of the operation.
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3.5.5  RECORDS

The measurements and observations mentioned in this
subsection are documented in the project logbook.  A site
safety plan must be prepared for each field activity and
must be available for review by onsite personnel.

3.5.6  PROCEDURES

3.5.6.1  Site Safety Plan

A site safety plan (SSP) must be prepared by a qualified
safety person for each field investigation activity.  Review
and approval by a different, equally qualified, safety staft
member is typically required.  For remedial action at haz-
ardous waste sites, safety plans can be developed simulta-
neously with general operation plans and implemented when
remedial actions begin.  Emergency response situations may
require verbal safety instructions and the use of standard
operating safety procedures until specific safety protocols
can be written.  For any remedial response activities, the
SSP must include health and safety considerations for all
activities required at the scene.  The SSP must be reviewed
and updated whenever additional site data are received,
onsite personnel change, the level of protection used onsite
is upgraded or downgraded, or site operations differ from
those covered by the existing plan.

The field team members shall be thoroughly trained in the
use of safety plans.  The plan will be prepared under the
direction of the site safety officer by persons knowledge-
able with the site conditions and safety requirements.  The
SM and a designated health and safety staff member must
approve the plan.

Minimum requirements.  Paragraph (i) of 29 CFR 1910.120
requires employees to develop a site safety and health plan
that, as a minimum, addresses the following:

1.   Evaluate the risks associated with the site and with
     each operation conducted.  A scope of work will be
     included that summarizes the tasks required to perform
     each operation safely.

2.   Identify key personnel and alternates responsible for
     both site safety and remedial response operations.

3.   Address the levels of protective equipment to be worn
     by personnel during each site activity.  Also, include
     a decision logic for upgrading or downgrading the level
     of protection.
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4.    Designate work areas (exclusion zone,  contamination
     reduction zone, and support zone),  boundaries,  size of
     zones,  distance between zones,  and  access control
     points  into each zone.

5.    Establish decontamination procedures for personnel and
     equipment.

6.    Determine the number of personnel and equipment needed
     in the  work zones during initial entries and subsequent
     operations.

7.    Establish site emergency procedures (e.g., escape
     routes; signals for evacuating  work parties; internal,
     external, and emergency communications;  and procedures
     for fire and explosions).  Emergency phone numbers
     (fire department, police department, hospital,  ambu-
     lance,  poison control center,  and medical consultant)
     must appear on an emergency reference page.

8.    Implement a program and make arrangements with  the
     nearest medical facility (and medical life squad unit)
     for emergency medical care of routine injuries  and
     toxicological problems.  A map showing the route from
     the site to the medical facility must be included in
     the plan.

9.    Document individual training requirements for the
     available use of protective gear and field instruments
     and for the performance of particular tasks.

10.  Identify known or suspected contaminants onsite,
     location and concentration of contaminants, hazards
     associated with each contaminant (including toxicity
     and health effects), and action levels that would
     require upgrading the level of personal protective
     equipment.

11.  Describe the procedures and equipment required to
     monitor the work area for potentially hazardous mate-
     rials.   Detail the necessary records associated with
     the monitoring program.

12.  Consider weather and other conditions that may affect
     the health and safety of personnel during site
     operations.

13.  Implement control procedures to prevent access to the
     site by unauthorized personnel.

14.  Describe medical surveillance requirements for each
     operation.
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15.  Provide background information to familiarize the field
     team with the site history,  current status,  physical
     features, disposal practices,  past monitoring data,  and
     community/worker health complaints.

3.5.6.2  General Safety Practices

Personnel precautions.  The following are standard personnel
safety precautions:

1.   Eating, drinking, chewing gum or tobacco, smoking, or
     any practice that increases  the probability  of hand-
     to-mouth transfer and ingestion of material  is prohib-
     ited in any area designated  as contaminated.

2.   Hands and face must be thoroughly washed upon leaving
     the work area and before eating, drinking, or any other
     activities.

3.   Whenever decontamination procedures for outer garments
     are in effect,  the entire body shall be thoroughly
     washed as soon as possible after the protective garment
     i s removed.

4.   No excessive facial hair, which interferes with a
     satisfactory fit of the mask-to-face seal, is allowed
     on personnel required to wear respiratory protective
     equipment.

5.   Contact with contaminated surfaces or with surfaces
     suspected of being contaminated shall be avoided.
     Whenever possible, a person  shall not walk through pud-
     dles, mud, and other discolored surfaces; kneel on
     ground; or lean, sit, or place equipment on  drums, con-
     tainers, vehicles, or the ground.

6.   Medicine and alcohol can potentiate the effects from
     exposure to toxic chemicals.  Prescribed drugs shall
     not be taken by personnel on response operations if
     there is likelihood of such  potentiation.

7.   Personnel and equipment in the contaminated  area shall
     be kept to a minimum, consistent with effective site
     operations.

8.   Work areas for various operational activities must be
     established.

9.   Procedures for leaving a contaminated area must be
     planned and implemented before personnel go  to the
     site.  Work areas and decontamination procedures must
     be established on the basis  of prevailing site
     conditions.
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10.  Contact lenses shall not be worn by individuals
     required to wear respiratory protection or required to
     enter a potentially contaminated area.

Weather.  Adverse weather conditions are important
considerations in planning and conducting site operations.
Hot or cold weather can cause physical discomfort, loss of
efficiency, and personal injury.  Of particular importance
is heat stress resulting when protective clothing decreases
natural body ventilation.  One or more of the following can
be used to reduce heat stress:

1.   Provide plenty of liquids.  To replace body fluids
     (water and electrolytes) lost because of sweating, use
     a 0.1 percent saltwater solution, more heavily salted
     foods, or commercial mixes.  Current research indicates
     commercial mixes high in electrolytes and low in salt
     are preferable.

2.   Provide cooling devices to aid natural body
     ventilation.  These devices, however, add weight and
     their use must be balanced against worker efficiency.

3.   Install mobile showers or hose-down facilities to
     reduce body temperature and to cool protective
     clothing.

4.   In extremely hot weather, conduct operations in the
     early morning or the evening.

5.   Provide adequate shelter to protect personnel against
     heat  (or cold, rain, snow, etc.), which can decrease
     physical efficiency and increase the probability of
     accidents.

6.   In hot weather, rotate shifts of workers as required to
     manage heat stress; reduce the length of the work
     period and increase the length of the rest period.

7.   Maintain good hygienic standards, frequent change of
     clothing, and daily showering.  Clothing should be per-
     mitted to dry during rest periods.  Persons who notice
     skin problems should immediately consult medical
     personnel.

Heat stress monitoring.  For monitoring the body's
recuperative ability after exposure to excess heat, several
techniques are available as a screening mechanism.
Monitoring of personnel who wear impervious clothing
typically commences when the ambient temperature is 70°F or
above.  When temperatures exceed 85°F, workers are monitored
for heat stress after every work period, usually 2 hours.
The following are two monitoring schemes:
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1.   Heart rate (HR) is measured by the radial pulse for
     30 seconds as early as possible in the resting period.
     The HR at the beginning of the rest period should not
     exceed 110 beats/minute.  If the HR is higher, the next
     work period is shortened by 10 minutes (or 33 percent),
     while the length of the rest period stays the same.  If
     the pulse rate is 100 beats/minute at the beginning of
     the next rest period, the following work cycle is
     shortened by 33 percent.

2.   Body temperature is measured orally with a clinical
     thermometer as early as possible in the resting period.
     Oral temperature (OT) at the beginning of the rest
     period should not exceed 99°F.  If it does, the next
     work period is shortened by 10 minutes (or 33 percent),
     while the length of the rest period stays the same.
     However, if the OT exceeds 99.7°F at the beginning of
     the next period, the following work cycle is further
     shortened by 33 percent.  OT is measured again at the
     end of the rest period to make sure that it has dropped
     below 99°F.  (Since a mercury thermometer requires as
     long as 5 minutes to register the correct body tempera-
     ture, the use of digital thermometers should be
     considered.)

Effects of heat stress.   If the body's physiological
processesfail to maintain a normal body temperature because
of excessive heat, a number of physical reactions can occur
ranging in degree from mild (such as fatigue,  irritability,
anxiety, or a decrease in concentration, dexterity, or
movement) to fatal.   First aid books should be consulted for
specific symptoms and treatment.

Effects of cold exposure.  Persons working outdoors in
temperatures at or below freezing may be frostbitten.  Expo-
sure to extreme cold for a short time may cause severe
injury to the surface of the body or result in profound gen-
eralized cooling,  causing death.  Areas of the body that
have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio, such as fingers,
toes, and ears, are the most susceptible.

Two factors influence the development of a cold injury:
ambient temperature and the velocity of the wind.  Wind
chill is used to describe the chilling effect of moving air
in combination with low temperature.  For instance, 10°F
with a wind of 15  mph is equivalent in chilling effect to
still air at -18°F.   Charts depicting the wind-chill factor
are readily available.

As a general rule, the greatest incremental increase in wind
chill occurs when a wind of 5 mph increases to 10 mph.
Additionally, water conducts heat 240 times faster than air.
Thus, the body cools suddenly when chemical-protective
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equipment is removed if the clothing underneath is soaked
with perspiration.

Local injury resulting from cold is included in the generic
term frostbite.  There are several degrees of damage.

Systemic hypothermia is caused by exposure to freezing or
rapidly dropping temperature.  Its symptoms are usually
exhibited in five stages:  (1) shivering;  (2) apathy, list-
lessness, sleepiness, and (sometimes)  rapid cooling of the
body to less than 95°F;  (3)  unconsciousness, glassy stare,
slow pulse, and slow respiratory rate; (4) freezing of the
extremities; and, finally, (5) death.

First aid books should be consulted for symptoms and
specific treatments for cold injury.

3.5.6.3  Site Survey and Reconnaissance

Before the team enters the site, as much information as
possible should be collected concerning the types of haz-
ards, degree of hazards, and risks that may exist.  Using
available information  (shipping manifests, transportation
placards, existing records, container labels, etc.) or off-
site studies, the team will assess the hazards and identify
the initial safety requirements.

The team(s) initially entering the site must accomplish one
or more of the following objectives:

1.   Characterize the hazards that exist or potentially
     exist affecting the public health, the environment, and
     the response personnel.

2.   Verify existing information and/or obtain data about
     the incident.

3.   Evaluate the need for prompt mitigative actions.

4.   Collect supplemental information to determine the
     safety requirements for personnel who initially and
     subsequently enter  the site.

Preliminary onsite evaluation.  The initial onsite survey is
to determine, on a preliminary basis, hazardous or poten-
tially hazardous conditions.  The main effort is to rapidly
identify the immediate hazards that may affect the public,
the response personnel,  and the environment.  Of major con-
cern are the real potential dangers—fire, explosion,
oxygen-deficient atmospheres, radiation, airborne contami-
nants, or containerized  or pooled hazardous substances—that
could affect workers during subsequent operations.
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Visual observations.  While at the site, the initial entry
team should make visual observations that would help in
evaluating site hazards.  Some examples are dead fish or
other animals; land features; wind direction; labels on con-
tainers indicating explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive
materials; conditions conducive to splash or contact with
unconfined liquids, sludges, or solids; and other general
conditions.

Direct-reading instruments.  A variety of toxic air
pollutants including organic and inorganic vapors, gases, or
particulates can be produced at abandoned waste sites by
fires at chemical manufacturing, storage, reprocessing, or
formulating facilities or by the inadvertent mixing of chem-
icals during bulking operations.  Direct-reading tield
instruments will not detect or measure all of these sub-
stances.  Thus, lack of response should not be
interpreted as the complete absence of airborne toxic sub-
stances.  Verification of zero results can be done only by
collecting air samples and analyzing them in a laboratory.

Priority for initial entry monitoring.  Of immediate concern
to initial entry personnel are atmospheric conditions that
could affect the immediate safety of these personnel (see
Exhibit 3-4).  These conditions are airborne toxic sub-
stances, combustible gases or vapors, lack of oxygen, and,
to a lesser extent, ionizing radiation.  Priorities for mon-
itoring these potential hazards should be established after
a careful evaluation of conditions.

When the type(s)  of material(s)  involved in the
investigation is identified and its release into the
environment suspected or known,  the material's chemical or
physical properties and the prevailing weather conditions
may help determine the order of monitoring.  An unknown sub-
stance (s)  or situation(s) presents a more difficult monitor-
ing problem.

In general, when poorly ventilated spaces  (buildings, ships'
holds, boxcars, or bulk tanks) are entered, combustible
vapors or gases and oxygen-deficient atmospheres shall be
monitored first by team members wearing (as a minimum)
supplied-air respirators and a high degree of dermal pro-
tection.  Measurement of toxic gases or vapors and
radiation, unless known not to be present, should be the
next priority.

For open,  well-ventilated areas, combustion gases and oxygen
deficiency are lesser hazards and require lower priority.
However, areas of lower elevation at the site (such as
ditches and gullies) and downwind areas may have combustible
gas mixtures, in addition to toxic vapors or gases, and may
lack sufficient oxygen to sustain life.  Entry teams should
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                                       Exhibit 3-4
                              ATMOSPHERIC HAZARD GUIDELINES
                             Hazard
                      Ambient Level
Monitoring Equipment  	  	

Combustible Gas       Explosive atmosphere  LTa  10%  LEL
Indicator

                                            10-20%
Oxygen Concentration  Oxygen
Meter
                       G-T-  20%  LEL


                       LT 19.5%
Radiation Survey      Radiation
                                             19.5-25%
                                             GT 25.0%
                       LT 1 mR/hr
                      Radiation
Thermoluminescent     Radiation
Detector (TLD) Badge
                       GT 10 mR/hr
Colorimetric Tubes
Photoionization
Detectors
Flame-ionization
Detectors
Organic and inorganic
vapors/gases
Total organic vapors/
gases and limited
inorganic species

Total organic vapors/
gases

Specific organic
vapor/gases
                                             Depends on
                                             species
                                             Above
                                             background
                                             Above
                                             background

                                             Depends on
                                             species
aLT means less than.

 LEL is defined as lower explosive limit.

CGT means greater than.
        Action
                                                            Continue investigation.
Continue onsite monitoring
with extreme caution as
higher levels are encountered.

Explosion hazard; withdraw
from area immediately.

Monitor/ wearing self-
contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA).  NOTE:
Combustible gas readings are
not valid in atmospheres
with LT 19.5% oxygen.

Continue investigation with
caution.  SCBA not needed,
based on oxygen content only.

Discontinue inspection;
potential fire hazard.
Consult specialist.

Continue investigation.  If
radiation is detected above
background levels, this sig-
nifies the presence of pos-
sible radiation sources; at
this level, more thorough
monitoring is advisable.
Consult a health physicist.

Potential radiation hazard;
evacuate site.  Continue
monitoring only upon the
advice of a health physicist.

All employees shall wear a
TLD badge when working on
hazardous waste sites and
during any response operation.
Badges will be analyzed
quarterly to determine com-
pliance with federal standards.

Consult standard reference
manuals for air concentra-
tions/toxicity data.

Consult EPA standard
operating procedures.
Consult EPA standard
operating procedures.

Consult standard reference
manuals for air concentra-
tions/toxlcity data.
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approach and monitor whenever possible from the upwind side
of an area.

Periodic monitoring.  The monitoring surveys made during
initial entry to the site are for a preliminary evaluation
of atmosphere hazards.  In some situations, the information
obtained may be sufficient to preclude additional monitor-
ing.  A chlorine tank determined to be releasing no chlorine
is one such example.  Materials detected during the initial
site survey may indicate the need for a more comprehensive
evaluation of hazards and analyses for specific components.
A program must be established for monitoring, sampling, and
evaluating hazards for the duration of site operations.
Since site activities and weather conditions change, a con-
tinuous program to monitor atmospheric changes must be
implemented using a combination of stationary sampling
equipment, personnel monitoring devices, and periodic area
monitoring with direct-reading instruments.

Peripheral monitoring.  Whenever possible, atmospheric
hazards in the areas adjacent to the onsite zone are moni-
tored with direct-reading instruments, and air samples
should be taken before the initial entry for onsite monitor-
ing.  The lack of readings on instruments away from the site
does not indicate a lack of hazards onsite.  Offsite
readings are only another piece of information to assist in
the preliminary evaluation.

Monitoring instruments.  It is imperative that personnel
using monitoring instruments be thoroughly familiar with
their use, limitations, and operating characteristics.  All
instruments have inherent constraints in their ability to
detect and/or quantify the hazards for which they were
designed.  Unless trained personnel use instruments and
assess data readout, air hazards can be misinterpreted.  In

addition, only intrinsically safe instruments shall be used
until the absence of combustible gases or vapors can be
confirmed.

Ambient Atmospheric Concentrations.  Any indication of
atmospheric hazards (toxic substances, combustible gases,
lack of oxygen, radiation, and other specific materials)
should be viewed as a sign to proceed with care and delib-
eration.  Readings indicating nonexplosive atmospheres, low
concentrations of toxic substances, or other conditions may
increase or decrease suddenly, changing the associated
risks.

3.5.7  INFORMATION SOURCES

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  "Standard Operating
Safety Guides."  Memorandum from William Hedeman, Jr.
19 November 1984.


                            3-35

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Occupational Safety
and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site
Activities':Developed by NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA.October
1985.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration.  "Interim
Final Rule for Hazardous Operations and Emergency Response."
29 CFR 1910.120.  19 December 1986.
WDR225/014
                            3-36

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                          Section 4
         SAMPLE CONTROL, INCLUDING CHAIN OF CUSTODY


                   4 . 1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This section describes procedures for sample identification
and chain of custody.   The purpose of these procedures is to
maintain the quality of samples during collection, transpor-
tation, and storage for analysis.  Sample control and chain-
of-custody procedures specific to the Contract Laboratory
Program (CLP)  are presented in the User's Guide to the
Contract Laboratory Program.


                      4.2  DEFINITIONS

Sample.  Physical evidence collected for environmental
measuring and monitoring.  Evidence includes remote-sensing
imagery and photographs.

Site Manager (SM).   The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.  The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
                     4.3  APPLICABILITY

When environmental measuring or monitoring data are
collected for the Environmental Protection Agency  (EPA),
workers should refer to the procedures in this section.


                    4.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The SM or designee is responsible for monitoring compliance
with these procedures.  In general, it is desirable to
appoint one person to be responsible for implementing sample
control procedures (i.e., field operations leader).  How-
ever, each sampler is responsible for the activities
described in Subsections 4.5 and 4.6.


                        4.5  RECORDS

The following records are kept:

     o    Sample identification tags (varies with the EPA
          region; see Subsection 4.7 and Exhibit 5-7)
                             4-1

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     o    Sample traffic reports (e.g.,  Special Analytical
          Services (SAS);  see Exhibits 5-2, 5-3, and 5-9)

     o    Chain-of-custody (COC) forms and records (see
          Exhibits 5-4,  5-5,  and 5-6)

     o    Receipt-for-samples forms (varies among EPA
          regions; see Subsection 4.7 and Exhibit 4-3)

     o    Field Investigation Team (FIT)  receipt (for sample
          forms and field notebooks not serially numbered by
          the U.S. EPA)

     o    Field notebooks

     o    Airbills or bills of lading

     o    Dioxin analysis forms (as applicable)

     o    Photographic logs

Subsection 4.6 describes procedures for these records;
Subsection 5.1.6 shows completed exhibits of the first three
items.


                       4.6  PROCEDURES

Sample identification documents must be prepared to maintain
sample identification and chain of custody.  The following
are sample identification documents:

     o    Sample identification tags
     o    Sample traffic reports
     o    Chain-of-custody records
     o    Receipt-for-samples forms
     o    Custody seals
     o    Field notebooks

These documents are usually numbered  (serialized) by EPA.
Some varieties of custody seals, field notebooks, or photo-
graphic logs may not be serialized.

The following additional forms are used for samples shipped
to CLP laboratories:

     o    Organic traffic reports
     o    Inorganic traffic reports
     o    High-hazard traffic reports
     o    SAS request forms
     o    Dioxin shipment records  (as applicable)
                             4-2

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Completed examples of these forms are in Subsection 5.1.6 of
this compendium.

The organization's document control officer (designated on
exhibits in this subsection as the Regional Document Control
Officer or RDCO)  or another designated person maintains a
supply of the documents listed above, including field note-
books.  The document control officer is responsible for the
inventory of serialized documents and the assignment of
these documents to specific projects.  Unused field docu-
ments are usually returned to the document control officer
at the end of the field sampling event.  The document con-
trol officer notes the return of these documents in the
serialized document logbook.  In some EPA regions, unused
field documents are retained by the sampler to whom they
were originally assigned for use on future projects.  The
sampler maintains a personal logbook in which is recorded
the final disposition of all relevant field information.
Unused, retxirned documents may be checked out to another
project by the RDCO, as needed.  A cross-reference of
serialized field documents is usually maintained for each
project in the project files.  A sample cross-reference
matrix is shown in Exhibit 4-1.

The document control officer orders sample identification
tags, receipt-for-samples forms, custody seals, and chain-
of-custody records from the EPA regional offices.  Traffic
reports and SAS request forms are obtained through the Sam-
ple Management Office  (SMO) representative.

Exhibit 4-2 shows how the sample control documents can be
integrated into the document control procedures used in an
EPA project.  The procedures for using each document are
discussed below.   Subsection 4.7 discusses regional
variations; however, because procedures change and vary from
region to region, the EPA Regional Sample Coordinating Cen-
ter (RSCC) should be contacted during the planning of field
activities to obtain the most current procedures.  Appen-
dix A of the User's Guide to the CLP contains a directory of
RSCC contacts and telephone numbers.

4.6.1  SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION TAGS

Sample identification tags  (see Exhibit 5-7) are distributed
as needed to field workers by the SM (or designated rep-
resentative) .  Procedures vary among EPA regions.
Generally, the EPA serial numbers are recorded in the
project files, the field notebook, and the document control
officer's serialized document logbook.   Individuals are
accountable for each tag assigned to them.  A tag is con-
sidered to be in an individual's possession until it has
been filled out,  attached to a sample,  and transferred to
                             4-3

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                                                     4-4

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        Exhibit 4-2
DOCUMENT CONTROL PROCEDURES

-------
another individual along with the corresponding chain-of-
custody record.  Sample identification tags are not to be
discarded.  If tags are lost, voided, or damaged, the facts
are noted in the appropriate field notebook, and the SM is
notified.

Upon the completion of the field activities, unused sample
identification tags are returned to the document control
officer, who checks them against the list of assigned serial
numbers.  Tags attached to those samples that are split with
the owner, operator, agent-in-charge, or a government agency
are accounted for by recording the serialized tag numbers on
the receipt-for-samples form (Exhibit 4-3).  Alternatively,
the split samples are not tagged but are accounted for on a
chain-of-custody form.

Samples are transferred from the sample location to a
laboratory or another location for analysis.  Before trans-
fer, however, a sample is often separated into fractions,
depending on the analysis to be performed.  Each portion is
preserved in accordance with prescribed procedures (see
User's Guide to the CLP and Section 6 of this compendium)
and is identified with a separate sample identification tag,
which should indicate in the "Remarks" section that the
sample is a split sample.

The following information is recorded on the tag:

     o    CLP case/SAS number(s).  The unique number(s)
          assigned by SMO to identify the sampling event
          (entered under "Remarks" heading)

     o    CLP sample number.  The unique sample
          identification number  (from the TR, DSR, or PL)
          used to document that sample  (entered under
          "Remarks" heading)

     o    Project code.  An assigned contractor project
          number

     o    Station number.  A unique identifier assigned to a
          sampling point by the sampling team leader and
          listed in the sampling plan

     o    Date.  A six-digit number indicating the year,
          month, and day of collection

     o    Time.  A four-digit number indicating the local
          standard time of collection using the 24-hour
          clock notation  (for example, 1345 for 1:45 p.m.)
                             4-6

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           Exhibit 4-3
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               4-7

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     o    Station location.   The sampling station
          description as specified in the sampling plan

     o    Samplers.   Each sampler's name and signature

     o    Preservative.   Whether a preservative is used and
          the type of preservative

     o    Analysis.   The type of analysis requested

     o    Tag number.  A unique serial number,  stamped on
          each tag

     o    Batch number.   The sample container cleaning batch
          number,recorded in the "Remarks" section

     o    Remarks.  The sampler's record of pertinent
          information, such as batch number, split samples,
          and special procedures

     o    Laboratory sample number.  Reserved for laboratory
          use

The tag used for water,  soil, sediment, and biotic samples
contains an appropriate place for identifying the sample as
a grab or a composite, the type of sample collected, and the
preservative used, if any.  The tag used for air samples
requires the sampler to designate the sequence number and
identify the sample type.  Sample identification tags are
attached to or folded around each sample and are taped in
place.

After collection, separation, identification, and
preservation, a traffic report is completed and the sample
is handled using chain-of-custody procedures discussed in
the following sections.   If the sample is to be split,
aliquots are placed into similar sample containers.  Depend-
ing on the EPA region, sample identification tags are com-
pleted and attached to each split and marked with the tag
numbers of the other portions and with the word "split."
Blank or duplicate samples are labeled in the same manner as
"normal" samples.  Information on blanks or duplicate sam-
ples is recorded in the field notebook.  Some EPA regions
require that laboratories be informed of the number of
blanks and duplicates that are shipped, but not the identity
of the quality assurance samples.

The printed and numbered adhesive sample labels affixed to
the traffic reports are secured to sample containers by the
sampler.  Forms are filled out with waterproof ink, if
weather permits.  If a pen will not function because of
inclement conditions, an indelible pencil may be used.  If a
                             4-8

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pencil is used, a note explaining the conditions must be
included in the field notebook.  When necessary, the label
is protected from water and solvents with clear tape.

The original is sent to the SMO.  The first copy is retained
for the project file.  The second and third copies are sent
with the shipment to the laboratory.  Complete instructions
for the use of traffic reports arc givnn in the User's Guide
to the CLP.

4.6.2  SAMPLE TRAFFIC REPORT (TR)
The sample documentation system for the CLP sample
preparation program is based on the use of the sample traf-
fic report (TR),  a four-part carbonless form printed with a
unique sample identification number.  One TR and its printed
identification number is assigned by the sampler to each
sample collected.  The three types of TRs currently in use
include organic,  inorganic dioxin, and high-concentration
TRs.   (See Subsection 5.1.6 for examples of completed TRs.)

To provide a permanent record for each sample collected, the
sampler completes the appropriate TR, recording the case
number, site name or code and location, analysis laboratory,
sampling office,  dates of sample collection and shipment,
and sample concentration and matrix.  Numbers of sample con-
tainers and volumes are entered by the sampler beside the
analytical parameter(s) requested for particular sample
portions.

4.6.3  CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY FORMS AND RECORDS

Because samples collected during an investigation could be
used as evidence in litigation, possession of the samples
must be traceable from the time each is collected until it
is introduced as evidence in legal proceedings.  To document
sample possession, chain-of-custody procedures are followed.

4.6.3.1  Definition of Custody

A sample is under custody if one or more of the following
criteria are met:

     o    The sample is in the sampler's possession.

     o    It is in the sampler's view after being in
          possession.

     o    It was in the sampler's possession and then was
          locked up to prevent tampering.

     o    It is in a designated secure area.
                             4-9

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4.6.3.2  Field Custody Procedures

Only enough of the sample should be collected to provide a
good representation of the medium being sampled.  To the
extent possible, the quantity and types of samples and the
sample locations are determined before the actual fieldwork.
As few people as possible should handle the samples.

Field samplers are personally responsible for the care and
custody of the samples collected by their teams until the
samples are transferred or dispatched properly.  A person is
usually designated to receive the samples from the field
samplers after decontamination; this person maintains
custody until the samples are dispatched.

The SM determines whether proper custody procedures were
followed during the fieldwork and decides if additional
samples are required.

4.6.3.3  Transfer of Custody and Shipment

Samples are accompanied by a chain-of-custody  (COG) form or
record (Exhibits 5-4 and 5-5).  When transferring samples,
the individuals relinquishing and receiving them should
sign, date, and note the time on the form.  This form docu-
ments sample custody transfer from the sampler, often
through another person, to the analyst, who is in a mobile
or contract laboratory.

Samples are packaged properly for shipment and dispatched to
the appropriate laboratory for analysis, with a separate COC
record accompanying each shipment.  Shipping containers are
padlocked or sealed with custody seals for shipment to the
laboratory.  The method of shipment, courier name(s), and
other pertinent information such as the laboratory name
should be entered in the "Remarks" section of the COC
record.

When samples are split with an owner, operator, or
government agency, the event is noted in the "Remarks" sec-
tion of the COC record.  The note indicates with whom the
samples are being split.  The person relinquishing the sam-
ples to the facility or agency requests the signature of the
receiving party on a receipt-for-samples form  (Exhibit 4-3)
(described in the following subsection), thereby acknowledg-
ing receipt of the samples.  If a representative is unavail-
able or refuses to sign, this situation is noted in the
"Remarks" section of the COC record.  When appropriate, for
example, when an owner's representative is unavailable, the
COC record and receipt-for-samples form should contain a
statement that the samples were delivered to the designated
                            4-10

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location at the designated time.  A witness to the attempted
delivery should be obtained.  The samples shall be secured
if no one is present to receive them.

All shipments are accompanied by a COC record identifying
their contents.  The original form accompanies the shipment;
the copies are retained by the sampler and returned to the
sampling coordinator.

If nonhazardous samples are sent by mail, the package is
registered, and a return receipt is requested.  Note:  Haz-
ardous materials shall not be sent by mail.  If samples are
sent by common carrier, a bill of lading is used.  Air
freight shipments are sent prepaid.  Freight bills, postal
service receipts, and bills of lading should be retained as
part of the permanent documentation for the COC records.

4.6.3.4  Laboratory Custody Procedures

Laboratory personnel are responsible for the care and
custody of samples from the time they are received until the
samples are exhausted or returned to the laboratory sample
custodian for ultimate disposal.  Laboratory-specific varia-
tions exist; however, a generally accepted laboratory
chain-of-custody procedure is presented below.  Any labo-
ratory used for the analysis of samples taken in the course
of EPA remedial response must have an adequate chain-of-
custody procedure.  This procedure is required as an exhibit
in the Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP) if the
laboratory is not in the CLP.

A designated custodian of laboratory samples accepts custody
of the shipped samples and verifies that the information on
the sample identification tags matches that on the COC
records.  Pertinent information on shipment, pickup,
courier, and condition of samples is entered in the
"Remarks" section.  The custodian then enters the sample
identification tag data into a bound logbook, which is
arranged by project code and station number.

The laboratory custodian uses the sample identification tag
number or assigns a unique laboratory number to each sample;
the custodian transfers the samples to the proper analyst or
stores them in the appropriate secure area.  A limited num-
ber of named individuals are allowed access to the sample
storage area.  The appropriate analysts are responsible for
the samples until they are returned to the custodian.

When sample analyses and necessary quality assurance (QA)
checks have been completed, the unused portion of the sample
and the sample containers must be disposed of properly  (see
Subsection 5.2.6.4).  All identifying tags, data sheets, and
                            4-11

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laboratory records are retained as part of the permanent
documentation.

4.6.4  RECEIPT-FOR-SAMPLES FORM

Section 3007(a)(2) of the RCRA states "If the officer,
employee, or representative obtains any samples, prior to
leaving the premises he shall give to the owner, operator,
or agent-in-charge a receipt describing the samples obtained
and, if requested, a portion of each such sample equal in
volume or weight to the portion retained."  Section 104 of
the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA), as amended by the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), contains
identical requirements.

Completing a receipt-for-samples form complies with these
requirements; such forms should be used whenever splits are
offered or provided to the site owner, operator, or agent-
in-charge.  The particular form used may vary between EPA
regions; an example is shown in Exhibit 4-3.  This form is
completed and a copy given to the owner, operator, or
agent-in-charge even if the offer for split samples is
declined.  The original is given to the SM and is retained
in the project files.  In addition, the contractor must pro-
vide analytical results from the samples collected to the
owner, operator, or agent in charge, as mandated in SARA.

4.6.5  CUSTODY SEALS

When samples are shipped to the laboratory, they must be
placed in padlocked containers or containers sealed with
custody seals;  a completed example is shown in Exhibit 5-6.
Some custody seals are serially numbered.  These numbers
must appear in the cross-reference matrix  (Exhibit 4-1) of
the field document and on the COC report.  Other types of
custody seals include unnumbered seals and evidence tape.

When samples are shipped, two or more seals are to be placed
on each shipping container  (such as a cooler), with at least
one at the front and one at the back, located in a manner
that would indicate if the container were opened in transit.
Wide, clear tape should be placed over the seals to ensure
that seals are not accidentally broken during shipment.
Nylon packing tape may be used providing that it does not
completely cover the custody seal.  Completely covering the
seal with this type of tape may allow the label to be peeled
off.  Alternatively, evidence tape may be substituted for
custody seals.

If samples are subject to interim storage before shipment,
custody seals or evidence tape may be placed over the lid of
                            4-12

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the jar or across the opening of the storage box.  Custody
during shipping would be the same as described above.  Evi-
dence tape may also be used to seal the plastic bags or
metal cans that are used to contain samples in the cooler or
shipping container.  Sealing individual sample containers
assures that sample integrity will not be compromised if the
outer container seals are accidentally broken.

4.6.6  FIELD NOTEBOOKS

A bound field notebook must be maintained by the sampling
team leader to provide daily records of significant events,
observations, and measurements during field investigations.
All entries are to be signed and dated.  All members of the
field investigation team are to use this notebook, which is
to be kept as a permanent record.  Observations or measure-
ments that are taken in an area where contamination of the
field notebooks may occur may be recorded in a separate
bound and numbered logbook before being transferred to the
project notebook.  The original records are retained, and
the delayed entry is noted as such.

Field notebooks are intended to provide sufficient data and
observations to enable participants to reconstruct events
that occurred during projects and to refresh the memory of
the field personnel if called upon to give testimony during
legal proceedings.  In a legal proceeding, notes, if
referred to, are subject to cross-examination and are
admissible as evidence.  The field notebook entries should
be factual, detailed, and objective.

4.6.7  CORRECTIONS TO DOCUMENTATION

Unless restricted by weather conditions, all original data
recorded in field notebooks and on sample identification
tags, chain-of-custody records, and receipt-for-samples
forms are written in waterproof ink.  These accountable
serialized documents are not to be destroyed or thrown away,
even if they are illegible or contain inaccuracies that
require a replacement document.

If an error is made on an accountable document assigned to
one person, that individual may make corrections simply by
crossing out the error and entering the correct information.
The erroneous information should not be obliterated.  Any
error discovered on an accountable document should be cor-
rected by the person who made the entry.  All corrections
must be initialed and dated.

For all photographs taken, a photographic log is kept; the
log records date, time, subject, frame and roll number, and
                            4-13

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photographer.  For "instant photos," the date, time, sub-
ject, and photographer are recorded directly on the devel-
oped picture.  The serial number of the camera and lens are
recorded in the project notebook.  The photographer should
review the photographs or slides when they return from
developing and compare them to the log to assure that the
log and photographs match.  It can be particularly useful to
photograph the labeled sample jars before packing them into
shipping containers.  A clear photograph of the sample jar,
showing the label, any evidence tape sealing the jar, and
the color and amount of sample can be most useful in
reconciling any later discrepancies.
               4.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

Region-specific variances are common; the SM should contact
the EPA RPM or the RSCC before any sampling campaign to
ascertain the latest procedures.  Future changes in vari-
ances will be incorporated in subsequent revisions to this
compendium.

4.7.1  REGION I

Region I uses a standard contractor serialized
chain-of-custody form and an unnumbered chain-of-custody
seal, which are placed on the outside of the shipping
cooler.  Numbered sample bottle labels are used for REM site
work and numbered tags for FIT site work.

4.7.2  REGION II

Region II uses an unnumbered chain-of-custody form and
numbered sample bottle labels for all site work.  Custody
seals are placed on the outside of the shipping cooler.

4.7.3  REGION III

Region III uses a serialized chain-of-custody form and
numbered sampling tags.  Chain-of-custody seals used by
Region III are unnumbered and placed on the outside of the
shipping cooler.

4.7.4  REGION IV

Region IV has a detailed procedural discussion in the
Engineering Support Branch Standards Operating Procedures
and Quality Assurance Manual, U.S. EPA, Region IV,
Environmental Services Division, 1 April 1986.
                            4-14

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4.7.5  REGION V

Region V uses a serialized chain-of-custody seal.  Region V
seals are color coded; orange is used for REM and FIT work.
Seals are placed on the outside of the shipping cooler only
if the samples are sent the same day as collected;
otherwise, seals are placed across sample jar lids.  FIT
does not note whether or not samples were split on the
chain-of-custody record.  FIT includes the corresponding
Traffic Report number under the remarks section of the tag.
The bottle lot numbers or "batch numbers" are not recorded
here, but on the "Chain-of-Custody form."

4.7.6  REGION VI

Region VI does not use a serialized number control system on
custody seals.

4.7.7  REGION VII

Region VII personnel provide onsite sample control.  Samples
are logged into a computer by regional personnel.  Although
contractor personnel do not seal and log samples, chain of
custody is followed as described above.

4.7.8  REGION VIII

Region VIII does not use a serialized number control system
on custody seals.

4.7.9  REGION IX

Region IX does not use a serialized number control system on
chain-of-custody seals.

4.7.10  REGION X

Region X does not use a serially numbered custody seal.
Seals are signed, and the sample ID number is written on the
seal.
                  4.8  INFORMATION SOURCES

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act  (SARA).
Section 104(m), "Information Gathering Access Authorities."

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  NEIC Policies and
Procedures.  EPA-330/9-78-001-R.  May 1978.   (Revised
February 1983.)
                            4-15

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  REM IV Zone
Management Plan.  Contract No. 68-01-7251, CH2M HILL and
U.S. EPA.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  User's Guide to the
Contract Laboratory Program.  Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response.  December 1986.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Zone II REM/FIT
Quality Assurance Manual.  Contract No. 68-01-6692,
CH2M HILL and Hazardous Site Control Division.
WDR230/016
                            4-16

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                          Section 5
                    LABORATORY INTERFACE
          5.1  NATIONAL CONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM

Note:  This section is organized by contract and noncontract
laboratory programs to provide a clearer differentiation
between programs.

5.1.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This subsection summarizes how to schedule analyses through
the National Contract Laboratory Program (CLP), the types of
services provided by the CLP, the paperwork involved in sub-
mitting samples to a CLP laboratory, and how to contact a
CLP laboratory regarding final disposition of analytical
data.  A detailed discussion of the entire CLP, including
the CLP tracking system, can be found in the User's Guide to
the CLP.

5.1.2  DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

National Contract Laboratory Program (CLP).   (See User's
Guide to the CLP.)

Regional Sample Control Center (RSCC).   (See User* s Guide to
the CLP.)

Sample Management Office (SMO).  (See User's Guide to the
CLP.)

Site Manager (SM).  The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.  The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).

5.1.3  APPLICABILITY

This subsection is applicable to samples collected during
Superfund projects.  Only EPA may grant exceptions to the
required use of CLP.  The use of CLP is a requirement only
when justified by the choice of data quality objectives
(DQO).   There will be many opportunities to use mobile labo-
ratories, screening protocols, subcontracted private labo-
ratories, or EPA regional laboratories.

5.1.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

Detailed responsibilities are described in Subsection 5.1.6
on procedures.   General responsibilities are given to the
following:
                             5-1

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     o    Site Managers for planning the sampling dates and
          analytical requirements

     o    EPA Remedial Project Managers (RPMS)  for
          communicating the sampling or analytical schedule
          to the RSCC

     o    RSCC for deciding sample priorities within their
          region, and for telling SMO their analytical needs
          on a monthly, as well as a weekly, basis

     o    SMO for scheduling sample analysis, communicating
          the laboratory information back to the RSCC, and
          contacting the laboratories concerning late or
          missing data

     o    Sampling personnel for completing the required
          paperwork and for contacting SMO and RSCC with
          shipping information

5.1.5  RECORDS

The following sample documentation is required (examples are
given in Subsection 5.1.6):

     o    Organic traffic report
     o    Inorganic traffic report
     o    High-concentration traffic report
     o    CLP dioxin shipment record
     o    Special analytical service packing list
     o    Sample tag and label
     o    Custody seal
     o    Chain-of-custody (COC) form

Note:  All of the above are not required for each sample
collected.  The reader should refer to Subsection 5.1.6 for
specific requirements.

5.1.6  PROCEDURES

The procedures in this subsection are presented in the
chronological order used during a routine sampling episode;
they are applicable to routine, as well as special, analyt-
ical services.  Exhibit 5-1 summarizes the process from
start to finish.  These procedures are generic with an
approach to regional differences discussed in
Subsection 5.1.7.   (See also Subsection 6.1.6.1.)

5.1.6.1  Activities Before Sampling

1.   The project team decides what sampling  is to occur at
     the site and the analyses to be performed based on
     available data.  The CLP provides a choice of two
                             5-2

-------
                             Exhibit  5-1
                    ROUTINE  SAMPLING  PROCESS
                           Project Team Decides on
                      Numbers of Samples, Dates, Analyses
                         Site Project Manager Completes
                             CLP Projection Form
                                    1
                           CLP Coordinator Compiles
                              Analytical Needs
                                    i
                          CLP Coordinator Contacts
                                 the RSCC
                      RSCC Compares Analytical Requests
                           with Monthly Allocation
                              WAIT FOR
                               SAMPLE
                               SPACE
  WITHIN ALLOCATION
          I
        RSCC Calls
  SMO with Sampling Info
                  LAB
              AVAILABLE
       SMO Assigns
     Case Number, Labs
Samples Collected, Paperwork
   Completed, SMO Called
  Samples Shipped to Lab
    Analysis Performed
Results Sent to RSCC & SMO
          I
    RSCC Sends Results
       to Contractor
          I
    Contractor Contacts
    RSCC with Questions
RSCC Calls the Lab or SMO &
  Gets Back to Contractor
  LAB NOT
AVAILABLE
    5-3
                     ABOVE ALLOCATION
I
                     RSCC Notifies Contractor
                  that SMO Cannot Take Samples
                             I
Decision by EPA to Go Outside
the CLP or Wait for CLP Space
GO
OUTSIDE
CLP
i
Procure Lab
                                                            I
                        Collect Samples,
                       Complete Paperwork
                       Send Samples to Lab
                       Analysis Performed
                    Results Sent to Contractor
                     Contractor Contacts Lab
                         with Questions

-------
analytical services:  routine and special.  Routine
analytical services include analysis of a soil or water
sample at low- to medium-concentration levels (<15 per-
cent of any single compound) for the Target Compound
List (TCL) organics and/or inorganics with a 30-day to
45-day turnaround requirement.  The TCL includes
organic compounds, trace elements, and cyanide.
Special analytical services include any analysis that
is not routine, such as analysis for non-TCL compounds;
different turnaround times; high concentration soils,
water,  drums, etc.; or different sample media (e.g.,
fish, air, etc.).

The SM completes a CLP monthly projection form that
details the sampling anticipated for the present month
as well as the following 2 months.  This form is
submitted to the contractor's CLP coordinator, who
compiles the analytical needs.

The contractor's CLP coordinator contacts the EPA RPM
with the information.  The RPM contacts the authorized
requesters (AR) at the appropriate RSCC and gives them
the appropriate information.  The AR calls the SMO with
the necessary information.

The SMO requires the following information from an AR
to initiate a RAS request:

o    Name of RSCC authorized requestor

o    Name(s), association, and telephone number(s) of
     sampling personnel

o    Name, city, and state of the site to be sampled

o    Superfund site/spill ID  (2-digit alpha-numeric
     code)

o    Dioxin tier assignment, where applicable

o    Number and matrix of samples to be collected

o    Type of analyses required

          Organics:  Full  (VOA, BNA, and pesticides/
          PCB) or VOA and/or BNA and/or pesticides/PCB

          Inorganic:  Metals and/or cyanide

          Dioxin:  2,3,7,8-TCDD

o    Scheduled sample collection and shipment dates
                        5-4

-------
     o    Nature  of sampling event (i.e.,  investigation,
          monitoring,  enforcement, remedial,  drilling
          project,  CERCLA Cooperative Agreements)

     o    Suspected hazards associated with the sample
          and/or  site

     o    Other pertinent information that may affect sample
          scheduling or shipment (i.e., anticipated delays
          because of site access,  weather  conditions,
          sampling equipment)

     o    Name(s)  of regional or contractor contacts for
          immediate problem resolution.

     This information  is submitted to the  RSCC as early as
     possible before the anticipated sampling date.  A
     minimum of 2 weeks lead time is strongly suggested for
     RAS requests.   Changes in the sample  schedule are
     relayed to the RSCC as soon as they become known.  It
     should be recognized that changes in  the sampling
     schedule may delay laboratory assignments, especially
     if they are  frequent or "last minute."  This reporting
     sometimes necessitates daily contact  with the RSCC.

     RSCC telephone numbers are found in the User's Guide to
     the CLP, Appendix A.

4.    Special Analytical Service (SAS) is handled slightly
     differently.   Because these services  are individually
     procured on  a competitive basis, a minimum lead time of
     2 weeks is required to process a completely defined  SAS
     request.  More lead time is strongly  recommended
     whenever possible.  Certain types of  SAS requests
     require a longer  lead time, as follows.   A minimum lead
     time of 2 to 3 weeks is required for  SAS requests that
     involve distribution of protocols. A minimum lead time
     of 4 or more weeks is recommended for large-scale,
     analytically complex, and/or non-Superfund SAS
     requests. Award  of non-Superfund SAS subcontracts may
     be made only after the appropriate funding process is
     complete.

     SMO requires the  following information from an AR to
     initiate an  SAS request:

     o    Name of RSCC authorized requestor

     o    Name(s),  association, and telephone number(s) of
          sampling personnel

     o    Name, city,  and state of the site to be sampled
                             5-5

-------
     o    Superfund  site/spill  ID  (2-digit  alpha-numeric
          code)

     o    Number  and matrix  of  samples  to be  collected

     o    Specific  analyses  required and appropriate
          protocols  and QA/QC

     o    Required  detection limits

     o    Matrix  spike  and duplicate frequency

     o    Data turnaround and data format

     o    Justification for  fast turnaround request, if
          appropriate

     o    Scheduled sample collection and  shipment dates

     o    Nature  of sampling event (i.e.,  investigation,
          monitoring, enforcement, remedial,  drilling
          project,  CERCLA Cooperative Agreements)

     o    Suspected hazards  associated with the samples
          and/or  site

     o    Other pertinent information that  may affect sample
          scheduling or shipment (i.e., anticipated delays
          because of site access,  weather  condition,
          sampling  equipment)

     o    Name(s)  of regional  or contractor contacts for
          immediate problem  resolution

5.    The RSCC contacts SMO  to  schedule analysis at least
     1 week before  start of  sampling for Routine Analytical
     Analysis (RAS)  only; for  SAS, additional time is
     needed.  SMO assigns a  case number, an SAS number (if
     applicable),  and laboratories;  this information is
     communicated to the RSCC.

6.    The RSCC contacts the  RPM or the SM regarding the case
     number, SAS  number, and laboratory information no later
     than noon on the Wednesday of the week before sample
     shipment.  The RSCC also  provides traffic reports,
     custody seals,  SAS packing lists,  chain-of-custody
     forms, sample  tags, and CLP dioxin shipment record
     forms, as appropriate  for EPA/CLP sampling events.

5.1.6.2  Sampling Activities

1.    During the sampling process,  sampling personnel
     maintain close contact  with SMO and RSCC, relaying
                             5-6

-------
     sampling information,  shipping information,  problems
     encountered during sampling,  and any changes from the
     originally scheduled sampling program.   Shipping infor-
     mation is called in to SMO before 5:00  p.m.  Eastern
     Standard Time (EST) on the day of shipment or by
     8:00 a.m. EST the next day.   Friday shipments are
     called in to SMO before 3:00  p.m. EST to confirm
     Saturday delivery.

2.   Samplers should provide SMO with the following
     information during the call:

     o    Sampler name and phone number

     o    Case number and/or SAS number of the project

     o    Site name/code

     o    Batch numbers (dioxin only)

     o    Exact number(s),  matrixes, and concentration(s) of
          samples shipped

     o    Laboratory(ies)  that samples were  shipped to

     o    Carrier name and airbill number(s)  for the
          shipment

     o    Method of shipment (e.g., overnight, 2-day)

     o    Date of shipment

     o    Suspected hazards associated with  the samples or
          site

     o    Any irregularities or anticipated  problems with
          the samples, including special handling
          instructions, or deviations from established
          sampling procedures

     o    Status of the sampling project (e.g., final
          shipment, update of future shipping schedule)

3.   Samplers must complete the required SMO/CLP paperwork
     before sample shipment.  Examples of properly completed
     forms are given in Exhibits 5-2 through 5-10.  (Also
     see Section 4 for information regarding sample control
     and chain-of-custody reports.)

4.   The designated copies of the  completed  paperwork are
     sent to the laboratory or SMO, as appropriate.  All
     paperwork must be submitted within the  same week of the
     sampling event.
                             5-7

-------
                                   Exhibit  5-2
                       TYPICAL ORGANICS TRAFFIC FORM
-------
                  Exhibit 5-3
         TYPICAL INORGANICS TRAFFIC FORM
\JS. I-;NV!K<'WMKNTAI. PROTECTION AGCNOy  i IWI :> .
INORGANICS TRAFFIC REPORT
                                            Sample Number
0 CauNumlMr: 3999
^ Sample Site Name/Code:
CHCM tt-Ai. Sou? /y ftffr 75"



(g) Sampling Office: A/C/5 ft0WPD
Sampling Personnel:
oj.m«) ^AMPcjey^
fPhon«> -fliJ'7B8-/o8D
Sampling Date:
(Begin) J //£/ffS~ l*nA\ //y/?<^

©Sample Description:
(Check One)
	 Surface Water
— 2&_ Ground Water .. , . . x-.— .
	 Leachate C* - f+W*
	 Mixed Media
	 Solids
O»h«r
(8peafy> AH Til
MATCHES ORGANIC SAMPLE NOMh 7> '

0 SAMPLE CONCENTRATION
y (Check One)
	 * — Low Concentration
— Medium Concentration
0 SAMPLE MATRIX
(Check One)
— X 	 Water
	 Soil/Sediment

(•) Shipping Information:
Name Of Carrier:
/TEafiK/9^ £vT/?1«S3

n»tn Shipper) ///T/fcS"'
fti,V«11M»n,V«r. ^S"OS^a3^<*


(J) Mark Volume Level
On Sample Bottle
Check Analysis required
_A Total Metals
^AQyanlde

SMOCOPY
0 Ship To:
1&1L MS
/A3 <3T«£Cr *0*b
4*jynx*/*j,$i*Te ooooo
Atttt^HM/tr CgBW^5?8
Tranaier
Ship To:


• MAD 1 O 9 - Total Metal*

1 MAD 189 -Total Metals


MAD 1 3 i> - Cyanide
MAD 189 .Cyanide
MAD 189
MAT) A O i/
A1AU *• w w
MAD 189
                      5-9
-------
                           Exhibit 5-4
                 TYPICAL CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY  FORM
                      (REGION III EXAMPLE)
*«•
ilj
iu . a.
 »•
 if
  5
  o
   ec
   o
   g
   §
   ik
   o
   z
   i
c
S
                                      1<
                                                  Jo «
                                                 - ui.^
                                                    w
                                                    -512
         2
             •VMO
                                        i
                                                  1  1
                                                  I
                                                           II
                                                                I
                                                                I
                                                                s
                                                                1
                              5-10
-------
C
                                   Exhibit 5-5
              CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY  RECORD  USED  BY  REGION II
                   IN  LIEU  OF  CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY  FORM
                         CHAIN OF CUSTODY RECORD
INVtlONMINTAL PKOTICT1ON AOiNCT - IIOION II
Environmental Services Division
      IDIION, NiW JflflY 01117
                    PITT?
       CUFF
       PA.   i«"iTS--«o7i
                D*»riy*l«n •( SanpUt
                                            2. v
                                                               V,AU

   Si.pl.
   No.b.r

 ALL «>'
  OF THc
          t.llnqulik.d IF
                        lt 65
                                                              R««*»fi for Ch«nf. •( Custody
  la.pl.
          l.linquiih.d »y:
                          Atl 6  _
                                             10GO
                                                              ••••»H for Ch«n|* •( Cuitady
          t.linggiih.d ly:
                ly:
                                        ly:
                                        ty
                                                              I«««n l.f Chilli. .1 ClliWdy
                                                              • ••••n f*r Chanf. *f Cwtt.dy
                                                           ••••
                                       5-11
-------
            Exhibit 5-6
       TYPICAL CUSTODY SEALS
  (IMVMBI
  mmo^yo
    11*0
 u
 ^
 |a
i«)
                          CO
                          o
                          o
                          CO
                          o
                          4?

                          I
                          5
ff
   *<*,
o
(0
o
o
(0
               5-12
-------
                          Exhibit 5-7
             TYPICAL SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION  TAGS

1 Designate: 1
o
1
J Month/Day/Year
Station No.
^K|V * GPO 776-31 2
fx
d
U
O
co
O
O
"T
J
Project Code
OT ^^
Q) n
TS ^^^
OJ \
C/5 S
s vA
Q. fl
i
CO
c ^2.
o ^
_j V^
s
co 5
Preservative:
Yes $ No D
ANALYSES
BOD Anions
SolidS (TSS) (TDS) (SS)
COD, TOC, Nutrients
Phenolics
Mercury
Metals
Cyanide
Oil and Grease
Organics
GC/MS
Priority Pollutants
Volatile Organics
Pesticides
Mutagenicity
Bacteriology










X




Remarks:
Tag No.
4-18851

Lab Sample No.

0 „,
y ^^
1
s
CO
° a
o
O
• S
E W\
f™ ^Ji
0
Month/Day/Year
f/'5/e$-
Station No.
C7&T2-
Project Code
1
- 5^
1 ]
m V\
* U
co \A
~e '
0)
a
^^^
Tjr
Station Location
MtTTMlTCTUN^
Preservative:
Yes D No 0
ANALYSES
BOD Anions
SolidS (TSS) (TDS) (SS)
COD, TOC, Nutrients
Phenolics
Mercury
Metals
Cyanide
Oil and Grease
Organics
GC/MS
Priority Pollutants
Volatile Organics
Pesticides
Mutagenicity
Bacteriology










X




Remarks:
Tag No.
3-57051

Lab Sample No.

       Region IV Sample Tag
Region III Sample Tag
Note:  The  obverse side of the  sample tag bears  an EPA logo
       and  the  appropriate regional address.
                             5-13
-------
                                  Exhibit  5-8
                      SPECIAL  ANALYTICAL SERVICES
                                PACKING LIST
 U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
 CLP Sample Management Office
 P.O. Box 818 - Alexandria, Virginia 22313
 Phone:  703/557-2090  -  FTS/557-2090
                           SPECIAL ANALYTICAL SERVICE
                                   PACKING LIST
                                                                      SAS Number
Sampling Office:
   IOUS
Sampling Contact:
        (name)

   ^1^/788-1080
        (phone)
                       Sampling Date(s):
                       Date Shipped:
                      Site Name/Code:
Ship To:
   AB^
   /0? RC#t>
                                         Attn:
  For Lab Use Only
                                                                   Date SamPles Rec'di
                                                                    Received By:
 1.
 2.
 3.
 0.
 5.
 6.
 7.
 8-
 9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
If.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
      Sample
     Numbers
         - 01
                                    Sample Description
                             i.e., Analysis, Matrix, Concentration
Sample Condition on
  Receipt at Lab
         - OIL
   s-
                                                                    For Lab Use Only
  White - SMO Copy, Yellow - Region Copy, Pink - Lab Copy lor return to SMO, Gold - Lab Copy
                                       5-14
-------
                                 Exhibit  5-9
                        HIGH-HAZARD TRAFFIC  REPORT
        HIGH HAZARD TRAFFIC REPORT
                                                      5500
                           FIELD SAMPLE RECORD
X>Case
   Sample Site Name/Code:
   CHEMICA
             . 7£~
          Fiald Sample Dascaription:
          ADrum
          	Aqueous Liquid
          	Sludge
          __ Solid
          __a
          _ Other	   	
                               T) Ship To: F«E^
                               "
                                                                        18
0 Sampling Office:
        .§) Known or Suspected Hazards:
  Sampling Personnel:
                          on-  w/r/y
        (name)
       (phone)

    Sampling Date:
 (begin)
(end)
   Shipping Information:
     (name of earner)
      (date shipped)
(Z) Preparations Requested:
   (chec'Jc below)

   Sample Volume:
   X Organics
   X Volatile Orgarues
   >; Base/Neutral, Aad,
     TCDD
   X Pesbades, PCB

     Inorganics
    . Total Metals
     Total Mercury
   .  Strong Aad Araons
     (airbill number)
   Special Handling Instructions:

                    UO Ol/A
                                  SMOCopy
                                 Sample Location:
                                       A 5500

                                       A 5500
                                       A 5500

                                       A 5500
                                       A 5500
                                    5-15
-------
                                    Exhibit  5-10
                          CLP  DIOXIN  SHIPMENT RECORD
USEPA Contract Laboratory Program
Sample Management Office
P.O. Box 818  Alexandria, Virginia 22313
FTS 8-557-2490  703/557-2490
CASE NO:
BATCH NO:
                              CLP DIOXIN SHIPMENT RECORD
 Site Name:
 City & State.
                ,  HO
 EPA Site No-
 Latitude:

   "7 i
 Longitude:
 Tier© 234567
     (circle one)
                   Sampling Office:
                          frQ
     000
    ooofob
     OOP ( CH
     000/tO
     ooo
     000|l2
     ocon3
     ooo ut
      000M
     ocoin
     oocufi
     QCDII9
     OOP/2-0
     000)2.1
     O5OI2-S
                v/

                                35
                                y
y
                             y
                                 y
                                     y
                                           y

          WHITE—SMO Copy  YELLOW—Region Copy  PINK—Lab Copy tor Return to SMO  GOLD—Lab Copy
                                           5-16
-------
5.1.6.3  Postsampling Activities

1.   When the laboratory finishes the analysis, a copy of
     the results is forwarded to SMO and another copy to the
     RSCC.  The RSCC forwards a copy of the results to the
     RPM and the contractor.  If the results do not arrive
     at the contractor's office within the contractually
     required time frame, the contractor's CLP coordinator
     initiates a call to the RSCC regarding the status and
     expected completion data of the analysis.

2.   Once the data are received, questions may arise
     regarding their interpretation.  The SM will contact
     the EPA RPM or RSCC, who contacts SMO or the laboratory
     to resolve questions about the data.

3.   SMO routinely performs Contract Compliance Screening
     (CCS) on all RAS data; modified CCS can be performed on
     a case-by-case basis for mixed RAS-plus-SAS or all -SAS
     data.  This review determines completeness of data
     deliverables and compliance with contract specification
     by the laboratory.

4.   Data review services are provided by SMO upon request
     of the Regional Deputy Project Officer.  Data review
     can be used by the SM to determine the usability and
     limitations of data, to maximize usable data and to
     provide standardized data quality assessment.  Review
     cannot be initiated until all CLP deliverables have
     been received from the laboratory.

     Contractually, the required time span is for analyses
     to be conducted by the laboratory.  Review and valida-
     tion for compliance with quality assurance/quality
     control (QA/QC) requirements consume additional time.
     The SM should plan accordingly.

5.1.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

Each EPA region has developed variations in laboratory
interface procedures, including the records procedures for
sampling and postsampling activities and the individual
forms usod for the LndLvidu,il tanks.   tnformation on
variations provided here may become dated rapidly.  Thus, it
is imperative that the user contact the individual EPA RPM
or RSCC to get full details on current regional practices
and requirements.  Future changes in variances will be
incorporated in subsequent revisions to this compendium.

