&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory
Cincinnati OH 45268
EPA-600/2-79-1 62c
August 1979
Research and Development
Estimating Water
Treatment Costs
Volume 3
Cost Curves
Applicable to
2,500 gpd to 1 mgd
Treatment Plants
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Researcn reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were establisned tc facilitate further devetopment and application of en-
vironmental tecnnology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Soaoeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
j_ Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TECH-
NOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and dem-
onstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent en-
vironmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This work
provides the new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-79-162c
August 1979
ESTIMATING WATER TREATMENT COSTS
Volume 3. Cost Curves Applicable to
2,500 gpd to 1 mgd Treatment Plants
by
Sigurd P. Hansen
Robert C. Gumerman
Russell L. Gulp
Gulp/Wesner/Gulp
Consulting Engineers
Santa Ana, California 92707
Contract No. 68-03-2516
Project Officer
Robert M. Clark
Drinking Water Research Division
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increas-
ing public and government concern about the dangers of pollution to the
health and welfare of the American people. Noxious air, foul water, and
spoiled land are tragic testimonies to the deterioration of our natural
environment. The complexity of that environment and the interplay of its
components require a concentrated and integrated attack on the problem.
Research and development is that necessary first step in problem
solution, and it involves defining the problem, measuring its impact, and
searching for solutions. The Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
develops new and improved technology and systems to prevent, treat, and
manage wastewater and solid hazardous water pollutant discharges from muni-
cipal and community sources, to preserve and treat public drinking water
supplies, and to minimize the adverse economic, social, health, and aesthetic
effects of pollution. This publication is one of the products of that re-
search - a most vital communications link between the researcher and the
user community.
The cost of water treatment processes that may be used by small water
supply systems to remove contaminants included in the National Interim
Primary Drinking Water Regulations is of interest to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, State and local agencies, and consulting engineers.
Volume 3 presents construction and operation and maintenance cost curves
for 27 unit processes or package type systems that are especially applic-
able to small water supply systems with treatment capacities between 2,500
gpd and 1 mgd. These 27 processes were selected for their ability to remove,
either individually or in combination, contaminants included in the National
Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations.
Francis T. Mayo
Director
Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory
111
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ABSTRACT
This report is Volume 3 of a four-volume study that presents construction
and operation and maintenance cost curves for 99 unit processes that are espe-
cially applicable (either individually or in combination) to the removal of
contaminants listed in the National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations.
This volume presents 27 cost curves applicable to small water supply systems
(2,500 gpd to 1 mgd).
Volume 1 summarizes the four volumes and discusses the costestimating
approaches that were used to develop the cost curves and the treatment tech-
niques applicable to contaminant removal. Volume 1 also presents a series of
examples demonstrating the use of the cost curves. Volume 2 discusses 72 unit
processes that are particularly suited to large water supply systems (1 to 200
mgd). Information is also included on enhanced virus and asbestos removal
using modifications of standard unit processes. Volume 4 is a computer user's
manual and contains a computer program that can be used to retrieve and update
all cost data contained in the four volumes.
Conceptual designs were formulated for each unit process and from these,
construction costs were then then developed. The construction costs are pre-
sented in tabular format, in terms of eight categories: Excavation and sitework,
manufactured equipment, concrete, steel, labor, pipe and valves, electrical
equipment and instrumentation, and housing. The construction cost curves were
checked for accuracy by a second consulting engineering firm, Zurheide-Herrmann,
Inc., using cost estimating techniques similar to those used by general con-
tractors in preparing their bids. Construction costs are also shown plotted
versus the most appropriate design parameter for the process, such as pounds
per day for chemical feed systems and gallons per minute (or day) for package
components.
Operation and maintenance requirements were determined individually for
three categories: Energy, maintenance material, and labor. Energy require-
ments for the building and the process were determined separately.
All costs are presented in terms of October 1978 dollars, and a discussion
is included on cost updating. For construction cost, either of two methods may
be used. One is the use of indices that are specific to each of the eight
categories used in the original determination of construction cost. The second
method is the use of an all-encompassing index such as the Engineering News
Record Construction Cost Index. Operation and maintenance requirements may be
readily updated or adjusted to local conditions, since labor requirements are
expressed in hours per year, electrical requirements in kilowatt-hours per year,
diesel fuel in gallons per year, and natural gas in standard cubic feet per year.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-2516 by
Culp/Wesner/Culp under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. This report covers the period November 1, 1976 to January 1, 1979,
and work was completed as of July 2, 1979.
IV
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CONTENTS
Foreword
Abstract ivt
Figures V1
Tables xi
Abbreviations and Symbols. ^
Metric Conversions xv^
Acknowledgements xvii
1. Introduction j
Scope
Background
Purpose and objectives 1
2. Cost Curves 3
Package complete treatment plants 10
Package gravity filtration plants -"-'
Package pressure filtration plants 21
9Q
Filter media ^
Package pressute diatomite filters 29
Package vacuum diatomite filters 36
Package ultrafiltration plants. . . 43
Package granular activated carbon columns 50
Potassium permanganate feed systems 57
Polymer feed systems 64
Powdered activated carbon feed systems 64
Chlorine feed systems 67
Ozone generation systems and contact chambers 73
Chlorine dioxide generating and feed systems 76
Ultraviolet light disinfection 84
00
Reverse osmosis °°
Pressure ion exchange softening 92
Pressure ion exchange nitrate removal 102
Activated alumina fluoride removal 109
Bone char fluoride removal H4
Package raw water pumping facilities 120
Package high-service pumping stations 126
Steel backwash/clearwell tanks 134
Sludge hauling to landfill 134
Sludge disposal to sanitary sewers
Sludge dewatering lagoons
Sand drying beds
3. Example calculations for a 350 gpm Package Complete
Treatment Plant
References
v
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FIGURES
Number
8
9
10
12
13
Typical package complete water treatment plant installation.
Page
.11
2 Construction cost for package complete treatment plants at
filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2 12
3 Operation and maintenance requirements for package complete
treatment plants - building energy, process energy, and
maintenance material at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2. . . .14
4 Operation and maintenance requirements for package complete
treatment plants - labor and total cost at filtration rates
of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2 15
5 Construction cost for package gravity filter plants at filtra-
tion rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2 19
6 Operation and maintenance requirements for package gravity
filter plants - building energy, process energy, and maintenance
material at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2 .22
7 Operation and maintenance requirements for package gravity
filter plants - labor and total cost at filtration rates
of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2 ^ 23
Typical package pressure filter installation,
26
Construction cost for package pressure filtration plants at
filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2
28
Operation and maintenance requirements for package pressure
filtration plants - building energy, process energy, and
maintenance material at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2.. . .31
11 Operation and maintenance requirements for package pressure
filtration plants - labor and total cost at filtration rates
of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2 32
Construction cost for filter media 34
Construction cost for package pressure diatomite filters 38
VI
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14 Operation and maintenance requirements for package pressure
diatomite filters - building energy, process energy, and
maintenance material 40
15 Operation and maintenance requirements for package pressure
diatomite filters - labor and total cost 41
16 Construction cost for package vacuum diatomite filters 45
17 Operation and maintenance requirements for package vacuum
diatomite filters - building energy, process energy, and
maintenance material 47
18 Operation and maintenance requirements for package vacuum dia-
tomite filters - labor and total cost 48
19 Construction cost for package ultrafiltration plants 52
20 Operation and maintenance requirements for package ultra-
filtration plants - building energy, process energy, and
maintenance material 54
21 Operation and maintenance requirements for package ultra-