The regional variances presented in this subsection—as
examples only—are given in chronological order to allow for
comparison with the general procedure outlined in
Subsection 5.1.6.
                            5-17
-------
5.1.7.1  Activities Prior to Sampling

1.    In Region I,  the Site Managers must submit an
     analytical request for each individual sampling event
     at least 1 week prior to its occurrence.   The request
     is submitted  to the EPA RPM, who forwards the request
     to the EPA RSCC personnel.   This request confirms the
     previously scheduled sampling.

2.    Regions I and VIII provide  a supply of organic and
     inorganic traffic reports that are used as needed and
     that are replaced periodically.  Region II supplies
     traffic reports on a trip-by-trip basis.   Regions III
     and IV provide a supply of  organic and inorganic
     traffic reports to major contractors.   These reports
     are used as needed and are  replaced periodically as the
     supply diminishes.  All other contractors within
     Regions III and IV will receive traffic reports on a
     trip-by-trip basis, as needed.

3.    In Region V,  the RSCC ranks by priority the monthly
     sampling requests and indicates that sampling can
     occur.  The contractor is responsible for scheduling
     the analysis  through SMO.

4.    In Region IX, the Site Managers communicate directly
     with the RSCC, providing them with them monthly CLP
     projections.

5.1.7.2  Sampling Activities

1.    Regions I, III, V, VI, and VIII use sample tags
     supplied by the region.  Region II does not supply
     sample tags,  which necessitates the use of contractor
     sample labels.  Region IX supplies sample labels; no
     tags are used.  Dedicated major Region IV contractors
     use sample tags supplied by the region.  All other
     Region IV contractors must supply their own tags
     according to the region's specifications.

2.    The Region IV sample tag is filled out differently from
     the Region III sample tag.   Exhibit 5-7 gives an
     example of completed tags from Regions III and IV.

3.    The Region II chain-of-custody (COC) form is entirely
     different from the COC form used by the other regions.
     The Region I, III, IV, V, VIII, and IX COC forms are
     almost identical.  Exhibits 5-4 and 5-5 show two types
     of forms.

4.    Region IV requires that custody seals be put on each
     bottle, unless one can ensure custody, as in hand
     delivery situations.  Regions I, II, III, and VI
                            5-18
-------
     require custody seals on the outer shipping container
     only.  Region IX requires custody seals on both the
     sample bottles and the outer shipping container.
     Regions V and VIII require custody seals on the outer
     shipping container, with an option to put seals on each
     sample container.

5.   Region IV places the traffic report label on the sample
     tag and the sample bottle, whereas Regions I, II, III,
     V, VI, VIII, and IX place the label directly on the
     bottle.

6.   When the regional supply of COC forms or sample tags is
     not available, the contractor may supply COC forms and
     sample labels.  These contractor-supplied materials
     must satisfy all regional requirements for these forms.

7.   Sampling personnel in Region IX contact the RSCC rather
     than SMO with shipping information.

8.   The Region V procedures manual is being updated and
     will be available in June 1987; examples of completed
     paperwork are shown in that manual.

5.1.7.3  Postsampling Activities

1.   Regions II, VI, and IX conduct the validation of the
     laboratory data, whereas data from sampling conducted
     in Regions I and VIII are validated by the contractor.
     Both the contractor and the EPA validate the data
     generated in Regions III, IV, and V.

2.   The contractor-CLP coordinators provide the RSCCs in
     Regions II and VI with blank sample numbers, duplicate
     sample numbers, and other pertinent sampling
     information needed by the data validators.  This same
     information is provided by the SM in Region IX.

5.1.8  INFORMATION SOURCES

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  User's Guide to the
Contract Laboratory Program.  Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response.  December 1986.

CH2M HILL.  REM/FIT Documentation Protocol for Region V.
May 1984.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Engineering Support
Branch Standard Operating Procedures and Quality Assurance
Manual.  Region IV, Environmental Services Division.
1 April 1986.
                            5-19
-------
             5.2  NONCONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM

5.2.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

There is no formal noncontract laboratory program (non-CLP)
run parallel to the Contract Laboratory Program.  A
noncontract laboratory is procured by a method other than
going through the SMO.

This subsection discusses how to contact a non-CLP
laboratory, the paperwork involved when submitting samples
to such a laboratory, and the resolution of questions once
the analyses have been completed.

5.2.2  DEFINITIONS

Noncontract laboratory.  A laboratory that works directly
for a contractor rather than SMO.

5.2.3  APPLICABILITY

The procedures in this subsection apply to two situations:
(1) the CLP does not have the capacity to accept a sample,
or  (2) the EPA grants an exemption to the CLP usage require-
ment.  The use of CLP is not a requirement unless justified
by the choice of DQO.  There will be opportunities to use
mobile laboratories, field screening protocols, subcon-
tracted private laboratories, or EPA regional laboratories.

5.2.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

Responsibilities are discussed in Subsection 5.2.6 on
procedures.  General responsibilities are as follows:

     o    Site Managers plan the sampling dates and
          analytical requirements; the EPA RPM approves.

     o    The project chemist and chemistry section manager
          prepare the invitation for bids and evaluate and
          choose qualified laboratories to receive the
          invitation.  The SM and EPA RPM select the
          laboratory.

     o    Sampling personnel complete the required paperwork
          and contact the laboratory with shipping
          information.

5.2.5  RECORDS

The following sample documentation is required  (examples are
given in Subsection 5.1.6):

     o    Sample tag or label
                            5-20
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     o    Custody seal
     o    Chain-of-custody (COC)  form

A sample tag or labe:l is required for each bottle of sample
collected, while each shipment requires custody seals and
COC forms.

5.2.6  PROCEDURES

The procedures in this subsection are presented in the
chronological order used during a routine sampling episode;
they are applicable to any type of analysis.  Exhibit 5-1
summarizes the process from start to finish.

5.2.6.1  Activities Before Sampling

The first four activities conducted for a non-CLP laboratory
before sampling are identical to steps 1 through 4 in Sub-
section 5.1.6.1.  These steps continue as follows:

5.   Each RSCC is given a monthly allocation of sample slots
     from SMO, for which the RSCCs may submit samples for
     analysis.  Sometimes a region has more samples for
     analysis than slots, in which case some sampling must
     be postponed or canceled.  The RSCC notifies the con-
     tractor when such a situation arises.  Likewise, there
     are times when SMO cannot find a laboratory to perform
     the requested analysis.  This is especially true for
     SAS work.  The RSCC once again notifies the contractor
     of the unavailability of a laboratory.

6.   The SM evaluates the advantages between waiting until
     CLP space becomes available and sending the samples
     outside the CLP system and advises the EPA RPM.  The
     EPA RPM is responsible for deciding which laboratory to
     use.  The EPA regional laboratory may be available to
     analyze the samples, in which case the EPA laboratory
     is treated as a CLP laboratory and the procedures in
     Section 5.1 are followed.  If the decision is to go
     outside CLP, the RSCC and its QA coordinator can be
     very helpful in choosing a properly qualified
     laboratory.

     As an alternate to steps 1 through 6, the project team
     and EPA RPM may determine that CLP-level data are not
     necessary for all analyses.   In situations that involve
     taking a large number of samples, possibly taking a
     number of "clean" samples, or gathering information
     that will clearly never be used in an enforcement
     action, the appropriate analytical procedures may be
     furnished either by field instrumentation, by mobile
     laboratories, by a temporary laboratory set up near the
     site, or by contracting the work to a local laboratory.
                            5-21
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     (CLP laboratories may also be used if they have non-CLP
     capacity available.)   Procurement of these analytical
     services follows the  steps discussed below.

7.    A laboratory is procured using a standard bidding
     process.  The laboratories chosen to receive the
     invitation for bids (IFB)  are usually approved by the
     EPA regional QA representative as well as other qual-
     ified EPA personnel.   The analytical protocol is spec-
     ified in the bid package and conforms closely to CLP or
     other EPA-approved methods.  CLP methods are preferred
     because of the QA requirements.   Typically,  IFBs are
     sent to at least three laboratories.  The SM selects
     the laboratory with technical assistance from the EPA
     RSCC, if available.  The EPA Headquarters Project
     Officer and/or Contracting Officer must approve the
     subcontract before work begins.

     On state lead sites,  the prime contractor subcontracts
     with the laboratory and separate IFBs are not sent.
     Several remedial engineering management (REM)
     contractors have the  availability to use team member
     laboratories that have established costs for several
     analyses.  These laboratories may also respond to SAS
     requests in the form  of subcontract bids.

     The analytical procedures and the QA/QC and sample
     control procedures used by the non-CLP laboratory are
     included as part of the Quality Assurance Project Plan
     (QAPjP).  Depending on the type of analysis to be
     performed (e.g., field screening using portable
     instruments), QA/QC procedures may be greatly
     simplified when compared to CLP requirements.  Data
     validation will be less time consuming also.  Specific
     procedures for local, temporary, or mobile laboratories
     vary widely; the SM must carefully review these
     procedures before contracting any work.

5.2.6.2  Sampling

1.    During sample collection, the samplers complete the
     required paperwork before the sample shipment.  Exam-
     ples of properly completed forms are given in Exhib-
     its 5-4 through 5-7.   It should be noted that whenever
     a noncontract laboratory is used, the contractor sample
     number should be substituted for the traffic report
     number, since no traffic report forms are used.

2.    The samplers call the laboratory when samples are
     shipped or if shipment is delayed for any reason.  This
     call allows for immediate notification when samples do
     not arrive on time, and it facilitates sample tracking.
     For mobile laboratories, care must be exercised to
                            5-22
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     prevent "flooding" the sample preparation or analytical
     capabilities of the laboratory.  Daily meetings with
     the mobile laboratory are sometimes needed.

3.   The designated copy of the COC form is sent to the
     laboratory with the samples.  Standard EPA and DOT
     shipping procedures are followed.

5.2.6.3  Postsampling

1.   When the laboratory finishes the analyses, a copy of
     the results is forwarded to the contractor.  The proj-
     ect chemist contacts the laboratory if results do not
     arrive on time.  Unlike at CLP laboratories, verbal
     reporting of unvalidated results can be obtained from
     contractor-chosen or mobile laboratories.  While the SM
     must be judicious in the use of these results, the
     rapid turnaround allows the SM to adjust the sampling
     plan and to more intelligently use CLP resources for
     full analyses.

2.   Once the data are received, questions may arise
     regarding their interpretation.  The project chemist is
     the primary laboratory contact to resolve such
     questions.

5.2.6.4  Residual Samples and Analytical Wastes

At EPA's direction, duplicate samples are often collected
and stored for later use.  These archived samples, the
residuals of samples sent out for analyses, and some of the
wastes generated during analyses are regulated by various
federal regulatory programs.  CLP laboratories will assume
responsibility for sample residuals at the laboratories.
However, the SM must make arrangements for the proper dis-
posal of archived or residual samples at non-CLP
laboratories.

5.2.6.4.1  Regulatory Framework

Each major federal program has elements that are expected to
apply to sample and laboratory operations.  These elements
are cited and discussed briefly in this subsection.

RCRA.  The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act  (RCRA)
regulations apply only to those wastes designated as
hazardous under 40 CFR 261.3.  If a sample is not a solid
waste as defined in 40 CFR 261.2 or if the sample is a solid
waste but not designated as hazardous in 40 CFR 261.3, that
sample is not regulated under RCRA.

Even hazardous waste samples as defined in 40 CFR 261.3 are
exempt from RCRA regulation if the terms of paragraph 40 CFR
                            5-23
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261.4(d)  are met.   Section 40 CFR 261.4(d)  is presented in
its entirety below.

40 CFR 261.4(d)  Samples

(1)  Except as provided in paragraph (d)(2)  of this section,
     a sample of solid waste or a sample of water, soil, or
     air, which is collected for the sole purpose of testing
     to determine  its characteristics or composition, is not
     subject to any requirements of this part or Parts 262
     through 267 or Part 270 or Part 124 of this chapter or
     to the notification requirements of Section 3010 of
     RCRA, when:

     (261.4(d) introductory paragraph amended by 48 PR
     30115,  June 30, 1983)

       (i)   The sample is being transported to a laboratory
             for the purpose of testing;  or

      (ii)   The sample is being transported back to the
             sample collector after testing; or

     (iii)   The sample is being stored by the sample
             collector before transport to a laboratory for
             testing; or

      (iv)   The sample is being stored in a laboratory
             before testing; or

       (v)   The sample is being stored in a laboratory
             after testing but before it is returned to the
             sample collector; or

      (vi)   The sample is being stored temporarily in the
             laboratory after testing for a specific purpose
              (for example, until conclusion of a court case
             or enforcement action where further testing of
             the sample may be necessary).

(2)  To qualify for the exemption in paragraph  (d)(1)(i) and
     (ii) of this section, a sample collector shipping
     samples to a laboratory and a laboratory returning
     samples to a sample collector must:

       (i)   Comply with DOT, U.S. Postal Service  (USPS), or
             any other applicable shipping requirements; or

      (ii)   Comply with the following requirements if the
             sample collector determines that DOT, USPS, or
             other shipping requirements do not apply to the
             shipment of the sample:
                            5-24
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             (A)   Assure that the following information
                  accompanies the sample:

                  (1)  The sample collector's name, mailing
                       address, and telephone number;

                  (2)  The laboratory's name, mailing
                       address, and telephone number;

                  (3)  The quantity of the sample;

                  (4)  The date of shipment; and

                  (5)  A description of the sample.

             (B)   Package the sample so that it does not
                  leak, spill, or vaporize from its
                  packaging.

(3)  This exemption does not apply if the laboratory
     determines that the waste is hazardous but the
     laboratory is no longer meeting any of the conditions
     stated in paragraph (d)(1) of this section.

A section of the RCRA regulations recognizes that analytical
laboratory operations could generate wastewater which is
mixed with small amounts of listed toxic hazardous wastes.
This section [40 CFR 261.3(a)(2)(iv)(E)]  excludes such
wastewater from the RCRA hazardous waste regulations if the
wastewater discharge is subject to regulation under either
Section 402 or Section 307(b) of the Clean Water Act (CWA)
and if the calculated annualized average wastewater flow
from the laboratory constitutes 1 percent or less of the
flow into the headworks of the treatment facility.   (This
calculation does not apply to septic systems or any
treatment system not regulated by Section 402 or 307(b) of
the CWA.)

CWA.  The Clean Water Act (CWA) regulates wastewater
discharges to publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) under
Section 307(b)  and wastewater discharges to surface waters
under Section 402.  Therefore, if a laboratory discharges
into a POTW system or a privately run wastewater treatment
plant that discharges treated effluent under an NPDES per-
mit, that laboratory is indirectly regulated under the CWA.
As noted above, RCRA conditionally excludes laboratory
wastewater from regulation when this indirect CWA authority
exists.  Laboratory managers should know, however, that
industrial wastewater discharges into POTWs are usually mon-
itored and regulated by local authorities, such as sewer
districts.  Even though no pretreatment standards currently
exist on a national basis for analytical laboratories, the
                            5-25
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general industrial effluent requirements for a particular
POTW system might apply to the laboratory's effluent.  Com-
pliance with the locally established requirements is neces-
sary to satisfy the RCRA exclusion.

CERCLA.  The Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) is designed to
provide a framework for both planned and emergency responses
to releases of hazardous substances into the environment.
Laboratory analytical samples are often associated with
defining and responding to situations that fall under CERCLA
authority.  However, CERCLA, SARA, and the National Contin-
gency Plan (NCP) (40 CFR Part 300) are not explicit on the
issue of how hazardous substance samples are to be managed.
The NCP will be revised in July 1987 and may address the
issue more fully.

As stated earlier, samples of hazardous waste  (as defined by
40 CFR 261.3) are managed in accordance with 40 CFR 261.3
and 261.4.  No such standards, exclusions, or limitations
exist for hazardous substance samples.  However, management
of hazardous substance samples as if they were hazardous
waste may be appropriate based on Section 104(c)(3)(B) of
CERCLA, which requires that any offsite treatment, storage,
or disposal of hazardous substances be conducted in
compliance with Subtitle C of the Solid Waste Disposal Act.

5.2.6.4.2  Procedures

Hazardous waste samples must be handled in conformance with
40 CFR 261.4(d) to be excluded from RCRA regulation
regarding administrative requirements for transport,
storage, treatment, and disposal.  Similarly, samples of
solid waste that might be hazardous  (i.e., for which the
hazard determination has not yet been made) and samples of
hazardous substances as defined by CERCLA may be handled in
conformance with 40 CFR 261.4(d).

Conformance with 40 CFR 261.4(d) requires that these
hazardous samples be returned to their generator for proper
management after the analysis.  This return should be spec-
ified as an agreed-upon last task in analytical contracts
for hazardous samples if the SM wishes to avoid the effort
entailed in treating the material as other than a sample.
Without the RCRA sample exclusion, samples would require
manifesting for shipment to the laboratory; the receiving
facility would need to be a RCRA Treatment, Storage, and
Disposal Facility  (TSDF); and offsite ultimate disposal
would require yet another manifest.  The American Chemical
Society has prepared a booklet titled "RCRA and
Laboratories" that details these requirements.
                            5-26
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Some samples received by laboratories are clearly not
hazardous by RCRA or CERCLA definitions; other samples are
determined by analysis to be nonhazardous.  These samples
are not required to be managed in accordance with the RCRA
exclusion paragraph.  However, before any nonhazardous sam-
ples are disposed of as part of laboratory solid refuse or
wastewater, the state and local solid waste codes and indus-
trial wastewater discharge codes should be examined to
assure that their terms are being met.  (Many sewer dis-
tricts, for example, require that total oil and grease
loading not exceed a noted maximum at the facility outfall.
This might restrict the disposal of large nonhazardous oily
samples from disposal through the sewers.)  Even for these
nonhazardous samples, it might be necessary to have contract
conditions or additional fees to cover the disposal of
samples.

To meet the requirements, laboratory and storehouse managers
should develop a specific instruction list noting logging,
disposition, and contractural standards for each type of
sample and analytical waste.  These specific instructions
could differ appreciably from one laboratory to another
because of local codes and the nature and size of the sani-
tary sewer system compared to laboratory contribution.  The
SM should have a clear understanding of the residual sample
deposition before shipping samples to a laboratory or
warehouse.

5.2.6.4.3  Analytical Wastes

During chemical analysis, various extracts, components, and
mixtures are derived from samples to determine their charac-
ter and composition.  Typically, these analytically derived
substances are small in volume, but are not totally used up
in the actual analysis.  The leftover substances then become
what is referred to as analytically derived waste.

In some cases, analytical wastes are not hazardous wastes
(as defined in RCRA) or hazardous substances (as defined in
CERCLA).  As such, these wastes are disposed of in accor-
dance with state and local solid waste and industrial waste-
water discharge requirements.  Typically, these wastes can
be disposed of in the wastewater discharged from the labo-
ratory to the sanitary sewer.

In some cases, however, analytical wastes might have been
derived from listed hazardous wastes or the chemicals used
to obtain the derivative could cause the waste to be clas-
sified as hazardous.  In either case, RCRA regulations pro-
vide for such waste to be disposed of with laboratory
wastewater if certain conditions are met.  Wastes that are
considered hazardous only because of a characteristic
                            5-27
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(ignitability,  corrosivity, reactivity, or EP toxicity—see
40 CFR 261, Subpart C)  are no longer hazardous once they are
mixed to eliminate the characteristic.  Mixing small volumes
of analytical waste with the sanitary sewer flow would cause
the waste to become so diluted that it no longer exhibits
hazardous characteristics.

When analytically derived wastes are produced in such volume
or concentration that the conditions specified in the RCRA
regulations or the discharge limits for the sanitary sewer
cannot be met by disposing of these wastes with laboratory
wastewater, other arrangements will need to be made.

5.2.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

The regional variances associated with the non-CLP are the
same as for the CLP and can be found in Subsection 5.1.7.

5.2.8  INFORMATION SOURCES

American Chemical Society, Task Force on RCRA.  "RCRA and
Laboratories."  Department of Government Relations and
Science Policy, 1155 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC  20036.
September 1986.

CH2M HILL.  REM/FIT Documentation Protocol for Region V.
May 1984.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Engineering Support
Branch Standard Operating Procedures and Quality Assurance
Manual.  Region IV, Environmental Services Division.
1 April 1986.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  User's Guide to the
Contract Laboratory Program.  Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response.  December 1986.


WDR230/013
                            5-28
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                          Section 6
        SAMPLE CONTAINERS, PRESERVATION, AND SHIPPING
Note:  This section is presented by topic for greater
clarity.

           6.1  SAMPLE CONTAINERS AND PRESERVATION

6.1.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This subsection describes the sample containers and the
preservatives used for environmental and hazardous samples
collected at waste sites.  The procedures described meet
Contract Laboratory Program  (CLP) requirements and analyt-
ical procedures.  Periodic updates and changes are detailed
in amendments to the User's Guide to the CLP.  To obtain
further information or copies of the User's Guide to the
CLP, contact the Sample Management Office (SMO) at
703/557-2490 or FTS 557-2490.

6.1.2  DEFINITIONS

Low-concentration sample.  The contaminant of highest
concentration is present at less than 10 parts per million
(ppm).   Examples include background environmental samples.

Medium-concentration sample.  The contaminant of highest
concentration is present at a level greater than 10 ppm and
less than 15 percent (150,000 ppm).  Examples include mate-
rial onsite that is obviously weathered.

High-concentration sample.  At least one contaminant is
present at a level greater than 15 percent.  Samples from
drums and tanks are assumed to be high concentration unless
information indicates otherwise.

Routine analytical services  (RAS).  Analysis of a soil or
water sample on a 30- to 45-day turnaround time for a list
of 126  organics, 23 metals, and cyanide.

Site Manager (SM).  The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.  The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).

6.1.3  APPLICABILITY

The procedures described in Section 6 apply to samples
collected for routine,  as well as for special analytical
services.  They are to be followed when the samples are
                             6-1
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being sent to either a CLP laboratory or a noncontract
laboratory.

6.1.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

Responsibilities are described in Subsection 6.1.6.  General
responsibilities are assigned as follows:

     o    The SM (and project team)  will determine the
          number and type of samples to be collected and the
          analyses to be performed;  the EPA RPM approves
          work plan.

     o    Equipment manager will obtain the proper grades
          and types of preservatives and bottles.

     o    Sampling personnel will collect a representative
          sample and, if necessary,  will add the proper sam-
          ple preservatives (as defined herein) once the
          samples have been collected.

6.1.5  RECORDS

The preservatives used for each bottle are recorded on the
sample tag or label.  Tags and labels are discussed in
Subsection 6.2.6; examples of completed tags are shown in
Subsection 5.1.6.  Shipping records are maintained as part
of the chain-of-custody documentation.   (See Section 4 of
this compendium.)

6.1.6  PROCEDURES

The procedures in this subsection are presented in the
chronological order of a typical sampling episode.
Exhibit 6-1 summarizes the sampling process.  Procedures
presented here are generic; an approach to regional
differences is presented in Subsection 6.1.7.

6.1.6.1  Activities Before Sampling

1.   In addition to the activities detailed in
     Subsection 5.1.6.1 for reserving laboratory space, the
     SM (or designee) obtains sample bottles by contacting
     an EPA authorized requester at the Regional Sample
     Control Center  (RSCC) who orders the necessary bottles.
     (Currently, I-Chem Research in California
     (415/782-3905) runs the official bottle repository for
     the Superfund program.)  Exhibit 6-2 lists the types of
     bottles available from the repository and summarizes
     the bottle requirements for each class of sample  (as
     presented in the User's Guide to the CLP, December
     1986).
                             6-2
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                                      Exhibit 6-1
                        TYPICAL SAMPLING PROCEDURES
            Project Team Decides What Samples to Collect, Which Analyses to Perform,
               and Identifies the Low-, Medium-, and High-Concentration Samples
                 CLP Coordinator (or Team Leader) Compiles Analytical Needs
                             and Determines Bottles Required
          CLP Coordinator (or Equipment Manager) Orders Bottles from l-Chem Research
                       Samples Are Collected (and Filtered if Necessary)
                          Equipment Manager Orders Preservatives
  ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES *
  Proper Preservatives Are Added
     Tags Placed on Bottles
 HAZARDOUS SAMPLES'
   Tags Placed on Bottles
 Bottles Placed in Plastic Bag
   Bottles Placed in Plastic Bag
                                                             Bottles Placed in Paint Can
      Bottles Placed in Cooler
   Separators Placed in Cooler,
           Ice Added
  Cooler Filled with Vermiculite
  Paperwork Taped to Inside Top
           of Cooler
   Cooler Sealed with Tape and
         Custody Seals
     Cooler Properly Labeled
 Samples Shipped (Regular Airbill)
Low concentration
Medium, high, and dioxin concentration
Can Filled with Vermiculite
Can Sealed with Tape or Clips
                                                                Can Properly Labeled
                                                                Cans Put in Cooler
                                                            Cooler Filled with Vermiculite
                                                           Paperwork Taped to Inside Top
                                                                     of Cooler
                                                            Cooler Sealed with Tape and
                                                                  Custody Seals
                                                              Cooler Properly Labeled
                                                                       ±
Samples Shipped (Restricted
      Article Airbill)
                                       6-3
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                               Exhibit 6-2
               SAMPLE BOTTLES AVAILABLE FROM THE REPOSITORY
Container
  Type
Description
No. Per
 Carton
             80-oz amber glass bottle
             with Teflon-lined black
             phenolic cap

             40-tnl glass vial with
             Teflon-lined silicon
             septum and black phenolic
             cap

             1-liter high-density
             polyethylene bottle with
             white poly cap

             120-ml wide-mouth glass
             vial with white poly cap
             16-oz wide-mouth glass
             jar with Teflon-lined
             black phenolic cap

             8-oz wide-mouth glass jar
             with Teflon-lined black
             phenolic cap
Used for RAS
Sample Type*
                         72
                         42
                         72
                         48
                         96
          Extractable organics—
          Low-concentration water
          samples

          Volatile organics—Low-
          and medium-concentration
          water samples
          Metals, cyanide—
          Low-concentration water
          samples

          Volatile organics—Low-
          and medium-concentration
          soil samples

          Metals, cyanide—
          Medium-concentration
          water samples

          Extractable organics

          Low- and medium-
          concentration soil
          samples

                  and

          Metals, cyanide—Low- and
          medium-concentration
          soil samples

                  and

          Dioxin—Soil samples

                  and

          Organics and inorganics—
          High-concentration liquid
          and solid samples
                                   6-4
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                               Exhibit 6-2
                               (continued)
Container
   Type
Description
           4-oz wide-mouth glass jar
           with Teflon-lined black
           phenolic cap
No. Per
 Carton

  120
Used for RAS
Sample Type*
    H      1-liter amber glass
           bottle with Teflon-lined
           black phenolic cap

    J      32-pz wide-mouth glass
           jar with Teflon-lined
           black phenolic cap

    K      4-liter amber glass
           bottle with Teflon-lined
           black phenolic cap
                            Extractable organics—
                            Low- and medium-
                            concentration soil
                            samples

                                     and

                            Metals, cyanide—Low- and
                            medium-concentration soil
                            samples

                                     and
                            Dioxin—Soil samples

                                     and

                            Organic and inorganic—
                            High-concentration liquid
                            and solid samples

                     24     Extractable organics—
                            Low-concentration water
                            samples

                     36     Extractable organics—
                            Medium-concentration
                            water samples

                      4     Extractable organics—
                            Low-concentration water
                            samples
*This column specifies the on
 collected in each container.
             type(s) of samples that should be
                                   6-5
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2.    At the same time,  the SM (or designee)  must order the
     chemicals necessary to preserve the samples once they
     are collected.   The chemicals that may  be used include
     the following:

     o    Nitric acid,  American Chemical Society (ACS)
          grade, 16N
     o    Sodium hydroxide, ACS grade,  pellets
     o    Sulfuric acid, ACS grade,  37N
     o    Hydrocholoric acid, ACS grade, 12N
     o    Sodium thiosulfate, ACS grade, crystalline
     o    Mercuric chloride, ACS grade, powder

6.1.6.2  Sampling Activities

1.    The samplers collect representative aliquots of each
     medium and place them in the appropriate sample jars as
     described in Exhibit 6-2.

2.    The samplers preserve the low-concentration water
     samples as follows:

     o    Nitric acid (HN03) is added to the TCL metals
          bottle until the pH is less than 2 (2 ml of 1+1 is
          usually sufficient).

     Note:  Analysis for dissolved metals requires
     filtration of the sample before preservation; however,
     the preservation method is the same for both dissolved
     and total metals.

     For the cyanide aliquot, the following guidelines
     should be followed:

     o    Test a drop of sample with potassium iodide-starch
          test paper (Kl-starch paper); a blue color
          indicates the presence of oxidizing agents and the
          need for treatment.  Add ascorbic acid, a few
          crystals at a time, until a drop of sample
          produces no color on the indicator paper.  Then
          add an additional 0.6g of ascorbic acid for each
          liter fo sample volume.

     o    Test a drop of sample on lead acetate paper
          previously moistened with acetic acid buffer
          solution.   Darkening of_the paper indicates the
          presence of S  .  If S   is present, add powdered
          cadmium carbonate until a drop of the treated
          solution does not darken the lead acetate test
          paper and then filter the solution before raising
          the pH for stabilization.

     o    Preserve samples with 2 ml of 10 N sodium
          hydroxide per liter of sample (pH ^12).


                             6-6
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      o     Store  the samples so  that their temperature  is
           maintained  at 4°C until the  time of  analysis.

      o     Samples to  be analyzed for TCL organics are  packed
           in  ice and  shipped  to the laboratory with ice  in
           the cooler.

      The following RAS  samples  do not  require  preservatives:

      o     Soil or sediment samples
      o     Medium- or  high-concentration water  samples

      Exhibit  6-3 lists  the preservatives used  for frequently
      requested special  analytical services.

3.    The samples are  shipped  to the laboratory for analysis.
                             Exhibit 6-3
                   SAMPLE PRESERVATION REQUIREMENTS
            Analysis
Acidity
Alkalinity
Bicarbonate
Carbonate
Chloride
Chemical Oxygen Demand  (COD)
EP toxicity
Nitrogen
      Ammonia
      Kjeldahl, total
      Nitrate
      Nitrite
Oil and grease
Sulfate
Solids
      Total dissolved
      Total suspended
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

Total Organic Halogen (TOH or TOX)
       Preservation
        Cool, 4°C
        Cool, 4°C
        Cool, 4°C
        Cool, 4°C
          None
 H SO4 to pH <2, Cool,  4°C
          None

 H SO  to pH <2, Cool,  4°C
 H SO  to pH <2, Cool,  4°C
 H^SO  to pH <2, Cool,  4°C
  ^     r««^i  4°c
   ^4 to pH
       Cool,
H SO  to pH <2, Cool
                      4°C
        Cool, 4°C

        Cool, 4°C
        Cool, 4°C
  H SO  or HCI to pH <2,
        Cool, 4°C
Several crystals of sodium
thiosulfate if chlorine  is
present, cool, 4°C
Refer to RCRA Ground-Water Monitoring Technical Enforcement Guidance
Document  (TEGD) and SW-846 for additional information on sample preser-
vation, recommended containers, maximum holding times,  and volume
requirements.  EPA's Characterization of Hazardous Waste Sites,
Vols. 1 and 2, and Soil Sampling QA User's Guide contain information
regarding holding time criteria for soil or sediment.
                                 6-7
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6.1.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

The regional variances listed in this subsection are in
chronological order to allow for easy comparison with the
generic procedure described in Subsection 6.1.6.  Because
this information may become dated rapidly, the user should
contact the EPA RPM or RSCC to get full details on current
regional practices or requirements before planning sampling
activities.  Future changes in variances will be incor-
porated in subsequent revisions to this compendium.

6.1.7.1  Presampling Activities

Regional variances during the presampling phase will be
discussed in Revision 01.

6.1.7.2  Sampling Activities

1.   Region IV requires that samples collected for volatile
     analysis be preserved with hydrochloric acid.  Four
     drops of concentrated HC1 are added to each VOA vial
     before the vial is filled with the sample.

2.   Region V preserves the metals sample with 5 ml of
     nitric acid.  In addition, Region V uses a 10 normal
     sodium hydroxide solution rather than sodium hydroxide
     pellets.

6.1.8  INFORMATION SOURCES

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  The User's Guide to
the Contract Laboratory Program.  Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response.  December 1986.

Federal Register.  Vol. 49, No. 209, p. 43260.  28 October
1984.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Engineering Support
Branch Standard Operating Procedures and Quality Assurance
Manual.  Region IV, Environmental Services Division.
I April 1986.

CH2M HILL.  REM/FIT Documentation Protocol for Region V.
May 1984.
           6.2  PACKAGING, LABELING, AND SHIPPING

6.2.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This subsection describes the packaging, labeling, and
shipping used for environmental and hazardous samples
collected at a waste site.
                             6-8
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6.2.2  DEFINITIONS

The definitions are the same as those in Subsection 6.1.2.

6.2.3  APPLICABILITY

The procedures described in this subsection apply to samples
collected at a waste site.   They must be followed whether
shipping to a CLP laboratory or a noncontract laboratory.

The shipment of hazardous materials is governed by the
Transportation Safety Act of 1974.  Following is a list of
references that detail the regulations:

     o    Title 49 CFR
               Parts 100-177—Shipper Requirements and
               Hazardous Material Table
               Parts 178-199—Packaging Specifications
               Section 262.20—Hazardous Waste Manifest

     o    International Civil Aviation Regulations (ICAO)
               Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport
               of Dangerous Goods by Air  (lists mandatory
               international and optional domestic
               regulations)

     o    International Air Transport Association (IATA)
               Dangerous Goods Regulations  (This tariff
               incorporates 49 CFR, ICAO, and additional
               IATA regulations.  Most international and
               domestic airlines belong to IATA and require
               conformance to all applicable regulations.)

     o    Tariff BOE-6000-D  (reprint of 49 CFR with
          updates)

6.2.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

Detailed responsibilities are described in the procedures
subsection.  General responsibilities are assigned as
follows:

     o    Site Managers will state, to the best of their
          knowledge, whether samples planned for collection
          are environmental or hazardous samples.

     o    Equipment manager will procure shipping supplies
           (metal cans, shipping labels, vermiculite,  etc.)
          using RSCC whenever needed.

     o    Sampling personnel will properly label and package
          the samples.
                             6-9
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6.2.5  RECORDS

The user should refer to Section 4 for discussion of the
records associated with sample collection and chain-of-
custody forms.

The following records are associated with the labeling and
shipping process:

     o    Sample tag or label
     o    Traffic report label
     o    Custody seal
     o    Chain-of-custody (COC) form
     o    Bill of lading (airbill or similar document)

Examples of the first four documents are given in
Subsections 4.6 and 5.1.6; an example of an airbill is given
in Subsection 6.2.

6.2.6  PROCEDURES

The procedures described in this subsection are carried out
after the sample preservation described in Subsection
6.1.6.2.  They are generic in nature; an approach to
regional differences is presented in Subsection 6.2.7.

6.2.6.1  Environmental Samples

Low-concentration samples are defined as environmental
samples and should be packaged for shipment as follows:

1.   A sample tag is attached to the sample bottle.
     Examples of properly completed sample tags are given in
     Exhibit 5-7.

2.   All bottles, except the volatile organic analysis  (VOA)
     vials, are taped closed with electrical tape  (or other
     tape as appropriate).  Evidence tape may be used for
     additional sample security.

3.   Each sample bottle is placed in a separate plastic bag,
     which is then sealed.  As much air as possible is
     squeezed from the bag before sealing.  Bags may be
     sealed with evidence tape for additional security.

4.   A picnic cooler  (such as a Coleman or other sturdy
     cooler) is typically used as a shipping container.  In
     preparation for shipping samples, the drain plug is
     taped shut from the inside and outside, and a large
     plastic bag is used as a liner for the cooler.  Approx-
     imately 1 inch of packing material, such as asbestos-
     free vermiculite, perlite, or styrofoam beads, is
                            6-10
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     placed in the bottom of the liner.   Other commercially
     available shipping containers may be used.   However,
     the use of such containers (cardboard or fiber boxes
     complete with separators and preservatives)  should be
     specified in the sampling plan and approved by the EPA
     RSCC if CLP is used.

5.    The bottles are placed in the lined picnic cooler.
     Cardboard separators may be placed between the bottles
     at the discretion of the shipper.

6.    Water samples for low- or medium-level organics
     analysis and low-level inorganics analysis must be
     shipped cooled to 4°C with ice.   No ice is to be used
     in shipping inorganic low-level soil samples or medium/
     high-level water samples, or organic high-level water
     or soil samples, or dioxin samples.  Ice is not
     required in shipping soil samples,  but may be utilized
     at the option of the sampler.  All cyanide samples,
     however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C.

7.    The lined cooler is filled with packing material  (such
     as asbestos-free vermiculite, perlite, or styrofoam
     beads), and the large inner  (garbage bag) liner is
     taped shut.  Sufficient packing material should be used
     to prevent sample containers from making contact during
     shipment.  Again, evidence tape may be used.

8.    The paperwork going to the laboratory is placed inside
     a plastic bag.  The bag is sealed and taped to the
     inside of the cooler lid.  A copy of the COC form
     should be included in the paperwork sent to the labo-
     ratory.  Exhibit 5-4 gives an example of a properly
     completed COC form.  The last block on the COC form
     should indicate the overnight carrier and airbill num-
     ber.  The airbill must be filled out before the samples
     are handed over to the carrier.   The laboratory should
     be notified if another sample is being sent to another
     laboratory for dioxin analysis,  or if the shipper sus-
     pects that the sample contains any other substance for
     which the laboratory personnel should take safety
     precautions.

9.    The cooler is closed and padlocked or taped shut with
     strapping tape (filament-type).

10.   At least two signed custody seals are placed on the
     cooler, one on the front and one on the back.  Addi-
     tional seals may be used if the sampler or shipper
     thinks more seals are necessary.  Exhibit 5-6 gives an
     example of the two types of custody seals available.
                            6-11
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11.  The cooler is handed over to the overnight carrier,
     typically Federal Express.  A standard airbill is
     necessary for shipping environmental samples.
     Exhibit 6-4 shows an example of the standard Federal
     Express airbill.

6.2.6.2  Hazardous Samples

Medium- and high-concentration samples are defined as
hazardous and must be packaged as follows:

1.   A sample tag is attached to the sample bottle.
     Examples of properly completed sample tags are shown in
     Exhibit 5-7.

2.   All bottles, except the VGA vials, are taped closed
     with electrical tape (or other tape as appropriate).
     Evidence tape may be used for additional security.

3.   Each sample bottle is placed in a plastic bag, and the
     bag is sealed.  For medium-concentration water samples,
     each VOA vial is wrapped in a paper towel, and the two
     vials are placed in one bag.  As much air as possible
     is squeezed from the bags before sealing.  Evidence
     tape may be used to seal the bags for additional
     security.

4.   Each bottle is placed in a separate paint can, the
     paint can is filled with vermiculite, and the lid is
     fixed to the can.  The lid must be sealed with metal
     clips or with filament or evidence tape; if clips are
     used, the manufacturer typically recommends six clips.

5.   Arrows are placed on the can to indicate which end is
     up.

6.   The outside of each can must contain the proper DOT
     shipping name and identification number for the sample.
     The information may be placed on stickers or printed
     legibly.  A liquid sample of an uncertain nature is
     shipped as a flammable liquid with the shipping name
     "FLAMMABLE LIQUID, N.O.S." and the identification
     number "UN1993."  A solid sample of uncertain nature is
     shipped as a flammable solid with the shipping name
     "FLAMMABLE SOLID, N.O.S." and the identification number
     "UNI325."  If the nature of the sample is known, 49 CFR
     171-177 is consulted to determine the proper labeling
     and packaging requirements.
                            6-12
-------
           Exhibit 6-4
STANDARD FEDERAL EXPRESS AIRBILL
              At/00 NIOIUO
                         5 —

	





- —



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\
5

(J3
OJUJ <
Q O < VI
S^Z Q
^SSfs^
< S f uj o £
a. * cr - Q.
         3dU UO INIUd 3SV31d
          S3ld03 S dUVH SSJUd
              6-13
-------
7.    The cans are placed upright in a cooler that has had
     its drain plug taped shut inside and out,  and the
     cooler has been lined with a garbage bag.   Vermiculite
     is placed on the bottom.   Two sizes of paint cans are
     used:   half-gallon and gallon.  The half-gallon paint
     cans can be stored on top of each other;  however, the
     gallon cans are too high  to stack.   The cooler is
     filled with vermiculite,  and the liner is  taped shut.

8.    The paperwork going to the laboratory is placed inside
     a plastic bag and taped to the inside of the cooler
     lid.  A copy of the COC form, an example of which is
     shown in Exhibit 5-4, should be included in the
     paperwork sent to the laboratory.  The sampler keeps
     one copy of the COC form.  The laboratory should be
     notified if a parallel sample is being sent to another
     laboratory for dioxin analysis, or if the sample is
     suspected of containing any substance for which
     laboratory personnel should take safety precautions.

9.    The cooler is closed and  sealed with strapping tape.
     At least two custody seals are placed on the outside of
     the cooler (one on the front and one on the back).
     More custody seals may be used at the discretion of the
     sampler.

10.  The following markings are placed on the top of the
     cooler:

     o    Proper shipping name  (49 CFR 172.301)
     o    DOT identification number  (49 CFR 172.301)
     o    Shipper's or consignee's name and address  (49 CFR
          172.306)
     o    "This End Up" legibly written if shipment contains
          liquid hazardous materials  (49 CFR 172.312)

     Other commercially available shipping containers may be
     used.  The SM should ascertain that the containers are
     appropriate to the type of sample being shipped.  The
     SM should clearly specify the type of shipping con-
     tainer to be used in the  QAPjP.

11.  The following labels are  required on top of the cooler
      (49 CFR 172.406e):

     o    Appropriate hazard class label  (placed next to the
          proper shipping name)

     o    "Cargo Aircraft Only"  (if applicable as identified
          in 49 CFR 172.101)
                            6-14
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12.   An arrow symbol(s)  indicating "This Way Up" should be
     placed on the cooler in addition to the markings and
     labels described above.

13.   Restricted-article  airbills are used for shipment.
     Exhibit 6-5 shows an example of a restricted article
     Federal Express airbill.   The "Shipper Certification
     for Restricted Articles"  section is filled out as follows
     for a flammable solid or a flammable liquid:

     o    Number of packages or number of coolers

     o    Proper shipping name: if unknown, use
               Flammable solid, N.O.S., or
               Flammable liquid, N.O.S.

     o    Classification; if unknown, use
               Flammable solid or
               Flammable liquid

     o    Identification number; if unknown, use
               UN1325 (for flammable solids) or
               UN1993 (for flammable liquids)

     o    Net quantity per package or amount of substance in
          each cooler

     o    Radioactive materials section (Leave blank.)

     o    Passenger or cargo aircraft  (Cross off the
          nonapplicable.  Up to 25 pounds of flammable solid
          per cooler can be shipped on a passenger or cargo
          aircraft.  Up  to 1 quart of flammable liquid per
          cooler can be  shipped on a passenger aircraft, and
          up to 10 gallons of flammable liquid per cooler
          can be shipped on a cargo aircraft.)

     o    Name and title of shipper  (printed)

     o    An emergency telephone number at which the shipper
          can be reached within the following 24 to 48 hours

     o    Shipper's signature

    Note: The penalties  for improper shipment of hazardous
          materials are  severe; a fine of $25,000 and
          5 years' imprisonment can be imposed for each vio-
          lation.   The SM or designee is urged to take
          adequate precautions.
                            6-15
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                                                       Exhibit  6-5
                      RESTRICTED   ARTICLE  FEDERAL  EXPRESS   AIRBILL
co
ui
O.
o
o
in
O
cc
a.
                                                                                                         MWLL NUMBER
                                                                                               IK* i !> i pt u
                                      PLEASE COMPLETE ALL INFORMATION tN THE 5 BLOCKS OUTLINED IN ORANGE
                                      SEE BACK OF FORM SET FOR COMPLETE PREPARATION INSTRUCTIONS
                                 YOUR FFDfHAl EXPH1S-V Af COUN
                                                                                                         tt HaU fa Ncfc-Up 9 SMinliy Mnwy.
                                                                         TREET ADDRESS (P 0 BOX NUMBERS
            STREET AOOHF-SS

                  P»x.K M/.
                                            IN TENDERING THIS SHIPMENT SHIPPER AGREES THAT
                                            F F C SHALL NOT B( LIABLE FOR SPECIAL INCIDEN
                                            TAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING FROM
                                                       CARRIAGE HEREOF F E C DIS
                                                       CLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES El
                                                       RESPECT TO THIS SHIPMENT
            YOU WTCSMrCKHZ NUMEKS (FKT li OUMCTHtS
                                                                                                  ESS OR IMPLIED WITH
                                                                                                  S 15 A NO* NEGOTIABLE
                                                                                     SUftJKl 10 COHW1.0HS W COHIRfcCl Sfl fOfllM
                                                                                 M RtVfRSl Of SHIPPtfl S TOPV UNLESS YOU DICl ARC A
                                                                                 HIGHER VALUE THt LIABILITY 01 FEDERAL EXPRESS COR
                                                                                 POR.ATION IS LIMITED TO HOD 00 FEDERAL EXPRESS DOES
                                                                                 wm CARRY CARGO LIABIL1TV INSURANCE
                          MM SAND
             „„„__...-.,  ««OB>CT«
             O «.%jftc!Scf5  MATERIAL ONLY
               IUR « 70 IBS I
            (MONDAY THROUGH FR
            FROM ALASKMUWAI1 SATURDAY DELI
              V1 AVAILABLE IN CONTINENTAL u S
               SPECIAL HANDLING
                                                            DATUTME to Ndnl Enmi Wi
                                       SHIPPER'S CERTIFICATION FOR  RESTRICTED ARTICLES
                                                                                                               NET OUANTrrY
                                                                                                               PER PACKAGE
                                                                           IDENTIFICATION NO
PROPER SHIPPING NAME          CLASSIFICATION
                     IPERWCFR, 172.101)
                                                                                C^TtOO«Y.Qf.U>aiEt8 TBANS. INDEX
                                                                                                           PACKAGE HXHTIFICATION
            ADDITIONAL
            DESCRIPTION
            REOUWEMENTS
            FOR
            RADIOACTIVE
            MATERIALS
            (SEE BACK)
                                                                          PASSENGER
                                                                          AIRCRAFT
                                                             CARGO
                                                             AIRCRAFT ONLY
(DELETE-NONAPPLICABLE)
            THIS SHIPMENT IS WITHIN THE LIMITATIONS PRESCRIBED FOR

              IF ACCEPTABLE FOR PASSENGER AIRCRAFT, THIS SHIPMENT CONTAINS RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL INTENDED FOR USE IN. OR INCIDENT
              TO, RESEARCH, MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS OR TREATMENT.
              I HEREBY CERTIFY THAT THE CONTENTS OF THIS CONSIGNMENT ARE FULLY AND ACCURATELY DESCRIBED ABOVE BY PROPER
              SHIPPING NAME AND ARE CLASSIFIED, PACKED, MARKED, AND LABELED, AND IN PROPER CONDITION FOR CARRIAGE BY AIR
              ACCORDING TO APPLICABLE NATIONAL GOVERNMENTAL REGULATIONS.

                                                             6-16
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6.2.7  REGIONAL VARIANCES

There are no known regional variances for the shipment of
hazardous samples.  However, regional variances for the
shipment of environmental samples (low concentration) are
common.  Information in a compendium on such variances can
become dated rapidly.  Thus, users are urged to contact the
EPA RPM or the RSCC for the latest regional variances.

1.   Region I includes the five-digit laboratory number of
     each sample in the "Remarks" section of the
     chain-of-custody form to act as a cross check on sample
     identification.

2.   Separators must be placed  between the bottles of
     samples shipped from a Region IV site.  BSD also tapes
     the VOA vials and uses blue ice.

3.   Region V tapes the VOA vials and does not line the
     cooler with a plastic bag.  Region V FIT indicates the
     OTR/ITR number, bottle lot numbers, sample
     concentrations, and matrix in the right-hand portion of
     the "Remarks" section of the chain-of-custody form.
     The custody seal numbers, airbill number, and "samples
     shipped via Federal Express" are included in the lower
     right-hand section.

4.   Region VI does not tape sample bottles, put sample
     bottles in plastic bags, or line coolers with plastic.
     Glass bottles are wrapped with "bubble wrap" instead of
     cardboard separators.  In addition, the traffic report
     stickers are placed at the liquid level on the sample
     bottles to allow the laboratories to check for leakage.

5.   Region VIII does not put the sample in a plastic bag.

Because information on variances can become dated rapidly,
the user should contact the EPA RPM or RSCC for current
regional practices and requirements.  Future changes and
additional regional variances will be incorporated in
Revision 01 of this document.

6.2.8  Information Sources

CH2M HILL.  REM/FIT Documentation Protocol for Region V.
May 1984.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49, Parts 171 to 177,
Transportation.
                            6-17
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.   Engineering Support
Branch Standard Operating Procedures and Quality Assurance
Manual.  Region IV, Environmental Services Division.
1 April 1986.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.   The User's Guide to
the Contract Laboratory Program.  Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response.  December 1986.
WDR230/015
                            6-18
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                          Section 7
            FIELD METHODS FOR RAPID SCREENING FOR
                     HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
                   7.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

Section 7 provides an overview of current techniques used by
some contractors to rapidly screen the hazardous waste
material at waste sites.  The section also describes the
functions and capabilities of available analytical
instrumentation and suggests some analytical protocols for
mobile laboratories.  The purpose of this section is not to
provide standard operating procedures for rapid screening
for hazardous material onsite or to establish performance
criteria for direct-reading instruments or mobile
laboratories.  The purpose is to provide a narrative
description of some approaches and techniques that have been
used on certain projects.  In Fall 1987, the Contract
Laboratory Program  (CLP) will publish a "Field Screening
Methods Catalog" that will contain detailed discussions of
field analytical methods.  The CLP catalog will provide a
consolidated reference for use by EPA, contractors, state
and local agencies, and Potentially Responsible Parties
(PRPs) who will be conducting field analysis.  When this
compendium is updated, it will reflect the information
contained in the CLP catalog.  The updated compendium will
also contain any additional methods that were found useful
by contractors but were not included in the catalog.
                      7.2  DEFINITIONS

Site Manager (SM).   The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.  The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or  the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
                     7.3  APPLICABILITY

Field analysis involves  the use of portable or transportable
instruments that are based at or near a sampling site.
Field analysis should not be confused with the process of
obtaining total organic  readings using portable meters.

Field analysis can provide data from the analysis of air,
soil, and water samples  for many Target Compound List  (TCL)
organic compounds, including volatiles, base neutral acid
(BNA) extractable organics, and pesticides/PCBs.  Inorganic
analysis can also be conducted using portable atomic
adsorption (AA) or other instruments.
                             7-1
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The ability to assess data quality for field activities
depends on the QA/QC steps taken in the process (e.g.,
documentation of blank injections, calibration standard
runs, runs of qualitative standards between samples, etc.).

Field analytical techniques are used whenever the data
quality objectives specify Level I and II analytical support
as adequate.

The objective of Level I analysis is to generate data that
are generally used in refining sampling plans and estimating
the extent of contamination at the site.  This type of
support provides real-time data for health and safety
purposes.  Additional data that can effectively be obtained
by Level I analyses include pH, conductivity, temperature,
salinity, and dissolved oxygen for water (see Sections 8
and 10), as well as some measurement of contamination using
various kits  (see Subsection 7.6).

Level I analyses are generally effective for total vapor
readings using portable photoionization or flame ionization
meters that resopnd to a variety of volatile inorganic and
organic compounds (see Section 15).

Level I analysis provides data for onsite, real-time total
vapor measruement, evaluation of existing conditions,
refinement of sampling location, and health and safety
evaluations.  Data generated from Level I support are
generally considered qualitative in nature, although limited
quantitative data can also be generated.  Data generated
from this type of analysis provide the following:

     o    Identification of soil, water, air, and waste
          locations that have a high likelihood of showing
          contamination through subsequent analysis

     o    Real-time data to be used for health and safety
          consideration during site reconnaissance and
          subsequent intrusive activities

     o    Quantitative data if a contaminant is known and
          the instrument is calibrated to that substance

The procedures discussed in this section have been used for
several purposes including screening the site to determine
the level of safety required for personnel working at the
site; screening samples to determine which compounds, or
groups of compounds, should be specified for further
analysis, usually under the Contract Laboratory Program
(CLP); and screening for characterizing material for removal
and in refining the sampling plan to more precisely
determine the number and type of samples to be taken.  By
using field screening, changes in sampling can occur while
                             7-2
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the field team is mobilized, rather than waiting for several
months for data to return from CLP analysis.  Field
screening techniques, such as the removal of drums, lagoons,
pits, ponds, and other waste sources, allows testing for
compatibility and disposal category classification
(Exhibit 7-1) before disposal.  Note:  Because of the many
safety factors to be considered when undertaking such
screening, the SM should consult documents such as "Drum
Handling Practices at Hazardous Waste Sites,"
EPA/600/2-86/013, January 1986.
                    7.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

Field screening generally consists of two phases:

     o    A field survey using instruments such as OVA
          meters or HNU detectors to analyze the ambient
          conditions onsite or to conduct limited analyses
          of samples (Level I on Data Quality Objectives
          rating; see Section 15)

     o    Mobile laboratory analyses to provide better
          qualitative and quantitative data upon which
          decisions can be made about site safety, CLP use,
          and the sampling campaign (Level II on Data
          Quality Objectives rating)

The SM is responsible for defining the screening program and
obtaining the proper equipment.  The equipment manager and
the mobile laboratory director are responsible for keeping
the equipment in good working order.  The field investiga-
tor (s) and the mobile laboratory analyst(s) are responsible
for checking the equipment in the field and for verifying
calibration and proper operation at the site.
                        7.5  RECORDS

Reporting is essential to thoroughly document technical
methods and results.  For screening of samples and field
surveys,  activity logs may be kept to record and document
the results.  Bound field notebooks with numbered pages
should be used as the permanent record of results.  Records
should include field calibration procedures and duplicate
readings.  The equipment manager and the field analyst
should keep records of equipment maintenance and field
laboratory calibration and should make these records part of
the permanent project file.  The reader should refer also to
Sections  4, 5, 6, and 17 of this compendium.
                             7-3
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                               Exhibit 7-1
             POTENTIAL ANALYTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DISPOSAL
 1.   Flammability
 2.   pH
 3.   Specific gravity
 4.   PCB analysis
 5.   Thermal content (BTU/lb)
 6.   Physical state at 70°F
 7.   Phases (layering in liquids)
 8.   Solids (%)
 9.   Hydrocarbon composition
10.   Pesticide analysis
11.   Sulfur content
12.   Phenols
13.   Oil and grease (%)
14.   Water (%)
15.   Viscosity
16.   Organochlorine percentage
17.   Metals analysis

     a.   Liquids for soluble metals
     b.   Solids extracted according to the EPA Toxicant Extraction
          Procedure (24 hr), which shows leachable metals
     c.   Both liquid and solids checked for concentrations of the
          following metals:

          Arsenic                  Mercury
          Barium                   Nickel
          Cadmium                  Selenium
          Chromium                 Silver
          Copper                   Zinc
          Lead

18.   Content checked for both free and total cyanide

19.   Solids checked for solubility in water, sulfuric acid, and dimethyl
     sulfoxide
Reprinted from Muller, Broad, and Leo, 1982.  Exhibit originally printed
in the Proceedings of the National Conference on Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, 1982.  Available from Hazardous
Materials Control Research Institute, 9300 Columbia Blvd., Silver
Spring, Maryland  20910.
                                   7-4
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With a few exceptions, such as the mass-produced TAGA 6000E
Mobile MS/MS System, mobile laboratories are each crafted
differently.  Accordingly, each mobile laboratory develops
discrete standard operating and documentation procedures
that are specific to the instrumentation, power and water
supply, configuration, transportation arrangements, and
housekeeping requirements for that laboratory.  These
specific procedures should be appended to the QAPjP and
rigorously followed.  The laboratory notebooks should
document any deviations from the procedures or development
of modifications to the procedures for site-specific needs.

Results from field screening are recorded in field or
laboratory notebooks for the permanent record; tear sheets
or carbonless forms are generally used to record results for
the Site Manager's use before a report is written.  (See
Exhibit 7A-1 and 7A-3 for mobile laboratory reporting
procedures.)
                       7.6  PROCEDURES

7.6.1  INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Exhibit 7-2 presents a list of typical inorganic compounds
that a laboratory program might analyze for during a
hazardous waste site investigation.
                         Exhibit 7-2
                LISTING OF TYPICAL INORGANICS
                Aluminum                    Lead
                Antimony                    Magnesium
                Arsenic                     Manganese
                Barium                      Mercury
                Beryllium                   Nickel
                Cadmium                     Potassium
                Calcium                     Selenium
                Chromium                    Silver
                Cobalt                      Sodium
                Copper                      Thallium
                Cyanide                     Vanadium
                Iron                        Zinc
Several approaches are used to determine inorganic
compounds.  These approaches include the use of various
field test kits as well as traditional and state-of-the-art
instrumentation.  Examples of field test kits include the
                             7-5
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Hach Hazardous Materials Detection Laboratory, the Hach COD
kit, the Scintrex Atomic Absorption Spectrometer, indicator
papers, portable wet chemistry test sets, and packaged test
kits such as those produced by Chemetrics.  Each of these
kits includes a detailed set of instructions on use of the
instruments and chemicals and on interpretation of results.
A general discussion of the capabilities of some kits is
presented below.

The kits offered by Hach and LaMotte Chemical include
reagents to produce a colorimetric reaction with subsequent
relative quantitative determination using a spectrophoto-
meter, which is also in the kit.  The Chemetrics test kits
use self-filling ampoules that serve as disposable test
cells.  These ampoules contain a measured amount of reagent
sealed under vacuum.  These are colorimetric tests, and
results are obtained through comparison with a color chart
or through the use of a spectrophotometer or colorimeter.
The Hach Hazardous Materials Laboratory  (which is also
usable for a limited number of organic compounds) is only
class selective  (e.g., heavy metals as a group) and is
subject to interferences.  The Hach kits and other colori-
metric methods are best used in a survey mode analogous to
that of the Organic Vapor Meters, because positive results
would not be conclusive without supporting data.

The Scintrex Atomic Absorption Spectrometer is somewhat
comparable to usual laboratory capabilities.  The inclusion
of Zeeman Effect background correction compensates for the
lower optical performance, and the use of a tungsten furnace
compares to the traditional laboratory instrument.  The
operator of the Atomic Absorption unit in the field must be
well versed in sample preparation and sample handling tech-
niques to avoid interference and contamination problems.
The mobile Atomic Absorption unit appears to be well suited
for overall field application from the standpoint of both
mobility and analytical performance.

Although the process is expensive, inorganic analyses that
use state-of-the-art laboratory instruments such as an
Inductively Coupled Plama  (ICP) Spectrometer can be per-
formed in a field screening mode.  A protocol for inorganic
analysis in mobile and fixed-base laboratories by ICP,
flame, flameless, and cold-vapor atomic  absorption tech-
niques is attached as Exhibit 7A-3 in Appendix 7A.  Heavy
metals in solid samples can be analyzed  by X-ray diffrac-
tion.  An operating procedure for the Columbia Scientific
X-Met 840 Analyzer is attached as Exhibit 7A-4 in
Appendix 7A.
                             7-6
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7.6.2  ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Exhibit 7-3 shows a typical list of organic compounds that
the CLP analyzes for.  Equipment for field analysis and
screening of organic compounds falls into three broad
categories:

     o    Portable, total organic vapor monitors
     o    Portable, selective organic instruments
     o    Mobile, selective organic instruments

7.6.2.1  Portable, Total Organic Vapor Monitors

Equipment in this category includes the HNU Model 101, the
AID Models 710/712 and 580, and the Foxboro OVA 108/128.
These instruments are essentially gas chromatographic detec-
tors that continuously sample the ambient atmosphere.  With
the exception of two instruments, they respond to all
organic vapors and are nonselective.  The exceptions are the
HNU Model 101 and the AID Model 580; both use a Photo loni-
zation Detector  (PID).  The PID does not respond to methane
(or any other organic molecule with an ionization potential
greater than the energy of the ionizing lamp).  This selec-
tive response is advantageous, since methane is a common
organic decomposition product and does not necessarily indi-
cate the presence of toxic materials.

This type of equipment is already commonly used for health
and safety as well as sample screening.  Zero instrument
response is a definitive result; it indicates an undetect-
able amount of organic vapors (toxic or otherwise) within
the range of the instrument's ionizing lamp.  However, a
positive instrument response is not conclusive evidence of
the presence of toxic materials, since the detector responds
to both toxic and nontoxic organics.  In addition to the
selective response limitation, the organic vapor meters
accept only vapor state samples.  This equipment not only
limits the sample type but also restricts the range of mea-
surable compounds to the relatively high volatility
materials.

Section 15 provides procedures for use of the equipment
described above.

7.6.2.2  Portable, Selective Organic Instruments

These types of instruments include the Photovac 10A10, the
AID Model 511, and the Foxboro OVA Century.  While these
instruments are portable, they are not as simple to use and
transport as the total organic vapor instruments.  If sam-
ples other than ambient air are to be analyzed, it would be
more convenient to perform the analyses in a van, trailer,
                             7-7
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                                 Exhibit 7-3
                              ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Chloromethane
Bromomethane
Vinyl chloride
Chloroethane
Methylene chloride
Acetone
Carbon disulfide
1,1-Dichloroethene
I,1-Dichloroethane
Trans-1,2-dichloroethene
Chloroform
1,2-Dichloroethane
2-Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone)
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
Vinyl acetate
Bromodichloromethane
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
Volatile Fraction

 I,2-Dichloropropane
 Trans-1,3-dichloropropene
 Trichloroethene
 Dibromochloromethane
 1,1,2-Trichloroethane
 Benzene
 Cis-1,3-dichloropropene
 2-Chloroethylvinylether
 Bromoform
 2-Hexanone  (methyl butyl ketone)
 4-Methyl-2-pentanone  (methyl
   isobutyl ketone)
 Tetrachloroethene
 Toluene
 Chlorobenzene
 Ethylbenzene
 Styrene
 Total xylenes
                           Semi-Volatile Compounds
Phenol
Bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
2-Chlorophenol
1,3-Dichlorobenzene
1,4-Dichlorobenzene
Benzyl alcohol
I,2-Dichlorobenzene
2-Methylphenol
Bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether
4-Methylphenol
N-nitroso-di-n-propylamine
Hexachloroethane
Nitrobenzene
Isophorone
2-Nitropheno1
2,4-Dimethylphenol
Benzoic acid
Bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
2,4-Dichlorophenol
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Naphthalene
Acenaphthene
 2,4-Dinitrophenol
 4-Nitrophenol
 Dibenzofuran
 2,4-Dinitrotoluene
 2,6-Dinitrotoluene
 Diethylphthalate
 4-Chlorophenyl-phenylether
 Fluorene
 4-Nitroaniline
 4,6-Dinitro-2-methylphenol
 N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
 4-Bromophenyl-phenylether
 Hexachlorobenzene
 Pentachlorophenol
 Phenanthrene
 Anthracene
 Di-n-butylphthalate
 Fluoranthene
 Pyrene
 Butylbenzylphthalate
 3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine
                                   7-8
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                               Exhibit 7-3
                               (continued)
                  Semi-Volatile Compounds  (continued)
4-Chloroaniline
Hexachlorobutadiene
4-Chloro-3-methylphenol
2-Methylnapthalene
Hexachlorobyclopentadiene
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2-Chloronapthalene
2-Nitroaniline
Dimethyl phthalate
Acenaphthylene
3-Nitroaniline
Benzo(a)anthracene
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
Chrysene
Di-n-octyl phthalate
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(k)fluoranthene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Ideno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene
Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene
                   Pesticides
          PCBs
               Alpha-BHC
               Beta-BHC
               Delta-BHC
               Gamma-BHC (lindane)
               Heptachlor
               Aldrin
               Heptachlor epoxide
               Endosulfan 1
               Dieldrin
               4,4'-DDE
               Endrin
               Endosulfan II
               4,4'-ODD
               Endosulfan sulfate
               4,4"-DDT
               Methoxychlor
               Endrin ketone
               Chlordane
               Toxaphene
        Aroclor-1016
        Aroclor-1221
        Aroclor-1232
        Arochlor-1242
        Arochlor-1248
        Aroclor-1254
        Aroclor-1260
                                   7-9
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or building.  The instruments listed above are isothermal
gas chromatographs (GC).   The Foxboro is designed to operate
at either 0°C or 40°C, while the Photovac operates at
ambient temperature.   Thus, neither instrument is applicable
for analysis of relatively nonvolatile compounds such as
napthalene, phenol, or PCBs.  The AID, while an isothermal
GC, will maintain 200°C for 8 hours on battery power if pre-
heated on AC power.  This elevated temperature capability
makes the AID suitable for analyzing PCBs and other semi-
volatiles.  The AID can be used by injecting a liquid sam-
ple, a process that is the most common method of sample
introduction for semi-volatile organics analysis.  The
Photovac, the AID, and the Foxboro do not offer temperature
programming or capillary column capability, both of which
considerably enhance the selectivity of GCs.

This type of instrument is capable of identifying and
quantitating organic compounds in relatively noncomplex sam-
ples.  The presence of large numbers of compounds in a sam-
ple can severely restrict the selectivity of this
instrument.  An example of a situation in which adequate
selectivity would not be available is the analysis of
phenanthrene or anthracene in the presence of oil.  The
large number of hydrocarbon compounds in the oil would
obscure and interfere with the phenanthrene or anthracene.

One type of detector that is available for this type of
equipment and that offers special selectivity is the elec-
tron capture detector (ECD), which exhibits high sensitivity
for halogenated molecules.  Thus, it is possible to analyze
for chlorinated compounds such as PCBs in the presence of
unhalogenated hydrocarbon compounds such as oils.  Other
compounds, such as phthalates, also cause a response with
this detector, so interferences must always be considered.
While this selectivity is advantageous when the compounds of
interest are halogenated, this detector is not very useful
for compounds such as benzene.  This situation illustrates
the type of considerations that should be used in selecting
equipment appropriate for a given site.

7.6.2.3  Mobile, Selective Organic Instruments

This type of instrument ranges from GCs such as the Shimadzu
Mini 2, the Hewlett-Packard 5890, the HNU Model 301, and the
Unacon 810 through the Mass Spectrometric GC detectors to
the tandem Mass Spectrometer/Mass Spectrometer  (MS/MS)
TAGA 3000 and 6000.  These  instruments require at least
120 volts of AC power, either from regular utility supplies
or  from generators.  The GCs are amenable to transportation
and setup facilities that are available onsite.  The Mass
Spectrometric detectors should be installed in dedicated
mobile vans or trailers for transportation and operation,
and the TAGA is transported and operated in a custom motor
home with an integral generator.
                            7-10
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Although the mobile GCs are more restricted than the
portable GCs in the locations where they can be used, they
offer significantly more potential selectivity.  The ability
to use capillary columns and to employ temperature program-
ming greatly increases the resolution of chromatographic
separations and enhances the selectivity of the analysis.
Exhibit 7A-1 of Appendix 7A contains mobile laboratory
protocols for organic analyses based on GC techniques.

The Unacon is a special device for sample preparation,
which, in addition to purging and trapping aqueous samples,
also facilitates the analyses of gases, soils, and sediments
by gas chromatography.  Solid sample materials (such as soil
or dry sediment) can be loaded into a Unacon sample tube and
heated to thermally desorb organics for GC analysis.  The
Unacon also provides for purge and trap and for direct
solvent injection of liquid samples.

If a GC is interfaced to a Mass Spectrometric Detector, such
as the Hewlett-Packard 5970 B or the Finnigan Ion Trap
Detector (ITD), the resulting system will approach the
selectivity of laboratory equipment.  These mass-selective
detectors are designed to operate with capillary column GCs
and to include microcomputer-based data systems.   While
these data systems are compact and inexpensive, they can be
fitted for high-capacity storage that provides the capa-
bility to search mass spectral databases, such as the
EPA/NIH Spectrum Library.  The combination of a GC and a
Mass Spectrometric Detector installed in a van offers the
potential for a highly selective mobile-analysis capability.

The TAGA MS/MS unit has been used in field situations for
which it provided a great deal of selectivity, although at a
relatively high cost.  When the situation warrants, the TAGA
unit can provide exceptional specificity and sensitivity for
the analysis of problem compounds such as 2,3,7,8-tetra-
chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD).  The TAGA does not use a GC
for initial separation of individual compounds.  As the name
implies, two mass spectrometers in tandem provide both com-
pound separation and identification information within the
same unit.

Effective use of these analytical instruments requires a
high level of expertise and experience on the part of the
analyst.

7.6.3  CLASS A POISONS

7.6.3.1  General

Class A poisons are defined as being extremely dangerous
poisonous gases or liquids of which an extremely small
amount of gas or vapor of the liquid mixed with air is
dangerous to life.
                            7-11
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Exhibit 7-4  lists  25 compounds that  fall  into this category.
Sixteen of these compounds are listed by  the Department of
Transportation  (DOT) as Class A poisons,  and these compounds
were selected for  screening at waste sites in an EPA report
entitled Available Field Methods for Rapid Screening of
Hazardous Waste Materials at Waste Sites,  Interim Report,
Class A Poisons, December 1982.  Determining the presence of
Class A poisons is of interest to the SM  because of the
extremely strict requirements placed on the shipping of
Class A poisons by DOT.  The following  paragraphs summarize
the methods  evaluated by EPA for screening Class A poisons.
                           Exhibit 7-4
                         CLASS A POISONS
Arsine
Bromoacetone
Carbonyl flouride
Chloropicrin
Cyanogen
Cyanogen chloride
Dichlorodiethyl sulfide
Ethyl bromoacetate
Ethyldichloroarsine
Germane
Hydrocyanic acid
Methyldichloroarsine
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen tetroxide
Nitrogen trioxide
Phosgene
Diphosgene
Phosphine
Phenylcarbylamine chloride
Trichloroacetyl chloride
Tetrachlorodinitroethane
Allyl isothiocyanate
Dichloro-(2-chlorovinyl) arsine*
Hydrogen selenide
*Lewisite blistering agent (mustard gas)
7.6.3.2   Screening Methods for  Class  A Poisons

The current state of the art  for  existing methods of  general
detection does not provide for  the  specific field screening
of Class  A poisons.  It appears that  a more promising
approach  is the specific detection  method for each of the
Class A poisons of interest.  A convenient method for the
field screening of specific volatile  substances is the use
of gas detection tubes.  These  tubes  contain a granulated
solid support, such as silica gel,  with an adsorbed reagent
that changes color in the presence  of the species the
reagent is designed to detect.  A known quantity of sample
gas is drawn through the detection  tube, and the length of
the resulting discoloration is  read against a precalibrated
scale to  give the concentration of  the species of interest.
Interferences are common and  can  give erroneous results.
                              7-12
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The following summary of the literature describes the more
promising systems for detection against reagents that might
be used with the gas detection tube concept.  Gas detection
tubes for several of the Class A poisons are already commer-
cially available.  Colorimetric-indicating gas detection
tubes are most useful in situations in which the contaminant
is known or suspected; the tubes can reduce the possibility
of interferences that produce erroneous results.

The EPA survey showed that 16 reagent detection systems lend
themselves to field screening for hydrocyanic acid.  Of the
methods that were considered, four employed photometric
analysis, while the other procedures used adsorption of
hydrocyanic acid and/or the detector reagent on some type of
solid support, such as silica gel, filter paper, or acti-
vated charcoal.  Considering all factors, the commercially
available Draeger detector tube for hydrocyanic acid
appeared to offer the greatest potential for incorporation
into field methodology.  This tube has a detection range of
2.3 to 34 mg/m ; acid gases such as hydrogen sulfide,
hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide, and ammonia are retained
in the precleanse layer.

Ten reagent systems were reported for the detection of
arsine.  Three methods involve photometric analysis; one is
a titration procedure; the other six use adsorption on a
solid support, as described above.  The most promising of
these methods for field screening appears to be the Draeger
arsine detector tube, which has a detection range of 0.16 to
195 mg/m .  Phosphine and antimony hydride are listed as
positive interferences.  It should be noted that phosphine
is also classified as a Class A poison.

A total of 16 reagent detection systems were reported for
the screening of ethyl and/or methyldichloroarsine.  Two of
these methods used a precipitate in the reagent solution as
a positive result.  Twelve methods used reagent-treated fil-
ter paper, while one used a coloration change made by marks
of a treated crayon.  The method that appears to be the most
suitable for incorporation into a field test kit used a
detector tube containing silica gel that has been impreg-
nated with a mixture of zinc sulfate and molybdic acid.
This tube offers direct and sensitive detection for
alkyldichloroarsines.  The detection limit of the reagent is
given as 2.5 ug; other closely related organo-arsenic
halides and hydrogen sulfide are given as positive
interferences.

Eleven reagent detector systems could be used for field
screening of mustard gas.  There are two types of chemical
warfare blistering agents:  H (and its distillates HD and
HT) and Lewisite.  All are known by the general term "mus-
tard gas."  The most attractive of these methods for
                            7-13
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H compounds appears to be silica gel impregnated with auric
chloride.  According to the literature, a characteristic
reddish-brown color appears in the presence of mustard gas.

Eleven potential field screening methods were found for the
detection of dichloro-(2-chlorovinyl) arsine.  The most
promising of these methods appears to be that which uses
Michler's thioketone (4,4'-bis (dimethylamino)-thiobenzo-
phenone)  as the reagent adsorbed on silica gel.  This
reagent system is currently used by the U.S. Army in its
M256 gas detector kit for the detection of Lewisite.

Seven methods were identified that could be used for the
field detection of cyanogen chloride.  Two methods required
photometric analysis, while one involved titration.  The
other four approaches used reagents adsorbed on some type of
solid support.  The most promising approach appears to be
the use of the cyanogen chloride detector tube made by
Draeger. ^This tube has a detection range of 0.64 to
12.8 mg/m .  Cyanogen bromide is listed as a positive
interference.

Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide can be detected by using
the Draeger nitrous fumes detector tube.  A total of
15 reagent systems were examined for the detection of nitric
oxide and/or nitrogen dioxide.  The Draeger tube method
appears to be the most advantageous approach since both
gases can be detected simultaneously and since the method is
commercially available.

Eleven methods appeared suitable for adaptation to field
screening for phosphine.  One method involved titration; two
used photometric analysis; the remaining eight methods used
liquid reagents adsorbed on solid supports.  The most
promising method appears to be the use of the Draeger
phosphine detector tube, which has a detection range of 0.14
to 5.68 mg/m  .  Antimony hydride and arsine, a Class A poi-
son, are given as positive interferences.

Only four reagent detection methods were found for the field
screening of bromoacetone.  The best approach for the
detection of this compound appears to be a two-step method.
Sodium nitroprusside is used as a detecting reagent for
methyl ketones in the first step.  An orange coloration of
the sodium nitroprusside indicates the presence of this
class of compounds.  The second step is the detection of
bromine using fuchsin-sulfurous acid test paper.  A positive
response is indicated when a violet color appears.  When
both of these tests are positive, bromoacetone is assumed to
be present.
                            7-14
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Sixteen reagent systems were examined for the detection of
phosgene.  Three methods require photometric analysis; one
involves titration; the remaining approaches use a reagent
on solid support.  The best method appears to be the Draeger
phosgene detector tube, which has a detection range of 0.17
to 6.2 mg/m .   Carbonyl bromide and acetyl chloride are
listed as positive interferences.  Literature dealing with
the detection  of diphosgene stated that to use the Draeger
tubes, the gas must be heated 300°C to 350°C to decompose it
to phosgene, which is then detected by the above methods.
Further testing will determine the necessity for this heat
treatment.

One method was found for the specific detection of cyanogen.
The reagents used for this test are 8-quinolinol and potas-
sium cyanide,  which turns red in the presence of this spe-
cies.  In addition, cyanogen may be converted to hydrogen
cyanide or cyanogen chloride and can be detected as these
substances.

Five detection means were reported for germanium.  Two of
these methods  involved titrimetric analysis.  Currently, the
most promising approach for field detection appears to be
the use of the reagent, hydroxyphenyl fluorene, which turns
an orange color in the presence of germanium.

Only one method was reported for the detection of
phenylcarbylamine chloride.  This method uses Sudan red,
ground chalk,  and iron (III) chloride, which turns from red
to green in the presence of phenylcarbylamine chloride.
Sudan red is listed as a carcinogen.

The EPA report recommended that the above methods be
evaluated in a laboratory as a means of screening for the
Class A poison for which each system is designed.
               7.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

Because field screening techniques are not completely
standardized, the SM must prepare a detailed explanation of
the methods to be used and the associated QA/QC procedures.
This information is included in the QAPjP for review and
approval by EPA.
                  7.8  INFORMATION SOURCES

COM Federal Programs Corporation.  REM II Team Operating
Procedures for X-Ray Fluorescence Analyzer.  April 1987.
                            7-15
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Equipment Available for Sample Screening and Onsite
Measurements.  Technical Directive Document No.  HQ-8311-04,
Contract No. 68-01-6699.  30 May 1984.

NUS Corporation, Superfund Division.   Operating  Guidelines
Manual;  Rapid Field Screening of Hazardous Substances.
Procedure 4.35  (Draft 1).

HEM/FIT Mobile Lab QA Procedure Development.  Technical
Directive Document No. HQ-8505-04.  30  June 1985.

Roffman, H.K., and M.D. Neptune.  Field Screening of Samples
From Hazardous Wastes.  Proceedings,  Institute of Environ-
mental Sciences.  April 1985.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Available Field
Methods for Rapid Screening of Hazardous Waste Materials at
Waste Sites.  Interim Report, Class A Poisons, EPA Report
No. 6001X-82-014.  December 1982.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Drum Handling
Practices at Hazardous Waste Sites.  EPA Report
No. EPA/600/2-86-013.  Cincinnati, Ohio:  HWERL.  August
1986.
WDR230/002
                            7-16
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              Appendix 7A




PROTOCOLS, REPORTING, AND DELIVERABLES
                 7-17
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                         Appendix 7A
           PROTOCOLS, REPORTING, AND DELIVERABLES
The following sections discuss methodologies that have been
used in screening samples on hazardous waste sites.  The
Site Manager (SM) should realize that these methodologies
may not be suitable for all sites and may require extensive
modification to meet the validation requirement of a
specific region.  Also, the methodologies used must be
related to the data quality objectives of the project.

Exhibit 7A-1 presents protocols that have been used for
analyses, reporting, and deliverables for the mobile
laboratory analysis of organic compounds for screening.
Exhibit 7A-2 lists the estimated limits of detection for
organics on the target compounds list.  Exhibit 7A-3
presents the protocols to be followed for the mobile
laboratory screening of inorganic trace elements and
cyanide.  Exhibit 7A-4 describes the operating procedure for
XRF analysis of soils and tailings with the Columbia X-Met
840 Analyzer.

HOLDING TIMES BEFORE ANALYSIS

Samples should be analyzed as soon as possible after
sampling.  One advantage to field analysis is rapid turn-
around, generally 24 hours, for most analyses.  If samples
are not analyzed immediately, the following holding times
are suggested.   Volatile organic analyses (VOAs) should be
held no more than 7 days from sampling until analysis for
water samples and no more than 10 days for soil or sediment
samples.  Base neutral acids (BNAs) and pesticides should be
held no more than 5 days until extraction for water samples
and no more than 10 days for soil or sediment samples.
Samples must be refrigerated before analysis.

Inorganic samples should be preserved in the field according
to EPA protocols found in the User's Guide to the CLP.  The
holding time for cyanides shall not exceed 24 hours.
                            7A-1
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                        Exhibit 7A-1
      MOBILE LABORATORY PROTOCOLS FOR ORGANIC ANALYSES
I.   VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

A.   Instrumentation for Water and Soil Sample Analyses

     1.    Tekmar purge and trap or equivalent

     2.    Temperature-programmed gas chromatograph equipped
          with flame-ionization detector

     3.    GC column

          a.   60/80 Carbopack B/l percent SP-1000
               6 ft x 44mm I.D. glass-packed column

B.   Water Sample Analysis

     1.    Adapted from Method 5030, SW-846, purge and trap

     2.    Calibration standard solution

          a.   Spike an aliquot of commercial  (Supelco)
               standard mixture into 20 ml of reagent water
               and purge.

     3.    Analysis

          a.   Use calibration standard through purge and
               trap system.

               1)   Once per site before sample analyses

               2)   After every 20 sample analyses

          b.   Purge organic-free water blank  (5 ml).

               1)   After every calibration standard
                    solution analysis

               2)   After every 10 sample analyses

          c.   Perform corrective maintenance when
               calibration standard responses decrease by
               20 percent of the initial calibration
               standard run; clean the injection port and
               the purge and trap apparatus.
                            7A-2
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                        Exhibit 7A-1
                         (continued)
C.   Soil/Sediment Sample Analysis

     1.   Adapted from Method 5030, SW-846, methanol
          extraction

     2.   Calibration standard solution preparation

          a.    Spike aliquot of commercial (Supelco)
               standard mixture into 20 ml of reagent water
               and purge.

     3.   Extraction

          a.    Place 1 g soil sample/10 methanol in a 40-ml
               glass Teflon-capped vial.

          b.    Shake for 2 minutes.

          c.    Allow solids to settle.

     4.   Analysis

          a.    Use 400 yl extract injected/20 ml
               organic-free water (equivalent to 1 ppm limit
               of detection).

     5.   Quality control

          a.    Use calibration standard through purge and
               trap system.

               1)    Once per site before sample extract
                    analyses

               2)    After every 20 sample extract analyses

          b.    Purge organic-free water blank (20 ml
               organic-free water containing the 400 yl
               methanol used for extraction).

               1)    After every calibration standard
                    analysis

               2)    After every 10 sample extract analyses

               3)    After any sample extracts that exceed
                    100 ppm
                            7A-3
-------
                        Exhibit 7A-1
                         (continued)
          c.   Perform corrective maintenance when
               calibration standard responses decrease by
               20 percent of the initial calibration
               standard run; clean the injection port and
               the purge and trap apparatus.

II.  SEMI-VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

A.   Instrumentation for Water and Soil Sample Analyses

     1.    Base/neutral and acid extractable organics

          a.   Temperature-programmed gas chromatograph
               equipped with a flame-ionization detector

     2.    Pesticides/PCBs

          a.   Isothermal gas chromatograph equipped with an
               electron capture detector

     3.    GC column

          a.   Base/neutral and acid extractable organics

               1)   Fused silica capillary column DB-5 or
                    equivalent 30 m x 0.32 mm, 1 micron film
                    thickness

          b.   Pesticides/PCBs

               1)   3 percent OV-1 on 80/100 Supelcoport
                    6 ft x 4 mm I.D. or equivalent

B.   Water Sample Analysis

     1.    Pesticides/PCBs

          a.   Extraction

               1)   Use 15 ml water sample/1.5 ml hexane in
                    20 ml disposable culture tube with cap
                    (Teflon or aluminum foil liner).

               2)   Shake for 2 minutes.

          b.   Analysis

               1)   Inject 5 yl extract.
                            7A-4
-------
              Exhibit 7A-1
               (continued)


     2)    Use detection limits 0.5 (for compounds
          such as lindane) to 20 ppb (for
          compounds such as Aroclor PCBs).

c.    Calibration standard solution

     1)    Pesticide mixture:  lindane,
          0.005 ng/yl; aldrin, 0.01 ng/yl;
          p-p'-DDT, 0.025 ng/pl

     2)    PCBs:  Aroclor 1254, 0.15 ng/yl

d.   Quality control

     1)    Inject calibration standard solution.

          a)   Once per site before sample
               analysis

          b)   After every 20 sample extracts

     2)    Inject solvent blank.

          a)   After each calibration standard
               solution analysis

          b)   After every 10 sample extract
               analyses

     3)    Spike (field) sample.

          a)   Spike water with spiking solution
               of lindane, 0.5 yl; aldrin,
               1.0 yg/1; p-p'-DDT, 2.5  yg/1.

     4)    Perform corrective maintenance when
          calibration response decreases
          20 percent from initial calibration;
          clean injection port and front of GC
          column.

Base/neutral and acid extractable organic
compounds

a.   Extraction

     1)    Adjust 100 ml sample to pH 2  or less, in
          a 125 ml separatory funnel.

     2)    Extract with 10 ml methylene chloride.


                  7A-5
-------
              Exhibit 7A-1
               (continued)

     3)    Shake for 2 minutes with proper venting
          and appropriate safety measures.

b.   Analysis

     1)    Inject 2 yl of extract.

     2)    Note that limits of detection vary
          depending on recovery and sensitivity of
          compound, 100 ppb-1 ppm.

c.   Calibration standard solution

     1)    Commercial  (Supelco) solution containing
          the compounds of interest at appropriate
          concentrations

d.   Quality control

     1)    Inject calibration standard solution.

          a)   Once per site before sample
               analysis

          b)   Every  20 sample analyses

     2)    Use spiked  (field) sample to check
          extraction  recovery.

          a)   Spiking solution of phenol,
               phenanthrene, 4-6-dinitro-2-methyl
               phenol, hexachlorobenzene, and
               di-n-octyl-phthalate

          b)   Spike  water sample at 1,000 ug/1

          c)   Spiked sample to check extraction
               recovery

               (1)  Every 20 sample extract
                    analyses

               (2)  At least once per site

               (3)  Solvent blank

                     (a)   After each calibration
                          standard analysis
                  7 A-6
-------
                        Exhibit 7A-1
                         (continued)
                              (b)   After every 10 sample
                                   analyses

                         (4)   Conduct corrective maintenance
                              when calibration response
                              decreases 20 percent from
                              initial calibration; clean
                              injection port and front of GC
                              column.

C.   Soil/Sediment Sample Analysis

     1.    Pesticides/PCBs

          a.   Extraction

               1)    Place 1 g soil sample in glass
                    scintillation vial of at least 20 ml
                    volume with screw caps (Teflon or
                    aluminum foil liner).

               2)    Add 2 g anhydrous sodium sulfate.

               3)    Mix well with spatula to free-flowing
                    powder.

               4)    Add 10 ml hexane.

               5)    Shake for 2 minutes.

               6)    Allow solids to settle.

          b.   Analysis

               1)    5 yl extract injected

               2)    Limits of detection 0.05 ppm for
                    compounds such as lindane to 2 ppm for
                    compounds such as Aroclor PCBs

          c.   Calibration standard solution

               1)    Pesticide solution of lindane,
                    0.005 ng/vil; aldrin, 0.01 ng/yl; and
                    p-p'-DDT, 0.025 ng/yl

               2)    PCBs—Aroclor 1254, 0.15 ng/yl

          d.   Quality control
                            7A-7
-------
              Exhibit  7A-1
               (continued)
     1)    Calibration standard injected (both
          pesticides  and PCBs)

          a)    Once per site before sample
               analysis

          b)    After  every 10 sample analyses

     2)    Spiked (field)  sample

          a)    Spiking solution—concentration in
               soil will be lindane, 50 ng/g;
               aldrin, 100 ng/g;  and p-p'-DDT,
               250 ng/g

          b)    Spiked sample every 20 samples

          c)    Once per site, minimum

     3)    Solvent blank injection

          a)    After  each calibration standard
               solution injection

          b)    After  every 10 samples extract

          c)    After  any samples that exceed
               20 ppm

     4)    Conduct corrective maintenance when
          calibration response decreases by
          20  percent  of initial calibration; clean
          injection  port and front of GC column

Base/neutral  and acid extractable compounds

a.   Extraction

     1)    Place 1 g  soil sample in glass
          scintillation vial of at least 20 ml
          volume with screw cap  (Teflon or
          aluminum foil liner).

     2)    Add 2 g anhydrous sodium sulfate.

     3)    Mix well with spatula to a free-flowing
          powder.

     4)    Add 10 ml methylene chloride.
                  7A-8
-------
              Exhibit 7A-1
               (continued)
     5)    Shake for 2 minutes.

     6)    Allow solids to settle.

b.   Analysis

     1)    2 pi extract injected

     2)    Detection limits vary, 10 ppm-100 ppm

c.   Calibration standard solution—commercial
     (Supelco) solution containing the compounds
     of interest at appropriate concentrations

d.   Quality control

     1)    Calibration standard injected

          a)   Once per site prior to sample
               extract analysis

          b)   After every 10 sample extract
               analyses

     2)    Spiked (field) samples

          a)   Spiking solution—concentration in
               soil will be 100 yg/g for each of
               the following compounds:  phenol,
               phenanthrene, 4-6-dinitro-2-methyl
               phenol, hexachlorobenzene, and
               di-n-octylphthalate

          b)   Spiked sample every 20 samples

          c)   Spiked sample once per site,
               minimum

     3)    Solvent blank injection

          a)   After each calibration standard
               injection

          b)   After every 10 sample extract
               analyses

          c)   After any sample extracts that
               exceed 10,000 ppm
                  7A-9
-------
                        Exhibit 7A-1
                         (continued)
               4)    Conduct corrective maintenance when
                    calibration response decreases by
                    20 percent from initial calibration;
                    clean injection port and front of GC
                    column.

III.  DELIVERABLES AND REPORTING—MOBILE LABORATORY ORGANICS
ANALYSES

A.   For each sample analyzed, a summary sheet containing
     the following information shall be provided:

     1.   Site name

     2.   Sample number

     3.   Date received

     4.   Date analyzed

     5.   Analyst

     6.   Number of peaks recorded on chromatogram  (Note:
          For each sample chromatogram, peaks recorded will
          be numbered sequentially (#1, #2, #3, etc.)
          directly on the chromatogram)

     7.   Retention time of each peak

     8.   Relative concentration of each peak—compare
          sample chromatogram to calibration standard
          chromatogram; determine the closest eluting
          standard; and assume a response factor of 1.0.
          Other response factors may be assumed if
          indicated.

B.   Copies of all analysts' logbooks, calibration logs,
     daily activity logs, and all chromatograms for
     calibration runs, blank injections, and samples will be
     received within 14 days of the receipt of the last
     sample from a particular site.
                            7 A-10
-------
                          Exhibit 7A-2
      TARGET COMPOUND LIST (TCL) ESTIMATED DETECTION LIMITS
                                                           Estimated
                                                        Detection Limits*,**
Volatiles'
         a,b
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
Chlorome thane
Bromomethane
Vinyl chloride
Chloroethane
Methylene chloride
Acetone
Carbon disulfide
1 , 1-Dichloroethene
1 , 1-Dichloroethane
Trans-1 , 2-dichloroethene
Chloroform
1 , 2-Dichloroethane
2-Butanone
1,1, 1-Trichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
Vinyl acetate
Bromodichlorome thane
1,1,2, 2-Tetrachloroethane
1 , 2-Dichloropropane
Trans-1 , 2-dichloropropene
Trichloroethene
Dibromochloromethane
1,1, 2-Tr ichloroethane
Benzene
Cis-l,3-dlchloropropene
2-Chloroethyl vinyl ether
Bromofonn
2-Hexanone
4-Methyl-2-pentanone
Tetrachloroethene
Toluene
Chlorobenzene
Ethyl benzene
Styrene
Total Xylenes
Semi-Volatilesc'd
N-nitrosodimethylamine
Phenol
Aniline
Bis (2-chloroethyl) ether
2-Chlorophenol
1 , 3-Dichlorobenzene
1,4-Dichlorobenzene
Benzyl alcohol
1 , 2-Dichlorobenzene
2-Methylphenol
Bis(2-chloroisopropyl)
ether
4-Methylphenol
N-nitroso-dipropylamine
Hexachloroethane
Nitrobenzene
  CAS Number

   74-87-3
   74-83-9
   75-01-4
   75-00-3
   75-09-2

   67-64-1
   75-15-0
   75-35-4
   75-35-3
  156-60-5

   67-66-3
  107-06-2
   78-93-3
   71-55-6
   56-23-5

  108-05-4
   75-27-4
   79-34-5
   78-87-5
10061-02-6

   79-01-6
  124-48-1
   79-00-5
   71-43-2
10061-01-5

  110-75-8
   75-25-2
  591-78-6
  108-10-1
  127-18-4

  108-88-3
  108-90-7
  100-41-4
  100-42-5
  100-42-5
                                   62-75-9
                                  108-95-2
                                   62-53-3
                                  111-44-4
                                   95-57-8

                                  541-73-1
                                  106-46-7
                                  100-51-6
                                   95-50-1
                                   95-48-7
                                39638-32-9
                                  106-44-5
                                  621-64-7
                                   67-72-1
                                   98-95-3
Water
yg/i
10
10
10
10
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Soil/Sediment
ug/kg
10
10
10
10
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
                             7 A-11
-------
                             Exhibit 7A-2
                              (continued)
                                                              Estimated
                                                           Detection Limits*,**
Semi-Volatiles
              c,d
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
Isophorone
2-Nitrophenol
2 , 4-Dimethy Iphenol
Benzole acid
Bis ( 2-chloroethoxy )
methane
2 ,4-Dichlorophenol
1,2, 4-Tr ichlorobenzene
Naphthalene
4-Chloroaniline
Hexachlorobutadiene
4-Chloro-3-methy Iphenol
(para-chloro-meta-cresol)
2-Methylnaphthalene
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
2,4, 6-Trichlorophenol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2-Chloronaphthalene
2-Nitroanillne
Dimethyl phthalate
Acenaphthylene
3-Nitroaniline
Acenaphthene
2 , 4-Dinitrophenol
4-Nitrophenol
Dibenzofuran
2 ,4-Dinitrotoluene
2 ,6-Dinitrotoluene
Diethylphthalate
4-Chlorophenyl phenyl ether
Fluorene
4-Nitroaniline
4, 6-Dinitro-2-methy Iphenol
N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
4-Bromophenyl phenyl ether
Hexachlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Phenanthrene
Anthracene
Di-n-butylphthalate
Fluroanthene
Benzidine
Pyrene
Butyl benzyl phthalate
3,3' -Dichlorobenzidine
Benzo(a) anthracene
Bis ( 2-ethy Ihexyl ) phthalate
Chrysene
Di-n-octyl phthalate
Benzo (b) f luoranthene
Benzo(k) f luoranthene
Benzo(a)pyrene
CAS Number

 78-59-1
 88-75-5
105-67-9
 65-85-0

111-91-1

120-83-2
120-82-1
 91-20-3
106-47-8
 87-68-3
                                      59-50-7
                                      91-57-6
                                      77-47-4
                                      88-06-2
                                      95-95-4

                                      91-58-7
                                      88-74-4
                                     131-11-3
                                     208-96-8
                                      99-09-2

                                      83-32-9
                                      51-28-5
                                     100-02-7
                                     132-64-9
                                     121-14-2

                                     606-20-2
                                      84-66-2
                                     7005-2-3
                                      86-73-7
                                     100-01-6

                                     534-52-1
                                      86-30-6
                                     101-55-3
                                     118-74-1
                                      87-86-5

                                      85-01-8
                                     120-12-7
                                      84-74-2
                                     206-44-0
                                      92-87-5

                                     129-00-0
                                      85-68-7
                                      91-94-1
                                      56-55-3
                                     117-81-7

                                     218-01-9
                                     117-84-0
                                     205-99-2
                                     207-08-9
                                      50-32-8
water
pg/i

 10
 10
 10
 50

 10

 10
 10
 10
 10
 10
                  10
                  10
                  10
                  10
                  50

                  10
                  50
                  10
                  10
                  50

                  10
                  50
                  50
                  10
                  10

                  10
                  10
                  10
                  10
                  50

                  50
                  10
                  10
                  10
                  50

                  10
                  10
                  10
                  10
                  50

                  10
                  10
                  20
                  10
                  10

                  10
                  10
                  10
                  10
                  10
                                                                   Soil/Sediment
                                                                       330
                                                                       330
                                                                       330
                                                                      1600

                                                                       330

                                                                       330
                                                                       330
                                                                       330
                                                                       330
                                                                       330
                 330
                 330
                 330
                 330
                1600

                 330
                1600
                 330
                 330
                1600

                 330
                1600
                1600
                 330
                 330

                 330
                 330
                 330
                 330
                1600

                1600
                 330
                 330
                 330
                1600

                 330
                 330
                 330
                 330
                1600

                 330
                 330
                 660
                 330
                 330

                 330
                 330
                 330
                 330
                 330
                                7A-12
-------
                             Exhibit 7A-2
                              (continued)
                                                              Estimated
                                                           Detection Limits*,**
Pesticides
          e,f
                                               CAS Number

                                               193-39-5
                                                53-70-3
                                               191-24-2
                                               319-84-6
                                               319-85-7

                                               319-86-8
                                                58-89-9
                                                76-44-8
                                               309-00-2
                                              1024-57-3

                                               959-98-8
                                                60-57-1
                                                72-55-9
                                                72-20-8
                                             33213-65-9

                                                72-54-8
                                              7421-93-4
                                              1031-07-8
                                                50-29-3
                                             53494-70-5

                                                72-43-5
                                                57-74-9
                                              8001-35-2
                                             12674-11-2
                                             11104-28-2

                                             11141-16-5
                                             53469-21-9
                                             12672-29-6
                                             11097-69-1
                                             11096-82-5

a Medium Water Contract Required Detection Limits (CRDL)  for Volatile Target Compound
  List (TCL)  Compounds are 100 times the individual Low Hater CRCL.

  Medium Soil/Sediment CRDL for Volatile TCL Compounds are 100 times the individual
  Low Soil/Sediment CRDL.

c Medium Water CRDL for Semi-Volatile TCL Compounds are 100 times the individual
  Low Water CRDL.

  Medium Soil/Sediment CRDL for Semi-Volatile TCL Compounds are 60 times the individual
  Low Soil/Sediment CRDL.

e Medium Water CRDL for Pesticide TCL Compounds are 100 times the individual Low
  Water CRDL.

  Medium Soil/Sediment CRDL for Pesticide TCL compounds are 60 times the individual Low
  Soil/Sediment CRDL.

* Detection limits listed for soil/sediment are based on wet weight.  The detection limits
  calculated by the laboratory for soil/sediment, calculated on dry weight basis as
  required by the contract, will be higher.

**Speclfic detection limits are highly matrix dependent.   The detection limits listed
  herein are provided for guidance and may not always be achievable.
WDR230/003
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
Indeno (1,2, 3-cd) pyrene
Dlbenz (a, h) anthracene
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene
Alpha-BHC
Beta-BHC
Delta-BHC
Gamma-BBC (lindane)
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Heptachlor epoxide
Endosulfan I
Dieldrin
4,4'-DDE
Endrin
Endosulfan II
4,4'-DDD
Endrin aldehyde
Endosulfan sulfate
4,4'-DDT
Endrin ketone
Methoxychlor
Chlordane
Toxaphene
AROCLOR-1016
AROCLOR-1221
AROCLOR-1232
AROCLOR-1242
AROCLOR-1248
AROCLOR-1254
AROCLOR-1260
Water
pg/i
10
10
10
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.5
0.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
Soil/Sediment
Ug/kg
330
330
330
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
20.0
20.0
40.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
40.0
40.0
                                7 A-13
-------
                        Exhibit 7A-3
                INORGANIC ANALYSIS PROTOCOLS
PROTOCOLS FOR INORGANICS ANALYSIS—MOBILE LABORATORY AND
FIXED-BASE LABORATORY

Metals.  Approved EPA method for ICP, flame, flameless, or
cold vapor atomic adsorption are used, provided that the
required detection limits listed herein can be achieved.
These methods are detailed in the CLP's Scope of Work for
Inorganic Analysis, Multi-Media, Multi-Concentration, SOW
No. 785, July 1985 (a new version is expected soon).  How-
ever, perform digestion using a technique appropriate for
the elements of concern.  Perform analyses for the following
elements:

           aluminum                 lead
           antimony                 magnesium
           arsenic                  manganese
           barium                   mercury
           beryllium                nickel
           cadmium                  potassium
           calcium                  selenium
           chromium                 silver
           cobalt                   sodium
           copper                   thallium
           cyanide                  vanadium
           iron                     zinc

Cyanide.  Use approved EPA method that meets the detection
limits required herein, as specified in CLP SOW No. 785.

DETECTION LIMITS

For inorganic analyses, use the required detection limits
for soils.  Limits should be no higher than 100 times the
required limits for waters, which are listed below.
(However, it is understood that occasional interferences may
prevent these limits from being achieved in every case.
Provide documentation stating the reason(s) if these limits
are not achieved.)

    Element/Compound and Required Detection Limit in yg/1

aluminum       200   copper          25    potassium    5,000
antimony        60   cyanide         10    selenium        5
arsenic         10   iron           100    silver         10
barium         200   lead             5    sodium       5,000
beryllium        5   magnesium    5,000    thallium       10
cadmium          5   manganese       15    vanadium       50
calcium      5,000   mercury        0.2    zinc           20
chromium        10   nickel          40
cobalt          50
                            7 A-14
-------
                        Exhibit 7A-3
                         (continued)
GENERAL QUALITY CONTROL

     o    Perform one matrix spike and matrix spike
          duplicate on all fractions for each matrix (water
          or soil).  Spike with as many compounds as are
          currently in a stock mix, and report all levels
          found.

     o    Perform one laboratory (method)  blank on all
          fractions for each matrix (water or soil).

     o    Homogenize solids carefully.

METALS ANALYSIS QUALITY CONTROL

     o    Whenever spike recoveries indicate that sample
          results for a particular metal may not be
          accurate, perform a standard addition on all
          samples (from one site)  of the same matrix if the
          samples have positive results for this element.
          Use the control limits for spike recoveries as
          action levels for standard additions that must not
          exceed 60 to 140 percent.  Report standard
          addition corrected results with a footnote that
          indicates this fact.

     o    Before running any samples and thereafter at least
          once per shift, run an instrument blank followed
          by calibration for all metals.

     o    Run a calibration check standard after every
          10 samples are run on an instrument.  Recalibrate,
          if necessary, based upon control limits that must
          not exceed 80 to 120 percent.  If ICP is used, run
          a QC standard at least twice per shift to check
          interelement interference correction.  Interferent
          concentrations should be approximately 100 to
          1,000 times higher than analyte concentrations.

     o    When results for calibration check standards or
          ICAP interference check standards fall outside of
          control limits (which must not exceed 60 to
          140 percent), reanalyze all preceding samples
          (since the last check analysis)  having positive
          results for the affected parameters.  Reanalysis
          should occur after the problem has been corrected.
                            7 A-15
-------
                        Exhibit 7A-3
                         (continued)
DELIVERABLES
          For each sample analyzed, provide a summary sheet
          containing the following information:

               Site name
               Sample number
               Date received
               Date analyzed
               Analyst

          Report results for all samples, spikes,
          instrument, and method blanks.  For each sample,
          list all compounds for which analyses were per-
          formed with either the amount detected or the
          approximate detection limit next to each compound.
          Report results in yg/1 or mg/kg.  Do not perform
          subtraction of method or calibration blank values
          from sample results.  Report quantitations to two
          significant figures.

          Report all matrix spike recoveries including
          amount added and recovered.  If zero recoveries,
          check for a problem, and document the explanation
          in the results.  Calculate and report the relative
          percentage of difference (difference divided by
          mean) for all matrix spike and matrix spike
          duplicate recoveries.

          Report the sample preparation weight/volume, the
          final analysis volume, and the injection volume
          for each sample and for each analytical fraction.

          Provide calibration check data for each sample run
          series.  Report the true and measured
          concentrations of each analyte in the calibration
          checks.

          If ICP is used, provide results for all applicable
          interference check samples including true and
          measured concentrations of each analyte in the
          check sample.

          Report the type of analytical method used for each
          parameter analyzed, since different interferences
          occur with ICAP, Flame AA, and furnace methods.
                            7 A-16
-------
                        Exhibit 7A-3
                         (continued)
     o    For each ICAP parameter, report the wavelength for
          measurement, together with a list of all known
          interfering elements and their approximate
          correction factors.

Receipt of results:  Complete results and documentation
(analysts' logbooks, calibration logs, daily activity logs,
and all machine-generated documentation) must be received
within 14 days of sample receipt for mobile laboratory
analyses.

Verbal results for sample analyses will be provided upon
request immediately following analysis; verbal results are
simply an indication of the presence or absence of
contaminants in samples.

Periodic analyses on EPA quality assurance check samples
will be performed as established by data quality objectives
and the QAPjP; results for these analyses will be reported
in the same manner as any samples.
WDR230/003
                            7A-17
-------
                            Exhibit 7A-4
   OPERATING PROCEDURE FOR SRF ANALYSIS  OF SOILS/TAILINGS
           WITH  COLUMBIA SCIENTIFIC  X-MET  840 ANALYZER
This procedure  describes the use of the X-MET 840 X-ray fluorescence
analyzer for analysis  of heavy metals In solid samples.
2.0  EQUIPMENT
     1.   X-MET  840 XRF analyzer electronic unit.
     2.   HEPS sample probe, either Cm-244 or Am-241 radioisotope source,  or
         both.
     3.   Distribution  box  (optional) for analysis requiring both probes.
     4.   Pure element standards, one for each element present within  the
         samples to be analyzed.
     5.   Sample calibration standards.
     6.   Sample cups,  polyethelene film, and scissors  (included in unit
         storage box).
     7.   Automatic pulverizer, or mortar and pestle, for grinding samples
         to a powder.
     8.   Oven and aluminum pans  for drying samples.
     9.   Acid-rinsed silica sand for cleaning grinding equipment.
     10.   Plastic sampling  spoons.
     11.   Plastic vials (50 dram).
2.0  SAMPLE PREPARATION
     This procedure describes the method of  preparing  both samples and
     calibration standards for analysis with the  X-MET 840.
     2.1  Drying
          In order to avoid analytical  errors due to moisture content  (a
          matrix effect) all  samples must  be dried in  the  same  manner.
          2.1.1  Spread sample evenly  in  the aluminum  pan.   It  is  important
                  that  the sample in  the pan  be  as homogeneous as possible
                 and that all large  chunks be broken up.
          2.1.2   Place pan with  sample in  an oven and  dry  at 300 deg F for
                 approximately 20 min, or  until  moisture is  removed.
                 Alternatively,  samples may  be  dried in direct  sunlight.
                              7A-18
-------
                           Exhibit 7A-4
                            (continued)
     2.2  Subsampling

         It is recommended that the entire sample be ground to avoid
         sampling error due to nonhomogeneity.  However, 1f this is not
         possible, sampling error may be minimized by selection of a
         representative portion of the sample in the pan.  With the use of
         a plastic spoon, remove one or more pie-shaped sections and place
         into the grinding apparatus.

     2.3  Grinding

         It is important that all samples be ground in the same manner.
         Analytical error due to differences in particle size can be
         substantial.

         2.3.1  Samples should be ground with a portable hammer mill or,
                alternately, a mortar and pestle, until of equal
                consistency.

         2.3.2  The grinding equipment must be cleaned (decontaminated) by
                grinding with silica sand.  Liquid solvents should not be
                used.

     2.4  Use of sample cups

         2.4.1  Turn cup over and cover bottom with polyethelene film.
                Snap ring over film and onto bottom of cup.  Cut cup free
                of film with scissors.

         2.4.2  Trim excess film from edges of cup and check for holes or
                wrinkles.  If the film is not completely smooth, or
                wrinkles cannot be removed, repeat the procedure.

         2.4.3  Place sample in cup using a plastic spoon.  Cups should be
                at least 3/4 filled with sample.  Pack sample into cup
                until bottom (at film surface) is as smooth as possible.
                Brush away loose powder from outside edges of cup with a
                small brush to avoid contamination of  the probe.

     2.5  Note:  Analysis with the X-MET requires only  about 5 grams of
         sample.  However, a minimum of approximately  40 grams is required
         for complete metals analysis by AAS or  ICP techniques.
         Therefore, a minimum of 45 grams should be ground:  40 grams for
         verification and/or referee analyses and 5 grams retained for
         X-MET analyses.  This is not critical if the  entire sample is
         ground.

     2.6  Ground powders should be stored in labeled plastic vials  (50
         dram).

3.0  PREPARATION FOR OPERATION

     This procedure must be followed prior to both calibration  (Section
     4.0) and/or measurement  (Section 5.0).
                              7A-19
-------
                           Exhibit  7A-4
                             (continued)
3.1  Power Supply
     Connect the X-MET electronic  unit  to a  suitable power  source,
     either A.C. power, charged  battery pack,  or  12 volt battery.
     (Note:  the unit will  operate for  approximately 8  hours on a
     fully charged battery  pack).

3.2  Probe Connection

     Connect probe cable to PROBE  connector  on bottom left  of  front
     panel.  If more than one probe is  to be used,  they must be
     connected via the distribution box.  (Note:  Never connect/
     disconnect probe while the  electronic  unit is  ON;  this may damage
     the probe).

3.3  Switch ON

     Turn the unit on by pressing  the ON button.  The display  should
     then read:  SELF TEST  COMPLETED followed by  the  ">"  prompt and
     "_" curser indicator.   The  ">" prompt  indicates  the  ready
     (quiescent) state.  (Note:   Before switching the instrument  OFF
     is should be returned  to the  quiescent state).

3.4  Electrical and Thermal Stabilization

     Allow the unit to stabilize for approximately  30 min  prior  to any
     measurements.  Stabilization  time  is  required  to allow the  X-MET
     to adjust to its surroundings.  At least 1 min of  stabilization
     time should be allowed for  each 1  deg  F temperature  change.
     (Note:  When using 2 or 3 probes via  the distribution  box,
     electrical stabilization occurs simultaneously for all probes).

3.5  Gain Control

     Each probe should be allowed  at least 5 min  for  gain control
     operation.  Gain control takes place  automatically when  the  unit
     is in the quiescent state ">" prompt)  and the  probe  shutter  is
     closed (lid open and green  light on).

     3.5.1  If the display reads:   UNINITIALIZED PROBE, then  no
            initial values have  been entered for gain  control  and an
            instrument calibration must be performed  before preceding
            further.

     3.5.2  Gain control parameters may be checked and/or changed via
            the maintenance set of programs (refer to Section  9.0).

     3.5.3  The unit should be left ON  between measurements with probe
            shutter closed for continuous gain control  operation.

     3.5.4  When more  than one probe is being used, each must be
            allowed separate gain control  operation.


                                7A-20
-------
                              Exhibit 7A-4
                               (continued)

     3.6  Update  Normalization Factors

          Due  to  continual  decay of  the radioactive source in the probe, it
          may  be  necessary  to  check  and/or update the pure element
          normalization  factors.  This is not usually necessary unless a
          significant  amount of time has elapsed between successive uses of
          the  instrument.

          3.6.1   Select  approximately  the same  time as in the previous
                 normalization.  Key in the  NOR command.  The display
                 should  read:  NORMALISING SAMPLE?  Enter the element
                 symbol  for which normalization is desired.  The display
                 should  now read:  MEASURE.  Place the corresponding pure
                 element standard in position in the probe, open the
                 shutter (close the  lid) and measure (press START button).

          3.6.2   If the  relative deviations  between old and new normali-
                 zation  factors are  less than about 3X, or if the new
                 measurements  are statistically equal to each other,
                 measurements  can begin; otherwise, a new instrument
                 calibration  is required before preceding.

4.0  CALIBRATION

     The calibration procedure programs the  X-MET 840 for the desired
     application.  The elements to be analyzed  are defined by setting up
     element channels  (or windows) using the pure element standards.
     Concentrations of elements are  established by measuring known
     calibration  standards  and calculating calibration coefficients using
     multiparameter regression analysis.  There are eight separate
     calibration  memories or  "models."  In each model, 1 to 10 element
     channels  can be set up.

     Figure 1  shows a  diagram  summarizing the main steps in the calibration
     procedure.   Because of the complexities involved, only a brief
     description  of the  process is given here (refer to the operating
     manual for a more detailed discussion).

     4.1  Instrument Calibration

          Instrument calibration encompasses gain control initialization
          and  stabilization,  choice  of elements, and pure element
          measurements.   The  choice  of elements  to measure depends  on
          knowledge of their  concentrations  in  the samples to be analyzed
          and  their suspected  degree of spectral interference.  Once  the
          appropriate  pure  elements  have been selected, follow Sections 2.0
          (Preparation for  Operation) and 5.0 (Measurement).  Pure  element
          calibration  is initiated  through  the  PUR or CPU commands.

     4.2  Sample  Calibration

          Sample  calibration  includes measurement of calibration standards
           (CAL command), input of  calibration standard  concentrations  (ASY
          command), and  calculation  of calibration coefficients  (MOD

                                    7A-21
-------
                Exhibit 7A-4
                  (continued)
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                       7A-22
-------
                              Exhibit  7A-4
                               (continued)
          command).   Calibration  coefficients may also be calculated
          externally  and  entered  via  the  PAR command.  Follow  Sections  2.0
          (Preparation  for Operation) and  5.0 (Measurement).

     4.3  Number  of Calibration Standards

          The  number  of calibration standards depends on two factors:
          number  of elements  to analyzed  and number  of Interfering
          elements.   Spectral  overlap between elements 1s automatically
          corrected for through measurement of  the appropriate pure element
          standards and selection of  channel limits.  Correction of matrix
          effects due to  absorption or  enhancement of fluorecent x-rays
          requires statistical evaluation.  If  a one-to-one corellation
          between element concentration and x-ray intensity (linear
          regression) is  determined,  the  number of necessary calibration
          standards may be small. Matrix  effects due to the presence of
          interfering elements, on the  other hand, may require the use  of
          multiple regression  analysis, and the number of calibration
          standards necessary  may Increase  (refer to Table 1).

5.0  MEASUREMENT

     This  section describes  the measurement of  either standards
     (calibration or  pure element) or samples.

     5.1  Select  the  appropriate  model  by  pressing the MODEL function key,
          typing  in  the desired model  (1-8), and pressing  the  CONT/YES
          editing key.

     5.2  Select  the  appropriate  measurement time by pressing  the MTIME
          function key, typing in the desired time in seconds, and pressing
          the  CONT/YES editing key.   (Note:  Measurement times may range
          between 1 and 32,767 seconds  and it is not necessary that sample
          measurement times  be the same as calibration measurement times.)

     5.3  Place sample to be  measured in  the sample  holder in  the
          appropriate probe.   Close  the lid  (green light should  go out) and
          press START button.   The screen should now indicate  the remaining
          measurement time.   At the end of measurement, an audible signal
          (three  short tones)  is  given  and the  results displayed.  Raise
          the  probe  lid and  remove the  sample.

     5.4  If the  sample is to be  run  again with another probe  connected via
          the  distribution box,  turn  the  probe  indicator  switch  to  that
          probe and  repeat steps  5.1  through  5.3.

     5.5  To re-display the  results  of  the previous  run, press the RECALC
          button.  If calculations are  desired  for  the  previous  run  under a
          different  model, first change to the  desired model  (see  Section
          5.1) and then press RECALC.
                                   7A-23
-------
                             Exhibit  7A-4
                               (continued)
                                  TABLE  1

     RECOMMENDED MINIMUM NUMBER  OF CALIBRATION  SAMPLES  VERSUS NUMBER OF
  ELEMENTS TO BE ANALYZED AND  NUMBER  OF  INTERFERING ELEMENT  (INTENSITIES)
                                     Number  of  Elements

               Intensities     12341
1
2
3
4
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
15
30
30
10
10
10
15
30
30
15
15
15
15
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
6.0  QA/QC

     6.1  Quality  Control

          Throughout the  analysis, midpoint standards should be re-checked
          after an average  of approximately five  sample runs.  Analyses are
          generally considered to be  out of control when values obtained
          for the  check  standards are outside + 3 standard deviations of
          their "true" value.   The instrument ?s  then recalibrated and the
          previous samples  rerun.

     6.2  Instrumental Precision and  Detection Limit

          The standard deviation of counting statistics (STD command) can
          be considered a very close  approximation of instrumental
          precision.  True  instrumental precision  is obtained by repetative
          measurements of a sample.   As a  general  rule, the detection limit
          may be established as three times the instrumental precision.
          (Note:  Instrumental precision can be increased and thus
          detection limit lowered by  increasing the number of calibration
          standards and/or  the measurement time).

     6.3  Sample Splits

          Sampling error  can be determined by running sample duplicates, or
          splits.   Both  field duplicates and splits from  the sample  pan  (if
          applicable) should be run an average of one every 20 samples.  To
          test for grinding error due to powder non-homogeneity, powder
          splits should  also be run at the rate of one per 20 samples.
                                   7A-24
-------
                           Exhibit 7A-4
                             (continued)
7.0  FUNCTION  KEYS
8.0  EDITING KEYS
Key

START

MODEL

MTIME

RECALC


ON

OFF



Key
9.0  COMMANDS
SHIFT




CONT/YES


END/NO




Kej,

ADD


ASY


CAL

CIN


CMS

CPU
  Description

Start measurement

Select Model

Select measurement time

Recalculate assay in selected
model

Switch on

Switch off

                             •

  Description

Delete keyboard entry

Scroll backwards

Shift to upper case (if in lower
case) or to lower case (if 1n
.upper case)

Accept, continue or scroll
forwards

Reject or terminate or agree to
negative question



  Description

Add reference samples to
identification library

Enter assays of calibration
samples

Measure calibration samples

Output calibration sample
intensities

Measure repeatedly (continuously)
                                      Transfer  or  continue  instrument
                                      calibration
                                  7A-25
-------
                            Exhibit 7A-4
                            (continued)
                  DEL                 Delete model

                  DIM                 Display time and date

                  EMP                 Enter maintenance programs
                                      (with PRM)

                  INI                 Initialize gain control

                  INT                 Output net count rates of channels

                  LIM                 Examine and edit channel  limits

                                      Output normalisation factors

                  LOG                 Lock the keyboard

                  MOD                 Regression modeling

                  NOR                 Normalisation

                  PAR                 Enter and edit calibration
                                      coefficients


                  PUL                 Output gross count rates  of
                                      element channels

                  PUR                 Instrument ("Pure Element")
                                      calibration

                  PRM                 Instrument Calibration
                                      Parameters (with EMP)

                  REF                 Reference sample examination
                                      and editing

                  SPE                 Output spectra

                  SPL                 Plot spectra

                  STD                 Output standard deviation
                                      (counting statistics)

                  STM                 Set time and date

                  TCR                 Output total count rate

                  UNL                 Unlock keyboard
10.  REFERENCES
Columbia Scientific  Industries  Corp.   1985.   Operating  Instructions  X-Met
  840 Portable XRF Analyzer.

                               7A-26
-------
                          Section 8
                       EARTH SCIENCES
Note:  Because the scope of this section is large, the
section is organized by topics; the most pertinent topics,
in order, are as follows:
Section
8.1
















8.2
8.3








8.4
8.4.





8.4.