filtration plants - labor and total cost 55
22 Construction cost for package granular activated carbon
columns 59
23 Operation and maintenance requirements for package granular
activated carbon columns - building energy, process energy,
and maintenance material 61
24 Operation and maintenance requirements for package granular
activated carbon columns - labor and total cost 62
25 Construction cost for powdered activated carbon feed systems. ... 69
26 Operation and maintenance requirements for powdered activated
carbon feed systems - process energy and maintenance material . . 71
27 Operation and maintenance requirements for powdered activated
carbon feed systems - labor and total cost 72
28 Construction cost for ozone generation systems 78
29 Construction cost for ozone contact chambers 80
30 Operation and maintenance requirements for ozone generation
systems - building energy, process energy, and maintenance
material g2
Vll
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31 Operation and maintenance requirements for ozone generation
systems - labor and total cost
32 Construction cost for ultraviolet light disinfection,
87
33 Operation and maintenance requirements for ultraviolet light
disinfection - building energy, process energy, and maint-
enance material
34 Operation and maintenance requirements for ultraviolet dis
infection - labor and total cost
35 Construction cost for reverse osmosis
36 Operation and maintenance requirements for reverse osmosis -
building energy, process energy, and maintenance material .... 96
37 Operation and maintenance requirements for reverse osmosis -
labor and total cost ....................... 97
38 Construction cost for pressure ion exchange softening
100
39 Operation and maintenance requirements for pressure ion
exchange softening - building energy, process energy, and
maintenance material
40 Operation and maintenance requirements for pressure ion exchange
softening - labor and total cost
41 Construction cost for pressure ion exchange nitrate removal . . . .108
42 Operation and maintenance requirements for pressure ion
exchange nitrate removal - building energy, process
energy, and maintenance material
43 Operation and maintenance for pressure ion exchange nitrate
removal - labor and total cost .................. HI
44 Construction cost for activated alumina fluoride removal. ..... 116
45 Operation and maintenance requirements for activated alumina
fluoride removal - building energy and maintenance material. . .117
46 Operation and maintenance requirements for activated alumina
fluoride removal - labor and total cost
47 Construction cost for bone char fluoride removal .......... 122
48 Operation and maintenance requirements for bone char fluoride
removal - building energy, process energy, and maintenance
material ............................. -1-23
Vlll
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49 Operation and maintenance requirements for bone char
fluoride removal - labor and total cost 124
50 Construction cost for package raw water pumping facilities 128
51 Operation and maintenance requirements for package raw water
pumping facilities - process energy and maintenance material . .130
52 Operation and maintenance requirements for package raw water
pumping facilities - labor and total cost 131
53 Construction cost for package high-service pumping stations . . . .132
54 Operation and maintenance requirements for package high-service
pumping stations - process energy and maintenance material. . . .136
55 Operation and maintenance requirements for package high-service
pumping stations - labor and total cost 137
56 Construction cost for steel backwash/clearwell tanks 140
57 Initial cost for liquid sludge hauling at 5- and 40-mile haul
distances 144
58 Initial cost for dewatered sludge hauling at 5-, 20-, and
40-mile haul distances 146
59 Operation and maintenance requirements for liquid sludge hauling -
maintenance material and fuel needed for 5-, 20-, and 40-mile
haul distances 148
60 Operation and maintenance requirements for liquid sludge hauling -
labor and total cost for 5-, 20-, and 40-mile haul distances . .149
61 Operation and maintenance requirements for dewatered sludge haul-
ing - maintenance material and fuel needed for 5-, 20-> arid 40-
mile haul distances 151
62 Operation and maintenance requirements for dewatered sludge haul-
ing - labor and total cost for 5-, 20-, and 40-mile haul
distances 152
63 Construction cost for sludge dewatering lagoons 157
64 Operation and maintenance requirements for sludge dewatering
lagoons - maintenance material and diesel fuel 159
65 Operation and maintenance requirements for sludge dewatering
lagoons - labor and total cost 160
66 Construction cost for sand drying beds 164
IX
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67 Operation and maintenance requirements for sand drying beds -
maintenance material and diesel fuel 165