8.1.6.1
8.1.6.1.1
8.1.6.1.2
8.1.6.1.3
8.1.6.1.4
8.1.6.1.5
8.1.6.1.6
8.1.6.1.7
8.1.6.1.8
8.1.6.1.9
8.1.6.1.10
8.1.6.2
8.1.6.2.1
8.1.6.2.2
8.1.6.2.3
8.1.6.3



8.3.5.1
8.3.5.2
8.3.5.2.2
8.3.5.2.3
8.3.5.2.4
8.3.5.2.5
8.3.5.2.6

2
8.4.2.1
8.4.2.2
8.4.2.3
8.4.2.4
8.4.2.5
3
8.4.3.1.1
8.4.3.1.2
8.4.3.1.3
Topic
Geologic Drilling
Drilling Methods
Hand Augers
Powered Augers
Hollow-Stem Augers
Solid-Stem Augers
Bucket Augers and Disk Augers
Cable Tools
Mud and Water Rotary Drilling
Air Rotary Method
Reverse Air-and-Mud or Water
Drive and Wash
Sampling Techniques
Split-Spoon Samplers
Thin-Walled Tube Samplers
Cutting or Wash Samples











Rotary





Decontamination and Waste Handling
Test Pits and Excavations
Geological Reconnaissance and
Logging
Geological Reconnaissance
Geological Logging
Methods — Soils
Soil Description
Rock Methods
Rock Classifications
Well Completion Diagrams
Geophysics
Geophysical Methods
Electromagnetics
Electrical Resistivity
Seismic Methods
Magnetics
Ground Penetrating Radar
Borehole Geophysics
Electrical
Nuclear
Mechanical

Geological



















                            8.1-1
-------
Appendixes  8.4A to 8.4E contain detailed discussion of the theory of
geophysical instruments.

8.5                          Groundwater Monitoring
        8.5.6.1              Water Wells
        8.5.6.2              Lysimeters
        8.5.6.3              Piezometers and Tensiometers
        8.5.6.4              Groundwater Sampling Equipment
        8.5.6.5              Water-Level Measurement Devices
        8.5.6.6              Field Parameter Measurements
        8.5.6.7              Filtration
        8.5.6.8              Materials for Well Construction
        8.5.6.9              Groundwater Sampling Considerations
Each of the  topics  is organized into subsections on
applications and  limitations.  These subsections follow the
general compendium  format.
                    8.1  GEOLOGIC DRILLING

8.1.1  SCOPE  AND PURPOSE

This subsection provides general guidance  for the planning,
method selection,  and implementation of  geologic drilling
and subsurface  soil sampling for field investigations of
hazardous waste sites.

8.1.2  DEFINITIONS

Site Manager  (SM).  The individual responsible for the
successful  completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.   The  person is also referred to  as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's  employee (see Subsection  1.1).

Soils.  "The  collection of natural bodies  on the earth's
surface, in places modified or even made by man of earthy
materials,  containing living matter and  supporting or capa-
ble of supporting plants out-of-doors.   The lower limit is
normally the  lower limit of biological activity, which
generally coincides with the common rooting of native peren-
nial plants"   (Glossary of Geology, 1972,  p. 671).  Typi-
cally, soils  at a hazardous waste site are defined as the
weathered material located above bedrock;  thus, soil
sampling can  occur to depths of many feet.

8.1.3  APPLICABILITY

Although this subsection focuses on drilling for sampling
purposes, it  is important to recognize that borings are also
                             8.1-2
-------
required for in situ testing of subsurface materials and
groundwater, and to allow installation of monitoring devices
including wells.

Selection of the most appropriate method or combination of
methods must be dictated by the special considerations
imposed by multipurpose borings.  For example, although the
best apparent method for well installation at a particular
site may be direct air rotary with driven casing, most air
rotary equipment allows sampling only by cuttings.  If, in
this case, soil sampling is required, pilot (or separate)
borings done with equipment capable of providing adequate
undisturbed samples may be necessary.  In addition, if
drilling is to be conducted in an area of perched or
multiple aquifer systems, auger techniques should not be
used because of the possibility of cross contamination;
borings must be advanced using multiple casing techniques
that allow isolation of each aquifer encountered.

Examples of such optimization of techniques are too numerous
to be thoroughly covered in this section, but the general
applicability of various methods is discussed.  Routine soil
drilling and sampling techniques are discussed.  Specialized
techniques that may be applicable only under unusual
conditions are not presented.

The planning, selection, and implementation of any drilling
program requires careful consideration by qualified, experi-
enced personnel.  At a minimum, the following general steps
are required:

     o    Review of existing site, area, and regional
          subsurface, geologic, and hydrogeologic informa-
          tion including physical and chemical
          characteristics

     o    Development of a site-specific health and safety
          program

     o    Definition of the purpose of the drilling and
          sampling, selection of drilling methods and gen-
          eral site layout, and preparation and execution of
          the drilling contract

     o    Field implementation and decontamination including
          continuous inspection by qualified,  experienced
          personnel

     o    Reporting

Selection and implementation of soil drilling and sampling
methods also require that specific considerations be given
                            8.1-3
-------
to the following issues,  which are common to all drilling at
or near hazardous waste sites:

     o    Prevention of contaminant spread
     o    Maintenance of sample integrity
     o    Minimization of disruption of existing conditions
     o    Minimization of long-term impacts

8.1.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The SM is responsible for determining that the soil drilling
and sampling techniques being used are appropriate to the
site conditions and drilling objectives.

8.1.5  RECORDS AND INSPECTION

All drilling and sampling activities should be continuously
inspected by qualified, experienced personnel.  Continuous
inspection is essential to assure that the intent of the
drilling program is being followed and to provide knowledge-
able direction to the field crews when conditions dictate
variance from the original plan.

Inspection personnel should prepare daily reports that
include the following:

     o    Activity logs or field notebooks
     o    Boring logs
     o    Sample documentation

Reporting is essential to adequately document the unusual
site conditions, the drilling and sampling quantities, and
the personnel onsite for project control and to thoroughly
document technical methods and results.

8.1.6  PROCEDURES.

The following methods should be considered for application
at various sites.  Exhibit 8.1-1 presents a summary of
advantages, disadvantages, and depth limitations of various
drilling techniques.

8.1.6.1  Drilling Procedures

8.1.6.1.1  Hand Augers

Description.  The most commonly used manually operated
augers include the Iwan,  ship, closed-spiral, and open-
spiral augers.  In operation, a hand auger is attached to
the bottom of a length of pipe that has a crossarm at the
top.  The hole is drilled by turning this crossarm at the
same time the operator presses the auger into the ground.
                            8.1-4
-------
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                                            8.1-5
-------
As the auger is advanced and becomes filled with soil, it is
taken from the hole, and the soil is removed.  Additional
lengths of pipe are added as required.  The Iwan, a post-
hole type of auger, generally retains sample material better
than the other hand-operated augers.  Hand augers of the
type mentioned are shown in Exhibit 8.1-2.

Application.  In general, hand-operated augers are useful
for sampling all types of soils except cohesionless mate-
rials below the water table and hard or cemented soils.  The
ship auger, with a helical flight on a solid stem, is best
suited for use in cohesive materials.  Spiral augers were
developed for use in those cases in which helical and screw
augers do not work well.  The closed-spiral auger is used in
dry clay and gravelly soils.  The open-spiral auger is most
useful in loosely consolidated deposits.

The Iwan auger is available in diameters ranging from 3 to
9 inches.  The other types of augers are available in diame-
ters ranging from approximately 2 to 3.5 inches.

Auger borings are used primarily in cases in which there is
no need for undisturbed samples and in which the drilling
will be done in soils where the borehole will stay open
without casing or drilling mud, generally above the ground-
water table.  The high mobility of the equipment makes the
hand auger ideally suited for sites with impaired access.

Limitations.  Borings drilled with augers have the
disadvantage that the samples are mixed and that, in gen-
eral, it is difficult if not impossible to locate precisely
the changes in soil strata.  Augering does not case off the
upper portion of the hole.  If the walls collapse or slough,
representative samples may be difficult to obtain.

The exact depth to which any hole can be carried is a
function of the types of soil in the profile, the type of
auger being used, the amount of power available to turn the
auger, and the location of the groundwater table.  Gravel
larger than 2 cm impairs the use of hand augers.  Hand
augers are typically used for shallow  (2 to 8 feet) depths
but may reach a maximum depth of 30 feet in unsaturated,
unconsolidated material.  These augers typically are not
used for boring more than a few feet below the water table.
Power assists have been added to hand auger systems to
increase depth capability without substantially decreasing
mobility.
                            8.1-6
-------
HAND  AUGERS:
           (c)
         Exhibit  8.1-2
  (a)  SHIP AUGER;  (b)  CLOSED-SPIRAL AUGER;
OPEN  SPIRAL AUGER;  (d)  IWAN AUGER
          Ship Auger
                                  (b)

                             Closed-Spiral Auger
             (c)
        Open-Spiral Auger
                                  (d)

                               Iwan Auger
                             8.1-7
-------
8.1.6.1.2  Powered Augers

Description.  A powered auger is motor-driven and is
advanced by a helical worm with sections that can be screwed
together.  Three types of powered augers (which are dis-
cussed later) are hollow-stem, solid-stem,  and bucket
augers.  The augers themselves are available in sizes rang-
ing from 2 to 48 inches in diameter.  The auger can be
either hand held or rig mounted (Exhibit 8.1-3).  The rig is
self-sufficient and generally does not require additional
lifting devices, although a simple hoist and tripod is use-
ful in holes more than 10 feet deep.

Auger flights are available in several types depending on
their intended use.  These consist of single-flight earth
augers, double-flight earth-rock augers, double-flight rock
augers, and high-spiral augers (Exhibit 8.1-4).  In opera-
tion, these augers are attached to a drilling rod, which is
rotated and pressed downward to achieve penetration.  The
rod with the auger is advanced for the distance of the
flight or until the flight has become filled with soil.  The
rod is then raised until the auger is clear of the hole, and
the soil is thrown free from the cutter head.  The hole is
drilled by repeating this process until the required depth
is reached.  Two or four people can operate a powered auger.

Application.  The maximum depth of penetration that can be
achieved with powered augers is limited by the geologic
material, the depth to water, and the length of the Kelly
rod that can be accommodated by the drilling rig used.  In
general, the depth is limited to between 100 and 200 feet.
The advantage of auger boring over wash boring, percussion,
and rotary drilling is that the cuttings brought to the sur-
face  (although disturbed) are generally suitable for posi-
tive  identification of the soil material but not for precise
soil  content.  Using powered augers also makes it easier to
determine the groundwater level.  Casing is not generally
needed, except when drilling through noncohesive sand and
gravel and sometimes when drilling below the water table.
Drilling practice has shown that, where applicable, powered
auger drilling is preferable to many other methods because
the work progresses fast in drilling holes not deeper than
100 feet (when undisturbed samples are not required).

8.1.6.1.3  Hollow-Stem Augers  (Helical Augers)

Description.  Hollow-stem augers  (Exhibit 8.1-5) are a type
of powered auger used primarily to advance the borehole when
soil  sampling is required.  The hollow-stem auger consists
                            8.1-8
-------
      Exhibit 8.1-3
RIG-MOUNTED POWERED AUGER
          8.1-9
-------
                           Exhibit 8.1-4
AUGERS:   (a)  SINGLE-FLIGHT EARTH AUGER;  (b) DOUBLE-FLIGHT
EARTH-ROCK AUGER;  (c)  DOUBLE-FLIGHT ROCK AUGER;  (d)  HIGH-
SPIRAL AUGER.
                    (a)
             Single-Flight Earth Auger
          (b)

Double-Flight Earth-Rock Auger
                   (c)

            Double-Flight Rock Auger
         (d)

     High-Spiral Auger
                                8.1-10
-------
       Exhibit 8.1-5
KECK-SCREENED, HOLLOW-STEM,
  CONTINUOUS-FLIGHT AUGER
                    SCREEN
                    FLIGHT
               KNOCK OUT PLUG
                        BIT
          8.1-11
-------
of (1)  a section of seamless steel tube with a spiral flight
to which are attached a finger-type cutter head at the bot-
tom and an adapter cap at the top, and (2) a center drill
stem composed of drill rods to which are attached a center
plug with a drag bit at the bottom and an adapter at the
top.  The adapters at the top of the drill stem and auger
flight are designed to allow the auger to advance with the
plug in place.  As the hole is drilled, additional lengths
of hollow-stem flights and center stem are added.  The cen-
ter stem and plug may be removed at any time during the
drilling to permit disturbed, undisturbed, or core sampling
below the bottom of the cutter head by using the hollow-stem
flights as casing.  This process also permits the use of
augering in loose deposits below the water table.  Where
this technique is used in unconsolidated material below the
water table, fluids of known chemical quality may be used to
control groundwater inflow.  Undisturbed samples taken in
this manner may be more useful than those taken from a cased
hole, since the disturbance caused by advancing the auger is
much less than that caused by driving the casing.  Augers of
this type are available with hollow stems having inside
diameters from 2-3/4 to 6 inches.

Application.  The use of hollow-stem augers is advantageous,
because drilling fluids that need to be controlled and lim-
ited when advancing a borehole are used only under special
circumstances.  The augers also allow direct access for soil
sampling through the hollow inner part of the auger stem.

The depths to which hollow-stem augers can bore are limited
by the geologic formation and depth to groundwater.  Hollow-
stem augers are used primarily in formations that do not
cave or have large boulders.

Upon reaching the desired depth, a small-diameter casing and
screen can be set inside the hollow stem to produce a moni-
toring well.  The augers are removed by section while the
well screen and risers are held in place.  Typically, one
5-foot section of auger is removed at a time.  In incompe-
tent formations, the borehole surrounding the screen may be
allowed to cave around the screen, or a clean sand or gravel
pack may be installed as the augers are withdrawn.  Once the
screen is properly covered  (usually to 2  feet above the top
of the screen), a clay  (bentonite) seal is installed.  As a
final step, grout or other impermeable material  is tremied
in place on top of the clay seal to ground level as the
remaining auger sections are removed.  Careful installation
of clay and/or grout seals is essential, especially in areas
where multiple aquifers are encountered.

Allowing the formation to collapse around the well may
damage the screen and/or risers.  Depending on formation
material, sand or gravel pack may provide a better
                           8.1-12
-------
performing well.  Gravel packing may require a slightly
larger hollow-stem auger but may be worth the effort.

8.1.6.1.4  Solid-Stem Augers

Description.  Solid-stem augers (Exhibit 8.1-6) are a type
of powered auger that is advanced into the ground by the
rotation and downward pressure of a rotary drill rig.  These
augers have interchangeable heads or bits for use in various
types of soil.

As the solid-stem auger is advanced into the ground, new
auger sections are added.  Auger borings may be advanced to
a depth of about 100 feet, depending on the soil conditions
encountered.  Casing may be used to prevent caving in of
unstable soil, especially below the water table, when the
auger is removed for sampling or placement of a monitoring
well.

The soil displaced by the auger is transported to the
surface by the auger blade.  This soil shows the general
type of material through which the auger is passing, but
definite determinations cannot be made about the depth from
which the soil was excavated or about the soil structure.

Solid-stem augers are most efficient in advancing a boring
in moist, cohesionless soils with some apparent cohesion and
in medium-soft to stiff cohesive soils.  These augers are
not well suited for use in very hard or cemented soils, very
soft soils, or saturated cohesionless soils.

Application.  Borings advanced with solid-stem augers are
not useful when it is necessary to obtain undisturbed sam-
ples of soil material or to determine the location of soil
contacts.  Under certain conditions, solid-stem auger
borings are useful in providing holes for monitoring well
installation.  It should be noted that it is almost impossi-
ble to drill through a contaminated soil zone with a solid-
stem continuous-flight auger without downward transport of
contaminants.

8.1.6.1.5  Bucket Augers and Disk Augers

Description.  The bucket auger is a type of powered auger
that consists of a cylindrical bucket 10 inches to 72 inches
in diameter with teeth arranged at the bottom.  The bucket
is fastened to the end of a Kelly bar that is rotated and
pushed downward.  The bucket is then filled, brought to the
surface, and emptied by tipping it over.  Bucket holes more
than 3 feet in diameter may be drilled using a special
attachment.  These wide holes permit visual inspection and
direct sampling by a person lowered into the hole.  Disk
                           8.1-13
-------
                                Exhibit  8.1-6
                             SOLID-STEM AUGERS
                         Large Helical or Worm-Type Augers
                                                I TY« SHOE


                                                   FLAT-S»I»AL SMOC
                                                           --•>—4

Spoon Auger     Vicksburg Hinged Auger
Sprague & Henwood
   Barrel Augers
Buda Continuous
 Helical Augers
                                     8.1-14
-------
augers are similar to helical augers but are larger and are
used to make larger holes.  Helical and disk augers are
shown in Exhibit 8.1-7.  Large-diameter casing can be used
to keep holes opon in noncohesive material.

Application.  These methods of augering are used if the
boreholes are relatively shallow and above the water table.
The methods are very rapid if boulders are not encountered.

8.1.6.1.6  Cable Tools

Description.  A cable tool rig uses a heavy, solid-steel,
chisel-type drill bit suspended on a steel cable that, when
raised and dropped, chisels or pounds a hole through the
soil and rock.  Cable tool drilling is also commonly
referred to as percussion drilling or churn drilling.
Required equipment includes a drilling rig, a drill stem,
percussion bits, and a bailer.  Casing is needed when
advancing a hole through soft, caving materials.  Cable tool
drilling equipment is shown in Exhibit 8.1-8.

Application.  Cable tool rigs can operate satisfactorily in
allformations, but they are best suited for large, caving,
gravel-type formations with cobbles or boulders or for for-
mations with large cavities above the water table.  The use
of cable tool rigs for small-diameter (2-inch) wells is not
recommended.

Information regarding water-bearing zones can be easily
obtained during cable tool drilling.  Relative permeabil-
ities and some water quality data can be obtained from dif-
ferent zones penetrated if a skilled operator is available.
Formation samples can be excellent when a skilled driller
uses a sand pump bailer.

In hazardous waste applications, contaminated materials can
be closely controlled through periodic bailing and through
containment of suspended cuttings.  Some water is required
to replace water removed by bailing in unsaturated zones,
but the water requirements for this method of drilling are
generally low.

Limitations.  Cable tool drilling is slow compared with
rotary drilling.  The necessity of driving the casing along
with drilling in unconsolidated formations requires that the
casing be pulled back to expose selected water-bearing
zones.  This process complicates the well completion process
and often increases cost.  Relatively large-diameter (at
least 4 inches) casing is required, which increases the
costs when compared with rotary-drilled wells with plastic
casing.  The casing, which has a sharp, hardened casing shoe
on the bottom, must be driven into the hole.  The shoe cuts
                           8.1-15
-------
           Exhibit  8.1-7
   HELICAL  AND DISK  AUGERS
Buda Earth Drill with Continuous Helical Augers
                             LPTIN6
                             MCCHANtSM
     CLEARANCE
     CUTTER
                               SHUTTER
                               PLATE
CUTTM
                SHANK
      Buda Earth Drill with Disk Auger
                8.1-16
-------
                    Exhibit  8.1-8
CABLE  TOOL  (PERCUSSION)  DRILLING  EQUIPMENT
   Drilling Rig
                        Regular
            Drill Stem


Mother Hubbard    Twisted Mother Hubbard
         Chopping Bits
                              6
              Drill Jar   Bailer  Valve    Bailer   Valve
                      Flat Valve Bailer   Dart Valve Bailer
                         8.1-17
                     Rod Plunger Type
                       Sand Pump
                    with Regular Bottom
-------
a slightly larger hole than does the drill bit, and it can-
not be relied on to form a seal when overlying water-bearing
zones are encountered.

With some types of cable tool drilling equipment, it may be
difficult to reach some sites that are steep or marshy.

8.1.6.1.7  Mud and Water Rotary Drilling

Description.  In rotary drilling, the borehole is advanced
by rapid rotation of the drilling bit, which cuts, chips,
and grinds the material at the bottom of the hole into small
particles.  The cuttings are removed by pumping water or
drilling fluid from a sump down through the drill rods and
bit and up the annulus between the borehole wall and the
drill rods.  This water flows first into a settling pit and
ultimately back to the main pit for recirculation.  Water
alone may be> used when the depth is small and the soil is
stable.  Drilling mud is sometimes preferred, since the
required flow is smaller and the mud serves to stabilize the
hole; however, the mud may clog permeable soil units.  A
sample should be collected of any material introduced into
the well  (water, drilling mud, additives, etc.).  The sample
should be retained for future analysis if any question of
contamination arises.  A section of casing is used to start
the hole, but the remaining part of exploratory boreholes
advanced by rotary drilling is usually uncased except in
soft soils.

When rotary drilling is used for exploratory borings, items
such as motors, rotary driving mechanisms, winches, and
pumps, are generally assembled as a unit, with a folding
mast mounted on a truck or tractor.  The unit also may be
mounted on intermediate skids so that it can be placed on a
raft or moved into places inaccessible to motor vehicles.  A
diagrammatic sketch of such a drilling rig is shown in
Exhibit 8.1-9.  Skid-mounted drilling machines can also be
used for rotary drilling.

Many types of rotary drilling bits are used, depending on
the character of the material to be penetrated.  Fishtail
bits and two-bladed bits are used in relatively soft soils
and three- to four-bladed bits in firmer soils and soft
rock.  The cutting edges are surfaced with tungsten carbide
alloys or are formed by special hard-metal inserts.  The
bits used in rock have several rollers with hard-surfaced
teeth.  The two-cone bits are used in soft or broken forma-
tions, but the tri-cone and roller bits provide smoother
operation and are more efficient in harder rocks.  The num-
ber of rollers and the number and shape of the teeth are
varied in accordance with the character of the rock.  Rela-
tively few and large teeth are used in soft rock, and the
                           8.1-18
-------
                              Exhibit  8.1-9
                MUD AND WATER ROTARY  DRILLING
                                                    Truck-Mounted Rotary Drilling Rig
        Rotary Drilling
  Water Swivel
Two-Blade Bit    Three-Blade Bit    Four-Blade Bit
              BLADED BITS
                                             Hoisting Plug
                                              Fishtail Bit
                               Drill Rods and Couplings
Two-Cone Bit     Tri-Cone Bit
                ROCK BITS
Roller Bit
                     Safety Clamp     Spider and Slips
                                  8.1-19
-------
teeth are interfitting so that the bit will be self-
cleaning.  The teeth in all bits are flushed by drilling
fluid flowing out of vents in the base of the bit.

Boreholes produced by rotary drilling may be cased to
provide stability.  The drill rod and bit can be removed
from the borehole, and a sampler can be lowered through the
casing to remove soil from the bottom of the boring.

Uncased boreholes are often filled with water to stabilize
the hole and to remove material ground up by the boring
tools.  Water will exert a stabilizing effect on the parts
of the hole that extend below groundwater level; however,
above the water table, the water may result in a loss of
soil strength and a collapse of the hole.  Water alone
generally prevent neither caving of borings in soft or
cohesionless soils nor a gradual squeezing-in of a borehole
in plastic soils.  Uncased boreholes filled with water are
generally used in rock and are often used in stiff, cohesive
soils.

An uncased borehole can often be stabilized by filling it
with a properly proportioned drilling fluid or "mud," which,
when circulated, also serves to remove ground-up material
from the bottom of the hole.  A satisfactory drilling fluid
can occasionally be obtained by mixing locally available fat
clays with water, but it is usually advantageous and often
necessary to add commercially prepared drilling mud addi-
tives.  When suitable native clays are not available, the
drilling fluid is prepared with commercial products alone.
These mud-forming products consist of highly colloidal,
gel-forming, thixotropic clays—primarily bentonite—with
various chemicals added to control dispersion, thixotropy,
viscosity, and gel strength.  A sample of the drilling fluid
should be analyzed to eliminate the possibility of intro-
ducing contamination into the borehole.

The stabilizing effect of the drilling fluid is caused in
part by its higher specific gravity  (in comparison with
water alone) and in part by the formation of a relatively
impervious lining or "mudcake" on the side walls of the
borehole.  This lining prevents sloughing of cohesionless
soils and decreases the rate of swelling of cohesive mate-
rials.  The drilling fluid also facilitates removal of
cuttings from the hole.  The required velocities and volume
of circulation are smaller than for water alone, and the
problem of uncontrolled erosion at the bottom of the hole is
decreased.  Furthermore, the drilling fluid is thixotropic;
that is, it stiffens and forms a gel when agitation is
stopped, and it can be liquified again by resuming the
agitation.  Drilling mud is, therefore, better able than
water to keep the cuttings in suspension during the time
                           8.1-20
-------
required for withdrawal and reinsertion of boring and
sampling tools.  It also reduces abrasion and retards
corrosion of these tools.

Application.  Rotary drilling is best suited for borings
with a diameter of not less than 4 inches; a diameter of
6 to 8 inches is generally preferred when the method is used
for exploratory boring.  In most soils and rocks, the rate
of progress is greater than that of other methods.  However,
rotary drilling is not well suited for use in deposits con-
taining very coarse gravel, numerous stones and boulders, or
chert nodules; in badly fissured or cavernous rock; or in
very porous deposits with a strong groundwater flow, since
an excessive amount of drilling fluid may be lost by seepage
in such formations.  Judicious selection of drilling mud
additives and lost circulation material can ameliorate fluid
loss problems.  This method has a rapid drilling rate and
generally can avoid placement of a casing by creating a mud
lining on the wall of the well.

Major disadvantages of rotary drilling are as follows:
(1) if not properly used, drilling fluids may introduce
potential contaminants into the borehole; (2) a large amount
of water needs to be controlled after use; and (3) the prob-
lem of lost circulation exists in highly permeable or
cavernous geologic formations.  The "filter cake" produced
when drilling mud is used may reduce the permeability in
water-bearing zones.  Proper completion and well development
can significantly lessen the adverse effect of filter cake
and mud invasion into a formation.

When using the rotary drilling method for the installation
of monitoring wells, care must be exercised to prevent
recirculation of potentially contaminated drilling fluids
into uncontaminated formations.  In addition, during well
development, drilling fluids must be thoroughly flushed from
the borehole and the invaded zone to ascertain that samples
collected are representative of true formation fluids.

8.1.6.1.8  Air Rotary Method

Description.  Air rotary rigs operate in the same manner as
mud rotary drills, except the air is circulated down the
drill pipe and returns with the cuttings up the annulus.
Air rotary rigs are available throughout much of the United
States and are well suited for many drilling applications.
A variation of the air rotary method is the air hammer
method, which uses a pneumatic or percussion hammer that
pulverizes rock and uses air to return cuttings to the
surface.
                           8.1-21
-------
Air rotary rigs operate best in hard rock formations.
Formation water is blown out of the hole along with the
cuttings, so it is possible to determine when the first
water-bearing zone is encountered.  After filtering water
blown from the hole, collection and field analysis may pro-
vide preliminary information regarding changes in water
quality for some parameters.  Where significant water inflow
is encountered, foaming agents may be added to enhance the
ability of the air stream to remove cuttings from the
wellbore.  Formation sampling ranges from excellent in hard,
dry formations to nonexistent when circulation is lost in
cavernous limestones and other formations with cavities.

Casing is required to keep the borehole open when drilling
in soft, caving formations below the water table.  When more
than one water-bearing zone is encountered and where the
hydrostatic pressures are different, flow between zones will
occur between the time the drilling is done and the time the
hole can be properly cased and one zone grouted off.  Multi-
ple casing strings can be used to rectify this problem, if
necessary.  Synthetic drilling aids are not usually used in
air rotary drilling.  If the air is filtered to capture com-
pressor lubricants, contamination can be minimized more
effectively than with other methods.  In badly contaminated
subsurface situations, air rotary drilling must be used
carefully to minimize the exposure of drilling personnel to
potentially hazardous materials.

Application.  Air rotary methods are conducive to drilling
in hard rock and other consolidated formations where a mud
or water lining is unnecessary to support the walls against
caving.  An important advantage of using the air rotary
method is that contamination of the water zone is not a
factor since no drilling fluid is used.

8.1.6.1.9  Reverse Air-and-Mud or Water Rotary

Description.  The difference between the straight rotary
drilling method and the reverse rotary circulation method
lies in the circulation of the drilling fluid used to remove
the cuttings and in the equipment used.  In the reverse
rotary method, as the rods are rotated the drilling fluid is
introduced under gravity into the annular space between the
drill rods and the walls of the hole.  The fluid, along with
cuttings from the bottom of the hole, returns to the surface
through hollow drill rods.  The return flow is accomplished
by  (1) application of a head at the top of the annulus rela-
tive to the discharge end of the drill rods,  (2) application
of suction on the drill rods, and  (3) introduction into the
drill rods of a supply of air that mixes with the slurry and
causes it to be removed by air lift.
                           8.1-22
-------
Application.  This method has two advantages.  It minimizes
disturbance to the walls of the hole because of the higher
head in the hole and more outwnrd seepage prossure on tho
hole walls.  It also provides more rapid and efficient
removal of cuttings from the hole, since the area of the
drill rods is smaller than that of the annulus, thereby giv-
ing higher upward velocity.  Reverse rotary drilling is best
suited to holes 12 inches and larger in diameter, but it has
the same limitations as the mud and water rotary system.

8.1.6.1.10  Drive and Wash

Description.  The drive-and-wash method is similar to cable
tool drilling and is often used in EPA Region I states.  In
this method of drilling, the casing is driven by a weight or
hammer into the unconsolidated material.  Soil entering the
casing is washed out by circulating drilling fluid (water),
and the casing is advanced again.  A water rotary wash may
also be used to clean the inside of the casing.

Application.  Drive and wash is limited to unconsolidated
materials.  The casing also acts as a temporary seal to pre-
vent cross-contamination of aquifers.  Although faster than
cable tool drilling, drive and wash is not a very rapid
method.  If the wash water is not recycled, large quantities
of fluids may require collection and disposal.

8.1.6.2  Sampling Techniques

The purpose of soil sampling is to obtain a portion of soil
(disturbed or undisturbed) that is representative of the
horizon sampled for chemical analysis, geotechnical analy-
sis, and geomorphological classification.  The volume of
each sample is about 1 pint.  Samples are usually taken at
intervals approved by the geologist or field engineer and at
each change in formation or material type.  Where sampling
difficulties are encountered or a larger volume of material
is needed, a larger diameter split-spoon sampler, a Shelby
tube, a pitcher-type sampler, or a piston-type sampler might
be required.  Continuous coring may be desirable when it is
necessary to establish the presence and distribution of
permeable layers and to establish stratigraphic control.

In areas where contamination is possible, soil samples are
usually screened for contamination by the use of various
monitoring instruments (see Section 15).  Any positive read-
ings or visual evidence of contamination will necessitate
treating the sample as a hazardous material and using appro-
priate packaging, labeling, and shipping techniques, as well
as personal protection for the drillers and samplers.  This
level of protection should be determined before the start of
drilling.
                           8.1-23
-------
Standard penetration tests should be conducted in accordance
with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
D1586, with the interval tested varying from continuous
sampling to 5-foot intervals.  Where rock samples are
required, N-series split inner tube core barrels are usually
used.  Air is the preferred drilling fluid.

Techniques for obtaining and handling disturbed or
undisturbed samples are described in this subsection.

8.1.6.2.1  Split-Spoon Samplers

The split-spoon sampler is a thick-walled, steel tube that
is split lengthwise.  A cutting shoe is attached to the
lower end; the upper end contains a check valve and is con-
nected to the drill rods.  When a boring is advanced to the
point that a sample is to be taken, drill tools are removed
and the sampler is lowered into the hole on the bottom of
the drill rods.

The sampler is driven 18 inches into the ground in
accordance with a standard penetration test (ASTM D1586).
The effort taken to drive the sampler the last 12 inches is
recorded at 6-inch intervals, and the sampler is removed
from the boring.  The density of the sampled material is
obtained by counting the blows per foot as the split-spoon
sampler is driven by a 140-lb hammer falling 30 inches.

The standard-size split-spoon sampler has an inside diameter
(ID) of 1.38 to 1.5 inches.  When soil samples are taken for
chemical analysis, it may be desirable to use a 2 or 2.5 ID
sampler, which provides a larger volume of material but can-
not be used to calculate aquifer properties by using the
stated ASTM test method.

Samples to be chemically analyzed are placed in the
appropriately sized decontaminated jar and labeled with EPA
serialized sample tags.  Samples are kept out of direct sun-
light and stored at about 4°C until they are shipped to the
laboratory.  The split-spoon sampler is decontaminated
between samples.  In some instances, separate, previously
decontaminated split-spoon samplers may be required for each
sample taken.

When taking samples for geotechnical analyses, the disturbed
soil samples removed from the sampler are placed in a seal-
able glass jar and labeled to indicate the project name and
number, boring number, date, depths at top and bottom of
sample interval, recovery, number of sample, number of blows
for each 6 inches  (15 centimeters) of penetration, date of
sampling, and any other information required by the field
engineer or geologist.  This information is placed on a
                           8.1-24
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gummed printed label that can be affixed to the jar.  In
addition, the jar lid is marked with the project number,
boring number, number of sample, and depths at the top and
bottom of the sample interval.

Jar samples are placed in containers, such as cardboard
boxes, with dividers to prevent movement of the jars.  To
aid in retrieving samples, only one boring is generally
placed in a box.  The boxes are labeled on the top and four
sides to show the project number and name, the
identification of samples contained in the box, and the
depth from which the samples were taken.

Samples are taken in 6-inch increments and are placed in
jars or, where lenses or layers are evident, the material
types should be separated into different jars.  All samples
recovered, except for slough or cuttings, should be saved
until analysis is completed.  They should then be properly
disposed of.  Section 5 of this compendium describes dis-
posal of samples.  Each 6-inch increment of a sample should
be assigned a letter suffix, beginning with "A" at the bot-
tom of the sample.  If only 6 inches of a sample are
recovered, this would be given the suffix "A."

If the jar samples are to be temporarily stored onsite, they
should be protected from weather, especially heat and freez-
ing temperatures.  Evidence tape or custody seals should be
placed across the jar lids.  For commercial shipment, the
boxes are marked "KEEP FROM HEAT AND FREEZING" and are
labeled with the appropriate Department of Transportation
(DOT) labels.  The reader should refer to Section 5 of this
compendium.

8.1.6.2.2  Thin-Walled Tube Samplers

Thin-walled samplers, such as a Shelby tube, are used to
take relatively undisturbed samples of soil from borings.
The samplers are constructed of cold drawn steel tubing
about 1 mm thick (for tubes 2 inches in diameter)  or 3 mm
thick (for tubes 5 inches in diameter).  The lower end is
bent to form a tapered cutting edge.  The upper end is fas-
tened to a check valve to help hold the sample in the tube
when the tube is being withdrawn from the ground.   Thin-
walled tube samples are obtained by any one of several meth-
ods including pushed-tube, Pitcher sampler, Denison sampler,
and piston sampler methods.  Choosing the most appropriate
method requires that field personnel use their own judgment.
Since the purpose of thin-walled tube sampling is to obtain
the highest quality undisturbed samples possible,  special
care should be taken in all sampling, handling, packaging,
and shipping of these samples.
                           8.1-25
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In obtaining pushed-tube samples,  the tube is advanced by
hydraulically pushing in one continuous movement with the
drill rig.  The maximum hydraulic  pressure is recorded.  At
the end of the designated push interval and before lifting
the sample, the tube is twisted to break the bottom of the
sample.

Upon recovery of a thin-walled tube, the actual length of
sample is measured and recorded (excluding slough or
cuttings).  At least 1/2 inch of soil is cleaned from each
end of the tube, and the ends of the soil sample are squared
off.  Usually the top of the sample will contain cuttings or
slough.  These must be removed before sealing.  The soil
that has been cleaned from the tube can be used for a visual
classification of the sample.  The resulting space at each
end of the tube is filled with melted sealing material, such
as approved wax, or with expandable packers.  Previously
decontaminated Teflon or stainless steel plugs are also
used.  After this initial sealing, a dry filler such as
cuttings, sand, or paper can be placed in the remaining void
areas, and sealing is again conducted.  This filler prevents
the sample from breaking the initial end seals during han-
dling and shipment.  The ends of the tube are then closed
with tight-fitting metal or plastic caps, and the seam
between the cap and tube is wrapped with tape.  Finally, the
ends are dipped in hot wax, completely covering the tape to
ensure sealing.

The sample container and the top cap are labeled by writing
on them with an indelible marker or by affixing a label.  If
possible, all labeling should be located in the top 1 foot
of the tube.  The information on the tube includes the proj-
ect number, project name, date of sampling, boring number,
sample number, zone of sampling, and any other information
the field engineer or geologist feels is pertinent.  In
addition, the tube is marked TOP and BOTTOM so that the ori-
entation of the soil sample is known.

As much as possible, the tubes should be carried by hand to
the soils laboratory in an upright vertical position to
maintain the in situ orientation and to minimize sample dis-
aggregation.  If the tubes are being transported by air-
plane, they should be carried, if possible, on the plane and
not checked as baggage.  (NOTE:  Soil samples that yield
positive readings during screening with an HNU or organic
vapor analyzer  (OVA), that show visual evidence of contami-
nation, or that can reasonably be assumed to be contaminated
should never be carried on a passenger aircraft.  The reader
should refer to Section 5 of this compendium for the proper
packaging, labeling, and shipping of hazardous samples.)  If
the tubes are to be transported by truck or automobile, they
should be carefully padded and wedged in place to prevent
                           8.1-26
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movement and minimize vibration.  If tubes must be shipped
as freight, they should be packed in secure wooden boxes
with dividers built in to prevent movement of the tubes, or
the boxes should be tightly filled with packing material
such as wood chips to prevent movement.  The boxes should be
marked  "FRAGILE" and "KEEP FROM HEAT AND FREEZING" and
labeled according to the type of hazard presented by the
assumed contamination.  All packaging of tubes should be
supervised by the field engineer or geologist.

Finally, if field engineers or geologists think the tubes
have been disturbed in shipment, they should notify the
Project Manager and soils laboratory coordinator in writing.

In addition to geotechnical testing, such as permeability
testing, thin-walled samples may be extruded in the labo-
ratory and used for chemical analysis.

8.1.6.2.3  Cutting or Wash Samples

Occasionally, cutting or wash samples might be required as
the boring is advanced.  Cutting or wash samples should be
handled and packaged as outlined for split-spoon samples.
An estimate of the depth (or range of depth) from which the
sample was obtained should be recorded on the log sheet.
Samples are usually taken every 5 feet.  Samples should be
labeled in the manner outlined for jar samples.

8.1.6.3  Decontamination and Waste Handling

Waste handling and decontamination of equipment should be
coordinated with the SM or designated field person before
entering the site.  Removing any possible sources of offsite
contamination from the drilling equipment before beginning
work will minimize the offsite transportation of waste upon
completion of work and will minimize cross contamination
while working onsite.

Between samples, the sampling equipment shall be
decontaminated as approved by the SM or designated person-
nel.  The decontamination procedure generally involves the
following:

     o    Brush off visible mud or dirt; scrub and wash with
          clean water.  Organic-free water, distilled water,
          or tap water may be used; the tap water source
          must be noncontaminated.  (Note:  Sample cleaning
          blanks will be submitted for analysis to assure
          adequacy of decontamination.)

     o    Scrub and wash with trisodium phosphate.

     o    Scrub and wash with methanol or acetone.
                           8.1-27
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     o    Rinse with clean water,  preferably de-ionized or
          distilled water.  (See remarks above about clean
          water.)

Between boreholes,  all casing,  rods,  samplers, and other
equipment used in the boreholes must  be decontaminated as
approved by the SM.  The cleaning process generally consists
of steam cleaning or hosing the drilling equipment with a
high-pressure hot water rinse.   After cleaning, the drilling
equipment must be placed on a clean surface on the driller's
truck bed or wrapped in clean polyethylene sheeting.

Upon completion of drilling activities, all equipment
including the drill rig and all casing, rods, tools, and
miscellaneous equipment must be decontaminated before leav-
ing the site, as approved by the SM.   The drill rig and
equipment are usually cleaned with a  steam cleaner or mobile
high-pressure hot water washer.  Wipe tests may be used to
determine the extent of remaining contamination, if any;
this testing is particularly relevant when a commercial well
driller has been used as a contractor.

Solid waste from the drilling should  be placed in barrels
following completion of each borehole or disposed of onsite
with approval of the SM and EPA.  Barrels containing solid
wastes will be marked so the contents can be identified and
stored in a secure area onsite  (shed  or fenced area), at the
direction of the SM.

Fluids that are produced during drilling or well development
or that are potentially contaminated  during equipment decon-
tamination will have to be contained  onsite and analyzed for
contamination.  If shown to be uncontaminated, these fluids
may be disposed of by an EPA- and SM-approved site-specific
method.  Contaminated fluids will be  handled according to
procedures specified in the site-specific Quality Assurance
Project Plan  (QAPjP).  This consideration will be of partic-
ular importance at well locations adjacent to surface
waters.  To prevent a runoff, a fluid discharge containment
trench may be excavated so that all fluids from drilling,
well development, and decontamination can be diverted to the
trench.  One trench may be large enough to contain all flu-
ids produced at a given borehole location.  The trench is
usually lined.  Consideration must be given to proper secu-
rity (fencing or lights) around a trench when personnel are
absent from the site.  Air emissions  from the fluids in a
trench should be monitored.

Closure of the trench or removal of the trench contents or
other contained fluids must be planned before initiating any
drilling.  Trench contents may be allowed to drain into the
soil; may be solidified by backfilling; or may be drained,
                           8.1-28
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pumped, or sucked dry, followed by removal of the liner and
proper disposal.  Samples may be taken from the trench flu-
ids to determine the proper disposal methods.  In some
cases, the SM or designated personnel may direct that all
fluids be contained in a mobile tank or drums for subsequent
discharge at a location removed from surface waters.  This
location will be determined by the SM and is usually less
than 1 mile from a given well.  Care must be taken in trans-
porting such potentially contaminated material on public
roads to the collection point.

8.1.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

In general, site-specific conditions and the purpose of the
project should be the main criteria for selection of
drilling and sampling methods.  However, regional variations
from the methods recommended above might be necessary
because of local availability of certain types of equipment.
However, because information on variances can become dated
rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM for current
regional practices and requirements.  Future changes will be
incorporated in Revision 01 of this compendium.

8.1.7.1  Region I

The hydrogeologists in Region I of EPA do not permit the use
of mud rotary drilling techniques to drill a boring for an
unconsolidated zone monitoring well.  Region I requires the
performance of continuous split-spoon sampling during all
drilling operations.  Also, Region I requires permeability
testing at regular 5-foot intervals during drilling
operations.

8.1.7.2  Region IV

Region IV EPA personnel recommend the use of pesticide-grade
isopropyl alcohol as a cleaning solvent in place of acetone
or methanol.

8.1.7.3  Region IX

Region IX EPA personnel do not permit the use of hand augers
in sampling for TCDD.

8.1.8  INFORMATION SOURCES

Acker, W.L.  Basic Procedures for Soil Sampling and Core
Drilling.  Scranton, Pennsylvania:  Acker Drill Co., Inc.
1976.
                           8.1-29
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Barcelona,  M.J.,  J.P.  Gibb,  J.A.  Helfrid,  and E.E.  Garske.
Practical Guide for Groundwater Sampling.   SWS Contract
Report 324.Champaign,Illinois:Illinois State Water
Survey.  1985.

Barcelona,  M.J.,  J.P.  Gibb,  and R.A.  Miller.  A Guide to the
Selection of Materials for Monitoring Well Construction and
Groundwater Samp1ing.   ISWS Contract Report 327. Champaign,
Illinois:Illinois State Water Survey.   1983.

Hvorslev, M.J.   Subsurface Exploration and Sampling of Soils
for Civil Engineering Purposes.Vicksburg, Mississippi:
Waterways Experiment Station.  1949.   Reprinted by  ASCE
Engineering Foundation.   1965.

Johnson Division, UOP, Inc.   Ground Water and Wells.
St. Paul, Minnesota.  1980.

National Water Well Association.   Water Well Specifications.
Berkeley, California:  Premier Press.   1981.

Sowers, G.F.  Introductory Mechanics and Foundations:
Geotechnical Engineering.  New York:   Macmillan Publishing
Co.  1979.

Winterkorn, H.F., and H.Y. Fang.   Foundation Engineering
Handbook.  Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.   1975.


WDR230/007
                           8.1-30
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               8.2  TEST PITS AND EXCAVATIONS

8.2.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

The scope and purpose of this subsection is to provide
reference material for conducting test pit and trench
excavations at hazardous waste sites.  These reference
materials provide general guidelines; consequently,
project-specific plans take precedence.

8.2.2  DEFINITIONS

Site Manager.  The individual responsible for the successful
completion of a work assignment within budget and schedule.
The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager
or the Project Manager and is typically a contractor's
employee  (see Subsection 1.1).

Trenches or test pit.  Open shallow excavations, typically
longitudinal (if a trench)  or rectangular (if a pit), to
determine the shallow subsurface conditions for engineering,
geological, and soil chemistry exploration and/or sampling
purposes.  These pits are excavated manually or by a
machine, such as a backhoe, clamshell, trencher excavator,
or bulldozer.

8.2.3  APPLICABILITY

This subsection presents routine test pit or trench
excavation techniques.  Specialized techniques that are
applicable only under certain conditions are not presented.

During the excavation of trenches or pits at hazardous waste
sites, several health and safety concerns arise and control
the method of excavation.  All excavations that are deeper
than 4 feet must be stabilized (before entry into the exca-
vation) by bracing the pit sides using wooden or steel sup-
port structures.  Personnel entering the excavation may be
exposed to toxic or explosive gases and oxygen-deficient
environments.  In these cases, substantial air monitoring is
required before entry, and appropriate respiratory gear and
protective clothing is mandatory.  There must be at least
two persons present at the immediate site before entry by
one of the investigators.  The reader should refer to OSHA
regulations 29 CFR 1926, 29 CFR 1910.120, and 29 CFR
1910.134.

Machine-dug excavations are generally not practical where a
depth of more than about 15 feet is desired.  These excava-
tions are also usually limited to a few feet below the water
table.  In some cases, a pumping system may be required to
control water levels within the pits, providing that pumped
water can be adequately stored or disposed.   If data on
                            8.2-1
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soils at depths greater than 15 feet are required, the data
are usually obtained through test borings instead of test
pits.

In addition, hazardous wastes may be brought to the surface
by excavation equipment.  This material, whether removed
from the site or returned to the subsurface, must be
properly handled.

8.2.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The SM or field team leader is responsible for developing
the test pit program and instituting the program, including
sample acquisition.  A minimum two-person crew, in addition
to the excavating equipment operator, is recommended for
test pit work at a hazardous waste site.  Larger crews may
be required if unusually hazardous conditions may be encoun-
tered or the scope of work requires additional staffing.
One person onsite must function as the health and safety
officer to monitor compliance with health and safety
requirements.  Other duties that may be required include
sampling operations, both chemical and/or geotechnical, and
soil or rock descriptions.  The personnel onsite may divide
the required duties according to their capabilities.  Where
physical or geotechnical soil descriptions are required, a
geologist should be included in the crew.

8.2.5  RECORDS

Test pit logs should contain a sketch of pit conditions.  In
addition, at least one photograph with a scale for compari-
son should be taken of each pit.  Included in the photograph
should be a card showing the test pit number and site name.
Test pit locations should be documented by typing in the
location of two or more nearby permanent landmarks  (trees,
house, fence, etc.) and should be located on a site map.
Surveying may also be required, depending on the require-
ments of each project.  Other data to be recorded in the
field logbook include the following:

     o    Name and location of job
     o    Date of excavation
     o    Approximate surface elevation
     o    Total depth of excavation
     o    Dimensions of pit
     o    Method of sample acquisition
     o    Type and size of samples
     o    Soil and rock descriptions
     o    Photographs
     o    Groundwater levels
     o    Organic gas or methane levels
     o    Other pertinent information, such as waste
          material encountered
                            8.2-2
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8.2.6  GUIDELINES

8.2.6.1  Test Pit and Trench Construction

These guidelines describe the methods for excavating and
logging test pits and trenches to determine subsurface soil
and rock conditions.

Test pits and trenches may be excavated by hand or by power
equipment to permit detailed explanation and clear under-
standing of the nature and contamination of the in situ
materials.  The size of the excavation will depend primarily
on the following:

     o    The purpose and extent of the exploration
     o    The space required for efficient excavation
     o    The chemicals of concern
     o    The economics and efficiency of available
          equipment

Test pits normally have a cross section that is 4 to 10 feet
square; test trenches are usually 3 to 6 feet wide and may
be extended for any length required to reveal conditions
along a specific line.  The following table, which is based
on equipment efficiencies, can give a rough guide for design
consideration:

    Equipment	             Typical Widths, in Feet

Trenching machine                            2
Backhoe                                    2-6
Track dozer                                 10
Track loader                                10
Excavator                                   10
Scraper                                     20
Fifteen feet is considered to be the economical vertical
limit of excavation.  However, larger and deeper excavations
have been used when special problems justified the expense.

The construction of test pits and trenches should be planned
and designed in advance as much as possible.  However, field
conditions may necessitate revisions to the initial plans.
The field supervisor should determine the exact depth and
construction.  The test pits and trenches should be exca-
vated in compliance with applicable safety regulations as
specified by the health and safety officer.
                            8.2-3
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If the depth exceeds 4 feet and people will be entering the
pit or trench, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) requirements must be met:  Walls must be braced with
wooden or steel braces, ladders must be in the hole at all
times, and a temporary guardrail must be placed along the
surface of the hole before entry.  It is advisable to stay
out of test pits as much as possible; if possible, the
required data or samples should be gathered without entering
the pit.  Samples of leachate, groundwater, or sidewall
soils can be taken with telescoping poles, etc.

Stabilization of the sides of test pits and trenches, when
required, generally is achieved by sloping the walls at a
sufficiently flat angle or by using sheeting.  Benching or
terracing can be used for deeper holes.  Shallow excavations
are generally stabilized by sheeting.  Test pits excavated
into fill are generally much more unstable than pits dug
into natural in-place soil.

Sufficient space should be maintained between trenches or
pits to place soil that will be stockpiled for cover, as
well as to allow access and free movement by haul vehicles
and operating equipment.  Excavated soil should be stock-
piled to one side, in one location, preferably downwind,
away from the edge of the pit to reduce pressure on the pit
walls.

Dewatering may be required to assure the stability of the
side walls, to prevent the bottom of the pit from heaving,
and to keep excavation dry.  This is an important consider-
ation for excavations in cohesionless material below the
groundwater table.  Liquids removed as a result of dewa-
tering operations must be handled as potentially contaminat-
ed materials.  Procedures for the collection and disposal of
such materials are discussed in the site-specific QAPjP.

The overland flow of water from excavated saturated soils
and the erosion or sedimentation of the stockpiled soil
should be controlled.  A temporary detention basin and a
drainage system should be planned to prevent the contam-
inated wastes from spreading.

8.2.6.2  Sampling Techniques

Sampling from test pits can be performed by  "disturbed" and
"undisturbed" methods.  Sampling should begin from within
the pit or trench only after proper safety precautions have
been initiated.
                              2-4
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All samples collected should be identified on the test pit
logs and in the field notebook.  Information such as sample
number, depth, type, volume, and method of collection is
required.  Preservation, packing, and shipping methods are
specified elsewhere in this compendium (Sections 4, 5, and
6) .

Equipment.  The following is a list of equipment that may be
needed for taking samples from test pits and trenches:

     o    Backhoe or other excavating machinery

     o    Shovels, picks, or scoops

     o    Sample containers (5-gal bucket with locking lid
          for large samples and 250-ml glass bottles for
          chemical analysis samples)

Disturbed samples.  Disturbed samples are those that have
been collected in a manner in which the in situ physical
structure and fabric of the soil have been disrupted.  Dis-
turbed sampling techniques typically include sampling from
the walls or floors of the test pit by means of scraping or
digging with a trowel, rockpick, or shovel.  Large disturbed
samples can be taken directly from the backhoe bucket during
excavation; however, care must be taken to assure that the
sample is actually from the unit desired and does not
include slough or scraped material from the sides of the
trench.

Undisturbed samples.  "Relatively undisturbed" samples can
be obtained from test pits.  Typically, an undisturbed sam-
ple is collected by isolating by hand a large cube of soil
at the base or side of the test pit.  This sample can be cut
using knives, shovels, and the like.  Care is taken to keep
disturbances to a minimum.  After the block of soil is
removed, it is placed in an airtight, padded container for
shipment to the lab.  The overexcavated sample is "trimmed"
at the laboratory to the size required for the designated
test.  In some instances (e.g., in soft cohesive soil), it
may be possible to get an undisturbed sample by pushing a
Shelby tube sampling device into an undisturbed portion of
the test pit and by using a backhoe.

Waste samples.  Trenching and test pitting are excellent
methods of obtaining waste samples from dumps and landfills.
While borings may be useful at greater depths, drilling
through a landfill or dump creates unusual hazards, such as
hitting pockets of explosive gases; rupturing intact, buried
containers; or potentially contaminating the transfer by
                            8.2-5
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penetrating confining layers beneath a landfill.  Addition-
ally, the samples gathered by drilling are not representa-
tive of the heterogeneous conditions found in a landfill.
Trenching and test pitting allow a larger, more representa-
tive area to be observed, permit selection of specific
samples from the pile of spoiled or stockpiled material
(biased grab sampling),  and, with reasonable precautions,
allow the retrieval of intact, buried containers.

8.2.6.3  Backfilling of Trenches and Test Pits

Before backfilling, the onsite crew should photograph all
significant features exposed by the test pit and trench and
should include in the photograph a scale to show dimensions.
Photographs of test pits should be marked to include site
number, test pit number, depth, description of feature, and
date of photograph.  In addition, a geologic description of
each photograph should be entered in the logbook.  All pho-
tographs should be indexed and maintained for future
reference.

After inspection, backfill material should be returned to
the pit under the direction of the field supervisor.

If a low permeability layer is penetrated (resulting in
groundwater flow from an upper contaminated flow zone into a
lower uncontaminated flow zone), backfill material must rep-
resent original conditions or be impermeable.  Backfill
could consist of a soil-bentonite mix prepared in a propor-
tion specified by the field supervisor  (representing a per-
meability equal to or less than original conditions).
Backfill should be covered by "clean" soil and graded to the
original land contour.  Revegetation of the disturbed area
may also be required.

8.2.6.4  Decontamination

For decontamination procedures, the reader should refer to
Subsection 8.1.6.3.

8.2.7  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

Site-specific conditions and project objectives dictate the
methods of test pit or trench excavation and sampling.  No
region-specific variances from the methods described above
are known.  Decontamination procedures  for sampling
equipment vary with region.  Most regions permit methane or
acetone for a decontamination solution; however, some allow
only isopropyl alcohol.  Because information on variances
can become dated rapidly, the user should contact the EPA
RPM for current regional practices and  requirements.  Future
changes and additional regional variances will be incorpo-
rated in Revision 01 of this compendium.
                            8.2-6
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8.2.8  INFORMATION SOURCES

NUS Corporation.  NUS Operating Guidelines Manual.
Superfund Division, Sections 4.13 and 4.38.

U.S. Department of Interior.  The Earth Manual.  2nd ed.
U.S. Government Printing Office:  Washington, D.C.  1980
810 pp.
WDR230/006
                            8.2-7
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    8.3  GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE AND GEOLOGICAL LOGGING

8.3.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This subsection describes geological reconnaissance studies
and geological logging activities for field investigations
of hazardous waste sites.

Geological reconnaissance studies require considerable
professional judgment.  Successful completion relies more on
professional experience and insight than on acknowledged
standards or procedures.  Because there are no industry
standards, this subsection describes basic methods, proce-
dures, and activities to be accomplished or considered for a
geological reconnaissance.  Each site will require a special
approach that will depend on the local geology, the amount
of available data, the project schedule, and the judgment of
the project geologist.

Geological logging of soil or rock materials derived from
subsurface investigations is a more objective activity, and
several industry standards exist for the physical descrip-
tion of earth materials.  These standards will be described
below.

8.3.2  DEFINITIONS

Geological reconnaissance studies.  The American Geological
Institute (AGI) defines a geological reconnaissance as "a
general, exploratory examination or survey of the main fea-
tures  (or certain specific features) of a region, usually
conducted as a preliminary to a more detailed survey."

The geological reconnaissance, therefore, provides the basis
for more detailed investigations by identifying the major
geological or physical features at and near the hazardous
waste site.   Geological reconnaissance studies are conducted
early in project site investigations as part of the site
characterization process.

Geological and geophysical logging.  Geological and
geophysical logging is a detailed, systematic, and sequen-
tial record of the progress of drilling a well or borehole,
or of excavating pits and trenches.

The record of geological logging is kept on printed log
forms and may include notes on the following:

     o    Soil and rock classifications and descriptions
     o    Outcrop descriptions
     o    Depths and thicknesses of the earth materials
          penetrated
     o    Groundwater conditions
                            8.3-1
-------
     o    Origin and geologic structure(s)
     o    Drilling progress
     o    Borehole geophysical logging
     o    Sampling
     o    Type of equipment used
     o    Unusual or significant conditions
     o    Date of drilling, location of borehole, and so
          forth

Materials encountered are classified and described by
obtaining samples or cuttings and by applying the standards
described below.

Site Manager (SM).  The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.  The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).

8.3.3  APPLICABILITY

8.3.3.1  Geological Reconnaissance

Geological reconnaissance studies are applicable to most
investigations of hazardous waste sites and are dependent on
the existing database for the site.  Sites having little
existing information concerning site setting and relevant
geologic features may require more detailed work than sites
with a considerable database.

8.3.3.2  Geological Logging

Geological logging of subsurface explorations is always
necessary to record events and conditions encountered in the
field.  Maintenance of acceptable log forms and adherence to
established or mandated procedures for material description
are critical to technically sound and defensible field
investigations.

8.3.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The SM is ultimately responsible for determining that proper
logging and geologic reconnaissance techniques are applied
to the project.  Because of the variability of geologic con-
ditions from one site to another and the judgment required
by such studies, an experienced project geologist with local
knowledge should work with the SM to plan, implement, and
evaluate the reconnaissance.
                            8.3-2
-------
8.3.5  PROCEDURES

8.3.5.1  Geological Reconnaissance

8.3.5.1.1  General

Experienced personnel should plan and implement a cost-
effective and technically sound reconnaissance study.  The
scope of the study will depend on anticipated problems and
conditions at the site, coupled with professional judgment.
The scope will vary depending on the following:

     o    Amount of available reference material and base
          maps
     o    Site accessibility
     o    Size of site and type of facility (landfill,
          tanks, industrial, other)
     o    Geologic setting of the site
     o    Site topography or geomorphology
     o    Anticipated subsurface and groundwater conditions
     o    Anticipated extent and type of contamination
     o    Level of personal protection required during the
          conduct of the reconnaissance
     o    Overall goal of the site investigation activities

8.3.5.1.2  Methods

Hunt (1984)  describes the basic steps of a geological
reconnaissance as follows:

     o    Research of reference materials and collection of
          available data

     o    Terrain analysis based on topographic maps and
          remote sensing imagery

     o    Preparation of a preliminary geological map
          including (where appropriate)  saprolite mapping,
          outcrop mapping with strike and measurements of
          structural features, and locating of springs and
          seeps

     o    Site reconnaissance to confirm and amplify the
          geological map, followed by preparation of the
          final version of the map

     o    Preparation of a subsurface exploration program
          based on anticipated conditions and data gaps

The proportion of field work to office work will vary from
site to site.
                            8.3-3
-------
References and data gathered to initiate the work may
include any or all of the following historical or recent
materials:  geological maps and texts;  soil surveys;
hydrogeologic reports and well logs; topographic maps, air
photos, and remote sensing imagery; climatic data; geotech-
nical engineering reports for the area;  and site-related
data and reports.

The basic objectives of the geological  reconnaissance are to
determine regional geologic setting and site-specific geo-
logic conditions including the following:

     o    Determination of bedrock geology and major
          structural features

     o    Determination of the geology  of unconsolidated
          overburden and soil deposits

     o    Identification of actual or potential aquifers and
          water-bearing units and their physical properties

     o    Climatic and topographic conditions affecting
          groundwater recharge and discharge, erosion,
          flooding, and surface water conditions of interest

     o    Identification of potential pathways for
          contaminant migration

     o    Geologic conditions, hazards,  or constraints that
          could contribute to offsite contaminant migration
          or that might preclude certain remedial
          alternatives

Specific items of interest include outcrops, springs, seeps,
leachate outbreaks, and surface drainage features.  Compton
(1962) presents a detailed list of field data collection
techniques.

The reconnaissance study may sometimes  be accompanied by
more in-depth exploratory techniques when little is known
about the site, when the site is especially complex, or when
more detailed geologic or hydrogeologic site characteriza-
tion is necessary.  The scope of more detailed studies will
also be project specific and must build on data previously
gathered.  As with reconnaissance level efforts, the level
of effort for detailed geological investigations should be
designed to be commensurate with potential remedial technol-
ogies and overall project goals.  For the majority of sites
the emphasis of the detailed studies is on hydrogeology.
These detailed studies include the following:
                            8.3-4
-------
     o    Drilling of hydrogeologic test holes and soil
          borings, which are logged in the field by
          geologists

     o    In situ testing for permeability and other aquifer
          and aquitard characteristics

     o    Installing groundwater monitoring wells

     o    Determining groundwater flowrates and directions

     o    Integrating site-specific hydrogeology into the
          regional hydrogeologic regime

In addition to these tasks, certain geotechnical or
geological elements of the site may be explored by using
test pits, boreholes, or geophysics.  These activities can
further define site conditions and develop engineering cri-
teria for the design of remedial alternatives.  Well drill-
ing and geophysical techniques are described in
Subsection 8.1.  These techniques are subject to site-
specific health and safety and quality assurance procedures.

8.3.5.2  Geological Logging

8.3.5.2.1  General

Geological logging, as previously defined, includes keeping
a detailed record of drilling (or excavating) and a geolog-
ical description of materials on a prepared form.  Geolog-
ical logs are used for all types of drilling and exploratory
excavations and include descriptions of both soil and rock.
General guidance for logging soils and rock is provided
below.

8.3.5.2.2  Methods—Soils

When drilling in soils or unconsolidated deposits, the log
should be kept on a standard soil boring log form
(Exhibit 8.3-1).  The following basic information should be
entered on the heading of each log sheet:

     o    Project name and number

     o    Boring or well number

     o    Location (approximate in relation to an
          identifiable landmark; will be surveyed.  See
          Section 14, Land Surveying, Aerial Photography,
          and Mapping).
                            8.3-5
-------
                                   Exhibit  8.3-1
                                  SOIL  BORING  LOG
                             PROJECT NUMBER
                                                    BORING NUMBER
                                                                       SHEET
                                                                                OF
                                               SOIL BORING LOG
PROJECT
                                                 . LOCATION
ELEVATION
                                DRILLING CONTRACTOR .
DRILLING METHOD AND EQUIPMENT.

WATER LEVEL AND DATE	
START
                FINISH
                                                                  -LOGGER .
O
ELEVAT


DEPTH
BELOW
SURFACE
-
SAMPLE
INTERVAL

TYPE AND
NUMBER

>
It
RECOVE

STANDARD
PENETRATION
TEST
RESULTS
6'-6"-6"
(Nl

SOIL DESCRIPTION
NAME, GRADATION OR PLASTICITY,
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION. COLOR,
MOISTURE CONTENT. RELATIVE DENSITY
OR CONSISTENCY SOIL STRUCTURE,
MINERALOGY, USCS GROUP SYMBOL
-

SYMBOLIC
LOG

COMMENTS
DEPTH OF CASING
DRILLING RATE
DRILLING FLUID LOSS,
TESTS AND
INSTRUMENTATION
-
                                                                        REV 11/82  FORM D1586
                                          8.3-6
-------
     o    Elevation (approximate at the time; will be
          surveyed.  See Section 14, Land Surveying, Aerial
          Photography, and Mapping).

     o    Name of drilling contractor

     o    Drilling method and equipment

     o    Water level

     o    Start and finish (time and date)

     o    Name of logger

The following technical information is recorded on the logs:

     o    Depth of sample below surface
     o    Sample interval
     o    Sample type and number
     o    Length of sample recovered
     o    Standard penetration test (ASTM-D1586)  results if
          applicable
     o    Soil description and classification
     o    Graphic soil symbols

In addition to the items listed above, all pertinent
observations about drilling rate, equipment operation, or
unusual conditions should be noted.  Such information might
include the following:

     o    Size of casing used and method of installation
     o    Rig reactions such as chatter, rod drops, and
          bouncing
     o    Drilling rate changes
     o    Depth and percentage of fluid losses
     o    Changes in fluid color or consistency
     o    Material changes
     o    Zones of caving or heaving

8.3.5.2.3  Soil Description

Description of soils  (well logging) should be done in
accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS) as described in ASTM D2487-69  (1975):  Test Method
for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes  (see
Exhibit 8.3-2).  The approach and format should generally
conform to ASTM 02488-69(1975):  Recommended Practice of
Description of Soils  (Visual-Manual Procedure).  Alterna-
tively, the Burmeister system of soil description may be
used,  although the use of this system seems to be concen-
trated in the Northeast.  The complete title of the
Burmeister system can be found in the references.  Because
                            8.3-7
-------
        Exhibit 8.3-2
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION

CLASSIFICATION CftlTlRIA

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            8.3-8
-------
the Burmeister system relies heavily on handling the soil,
it should not be used in areas of significant soil
contamination.

The soil description should be concise and should stress
major constituents and characteristics.  Soil descriptions
should be given in a consistent order and format.  The fol-
lowing order is as given in ASTM D2488:

     1.   Soil name.  The basic name of the predominant
          constituent and a single-word modifier indicating
          the major subordinate constituent.

     2.   Gradation or plasticity.  For granular soil (sands
          or gravels) that should be described as well-
          graded, poorly graded, uniform, or gap-graded,
          depending on the gradation of the minus 3-inch
          fraction.  Cohesive soil (silts or clays)  should
          be described as nonplastic, slightly plastic,
          moderately plastic, or highly plastic, depending
          on the results of the manual evaluation for
          plasticity as described in ASTM D2488.

     3.   Particle size distribution.  An estimate of the
          percentage and grain-size range of each of the
          soil's subordinate constituents with emphasis on
          clay-particle constituents.  This description may
          also include a description of angularity.
          This parameter is critical for assessing hydro-
          geology of the site and should be carefully and
          fully documented.

     4.   Color.  The basic color of the soil.   (Refer to
          Munsell color charts.)

     5.   Moisture content.  The amount of soil moisture,
          described as dry, moist, or wet.

     6.   Relative density or consistency.  An estimate of
          density of a granular soil or consistency of a
          cohesive soil, usually based on standard penetra-
          tion test results  (see Exhibit 8.3-3).

     7.   Soil texture and structure.  Description of
          particle size distribution, arrangement of parti-
          cles into aggregates, and their structure.  This
          description includes joints, fissures, slicken-
          sides, bedding, veins, root holes, debris, organic
          content, and residual or relict structure, as well
                            8.3-9
-------
                              Exhibit 8.3-3
                  RELATIVE DENSITY OF NONCOHESIVE SOIL
Blows/Ft
  0-4
  5-10
 11-30
 31-50
 Relative
  Density

Very loose
Loose
Medium
Dense
                Field Test
Easily penetrated with 1/2-inch steel rod
pushed by hand

Easily penetrated with 1/2-inch steel rod
pushed by hand

Easily penetrated with 1/2-inch steel rod
driven with 5-lb hammer

Penetrated a foot with 1/2-inch steel rod
driven with 5-lb hammer
   >50
Very dense     Penetrated only a few inches with 1/2-inch
               steel rod driven with 5-lb hammer
                      CONSISTENCY OF COHESIVE SOIL
                          Pocket
                       Penetrometer
Blows/Ft  Consistency     (TSF)*
   <2     Very soft
  2-4     Soft
  5-8     Firm
             <0.25
           0.25-0.6
           0.50-1.0
                        Torvane
                          (TSF)
                           Field Test
           <0.12   Easily penetrated several
                   inches by fist

         0.12-0.25 Easily penetrated several
                   inches by thumb

         0.25-0.5  Can be penetrated several
                   inches by thumb with mod-
                   erate effort
  9-15    Stiff
   >30    Hard
            1.0-2.0
 16-30    Very stiff      2.0-4.0
             >4.0
          0.5-1.0  Readily indented by thumb
                   but penetrated only with
                   great effort

          1.0-2.0  Readily indented by
                   thumbnail

           >2.0    Indented with difficulty
                   by thumbnail
 *TSF—Tons per square foot.
                                 8.3-10
-------
          as other characteristics that may influence the
          movement or retention of water or contaminants.

     8.   Relative permeability.  An estimate of the
          permeability based on visual examination of mate-
          rials (e.g., high permeability for coarse sand and
          gravel versus low permeability for silty clay).
          The estimate should address presence and condition
          of fractures (open, iron-stand, calcite-filled,
          open but clay-lined, etc.), as well as fracture
          density and orientation.

     9.   Local geologic name.  Any specific local name or a
          generic name (i.e., alluvium, loess).

     10.  Group symbol.  Unified Soil Classification System
          of symbols  (see Exhibit 8.3-2).

The soil logs should also include a complete description of
any tests run in the borehole; placement and construction
details of piezometers, wells, and other monitoring equip-
ment; abandonment records; geophysical logging techniques
used; and notes on readings obtained by air monitoring
instruments.

8.3.5.2.4  Rock Methods

When coring in rock, keep the log on a standard rock core
log form (see Exhibit 8.3-4).  Basic information should be
entered on the heading, as described in the soil section.
The following technical information is entered in the log:

     o    Depth
     o    Core length
     o    Coring rate in minutes per foot
     o    Fluid gain or loss
     o    Core loss
     o    Percentage of recovery
     o    Core breakage due to discontinuities
     o    Total core breakage
     o    Number of breaks per foot
     o    Rock classification and lithology

In addition to the items listed above, pertinent
observations concerning drilling rate, equipment operation,
or unusual conditions should be noted.  Such information
might include the following:

     o    Casing type and diameter
     o    Type of drilling fluid
     o    Rig reactions
     o    Depth and percentage of fluid losses
     o    Material changes
     o    Zones of caving
                           8.3-11
-------
                                  Exhibit  8.3-4
                                  ROCK  CORE  LOG
                                                                PPIOJCCT NUMBER
                                                 ROCK CORE LOG
PROJECT	
DRILLING METHOD.
ELEVATION	
WATER LEVEI	
                                            .LOCATION,
                      .DRILLERS & EQUIPMENT.
 ORIENTATION.
	DATE 	
                                            -BORE HOLE:.
                                  . START..
                                                 .FINISH:
.INSPECTOR.

DEPTH















COMMENTS
TESTS
INSTRUMENTATION
CORING RATE AND
SMOOTHNESS
CORING FLUID LOSS

— - 	 	













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HSCONTINUITIES
DESCRIPTION
TIGHTNESS
PLANARITY
SMOOTHNESS
FILLING, STAINING
ORIENTATION















LITHOLOGY
MINERALOGY CEMENTATION
CLASSIFICATION HARDNESS
COLOR WEATHERED
GRAIN SIZE STATE
ALTERATION















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                                       8.3-12
                                                                        FORM D 2113A   5/78
-------
8.3.5.2.5  Rock Classification

The description of rock should be done in an orderly and
systematic fashion.  The following order is recommended:

1.   Lithology and texture.  Geological name of the rock and
     its mineral composition (the geological name, such as
     granite, basalt, or sandstone, usually describes the
     rock's origin).  Description of how grains are arranged
     or bound together (i.e., interlocking, cemented, or
     laminated-foliated;  Deere, 1963)

2.   Color.  The basic color of the rock, modified by light,
     medium, or dark.

3.   Hardness.  Terms used to describe hardness are given on
     subsequent pages.
        Descriptive Term

        Very hard



        Hard



        Medium
    Defining Characteristics	

Cannot be scratched with knife.
Does not leave a groove on the
rock surface when scratched.

Difficult to scratch with knife.
Leaves a faint groove with sharp
edges.

Can be scratched with knife.
Leaves a well-defined groove
with sharp edges.
        Soft
        Very soft
Easily scratched with knife.
Leaves a deep groove with broken
edges.

Can be scratched with a fingernail,
4.   Weathering.  Terms used to describe weathering are
     described below:
        Descriptive Term

        Fresh



        Slightly
    Defining Characteristics	

Rock is unstained.  May be frac-
tured, but discontinuities are
not stained.

Rock is unstained.  Discontinui-
ties show some staining on the
surfaces of rocks, but discolora-
tion does not penetrate rock mass,
                           8.3-13
-------
        Descriptive Term
 Defining Characteristics
        Moderate             Discontinuity  surfaces  are stained.
                            Discoloration  may extend into
                            rock along discontinuity surfaces.

        High                Individual rock fragments are
                            thoroughly stained and  can be
                            crushed with pressure hammer.
                            Discontinuity  surfaces  are
                            thoroughly stained and  may be
                            crumbly.

        Severe              Rock appears to consist of gravel-
                            sized fragments in a "soil" matrix.
                            Individual fragments are thoroughly
                            discolored and can be broken with
                            fingers.

5.    Grain size.   Term that describes fabric as fine-
     grained,  medium-grained,  or coarse-grained.

6.    Description  of bedding or of joint or fracture spacing.
     Description  should be according to the following:
               Spacing
     Joints
          <2 in.
          2 in.  to 1 ft
          1 ft to 3 ft
          3 ft to 10 ft
          >10 ft
          (after Deere, 1963)
Very close
Close
Moderately close
Wide
Very wide
Bedding or
Foliation

Very thin
Thin
Medium
Thick
Very thick
7.   Discontinuity descriptions.  Terms that describe
     number, depth, and type of natural discontinuities.
     Also describe orientation, staining,  planarity, altera-
     tion, joint or fracture fillings, and structural
     features.

8.   Local geological name.  Term used to assign local
     geological name, if appropriate, and to identify
     stratigraphic equivalents, if applicable.

The rock logs should also include a complete description of
the mineralogy of the rock, of any tests run in the bore-
hole, and of placement and construction details of
piezometers, wells, and other rig monitoring devices.
                           8.3-14
-------
8.3.5.2.6  Well Completion Diagrams

For each monitoring well installed, a monitoring well
completion diagram or well log should be submitted.  This
form (Exhibit 8.3-5) should contain information in the
appropriate column as follows:

     o    Well number
     o    Project number and name
     o    Location
     o    Geologist or engineer
     o    Ground elevation
     o    Well installation date
     o    Drilling contractor
     o    Drilling methods
     o    Water levels before and after development
     o    Development method

Columns for a summary of the lithologies encountered during
drilling, lithologic or USCS symbols, and construction
details are shown on the form.  The construction details
include depth of well, screen, and riser; appropriate pipe
diameters; backfill types and elevations; and pipe materials
(e.g., polyvinyl chloride (PVC), stainless, black).

Exhibit 8.3-6 is an example of a completed well log sheet.
This form accompanies the rock core and soil boring logs to
provide detailed information on borehole stratigraphy and
monitoring well installation.

8.3.6  REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES

Site-specific conditions and project objectives will be the
main criteria for methods used for geological reconnaissance
and logging.  No regional variations in the methods
described above are known, but variations in reporting for-
mats do exist.  However, some regions prefer the Burmeister
soil identification system.   Because information on vari-
ances can become outdated rapidly, users of this section
should consult the EPA region in which the logging will be
done.  Future changes will be incorporated in Revision 01 of
this compendium.

8.3.7  INFORMATION SOURCES

American Geological Institute.  Glossary of Geology.
Washington, D.C.  1974.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D2487—
Standard Test Method for Classification of Soils for
Engineering Purposes.  1983.
                           8.3-15
-------
                          Exhibit  8.3-5
                      BLANK WELL LOG  SHEET
WELL LOG SHEET

WELL N». PROJECT N». PROJECT NAME
LOCATION GEOLOGIST
DRILLING DATE DRILLING CONTRACTOR
DRILLING METHOD DRILLER INSTALLATION DATE
WATER LEVEL BEFORE INSTALLATION WATER LEVEL AFTER INSTALLATION
DEVELOPMENT METHOD GROUND ELEVATION
LITHOLOGY
DESCRIPTION

SYMBOL

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
DESCRIPTION DEPTH

JPO t/l/M
                              8.3-16
-------
                                    Exhibit  8.3-6
                          COMPLETED  WELL  LOG  SHEET
 WELL LOG SHEET
 WELL N*. NtVV.3.:  PROJECT N".._Qlgg,..I(g,          PROJECT NAME   SWOflE OIL.  CO
                                               WATER LEVEL AFTER INSTALLATION
                                                          CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
 LOCATION
                                              aeoLooisr
 ORILLINO DATE
                           DRILLING CONTRACTOR
 ORILLINO METHOD
                     ROT ML Y
                                       DRILLER
 WATER LEVEL BEFORE INSTALLATION
 DEVELOPMENT METHOD
            LITHOIOGY

            DESCRIPTION
5.35-
                 -XrBM. O^*r»«c VAodkl ,
                   4o
     S4- Loose y«.U«xo krousn, Clo>/ey S4n»<.
&3-B4-

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                               8r,u.«
                             Fio*
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-------
ASTM D2488—Standard Recommended Practice for Description of
Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure).  1983.

Burmeister, D.M.   Identification and Classification of
Soils—An Appraisal and Statement of Principles.  ASTM
STP113.   1951.

Compton, R.R.  Manual of Field Geology.   John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.  1962.

CH2M HILL.  PMO Field Manual for Subsurface Exploration.
1982.

Deere, D.U.  Technical Description of Rock Cores for
Engineering Purposes.  Rock Mechanics Engineering Geology.
1963.

Hunt, R.E.  Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Manual.
McGraw-Hill:  New York.  1984.
WDR230/009
                           8.3-18
-------
                       8.4  GEOPHYSICS

8.4.1  GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

8.4.1.1  Scope and Purpose

This document provides general guidance for the planning,
selection, and implementation of geophysical surveys that
fflay be conducted during investigations of hazardous waste
sites.  Each of six commonly used methods are discussed from
the standpoint of applicability to site investigation, pro-
cedures tor implementation, survey design, and miscellaneous
method-specific considerations.  Emphasis is placed on the
practical understanding of each method with a minimal amount
of theoretical explanation being offered in the main body of
the text.  For those readers who may desire a more rigorous
understanding, however, theoretical considerations have been
included in the appendix.

8.4.1.2  De finitions

Amplitude.  The maximum vertical displacement from
equilibrium in a wave.

Anomaly.  An electromagnetic (EM) reading that deviates from
the typical site background reading and is generally caused
by the presence of an irregularity or target.

API.  American Petroleum Institute.

Array.  The configuration of electrodes in resistivity
surveys.

Body wave.  A "seismic wave" that travels through the
interior of the earth and is not related to any boundary
surface.  A body wave may be either longitudinal  (P-wave) or
transverse (S-wave).  (Glossary of Geology)

Bulk density.  The weight of an object or material divided
by its volume, including the volume ot its pore spaces.

Circuit potential.  Measured electrical voltage drop or
gain.

Compressional wave.  That type of seismic body wave that
involves particle motion (alternating compression and expan-
sion) in the direction o± propagation.  It is the fastest of
the seismic waves and is also known as a P-wave.

Confidence interval.  The statistical level of probability
of accomplishing a given task, such as detecting a target.
                            8.4-1
-------
Critical angle.  The least "angle of incidence" at which
there is total reflection when electromagnetic radiation
passes from one medium to another, less refracting medium.
(Glossary of Geology)

Critical distance.  In refraction seismic work, that source-
to-receiver distance at which the direct wave in an upper
medium is matched in arrival time by that of the refracted
wave from the medium below, the retracted wave having a
greater velocity.

Crossover distance.  The source to receiver distance beyond
which head waves from a deeper refractor arrive ahead of
those from a shallower refractor.

Cultural.  An anomaly or feature that is attributable to
human development, such as buried drums or utility lines.

Dead time.  Measurement errors in nuclear logging occurring
from the inability to record all of the pulse energy within
the resolving time.

Density.  Mass per unit volume (g/cm ).  Bulk rock densities
vary mainly because of porosity and range from 1.9 to
2.8 g/cm .

Dynamic correction.  Seismic data must be corrected for
normal moveout (NMO),  which is the increase in arrival time
of a reflection event, resulting from an increase in the
distance from source to receiver or from dip ot the reflec-
tor.  Each trace has to be shifted by a different amount at
different travel time to line up the primary reflections.

Echo profile.  The graphic representation of time-delayed
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) impulses.

Effective porosity.  The porosity that involves those pore
spaces which are interconnected and, therefore, effective in
transmitting fluids.

Electric logs.  The generic term for a well log that
displays electrical measurements of induced current flow
between electrodes.  Electric logs discussed in this sub-
section include only single-point resistivity and
spontaneous potential.

Electrodes.  A ground-contacting metallic conductor used to
apply current or measure the circuit potential.

Fall-off rate.  The rate of decay of an anomaly with respect
to distance.
                            8.4-2
-------
Fermat's Principle.  A seismic wave will follow the path
that takes less time between two points rather than follow
variations of this path.  Such a path is called a minimum-
time path.

Gamma.  A unit of magnetic field.  1 gamma = 10
gauss = 10~  tesla.  In the International System of Units
(SI units), 1 tesla = 1 kg amp sec .

Law of reflection.  The angle of incidence equals the angle
of reflection.

Logging speed.  The speed at which the sonde traverses the
borehole  (typically in teet per minute).

Magnetic dipole.  A pair of magnetic poles of opposite signs
and equal strengths that are close together so that the
interaction of these poles is detectable.

Magnetic monopole.  A single magnetic pole of either
positive or negative sign that is spatially separated from a
magnetic pole of opposite sign so that there is no detect-
able interaction between the poles.

Magnetic moment.  The strength of a magnetic dipole.

Magnetic susceptibility.  A measure of the degree to which a
substance may be magnetized.

Multichannel seismic.  Geophone groups and shotholes used in
various combinations so that reflections are recorded from
the same portion of the subsurface a number of times.  Also
referred to as common-depth point (CDP) shooting.

Noise.  Variation in data because of an undesirable
influence.

Nuclear logs.  The generic term for a well log that either
measures natural or induces and measures radioactive
isotopes in the borehole environment.  Discussion in this
text is limited to natural gamma, gamma-gamma, and neutron.

Ray parameter.  A function P that is constant along a given
seismic.ray when horizontal velocity is constant.  Defined
__ sin i  i ..
as   vl   - i

where velocity = v and i is the angle of wave incidence.

Resistivity.  The ability of a material to resist the flow
of electrical current.

Shear wave.  A seismic body wave propagated by a shearing
motion that involves oscillation perpendicular to the
                            8.4-3
-------
direction of propagation.   The shear wave doesn't travel
through liquids, and it arrives later than the P-wave.  It
is also known as an S-wave.

Site Manager (SM).   The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule.  The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).

Snell's Law.  When a seismic wave encounters a boundary
between two layers of different seismic velocities, the
direction of wave propagation changes so that the sine of
the angle of wave incidence (i) divided by the seismic
velocity (VQ) of the overlying medium equals the sine ot the
angle of wave refraction (i )  divided by the seismic veloc-
ity (V-)  of the underlying fiedium.

     P  =  sin i  =  sin i    =   sin i
            v          v            v
            V0         vl           V0


where  (i )  is the angle of wave reflection and (p) is the
ray parameter.

Sonde.  The elongate cyndrical tool assembly used in a
borehole to acquire well log information.

Specific yield.  The ratio of the volume of water that a
given mass of saturated rock or soil will yield by gravity,
to the volume of that mass.

Spectrum.  Amplitude and phase characteristics as a function
of frequency for the components of a seismic wavelet.

Static corrections.  Corrections applied to seismic data to
compensate for the effects of variations in elevation, and
weathered layer thickness by referencing all data to a datum
plane.  Such corrections are independent of time, the amount
of shift being the same for all points on any trace.

Surface wave.  A "seismic wave" that travels along the
surface of the earth or parallel to the earth's surface.
Surface waves include Rayleigh waves, Love waves, and
coupled waves.

Target.  The specific focus (or purpose) of an EM survey,
such as buried drums or trench boundaries.

Thermal convection.  The transfer of heat by vertical
movements in the borehole because of density differences
caused by heating from below.
                            8.4-4
-------
Total porosity.  The ratio of the void volume of a porous
medium to the total volume.  This is generally expressed as
a percentage.

8.4.1.3  Responsibilities

The SM, in conjunction with the EPA RPM, must clearly define
the objectives and information desired from the geophysical
efforts.  Site Managers are responsible for determining
'which geophysical techniques will provide data to permit
meeting the established objectives.  Site Managers are also
responsible for coordinating safety considerations, planning
fieldwork, arranging for quality assurance/quality control
 (QA/QC), and providing technical assistance.  Geophysical
task leaders are responsible for site reconnaissance,
identification of potential problems, estimation of project
effectiveness, acquisition of equipment, onsite supervision,
and data interpretation.

Electromagnetic techniques have been adapted for downhole
applications.  These can be useful in defining the vertical
extent of a contaminant zone.  Some systems work inside PVC
or Teflon monitoring well casings.  For further information
on airborne, borehole, or surface EM instruments, the reader
should consult the subsections on theory and interpretation
and the manufacturer references listed later in this
compendium.

8 .4.1.4  Records and Inspection

8.4.1.4.1  Calibration

Dated records of geophysical equipment calibration, whether
performed in the field or in the laboratory, should be kept
in the equipment management files and in the appropriate
project file.  Calibration is used to establish the relia-
bility and accuracy of the equipment; it typically includes
an internal circuit check and actual field trials (e.g.,
testing over a known target).  Equipment that historically
exhibits fluctuation in calibration should always be checked
before and after field use.  The equipment serial number
should be recorded on the calibration records.  If equipment
is recalled by the manufacturer, the recall should be
explained in the proper file.  The various techniques and
instruments available make it prohibitive to outline in this
compendium the specific calibration procedures to be fol-
lowed for each instrument.  For those details, the reader
should consult the manufacturer's manual pertaining to the
particular instrument in use.
                            8.4-5
-------
8.4.1.4.2  Field Notes

Data and notes should be entered into a bound field logbook
with sequentially numbered pages.  At a minimum, each
logbook page should include the names of the equipment oper-
ators; who kept the notes, if different trom operator; sur-
vey date; name and project number of the site; line number;
position (station) number; survey direction (heading north
or south); raw data; and any specific notes that relate to
the survey (such as surface metal, weather conditions, and
topographic changes.  This data logbook should be entered
into the project field and stamped "original."  Typed copies
of the data may be included with the survey report.  At the
conclusion of field activities, a report specifying the
dates of fieldwork, observations, personnel, and equipment
involved should be submitted to the project file.

8.4.1.4.3  Data Reduction

There are several accepted ways to present geophysical data.
Data profiles can be useful for estimating anomaly depth and
lateral extent along a survey line.  For defining site pat-
terns and lateral extent between lines, a contour map may be
more useful than a profile.  Three-dimensional maps are
becoming more common  (generated with the aid of computers)
and can be extremely useful for site characterization.  Com-
puter programs should be examined for accuracy, because many
programs that are unsuitable are available, particularly
those programs with contouring functions.  A percentage
(such as 10 percent) of computer-plotted points should be
manually checked for accuracy.

Specific calculations can involve differential and integral
calculus; however, these equations may become theoretical,
time consuming, and subject to interpretation.  In general,
graphic analysis may be more straightforward, cost effec-
tive, and not as likely to be challenged in litigation.
Very detailed interpretations of some data are possible but
should be attempted only by experienced personnel.  Theoret-
ically, it is possible to determine such things as size,
shape, orientation, and depth of a conductor.

Parallel survey lines can be used to define long linear
features such as contaminant plumes or faults.  Some  fea-
tures are mapped by only a tew anomalous readings; others
are mapped by looking tor anomalous trends.  The decision to
search for a few anomalous readings or trends is based main-
ly on the detail of the survey grid and the size  (and type)
ot the feature.  Conclusions based on single-point anomalies
should be used cautiously, because these anomalies may be
solely the result of a transcription error and not some site
feature.  A full discussion of interpretation theory  and
calculations is beyond the scope of this compendium.
                            8.4-6
-------
8.4.1.5  Use ot Geophysics

Project management personnel should view geophysical methods
as a tool to guide investigations of hazardous waste sites.
Geophysics is a proven indirect investigative technique that
should not be viewed as an absolute answer, because the
methods are not part of an exact science.  The final product
of a successful geophysical survey is an experienced geophy-
sicist's interpretation, which is not always definitive or
conclusive.  The results are interpretative and need to be
routinely checked and confirmed by direct physical con-
firmation methods ("ground truthing," such as test pit
excavation, drilling, and so forth).

Geophysics can be a cost-effective tool in providing
extensive low-cost information and project guidance about
successive, more costly phases.

8.4.1.6  Procedure s

The SM should confer with the staff geophysicist to
determine the applicability of the method to site-specific
conditions and objectives.  To identify site-specific tech-
nical problems, the geophysicist should examine site
reports, drilling logs, air photos, and other data that may
exist.  In addition, the SM and the geophysicist should con-
duct a site reconnaissance to identify any problems that may
inhibit the study.  Cultural features such as power lines,
surface metal, and radio transmitters may have a detrimental
effect on the data acquisition or interpretation.  Identi-
fication of these potential problems during a site recon-
naissance may have such an impact on the survey that the
survey area may be modified, or geophysics may not be
selected for use at that particular site.  Finally, the Site
Manager should intorm the geophysicist of any related or
dependent phases of work so that the geophysical survey may
be completed in a timely manner and the interpretation may
be used to provide guidance for subsequent tasks.

Most geophysical surveys are carried out over a grid or a
series ot lines within the study area.  Stations at which
measurements are taken or energy put into the ground (for
those methods that involve an outside source of energy) are
usually spaced at regular intervals designed by the
geophysicist to produce optimum results for the study
objectives.  Although initial line placement can be done at
the project management level, detailed line placement and
surveying should be done only by qualified technical staff
members.

All fieldwork should be done under the supervision of the
staff geophysicist with daily data reduction and review
being mandatory.  The geophysicist should also supervise the
                            8.4-7
-------
daily reporting of all field data, which at a minimum should
include all field notes, maps, work sheets, and raw data
tabulation (including any x,y coordinates and measured
values).

8.4.1.7  Information Sources

Information sources and references are listed in the
following subsections at the end of the discussion on each
geophysical method.

8.4.2  GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

8.4.2.1  Electromagnetics

The electromagnetic  (EM) method provides a means of
measuring the electrical conductivity of subsurface soil,
rock, and groundwater.  Electrical conductivity is a func-
tion of the type of soil and rock, its porosity, its per-
meability, and the fluid composition and saturation.  In
most cases the conductivity of the pore fluids will be
responsible for the measurement.  Accordingly, the EM method
applies both to assessment of natural geohydrologic condi-
tions and to mapping of many types of contaminant plumes.
In addition, trench boundaries, buried wastes, drums, and
utility lines can be located with EM techniques.

8.4.2.1.1  Applicability

Although EM is not a definitive technique, it is useful for
several reasons.  First, an EM survey can be conducted over
an entire site very quickly.  In addition, EM methods are
generally inexpensive, even for coverage of large areas.
Often, 100 acres or more may be surveyed in just a few days
time  (depending on desired detail).  More importantly, EM
data can be used to direct the more expensive phases of an
investigative project, potentially resulting in a large cost
savings.  For example, rather than drilling several dozen
monitoring wells while searching tor groundwater contamina-
tion, an EM conductivity unit may be used to survey for a
conductive  (or resistive) plume.  Several EM survey lines
may be run to provide definition of the plume and an indica-
tion of its source area, reducing the number of exploratory
wells required.  This approach could potentially result in
better well placement at a significant cost savings.
Another reason why EM should be considered is to fill in
data gaps and to reduce the risk ot missing a facet of the
investigation, such  as the presence of previously undetected
refuse trenches, buried drums, or changing hydrologic
conditions.

Electromagnetic methods may be used in many situations for a
variety of purposes.  The following list includes major uses
related to investigations of hazardous waste sites:
                            8.4-8
-------
     o    Defining the location of a contaminant plume
          (This could lead to the identification of downgra-
          dient receptors, source areas, and flow directions
          if the conductivity of the plume (target) is dis-
          tinct in comparison to the host (background)
          hydrogeologic setting.)

     o    Locating buried metal objects (e.g., drums, tanks,
          pipelines, cables, monitoring wells)

     o    Addressing the presence or location of bedrock
          fault/fracture systems  (This is important for
          identification of preferential pathways of water
          flow in bedrock.)

     o    Mapping grain size distributions in unconsolidated
          sediments

     o    Mapping buried trenches

     o    Defining lithological  (unit)  boundaries

     o    Determining the rate of plume movement by
          conducting multiple surveys over time

The above list is only partial; in fact, EM methods may be
used wherever a significant change in conductance can be
measured.  EM theory will be discussed later; however, in
general, EM should be considered for use when any suspected
target is anticipated to have a conductivity significantly
different from background values.  Factors such as cost,
site-specific conditions, and equipment availability should
also be evaluated before deciding to proceed with an EM
survey.

8.4.2.1.2  Procedures

A.  Objectives

     The reader should evaluate the objectives of hazardous
     waste site investigations in light of EM geophysical
     capabilities.  If the purpose of the site study is sim-
     ply to confirm the presence of contaminants with
     minimal effort, EM methods may provide too much detail
     and no direct evidence; direct methods,  such as
     installing a few wells or limited sampling, may be more
     suitable.  If a site is to be characterized in detail
     and if assessment of geohydrologic conditions and
     identification of all source areas, plumes, and
     receptors are a priority, then EM  (and other
     geophysical methods) may be a cost-eftective way of
     selecting strategic locations tor monitoring wells,
     directing test pit operations, efficiently selecting
                            8.4-9
-------
     sampling points,  and providing information between site
     sampling points.

B.  Existing Data

     If EM equipment is identified as theoretically capable
     of providing the  type of information desired, the user
     should further evaluate the equipment to determine
     whether it is appropriate for use under the conditions
     tound at a particular site.  Evaluation of existing
     data can identify problems that may be encountered in
     the field:

     o    Variations in geohydrologic conditions  (e.g.,
          varied water table conditions or changes in rock
          or sediment) can result in a conductivity range
          that envelopes the response of the target (e.g.,
          plume) and effectively masks or blocks out any
          signals.

     o    Scattered, near-surface metal may mask buried
          targets such as drums or trenches.

     o    Near-surface layers of extreme conductivity  (high
          or low) such as a clay lense or surficial frost
          zone may mask the signal from a deeper target.

     An analysis of the site history might more closely
     define a survey area, thereby cutting survey costs by
     reducing the size of the survey.  Deep targets may be
     out of the penetration range of many EM units, and spe-
     cialized equipment may be required.  It may be diffi-
     cult for many EM systems to detect a groundwater
     contaminant plume through 100 teet of unsaturated over-
     burden.  A site reconnaissance should be conducted to
     identify any other site conditions that may affect the
     data.  Drastic topography changes can affect the
     quality of EM data obtained with some systems, and this
     possibility should be considered at each site.

8.4.2.1.3  Survey Design

Once the EM survey objectives have been clearly defined, the
existing information has been reviewed, and reconnaissance
of the site has been conducted, attention should be given to
the design of the geophysical survey.  The detail required
of an EM survey is a primary factor in designing and
planning fieldwork.  If the purpose of performing EM work
onsite is to define a large geologic feature, then a grid
using a wide (100- to 1,000-foot) line spacing may be
needed.  Some instruments are capable o± providing a contin-
uous data profile, which makes them less likely to miss
small conductors than the typical discrete measurement EM
                           8.4-10
-------
instruments.  The importance of designing and implementing a
grid system tied into existing "permanent" features (such as
roads and buildings)  cannot be overstated.  This permanent
feature will allow the grid to be reoccupied in the field to
place drill holes and monitoring wells.  Furthermore, addi-
tional surveys may be conducted on the site using other
geophysical techniques or the same technique to provide an
indication of plume movement.  These surveys will help in
orienting maps and diagrams that are produced later and in
defining targets.

For most detailed enforcement-related efforts, a 98 to
100 percent confidence interval should be maintained.  For
example, if the target area is only 1 percent of the total
survey area, then 130 readings would be required for the
98 percent confidence interval.  For an accurate definition
of an EM anomaly profile (useful in interpretation), four or
more anomalous readings are recommended.

A.  Background Noise

     Background noise can be a significant factor in the
     success of an EM survey.  Evaluation of existing data
     and a site reconnaissance will help to identify the
     probable background noise level.  A high noise level
     can make interpretation difficult and may actually
     cause an anomaly to be overlooked.  It would be practi-
     cally impossible to delineate a slightly conductive
     contaminant plume contained in overburden that has a
     wide natural variation in conductivity.  Noise sources
     can be divided into two groups:   (1)  natural, such as
     changing grain size distributions, steeply dipping
     strata, undetected mafic dikes, drastic topography,
     unexpected fault zones; and (2) cultural, such as
     powerlines, houses, railroads, surface metal debris,
     cars, and radio transmission towers.  Some instruments
     are more sensitive to certain types o± noise sources
     than others.  Because there is little published infor-
     mation on this subject, experience is important.

B.  Limitations

     All EM instruments have varying limitations with regard
     to sensitivity and penetration.  Published references,
     operator's manuals, and field experience should be used
     to evaluate instrumentation versus capability.
     Exhibit 8.4-1 lists several commercially available
     instruments along with factors that control their
     productivity.
                           8.4-11
-------
                             Exhibit  8.4-1
        FACTORS CONTROLLING PRODUCTIVITY OF  SOME COMMON EM UNITS
                                            Typical Daily
Instrument
EM-16-R
EM- 16
EM-31-D
EM-34-3
VLF-3
GENIE (SE-88)
RADEM-VLF
CEM
Max Min II
EM- 3 8
EM- 3 3
Manufacturer
Geonics
Geonics
Geonics
Geonics
Scintrex
Scintrex
Crone
Crone
Apex
Geonics
Geonics
No.
Operators
2
1
1 or 2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
N/A
Line Miles
(50-ft readings)
2
3-4
3
2
3
N/A
3-4
2
3
3
100+
Notes
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1 (for
helicopter
use)
Notes:  (1)  Primarily useful for geological features only.
        (2)  Useful for geological and cultural features.

Designations such as EM-16 or EM-31 are the manufacturer's model
numbers and do not imply equipment complexity or capability.
                                 8.4-12
-------
     Some systems are designed for one operator, some for
     two operators, and some are flexible and allow one or
     two operators.  Generally, EM coverage for 50-foot
     readings range from 8,000 line feet per day to
     22,000 line feet per day in average terrain.  Some
     instruments are more suited to rugged terrain (steep
     hills, thick woods, brush, swamps)  than others because
     of equipment configuration.  When definition of deep
     bedrock features is the primary objective of a survey,
     large equipment along used brush-cut lines  (typical in
     mineral exploration) may be needed.  (Note:  Productiv-
     ity will be greatly diminished with higher levels of
     protection; the productivity factors shown are for
     unencumbered, unprotected workers in a "clean" area.)

C.  Instrumentation

     The following matrix (Exhibit 8.4-2) provides guidance
     for EM equipment selection.  These instruments may or
     may not be suitable to specific site conditions and
     investigation objectives; a full discussion of factors
     affecting their suitability is beyond the scope of this
     compendium.  In addition, a combination of instruments
     is commonly used to assess site conditions.  This dis-
     cussion includes only some of the currently common
     instrumentation owned by hazardous waste investigative
     agencies.

     Electromagnetic techniques have also been adapted for
     downhole applications.   These techniques can be useful
     in defining the vertical extent of a contaminant zone.
     Some systems work inside polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or
     Teflon monitoring well casings.  For further
     information on airborne, borehole,  or surface EM
     instruments, the reader should consult the subsections
     on theory and interpretation and the manufacturer
     references shown later in this compendium.

     Exhibit 8.4-3 compares some of the more common EM
     systems.  The CEM and Max Min II systems are not com-
     monly used for hazardous waste site investigations
     (they are more commonly used in minerals exploration),
     but the systems are included for comparative purposes.

8.4.2.2  Electrical Resistivity

Electrical resistivity surveys provide information about the
subsurface distribution of the ground resistivity.  The
information can be used to inter groundwater quality and
lithologic and geologic information.  Both horizontal and
vertical changes in ground resistivity can be mapped by
resistivity surveys.  In practice, resistivity surveys are
mostly used to determine the vertical resistivity changes.
                           8.4-13
-------
                              Exhibit 8.4-2
                APPLICATION GUIDELINES FOR EQUIPMENT USE
   Equipment Use
Locate single shallow
  buried drum

Locate many shallow
  buried drums

Locate single deep
  buried drum

Locate many deep
  buried drums

Define shallow fault
  zone

Define deep fault zone

Delineate shallow
  contaminant plume

Delineate deep
  contaminant plume

Locate shallow pipeline
EM-16

  3
EM-16R
  1

  1
  3

  1
   2

   3
   1

   3
EM-31

  1
  2

  3
  2

  1
EM-34

  3
  2

  2
  1

  2
1.  Good success rate
2.  Moderate success rate
3.  Poor success rate—not applicable

shallow is only several meters
deep is several tens of meters

Note:  This table is based primarily on field experience.  Designations
such as EM-16 or EM-31 are the manufacturer's model numbers and do
not imply equipment complexity or capability.
                                 8.4-14
-------
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                                                        8.4-15
-------
Lateral resistivity changes are more easily mapped by elec-
tromagnetic surveys.  Often, electromagnetic and resistivity
surveys are used together.

8.4.2.2.1  Applicability

Electrical resistivity (ER) data are subject to
interpretation; therefore,  ER field results should be
checked periodically and confirmed by direct methods, such
as sampling or drilling.   This type of confirmation is
essential in enforcement cases.

Although ER is not a definitive technique, the data are
useful for several reasons.  Typical productivity with con-
ventional resistivity equipment is several thousand line-
feet per day (similar to seismic refraction work, but much
less than electromagnetics—two competing techniques).  This
high productivity rate allows a large amount of useful data
to £>e collected in a relatively short period of time.  For
example, rather than drilling several dozen monitoring wells
or test borings to develop a complete picture of the site
stratigraphy and structure, a few wells can be drilled (for
control) and information about the rest of the site can be
obtained by using resistivity methods.  Method integration
such as this can reduce the amount of time and the costs
required for a project.  If the investigative objective is
to locate a groundwater contaminant plume, then resistivity
techniques could be used to define the plume, its probable
receptors, and its source area.  Once the plume has been
defined, a few confirmation monitoring wells are required.
Using resistivity techniques could result in better well
placement.  Using ER data can also add another dimension to
the investigative effort and data, which could fill in data
gaps and could possibly reduce the risk of missing a facet
of the investigation, such as the presence of a previously
undetected contaminant plume or bedrock valley (as depicted
in Exhibit 8.4-4).

Resistivity methods may be used in a wide array of
situations and for a variety ot purposes.  The following is
a partial list ot major uses related to investigations of
hazardous waste sites:

     o    Definition of a contaminant plume   (This could
          lead to the identification of downgradient recep-
          tors and source areas.)

     o    Waste pit delineation
                           8.4-16
-------
                                   Exhibit  8.4-4
       POTENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS  OF RESISTIVITY VS.  DRILLING
                   RESISTIVITY
                                   X-SECTION
     IMMTIVITT MLUCI
                   420
                    «
                   IW
                             IIM
                             I4M
                                      PLAN
     MMLLOW SOIL    OUr MIL  SHM.UM MIL
 Resistivity measurements in an area with a variable bed-
 rock surface can give qualitative depth information and
 can be used to define problematic zones.
                                                    CONVENTIONAL DRILLING
SOURCE: J. R. Peffer and P. G. Robelen,
Affordable: Overburden Mapping Using
New Geophysical Techniques, 1983.
Conventional drilling programs provide information at a
single point only. Information between drill holes is
missing and can lead to serious, sometimes critical,
interpretation errors.
8.4-17
-------
     o    Definition of bedrock fault/fracture systems

     o    Water table mapping (for contour maps)

     o    Stratigraphic mapping of soil layers (particularly
          useful in overburden, discriminating clays from
          sands and establishing their thicknesses)

     o    Defining bedrock topography (valleys)

Resistivity methods may be used whenever the feature to be
mapped has a contrasting resistivity with the background
material.

Electrical resistivity surveys involve the use of metal
electrodes that are driven into the ground and long cables
that drag along the ground.  Set-up time can be long if the
electrode spacing is large.  Special handling and decon-
tamination procedures will be required at hazardous waste
sites.

8.4.2.2.2  Procedures

Electrodes are typically arranged in one of several
patterns, called electrode arrays, depending on the desired
information.  Electrical resistivity techniques can deter-
mine the vertical subsurface resistivity distribution
beneath a point.  In this type of survey, called vertical
electrical soundings, the electrode array is expanded sys-
tematically and symmetrically about a point.  For each set
of electrode spacings, apparent resistivity is determined
from measurements of potential and input current.  The
resultant plot of apparent resistivity versus electrode
spacing is interpreted to provide the subsurface resistivity
witft depth distribution at that one particular point.  Exam-
ples of three common arrays are given in Exhibit 8.4-5.  The
Wenner and Schlumberger arrays are somewhat more common than
the Dipole-Dipole and other arrays.  These arrays (Wenner,
Schiumberger) start with a small electrode spacing that is
increased to permit deeper penetration for sounding.

The manner in which the apparent resistivity changes with
the electrode separation can be used to determine formation
conductivity and layer thickness.  To increase accuracy, the
user should evaluate the interpretation of resistivity data
against the existing subsurface information.  With any set
of apparent resistivity reading, a number of solutions are
possible, so existing data must be used to select the one
that fits best.  A formation resistivity may be assigned,
but without geological control the material is not known.
Resistivity electrode arrays can also be used with constant
inner-electrode spacing and to develop a lateral picture of
the site through profiles.  Stratigraphic control is even
                           8.4-18
-------
                                Exhibit  8.4-5
                     EXAMPLES OF COMMON ER ARRAYS


                                WENNER ARRAY

                                    Power

Surface
CE


PE
L a. „ J
<2>
PEI CE
L 	 a 	 .L 	 a 	


1
                             SCHLUMBERGER ARRAY

                                         Power

Surface


CE PE
g B M

PE
i 	 1
(9)
CE
\ ' ' ft f r '\



                                         > 1/5
                               DIPOLE-DIPOLE ARRAY
                Power
Surface

CE CE
Mr D *

W DtoBD
PE
-- D ^<
PE
r f S" ^ s ^ r~ *~
                               ©  Electode Number
                               PE  Potential Electrode
                               CE  Current Electrode
                               (v)  Voltmeter
SOURCE: Based in part on W. M. Telford et al., Applied Geophysics, 1976, and
R. E. Sheriff. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics. 1984.

                                    8.4-19
-------
more important when mapping lateral changes with constant
electrode spacings, because layer thickness changes alone
can cause changes in apparent resistivity.  The desired
resolution is a major factor in deciding how closely to
space measurements for a given survey.

In practical application, a resistivity survey target (such
as a plume or clay lens) should have a resistivity contrast
(positive or negative) over 20 percent from background.
This change in resistivity should be 50 percent or more to
provide proper detection and delineation.  For example, if a
resistivity survey were being conducted to delineate a
groundwater contaminant plume (in overburden)  with a
resistivity ot 200 ohm meters, a background-saturated over-
burden resistivity of over 400 ohm meters (for a conductive
plume) or under 100 ohm meters (for a resistive plume) would
probably by detected, providing other factors  (such as
depth) are not detrimental.

When depth sounding, resolution of individual layers has an
accuracy generally around 20 percent; accuracy can be sub-
stantially more or less depending on the site conditions and
operator expertise.  Vertical resistivity sounding is usual-
ly less accurate than seismic refraction work, which is
often conducted within a 10 percent error tolerance.  How-
ever, geologic units may be distinguishable (by geophysics)
only with the use of resistivity methods at some site.

8.4.2.2.3  Survey Design

Data can be collected at randomly located stations or along
survey lines.  If vertical electrical soundings are per-
formed to obtain resistivity changes with depth, then the
soundings are positioned where the information is most use-
ful.  If measurements are made to map lateral resistivity
changes, then the survey is best performed on a grid or on
survey lines.  The station spacing will be determined from
the target size.

A.   Background Noise

     Evaluation of existing data and a site reconnaissance
     will help to identify the possible background noise
     level.  A high noise level can make interpretation dif-
     ficult and may actually mask an anomaly.  It would be
     practically impossible to delineate a slightly conduc-
     tive contaminant plume contained in overburden that has
     wide natural variation in conductivity.  Noise sources
     can be divided into two groups:  natural, such as dis-
     continuous clay layers, undetected mafic dikes, drastic
     topography, unexpected fault zones, variable water
     table, and lightning; and cultural, such as powerlines,
                           8.4-20
-------
     railroad tracks, and radio transmission towers.  Some
     instruments are more sensitive to certain types of
     noise sources than others.  Since there is little pub-
     lished information on instrument noise sensitivity,
     experience is important.

B.   Depth of Investigation

     As a rule of thumb when lateral resistivity is being
     conducted, the array should be tour or five times the
     distance from the ground surface down to the desired
     target.  For vertical sounding, this suggested spacing
     should be about ten times the anticipated target depth.
     These suggestions should be used only as general
     guidance.

8.4.2.2.4  Miscellaneous Considerations

A.   Instrumentation

     For most shallow work at hazardous waste sites,
     practically any resistivity system will suffice.
     Generally, equipment capability becomes important only
     when the desired investigative depth exceeds 70 to
     100 feet.  Larger power sources are needed to provide a
     measurable electrical potential with a wider electrode
     spacing.  Some newer resistivity units are capable of
     electronic data storage, and other features.  Often,
     the peripheral capabilities of an ER system may be the
     deciding factor when purchases are considered.

     Borehole resistivity equipment has been used  (in
     uncased boreholes) to determine relative formation
     porosity and other factors.  For more information on
     this equipment, the reader should reter to the borehole
     geophysics subsection of this compendium.

B.   Calibration

     ER equipment requires calibration, either in the field
     or in the laboratory; dated records of this calibration
     should be kept in the equipment management file and in
     the appropriate project file.  Calibration is used to
     establish the reliability and accuracy of the equip-
     ment; calibration typically includes an internal cir-
     cuit check or actual field trials (e.g., tests over a
     known target).  Equipment that historically exhibits
     fluctuations in calibration should not be used.  The
     equipment serial number should be recorded on the cali-
     bration records.  If the manufacturer recalls equip-
     ment, this fact should be explained and documented for
     instrument maintenance in the proper file.  The current
                           8.4-21
-------
     source and potentiometer must be calibrated on any type
     of resistivity equipment.  The instrument's current
     source may be calibrated by placing a reference ammeter
     in series with the electrode cables.   The reading
     obtained on the reference ammeter is  compared with the
     value read from the instrument's current source
     ammeter.  The current source ammeter  is then adjusted
     accordingly.

     The potentiometer is calibrated by either of two
     methods.  The preferred tield method, which is similar
     to the calibration of the current source, is done by
     comparing the instrument's indicated  potential to that
     potential measured with an independent voltmeter.  An
     alternative means of calibration, which can be per-
     formed in the laboratory, involves placing a precision
     resistor of a known value in series with the current
     load.  A potentiometer is then placed across the resis-
     tor.  The potential measured should be equal to the
     product of the known resistance and indicated current.

C.   Data Reduction

     The raw data are the measured potential produced by a
     known current.  To calculate the rho      (apparent
     resistivity), these above known quantities are used.
     (See Exhibit 8.4-5, Common ER Arrays.)  The electrode
     configuration is also used in the determination of
     apparent resistivity, which is defined by:

     rho    = (2 x TT x V/I) / (l/rn - l/r0 -1/R. + 1/R0)
        app                       1      £     1      2.

     where:

     V      =  The circuit potential  (voltage)
     I      =  Applied current (amperage)
     r..     =  Distance between electrode  #1 and #2  (meters)
     r_     =  Distance between electrode  #3 and #4  (meters)
     R-     =  Distance between electrode  #1 and #3  (meters)
     R      =  Distance between electrode  #3 and #4  (meters)
     rno    =  Apparent resistivity
        app

     Apparent resistivity is the resistivity measured at the
     ground surface and usually has units  of ohmmeters or
     ohmfeet.  The apparent resistivity is a function of the
     distribution of actual ground resistivities and the
     electrode geometry.  Interpretation and reduction of
     the resistivity sounding are beyond the scope of this
     compendium; interpretation and reduction often involve
     curve matching or computer analysis.   For further
     information, the reader should refer to the references
     listed in Appendix 8.4B, particularly Zohdy  (1975).
                           8.4-22
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8.4.2.3  Seismic Methods Applicable to Hazardous Waste Site
Characterization

Seismic techniques have been useful in some instances for
assessing subsurface geohydrologic conditions such as depth
to bedrock; depth, thickness, dip, and density of lithologic
units; horizontal and vertical extent of anomalous geologic
features (folds, faults, and fractures); the approximate
depth to the water table; and, in conjunction with
geophysical well log data, the porosity and permeability of
lithologic units.  Seismic techniques have also been used to
delineate the boundaries of subsurface bulk waste trenches
and the depth of landfills.

8.4.2.3.1  Applicability

Seismic Refraction and Reflection Techniques

The method of seismic refraction consists of measuring the
travel times of compressional waves that are generated by a
surface source and that are critically refracted from
subsurface refraction interfaces and received by surface
receivers.   First-arrival travel times of seismic energy
plotted against source-to-receiver distance on a time-
distance curve are characteristic of the material through
which they travel.  The number of line segments on the•
time-distance plot indicates the number of layers.  The
inverse slope of the line segments indicates the velocities
of the layers.

The method of seismic reflection consists of measuring the
two-way travel times ot compressional waves that are gen-
erated by a surface source and that are reflected from sub-
surface reflecting interfaces.  Depths to each reflecting
interface can be deduced from reflection two-way travel
times integrated with layered velocity information.

Higher subsurface resolution of shallower layers is possible
with shallow reflection techniques.  Modern multichannel
engineering seismographs have digital filtering capabilities
that allow later arriving wide-angle reflections to be
detected from earlier refraction arrivals.

Seismic velocities obtained from a refraction survey over an
area do not always agree with those obtained from a reflec-
tion survey over the same area.  This variance may be
because refraction velocities are obtained from rays travel-
ing parallel to the top of a layer whereas reflection veloc-
ities are obtained from waves traveling perpendicular to the
strata at the bottom of a layer.
                           8.4-23
-------
The technique of seismic refraction has been used to a
greater extent than seismic reflection in the subsurface
characterization of hazardous waste sites.

8.4.2.3.2  Procedures

Preliminary Considerations

The planning, selection, and implementation of a shallow
seismic survey require careful consideration by qualified,
experienced personnel.  At a minimum, the following steps
are required:

1.   Review existing site, area, and regional subsurface
     geologic and hydrogeologic information including
     physical and chemical soil characteristics.

2.   Define known hazards posing a threat to the safety of
     personnel who are conducting the seismic survey and
     topographic survey.

3.   Define the purpose of the subsurface investigation.

4.   Choose the appropriate seismic method to be conducted.

5.   Define anticipated survey area from either USGS
     7.5-minute quadrangle maps or published base maps of
     the particular site.

6.   Add survey coordinates and elevations of all shot and
     geophone locations to be used before the actual survey.
     Static elevations corrections are applied later to raw
     seismic data to compensate for travel time differences
     because of elevation changes along seismic lines.

Survey Design

A.   Seismic Refraction

     The length of a seismic refraction line must be at
     least four times the maximum penetration depth desired.
     This length will ensure that head-wave energy will be
     received from refractors down to the maximum penetra-
     tion depth.  The spacing between individual geophones
     controls the degree of resolution available, and a
     spacing of 3 to 15 meters is commonly used.  Closer
     spacings may be used for very shallow, high-resolution
     profiles.  Long seismic lines are shot using the method
     ot continuous in-line reversed refraction profiling,
     whereby the entire seismic line is shot in segments.
     Shot points are located at each end ot and at interme-
     diate points along each spread segment.  The end shot
                           8.4-24
-------
     point of each spread segment coincides with an end or
     intermediate position shot point of the succeeding
     spread segment.   After a spread segment is shot, the
     geophone spread  is moved to the next succeeding spread
     segment.  The procedure is repeated until the complete
     reversed seismic refraction profile along the line has
     been developed.

B.   Seismic Reflection

     The major application of seismic reflection is in the
     mapping of the overburden bedrock interface where over-
     burden thickness exceeds 30 meters.  Reflections from
     the overburden-bedrock interface show up prominently on
     seismograms where large contrasts between acoustic
     layer velocities exist.  To minimize the effect of
     low-frequency refraction arrivals, the investigator
     should use geophones with natural frequencies higher
     than those used in refraction work.  Filtering capabil-
     ity and amplifier gain control of modern seismic data
     acquisition units allow these reflection events to be
     enhanced, making it possible for a high degree of
     accuracy when mapping bedrock attitude.

     Exhibit 8.4-6 represents the time-distance curve for
     bedrock at a depth of 90 meters with a P-wave velocity
     of 5 km/sec overlain by an overburden layer with a
     P-wave velocity of 1.5 km/sec.  The dark ground roll
     area on the curve is an area of shot-generated sur-
     face-wave energy that travels along the surface of the
     ground and tends to mask reflection events.  The ampli-
     tude distance curve for rays reflected from the bottom
     of the overburden layer (Exhibit 8.4-6) increases at
     critical distances for P- and S-waves and remains
     uniform at small source-to-receiver distances.

     At wide angles of incidence, or large source-to-
     geophone distances, reflection events are subject to
     interference effects trom earlier arriving refracted
     events.  To eliminate interference effects caused by
     ground roll and earlier refraction arrivals, it is
     desirable to obtain an optimum shot to first geophone
     distance at which to place geophones in shallow reflec-
     tion work.  This optimum "window" is empirically
     developed in the field by observing seismograms
     recorded at different shot-to-first-receiver distances.
     The optimum window for recording reflections from
     bedrock at a depth of 90 meters is shown in
     Exhibit 8.4-6.  This window is at a shot-to-receiver
     distance range over which the reflected P-wave
     amplitude remains relatively uniform.
                           8.4-25
-------
                      Exhibit 8.4-6
                    TIME-DISTANCE AND
                AMPLITUDE-DISTANCE CURVES
       A.
                                    MOHOCK
        B.
                           WINDOW
                                0>Sr*MCI
SOURCE: J. A. Hunter (1982).
                          8.4-26
-------
     Part A of Exhibit 8.4-7 is a seismic record that was
     recorded on a portable 12-channel signal-enhancement
     seismic data-acquisition unit with digital filtering
     capability.  Drill logs from the area over which the
     record was obtained indicate that bedrock is at a depth
     of 91 meters and is overlain by glacial till and a sur-
     face layer of silt.  The selected distance of optimum
     source to first geophone was 22.9 meters with a
     geophone spacing of 7.6 meters.  Two hammer blows were
     necessary to enhance the record, and no digital filter-
     ing was applied.  The direct P-wave through the over-
     burden layer is clearly visible as a first break on
     each trace.  The reflected P-wave from the base of the
     overburden layer is clearly visible in the 120 to 130
     millisecond range.  The first trace from a geophone
     22.9 meters away from the source illustrates masking
     eftects caused by ground roll.  The actual shot-to-
     first-receiver distance should be increased slightly to
     obtain optimum representation of the reflected event.
     Part B of Exhibit 8.4-7 is a seismic record obtained
     from virtually the same location as in A, but low-cut
     digital filtering has been applied to further enhance
     the data.

     The next step in this procedure is to move the shot
     point and geophone spread along a line and repeat the
     procedure.  This step allows for multiple coverage and
     is known as common-depth-point  (CDP) profiling.

8.4.2.3.3  Miscellaneous Considerations

A.   Instrumentation

     Shallow seismic surveys conducted at hazardous waste
     sites generally do not require large energy sources and
     can be either mechanical or explosive in nature.