68 Operation and maintenance requirements for sand drying beds -
labor and total cost 166
69 General contractor's overhead and fee percentage versus total
construction cost 170
70 Legal, fiscal, and administrative costs for projects less
than $1 million 171
71 Legal, fiscal, and administrative costs for projects greater
than $1 million 172
72 Interest during construction for projects less than $200,000 . . 173
73 Interest during construction for projects greater than $200,000 . 174
x
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Construction Cost for Package Complete Treatment Plants 13
2 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package Complete Treat-
ment Plants 16
3 Conceptual Design for Package Gravity Filter Plants 18
4 Construction Cost for Package Gravity Filter Plants 20
5 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package Gravity
Filter Plants 24
6 Conceptual Design for Package Pressure Filtration Plants 25
7 Construction Cost for Package Pressure Filtration Plants 27
8 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package Pressure
Filtration Plants 30
9 Construction Cost for Filter Media 33
10 Conceptual Design for Package Pressure Diatomite Filters 35
11 Construction Cost for Package Pressure Diatomite Filters 37
12 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package Pressure
Diatomite Filters 39
13 Conceptual Design for Package Vacuum Diatomite Filters 42
14 Construction Cost for Package Vacuum Diatomite Filters 44
15 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package Vacuum
Diatomite Filters 46
16 Conceptual Design for Package Ultrafiltration Plants 49
17 Construction Cost for Package Ultraf iltration Plants 51
18 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package Ultrafiltration
Plants 53
xi
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19 Conceptual Design for Package Granular Activated
Carbon Columns 56
20 Construction Cost for Package Granular Activated Carbon
Columns 58
21 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package Granular
Activated Carbon Columns 60
22 Construction Cost for Potassium Permanganate Feed Systems 63
23 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Potassium Permanganate
Feed Systems 65
24 Construction Cost for Polymer Feed Systems 65
25 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Polymer Feed Systems 66
26 Construction Cost for Powdered Activated Carbon Feed Systems. ... 68
27 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Powdered Activated
Feed Systems 70
28 Construction Cost for Direct-Feed Gas Chlorination 74
29 Construction Cost for Sodium Hypochlorite Solution Feed 74
30 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Direct-Feed
Gas Chlorination 75
31 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Sodium Hypochlorite
Solution Feed 75
32 Construction Cost for Ozone Generation Systems 77
33 Construction Cost for Ozone Contact Chambers 79
34 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Ozone Generation Systems. . . 81
35 Construction Cost for Chlorine Dioxide Generating and Feed
Systems
85
36 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Chlorine Dioxide Generating
and Feed Systems 85
37 Construction Cost for Ultraviolet Light Disinfection 86
38 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Ultraviolet Light
Disinfection 89
39 Construction Cost for Reverse Osmosis 93
XII
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40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Reverse Osmosis
Conceptual Design for Pressure Ion Exchange Softening
Construction Cost for Pressure Ion Exchange Softening
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Pressure Ion Exchange
Softening
Conceptual Design for Pressure Ion Exchange Nitrate Removal . . .
Construction Cost for Pressure Ion Exchange Nitrate Removal . . .
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Ion Exchange Nitrate
Removal
Conceptual Design for Activated Alumina Fluoride Removal
Construction Cost for Activated Alumina Fluoride Removal
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Activated Alumina
Fluoride Removal
Construction Cost for Bone Char Fluoride Removal
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Bone Char Fluoride
Removal
Construction Cost for Package Raw Water Pumping Facilities. . . .
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package Raw Water
Pumping Facilities
Construction Cost for Package High-Service Pumping Stations . . .
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Package High-Service
Pumping Stations
Conceptual Design for Steel Backwash/Clearwell Tanks
Construction Cost for Steel Backwash/Clearwell Tanks
Criteria for Liquid and Dewatered Sludge Hauling
Initial Cost for Liquid Sludge Hauling
Initial Cost for Dewatered Sludge Hauling
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Liquid Sludge Hauling . . .