     Mechanical and contained explosive sources are used in
     populated areas or when desired penetration depths are
     less than 100 to 300 feet.  Hammer surveys are conduct-
     ed by striking a steel plate coupled to the ground with
     a sledge hammer.  An inertial switch on the hammer is
     connected to the seismic data acquisition system with a
     cable, enabling the moment of hammer impact to be accu-
     rately recorded.  Another technique commonly used is
     the weight drop or "thumper" technique.  Typically, a
     truck-mounted 3-ton weight is dropped from a height of
     10 feet.  The instant of group impact is determined by
     a sensor on the weight.  A seismic energy source devel-
     oped by EG&G Geometries involves an air-powered piston
     striking a steel plate coupled to the ground.  This
                           8.4-27
-------
                           Exhibit 8.4-7

                        SEISMIC  RECORDS
A.
                 I  91
                                      MS:
 B.
           z
           4
                                   M£ 'MSl
SOURCE: J. A.'Hunter (1982).
                               8.4-28
-------
method has the trade name Dynasource.  The Betsy seis-
gun is a weak mechanical energy source in which a shot-
gun shell is detonated inside a chamber that is coupled
to the ground surface.  The Dinoseis method uses a
confined chemical explosion in a truck-mounted explo-
sion chamber to drive a steel plate against the bottom
ot the chamber, transmitting a pressure pulse into the
ground.

Explosive sources are used sparsely in populated areas
or when penetration depths are greater than 100 to
300 feet.  Two types of chemical explosives, gelatin
dynamite and ammonium nitrate, are commonly used in
explosion surveys and are detonated in seated
boreholes.  Gelatin dynamite is a mixture of gelatin,
nitroglycerin, and an inert binder material that can be
used to vary the strength of the explosion.  Ammonium
nitrate is a fertilizer that is mixed with diesel fuel
and is detonated by the explosion of a primer.  A
charge of about 1 pound of explosives is usually suffi-
cient to obtain penetration depths ranging from approx-
imately 100 to 300 feet.  Explosive sources generate
wave fronts that are very steep and show up as distinct
arrivals on seismograms.  These sharp pulses, however,
are more likely to cause damage to nearby structures.
It may not be advisable to use explosive sources at
hazardous waste sites where unknown gases or buried
containers may be present.

A complete seismic recording system or seismograph
detects, records, and displays ground motion caused by
the passage of a seismic wave.  A geophone
(Exhibit 8.4-8) is commonly a moving-coil electro-
mechanical transducer that detects ground motion.  The
moving coil is free to move in the annular gap between
the poles of the permanent magnet, creating an output
voltage that is proportional to the actual ground
motion or to the motion of the outer geophone case.  At
frequencies below the resonant frequency of the coil or
outer case suspension, the coil and outer case move
together and output voltage falls off rapidly.  The
selected resonance frequency or natural frequency of a
geophone must be below that of the lowermost frequency
anticipated.

Each geophone detects ground motion at a point on the
surface and passes this information through a single
recording channel as a frequency modulated signal.
This signal is transformed into the time domain and
appears as one trace on the resulting seismogram.
                      8.4-29
-------
                           Exhibit 8.4-8
                       GEOPHONE  SCHEMATIC
                            Leaf jpnng
SOURCE: Telford et al., (1976).
                               8.4-30
-------
Single-channel systems are used in small-scale engi-
neering surveys, and the source and receiver are suc-
cessively moved to create the characteristic
travel-time curve.  Multichannel systems consisting of
12, 24, 48, and 96 channels are in more common use
today.  These systems are capable of recording energy
generated by a single source that is detected by a
series of geophones at various distances.

Seismic recording systems are equipped with amplifiers
that have individual gain controls, which are set as
high as possible, and with digital filters that exclude
frequencies outside the useful signal range between 20
and 200 Hz.  A galvanometer converts the current gen-
erated by the output voltage from each geophone into
the time domain.  This information is then recorded
onto ultraviolet sensitive paper for analysis.

Most seismic data-acquisition systems in use today have
the ability to sort and sum waveforms from repeated
shots at the same shot point.  This feature is known as
signal enhancement and is desirable because it serves
to cancel out much of the systematic shot-generated and
random background noise from the characteristic wave-
form.  This method is also known as stacking of the
individual wave traces.  The following are some of the
more common seismic data-acquisition units in use
today:

1.   EG&G Geometries
     a.   Nimbus 125—2-channel signal-enhancement
          seismograph
     b.   Nimbus 1210F—12-channel signal-enhancement
          seismograph
     c.   Nimbus 2415—24-channel signal-enhancement
          seismograph

2.   BISON Instruments, Inc.
     a.   "Geo Pro" Models 8012A and 8024-12 and
          24-channel seismic data-acquisition and
          processing unit
     b.   Model 1580—6-channel signal-enhancement
          seismograph
     c.   Model 157C—single-channel signal-enhancement
          seismograph

3.   Weston Geophysical Corporation
     a.   WesComp 11—digital seismic data-acquisition
          and processing unit
     b.   USA 780—24-channel amplifiers

4.   Dresser Industries
     a.   SIE RS-4—12-channel refraction seismograph
                      8.4-31
-------
B.   Data Interpretation and Reduction

     1.   Corrections Applied to Refraction Data

          It is usually necessary to apply static elevation
          and weathering corrections to refraction data to
          correct for variations in surface receiver eleva-
          tions and effects of the low-velocity layer (LVZ).
          A reference datum below the LVZ is usually select-
          ed, and travel-time corrections are calculated in
          reference to this datum surface.  This process has
          the effect of placing the source and group of
          receivers directly on the datum surface.  Various
          methods exist for correcting for near-surface
          effects, and the reader should refer to Telford et
          al., 1976, for a more detailed discussion.

     2.   Errors Inherent to Refraction Interpretation

          Errors in refraction interpretation result from
          incorrect reading of the data, incorrect geologic
          interpretation of layer velocities derived, and
          incorrect underlying assumptions.  At larger off-
          set distances, the seismic signal decreases in
          amplitude as the higher frequency components of
          the signal attenuate more rapidly.  The probabil-
          ity of picking the incorrect first arrival at a
          geophone increases with increasing distances.
          This error may cause an inappropriate velocity to
          be assigned to a refractor and may also lead to an
          erroneous estimate of the number of refractors
          present.  Incorrect intercept times may then be
          chosen, which will cause wrong estimates ot
          refractor depths and dips.

          Seismic velocities that are determined are average
          values over the entire path traveled by the
          headwave.  The relationship between the velocity
          of a refractor and the geology may be complex.
          Detailed knowledge of the relationship between
          seismic velocity and lithologic markers, facies
          boundaries, and geologic time markers are neces-
          sary for accurate conclusions to be drawn from a
          retraction survey.

          The primary assumption made in refraction
          interpretation is that the seismic velocity ot a
          layer is constant and increases with layer depth.
          If the velocity of a layer is less than that ot
          the layer immediately overlying it, no headwave  is
          returned to the surface from the layer, and the
          layer is not represented on the time-distance
          curve.  Velocity reversals with depth, it
                           8.4-32
-------
     undetected,  lead to depth estimates that are too
     deep.   If the seismic velocity of a layer varies
     laterally, dip calculations will be affected.
     Another assumption is that all velocity layers are
     recognizable as first arrivals at geophones.  This
     assumption is not always correct, however; some
     layers may not register as first arrivers.  The
     effect of this condition is opposite to that of a
     velocity reversal with depth and will lead to
     depth estimates that are too shallow.  Finally, a
     refractor must be sufficiently thick for it to be
     detected.  These conditions may lead to incorrect
     paring of segments of the time-distance curve for
     reversed refraction profiles and may lead to
     incorrect estimates of refractor dip.

3.    Corrections Applied to Reflection Data

     Static elevation and weathering corrections must
     be applied to reflection data.  These corrections
     are easier to apply to reflection data because
     reflection raypaths are primarily vertical as
     opposed to refraction raypaths.  Reflection data
     must be corrected for normal moveout.  Compres-
     sional wave energy that is generated from a sur-
     face source and reflected from a subsurface
     interface arrives at a near-source geophone
     earlier than it arrives at a geophone located a
     distance away from the source.  This difference in
     time is the normal moveout.  Normal moveout must
     be removed to enhance primary reflection events.
     Dip moveout can be calculated from reversed
     reflection sections and is the quantity  td/Ax i-n
     Exhibit 8.4-9.  Migrated reflection sections are
     those for which we assume that the seismic line is
     perpendicular to layer dip, the true dip to be
     calculated from the dip moveout.  These correc-
     tions are dynamic corrections; more complete dis-
     cussion can be found in Dobrin, 1960, and Kleyn,
     1983.

     The main objective in the method of seismic
     reflection is to detect the reflected P-wave from
     a background of random ambient noise and syste-
     matic shot-generated noise.  The higher the
     signal-to-noise ratio, the more reliable the
     recording of the arrival time of the reflected
     phase.  In reflection work, only vertical high-
     frequency geophones are used.  These geophones are
                      8.4-33
-------
        Exhibit 8.4-9
REVERSED REFLECTION PROFILE
            8.4-34
-------
          sensitive to the vertical component of ground
          motion, which is high for P-waves and small for
          S-waves, thus eliminating much of the systematic
          noise caused by S-waves.  Shot-generated noise is
          further reduced through the use of stacking of
          records from identical subsurface sections.  Ambi-
          ent noise is reduced through the use of seismo-
          meter patterns and multicoverage techniques.

8.4.2.4  Magnetics

Magnetometer surveys are used to identify areas of anomalous
magnetic field strength.  Although natural conditions may
cause anomalies, shallow-buried ferrous metal objects (i.e.,
drums or other waste-related metal) exhibit strong anomalies
that are rarely confused with natural sources.

8.4.2.4.1  Applicability

The magnetic methods described in this subsection are
applicable to locating buried drums and other buried ferrous
metal objects; locating waste pits that contain metal;
locating underground utilities such as pipelines, cables,
tanks and abandoned well casings; clearing drilling sites;
and identifying geologic features that exhibit sufficient
magnetic contrast.

Metal location and depth of burial can be inferred from the
shape and width ot the anomaly.  The location of metal using
magnetometry facilitates safe excavation without puncturing
metal containers.  Underground utilities, which are trace-
able with magnetics, often lie within loosely filled
trenches that may provide permeable pathways for groundwater
tlow.  Magnetrometry is used in clearing drilling sites to
select locations that are free of drums, detectable under-
ground utilities, and other ferrous obstructions.

Under certain conditions where sutficient contrasts in
magnetic susceptibilities between geologic units exist,
magnetic methods may be useful in identifying geologic
structures such as folding, faulting, buried drainage chan-
nels, bedrock topography, and igneous intrusions.  The mag-
netic susceptibilities of some rock materials are presented
in Exhibit 8.4-10.

8.4.2.4.2  Procedures

Preliminary Considerations

Before conducting a magnetometer survey at a hazardous waste
site, the following tasks should be conducted:
                           8.4-35
-------
                       Exhibit 8.4-10
        MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF ROCK MATERIALS
                                   Magnetic Susceptibility

   Material                           (K106, CGS units)
Magnetite                             300,000-800,000
Pyrrhotite                                    125,000
Ilmenite                                      135,000
Franklinite                                    36,000
Dolomite                                           14
Sandstone                                          17
Serpentine                                     14,000
Granite                                     28-2, 700
Diorite                                            46
Gabbro                                      68-2, 370
Porphyry                                           47
Diabase                                     78-1, 050
Basalt                                            680
Olivine-Diabase                                 2,000
Peridotite                                     12,500
 Adapted from C.A. Helland, "Geophysical Exploration"
 (from Costello, 1980).
     o    Review historical waste disposal practices to
          identify target and nontarget buried ferrous
          objects.

     o    Establish the minimum size target of interest.

     o    Conduct onsite reconnaissance to evaluate the
          suitability of the method, possible interferences,
          and terrain features.

     o    Review site geology to determine if any natural
          anomalies might exist.

     o    Estimate anticipated anomaly intensities.

For clearing drilling sites, utility maps should always be
consulted.

Onsite reconnaissance is conducted to identify possible
interferences and to evaluate accessibility of the areas to
be surveyed.  Interferences may result from surface metal,
fences, buildings, and powerlines.
                           8.4-36
-------
Metal near the sensor may produce an anomaly great enough to
mask an anomaly produced by a buried object below it,
depending on the relative anomaly strengths.

The presence of variable geologic conditions, such as mafic
intrusions and local magnetite sand accumulations, may give
rise to natural interferences.  Geologic features that pro-
duce anomalies often lie below the depth of burial of the
target objects and thus may not affect detection of the
targets significantly.

The following tasks are involved in the magnetometer survey:

     o    Establishing a survey grid over the study area
     o    Establishing a base station
     o    Collecting magnetometer measurements at each
          station

8.4.2.4.3  Survey Design

Magnetic measurements are usually taken either at equally
spaced stations located across a rectangular grid or at
equal intervals along several profile lines.  The spacing of
the stations depends on the target size.  In general, the
spacing between stations should be approximately one-fourth
of the lateral extent of the target.  For a single 55-gallon
drum, the maximum distance at which the station can be
detected is typically 10 to 15 feet, and the grid spacing
can be designed accordingly.  The closer the stations are
spaced, the better the resolution becomes and the better the
probability of detecting anomalies.  More stations are
required to cover the same area, however, and the time
required to conduct the survey increases correspondingly.

It is helpful to lay out the survey grid so that the lines
are oriented perpendicular to the strike of the target.  If
this orientation is not known, then north-south grid lines
are preferable.

An accuracy of ±5 percent is generally adequate for station
locations for a magnetometer survey; hence, a hand transit
(Brunton compass) and tape measure are sufficient to survey
the station locations.  Wooden stakes or other nonmetallic
station markers should be used.

Magnetic Measurements

Magnetic measurements are taken by placing the magnetometer
at a station, orienting the sensor properly, and taking the
reading in accordance with the operating instructions for
the particular instrument used.  The instrument operator
should be free of any magnetic material such as keys, belt
                           8.4-37
-------
buckles, steel-toed shoes, metal rim glasses, and so forth.
To avoid effects of rocks that may be naturally magnetic and
to avoid the effects of topography, it is important to hold
the magnetometer sensor above the ground while taking mea-
surements.  The sensor should be held at the same height
above the ground for each measurement.

Interferences

Interferences trom surface metals, fences, powerlines, and
other aboveground sources, which generally lie closer to the
magnetometer sensor than buried targets, may mask the tar-
gets and sometimes cannot be corrected for.  In some cases,
data obtained near such intereferences must be excluded.
Corrections for interferences from geologic conditions and
surface objects that have small magnetic moments in compari-
son to the target may be possible.  Some instruments have
filters that eliminate powerline interferences.

Total Field Versus Vertical Gradient

Two types of magnetic measurements are generally used:
total field and vertical gradient.  The total magnetic field
intensity is a scalar measurement, or simply the magnitude
of the earth's field vector independent of its direction.
The magnetic field gradient is a measurement of the differ-
ence in the total magnetic field between two sensors having
a fixed distance between them.  The gradient equals the
change in total magnetic field over distance (sensor spac-
ing) .  For vertical gradient measurements/ the sensors are
separated vertically.  Gradient measurements may be made by
using a gradiometer, which is a magnetometer with two sen-
sors built in, or by using a normal total field magnetometer
and taking two separate readings at different heights.  The
gradiometer takes measurements at the two sensors simulta-
neously, whereas measurements using a total field magnet-
ometer have a small time separation.  The sensitivity of
vertical gradient measurements is variable and depends in
part on the vertical separation of the two sensor positions.
Commonly, vertical separations of one-half, 1, and 2 meters
are used.

Vertical gradient measurements include several advantages
over total tield measurements:

     o    The measurements give finer resolution of complex
          anomalies.

     o    The measurements require no corrections for
          diurnal variation, micropulsations, and magnetic
          storms.  Measurements at the two sensors are made
          simultaneously or nearly so; these temporal
                           8.4-38
-------
          variations affect both readings essentially
          equally and are,  therefore,  removed on the
          differential.

     o    The regional magnetic field affects measurements
          at both sensors equally,  and these variations are
          removed on the differential.

     o    Gradient measurements provide vector direction as
          well as magnitude and can be used for more quanti-
          tative determination of anomaly location, depth,
          shape, and magnetic moment.

The following are disadvantages of the gradiometer and
reasons why total field measurements may be preferred:

     o    Gradiometers have a smaller radius of detection
          and thus require closer spacing of measurement
          points to achieve their potential for finer reso-
          lution of anomalies.  Finer grid spacing requires
          more time.  In some cases, targets at depth may be
          beyond the radius of detection for a gradiometer,
          but not tor a total field magnetometer.

     o    Gradient readings using a total field magnetometer
          take longer to do than a simpler field
          measurement.

     o    Calculations that are based on vector properties
          of gradient measurements to precisely determine
          source location may be very complex and time
          consuming.

In summary, total ±ield measurements are suitable for
reconnaissance surveys because they enable coverage of a
larger area in a shorter amount of time than do vertical
gradient measurements; they also provide good information on
the location, depth, shape, and magnetic moment of buried
terrous objects.  Vertical gradient measurements are best
tor detailed studies over small anomalies where more
detailed characterization of buried ferrous objects may be
required.  Contour maps of both total field and vertical
gradient measurements over a small anomaly are presented in
Exhibit 8.4-11.  Vertical gradient measurements were taken
at the same grid spacing as total field measurements, but
the finer resolution of the vertical gradient data is
evident.

Data Interpretation

Interpretation of the data can yield location and depth of
the magnetic sources.  Interpretation is best performed
                           8.4-39
-------
                             Exhibit  8.4-11
                    CONTOUR MAPS OF  TOTAL  FIELD  AND
                    VERTICAL  GRADIENT MEASUREMENTS
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                                                     '  0  -    J
                                                              -
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          TOTAL MAGNETIC FIELD

    Contours are in gammas +50,000
se  i»e   fie  tie  nc   tec   i»c
    VERTICAL GRADIENT

Contours are in gamma/0.5 meter
                                  8.4-40
-------
using computer modeling techniques.  Reasonable estimates of
depth can be made by using methods described in
Appendix 8.4D.  Almost all interpretations are made using
data profiles.  Contour maps establish the distribution of
the source.

8.4.2.5  Ground Penetrating Radar

8.4.2.5.1  Applicability

Ground penetrating radar (GPR)  data are used to produce a
continuous subsurface profile through the use of a linear
strip chart recorder.  However, while GPR is useful to
define subsurface conditions, it is more limited in applica-
tion than most other geophysical techniques.  The following
is a partial list of major uses related to hazardous waste
site investigations:

     o    Define or locate buried drums, tanks, cables, and
          pipelines.

     o    Define boundary of disturbed versus original
          ground (and strata),  such as a landfill or a
          trench.

     o    Map water table (limited reliability).

     o    Delineate stratigraphic layers, such as clay,
          till, or sands.

     o    Define natural subsurface features, such as buried
          stream channels (preferential pathways), lenses,
          and voids  (caves).

In addition, GPR may be used whenever a significant change
(or differential) in electrical properties is encountered
and when a change should be mapped.  For more specific
information on these properties, the reader should refer to
the theory or information sources subsections in this
compendium.

Although GPR cannot provide definitive information on
subsurface conditions, the data are desirable for several
reasons.  GPR can quickly provide subsurface information
about a hazardous waste site.  Typical productivity with
conventional graphic recording GPR equipment on low-relief
terrain is several line miles per day.  Often, this produc-
tivity rate makes GPR a very cost-effective reconnaissance
method.  For example, if the objective of an investigation
is to define suspected locations of buried drums, then GPR
                           8.4-41
-------
(or other geophysical methods, electromagnetics,  or magnet-
ics) can be used to define suspected areas.   Test pit exca-
vation (or other direct methods)  can be used to further
explore suspected areas and can provide control for GPR
data.

8.4.2.5.2  Procedures

Preliminary Considerations

A.   Objectives

     GPR capabilities should be evaluated against the
     objectives of hazardous waste site investigations.  If
     the site study is simply to substantiate the possibil-
     ity of buried drums on a site with minimal effort, then
     typical radar surveys will provide only localized
     detail and no direct evidence.  If, however, a site is
     to be characterized in detail and the identification of
     any drum location is a priority, GPR alone or in con-
     junction with other geophysical methods (such as
     magnetometry) may be a cost-effective way of directing
     test pit operations and selecting sampling points, etc.

B.   Existing Data

     If radar equipment is identified as theoretically
     capable of providing the type of information desired,
     further evaluation should be made to determine if the
     equipment is appropriate to use with the conditions
     found at a particular site.  Evaluation of existing
     data can identify problems that may be encountered in
     the field, such as the presence of buried electrical
     cables or a near-surface conductive clay layer.  Con-
     ditions such as these can cause noise in the data or
     even "mask"  (block out) the radar signal from a deeper
     target.  An analysis of the site history might aid in
     further defining a survey area and might result in a
     cost savings.  Deep targets may be out of the practical
     range of many typical GPR units.  For example, most
     radar antennae that are in general use would probably
     yield poor results if they were used to define the top
     of a bedrock surface underlying 300 feet of highly
     conductive overburden.

8.4.2.5.3  Survey Design

A.   Define Survey

     Once the GPR survey objectives have been clearly
     defined, the existing information has been reviewed,
     and reconnaissance of the site has been conducted,
     attention should be given to the design of the
                           8.4-42
-------
     geophysical survey.   The detail (coverage,  resolution)
     required of a radar  survey is a primary factor in
     designing and planning fieldwork.   If the survey is to
     provide reconnaissance information on the possibility
     of buried drums onsite,  then a grid using a wide (50-
     to 200-foot)  line spacing may be appropriate.  If the
     purpose is to define as  many drum locations as possible
     (such as for removal), then a detailed survey is
     probably required (10- to 20-foot line spacing).  The
     importance of designing  and implementing a grid system
     tied into existing "permanent" features (such as roads
     and buildings)  cannot be overstated.  This design will
     allow the grid to be reproduced (if required) tor
     enforcement purposes and will help in the orientation
     of maps and diagrams that are produced later.  The
     design will also help to locate anomalous areas for
     future fieldwork (such as sampling, drilling, or dig-
     ging test pits) by use of the grid for points of refer-
     ence.  Under certain circumstances, a reproducible grid
     may not be needed,  such  as if the raw field data are
     going to be used to  direct other field operations, but
     this situation is not typical.

     The anticipated size of  the target compared with the
     proposed survey area should have an impact on the
     detail of the GPR survey grid.  To reliably locate a
     suspected target would require more effort (such as
     denser line spacing  or use of a higher resolution
     transmitter antennae)  for a smaller target than would
     be required for a larger one.  In this compendium, a
     discussion of reliably locating a target refers to the
     probability of the GPR unit passing over the surface
     expression ot a target.   Reliably locating a target
     does not mean that the target will be clearly defined
     in the data.    Site-specific factors such as poor field
     methods, target depth, and background noise may cause a
     target to be overlooked  or misinterpreted.

B.   Background Noise

     Background noise can be  a significant factor in the
     success of a GPR survey.  Evaluation of existing data
     and a site reconnaissance will help to determine the
     probable background  noise level.  A high noise level
     can make interpretation  of data difficult.   Noise often
     varies across a large (several hundred acres) site as
     different site conditions (soils,  overburden strati-
     graphy, etc.) are encountered.  If the natural soils
     have a wide variation in electrical properties, it
     would be difficult to pick out a subsurface boundary
     between backfill material and natural undisturbed
     soils.  Noise sources can be divided into two groups:
                           8.4-43
-------
     natural,  such as surface water,  discontinuous clay
     layers,  extremes in topographic  relief,  and steeply
     dipping  strata;  and cultural,  such as powerlines,  sur-
     face metal, and two-way radios.   Experience is impor-
     tant, because there is little  published  information on
     instrument sensitivity to different noise sources.
     Generally, however, the more conductive  a target is
     above (or below) the normal background noise, the
     easier targets are to define and interpret.

C.   Limitations

     GPR instruments are limited with regard  to sensitivity,
     resolution, and penetration.  Field experience, pub-
     lished references, and operator's manuals should be
     used when an evaluation of instrumentation versus
     capability is desired.

     Interpretation of radar data generally becomes more
     complex as the contrast in electrical properties
     (between background areas and target areas) becomes
     less.  Several smaii closely spaced targets may not be
     sensed as multiple anomalies but as one  large anomaly.
     This inaccuracy is a result of the inherent resolution
     capabilities of the equipment.  Penetration of the sig-
     nal varies with transmitter frequency, electrical
     conductivity, changes in conductivity, noise, and so
     forth.  Because there are many limitations with GPR
     equipment and methods, the SM should consult a
     geophysicist before conducting the actual radar survey
     (as outlined in the responsibilities subsection).

8.4.2.5.4  Miscellaneous Considerations

A.   Calibration

     Geophysical instruments require calibration; GPR is no
     exception.  Because the often subtle changes in the
     profile record chart can be interpreted in various
     ways, GPR equipment should be subject to an intensive
     calibration process.

     Because the internal timing mechanism is used to
     estimate depths, it should be checked periodically with
     an internal or external timer.  Because electrical
     properties  (inherent to travel times) are quite vari-
     able between sites, the radar unit should be calibrated
     to each condition  (strata) found at the site.  This
     calibration can be as simple a process as taking some
     readings on top of a conductor at a known depth, such
     as a buried pipeline, and seeing how this reading
     translates to the  strip chart profile.  GPR subcon-
     tractors commonly make statements such as  "on the strip
                           8.4-44
-------
     chart, 1 inch equals so many feet."  Statements like
     these should be viewed skeptically because if materials
     vary across a site, then so do their corresponding
     electrical properties, which are directly responsible
     for travel time and depth calculations.  Records of the
     calibrations and procedures that are used should be
     entered in the appropriate equipment and/or project
     tile.

Interpretation

The interpretation of GPR data requires professional
training and experience and is beyond the scope of this com-
pendium.  However, buried metal targets, such as steel
drums, may be easily recognized by the novice.
Exhibit 8.4-12 has been included to give an example of radar
data and to show how evident buried metal targets can be.
The ground surface is at the top of the page; depth
increases toward the bottom of the page.  On the tar left
side  (OE) of the profile, a strong signal is received at the
bottom of the profile (at depth).  In the middle of the line
(75E to 100E), however, the reflected signal is weak and
badly distorted.  In this location, penetration does not
extend to the bottom of the figure.

8.4.3  BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS

Borehole geophysical techniques provide subsurface
information on rock and unconsolidated sediment properties
and fluid movement.  Although the oil and mineral industries
have been using these borehole geophysics for many years,
only recently have the techniques been adopted to the
assessment of site hydrogeologic conditions.  This sub-
section provides an introduction to the basic borehole
geophysical techniques as they might be applied to a hazard-
ous waste site investigation.  References are included to
complement and expand on the technical interpretation of the
logging results.

8.4.3.1  Applicability

Discussion in this subsection will introduce a variety of
borehole geophysical methods.  The general logging cat-
egories discussed are electrical, nuclear, sonic, and
mechanical.  Although other borehole techniques are avail-
able, such as three-dimensional vertical seismic profiling,
borehole televiewing, and a variety of crossbore techniques,
these are not discussed in detail in this compendium.  A
combination of surface and borehole techniques offers a
three-dimensional understanding of subsurface conditions,
but that approach is also beyond the introductory detail in
this compendium.
                           8.4-45
-------
   Exhibit 8.4-12
TYPICAL GPR PROFILE
       8.4-46
-------
A very basic description of the log, the parameters that
affect response, and the sensing devices are presented here
to aid in evaluating the applicability ot logging functions.

A number of techniques are not discussed in this compendium;
information on these techniques may be obtained from the
references at the end of this subsection.  While examining
the techniques that are included in the following dis-
cussion, the reader should refer to Exhibit 8.4-13, which
was taken in part from the D'Apollonia report to the U.S.
Army (1980).  The exhibit presents each logging function and
information obtained for a variety of geologic and
hydrologic parameters.

8.4.3.1.1  Electrical

Electrical logging includes spontaneous potential and single
point resistance.

Spontaneous potential (SP).  The response is the result of
small differences in voltage caused by chemical and physical
contacts between the borehole fluid and the surrounding for-
mation.  These voltage differences appear at lithology
changes or bed boundaries, and their response is used quan-
titatively to determine bed thickness or formation water
resistivity.  Qualitative interpretation of the data can
help identify permeable beds.

In a consolidated rock aquifer system where groundwater flow
is controlled by secondary permeability  (i.e., fractures),
SP response may be generated from a streaming potential
caused by a zone gaining or losing water.

The SP log is a graphic plot of potentials between the
downhole sonde and a surface electrode.  The system consists
of a moveable lead electrode (located in the sonde) that
traverses the borehole and a surface electrode (mud plug)
that measures potentials in millivolts.  Noise and anomalous
potentials are relatively common in SP logs and are dis-
cussed in electric log anomalies later in this compendium.

Single-point resistance.  This technique is based on the
principle of Ohm's Law  (E = Ir) where E is voltage measured
in volts, I is current measured in amperes, and r is resis-
tance measured in ohms.  Single-point resistance measures
the resistance of in situ materials (of the rock and the
fluid)  between an in-hole electrode and a surface electrode.
Resistance logging has a small radius of investigation and
is very sensitive to the conductivity of the borehole fluid
and changes in hole diameter (caving, washouts, and frac-
tures) .  This condition is advantageous for the operator in
that any change in the formation (resistance or fractures)
                           8.4-47
-------
               Exhibit 8.4-13
EVALUATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS APPLIED TO
   GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
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AQUIFER PROPERTIE
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                   8.4-48
-------
will produce a corresponding change in resistance on the
log.  These changes in resistance are interpreted to be a
result of lithology changes.  The single-point log is very
desirable for geologic correlation because of its special
response to lithology changes.

In crystalline rock (high resistance formations), single-
point resistance logs are useful in locating fractures and
often appear as mirror images (opposite deflections) to the
caliper log.  Hole enlargement,  caving, washouts, and frac-
tures appear as excursions to the left (indicating less
resistance in normal operation)  of the more typical response
observed in this log.

The principle of the function is quite simple.  The current
(I) remains constant while the voltage (E) is measured
between the movable lead electrode and the surface elec-
trode.  Voltage is then converted internally to resistance
using Ohm's Law.  A diagram of this arrangement can be found
in Exhibit 8.4-14.  SP and single-point resistance logs are
designed to be run simultaneously since single-point resis-
tance operates in alternating current  (AC) (110 volt) while
the SP operates in direct current (DC).

8.4.3.1.2  Nuclear

Nuclear logging includes natural gamma, gamma-gamma, and
neutron.

Natural gamma.  This log measures the total of naturally
occurring gamma radiation that is emitted from the decay of
radioisotopes normally found in rocks.  Typical elements
that emit natural gamma radiation and cause an increase on
the log are potassium 40 and daughter products of the
uranium and thorium decay series.  The primary use of natu-
ral gamma logging is lithology identification in detrital
sediments where the fine-grained (most often clay) units
have the highest gamma intensity.  A natural gamma log can
be quite useful to the hydrologist, hydrogeologist, or
geohydrologist, because clay tends to reduce permeability
and effective porosity within a sedimentary unit.  This log
can also be used to estimate  (within one geohydrologic sys-
tem) which zones are likely to yield the most water.

The sensing device is a scintillation-type receiver that
converts the radioactive energy into electrical current,
which is transmitted to the instrument and generates the
natural gamma log.

Natural gamma logs can be run in open or cased boreholes
filled with water or air.  The sensing device is often built
into the same sonde that conducts SP and single-point resis-
tance logs.  In essence, three functions are available from
the use of one sonde.
                           8.4-49
-------
                       Exhibit 8.4-14
        CONVENTIONAL SIMULTANEOUS SINGLE-ELECTRODE
            RESISTANCE AND SPONTANEOUS-POTENTIAL
                       LOGGING SYSTEM
SOURCE: Guyod (1952).
                           8.4-50
-------
Gamma-gamma.   This nuclear log uses an activated source and
measures the effect of the induced radiation and its degra-
dation.  Gamma-gamma logs are widely used to determine bulk
density from which lithologic identification is based.  They
may also be used to calculate porosity when the fluid and
grain density are known.  The radius of investigation is
dependent on two factors:  source strength and source-
detector spacing.  Typically, 90 percent of the response is
from within 6 to 10 inches of the borehole.

Neutron.  The neutron log response is primarily a function
of the hydrogen content in the borehole environment and sur-
rounding formation.  This content is measured by introducing
neutrons into the borehole and surrounding environment and
by measuring the loss of energy caused by elastic collision.
Because neutrons have no electrical charge and have approxi-
mately the same mass as hydrogen, hydrogen atoms are, there-
fore, responsible tor the majority of energy loss.  Neutron
logging is typically used to determine moisture content
above the water table and total porosity below the water
table.  Information derived from this log is used to deter-
mine lithology and stratigraphic correlation of aquifers and
associated rocks.  Inferred data can be used to determine
effective porosity and specific yield of unconfined
aquifers.  Neutron logging is also very effective for locat-
ing perched water tables.

The equipment is identical to that described for the gamma-
gamma log except for use of a different source and the fact
that the equipment must be able to handle higher count
rates.

8.4.3.1.3  Mechanical

Mechanical logging includes caliper, temperature, fluid
conductivity, and fluid movement.

Caliper.  This log is defined as a continuous record of the
average diameter of a drill hole.  Caliper sondes can have
from one to four arms.  The two basic types are bowstring
units, which are connected at two hinges, and finger
devices, which have single hinges (see Exhibit 8.4-15).

Caliper resolution is broken into two categories:  horizon-
tal and vertical.  The horizontal resolution is the ability
of the tool to measure the true size of the hole regardless
of its shape (circular or elliptical).  Vertical resolution
is controlled by the length of the feeler contact on the
borehole wall.
                           8.4-51
-------
                          Exhibit 8.4-15
                  TWO TYPES  OF CALIPER SONDES
THREE-ARM BOWSTRING

     CALIPER
                                   INGED AT BOTH ENDS
                                                         THREE-ARM
                                                       FINGER DEVICE
                                                             HINGED AT
                                                             ONE END
                               8.4-52
-------
Traditionally, caliper logs have been run to correct other
logging functions.  If this is the primary reason for run-
ning caliper, the bowstring or single-hinged unit will both
provide adequate data.  Calipers using single-hinged feelers
provide the best vertical resolution.  Interchangeable arms
are available for the single-hinged tools and should be
selected on the basis of the hole diameter.  Single-hinged
tools can be used to identify fractures in igneous and
metamorphic rocks and solution openings in limestone.

Temperature.  The temperature log provides continuous
records of the borehole fluid environment.  Response is
caused by temperature change of the fluid surrounding the
sonde, which generally relates to the formation water tem-
perature.  The borehole fluid temperature gradient is highly
influenced by fluid movement in the borehole and adjacent
rocks.  In general, the temperature gradient is greater in
low-permeability rocks than high-permeability rocks, which
is probably the result of groundwater flow.  Therefore, tem-
perature logs can provide the hydrologist with valuable
information regarding groundwater movement.

Logging speed should be slow enough to allow adequate sonde
response with depth, because there is a certain amount of
lag time.  The probe is designed to be run from top to bot-
tom (downward) in the borehole to channel water past the
sensor.  Because some disturbance is inevitable when the
sonde moves through the water column, repeat temperature
logs should be avoided until the borehole fluid has had time
to reach thermal equilibrium.

Fluid conductivity.  These logs provide a continuous
measurement of the conductivity of the borehole fluid
between two electrodes.  The contrast in conductivity can be
associated with water quality and possibly with recharge
zones.  Conductivity logs are helpful when interpreting
electric logs, because both are affected by fluid
conductivity.

The most common sonde measures the AC voltage drop across
closely spaced electrodes.  These electrodes actually mea-
sure the fluid resistivity (which is the reciprocal of
conductivity), but they are called fluid conductivity logs
to avoid confusion with resistivity logs.  Simply,
conductivity logs actually measure the resistance of the
borehole fluid; resistance logs measure the resistance of
the rocks and the fluid they contain.

Fluid movement.  Fluid movement logging can be broken into
two components:  horizontal and vertical.  Horizontal log-
ging uses either chemical or radioactive tracers, is most
often unacceptable for hazardous waste investigations, and
will not be discussed in detail.
                           8.4-53
-------
Vertical movement of fluid in the borehole is measured by
either an impeller flowmeter or chemical tracers.  Tracers
will not be discussed in this subsection for the reason men-
tioned above.  The impeller flowmeter response is affected
by the change in vertical velocity within the borehole.  The
best application of this log is defining fluid movement in a
multiaquifer artesian system.

The sonde consists of a rotor or vanes housed inside a
protective cage or basket.  This log should be run both
downhole and uphole.  The logs should be compared side by
side; only those anomalies that have mirror  (opposite)
deflections are the zones that are providing the vertical
movement (Exhibit 8.4-16).

Sonic.  This logging (also called acoustic logging) uses
sound waves to measure porosity and to identify fractures in
consolidated rock.  Two general types of measurements are
internal transit time,  which is the reciprocal of velocity,
and amplitude, which is the reciprocal of attenuation.  The
amplitudes of the P- and S-waves are directly related to the
degree of consolidation and porosity and to the extent and
orientation of fractures.

The instrumentation of acoustic logging is very complex; it
includes a downhole sonde with a transmitter and two to four
receivers.  Sound waves are emitted from the transmitter and
their propagation is measured by the receivers.

8.4.3.2  Procedures

8.4.3.2.1  Preliminary Considerations

Equipment discussed in this compendium is capable of
performing electric, nuclear, and mechanical logging.  This
equipment is available trom a variety of vendors and can
usually be rented for short periods of time or leased on a
long-term basis.  In any case, the application of these
techniques is quite complex, and the project geophysicist
should be contacted to provide input for planning and imple-
menting borehole programs.

The study objectives must be defined clearly before the user
can identify the proper equipment needs.  For instance, the
Site Manager  (SM) must generally understand the subsurface
environment to determine which logs are applicable.  After
evaluating this determination and the site-specific limiting
factors  (i.e., access to well, well diameters, etc.), the SM
can select the proper equipment.
                           8.4-54
-------
                        Exhibit 8.4-16
              CONTINUOUS FLOWMETER LOG USED  TO
                     LOCATE  ZONES OF  FLOW
                 DEPTH
                 FEET
                 240 T
                 250  -I
                 260 1
                 270 -\
                 280 H
                  290  J
                  300
                  310 .
                                 ZONE OF
                                 UPWARD
                                    FLOW
INTERVAL OF
STATIONARY
MEASUREMENTS
SHOWN AT RIGHT
                                                        I
                          FLOWMETE
                          LOGGING
                           DOWN
                                             FLOWMETER
                                             LOGGING UP
INCREASING FLOW
LOGGING SPEED* 40 FEET PER MINUTE
           SOURCE: Techniques of Water Resources Investigations
           of the United States Geological Survey, Chapter E1 page 110.
                             8.4-55
-------
The following general types of information could be expected
from borehole measurements:

     o    Vertical changes in porosity
     o    Relative vertical changes in permeability and
          transmissivity
     o    Lithology and structure
     o    Lithologic conditions
     o    Vertical distribution of leachate plumes
     o    Groundwater gradients, flow direction, and rate
     o    Water quality parameters

To determine a logging program that will enhance evaluation
of the site, the SM must thoroughly evaluate two key items.
First, the SM must identify the regional bedrock geology
(i.e., igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) and typical
surficial units.  Then the SM must gather as much local
information as possible regarding geologic units (i.e.,
boring logs of monitoring wells, domestic water supply
depths, and well yields) and any hydrogeologic reports or
information.

Second, the SM must identify which logs are applicable in
the site's geologic setting and which logs will provide the
required information for meeting program objectives.
Exhibit 8.4-17 is a general guide to data collection objec-
tives that will aid in the selection process.  However, each
function under consideration must be researched in more
detail using publications listed in information sources in
this compendium and consulting with borehole geophysical
logging specialists.

There are, of course, limiting factors for each of the
logging techniques.  Exhibit 8.4-18 identifies some limiting
factors for the logs.

Once the geologic environment has been evaluated and the
logging functions narrowed, the SM must select the appropri-
ate equipment.  Portable units that can be carried on a
backpack enable access to most well locations; however, they
are limited to logging functions requiring low power opera-
tion  (e.g., battery packs).

Functions that require 110 volt AC usually operate from a
larger unit that is typically mounted in a vehicle.  These
units cost considerably more, and access to well locations
can present problems in swampy areas.  However, these units
are able to run the majority of log functions available
today.  Exhibit 8.4-19 shows a generalized schematic diagram
of geophysical well-logging equipment.
                           8.4-56
-------
                             Exhibit 8.4-17
               GENERAL GUIDE TO DATA COLLECTION OBJECTIVES
  Data Collection Objectives

LithOlogy and stratigraphic
correlation

Total porosity or bulk density
Effective porosity or true
resistivity
Clay or shale content

Secondary permeability
(fractures, solution openings)

Specific yields of unconfined
aquifer

Water level and saturated
zones
Moisture content

Dispersion, dilution, and
movement of waste

Groundwater movement
through a borehole
Cementing
Casing corrosion
   Available Techniques

Electric, caliper, nuclear,
and sonic

Gamma-gamma, neutron, and
sonic

Long-normal resistivity
(records the resistivity
beyond the invaded zone)

Natural gamma

Caliper, electric, sonic,
and borehole televiewer

Neutron
Electric, neutron, gamma-
gamma , temperature, and
fluid conductivity

Neutron

Fluid conductivity and
temperature

Flowmeter (vertical)
and chemical tracers
(horizontal)

Caliper, temperature,
gamma-gamma, and sonic

Caliper
                                 8.4-57
-------
                             Exhibit 8.4-18
                 LOGGING FUNCTIONS  BOREHOLE  LIMITATIONS
                                     Limiting Factors
   Logging Function	

Spontaneous potential
Single-point resistance
Natural gamma
Gamma-gamma
Neutron
Caliper
Temperature
Fluid conductivity
Fluid movement
Sonic
Uncased Open
  Boreholes

      X
      X
      X
      X
      X
      X
Minimum
Diameter
(inches)

   2.5
   2.5
   2.5
   2.5
   2.5
   2.0
   2.0
   2.5
   2.5
   2.5
 Fluid
Filled

   X
   X
   X
   X
   X
   X
X = Required condition
                                 8.4-58
-------
                           Exhibit 8.4-19
                    SCHEMATIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
               GEOPHYSICAL  WELL-LOGGING EQUIPMENT
                                      QOIVl •
                                  LOGGING CONTROLS
SOURCE: Techniques of Water Resources Investigations
of the United States Geological Survey, Chapter E1 page 22.

                                8.4-59
-------
8.4.3.3  Survey Design

8.4.3.3.1  Log Selection

Once the SM has defined the logging program and has
identified the general category of logs that will supply the
necessary information, the specific logging functions(s) can
be selected.  Exhibit 8.4-20 describes the type of log, a
basic description, and the primary use ot the technique.

There are many combinations of logging functions.  The
reader should refer to Exhibit 8.4-12 (D1Apollonia, 1980)
for more information on logging functions.  Generally,
several borehole techniques are pertormed simultaneously or
in a series to define any one of the geologic or hydrologic
parameters.

8 .4 . 3.4  Interferences/Anomalies

Electrical.  Both SP and resistance logs are susceptible to
the same types of interference.  Buried cables, pipelines,
magnetic storms, and the flow of groundwater can all cause
anomalous readings.  The most common noise in the SP logs is
known as the battery effect and is caused by the polariza-
tion of the wetted cable.  This condition is most trouble-
some in highly resistive surface formations.  A common
interference with the resistance log is the result of ground
currents from powerlines and other electrical sources that
interfere with the alternating current used in logging.
This interference appears as a sine wave superimposed on the
resistance curve.

Some common equipment problems with electric logs are
presented in Exhibit 8.4-21.

Nuclear.  The most common problems with nuclear logs are
that they are all attected by borehole diameter changes and
changes in borehole media  (air, water, mud).  These problems
are why caliper logs are essential to correlate the results.
A natural gamma log is the sum of the radiation emitted from
the formation and does not distinguish between elements
 (i.e., potassium, uranium, thorium).  In quantitative appli-
cations of nuclear logs, the calibration, standardization,
and correction for dead time are essential.  However, when
the logs are used for qualitative interpretations  (e.g.,
Stratigraphic correlation), such corrections may be
unnecessary.

Mechanical.  Caliper logging is a straighttorward mechanical
technique and exhibits few anomalies.  Instrumental mal-
functions are more likely to cause anomalous readings than
borehole parameters.
                           8.4-60
-------
                               Exhibit 8.4-20
                    TYPES OF LOGS,  DESCRIPTIONS,  AND USES
 Type of Log

Caliper
       Description
    Primary Utilization
Single-Point
Resistivity
Spontaneous
Potential (SP)
Natural Gamma
Gamma-Gamma
Neutron
A caliper produces a record Used for correction of
of the average diameter of  other logs, identification
drill hole.                 of lithology changes, and
                            locations of fractures and
                            other openings in bedrock
This log measures the
resistance of the earth
material lying between an
in-hole electrode and a
surface electrode.

SP is a graphic plot of
the small differences in
voltage that develop
between the borehole
fluid and the surround-
ing formation.

This log measures natural
gamma radiation emitted
from potassium 40, uranium,
and thorium decay series
elements.
Gamma photons are induced
in the borehole environ-
ments, and the absorption
and scattering are mea-
sured to evaluate the
medium through which they
travel.

Neutrons are introduced
into the borehole, and
the loss of energy is
measured from elastic
collision with hydrogen
atoms.
Used to determine strati-
graphic boundaries, changes
in lithology, and the identi-
fication of fractures in
resistive rock

Used for geologic correla-
tion, determination of bed
thickness, and separation of
nonporous from porous rocks
in shale-sandstone and
shale-carbonate sequences

Used for lithology identifi-
cation and stratigraphy cor-
relation; most advantageous
in detrital sediment environ-
ments where the fine-grained
units have the highest gamma
intensity

Used for identification of
lithology, measurements of
bulk density, and porosity
of rocks
Used to measure the moisture
content above the water
table and the total porosity
below the water table
                                 8.4-61
-------
                               Exhibit 8.4-20
                                 (continued)
 Type of Log
Temperature
       Description
Fluid
Conductivity
Acoustic (sonic)
A temperature log is the
continuous record of the
thermal gradient of the
borehole fluid.

This log provides a
measurement of the con-
ductivity of the in-hole
fluid between the
electrodes.
A transmitter and a
receiver or series of
receivers that use
various acoustic fre-
quencies.  These signals
are introduced into the
borehole, and the elastic
waves are measured.
    Primary Utilization

Used to determine seasonal
recharge to a groundwater
system
Used primarily in conjunction
with electric logs to aid in
their interpretation; useful
for identifying saltwater
intrusion into freshwater
systems; can be useful in
evaluating water quality

Used to measure porosity and
identify fractures in igneous
and metamorphic rock.
                                 8.4-62
-------
                         Exhibit 8.4-21
 GEOPHYSICAL LOGS  SHOWING SOME COMMON EQUIPMENT PROBLEMS
            SINGLE-POINT
            RESISTANCE
                LOG
                              SPONTANEOUS
                               POTENTIAL
                                   LOG
                          NATURAL
                           GAMMA
                             LOG
                    Drift Eliminator
                     not operating
                       properly
                                     Different logs on the
                                   same recorder amplifier
                                     Pan drive sticking or
                                     amplifier gain lee low
SPONTANEOUS
  POTENTIAL
     LOG
SINGLE-POINT
 RESISTANCE
     LOG
SPONTANEOUS
  POTENTIAL
     LOG
SINGLE-POINT
 RESISTANCE
     LOG
          Simultaneous logs
         Regular noise due to
            60-cycle AC
                                       Simultaneous logs
                                    Intermittent noise probably
                                   caused by drilling equipment
                                          of the well
 SOURCE: Techniques of Water Resources Investigations
 of the United States Geological Survey, Chapter E1, page 23.
                                     8.4-63
-------
Impeller flow anomalies are most often caused by varying the
probe position radially in the borehole.  Bouncing of the
probe from side to side will erroneously indicate flow.
Corrective action may include a device that would hold the
sonde in the middle of the borehole.

Temperature logs are susceptible to thermal lag time,
self-heating, drift from the electronics in the sonde, and
borehole conditions.  A slow logging speed and additional
logging functions (i.e., caliper, fluid conductivity) can
aid in temperature log interpretation.  Another problem with
temperature logs is that after one pass of the sonde, the
thermal gradient is disturbed and repeat logs may not be
representative.  In large diameter wells, convection can
cause a disturbance of the thermal gradient.

Disturbances to the borehole fluid caused by changes in
fluid density and thermal convection can cause an erroneous
log.  Since fluid conductivity response is affected by the
water chemistry, chemical equilibrium must be reached before
measurements are taken.  Well water may take months to
obtain chemical equilibrium with the surrounding formation
after drilling, and water wells with much internal movement
may never reach chemical equilibrium.  Repeat logs are not
usually representative because the sonde disturbs the water
column.

Cycle skipping is the most obvious unwanted signal in
acoustic logging.  It is caused by excessive signal atten-
uation in the fluid or by equipment malfunction.  A problem
with interpreting acoustic logs is that the velocity is
dependent on a variety of lithologic factors, and the widely
used time-average equation does not account for most of the
factors.
WDR230/010
                           8.4-64
-------
         Appendix 8. 4A




ELECTROMAGNETIC  (EM)  INSTRUMENT
            8.4-65
-------
                        Appendix 8. 4A
               ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM)  INSTRUMENT
                           THEORY

The conductivity value resulting from an electromagnetic
(EM)  instrument is a composite; it represents the combined
effects of the thickness of soil or rock layers, their
depths, and the specific conductivities of the materials.
The instrument reading represents a combination of these
effects, extending from the surface to the depth range of
the instrument.  The resulting values are influenced more
strongly by shallow materials than by deeper layers, and
this influence must be taken into consideration when
interpreting the data.  Conductivity conditions from the
surtace to the instrument's nominal depth range contribute
generally 75 percent ot the instrument's response.  However,
contributions from highly conductive materials lying at
greater depths may have a significant effect on the reading.

EM instruments are calibrated to read subsurface
conductivity in millimhos per meter (mm/m).  These units are
related to resistivity units in the following manner:

     1,000/(millimhos/meter)  =  1 ohmmeter
     1,000/(millimhos/meter)  =  3.28 ohmfeet

The advantage of using millimhos/meter is that the common
range of resistivities from 1 to 1,000 ohmmeters is covered
by the range of conductivities from 1,000 to 1 millimhos/
meter.

Most soil and rock minerals, when dry, have very low
conductivities (Exhibit 8.4A-1).  On rare occasions,
conductive minerals like magnetite, graphite, and pyrite
occur in sufficient concentrations to greatly increase
natural subsurface conductivity.  Most often, conductivity
is overwhelmingly influenced by water content and by the
following soil/rock parameters:

     o    The porosity and permeability of the material

     o    The extent to which the pore space is saturated

     o    The concentration ot dissolved electrolytes and
          colloids in the pore fluids

     o    The temperature and phase state  (i.e., liquid or
          ice) of the pore water
                           8.4A-1
-------
                           Exhibit 8.4A-1
                 CONDUCTIVITY  (MILLIMHOS/METER)
                         10*
Cloy and Marl
Loam
Top  Soil
Clayey Soils
Sandy Soils
Loose  Sands
River Sand and Gravel
Glacial   Till
Chalk
Limestones
Sandstones
Basalt
Crystalline Rocks
                                 Conductivity  (millimhos/meter)
10'
10'
10
                                                         -I
10
                                                                 -2
10
                                                                        ,-3
////////


I// //I

\n
3
TZ2

i/ ///i



I/ ///////

///////I
i
/ / //// / / / / \

V ////




V / / /// /I
_ , 1

I/// /// // //,

ZZ2



////////////
 SOURCE: Benson (1983). (Range of electrical conductivities in natural soil and rock, modified
 after Culley et al.)
                                8.4A-2
-------
A specific conductivity value cannot be assigned to a
particular material, because the interrelationships of soil
or rock composition, structure, and pore fluids are highly
variable.

In areas surrounding hazardous waste sites, contaminants may
escape into the soil and the groundwater system.  In many
cases, these fluids contribute large amounts of electrolytes
and colloids to both the unsaturated and saturated zones.
In either case, the ground conductivity may be greatly
attected, sometimes increasing by one to three orders of
magnitude above background values.  However, if the natural
variations in subsurface conductivity are very low, con-
taminant plumes of only 10 to 20 percent above background
may be mapped.

In the case of spills involving heavy nonpolar, organic
fluids such as diesel oil, the normal soil moisture may be
displaced, or a sizeable pool of oil may develop at the
water table.  In these cases, subsurface conductivities may
decrease, causing a negative EM anomaly.
                     INFORMATION SOURCES

The following list of sources has been categorized into
specific groups for easy use.  A partial list of equipment
manufacturers follows the references:

       Electromagnetic (EM)  Theory and Interpretation
                          Textbooks

Grant, F.S., and G.F. West.   Interpretation Theory in
Applied Geophysics.  McGraw Hill Book Company.  1965.

Griffiths, D.H., and R.F. King.  Applied Geophysics for
Geologists and Engineers.  Pergamon Press.  1981.

Parasins, D.S.  Principles of Applied Geophysics (3rd
edition).  Chapman and Hall Publishers.  1979.

Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldard, R.E. Sheriff, and D.A. Keys.
Applied Geophysics.  Cambridge University Press.

Wait, J.R.  Geo-Electromagnetism.  Academic Press.  1982.

                          Journals

Hanneson, J.E., and G.F. West.  "The Horizontal Loop
Electromagnetic Response of a This Plate in a Conductive
Earth:  Part I and II."  Geophysics, Vol. 49, no. 4,
pp. 411-432.
                           8.4A-3
-------
McNeill, J.D.  "Electrical Conductivity of Soils and Rock."
Technical Note #5.  Mississauga, Canada:  Geonics Limited.
1980.

McNeill, J.D.  "Electromagnetic Terrain Conductivity
Measurement at Low Industion Numbers."  Technical Note #6.
Mississauga, Canada:  Geonics Limited.  1980.

McNeill, J.D.  "Interpretative Aids for Use with
Electromagnetic (Non-Contacting) Ground Resistivity Map-
ping."  Paper presented at European Association of Explora-
tion Geophysicists Annual Meeting.  Hamburg, Germany.  1979.

Wait, J.R.  "A Note on the Electromagnetic Response of a
Stratified Earth."  Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 382-385.

                     EM General Manuals

Benson, R.C., R.A. Glaccum, and M.F. Noel.  "Geophysical
Techniques for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste Migration."
Las Vegas, Nevada:  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory.  1983.

               EM Case Histories and Examples
                          Journals

Fox, R.L., and D.A. Gould.  "Delineation of Subsurface
Contamination Using Multiple Surface Geophysical Methods."
Presented at the NWWA Eastern Regional Groundwater Confer-
ence  (Technology Division).  Newton, Massachusetts.  1984.

Glaccom, R.A., R.C. Benson, and M.R. Noel.  "Improving
Accuracy and Cost-Effectiveness of Hazardous Waste Site
Investigations.  Ground Water Monitoring Review.  Summer
1982.

McNeill, J.D.  "Electromagnetic Resistivity Mapping of
Contaminant Plumes."  Presented at the National Conference
on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites—contact
HMCRI.  Silver Spring, Maryland.

Rudy, R.J., and J.A. Caoile.  "Utilization of Shallow
Geophysical Sensing at Two Abandoned Municipal/Industrial
Waste Landfills on the Missouri River Floodplain."  Ground
Water Monitoring Review.  Fall issue, 1984.

Slaine, D.D., and J.P. Greenhouse.  "Case Studies of
Geophysical Contaminant Mapping at Several Waste Disposal
Sites."  Presented at the NWWA Second National Symposium on
Aquifer Restoration and Ground Water Monitoring.  Columbus,
Ohio.   1982.
                           8.4A-4
-------
Steward, M.T.  "Evaluation of Electromagnetic Methods for
Rapid Mapping of Salt-Water Interfaces in Coastal Aquifers."
Ground Water, Vol. 20.  September-October 1982.

                        Manufacturers

Aerodat Limited
3883 Nashua Drive
Mississauga, Ontario  L4V 1R3
416/671-2446  (airborne EM systems)

Crone Geophysics Limited
3607 Wolfedale Road
Mississauga, Ontario  L5C 1V8
416/270-0096  (surface EM systems)

Geonics Limited
1745 Meyerside Drive
Mississauga, Ontario  L5T 1C5
416/676-9580  (borehole and surface EM systems)

Phoenix Geophysics Limited
200 Yorkland Boulevard
Willowdale, Ontario  M2J 1R5
416/493-6350  (surface EM systems)

Scintrex
222 Snidercroft Road
Concord, Ontario  L4K IBS
416/669-2280  (surface EM systems)
WDR232/003
                           8.4A-5
-------
Appendix 8.4B



 RESISTIVITY
-------
                        Appendix 8.4B
                         RESISTIVITY
                           THEORY

The ability to conduct (or resist)  current is dependent on
the nature of the material to which the current is applied.
Geologic materials, such as clays or iron-rich saturated
sands, are generally quite conductive but are poor
resistors, while organic-rich soils and granite bedrock are
typically poor conductors and good resistors.  The elec-
trical resistivities in naturally occurring materials run a
range of magnitudes whose extreme values differ by almost a
factor of 10 to the 20th power (Grant and West).
Exhibit 8.4B-1 gives some examples of how water content and
geologic material can affect resistivity.

Although ER instrumentation is variable in design and
operation, the basic principles are constant.  Electrical
resistivity has as its foundation Ohm's Law, which states
that the electrical potential between two points is defined
by the supplied current multiplied by the circuit resis-
tance.  Mathematically, Ohm's Law could be represented as
follows:

                          E  =  IR

In the above equation, E = potential of the circuit (volts),
I = current (amperes), and R = the measured resistance
(ohms), the desired parameter.

In practice, current (I)  is introduced to the ground by
conduction through (generally) two current electrodes.
Generally, two potential electrodes (E) are put a set
distance from the current electrodes, and the potential drop
in current is measured.  From this relationship, resistivity
is calculated (Exhibit 8.4B-2).  To supply the electrical
current, a power source such as batteries or a generator can
be used, but for most work done at hazardous waste sites, a
DC battery supply will suffice.
                     INFORMATION SOURCES

The following list of sources has been categorized into
specific groups for easy use and includes a partial list of
equipment manufacturers.
                           8.4B-1
-------
                            Exhibit 8.4B-1
                   NATURAL VARIATIONS IN RESISTIVITY
                 BECAUSE OF MATERIAL AND WATER CONTENT
                              Water Content        Typical Resistivity
       Rock  Type                (percent HO)              (ohmmeter)
Si Its tone
Siltstone
Coarse Grain Sandstone
Coarse Grain Sandstone
Graywacke Sandstone
Graywacke Sandstone
Dolomite
Dolomite
Peridotite
Peridotite
Granite
Granite
Basalt
Basalt
Olivine-Pyrox.
Olivine-Pyrox.
Material
Clays
Sands
Sea Water
Groundwater (bedrock)
Groundwater (overburden)
0.54
0.38
0.39
0.18
1.16
0.45
2.0
0.96
0.1
0
0.31
0
0.95
0
0.028
0

1.5 x 104
5.6 x 108
9.6 x 10
io8
4.7 x IO3
5.8 x IO4
5.3 x IO3
8 x IO3
3 x IO3
1.8 x IO7
4.4 x 10
io10
4. x IO4
1.3 x IO8
2 x IO4
5.6 x 10
1-100
10-800
0.2
0.5-100
100
Based on W.M.  Telford,  et al.   Applied  Geophysics.   1976.
                                8.4B-2
-------
                          Exhibit  8.4B-2
         THEORY OF  ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
                       POWER-(SUPPLIED CURRENT)


— t
CURRENT
ELECTRODE
V


MEASURED VOLTAGE
1 POTENTIAL
J ELECTRODES
L- _
                                        CURRENT LINES
                  EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
                                                                 CURRENT
                                                                ELECTRODE
                                                                  GROUND
                                                                 SURFACE
SOURCE: Based on W.M. Telford et al. Applied Geophysics, 1976.
                               8.4B-3
-------
    Electrical Resistivity (ER)  Theory and Interpretation
                          Textbooks

Griffith, D.H., and R.F. King.  Applied Geophysics for
Geologists and Engineers.  Pergamon Press.1981.