Operation and Maintenance Summary for Dewatered Sludge Hauling. .
. 95
,
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63 Annual Cost for Sludge Disposal to Sanitary Sewers. . , 154
64 Conceptual Design for Sludge Dewatering Lagoons 155
65 Construction Cost for Sludge Dewatering Lagoons . .156
66 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Sludge
Dewatering Lagoons 158
67 Conceptual Design for Sand Drying Beds 162
68 Construction Cost for Sand Drying Beds 163
69 Operation and Maintenance Summary for Sand Drying Beds 167
70 Design Criteria and Cost Calculation for a 350-gpm Package
Complete Treatment Plant -169
71 Annual Cost for a 350-gpm Package Complete Treatment Plant 175
xiv
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
ft foot
ft2 square foot
ft3 cubic feet
G velocity gradient - feet per second per foot
gal gallon
gpd gallons per day
gpd/ft2 gallons per day per square foot
gpm gallons per minute
hr hours
kg kilogram
kw-hr kilowatt-hour
1 liter
Ib pound
Ipd liters per day
lpd/m3 liters per day per cubic meter
Ips liters per second
m meter
m2 square meter
m3 cubic meter
m3/d cubic meters per day
m3/s cubic meters per second
mg million gallons
mg/1 milligrams per liter
mgd million gallons per day
min minutes
mph miles per hour
psi pounds per square inch
scf standard cubic foot
tdh total dynamic head
tu turbidity unit
yd3 cubic yard
yr year
xv
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METRIC CONVERSIONS
English Unit Multiplier Metric Unit
cu ft 0.028 m3
cu yd 0.75 m3
ft 0.3048 m
gal 3.785 1
gal 0.003785 m3
gpd 0.003785 m3/d
gpd/ft2 40.74 lpd/m2
gpm 0.0631 1/s
Ib 0.454 kg
mgd 3785 m3/d
mgd 0.0438 m3/sec
sq ft 0.0929 m2
xvi
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared under the direction of Dr. Robert M. Clark,
EPA Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and
Development. The report was prepared by Robert C. Gumerman, Russell L. Gulp,
Sigurd P. Hansen, Thomas S. Lineck, and Bruce E. Burris of Gulp/Wesner/Gulp.
Ms. Karin J. Wells of Gulp/Wesner/Gulp was responsible for typing of the
Final Report.
Mr. Ronald M. Dahman of Zurheide-Herrmann, Inc., was responsible for
checking all unit costs. Dr. Isadore Nusbaum and Mr. Dean Owens were
respective sub-consultants on the reverse osmosis and ion exchange curves.
Special acknowledgement is given to Mr. Keith Carswell, Dr. Robert M.
Clark, Mr. Jack De Marco, Dr. Gary Logsdon, Dr. 0. Thomas Love, Mr. Benjamin
Lykins, Jr., Mr. Thomas J. Sorg, all of the EPA Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory, who reviewed the Final Report.
Mrs. Anne Hamilton was the technical editor for all four volumes of
this report.
xvn
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
SCOPE
This report is Volume 3 of a four-volume study that presents construction
and operation and maintenance cost curves for 99 unit processes that are
especially applicable (either individually or in combination) to the
removal of contaminants listed in the National Interim Primary Drinking
TOO
Water Regulations.l''*-*6- This volume presents the cost for 27 unit processes
that are particularly suited to small water supply systems (2,500 gpd to
1 mgd). The costs were developed to a high level of accuracy initially
and were then checked by a second engineering consulting firm, Zurheide-
Herrmann, Inc., using cost-estimating techniques similar to those used by
general contractors in preparing their bids. The cost information for the
27 unit processes is presented in both graphic and tabular form for both
construction and operation and maintenance. A description of the methodology
used to derive the cost curves and to update them is presented in Volume 1
of the report.
BACKGROUND
When the Safe Drinking Water Act (PL 93-523)^ was enacted on December
16, 1974, it was recognized that the cost of an equivalent level of treat-
ment would be greater for a small water supply system than for a large
utility. In general, this greater financial impact on small systems is
due to a loss of economy of scale rather than to the quality of the raw
water supply. The treatment requirements may be similar for large and
small systems, but the unit costs of treatment for the small water supply
system will generally be higher.
To reduce the unit cost of treating water in small quantities, dif-
ferent types of treatment techniques or treatment configurations are
normally utilized for small treatment systems. For example, package plants
are commonly employed to reduce capital costs for small treatment facilities.
The use of package c pre-fabricated facilities rather than custom designed,
reinforced concrete structures can significantly reduce small treatment
facility costs. In other cases, costs may be reduced by using processes
that are seldom utilized in large treatment plants - reverse osmosis, ion
exchange, and ultra filtration , for example.
PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES
The purpose of Volume 3 is to present the cost of treatment processes
1
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and techniques that are applicable to the treatment of flows between 2,500
and 1 million gpd. Construction costs were developed and are presented in
terms of eight individual components; operation and maintenance costs were
developed and are presented in terms of four components. This approach
was used to facilitate both the original cost derivation, as well as to
facilitate the updating of costs.
The unit processes presented in this volume are:
1. Package Complete Treatment Plants
2. Package Gravity Filtration Plants
3. Package Pressure Filtration Plants
A. Filter Media
5. Package Vacuum Diatomite Filters
6. Package Pressure Diatomite Filters
7. Package Ultrafiltration Plants
8. Package Granular Activated Carbon Columns
9. Potassium Permanganate Feed Systems
10. Polymer Feed Systems
11. Powdered Activated Carbon
12. Chlorine Feed Systems
13. Ozone Generation Systems and Contact Chambers
14. Chlorine Dioxide Generating and Feed Systems
15. Ultraviolet Light Disinfection
16. Reverse Osmosis
17. Pressure Ion Exchange Softening
18. Pressure Ion Exchange Nitrate Removal
19. Activated Alumina Fluoride Removal
20. Bone Char Fluoride Removal
21. Package Raw Water Pumping Facilities
22. Package High-Service Pumping Stations
23. Steel Backwash/Clearwell Tanks
24. Sludge Hauling to Landfill
25. Sludge Disposal to Sanitary Sewers
26. Sludge Dewatering Lagoons
27. Sand Drying Beds
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SECTION 2
COST CURVES
CONSTRUCTION COST CURVES
The construction cost curves were developed using equipment cost data
supplied by manufacturers, cost data from actual plant construction, unit
takeoffs from actual and conceptual designs, and published data. When unit
cost takeoffs were used to determine costs from actual and conceptual
designs, estimating techniques from Richardson Engineering Services Process
Plant Construction Estimating Standards5, Mean's Building Construction Cost
Data6, and Dodge Guide for Estimating Public Works Construction Costs7 were
often utilized. The cost curves that were developed were then checked and
verified by a second engineering consulting firm, Zurheide-Herrmann, Inc.,
using an approach similar to that which a general contractor would utilize
in determining his construction bid. Every attempt has been made to present
the conceptual designs and assumptions that were incorporated into the curves.
Adjustment of the curves may be necessary to reflect site-specific conditions,
geographic or local conditions, or the need for standby power. The curves
should be particularly useful for estimating the relative economics of
alternative treatment systems and for the preliminary evaluation of general
cost level to be expected for a proposed project. The curves contained in
this report are based on October 1978 costs.
The construction cost was developed "by determining and then aggregating
the cost of eight principal components, which were utilized primarily to
facilitate accurate cost updating (discussed in a subsequent section of this
chapter). The division will also be helpful where costs are being adjusted
for site-specific, geographic, and other special conditions. The eight
categories include the following general items:
Excavation and Site Work. This category includes work related only
to the applicable process and does not include any general site work
such as sidewalks, roads, driveways, or landscaping.