Grant, F.S., and F.G. West.  Interpretation Theory in
Applied Geophysics.  McGraw-Hill.  1965.

Telford, W.M., et al.  Applied Geophysics.  Cambridge
University Press.  1976.

                          Journals

Zohdy, A.A.R.  "Automatic Interpretation of Schlumberger
Sounding Curves Using Modified Dar Zarrovk Functions."  U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1313E.  Washington, D.C.  1975.

                     ER General Manuals

Benson, R.D., R.S. Glaccum, and M.R. Noel.  Geophysical
Techniques for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste Migration.
Prepared by Technos,Incorporated,for the U.S.Environ-
mental Monitoring Systems Laboratory.  Las Vegas,  Nevada.
1983.

Costello, R.L.  Identification and Description of
Geophysical Techniques.Prepared by D'Appolonia for U.S.
Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency.  Aberdeen Proving
Ground, Maryland.  1980.

Greenhouse, J.P.  Surface Geophysics in Contaminant
Hydrogeology.  Manual for the Hydrology Field School through
the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.  1982.

Peffer, J.R., and P.G. Robelen.  Affordable;  Overburden
Mapping Using New Geophysical Techniques.Pit and Quarry.
August 1983.

Technos, Incorporated.  Application Guidelines for Selected
Contemporary Techniques  for Subsurface Investigations.(No
publication date given.)

               ER Case Histories and Examples
                          Journals

Bradbury, K.R., and R.W. Taylor.  "Determination of the
Hydrologic Properties of Lakebeds Using Offshore Geophysical
Surveys."  Ground Water, Vol. 22, No. 6.  1984.

Evans, R.B., and G.E. Schweitzer.  "Assessing Hazardous
Waste Problems."  Environmental  Science Technology, Vol.  18,
No.  11.  1984.
                           8.4B-4
-------
Pennington, D.  "Selection of Proper Resistivity Techniques
and Equipment for Evaluation of Groundwater Contamination."
Presented at the NWWA Conference on Surface and Borehole
Geophysical Methods in Groundwater Investigation.  Fort
Worth, Texas.  February 1985.

Ringstad, C.A., and D.C. Bugenig.  "Electrical Resistivity
Studies to Delimit Zones of Acceptable Ground Water
Quality."  Ground Water Monitoring Review.  Fall 1984.

Underwood, J.W., K.J. Laudon, and T.S. Laudon.  "Seismic and
Resistivity Investigations near Norway, Michigan."  Ground
Water Monitoring Review.  Fall 1984.

                        Manufacturers

ABEM-Atlas Copco
Distributed by Geotronics Corp.
10317 McKalla Place
Austin, Texas  78758

Bison Instruments, Inc.
5708 West 36th Street
Minneapolis, Minnesota  55416

BRGM-Syscal
Distributed by EDA Instruments
5151 Ward Road
Wheat Ridge, Colorado  80033

Phoenix Geophysics Limited
200 Yorkland Boulevard
Willowdale, Ontario  M2J 1R5

Scintrex Limited
222 Snidercroft Road
Concord  (Toronto), Ontario  L4K 1B5


WDH2J2/U04
                          8.4B-5
-------
Appendix  8.4C




  SEISMICS
     8.4B-6
-------
                        Appendix 8.4C
                          SEISMICS
                           THEORY

SEISMIC REFRACTION

Compressional waves (P-waves),  shear waves (S-waves), and
surface waves are generated by a seismic disturbance such as
a chemical explosion or weight drop; these waves propagate
through the earth at seismic velocities determined by the
physical properties of the subsurface material through which
they travel (Exhibits 8.4C-1 and 8.4C-2).  Particle motion
associated with P-waves occurs in the direction of wave pro-
pagation as a series of compressions and refractions.  The
P-wave velocity diminishes markedly when the P-wave
encounters water-bearing strata.  Layer density can be
empirically deduced from the observed P-wave velocity by
using the Nafe-Drake relation (Exhibit 8.4C-3).

Particle motion associated with S-waves occurs in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.  S-waves
travel at slower seismic velocities than P-waves, S-waves
always arrive at surface receivers after P-waves, and
S-waves will not travel through fluids.

Surface waves are known as guided waves because they travel
along a free surface of discontinuity within the earth.
Particle motion and seismic velocity for these waves depend
on the type of surface waves generated, but they all travel
at lower velocities than either P- or S-waves.  Whenever a
P- or S-wave strikes an interface at an oblique angle, both
reflected and refracted P- and S-waves are generated,
serving to further complicate the identification of later
arriving phases.

Shallow refraction surveys conducted in hazardous waste site
investigations are run at high amplifier gain settings to
record accurate arrival times of the first-arriving P-waves
or the "first breaks."  No effort is made to correlate
arrival times of later-arriving phases.

P-waves travel along ray paths that are determined by
Fermat's Principle, Huygen's Principle, and Snell's Law.
P-waves arrive at receivers with seismic wave amplitudes
that are determined by the geometrical rate of spreading of
the wave and the attenuation of the spectral components of
the wave form as a result of the imperfect elasticity of
                           8.4C-1
-------
               Exhibit  8.4C-1
SEISMIC  VELOCITIES  OF  COMPRESSIONAL
              AND  SHEAR WAVES
    Vp

ka/Mc  10 ft/Mi
                                   Vs
93-20
19-1 I
I 1.2.)
94-1 •
O.J-4.4

9 J-2.9
 I ft

 i I
                       94

                       9.)
                              **-4 J»
                             •44.H 44
                                • 114

                                •4)4
                               S *l

                               2U

                             9«4-2.W

                             I 41.) 41
                               )*7  •
                             rg.iM
                             14 0.14.74
                             4 J*.t4 II

                               'IT'

                             J J4.I1.7I
                             * I*»II 41
                              I1.J4

                             II IJ-».4I

                              H.7)

                              23.»
                             1444.21 Jl
                             H 44.11.4*
                               1141
                             4 54-11 4*
                 -* 2   I 97 IV   (|
                :«   M) SH     i4*
                       —      '991
                       :tt     «oi
                                       l 51
                         • M
                         *fT
                        ) Jl JV
                        ) ri SH

                          1 14
                               '14*    IOII-I0.4* V,V, •
                                               i 47.1 n
                               JO-a.?^  4 t>-l2 44 44 iMHM
                               H14      14 M   A*4«t««f4«
                                      4.14.1 »
                                         I.M
                                               41.11.7
                              IM-4M
                                         2.n
                                                 7.1.4
                      8.4C-2
                                                       Best available copy
-------
                            Exhibit  8.4C-2
            SEISMIC VELOCITIES OF COMPRESSIONAL WAVES
                            IN NEW ENGLAND
                           P-wav« velocity
MATERIALS
Overburden




Btd rock
KM/sec
0.09-0.30
0.30-0.61
0.92-1.37
1.46-1.62
1.83-2.44
1.52-2.44
10 rt/$ec
0.3-1.0
1.0-2.0
3.0-4.5
4.8-5.3
6.0-8.0
5.0-8.0*
REWKK5
Very loost unsaturated
$11 t$, humus and f111.
Loose unsaturated coarse
gravtl and ground moraine
Compact, d§ns« glacial
till.
Compact saturated
flurlogladal deposits.
Very dense glacial till.
Highly weathered, highly
                                                   fractured with high
                                                   permeability.

                    2.44-3.66        8.0-12.0      Slightly to moderately
                                                   weathered.

                    3.66-3.96      12 .0-13.0      Unweithered massive
                                                   bedrock.
 * Bedrock velocities in the range of 5,000 to 8,000 ft/sec may  be
   highly fractured and be indicative of layers of extensive  ground-
   water flow.
SOURCE: These values were compiled by the Weston Geophysical
Corporation and listed in the Seismic Refraction Study of the
Tinkhams site in Londonderry N.H.
                                                             Best available copy
                                 8.4C-3
-------
                         Exhibit 8.4C-3
                       NAFE-DRAKE  CURVE
            10 r
                            2              3
                             Density (g/cm*)
SOURCE: R. E. Sheriff (1984).
Best available copy
                              8.4C-4
-------
earth materials.  The direct ray travels directly from
source to receiver through the uppermost subsurface layer
(layer 1 in Exhibit 8.4C-4) at P-wave velocity V_.  The
total time taken by this ray to travel through layer 1 is
given by


                        fcdir  -  X/V0

Where X is the shot-to-receiver distance.

This equation describes straight line segment 1 of the
travel-time curve in Exhibit 8.4C-4, which has slope 1/VQ
and passes through the origin.

When a P-wave encounters a boundary between two layers of
different seismic velocities, part of the original wave
energy is reflected back into the underlying layer at an
angle of reflection i  that is equal to the angle of
incidence i.  The remainder of this energy is refracted into
the underlying layer at an angle of refraction i .

When a P-wave strikes an interface between two layers at an
angle i = i  so that sin i  = V../V2 and i  = 90, a pulse of
small amplitude is generated in the overlying layer.  This
pulse is called the "head wave" and travels along the upper
boundary of the underlying layer.  The angle i  is the
critical angle of refraction, and seismic rays striking the
interface as angles of incidence greater than i  are totally
reflected back into the overlying layer.  The greater the
velocity contract between the two layers, the greater the
proportion of incident wave energy returned to the surface
in the form of the reflected ray and the smaller the
amplitude of the head wave.

Time-distance or travel-time curves are constructed from
seismic data by plotting the source-to-receiver travel time
against the source to receiver distance X.  Exhibit 8.4C-4
is the travel-time curve for a series of horizontal
refractors, each of which has a greater seismic velocity
than the layer immediately overlying it.

In Exhibit 8.4C-4 the total time taken by the head wave to
propagate through layers 1 and 2 is given by the following
equation:

                         2   21/2
     tj_  =  X   +  2Z1(V1 -VQ )1X   =  X   +   tn
                           8.4C-5
-------
                Exhibit 8.4C-4
       RAY  PATHS AND TRAVEL-TIME CURVE
         FOR HORIZONTAL REFRACTORS
f;n.«
^ / / /
\\\ / / / '•
\\ / / '•••
\ /
'.
. ',
•<...
<,.,
                                         Best available copy
                   8.4C-6
-------
This equation describes straight line segment 2 of the
travel-time curve, which has slope 1/V..  and time intercept
t.-.  The thickness of layer 1 is given by the equation
bilow
                •il
V0V1
This is also the depth to layer 2.

Straight line segments 1 and 2 intersect at point X , t ;
therefore,
and
               X
                cl
                                    2   21/2
                                    ^/
vi - vo
Vl + V0
3
This equation uses the critical distance X  to determine the
thickness of layer 1.

The travel-time curve changes significantly for dipping
refractors, and the above travel-time depth relations are no
longer valid.  Reversed seismic profiles yield travel-time
curves that reveal dipping refractors.  Exhibit 8.4C-5
represents the cross section through a dipping refractor and
the reversed travel-time curve associated with it.

The dip angle 0 and critical angle i  can be computed from
velocities measured from straight line segments of the
reversed travel-time curve.
                       sin
                          -1
                              V.
               sin
                  -1
                      V
                                               u
                       sin
                          -1
                             _
                              V.
               sin
                  -1
                                               u
                           8.4C-7
-------
                          Exhibit 8.4C-5
                 RAY  PATH AND TRAVEL-TIME  CURVES
                    FOR A DIPPING REFRACTOR
SOURCE: Telford et al. (1976).
                                                      Best available copy
                               8.4C-8
-------
The downdip and updip intercept times can then be measured
to calculate the downdip and updip thickness of the dipping
layer:
     (A)
Vild
cos i
and,
     (B)
                u
Vilu
cos i
When the dip angle is very small, equations (A) and (B) can
be approximated by letting cos of i  equal 1.
                                   c

Lateral variations in refractor velocity are manifested in
reversed travel-time curves, and examples of some of these
situations are illustrated in Exhibit 8.4C—6.
Seismic Reflection

Refraction time-distance curves for the case of three
velocity discontinuities is illustrated in Exhibit 8.4C-7,
along with the related set of reflection time-distance
curves.  The segment of the time-distance curve for rays
that are reflected from the bottom of layer "n" approaches
the straight-line segment of the time-distance curve for
rays that are critically refracted from the top of this
layer asymptotically at large shot-receiver distances.  This
similarity is because the ray paths traveled by these rays
become identical at these distances.  The straight-line
segment of the time-distance curve for rays critically
refracted from the top of the underlying n + 1 is tangential
to the curve for rays reflected from layer n.

At the critical distance X  , travel times for rays
reflected from the bottom or layer n equal the travel time
for rays critically refracted from the top of the underlying
layer n + 1.  At this distance, rays reflected from the
bottom of layer n are reflected at the critical angle.  The
critical distance for the existence of head waves from a
layer is given by the following equation
           cr
                        tan i
At distances less than X  , no head waves exist from the top
of the underlying layer n + 1.  At distances greater than
X   the head wave from the underlying layer exists and
a?£ives at surface receivers ahead of the ray received at
                           8.4C-9
-------
                       Exhibit  8.4C-6
   LATERALLY  DISCONTINUOUS  STRUCTURES  AND
 SCHEMATIC REVERSED  REFRACTION  TRAVEL-TIME
           GRAPHS  ASSOCIATED  WITH  THEM
          1C)
          .. <
                          V
                                                     v
         Some example* of simple laterally discontinuous sttucturcs and schematic
reversed refraction travel-time graphs that would be associated with them, (a) A lateral
velocity change The l-i graph is unchanged fur any dip of the boundary so long as (he
higher velocity material overlies the lower (h> If t'j - !•',, brunches of apparent velocities
y\t, H,, are produced. The effect oNn addiiumjl low-\clociiy surface layer is also shown.
(c) An increase of refractor dtp can also lead 10 a low velocity branch V-^ following one of
higher velocity V^. Note that a plane-layer interpretation is possible only if the branches
V-^-V-u and V^-lfacan be correctly paired. It will usually be eukier to use the "plus-minus"
approach (eqns. 3.11.1.12). (d) The dipping segment of M is here steepened to a fault-like
step. The steps in ihe I - .r graphs are leu sharp because of diffraction effeus, and are offset
                                                                      Best available copy
                            8.4C-10
-------
                       Exhibit  8.4C-7
             REFLECTION-REFRACTION GEOMETRY
                 FOR  A FOUR-LAYER  CASE
msec
                             600  m/S
   A. Direct ray through layer 1.
   B. Reflections from bottom of layer 1.
   C. Wide-angle reflections from bottom of layer 1.
   D. Refracted rays from layer 2.
   E. Reflections from bottom of layer 2.
   F. Wide-angle reflections from  bottom of layer 2.
   G. Refracted rays from layer 3.
   H. Reflections from bottom of layer 3.
   I. Wide-angle reflections from bottom of layer 3.
   J.  Refracted rays from layer 4.
   K.. L., M., Critical distances for layers 1. 2 and 3.
                                                     Best available copy
                          8.4C-11
-------
distances greater than X  ,  which are referred to as "wide
angle reflections."  RefJicted rays from the bottom of layer
n undergo a large increase in amplitude near X   for that
layer because of the constructive interference £f the head
wave refracted from the top of the underlying layer with the
reflected ray.  Other large increases in the amplitude of
the reflected ray occur at crossover points for wide-angle
reflections where two or more wide-angle reflections
constructively interfere.

In this method, the source-to-receiver travel time of
reflection events are squared and plotted against the square
of the source-to-receiver distance.  Velocity is obtained
from the square root of the inverse slope of the straight
line segment.  The depth to the reflecting layer is obtained
from the velocity and time intercept.
                     INFORMATION SOURCES

Backus, M.M.  "Water Reverberations:  Their Nature and
Elimination."  Geophysics, Vol. 24, pp. 233-261.  1959.

Campbell, F.F.  "Fault Criteria."  Geophysics, Vol. 30,
pp. 348-361.  1965.

Carmichael, R.S.  Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks.
Vol. 2.  Boca Raton, Florida:  CRC Press.  1982.

Costello, R.L.  Identification and Description of
Geophysical Techniques.  D'Appolonia Consulting Engineers,
Phase I Report.  1980.

Dobrin, M.B.  Introduction to Geophysics Prospecting.  New
York:  McGraw-Hill.1960.446 pp.

Dix, C.H.  "Seismic Velocities from Surface Measurements."
Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 68-86.  1955.

Faust, L.Y.  "Seismic Velocity as a Function of Depth and
Geologic Time."  Geophysics, Vol. 16, pp. 192-206.  1951.

Garland, G.D., and R.F. King.  Applied Geophysics for
Geologists and Engineers.  Pergamon Press.

Hagerhorn, J.G.  "A Process of Seismic Reflection
Interpretation."  Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 2, pp.
85-127.  1954.

Howe11, B.F.  Introduction to Geophysics.  New York:
McGraw-Hill.  1959.
                           8.4C-12
-------
Hunter, J.A., R.A. Burns, R.L. Good, H.A. MacAulay, and R.M.
Gagne.  "Optimum Field Techniques for Bedrock Reflection
Mapping with the Multi-Channel Engineering Seismogram."
Current Research Part B.  Geological Survey of Canada, Paper
82-1B, pp. 125-129.  1982.

Kleyn, A.H.  Seismic Reflection Interpretation.  Elsevier,
New York.   1983.  269 pp.

Kramer, F.S., R.A. Peters, and W.C. Walter.  Seismic Energy
Sources 1968 Handbook.  Bendix United Geophysical.  1968.

Musgrave,  A.W.,  and R.H. Bratton.  "Practical Application of
Blondeau Weathering Solution in Seismic Refraction Prospect-
ing."  Society of Exploration Geophysics, pp. 132-246.
1967.

Nettleton, L.L.   Geophysical Prospecting for Oil.  New York:
McGraw-Hill.  1940.

Parasins,  D.S.  Principles of Applied Geophysics.  New York:
Wiley and Sons.   1979.  275 pp.

Scheider,  W.A.,  K.L. Larner, J.P. Burg, and M.M. Backus.  "A
New Data Processing Technique for the Elimination of Ghost
Arrivals on Reflection Seismograms."  Geophysics, Vol. 26,
pp. 783-805.  1964.

Steinhart, J.S., and R.P. Meyer.  "Minimum Statistical
Uncertainty of the Seismic Refraction Profile."  Geophysics,
Vol. 26, pp. 574-587.  1961.

Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldart, R.E. Sheriff, and D.A. Keys.
Application Guidelines Selected Contemporary Techniques for
Subsurface Investigations.Technos,Inc.Miami, Florida:
Cambridge University Press.  1976.

Treitel, S., and E.A. Robinson.  "Optimum Digital Filters
for Signal-to-Noise Enhancement."  Geophysical Prospecting,
Vol. 17, pp. 248-293.  1969.

Watkins, J.S., L.A. Walters, and R.H. Godson.  "Dependence
of In Situ Compressional-Wave Velocity on the Porosity in
Unsaturated Rocks."  Geophysics, Vol. 37, pp. 417-430.
1972.

Wyllie, M.R.J.,  A.R. Gregory, and L.W. Gardiner.  "Elastic
Wave Velocities in Heterogenous and Porous Media."
Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 41-70.  1956.
                           8.4C-13
-------
Zohdy, A.A.R., G.P. Eaton, and D.R. Mabey.  "Application of
Surface Geophysics to Groundwater Investigations."
Techniques of Water Resources Investigations.   USGS Book 2,
pp. 1-116.  1974.
WDR232/007
                           8.4C-14
-------
Appendix  8.4D




  MAGNETICS
   8.4C-15
-------
                        Appendix 8.4D
                          MAGNETICS
                           THEORY

Earth's Magnetic Field

A magnetometer measures the intensity of the earth's
magnetic field.  The earth's magnetic field, or flux lines,
resemble the lines of a bar magnet, with the magnetic poles
being located near the geographic north and south poles
(Exhibit 8.4D-1).  The intensity of the magnetic field
varies; at the poles it is approximately twice that at the
equator, or approximately 60,000 and 30,000 gammas,
respectively (Exhibit 8.4D-2).

The inclination of the magnetic field also varies with
latitude, being horizontal at the equator and vertical at
the poles (Exhibits 8.4D-1 and 8.4D-3).  Thus, the intensity
of the earth's magnetic field at a given study area is
dependent on its location.

At a given location, fluctuations occur in the earth's
magnetic field because of effects of the solar wind.
Normal diurnal (daily) variations occur in the magnetic
field and may be as large as 100 gammas or more.
Superimposed on any diurnal variations are short-period
micropulsations that are more random in behavior, are
generally smaller in amplitude, and may occur at any time.
Micropulsations may have durations between 0.1 seconds and
several tens of minutes with amplitudes from 0.001 gamma to
several tens of gammas.  Magnetic storms, causing rapid
variation of several hundred gammas in the magnetic field,
may occur as often as several days per month and have
durations from one to several days.

A recording base station magnetometer is used to make
corrections from diurnal variations and for micropulsations,
and to identify magnetic storms.  The base station is
located in an area where representative measurements of the
background magnetic field can be obtained on a continuous
basis.  A magnetometer survey should not be conducted during
a magnetic storm.  The U.S. National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has regional observatories
that monitor the earth's magnetic field and can provide
information on the occurrence of magnetic storms.
                           8.4D-1
-------
                        Exhibit 8.4D-1
                    EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
SOURCE: Breiner (1973).
                             8.4D-2
-------
                            Exhibit 8.4D-2
                      THE TOTAL INTENSITY OF THE
                        EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
NOTE: CONTOURS ARE  IN THOUSANDS OF GAMMAS(KILOGAMMAS)
   SOURCE: Breiner(1973).
                                 8.4D-3
-------
                         Exhibit  8.40-^3
                THE GEOMAGNETIC  INCLINATION IN
              DEGREES  OF ARC FROM THE HORIZONTAL
                                                             tao*
          no*   *o»
SOURCE: Breiner(1973).
                             8.4D-4
-------
Types of Portable Magnetometers

Three main types of portable magnetometers are in use:

     o    Proton precession magnetometer
     o    Flux gate magnetometer
     o    Optical-pumping magnetometer

The proton precession magnetometer consists of a coil wound
around a bottle of proton-rich fluid, such as water or
hydrocarbon fluid.  Sufficient current is introduced through
the coil to induce within the fluid an external magnetic
field about 100 times stronger than the earth's magnetic
field.  As a result, the magnetic moment of the protons will
cause them to align themselves with the new field.  When the
external field is removed, the magnetic moment of the
protons returns, by precession, to its original orientation
with the earth's field.  The precessional oscillation will
induce a voltage in a second coil wound around the bottle,
and the total field strength is determined by measuring the
frequency of the induced voltage.  Typical sensitivity for
this type of magnetometer is one gamma or better.

The flux-gate magnetometer is used to measure any desired
vector component of the earth's magnetic field.  This
instrument uses a ferromagnetic element of such high suscep-
tibility that the earth's field can induce a magnetization
which is a substantial proportion of its saturation value.
With a sufficiently large alternating current flowing
through a coil around the element, the combined field will
saturate the element.  For decreasing strength of the
earth's field, more current will be required to saturate the
element and vice versa.  The place in the energizing cycle
at which saturation is reached gives a measure of the
earth's field.  In actual practice, two parallel elements
with oppositely wound coils connected in series are
employed.  The magnetic field component that is parallel to
the elements will reinforce the field created by one coil
and oppose the field of the other.  Typical sensitivity for
this type of magnetometer is 10 gammas.  Some flux-gate
magnetometers provide continuous readings as well as spot
readings.

The optical-pumping magnetometer is based on quantum theory.
In the absence of a magnetic field, the valence electron of
an alkali-metal atom (such as rubidium or cesium) has two
states:  Level A  (the normal level) and Level B  (the excited
level).  In the presence of a magnetic field, Level A splits
into two sublevels, Al and A2.  The energy difference
between these levels is in the radio frequency range and is
proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.  By
irradiating a gaseous sample of the metal with light from
                           8.4D-5
-------
which spectral line A2B has been removed, electrons in
Sublevel A2 will not be excited.  When the excited electrons
fall back to the ground state, they may return to either
sublevel, but if they fall to Sublevel Al, they can be
removed by excitation to Level B again.  The result is an
accumulation of electrons in Sublevel A2, and the gaseous
sample becomes transparent to the irradiating light beam.
This technique of overpopulating one energy level is known
as optical pumping.  To determine the energy difference
between Al and A2 and, hence, the strength of the magnetic
field, radio waves of continually varying frequency are
passed through the sample until electrons start moving from
A2 to Al and the optical pumping process is reinitiated.
The resumption of optical pumping is indicated by a sharp
drop in sample transparency.  The energy difference between
Al and A2 can be determined by measuring the corresponding
frequency of the radio waves.  The optical-pumping magneto-
meter measures total magnetic field strength with a typical
sensitivity of 0.01 gamma.

Base Station

Base stations are one method used to remove diurnal
variations from the data.  Other methods involve the use of
tie-lines.  If a base station is used, it should be located
in an area free of magnetic anomalies and away from roads,
buildings, or other areas where cars may pass or electrical
disturbances may occur.  The base station location may be
screened by taking vertical gradient readings in the area.
The vertical gradient at the base station location should be
near zero.  It is best to have a separate base station
magnetometer that will record total field measurements
continuously throughout the field survey.  Many manufac-
turers of field and base station magnetometer systems allow
for automatic correction for temporal variations in the
magnetic field.  For automatic recording base stations, a
reading interval of 30 seconds to 2 minutes is recommended.
If only one magnetometer is available, readings should be
obtained at the base station location periodically  (i.e.,
every one-half hour) throughout the field survey.

Correction of Diurnal Variations

Corrections for diurnal variations are made by plotting base
station readings on a time-versus-total-field graph
(Exhibit 8.4D-4); total-field values for times in between
actual readings are interpolated.  A datum value for total
field is chosen, and the differences  (AT) between the base
station total-field reading and the datum value can be
determined for any time during the survey.  The corrected
total-field reading for the survey data is obtained by
adding AT to the total-field reading.
                           8.4D-6
-------
                        Exhibit  8.4D-4
           TIME VARIATIONS OF  THE EARTH'S TOTAL
            MAGNETIC FIELD—DIURNAL VARIATIONS,
           MICROPULSATIONS, AND MAGNETIC STROM
                                          MO MOJOUTMf MM LATITUMI
            a) TYPICAL DIURNAL VARIATIONS IN TOTAL  FIELD INTENSITY
             b) TYPICAL MICROPULSATIONS
              c)  TYPICAL MAGNETIC STORM
SOURCE: Breiner(1973).
                            8.4D-7
-------
Depth Estimates from Total Field

The width of a magnetic anomaly is proportional to the depth
(or distance) of the source from the magnetometer sensor;
the deeper the source, the broader the anomaly (Exhi-
bit 8.4D-5).  This relationship is of primary importance in
interpreting the results of a magnetic survey.  The propor-
tion between the width of an anomaly and the depth of the
source is a function of the fall-off rate, or the variation
of anomaly amplitude with distance(d).  For.a dipole, the
total-field anomaly amplitude varies as 1/d , and for a
monopole as 1/d .  In actual practice, source orientation
and-other factors may result in fall-off rates from 1/d to
1/d .  The shape of the magnetic profile of an anomaly and
knowledge of the source object help in selecting the proper
fall-off rate for depth estimation.  A range of depths
determined from several fall-off rates may be the most
appropriate way to present depth estimates.  In general,
the anomaly width is on the order of one to three times the
depth of the source.  Thus, for an anomaly with a width of
100 feet, the source probably lies between 30 and 100 feet
deep  (or distant).  Several methods, including the half-
width rule and the slope technique, can be used to estimate
source depths from total field profiles.

Half-Width Rule

The half-width (x,,~) of an anomaly on a total field profile
is the horizontal distance between the principal maximum  (or
minimum) of the anomaly (assumed to be over the center of
the source) and the point where total field value is exactly
one-half of the principal maximum (Exhibit 8.4D-6).  A pro-
file that is used for depth estimation by using the half-
width rule should be oriented perpendicular to the long axis
of the anomaly to give the narrowest profile.  This rule is
valid only for forms such as spheres, cylinders, and other
simple shapes.  For example, a single upright 55-gallon
steel drum can be approximated as a vertical cylinder
(monopole) and the depth  (d) = 1.3 x1/_.  A buried trench
filled with drums can be approximated By a horizontal
cylinder, where d = 2 x. ,_.

Slope Techniques

Depth of the source can be estimated using the slope of the
anomaly at the inflection points of the profile.  The
horizontal extent  (X ) of the "straight" portion of the
slope is determined as shown in Exhibit 8.4D-7.  The depth
is then estimated by the equation,

     d = KX     where    0.5 < K < 1.5
           z
                           8.4D-8
-------
                          Exhibit 8.4D-5
                THE EFFECT OF DEPTH  ON WIDTH AND
                 AMPLITUDE OF A DIPOLE ANOMALY
        4d
                           *8d
10 d
                    Depth/Amplnudt Behavior ol Oipole Anomalies
SOURCE: Breiner( 19731
                               8.4D-9
-------
                            Exhibit  8.4D-6
              HALF-WIDTH  RULES  FOR VARIOUS GEOMETRIC
              SHAPES FOR  BOTH VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
                           MAGNETIC  FIELDS

           NOTE:  Z - depth
                       MAX
                       4
                       z
SFHIftf (OIPOLCI       Z -  2XH


VlflTICAL CYUNOIft    Z •  1.3XM
(MOMOPOll)

1001 OF NARROW OIKI  Z -  X*
(UNI OF MOMOPOLISI

HORIZONTAL CYUNOIR  Z •  JXH
(UNI Of OIPOLIS)
                   a)  HALF-WIDTH RULES - VERTICAL FIELD
        b.
(UNI O» OOOLIS)
                                                 MAX
        xH>
                                                                   .HALF-WIDTH
      N4CVUINOIH Z • t.3XH
      (MONOTOUl)

       IOGI OP SMUT Z • XH
       (UNI Or MONOTOUIS)
             b)  HALF-WIDTH RULES - HORIZONTAL FIELD (EQUATORIAL)
    SOURCE: Breiner (1973).
                                 8.4D-10
-------
                     Exhibit 8.4D-7
          APPLICATION OF THE SLOPE TECHNIQUE
             TO A DIPOLE MAGNETIC PROFILE
                                    Z >KX.   0.3 
-------
Calculation of Magnetic Moment and Mass

The basic expression for relating anomaly intensity  (T, in
gauss),  magnetic moment (M, in cgs units), depth  (d, in
centimeters), and the fall-off rate factor (n) of a magnetic
source object is

     (1)        T  =   M
                      dn

Depth Estimates from Vertical Gradient

The vertical gradient is the change in total field over a
fixed distance.  The vertical gradient is the derivative of
this equation with respect to distance (d) :

     (5)       dT/dd  =  -3M
Solving equation (1) for M,


     (6)       M  =  Td3

and substituting equation  (6) into equation  (5) ,


     (7)       dT/dd  =    -3Td3    =    -3T
                             d4           d

Solving equation (7) for depth  (or distance) to the source,

     (8)       d   =     -3T
                        dT/dd

Thus, using equation (8), the depth to the source of  a
(dipole) anomaly can be determined by knowing the anomaly
intensity  (T) above background, and the vertical gradient
(dT/dd).  For a monopole source,
     (9)       d  =   -2T
                    dT/dd

In equation  (5), note that the fall-off rate for vertical
gradient is proportional to 1/d  for dipole, whereas  in
equation (1), 3the fall-off rate for total field is propor-
tional to 1/d  .  This difference explains why vertical
gradient measurements provide finer resolution, but less
range in detecting anomalies.
                           8.4D-12
-------
Exhibit 8.4D-8 shows magnetic susceptibilities of rock
materials.
WDR232/006
                           8.4D-13
-------
                       Exhibit 8.4D-8
        MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF ROCK MATERIALS1
                                 Magnetic Susceptibility
   Material                         (KxlO6, CGS Units)
Magnetite                            300,000-800,000
Pyrrhotite                                   125,000
Ilmenite                                     135,000
Franklinite                                   36,000
Dolomite                                          14
Sandstone                                         17
Serpentine                                    14,000
Granite                                     28-2,700
Diorite                                           46
Gabbro                                      68-2,370
Porphyry                                          47
Diabase                                     78-1,050
Basalt                                           680
Olivine-Diabase                                2,000
Peridotite                                   12,5000
 Adapted from C.A. Helland, "Geophysical Exploration1
  (from Costello, 1980).
WDR232/006
                           8.4D-14
-------
      Appendix  8.4E



GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
        8.4D-15
-------
                        Appendix 8.4E
                  GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
                           THEORY

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems are similar to
electromagnetic (EM)  systems in that a source and a receiver
are needed.  A radar antenna  (source) emits an EM pulse
several times a second.  These EM impulses are then directed
into the ground in the form of waves.  As the waves pene-
trate deeper through the geologic material, contrasts in
electrical properties are encountered with changes in
strata.  These electrical contrasts  (anomalies) cause some
of the wave to be reflected back toward the surface, where
it is received by an antenna, while some of the wave con-
tinues downward.  When enough anomalies have been encoun-
tered, there is very little remaining of the signal (to be
reflected); this condition is what is termed the effective
penetration depth.  The time interval between the point when
the EM signal is emitted to when it is reflected and
received is dependent on the properties of the material and
on the depth at which the signal is reflected.  The radar
impulse travels in water at about 10 percent of the speed of
light; in dry sands it travels to as much as 50 percent of
the speed of light.  Variations in impulse travel speeds are
also noticeable when observing a material in a disturbed
versus an undisturbed state  (less dense).  Knowledge of site
geology can be used to estimate the properties of the
material  (and travel time)  so that the depth of the target
can be determined.

The contrasts in electrical properties are a function of the
composition of the materials and moisture contents.  Gen-
erally, good conductors, such as metal drums, reflect the
entire radar signal (EM wave), so there is no penetration
below this point.  Poor conductors (good resistors), such as
unsaturated sands, will generally allow for a deeper radar
signal penetration than good conductors such as saturated
clays or saline water.  For examples of natural variations
in resistivity  (the opposite of conductivity), the reader
should refer to Exhibit 8.4E-1.  One possible way to
increase penetration is to use a transmitter antenna of
lower frequency.  The effect of frequency changes upon pen-
etration is an inverse square relationship.  As the fre-
quency is doubled, penetration is reduced to one-quarter
(but resolution increases).

Typical GPR antennae range in frequency from 10 megahertz
(MHz) to 1,000 MHz, with 300 to 600 MHz being considered as
standard.  The lower the frequency, the larger the antenna,
so that some lower-frequency antennae are commonly towed by
vehicles, while the higher-frequency ones can be towed by a
                           8.4E-1
-------
                            Exhibit 8.4E-1
                   NATURAL VARIATIONS IN RESISTIVITY
                 BECAUSE OF MATERIAL AND WATER CONTENT
Rock Type
Silts tone
Silts tone
Coarse Grain Sandstone
Coarse Grain Sandstone
Graywacke Sandstone
Graywacke Sandstone
Dolomite
Dolomite
Peridotite
Peridotite
Granite
Granite
Basalt
Basalt
Olivine-Pyrox .
01 ivine-Pyrox .
Material
Clays
Sands
Sea Water
Groundwater (bedrock)
Groundwater (overburden)
Based on W.M. Telford, et al.
Water Content
(percent HO)
0.54
0.38
0.39
0.18
0.16
0.45
2.0
0.96
0.1
0
0.31
0
0.95
0
0.028
0
Applied Geophysics .
Resistivity
(ohmmeter)
1.5 x 104
5.6 x 108
9.6 x 105
io8
4.7 x IO3
5.8 x IO4
5.3 x IO3
8 x IO3
3 x IO3
1.8 x IO7
4.4 x IO3
io10
4. x IO4
1.3 x IO8
2 x IO4
5.6 x IO7
1-100
10-800
0.2
0.5-100
100
1976.
Note:  Resistivity is the  inverse  of  conductivity.
                                8.4E-2
-------
technician.  While lower-frequency antennae permit deeper
penetration, they lack the resolution of the higher-
frequency antennae.  Typical penetration in stratified
saturated sands for the 300 MHz antenna is perhaps 50 feet,
and for the 600 MHz antenna it is perhaps 25 feet.  These
depth penetration estimates are for guidance and should be
used only for that purpose.

GPR equipment does not sense just straight below the
antenna; instead, it senses forward, backward, and to the
sides at various angles.  For this reason, some objects can
be detected without having the equipment pass directly
overhead.
                     INFORMATION SOURCES

The following list of sources has been categorized into
specific groups for easy use.

               Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
                            Books

Uriksen, P.F.  Application of Impulse Radar to Civil
Engineering.  Distributed by Geophysical Survey Systems,
Inc.  Hudson, New Hampshire.  1982.

                          Journals

Morey, R.M.  "Continuous Subsurface Profiling by Impulses
Radar."  Presented at the ASCE Conference—Engineering Foun-
dation Conference on Subsurface Exploration for Underground
Excavation and Heavy Construction.  1974.

Wright, D.L., G.R. Olhoeft, and R.D. Watts.  "Ground-
Penetrating Radar Studies on Cape Cod."  Denver Federal
Center, Colorado:  U.S. Geological Survey.  1983.

                     GPR General Manuals

Benson, R.C., R.A. Glaccum, and M.R. Noel.  Geophysical
Techniques for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste Migration.
Prepared by Technos,Inc.,for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory.  Las Vegas, Nevada.  1983.

Costello, R.L.  Identification and Description of
Geophysical Techniques.  Prepared by D'Apollonia for U.S.
Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency.  Aberdeen Proving
Ground, Maryland.  1980.
                           8.4E-3
-------
                        Manu facturers
Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc.
15 Flagstone Drive
Hudson, New Hampshire  03051
WDR232/005
                           8.4E-4
-------
   Appendix  8.4F




BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS
      8.4E-5
-------
                        Appendix 8.4F
                     BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS
                     INFORMATION SOURCES

             Borehole Theory and Interpretation

Costello, R.L.  Identification and Description of
Geophysical Techniques.  Prepared by D'Apollonia for the
U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency.  1980.

Dresser Industries.  Log Interpretation Fundamentals.
Houston, Texas.  1975.  125 pp.

Keys, W.S., and L.M. MacCary.  "Application of Borehole
Geophysics to Water-Resources Investigations."  Techniques
of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States
Geological Survey.  Chapter El, Book 2.  Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office.  1971.

Pirson, S.J.  Handbook of Well Log Analysis.  Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey:  Prentice-Hall.  1965".

Sammel, E.A.  "Convective Flow and Its Effect on Temperature
Logging in Small-Diameter Wells."  Geophysics.  Vol. 33,
No. 6, pp. 1004-1012.  1968.

Schlumberger Limited.  Log Interpretation.  Vol. 1.  New
York, New York.  1972.

Schlumberger Limited.  Log Interpretation.  Vol. 2.  New
York, New York.  1974.

Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldart, R.F. Sheriff, and D.A. Keyes.
Applied Geophysics.  Pp. 774-781.  Binghamton, New York:
Vail-Ballou Press, Inc.  1980.

Wheatcraft, S.W., J.W. Hess, and W.M. Adams.  Equipment and
Techniques Applicable to Subsurface Sensing and Monitoring
at Hazardous Waste Sites.  U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency,Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Office
of Research and Development.  Las Vegas, Nevada.

U.S. Bureau of Mines.  "Calibration Models for Geophysical
Borehole Logging."  USBM RI 8148.  Washington, D.C.:  U.S.
Department of the Interior.  1976.  21 pp.

U.S. Geological Survey.  "Application of Electrical and
Radioactive Well Logging to Ground Water Hydrology."
Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1544-D.  Washington,
D.C.:  U.S. Government Printing Office.  1963.  60 pp.
                           8.4F-1
-------
U.S. Geological Survey.  "Methods of Flow Measurement in
Well Bores."  Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1544-C
Washington, D.C.:  U.S. Government Printing Office.  1962
28 pp.

          Borehole Logging Instrument Manufacturers

Comprobe, Inc.
9632 Crowley Road
Crowley, Texas  76036
817/293-7333

Gearhart-Owen
P.O. Box 1936
Fort Worth, Texas  76101
817/293-1300

Geotronic Corporation
10317 McKalla Place
Austin, Texas  78758

McPhar Geophysics
55 Tempo Avenue
Willowdale, Ontario  M2H 2R9
416/497-1700

Mount Sopris Instrument Company
P.O. Box 449
Delta, Colorado  81416
303/874-4852
WDR232/018
                           8.4F-2
-------
                 8.5  GROUNDWATER MONITORING

8.5.1  SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This subsection provides general information on equipment
and materials used in groundwater monitoring programs.

8.5.2  DEFINITIONS

Site Manager.  The individual responsible for the successful
completion of a work assignment within budget and schedule.
The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager
or the Project Manager and is typically a contractor's
employee (see Subsection 1.1).

All other terms in this subsection are in common usage.

8.5.3  APPLICABILITY

Almost every investigation of hazardous waste sites entails
groundwater sampling and monitoring.  Since each site is
different,  experienced hydrogeologists and geochemists
should be consulted to establish the most suitable type of
monitoring for a particular site.  Monitoring well placement
and sampling requirements for each site are detailed in a
site-specific sampling plan.  The procedures described below
have all been used successfully on hazardous waste sites.

8.5.4  RESPONSIBILITIES

The SM is responsible for determining the type and placement
of groundwater monitoring networks.  The SM is assisted by
experienced hydrogeologists and geochemists.  As discussed
earlier in Section 8, an experienced hydrogeologist will
supervise the installation of monitoring wells.

8.5.5  RECORDS

Field notes are kept in a bound, weatherproof logbook.
Entries are made chronologically in indelible ink on num-
bered pages, with the date, time, and notetaker's initials
recorded for each entry.  Certain forms used in groundwater
monitoring are discussed in the following subsections and in
Sections 3, 4, 5, and 17 of this compendium.

8.5.6  PROCEDURES

8.5.6.1  Water Wells

Production or traditional wells are often used to obtain
samples in ambient groundwater monitoring programs.
Designed to yield large quantities of turbidity-free water
for potable or irrigation supplies, these wells generally
                            8.5-1
-------
tap the more permeable portions of an aquifer.   They may be
screened in unconsolidated material.  Chemical data obtained
from these wells depict the quality of water being delivered
to the user community.  Because water pumped from these
wells is often a composite of water from different strata in
the aquifer systems, the presence of relatively narrow or
small plumes of polluted water may be masked by dilution
with water obtained from unaffected portions of the aquifer.

Production or traditional wells should not be used for the
Wore detailed source, case-preparation, and research types
of monitoring.  Such detailed monitoring efforts call for
wells designed to determine the groundwater quality at a
given location and depth within the geologic materials being
monitored.  All available geologic and hydrologic informa-
tion for the site of interest should be reviewed prior to
the selection of preliminary locations and depths for moni-
toring wells.  The potential paths of pollutant movement
from the site should be estimated, and wells should be
placed to define contaminant plumes.  Information gained
during the drilling process should be used to modify the
monitoring plan to make it more effective.

8.5.6.1.1  Monitoring Well Components

The principal reason that monitoring wells are constructed
is to collect groundwater samples that, upon analysis, can
be used to delineate a contaminant plume and track movement
of specific chemical or biological constituents.  A secon-
dary consideration is the determination of the physical
characteristics of the groundwater flow system to establish
flow direction, transmissivity, quantity, etc.  The spatial
and vertical locations of monitoring wells are important.
Of equal importance are the design and construction of moni-
toring wells that will provide easily obtainable samples and
yield reliable, defensible, meaningful information.  In gen-
eral, monitoring well design and construction follow produc-
tion well design and construction techniques.  However,
emphasis is placed on the effect these practices may have on
the chemistry of the water samples being collected rather
than on maximizing well efficiency.

From this emphasis, it follows that an understanding of the
chemistry of the suspected pollutants and of the geologic
setting in which the monitoring wells are constructed plays
a major role in determining the drilling technique and mate-
rials used.

There are several components to be considered in the design
of a monitoring well including location, diameter, depth,
casing, screen, sealing material, and well development.  As
these components are discussed in detail, it may be helpful
to refer to Exhibit 8.5-1, which portrays two typical well
                            8.5-2
-------
                                  Exhibit  8.5-1
          TYPICAL  INSTALLATIONS OF  (a)  WATER  SUPPLY WELLS
                          AND  (b)  MONITORING WELLS
 Schedule 80 Pipe
(4" dia. or greater)
Backfill and/or
 Clay Slurry  ""
    Sand or —
  Gravel Pack
  Well Screen-
 (length: entire
  thickness of
  water-bearing
   material)
                      Pump Discharge
                                                           Removable Cap
                                                          on Well Protector
                                     4^s//i&Miys4'^yxi;2

                       Concrete or Cement/.';.  'N  '  •  •' /.J  Jf^S*
                         Static
                                          •       Pipe
                                           ^ '  *  '  •   • • '   (2"  dia>)

                      •Water Level '/ . e  '        0 •     •  . . .

                                ' ' .  •   .  «   / ' '".'.«• \'
                                                                     ~T
                                                                      2-6'
                                               GRAVEL;-.-;
                                                                       /
                                                                                   Static
                                                                               • Water Level

                                                                                 Cement or
                                                                              •«- Bentonite
                                                                                   Seal
                                                                                Sand or
                                                                              Gravel Pack
                                   * •;' : .' (water-bearing). ;'. -..' •''•;

                                   ';'.'•• '^ ' j? •'.'".'• \'~ -TT"77./•..'.'
LSJ

   • Well Screen  	
(Typically 2" diameter)
       a. Water Supply Well
                                             BEDROCK ~=~^^
                                                                   b. Monitoring Well Piezometer
                                        8.5-3
-------
installations; one for water supply and the other for
groundwater quality monitoring.

8.5.6.1.2  Well Location

The location of a monitoring well should be selected on the
basis of the purpose of the sampling effort.  This purpose
may be to verify predictions of contaminant migration; to
detect contaminants in drinking water supplies and thus to
protect public health; to activate a contingency plan, such
as a program for leachate collection; to protect the opera-
tor; to reassure the public by demonstrating that water
quality is being monitored; or to define a contaminant
plume.  Each of these purposes will require a somewhat spe-
cialized array of monitoring points and a somewhat different
sampling program as defined by the project sampling plan.
The monitoring system must be designed to suit the pur-
pose (s) in mind.

8.5.6.1.3  Well Diameter

A domestic water supply well is commonly 4 or 6 inches in
diameter to accommodate a submersible pump capable of
delivering 5 to 10 gallons per minute  (gpm).  Centrifugal
and jet pumps are also used.  Municipal and industrial
supply wells have greater diameters to handle larger pumps
for greater pumping capacity.  As in water supply wells, the
diameter of a monitoring well is largely determined by the
size of the sampling device or pump.  Pumping one or more
well volumes of water from a large-diameter monitoring well
may present a problem, because large quantities of water
must be disposed of or contained.  With the advent of sev-
eral commercially available small-diameter pumps  (less than
2 inches outside diameter) capable of lifting water from
several hundred feet, it is rarely necessary to construct
monitoring wells larger than 2 inches in diameter.  Addi-
tionally, the smaller the diameter, the less it will cost
for drilling and construction.  Small diameter wells with
corresponding low-volume pumps may be preferable for sam-
pling for volatile organics, because they create less tur-
bulence and provide a sample that is more representative of
aquifer conditions.  Monitoring wells in high-transmissivity
aquifers may be larger than 2 inches in diameter if pumping
test methods are used to determine aquifer characteristics.
Larger diameter, high-capacity pumps are needed to conduct
pumping tests; these pumps require larger diameter wells.

8.5.6.1.4  Well Depth

The depth of each monitoring well is usually determined by
the geohydrologic conditions at the site being monitored.
Most "detective" monitoring wells are completed in the first
relatively permeable water-bearing zone encountered, since
                            8.5-4
-------
potential pollution sources are frequently at or near ground
surface.  Locating the monitoring well in the first rela-
tively permeable zone, therefore, yields an indication of
the migration of pollutants in most situations.  However,
care must be taken to ensure that the well is completed at a
depth sufficient to allow for seasonal water table fluc-
tuations.  Under confined or semi-confined (leaky) condi-
tions, the water level will rise above the top of the water-
bearing zone.  In this instance, the well should be finished
in the water-bearing zone and not above it.

If the water-bearing zone is thick (greater than 10 feet) or
contamination is known or suspected in deeper formations,
multiple wells completed at different depths should be used.
For sampling at various depths, some geologists have nested
several wells in a single borehole.  This requires drilling
a large-diameter hole and exercising special care to ensure
that the vertical integrity of the sampling points is main-
tained.  It may be more costly to drill separate wells, but
the reduction of potential for cross contamination often
offsets the added expense.  Formation samples  (cuttings or
core) would be taken only during boring of the deepest well.

Where multiphase or nonaqueous phase liquids are suspected
at a site, multilevel wells within a single aquifer may also
be needed.  For example, if oil or gasoline is the contami-
nant, monitoring at the top of the aquifer is needed.  In
contrast, sites with "sinking" contaminants, such as tri-
chloroethylene, may warrant monitoring at the base of the
aquifer.

Monitoring wells should be constructed so that they are
depth discrete (i.e., able to sample from one specific
formation or zone without interconnection to others).  Where
multiple aquifers exist, it may be desirable to set multiple
casing strings to ensure isolation of deeper aquifers from
shallow, potentially contaminated ones.  This procedure,
called telescoping, is identical to that used in the oil and
gas business and necessitates the setting and cementing of
successively smaller diameter casing strings until the tar-
get aquifer is reached.  Care must be taken with each casing
string to cement with returns to surface to ensure no inter-
connection between aquifers.  Grout can be placed above and,
if necessary, below the intake portion of the well to make
it depth-discrete.

8.5.6.1.5  Well Design and Construction Materials.

The type of material used for monitoring well casing may
have a distinct effect on the quality of the water samples
collected.  Galvanized casing will impart iron, manganese,
zinc, and cadmium to many waters.  Steel casing may impart
iron and manganese to the water samples.  Polyvinyl chloride
                            8.5-b
-------
(PVC) pipe has been shown to release and absorb trace
amounts of various organic constituents to water after
prolonged exposure.  PVC solvent cements used to attach
sections of PVC pipe have also been shown to release
significant quantities of organic compounds.  Teflon and
glass are among the most inert materials that have been
considered for monitoring well construction.  Glass,
however, is very difficult and expensive to use under most
field conditions.  Stainless steel has also been found to
work satisfactorily under most monitoring conditions.
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic has recently been used at
sites where organic contaminants are present.  This material
is not as expensive as stainless steel and does not have as
strong a tendency to sorb or release contaminants as PVC
does.  A detailed discussion of materials is presented in
later portions of the text.

All well screens should allow free entry of water.  They
should also produce clear, silt-free water.  This is espe-
cially important with regard to drinking water supplies,
because sediment in the raw water can create additional
pumping and treatment costs and can lead to the general
unsuitability of the finished water.  Also, in monitoring
wells, sediment-laden water can greatly lengthen filtering
times and create chemical interferences with the collected
samples.

Commercially manufactured well screens generally work best
provided the proper slot size is chosen.  In formations
where fine sand, silt, and clay predominate, sawed or torch-
cut slots will not retain the material, and the well may
clog.  If practical, it may be helpful to have well screens
of several slot-sizes available onsite so that the correct
screen can be placed in the hole after the water-bearing
materials have been inspected.  The use of sawed or torch-
cut slotted screens is not recommended; indeed, most EPA
regions do not permit the use of such screens.  Customized
screens limit the reproducibility of data.  Gravel-packing
materials compatible with the selected screen size and aqui-
fer grain size will further help retain fine materials and
will also allow freer entry of water into the well by creat-
ing a zone of higher permeability around the well.  The
backfill material must be free of contaminants.

Well screen length is an important consideration.  The
transmissivity of the aquifer will be used to establish the
length of screen.  Low yield aquifers may require greater
screen lengths to permit the collection of adequate sample
volumes in a timely manner.  A monitoring program to de-
scribe contaminant plume geometry requires the sampling of
discrete intervals of the water-bearing formation.  In this
situation, screen lengths of no more than 5 feet  (1.5 m)
should be used.  Thick aquifers would require completion of
                            8.5-6
-------
several wells at different depth intervals.  In some sit-
uations, only the first water-bearing zone encountered will
require monitoring.   Here the "aquifer" may be only 6 inches
to a few feet (0.2 to 2 m) thick, and the screen length
should be limited to 1 or 2 feet (less than 1m).  In other
circumstances where an aquifer with a potable water supply
is monitored, the entire thickness of the water-bearing for-
mation should be screened to provide an integrated water
sample comparable to that found in the drinking water sup-
ply.  Monitoring for low-density organic solvents or hydro-
carbons that may float on the surface of the water creates a
special problem.  In such a case, the screen must be long
enough to extend above the water level in the formations so
that these lighter substances can enter the well.  Some com-
panies have developed probes or samplers that can be placed
in a single borehole to monitor several zones simultaneous-
ly.  The units are limited to low flow conditions, which
necessitates longer sampling times.  However, the low cost
of installation of these units (techniques are similar to
monitoring well installation) can be a factor in selecting
these devices.

It is critical that the screened portion of each monitoring
well have access to the groundwater from a specific depth
interval.  Vertical movement of water in the vicinity of the
intake and around the casing must be prevented to obtain
samples representative of the formation of interest.  Spe-
cifically, rainwater can infiltrate backfill materials and
dilute or contaminate samples collected from the screened
portion of the well.  Vertical seepage of leachate or con-
taminated water from adjacent formations along the well cas-
ing may also produce unrepresentative samples for the depth
interval being sampled.  More importantly, the creation of a
conduit in the annulus of a monitoring well that could con-
tribute to or hasten the spread of contamination should be
avoided.

8.5.6.2  Lysimeters

Pressure-vacuum lysimeters may be used to obtain samples of
in situ soil moisture.  They are used predominantly in the
unsaturated zone (i.e., above the water table, as shown in
Exhibit 8.5-2).  In its most improved form, this device con-
sists of a porous ceramic cup capable of holding a vacuum, a
small-diameter sample accumulation chamber of PVC pipe, and
two sampling tubes leading to the surface.  Once the lysi-
meter is in place, a vacuum is applied to the cup.  Soil
moisture moves into the sampler under this gradient, and a
water sample gradually accumulates.  Care must be taken in
using samples from suction lysimeters for water quality
assessments.  The application of the vacuum to drive the
                            8.5-7
-------
                  Exhibit  8.5-2
PRESSURE-VACUUM  LYSIMETER INSTALLATION
                      2-Way Pump
                 Pressure-
                 Vacuum In
              Bentonite
          3/16" Copper
          Tube
            Plastic Pipe
            (24") Long
            608 mm.


            Porous Cup

           Bentonite
      Sample
      Bottle
LJ
     Discharge
     Tube
 — 152mm.
     (6") Borehole
     Sand
     Backfill
     Super-SiT
            Cross Section of a Typical Pressure-Vacuum
                    Lysimeter Installation
Diameter
Borehole
2 mm. — ^—
') Steel
rface
sing —
m. (6") 	 ..
ter
>le
T






Groundwater T

Refuse
>•«




-
i Depth of
•*" Lysimeter
Below Refuse
able y
              Cross Section of a Lysimeter Network
                       8.5-8
-------
water may remove volatile organics or alter carbonate chemi-
cal equilibrium.  When the vacuum is released and inert gas
pressure is applied, the accumulated water is forced to the
surface through the sampling tube.  A typical pressure-
vacuum lysimeter installation is shown in Exhibit 8.5-2.

8.5.6.3  Piezometers and Tensiometers

The terms "piezometer" and "observation well" are commonly
used interchangeably; however, there is a significant
difference between them.  As implied by its name, a
piezometer is a pressure-measuring device that is frequently
used for monitoring water pressure in earthen dams, under
foundations, or in aquifers.

A piezometer that is used to monitor earthen dams or
foundations resembles a porous tube or plate.  A piezometer
that is used to monitor aquifers resembles a screened well
or open hole.  An impermeable clay or cement seal isolates
the piezometer from other pressure environments.  If the
well screen is properly isolated by an impermeable seal
placed immediately above the screen, a piezometer can also
be used to measure vertical head differences under uncon-
fined conditions.  Any well constructed without this seal
cannot be considered a piezometer.  In practice, piezometers
are similar to the monitoring wells described in Subsection
8.5.6.1.  If the well is going to be used only for water
level measurements, it is generally called a piezometer.  In
that case, well construction materials are less critical.

Piezometers are not suitable for the measurement of pressure
above the water table since water in the unsaturated zone is
held in the soil pores under surface-tension forces.  The
pressure head in the unsaturated zone is called the tension
head or suction head.  Tensiometers are used to indirectly
measure the pressure head in the unsaturated zone to help
determine the groundwater gradients and the flow in the
unsaturated zone.

Typically, a tensiometer consists of a porous cup attached
to an airtight, water-filled tube.  The porous cup is
inserted into the soil at the desired depth, where it comes
into contact with the soil water and reaches hydraulic equi-
librium.  The equilibrium process involves the passage of
water through the porous cup from the tube into the soil.
The vacuum created at the top of the airtight tube is a mea-
sure of the pressure head in the soil.  The pressure head is
usually measured by a vacuum gauge attached to the tube
above the surface of the ground.  To obtain the hydraulic
head, the negative value indicated by the vacuum gauge on
the tensiometer must be added algebraically to the elevation
of the point of measurement.  In practice, the tensiometer
is a tube with a gauge and a porous cup at the base; the
piezometer is an open pipe with a well point at the base.
                            8.5-9
-------
8.5.6.4  Groundwater Sampling Equipment

The type of system used to collect groundwater samples is a
tunction of the type and size of well construction, pumping
level, type of pollutant,  analytical procedures, and pres-
ence or absence of permanent pumping fixtures.  Ideally,
sample withdrawal mechanisms should be completely inert;
economical to manufacture; easily decontaminated, cleaned,
and reused; able to operate at remote sites in the absence
ot external power sources; and capable of delivering contin-
uous but variable flow rates for flushing and sample
collection.

Most water supply wells contain semi-permanently mounted
pumps that limit the options available for groundwater
sampling.  Existing in-place pumps may be line shaft tur-
bines, commonly used for high-capacity wells; submersible
pumps commonly used in domestic wells for high-head, low-
capacity applications and, more recently, for municipal and
industrial uses; and jet pumps commonly used for shallow,
low-capacity domestic water supplies.  The advantages of in-
place pumps are that water samples are readily available and
that nonrepresentative stagnant water in the well bore is
generally not a problem.  The disadvantage is that excessive
pumping can dilute or increase the contaminant concentra-
tions so that they are not representative of the sampling
point.  Another possible disadvantage is that water supply
wells may produce water from more than one aquifer and
contamination or adsorption may be a problem when sampling
for organics.

The advantage to collecting water samples from monitoring
wells without in-place pumps lies in the fact that the
selection of equipment and procedures is flexible.  The
principal disadvantage lies in the possibility of obtaining
a nonrepresentative sample either through collecting stag-
nant water that is in the well bore or through introducing
contamination from the sampling equipment or procedures.
Some commonly used sampling systems are described below.