Manufactured, Equipment. This category includes estimated purchase
cost of pumps, drives, process equipment, specific purpose controls,
and other items that are factory made and sold with equipment.
Concrete. This category includes the delivered cost of ready-mix
concrete and concrete-forming materials.
-------
Steel. This category includes reinforcing steel for concrete and misc-
ellaneous steel not included within the manufactured equipment category.
Labor. The labor associated with installing manufactured equipment, and
piping and valves, constructing concrete forms, and placing concrete
and reinforcing steel are included in this category.
Pipe and Valves. Cast iron pipe, steel pipe, valves, and fittings
have been combined into a single category. The purchase price of
pipe, valves, fittings, and associated support devices are included
within this category.
Electrical Equipment and Ins^trumentat^ion. The cost of process electrical
equipment, wiring, and general instrumentation associated with the
process equipment is included in this category.
Housing. In lieu of segregating building costs into several components,
this category represents all material and labor costs associated with
the building, including heating, ventilating, air conditioning,
lighting, normal convenience outlets, and the slab and foundation.
The subtotal of the costs of these eight categories includes the cost
of material and equipment purchase and installation, and the subcontractor's
overhead and profit. To this subtotal, a 15-percent allowance has been
added to cover miscellaneous items not included in the cost takeoff, as well
as contingency items. Experience at many water treatment facilities has
indicated that this 15-percent allowance is reasonable. Although blanket
application of this 15-percent allowance may result in some minor inequities
between processes, these are generally balanced out during the combination
of costs for individual processes into a treatment system.
The construction cost for each unit process is presented as a function
of the most applicable design parameter for the process. For example, con-
struction costs for package gravity filter plants are plotted versus capac-
ity in gallons per minute, whereas ozone generation system costs are pre-
sented versus pounds per day of feed capacity. Use of such key design
parameters allows the curves to be utilized with greater flexibility than
if all costs were plotted versus flow.
The construction costs shown in the curves do not equal the final capital
cost for the unit process. The construction cost curves do not include^
costs for special sitework, general contractor overhead and profit, engi-
neering, interest, land, or legal, fiscal, and administrative services during
construction. These cost items are all more directly related to the total
cost of a project than to the cost of the individual unit processes.
They therefore are most appropriately added following summation of the cost
of the individual unit processes, if more than one unit process is required.
An example calculation for a 350-gpm package complete treatment plant is
presented in Section 3 of this volume, and a number of other examples are
given in Volume 1 of this report. These examples illustrate the recommended
method for the addition of these costs to the construction cost.
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OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COST CURVES
Operation and maintenance curves were developed for: (1) energy require-
ments, (2) maintenance material requirements, (3) labor requirements, and (A)
total operation and maintenance cost. The energy categories included are:
process energy, building energy, diesel fuel, and natural gas. The operation
and maintenance requirements were determined from operating data at existing
plants, at least to the extent possible. Where such information was not
available, assumptions were made based on the experience of both the author
and the equipment manufacturer, and such assumptions are stated in the de-
scription of the cost curve.
Electrical energy requirements were developed for both process energy
and building-related energy, and they are presented in terms of kilowatt-
hours per year. This approach was used to allow adjustment for geographical
influence on building-related energy. For example, though lighting require-
ments average about 17.5 kw-hr/ft2 per year throughout the United States,
heating, cooling, and ventilating requirements vary from a low of about 8
kw-hr/ft2 per year in Miami, Florida, to a high of about 202 kw-hr/ft2 per
year in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The building energy requirements presented
for each process are in terms of kilowatt-hours per year, and were calculated
using an average building-related demand of 102.6 kw-hr/ft2 per year. This
is an average for the 21 cities included in the Engineering News Record (ENR)
Index. An explanation of the derivation of this figure is included in Volume
1, Appendix B of this report. The computer program developed as a portion
of this Project will allow use of other building-related energy demands
than 102.6 kw-hr/ft2 per year. Process electrical energy is also included
in the electrical energy curve, and it was calculated using manufacturers
data for required components. Where required, separate energy curves for
natural gas and diesel fuel are also presented. When using the curves to
determine energy requirements, the design flow or parameter should be utilized
to determine building energy, and the operating flow or parameter should be
used to determine process energy, diesel fuel, and natural gas.