8.5.6.4.1  Bailers

One of the oldest and simplest methods of sampling water
wells is the use of bailers.  A bailer may be a weighted
bottle, a capped length of pipe on a rope, or some modifica-
tion thereof that is lowered and raised, generally by hand.
Two examples are the modified Kemmerer sampler and the
Teflon bailer represented in Exhibits 8.5-3 and 8.5-4.  The
modified Kemmerer sampler is more often used for sampling
surface water than groundwater.  The Teflon bailer was
developed specifically for collecting groundwater samples
for volatile organic analysis.  Bailers are also made of
PVC, copper, or stainless steel.  The sampling plan will
                           8.5-10
-------
      Exhibit 8.5-3
MODIFIED KEMMERER SAMPLER
         8.5-11
-------
Exhibit 8.5-4
TEFLON  BAILER
               Stainlen Steel Wire Ceble
               or Monofllement Line
    I  I
               Top May Be Closed
               or Open
               1-1/4" O.D.xVI.D. Teflon
               Extruded Tubing,
               18" to 36" Long
                3/4" Diameter
                Glass Marble
1" Diameter Teflon
Extruded Rod
          5/16" Diameter
          Hole
     8.5-12
-------
specify equipment, materials, and procedures used in
sampling.  The material best-suited to the purpose of the
project should be selected.

The advantages of using a bailer are as follows:

     o    A bailer can be constructed from a wide variety of
          materials that are compatible with the parameter
          of interest.

     o    It is economical and convenient enough that a
          separate one may be dedicated to each well to min-
          imize cross contamination.

     o    It does not require an external power source.

     o    Its low surface-to-volume ratio reduces outgassing
          of volatile organics.

The following are disadvantages of using a bailer:

     o    It is sometimes impractical to evacuate stagnant
          water in a well bore with a bailer.

     o    An open-top bailer may allow nonaquifer material
          to enter the bailer as it is withdrawn from the
          well (i.e., rust from casings).

     o    The transfer of a water sample from the bailer to
          the sample bottle can result in aeration.

     o    Cross contamination can be a problem if bailers
          are not adequately cleaned after each use.

     o    Care must be exercised in handling the bailer rope
          to prevent introducing contamination into the
          well.

8.5.6.4.2  Suction-Lift Pumps

A variety of pumps can be used to flush wells prior to
sampling or, in limited instances, to obtain samples.  When
the water table is about 20 to 28 feet from the surface, a
suction-lift pump can be used.  Centrifugal pumps are the
most commonly available type of suction-lift pump, are high-
ly portable, and have a pumping rate of from 5 to 40 gpm.
Most centrifugal pumps require a foot valve on the end of
the suction pipe to aid in maintaining a prime.

Peristaltic pumps are generally low-volume suction pumps
suitable for sampling shallow, small-diameter wells.  Their
pumping rates are generally low but can be readily con-
trolled within desirable limits.  The low pumping rates are
                           8.5-13
-------
a significant limitation in flushing out the well bore.
Another limitation is that electrical power is required.

Hand-operated diaphragm pumps are available that can be
operated over a wide range of pumping rates, which facili-
tates rapid evacuation of a well bore initially and provides
lower controlled pumping rates for subsequent sampling.  One
major advantage of such pumps is their portability.  A dis-
advantage is that sampling is limited to groundwater sit-
uations where water levels are less than about 20 feet.

Suction pumps are not recommended because they may cause
degassing, pH modification, and loss of volatile compounds.

8.5.6.4.3  Portable Submersible Pumps

Groundwater investigations routinely require the collection
of samples from depths that exceed the capabilities of the
systems discussed above.  One alternative system consists of
a submersible pump that can be lowered or raised in an
observation well, using as much as 300 feet of hose that
supports the weight of the pump, conveys the water from the
well, and houses the electrical cable and an electrical
winch-and-spool assembly.  A portable generator provides
electricity for both the pump and the winch, and the entire
assembly can be mounted in a pickup or van.

The following are advantages of using submersible pumps:

     o    They are portable and can be used to sample
          several monitoring wells in a brief period of
          time.

     o    Depending upon the size of the pump and the
          pumping depths, relatively high pumping rates are
          possible.

Existing bladder-type submersible pumps will operate in
2-inch monitor wells and are constructed of materials to
permit water quality samples from monitor wells.  The pumps
require dedication to a single well or vigorous decontamina-
tion between sampling sites.

8.5.6.4.4  Air-Lift Samplers

The basic method of applying air pressure to a water well
can be adapted to force a water sample out of the discharge
tube.  A high-pressure hand pump and any reasonably flexible
tubing can be used as a highly portable sampling unit.  A
small air compressor or compressed air cylinder and somewhat
more elaborate piping arrangements may be required at
greater depths, as shown in Exhibit 8.5-5.  The primary
                           8.5-14
-------
                               Exhibit  8.5-5
                              AIR-LIFT  SAMPLER
                                            Discharge
                                        Needle valve
Pressure gauge
                                                                 Quick air hose
                                                                     coupler
                                                       * j.
Ground surface
                                                    Concrete
                                             8 noncollapsing tubing
                                          or11/2 plastic
                                    8.5-15
-------
limitations of the air-lift sampler are the potential alter-
ation of water quality parameters, the amount of air pres-
sure that can be safely applied to the tubing, and the
identification of a suitable source of compressed air.

The following are advantages of using the air-lift sampler:

     o    It can be used as a portable or permanently
          installed sampling system.

     o    It can be used both to flush the well and to
          sample.

Its disadvantages are as follows:

     o    It is not suitable for pH-sensitive parameters
          such as metals.

     o    It can damage the integrity of the filter pack
          around the well screen if the well is evacuated
          under high pressure and if the intake of the sam-
          ple line is located within the screened interval.

     o    If air or oxygen is used, oxidation is a problem.

     o    Gas stripping of volatile compounds may occur.

8.5.6.4.5  Nitrogen-Powered, Continuous-Delivery, Glass-
Teflon Sampler

Sampling groundwater for trace organic pollutants requires a
noncontaminating, nonadsorbing pump.  Basing their work on
an initial design by Stanford University, developers at Rice
University created a groundwater sampling system that con-
sists of a two-stage, all-glass pump connected by Teflon
tubing and powered by nitrogen gas.  The system  (shown in
Exhibit 8.5-6) contains four basic units:  (1) a two-stage
glass pump,  (2) a solenoid valve and electronic timer,  (3) a
nitrogen tank and regulator, and  (4) columns for removal of
organics from the groundwater.

The following are advantages of using the glass-Teflon
sampler:

     o    It is portable; AC power is not required.

     o    It is constructed of noncontaminating,
          nonadsorbing materials.

     o    Variable flow rates up to 45 gallons per hour are
          obtainable.
                           8.5-16
-------
             Exhibit  8.5-6
NITROGEN-POWERED, GLASS-TEFLON PUMP
                 Thick Wall Glass


                 Diameter 1.5"

                 Ltnqlh  17"
                               \J
              TOP
              PUMP
BOTTOM
PUMP
           t  tntlutnt     WoNr
                 8.5-17
-------
     o    It can be used in well casings with minimum
          diameters of about 2 inches.

Its disadvantages are as follows:

     o    It requires high-purity nitrogen gas.

     o    Glass construction is somewhat more fragile than
          other materials.

     o    Stripping of CO-  from water may be a problem for
          pH-sensitive parameters.

     o    Gas stripping of  volatile compounds may occur.

     o    Generally low pumping rates are experienced.

8.5.6.4.6  Gas-Operated Squeeze or Bladder Pump

These systems consist of a  collapsible membrane inside a
long, rigid housing; a compressed gas supply; tubing; and
appropriate control valves.  When the pump is submerged,
water enters the collapsible membrane through the bottom
check valve.  After the membrane has filled, gas pressure is
applied to the annular space between the rigid housing and
the membrane, forcing the water upward through a sampling
tube.  When the pressure is released, the top check valve
prevents the sample from flowing back down the discharge
line, and water from the well again enters the pump through
the bottom check valve.  A  diagram of the basic unit is
shown in Exhibit 8.5-7.

The following are advantages of using the gas-operated
squeeze or bladder pump:

     o    A wide range in pumping rates is possible.

     o    A variety ot materials can be used, depending on
          the parameters of interest.

     o    The driving gas does not contact the water sample,
          eliminating possible contamination or gas
          stripping.

     o    The pump can be constructed in diameters as small
          as 1 inch, permitting the use of small, economical
          monitoring wells.

     o    The pump is highly portable.
                           8.5-18
-------
             Exhibit 8.5-7
       GAS-OPERATED SQUEEZE PUMP
AIRLINE
                             CHECK VALVE
                                     PIPE
                              FLEXIBLE
                              DIAPHRAM
                               CHECK VALVE
                   t
                8.5-19
-------
Disadvantages of the system are as follows:

     o    Large gas volumes and long cycles  are necessary
          for deep operation.

     o    Pumping rates cannot match rates of submersible,
          suction, or jet pumps.

     o    Commercial units are relatively expensive
          (approximately $1,000 for currently available
          units).

     o    Use ot the pump requires careful selection of
          bladder and tubing material, some ot which is
          expensive.

8.5.6.4.7  Gas-Driven Piston Pump

This pump is a double-acting piston type operated by
compressed gas  (Exhibit 8.5-8).  The driving gas enters and
exhausts from the gas chambers between the two pistons and
the intermediate connector that joins them.   Built-in check
valves at each end of the pump allow water to enter the cyl-
inders on the suction stroke and to be expelled to the sur-
face on the pressure stroke.  Current designs are
constructed basically of stainless steel, brass, and PVC.
Pumping rates vary with the pumping head, but pumping rates
of 2.5 to 8 gallons per hour have been noted at 100 feet of
pumping head.

The following are advantages of using the gas-driven piston
pumps:

     o    It isolates the sample from the operating gas.

     o    It requires no electrical power source.

     o    It operates continuously and reliably over
          extended periods of time.

     o    It uses compressed gas economically.

     o    It can be operated at pumping heads in excess of
          500 meters.

Disadvantages of the pump are as follows:

     o    Particulate material may damage or inactivate the
          pump unless the suction line is filtered.

     o    Low pumping rates are experienced.
                           8.5-20
-------
                Exhibit  8.5-8
          GAS-DRIVEN PISTON PUMP
Outflow
  Piston
   Pump
                    _
                   / Button
                  '  Blttd
                    Valve
         LF?
                                          Pressure
                                          from Surf act
                                         Vilot Operator

                                          Normal Position

                                             rated Position



                                          -Pilot  Valve
                                            P' •  Pressure
                                            £' •  Exhaust
                                          Needle  Valve
                                          •Restriction
                                          * Switching  Unit
                                            P - Pressure
                                            E * Exhaust
                                           Switching
                                          -Unit  Spindle
                                           "o"-Ring  seals
                                            during up cycle

                                           Hrt 0"-mng seals
                                           during  down cycle
                       ^ Button
                          Bleed
                          Valve
                                  T Needle Valve
                                   ^Restriction
       Suctlen
                     8.5-21
-------
8.5.6.4.8  Special Sampling Considerations for Organic
Samples

Sampling for organic parameters is not a standardized
procedure at this time.   Some of the equipment and methods
in use are in the research stage.   However, the concepts are
fundamental, and any particular item or method can be mod-
ified to suit actual field needs.   Furthermore, expensive
and sophisticated procedures may not be necessary for
sampling or monitoring all areas.   The points that must be
kept in mind include the potential for sample contamination
and the extremely fine detail, subject to expert rebuttal,
that may be necessary to support a legal action.

Grab samples ot groundwater for nonvolatile analysis may be
collected by using the system shown in Exhibit 8.5-9.  This
system is used where the water table is within suction lift;
the sampled water contacts only sterile glass and Teflon.
More sophisticated versions of the sampling configuration
are available commercially.  The sampled water is then care-
fully transferred to appropriate glass sample containers for
shipment to the laboratory.

For sampling at depths beyond suction lift, a noncontam-
inating submersible pump should be used to pump the
groundwater to the surface through scrupulously clean Teflon
tubing directly into appropriate sample containers.

The most commonly employed sample containers are 40-ml glass
vials for analyses requiring small sample volumes, such as
total organic carbon, and 1-gallon jugs for analyses
requiring relatively large volumes, such as extractable
organics.  Both types of containers are equipped with
Tefion-lined screw caps.  Like all glassware used in the
sampling and analytical procedures, sample containers are
thoroughly cleaned before use by washing with detergent,
rinsing extensively with tap water, rinsing in high-purity
deionized water, and heating to 105°C for 2 hours.  The bot-
tles are most easily obtained from the EPA CLP Sample Bottle
Repository.  The reader should refer to Section 6 of this
compendium.

Grab samples of groundwater to be analyzed for highly
volatile organics by the Bellar-Lichtenberg volatile organic
analysis  (VGA) method are usually obtained by using a Teflon
bailer, as noted in Exhibit 8.5-4.  Bailers are used for VOA
samples because of the possibility of stripping highly vola-
tile constituents from the sample under the reduced or
elevated pressure occurring in the systems that use pumps.
                           8.5-22
-------
                  Exhibit 8.5-9
           SYSTEM FOR GRAB SAMPLING
 TEFLON  CONNECTOR
    6 MM 1.0.
TEFLON TUBING
  6 MM  OD.
WELLCASING
.GLASS TUBING
  6 MM  0.0.
                                        TYGON
                                         TUBING
                                                  OUTLET
                                              PERISTALTIC
                                               PUMP
               1-LITER ERLENMEYER
                     8.5-23
-------
Continuous procedures, using selected adsorbents to
concentrate and recover organic constituents from relatively
large volumes of groundwater, may be employed to sample
organic pollutants when the analytical sensitivity and sam-
ple uniformity attainable by grab sampling are inadequate.
These procedures are applicable for most organic pollutants
except those ot very high volatility.

A .special sampling system Js shown in Exhibit 8.5-10.  In
this illustration, water is pumped directly from the well
through Teflon tubing (6 mm outside diameter (OD))  to two
glass columns of adsorbent in series.  A peristaltic pump is
located on the outlet side of the columns tor sampling with
suction lift.  A noncontaminating submersible pump may be
used at greater depths and may be superior for practically
all sampling uses.

All components of the system that contact the water sample
before emergence from the second column are, with the excep-
tion of the adsorbent, glass or Teflon.  Exhibit 8.5-11
shows a typical sampling system installed in specially con-
structed housing to form self-contained sampling units that
are easily transported and set up in the field.

Columns prepared from macroreticular resin, activated
carbon, and polyamide particles have been employed in
sampling systems.  Of these materials, macroreticular resin
(XALJ-2, Rohm and Il.iaa Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
has been the most convenient and generally useful and is the
current adsorbent of choice.

Sampling is conducted by continuously pumping groundwater
through the sampling system at flow rates usually ranging
from 10 to 30 ml per min.  The volumes sampled are dependent
on the desired sensitivity of analysis.  Sampling 50 liters
of water is sufficient to provide a sensitivity of at least
1 ug per liter  (1 part per billion  (ppb)) for almost all
compounds of interest using gas chromatographic techniques.
Volumes sampled are determined by using calibrated waste
receivers to measure the water leaving the sampling systems.

8.5.6.4.9  Volatile Organics in the Unsaturated Zone

Water should be sampled in the unsaturated zone to detect
and follow pollutants migrating toward the water table.
Highly volatile compounds, which include the "low-molecular-
woight chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichlorethylene,
are difficult to detect.  These compounds are released in
significant quantities into the environment, exhibit
carcinogenicity, and are implicated in numerous cases of
groundwater pollution.
                           8.5-24
-------
CONTINUOUS
 Exhibit
f.AMPLTNG
8.5-10
SYSTEM
                                              FOR ORGANTCS
         Glass Tubing
         6mmO.D.
Teflon
Connector-
                                                Tygon
                                                Tubing
                                                                    to Waste
                                                                    Receiver
                                                   Peristaltic
                                                   Pump
                      Teflon Tubing
                      6 mm O.D.


                    Well
                    Casing
                                8.5-25
-------
              Exhibit 8.5-11
SELF-CONTAINED SAMPLING UNIT FOR ORGANICS
                  8.5-26
-------
Soil-water samples may be collected using the device
depicted in Exhibit 8.5-12, which consists of a sampler, a
purging apparatus, and a trap connected to sources of nitro-
gen gas and a vacuum.  The soil-solution sampler consists of
a 7/8-inch OD (2.2-cm) porous ceramic cup, a length of
3/4-inch OD Teflon or PVC pipe, and a Teflon stopper fitted
with 3-rnm OD Teflon exhaust and collection tubes.  The
length of the pipe is dictated by the depth of sampling
desired, which is limited to a maximum of about 20 feet.
The device is basically a suction lysimeter with the
attendant limitations.  The purging apparatus and trap are
parts of the Tekmar LSC-1 liquid-sample concentrator to
which have been added Teflon valves and "Tape-Tite" connec-
tors.  The purging apparatus is borosilicate glass, while
the trap consists of Tenax-GC porous polymer (60/80 mesh),
packed in a 2-mm x 28-cm stainless steel tube plugged with
silane-treated glass wool.  The purge gas is ultrahigh-
purity, oxygen-free nitrogen.  The vacuum is provided by a
peristaltic pump.

Before the sample is collected, the purging apparatus is
cleaned with acetone and distilled water and then baked at
105°C to 108°C for at least an hour.  In the field, the
device is rinsed thoroughly with distilled or organic-free
water between samples, and special care is taken to force
the rinse water through the glass frit.

The soil-solution sampler is driven to the bottom of a pre-
augered 19-mm (0.75-inch) diameter hole.  This procedure is
done very carefully to ensure intimate contact between the
ceramic cup and the soil.

Before collecting a sample, the exhaust tube is opened to
the atmosphere, and the collection tube is disconnected and
pumped to remove any solution that may have leaked into the
tube through the porous cup.  Then the collection tube is
reconnected to the purging apparatus, the exhaust tube is
closed with a pinch clamp, and 5 to 10 ml of solution is
collected by closing valve C and opening valves A and B  (see
Exhibit 8.5-12).  Aftor sample collection, the exhaust tube
is opened to remove from the sampler and collect on the trap
any of the compounds that may have volatilized in the sam-
pler.  Following this procedure, valve A is closed and
valve C is opened.  Nitrogen gas is then bubbled through the
solution at a rate ot 40 ml per minute for 10 minutes to
purge volatile organics from the solution.  Traps are capped
and returned to the laboratory for analysis within 6 hours
of collection or for storage at -20°C for later analysis.
Chemical concentrations are determined according to proce-
dures based on the Bellar-Lichtenberg method.
                           8.5-27
-------
                              Exhibit 8.5-12
                     SOIL-WATER SAMPLING  DEVICE FOR
                             VOLATILE ORGANICS
                                                                   TRAP

                                                                   '/////!	*"—VAC U UM
EXHAUST
 TUBE
    Soil Solution Sampler
                                                   Purging Apparatus
                                    8.5-28
-------
j_.5.6.5  Water-Level Measurement Devices

Water-level indicators are portable instruments used to
determine the water level in boreholes, wells, and other
open underground structures.  Generally, outside power
sources are not required to operate these devices.  However,
many require that batteries be replaced or recharged period-
ically.  Measurements may be made with a number of different
devices and procedures.  Measurements are taken to a scribed
point placed by a surveyor on the inner well casing.  The
reader should refer to Section 14 of this compendium.

8.5.6.5.1  Steel Tape

The chalked steel tape with a weight attached to the lower
end is one of the most accurate procedures for measuring
water levels.  The weight keeps the tape taut and helps
lower it into the well (see Exhibit 8.5-13).  The tape can
be chalked with carpenter's chalk, ordinary blackboard
chalk, or other chalk.  The line where the color changes on
the tape indicates the length of tape that was immersed in
water.  Subtracting this length from the reading at the
measuring point gives the depth to water.  Cascading water
in a well may mask the mark of the true water level.  How-
ever, this situation usually occurs only in a well that is
being pumped.  Another method of measuring may then be
required.  In small-diameter wells, the volume of the weight
may cause the water level to rise in the pipe, causing the
measurement to be somewhat inaccurate.  Another problem
associated with the steel tape measurement is that chalk or
impurities in the chalk may contaminate a monitoring well.
If the integrity of a groundwater sample is critical,
another method of measuring the water level may have to be
used.

8.5.6.5.2  Electric Sounders

Electric sounders may also be used to measure the depth to
water in wells  (Exhibit 8.5-13).  There are a number of com-
mercial models available, none of which is entirely reli-
able.  Many sounders use brass or other metal indicators
clamped around a conductor wire at 5-foot intervals to
indicate the depth to water when the meter indicates con-
tact.  The spacing of these indicators should be checked
periodically with a surveyor's tape to assure accurate and
reliable readings.

Some electric sounders use a single-wire line and probe, and
rely on grounding to the casing to complete the circuit;
others use a two-wire line and double contacts on the elec-
trode.  Most sounders are powered with flashlight batteries,
and the closing of the circuit by immersion in water is
                           8.5-29
-------
                Exhibit  8.5-13
     WATER-LEVEL  MEASUREMENT DEVICES
r
     Chalked Steel Tape
                                       Popper
                                           Stcflc Water L*v*l
     Electric Sounder
Air Line
                     8.5-30
-------
registered on a milliammeter.   Experience has shown that
two-wire circuits with a battery are by far the most
satisfactory electric sounders.

Electric sounders are generally more suitable than other
devices for measuring the depth to water in wells that are
being pumped because they generally do not require removal
from the well for each reading.  However, when there is oil
on the water, water cascading into the well, or a turbulent
water surface in the well, measuring with an electric
sounder may be difficult.  Oil not only insulates the con-
tacts of the probe, but it will also give an erroneous read-
ing if there is a considerable thickness of oil.

In some instances, it may be necessary to insert a small
pipe in the well between the column pipe and the casing from
the ground surface to about 2 feet above the top of the pump
bowls.  This pipe should be plugged at the bottom with a
cork or similar seal that is blown out after the pipe is
set.  Measurements with the electric sounder can then be
made in the smaller pipe where the disturbances are elim-
inated or dampened, the true water level is measured, and
the insulating oil is absent.   When oil is present, it is
necessary to determine the thickness and density of the oil
layer before calculating the true water level.

Exhibit 8.5-14 illustrates a convenient arrangement for
direct measurement of drawdown during pumping tests.  A
marker on the sounder wire is referred to a value on the
tape, and the same marker is used as a reference to deter-
mine drawdown through changes on the tape when contact with
the water is made.  A new marker is used each time the water
level drops by an increment of 5 feet.

8.5.6.5.3  Poppers

A simple and reliable method for measuring the depth to
water in observation holes between 1-1/2 and 6 inches in
diameter is the use of a steel tape with a popper  (see
Exhibit 8.5-13).  The popper is a metal cylinder that is 1
to 1-1/2 inches in diameter and 2 to 3 inches long with a
concave undersurface; the popper is fastened to the end of a
steel tape.  When the popper is raised a few inches and
dropped to hit the water surface, it makes a distinct "pop."
Adjusting the length of tape determines the point at which
the popper just hits the surface.  Poppers are generally not
satisfactory for measuring pumping wells because of the
operating noise and lack of clearance, and they are not
effective if the water surface is opposite the well screen.
                           8.5-31
-------
            Exhibit 8.5-14

DIRECT DRAWDOWN MEASUREMENT BOARD
 Screws
  Steel
   tape
                    Pulley
                      Jhaft
                      assembly
                       to


                       O
                       o>
                       c
                 To Electric Sounder Reel
                  8.5-32
-------
8.5.6.5.4  Floats

Float devices are similar to poppers for measuring depth to
water.  The popper is replaced with a small float, and the
depth to water is determined by the slack created by the
tape when the float hits the surface of the water.

8.5.6.5.5  Air Lines

Permanent pump installations should always be equipped with
an access hole for probe insertion or for an air line and
gauge, or preferably both, to measure drawdown during pump-
ing.  An air line is accurate only to about 0.5 foot unless
it is calibrated against a tape for various drawdowns, but
it is sufficiently accurate for checking well performance.

Artesian wells with piezometric heads above the surface of
the ground are conveniently measured by capping the well
with a cap that has been drilled, tapped, and fitted with a
plug that is removed for the insertion of a Bordon gauge or
mercury manometer stem.  The static level is determined from
the gauge or manometer reading after the pressure has
stabilized.

For continuous records, a recording pressure gauge may be
used.

8.5.6.5.6  Pneumatic Piezometers

Pneumatic piezometers are used to measure pore pressures or
pore pressure changes within boreholes or embankments (see
Exhibit 8.5-15).  Pneumatic piezometers are usually connect-
ed to the surface with flexible tubing.  To operate a pneu-
matic piezometer, a portable readout unit is usually
required (see Exhibit 8.5-16).  The readout unit contains an
internal pressure tank and data gauge.  The pneumatic
piezometer measures hydrostatic pressure in a manner similar
to that of a simple air line.

The two primary advantages of using a pneumatic piezometer
instead of a standpipe piezometer are that a pneumatic
piezometer eliminates filter tip plugging and time lag.
These two interdependent problems, inherent in all stand-
pipes, result from the large volumetric change and the time
required for groundwater to permeate through the soil and
fill the pipe to the piezometric head.  In low-permeability
soils, the time lag can become so long that it is impossible
to obtain meaningful pore pressure data with a standpipe.
Instrument time lag is completely eliminated when pneumatic
piezometers are used.  Since the time lag problem is elim-
inated, pneumatic piezometers are very useful for monitoring
fast water level changes that occur during pump tests or
                           8.5-33
-------
                Exhibit  8.5-15
             PNEUMATIC PIEZOMETER
                               Flexible, Direct Burial Tubing
                     P/EZOMETER
                  /    'MoHflNe
Actual Size 0.6" Diam. x 2.5" L
                     8.5-34
-------
             Exhibit 8.5-16
PORTABLE PNEUMATIC PRESSURE READOUT  UNIT
                 8.5-35
-------
other hydraulic conductivity tests.  Since this procedure
may be model-specific, the manufacturer's recommendations
for the equipment to be used should be called out in the
QAPjP.

8.5.6.5.7  Continuous Water Level Recorders

There are a large number of different models of continuous
water level recorders.  Typically, these recorders use
floats, electric sounders, pneumatics, or other devices pre-
viously described.  A float-balance continuous recorder is
shown in Exhibit 8.5-17.

8.5.6.5.8  Sonic Water Level Measurement

Under proper conditions, depth to water in a well can be
measured by a sonic device.  This device uses a compressed

air charge or fires a blank shell to generate a sonic wave
down the well.  The round-trip wave travel time is measured,
and the depth to water is calculated.  Care must be taken in
reading the wave charts because discontinuities in the cas-
ing or in other well construction components may generate
anomalous wave forms and may cause inaccurate determinations
of water level depth.

8.5.6.6  Field Parameter Measurements

8.5.6.6.1  Measurement and Interpretation of pH

The pH of natural water is ordinarily determined by
measuring the potential between a glass electrode and a ref-
erence electrode immersed in the solution.  The potential
must be measured with a sensitive electrometer or similar
device that does not permit a significant flow of current.
The design of pH meters has been greatly improved in recent
years, and equipment now available measures pH to the near-
est 0.01 pH unit with excellent stability and consistency
either in the field or laboratory.  Because the pH is a log-
arithm, measurements to two decimal places may still be
imprecise as compared to the usual measurements of concen-
trations of the other solute species.

The equilibria in a groundwater system are altered when the
water is taken into a well and pumped to the surface.  A pH
measurement taken at the moment of sampling may represent
the original equilibrium conditions in the aquifer satisfac-
torily; however, if the water is put into a sample bottle
and the pH is not determined until the sample is taken out
for analysis  (days, weeks, or months later), the measured pH
may have no relation to the original conditions.  Besides
                           8.5-36
-------
          Exhibit O.S-17
CONTINUOUS WATER-LEVEL INDICATORS
              8.5-37
-------
gaining or losing carbon dioxide, the solution may be influ-
enced by reactions such as oxidation of ferrous iron, and
the laboratory pH can be a full unit different from the
value at the time of sampling.  A laboratory determination
of pH can be considered as applicable only to the solution
in the sample bottle at the time the determination is made.
Accurate measurement of pH in the field should be standard
practice for all groundwater samples.

Typical procedures for calibrating the instrument and for
obtaining the pH vary with manufacturer and model.  Equip-
ment should be recalibrated at each sample location and when
ambient temperature changes significantly.  Equipment manu-
als provide guidance for calibration.

8.5.6.6.2  Specific Electrical Conductance

Electrical conductance, or conductivity, is the ability of a
substance to conduct an electric current.  The American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has defined
electrical conductivity of water as "the reciprocal of the
resistance in ohms measured between the opposite faces of a
centimeter cube of aqueous solution at a specified tempera-
ture."  This definition further specifies that units for
reporting conductivity shall be "micromhos per centimeter at
temperature°C."  Geophysical measurements of resistivity,
however, are commonly expressed in ohmmeters, referring to a
cube 1 meter on a side, so it should be emphasized that
conductances of water refer to a centimeter cube.  The stan-
dard temperature for laboratory measurements is 25°C, but
some values taken at other temperatures exist; thus it is
important to specify the temperature.

Because conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, the
units in which specific conductance is reported are recipro-
cal ohms, or mhos.  Natural waters have specific conduc-
tances much less than 1 mho; to avoid inconvenient decimals,
data are reported in micromhos.  That is, the observed value
in mhos is multiplied by 10 .

The specific conductance of a groundwater sample is
dependent upon the total dissolved solids (TDS) content of
the sample.  Typically, the ratio of TDS  (mg per 1) to spe-
cific conductance (ymhos per cm) is between 0.6 and 0.8.
Because the TDS concentration and specific conductance of a
sample may be pH-dependent, measurements of specific con-
ductance should occur in the field along with the measure-
ment of pH.  Accuracy in both measurements is important.
Before the start of sampling for chemical analysis, the mea-
surements for tompernturo, specific conductance, and pH
should be stable over two or three well volumes.  Equipment
manuals should be referenced for proper calibration and
operation of all field analytical equipment.
                           8.5-38
-------
8.5.6.6.3  Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh) Measurement

The ability of a natural environment to bring about an
oxidation or reduction process is measured by a quantity
called its redox potential and is designated as Eh.  Eh is a
measure of the ability of an environment to supply electrons
to an oxidizing agent or to take up electrons from a reduc-
ing agent.  The redox potential system is a measure of the
cumulative redox potential of a number of individual
oxidation-reduction reactions.

The measurement of redox potential is not simple or
unambiguous.  Some reactions that determine redox potentials
are slow, so instantaneous readings with the platinum elec-
trode do not give true equilibrium potential differences.
This slowness means that most redox potential measurements
in nature give only qualitative or semi-quantitative; infor-
mation.  When accurate determinations of redox potential are
necessary, it is desirable2to measure the concentrations of
redox couples, such as SO^/H^S, CO^/CH., Fe  /Fe  ,
N03~/N2, and so forth.

Qualitative measure of Eh is conducted using a noble metal
(usually platinum) and a reference electrode system or a
combination electrode using a specific-ion meter that will
measure in millivolt units.  Reference solutions with known
Eh are used to obtain the potential and to check the accur-
acy of the electrode system.

If Eh is to be measured, it should be measured in the field
using the following procedures:

     o    Prepare and calibrate equipment according to
          manufacturer's specifications.

     o    Bring the reference ZoBell solution to sample
          temperature and record temperature.

     o    Measure potential, in millivolts, of the ZoBell
          solution at sample temperature (Eh    .... , .  . ) and
          check against theoretical value at measurea rem-
          perature (should be ±10 millivolts)

          (EhZoBell+Ref}'
     o    Place electrode in Eh cell and allow readings to
          stabilize (20 minutes plus).

     o    Turn off water flow to prevent streaming potential
          and immediately take reading.

     o    Record data (Eh ,  ) and calculate Eh relative to
          standard hydroginselectrode.
                           8.5-39
-------
Calculate system Eh as follows:


     Ehsys = Ehobs + EhZoBell+Ref ~ EZoBell(obs)

Report Eh to the nearest ±10 millivolts.  It should be noted
that oil and grease in the sampled solution may coat the
noble-metal electrode and provide erroneous readings.

8.5.6.7  Filtration

The need and desirability of filtering samples is dictated
by the objectives of the study and sampling as specified in
the investigation sampling plan.  If the objective is to
asse.Hi; miyralion meehnn i ainn in conjunction w.i i h migration
pathways, then it is necessary to know the concentration of
dissolved versus total constituents.  This comparison per-
mits an assessment of mobility in a true dissolved state as
opposed to a particulate or colloidal state.  The assessment
of the former requires the analysis of filtered samples; the
latter requires analysis of both filtered (for dissolved)
and unfiltered (for total) samples.  The difference permits
a determination of suspended contribution.

Filtering is necessary to analyse samples for inorganic
constituents, many of which are acidified before or during
analysis.  This acidification may release ions held on par-
ticles and change the constituent chemistry of the solution.

The removal of suspended solids may be accomplished through
several techniques.  Filtration through a 0.45-micron micro-
pore membrane filter is the most common field method used to
remove suspended solids.  This filter permits a reasonable
and practical distinction between true, solute material and
material that may be considered particulate or not in true
solution.  For extremely turbid samples, large particulates
can be removed with a coarse filter before the 0.45-micron
filter is used.  Large-capacity 0.45 micron filters exist
but are expensive when a large number of turbid samples must
be collected.

Pressure and suction filtering devices are commonly used in
the field.  A typical filter holder is shown in Exhib-
it 8.5-18.  Small peristaltic pumps are commonly used with
this type of filtering device  (see Exhibit 8.5-18).  Inert
gas pressure-filter devices are preferred to suction or com-
pressed air pumps.  Hand pump filtering apparatuses have
been used.

8_. 5._6.8  Materials for Well Construction

The selection of materials for we.ll construction and sample
collection, handling, and storage is a critical considera-
tion in planning the monitoring program.  The materials
                           8.5-40
-------
                Exhibit 8.5-18
       FILTERS AND  PERISTALTIC  PUMP
BACKFLUSH FILTER HOLDER
Parts Break Down
PERISTALTIC PUMPS
Electric or Hand Powered
                                      OlOrtCH MLMBHANl
                                        HLTtH HOI 1)1 US
                                          PRESSURE
                                       BACKFLUSHING
                                         VACUUM
                    8.5-41
-------
should retain their structural integrity for the duration of
the monitoring program under subsurface conditions.  The
material should neither adsorb nor leach chemical constitu-
ents.  The material combinations must also be compatible
with each other and with the goals of the sampling effort.
(The reader should refer to Exhibit 8.5-19 for a typical
monitoring well installation.)

8.5.6.8.1  Overview of Subsurface Conditions

Most common piping materials  (steel, polyvinyl chloride, and
iron) meet the structural requirements needed for well cas-
ings to withstand normal subsurface pressures for depths of
up to approximately 30 meters (90 feet).  In deeper monitor-
ing situations, the use of corrosion-resistant metallic cas-
ing for large-diameter (greater than 10 centimeters or
4 inches) may be required to provide necessary structural
integrity.  The practices of local water well construction
and regional EPA requirements should serve as a guide.

Metallic corrosion problems may be encountered under either
oxidizing or reducing conditions and are aggravated by high
dissolved-solids content.  Other materials (thermoplastics)
may deteriorate under the influence of dissolved chemical
substances or direct contact with wastes.  Whether the well
construction retains its integrity or not, there are also
potential problems because of microbial attachment and
growth and the sorptive capacity of the exposed materials
for the chemical species of interest.  Representative
sampling depends on the choice of materials that can retain
their integrity over the entire length of a well casing,
from the aerobic, unsaturated surface zone to the unusual
conditions in the saturated zone.

8.5.6.8.2  Chemical Properties of Water and Their Effects on
Various Materials

A groundwater monitoring network is designed and constructed
with the casing and materials that are compatible with the
subsurface environment.  The materials should be compatible
with probable mixtures of groundwater and chemical sub-
stances from the contaminant source.  Compatibility must be
judged from a structural and chemical standpoint.  Struc-
tural considerations are treated in detail in the 1980
National Water Well Association publication, Manual on the
Selection and Installation of Thermoplastic Water Well
Casing.  The main criterion for chemical compatibility
should be that the long-term interaction of the casing or
sampling materials with the groundwater will not cause an
analytical bias in the interpretation of the chemical analy-
sis of the water samples.
                           8.5-42
-------
                        Exhibit 8.5-19
             TYPICAL MONITORING WELL INSTALLATION
         GUARD POST-
3 IN.  DIA (MINIMUM)
  GROUND
  SURFACE
  VARIABLE
  VARIABLE
         u.
CAP WITH AIR VENT

 STEEL  CASING  WITH LOCKING CA=>
 6  IN.  DIA (MINIMUM)

CONCRETE  PAD,  SLOPED  TO  DRAIN
1
1- 0
2 Z
UJ —
Q o:
2 C
UJ CD
Q.
UJ U-
0 0
UJ X
0 Q.
M ID
0
K
O 0
Ct Q.
0 D
"" ^ Bv
/
1 FT. — -^








^H


                                 1  FT.
                                 CEMENT/BENTONITE  GROUT

                                 2  IN. DIAMETER, FLUSH JOINT
                                 THREADED PI PE
                                  6 TO 8 INCH NOMINAL
                                  DIAMETER BOREHOLE

                                   BENTON1TE  PELLET SEAL
                                   (2  FT. MINIMUM LENGTH)
                                   2 IN.  DIAMETER FLUSH JOINT
                                   WELL SCREEN (5  FT.  MINIMUM LENGTH)
                                  SAND PACK
                     CONCRETE PAD
                      PROTECTIVE
                      CASING
             BOTTOM PLUG
                        GUARD  POST
                      WELL PIPING

            GUARD POST PLAN
                            8.5-43
-------
The study of the effects of water or aqueous solutions on
materials (and vice versa)  presents many obstacles to the
investigator.  For leaching effects alone, there are at
least six critical system variables that must be controlled
or considered, including chemical composition of the solu-
tion, temperature, rate of flow, and composition of the
material (its age, pretreatment, and the surface area
exposed).  For purposes of material selection for ground-
water monitoring, static or flowing tests with solutions
approximating the expected range of solution composition
should be sufficient.

Well casing materials are rigid and nonporous.  They present
a very low surface area to water in the wellbore relative to
that of the adjacent soil or aquifer particles.  An exten-
sive body of literature deals with sorptive interactions of
dissolved chemical species in natural waters with solid sur-
faces.  Most of these studies describe the adsorption of
trace metals or organic compounds  (adsorbates) on mineral
particles (adsorbents).  Surface area (or particle size) and
the organic content of the solid phase are cited almost
universally as important variables in the adsorption
process.  Mineral phases such as quartz, aluminum, hydrous
metal oxides, and clays, as well as natural sediments, have
been studied with surface areas ranging from 5 to more than
250 square meters per gram.  These active surfaces have been
observed to routinely absorb up to several hundred micro-
grams of adsorbate per square meter of surface area.  The
applicability of laboratory adsorption experiments to the
condensed media of the subsurface is a matter of some con-
troversy.  However, a simple qualitative comparison of well
casing versus subsurface solids should suffice to discount
adsorptive interferences from materials selection
considerations.

8.5.6.8.3  Teflon Well Casing

Teflon represents a nearly ideal well construction material.
Inertness to chemical attack, poor sorptive properties, and
low leach potential are clear advantages of rigid Teflon for
well screens and casing.  However, Teflon is expensive
compared to other materials.  When situations allow, using
Teflon casing and screens in the saturated zone with another
suitable material as the upper casing may be a viable, less
expensive alternative.  The structural properties of Teflon
are sufficient for the most exacting environments, giving
Teflon a clear advantage over glass.  Teflon has not been
reported to contribute to or remove organic or inorganic
contaminants from aqueous solutions.
                           8.5-44
-------
8.5.6.8.4  Stainless Steel Well Casing

Stainless steel has been the material of choice for casing
and screens when subsurface conditions require a durable
corrosion-resistant material or when organic adsorption
problems might exist.  In tests, type 316 stainless steel
proved better for use as a well casing than type 304.  The
principal compositional difference between the two types is
the inclusion of 2 to 3 percent molybdenum in type 316.  The
molybdenum content gives type 316 stainless steel improved
resistance to sulfur-containing species and sulfuric acid
solutions.  Resistance to oxidizing acids is somewhat poorer
than other chromium-nickel steels.  However, reducing con-
ditions are more frequently encountered in well-casing
applications.  The type 316 stainless steels are less sus-
ceptible to the pitting or pin-hole corrosion caused by
organic acids or halide solutions.  They are the materials
of choice in industries, such as Pharmaceuticals, in which
excessive metal contamination of process streams must be
avoided.  Provided that surface coating residues from man-
ufacture or storage are removed, stainless steel well cas-
ing, screen, and fittings can be expected to function nearly
as well as Teflon in most monitoring applications.  Chromium
or nickel contamination may result after long exposure to
very corrosive conditions.  However, physical failure of the
casing would probably accompany or precede such an occur-
rence.  Proper well purging before sampling should be suffi-
cient to minimize problems with these materials.

8.5.6.8.5  Polyvinyl Chloride Well Casing

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC-Type 1) thermoplastic well casing is
composed of a rigid, unplasticized polymer formulation that
has many desirable properties for monitoring well construc-
tion.  It has very good chemical resistance except to low-
molecular-weight ketones, aldehydes, and chlorinated
solvents.  PVC is a close second to Teflon and type 316
stainless steel in its resistance to acid solutions, and it
may be expected to outperform any of the ferrous materials
in acidic environments of high ionic strength.  There may be
potential problems when PVC is used in contact with aqueous
organic mixtures or under conditions that might encourage
leaching of substances from the polymer matrix.  Manufac-
turers, however, do not recommend the use of threaded
schedule 40 PVC well casing because of potential mechanical
failures.  Schedule 80 threaded PVC well casing is suffi-
ciently durable for most well construction applications.

All well casings should, at a minimum, be cleaned with
detergent and rinsed with clean water before well con-
struction to remove processing lubricants and release
agents.  This procedure is particularly necessary for PVC
                           8.5-45
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well casing, which may be coated with natural or synthetic
waxes, fatty acids, or fatty acid esters.  In addition, more
thorough cleaning may be required; steam cleaning is often
used.

Threaded joints are the preferred means of connecting
sections of PVC well casing.  In this way, problems associ-
ated with use of solvent primers and cements can be avoided.
Threaded joints on PVC well casing (or pipe) can be provided
in three ways:  (1) by solvent cementing a molded thread
adapter to the end of the pipe (not recommended), (2) by
having molded flush-threaded joints built into each pipe
section, and  (3) by cutting tapered threads on the pipe with
National-Pipe-Thread-sized dies.  The latter method is rec-
ommended only by the industry for schedule 80 PVC well
casing or pipe.

Furthermore, manufactured casing and screen is preferable to
off-the-shelf PVC pipe.  The practice of sawing slots in the
pipe  (e.g., homemade screens) should be avoided since this
procedure exposes fresh surfaces of the material, increasing
the risk of releasing compounding ingredients or reaction
products.  In addition, it is very difficult to properly
slot casing materials by sawing them.

8.5.6.8.6  Casing Made from Other Ferrous Materials

Ferrous metal well casing and screen materials, with the
exception of stainless steels, include carbon steel, low-
carbon or copper (0.2 percent) steels, and various steels
with a galvanized coating.  The carbon steels were formulat-
ed to improve resistance to atmospheric corrosion.  To
achieve this increased resistance, it is necessary for the
material to undergo alternate wetting and drying cycles.
For noncoated steels buried in soils or in the saturated
zone, the difference between the corrosion resistance of
either variety is negligible.  Both carbon- and copper-steel
well casings may be expected to corrode, and corrosion prod-
ucts may include oxides of Fe and Mn  (and trace constitu-
ents) , as well as various metal sulfides.  Under oxidizing
conditions, the principal products are solid hydrous oxides
of these metals, with a large range of potential particle
sizes.  The solids may accumulate in the well screen, at the
bottom of the well, or on the casing surface.  The potential
also exists for the production of stable colloidal oxide
particles that can pass through conventional membrane fil-
tration media.  Reducing conditions will generally provide
higher levels of truly dissolved metallic corrosion products
in well storage waters.  Galvanized steels are protected by
a zinc coating applied by hot dipping or electroplating pro-
cesses.  The corrosion resistance of galvanized steel is
generally improved over conventional steels.  However, the
                           8.5-46
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products of initial corrosion will include iron, manganese,
zinc, and trace cadmium species, which may be among the
analytes of interest in a monitoring program.

Corrosion products from conventional or galvanized steels
represent a potential source of adsorptive interference.
The accumulation of the solid products has the effect of
increasing both the activity and the exposed surface area
for adsorption, reaction, and desorption processes.  Surface
interactions can, thereby, cause significant changes in dis-
solved-metal or organic compound concentrations in water
samples.  Flushing the stored water from the well casing may
not be sufficient to minimize this source of bias because
the effects of the disturbance of surface coatings or accu-
mulated products in the bottom of the well would be diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to predict.  In comparison with
glass, plastic, and coated-steel surfaces, galvanized metal
presents a rather active surface for adsorption of
orthophosphate.  The age of the surface and the total area
of exposure have been found to be important variables in the
adsorption process.  However, adsorption is not a linear
function of the galvanized-metal surface area.

Field data for conventional and galvanized steels provide
additional reasons for the use of caution when choosing
these materials for well casings or screens.  The water well
industry routinely chooses alternative nonconductive or cor-
rosion-resistant materials in areas where normal groundwater
conditions are known to attack the common steels.  Regional
or local practices in the selection of water well con-
struction materials provide valuable preliminary guides for
routine monitoring efforts.

8.5.6.8.7  Pumps Used in Development

The large variety of centrifugal, peristaltic, impeller, and
submersible pump designs precludes an in-depth discussion of
their potential effects on the results of groundwater moni-
toring efforts.  According to the situation, the compatibil-
ity of the materials found in high-capacity pumps with
subsurface conditions must be carefully considered.  The
methodology of monitoring well development (see Exhib-
it 8.5-20) is probably far more critical than the pumping
mechanism or water-contacting materials.  Use of a Teflon,
air-driven, we11-development device with filtered air or
compressed breathing-grade air minimizes the potential
effects on groundwater monitoring.

8.5.6.8.8  Grouts, Cements, Muds, and Drilling Fluids

Various drilling aids, cements, and sealant formulations are
used to achieve two main goals:   (1) to maintain an open
                           8.5-47
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              Exhibit  8.5-20
 AIR-DRIVEN,  WELL-DEVELOPMENT DEVICE
Flattened nozzle with
   1/8" opening
                                3/8" OD stainless or
                                  copper pipe
                                 Overall dimension
                                   less than 1 -%"
        1/8" diameter hole (both sides)
                    8.5-48
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borehole in rotary and cable tool operations in unconsol-
idated formations, and (2) to effect a seal between the sur-
face or overlying formations and the casing or screened
intervals so that runoff or other sources of water do not
enter the wellbore.

Water-based drilling fluids are usually used in freshwater
applications where the total-dissolved-solids content of
groundwater is below 10,000 mg per liter.  The fluids are
introduced for several purposes including cooling and lubri-
cating the bit, suspending and removing cuttings, stabiliz-
ing the borehole by building up a cake on the sides of the
hole, and minimizing formation damage that results from
water loss or penetration of solids.

There are three main types of freshwater muds:
(1) bentonite, attapulgite, or clay-based muds with pH
adjusted to between 9 and 9.5 with caustic;  (2) polymer-
extended clay  (organic) muds; and (3) inhibited clay muds
that use lignosulfonates or lignin to counteract the effects
of contaminants that would otherwise destabilize the slurry
and prevent effective cutting removal.  The first two types
of mud are used most frequently in water-well drilling
applications.  Both of these mud formulations and a spectrum
of combined compositions have been used in the construction
of monitoring wells.  The main distinction between bentonite
and organic muds is the addition of natural or synthetic
organic polymers to adjust consistency, viscosity, or
surface tension.

For monitoring applications where conditions permit,
augering, air-rotary, or clear-water rotary drilling tech-
niques have a distinct advantage over the use of drilling
muds.  It is preferable to introduce the least possible
amount of foreign materials into the borehole.  Compressor
lubricants for air-rotary rigs may rule out this method for
trace organic monitoring work, although filters are avail-
able to minimize such problems.  In geologic situations in
which water-based drilling fluids are a necessity, the pre-
dominantly inorganic clay muds are preferable over those
containing organic materials, because the introduction of
these organics can lead to substrates microbial activity
that can seriously affect the integrity of water samples.
The decomposition of the organic components of drilling muds
may be expected to be a function of their chemical struc-
ture, the microbial populations, the presence of nutrients,
and various physical and chemical factors controlling the
distribution of organic substances in the subsurface.

Inorganic clay muds do have disadvantages.  If these
materials are not completely removed during the development
process, attenuation of organic and metal contaminants in
                           8.5-49
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the groundwater may be caused by the highly sorptive
bentonite muds.  In zones where concentrations of contami-
nants are in the low parts per billion (ppb)  range, this
phenomenon may be very important.

Seals, grouts, and cements are the primary safeguards
against the migration of water from the surface and from
overlying or adjacent formations into monitoring wells.
Faulty seals or grouts can seriously bias the analytical
results on water samples from the formation of interest,
particularly if water quality conditions vary or surface
soils are badly contaminated.  The impact of leaking seals
may go far beyond the realm of analytical interferences or
nonrepresentative samples.  A leaky wellbore may act as a
conduit to permit rapid contaminant migration that otherwise
would not have occurred.  This aspect of a groundwater moni-
toring program should not be left to an unsupervised drill-
ing crew, and last-minute substitutions for preferred
materials should not be made.  Surface seals must also be
completed with concern for the security at the wellhead by
including casing sheaths and locking caps.  Most seals
between the formation of interest and regions above or below
are made by adding clay materials or cement.

Bentonite clay can increase in volume by 10 to 15 times
after wetting with deionized water.  Variations in the com-
position of the contacting solution can severely reduce the
swelling of clay seals.  Swelling volumes of 25 to 50 per-
cent of the maximum values are not uncommon.  The organic
content of the solution in contact with the clay can have a
dramatic effect on the integrity of the seal.  Organic com-
pounds can cause significant disruption of normal shrinking,
swelling, or dehydrating of the clay lattice during alter-
nate wetting and drying cycles.  Alcohols, ketones, and
other polar organic solvents have a significant potential
for these changes.  On the microscopic level, these pheno-
mena can materially increase the permeability of the clay
seal.  This active area of research has wide application in
the fields of well construction, landfill liners, and slurry
or grout cutoff walls.  Macroscopic changes in the perme-
ability of clay or cement seals can occur because of solu-
tion channeling by aggressive solvents, compaction or
subsidence, and freezing and thawing processes at the sur-
face.  Chemical-resistant and expanding cement formulations
effectively minimize these problems.

8.5.6.8.9  Evaluation of Sample Collection Materials

The choices of sample collection devices, procedures, and
all materials that ultimately contact water samples are
probably the most critical considerations in a groundwater
monitoring program.  The monitoring program planner must
                           8.5-50
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evaluate the collection mechanisms and all materials to
determine whether they would introduce interference or bias
into the final analytical result.  For example, a collection
mechanism that creates turbulent transfer of the sample and
the opportunity for gas exchange (e.g., air-lift pumping
mechanisms) is clearly inappropriate in sampling for vola-
tile organic compounds and pH- or redox-sensitive chemical
species.

The following are desirable attributes for sample collection
materials:

     o    Durability

     o    Ability to be decontaminated and cleaned
          effectively to prevent cross-contamination between
          sampling points (i.e., low permeation of material
          by contaminants)

     o    Verified low potential for introducing
          contamination, bias, or interferences into the
          analytical results

Each of these attributes plays an important role in the
overall performance of monitoring efforts and bears directly
on the successful retrieval of representative water samples.
The combinations of components in pumps (or other samplers)
and the properties of polymeric and elastomeric materials
for tubing or transfer lines make the selection of the sam-
ple collection apparatus difficult.

Apart from the actual sampling mechanisms, the materials
used for a sampler are of prime importance.  Fortunately,
most devices are constructed in different models for
specific situations.  For example, bailers are fabricated in
Teflon, stainless/Teflon, stainless/PVC 1, or PVC 1.  These
materials satisfy the major specifications.  Problems arise
with nonrigid components of samplers.  A single pair of
0-rings may limit the application of a device.

Teflon incorporates most of the characteristics of an ideal
sampling material.  It is, however, a difficult material to
machine, and threaded components are easily damaged.  For
chemical resistance and durability, several materials other
than stainless steel may be expected to perform satisfac-
torily in low-organic environments.  These materials include
polypropylene, linear polyethylene, plasticized PVC, Viton,
and conventional polyethylene.  Viton is a preferred mate-
rial for elastomeric parts since it may be expected to give
improved chemical resistance over silicone and neoprene.
                           8.5-51
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Tubing and transfer lines are available in a variety of
polymeric or elastomeric materials.   Certain applications
(e.g., peristaltic or bladder pumps)  demand a high-
resiliency material, and it may be necessary to sacrifice
chemical resistance to achieve the desired structural per-
formance.  The bulk of common tubing materials, except for
Teflon, contains a wide range of additives.  Plasticizers,
lubricants, antistatic agents, tackifiers, and other ingre-
dients may be present in flexible synthetic materials.  In
general, true polymers (e.g., polyolefins like polyethylene
and polypropylene) contain much lower amounts of such
ingredients.  Formulations change frequently as
manufacturers strive to keep production costs low, so a
particular material may show significant variation from lot
to lot.  Plasticizers are frequently present at levels
between 15 and 50 percent of the total weight of flexible
products.  As a result of this fact and because of the
widespread use of plastic, major plasticizers, such as
phthalate esters, have been consistently identified in
environmental samples.

Teflon is the tubing material of choice in monitoring for
low-level organic compounds in complex, chemically aggres-
sive environments.  Polyethylene and polypropylene are
clearly superior plastic materials when Teflon is not cost-
effective.  Silicone rubber tubing for moving components is
a special case in which alternate choices of material may
not be feasible.  The material is available in several
grades that have widely varying compositions and additives.
Metallic contamination from certain laboratory grades of
silicone rubber tubing can be quite serious at the ppb
level.  Iron and zinc concentrations two to five times those
of control samples are not uncommon even after short contact
times.  Medical-grade silicone rubber tubing is, however,
relatively free of unreacted organic initiators (peroxides)
or zinc.  Silicone rubber tubing is generally a poor choice
of sampler for detailed organic analytical schemes.  Other
elastomeric materials, such as natural rubber, latex,
neoprene, or chloroprene, are not recommended for transfer
lines or surfaces that contact groundwater samples.

Little information is available on the performance of
flexible materials in groundwater applications.  From the
available observations, Teflon, polypropylene, and linear
polyethylene may be expected to outperform plasticized PVC,
since they have superior chemical resistance over a range of
environments and are less likely to cause contamination or
bias problems.  Microbial transformation of additives in
plastics introduces another dimension to the problem posed
by materials with high concentrations of additives.  There
are a number of reports on the microbial colonization of
flexible PVC and the degradation of plasticizers from the
polymer matrix.
                           8.5-52
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8.5.6.9  Groundwater Sampling Considerations

The importance of proper sampling of wells cannot be
overemphasized.  Even though the well being sampled may be
correctly located and constructed, special precautions must
be taken to ensure that the sample taken from that well is
representative of the groundwater at that location and that
the sample is neither altered nor contaminated by the
sampling and handling procedures.

To select proper sampling procedures, it is essential that
sampling objectives be firmly established before field
activities begin.  These objectives will dictate the para-
meters to be measured, the reliability of the water quality
data, and the analytical methodology, which determines the
sampling procedures necessary to meet these objectives.  In
addition, the physical limitations of the well, depth to
water, length and location of the well screen, availability
of power, and accessibility of the well site all have a
bearing on the practical application of various sampling
procedures.

Sample withdrawal mechanisms should be completely inert;
economical to manufacture; easily cleaned, sterilized, and
reused; able to be operated at remote sites in the absence
of external power sources; and capable of delivering contin-
uous but variable flow rates for well flushing and sample
collection.  Sampling equipment is described in Sub-
section 8.1.  The physical characteristics of the well
largely determine the sampling mechanism to be used for
inorganic and nonvolatile organic analysis.  Volatile organ-
ics are usually sampled with Teflon or stainless steel
bailers, and extra care should be used to handle samples.

Before use, all sampling devices should be carefully
cleaned.  A dilute hydrochloric acid rinse followed by suc-
cessive rinses with deionized water, acetone, and distilled
organic-free water is routinely used.  In badly contaminated
situations, a hot-water detergent wash before the above
rinsing procedure may be necessary.  Hexane rinses before
the final distilled inorganic water rinse will aid in the
removal of sparingly soluble organic materials before
sampling for low-level organic pollutants.

The static water level should be measured and recorded at
the time of sampling.  Water levels can be obtained using
one of the devices discussed previously.  In older wells not
previously sampled, the bottom of the well should be estab-
lished by sounding.

To obtain a representative sample of the groundwater, a
volume of stagnant water in the wellbore must first be
purged.  The recommended length of time required to pump or
                           8.5-53
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bail a well before sampling depends on the well and aquifer
characteristics, the type of sampling equipment being used,
and the parameters being sampled.  A common procedure is to
pump or bail the well until at least three to five bore-
volumes have been removed.  A more reliable method is to
pump or bail until the measurements of pH, temperature, and
specific conductance have stabilized over three well
volumes.

In the case of monitoring wells that will not yield water at
a rate adequate to be effectively flushed, different proce-
dures must be followed.  One suggested procedure includes
removing water to the top of the screened interval to pre-
vent the exposure of the gravel pack or formation to atmo-
spheric conditions.  The sample is then taken at a rate that
would not cause rapid drawdown.  The wells may also be
pumped dry and allowed to recover.  The samples should be
collected as soon as a volume of water sufficient for the
intended analytical scheme reenters the well.  Exposure of
water entering the well for periods longer than 2 to 3 hours
may render samples unsuitable and unrepresentative of water
contained within the aquifer system.  In these cases, it may
be desirable to collect small volumes of water over a period
of time, each time pumping the well dry and allowing it to
recover.  Whenever full recovery exceeds 3 hours, samples
should be collected in order of their volatility as soon as
sufficient volume is available for a sample for each analyt-
ical parameter or compatible set of parameters.  Parameters
that are not pH-sensitive or subject to loss through volati-
lization should be collected last.  Few reliable data exist
on when to choose one sampling method over another in
"tight" formations.

To collect a sample for other than volatile organics
analysis, the cap should be removed carefully from the pre-
viously decontaminated sample bottle.  The person doing the
sampling should not lay the cap down or touch the inside of
the cap.  At no time should the inside of the bottle come in
contact with anything other than the sample.  The bottle
should be filled, in a manner to minimize aeration, to
within 2.5 cm  (1 inch) of the top.  The cap should be
replaced carefully, and the bottle should be placed in a
cooler  (4°C to 10°C) unless the sample is going to be pro-
cessed immediately in the field.  Sampling equipment should
be decontaminated between samples.  For volatile organic
analysis, the bottles should be filled in a manner to mini-
mize aeration of the samples so that no headspace exists in
the bottle.  No air bubbles should be trapped in the bottle.
                           8.5-54
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8.5.7  INFORMATION SOURCES

Barcelona, M.J., J.P. Gibb, and R.A. Miller.  A Guide to the
Selection of Materials for Monitoring Well Construction and
Ground-Water Sampling.  ISWS Contract Report 327.
Champaign, Illinois:  Illinois State Water Survey.  1983.
78 pp.

Gillham, R.W.,  M.L. Robin, J.F. Banker, and J.A. Cherry.
Groundwater Monitoring and Sample Bias.  API.  1983.

Scalf, M.R., J.F. McNoll, W.N. Dunlop, R.L. Cosby, and
J. Fryberger.  Manual of Groundwater Sampling Procedures.
NWWA/EPA Series.  Ada, Oklahoma:  U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Practical Guide to
Groundwater Sampling.  EPA 600/2-85-104.  Ada, Oklahoma:
NTIS, ERL.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  RCRA Groundwater
Monitoring Technical Enforcement Guidance Document.  EPA
530/SW-86-055 NTIS.  September 1986.
WDR146/007
                           8.5-55
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