Maintenance material costs include the cost of periodic replacement of
component parts necessary to keep the process operable and functioning.
Examples of maintenance material items included are valves, motors, instru-
mentation, and other process items of similar nature. The maintenance mater-
ial requirements do not include the cost of chemicals required for process
operation. Chemical costs must be added separately, as will be shown in the
subsequent example. The operating parameter or flow should be used to
determine maintenance material requirements.
The labor requirement curve includes both operation and maintenance
labor, and it is presented in terms of hours per year. The operating para-
meter or flow should be used to determine the labor requirement.
The total operation and maintenance cost curve is a composite of the
energy, maintenance material, and labor curves. To determine annual energy
costs, unit costs of $0.03/kw-hr of electricity, $0.0013/ft3 of natural gas,
and $0.45/gal of diesel fuel were utilized. The labor requirements were
converted to an annual cost using an hourly labor rate of $10.00/hr, which
-------
includes salary and fringe benefits. The computer program that was developed
as a portion of this project and that is presented in Volume 4 of this
report will allow utilization of other unit costs for energy and labor.
UPDATING COSTS TO TIME OF CONSTRUCTION
Continued usefulness of the curves developed as a portion of this
project depends on the ability of the curves to be updated to reflect
inflationary increases in the prices of the various components. Most
engineers and planners are accustomed to updating costs using one all-
encompassing index, which is developed by tracking the cost of specific
items and then proportioning the costs according to a predetermined ratio.
The key advantage of a single index is the simplicity with which it can
be applied. Although use of a single index is an uncomplicated approach,
there is much evidence to indicate that these time-honored indices are
not understood by many users and/or are inadequate for application to
water works construction.
The most frequently utilized single indices in the construction industry
are the ENR Construction Cost Index (CCI) and Building Cost Index (BCI).
These ENR indices were started in 1921 and were intended for general con-
struction cost monitoring. The CCI consists of 200 hr of common labor, 2,500
Ib of structural steel shapes, 1.128 tons of Portland cement and 1,008 board
feet of 2 x 4 lumber. The BCI consists of 68.38 hr of skilled labor plus
the same materials included in the CCI. The large amount of labor included
in the CCI was appropriate before World War II; however, on most contemporary
construction, the index labor component is far in excess of actual labor used.
To update the construction cost using the CCI, which was 265.38 in
October 1978, the following formula may be utilized:
/Current CCI,
Updated Cost = Total Construction Cost from Curve ( ,g )
This approach may also be utilized in the computer program that was devel-
oped for this report.
Although key advantages of the ENR indices include their availability,
their simplicity, and their geographical specificity, many engineers and
planners believe that these indices are not applicable to water treatment
plant construction. The rationale for this belief is that the indices do
not include mechanical equipment or pipe and valves that are normally
associated with such construction, and the proportional mix of materials
and labor is not specific to water treatment plant construction.
An approach that may be utilized to overcome the shortcomings of the
ENR indices relative to water works construction is to apply specific
indices to the major cost components of the construction cost curves. This
approach allows the curve to be updated using indices specific to each cate-
gory and weighted according to the dollar significance of the category. For
the eight major categories of construction cost, the following Bureau of
Labor Statistics (BLS)8 and ENR indices were utilized as a basis for the
cost curves included in this report.
-------
Cost Component
Excavation and Sitework
Manufactured Equipment
Concrete
Steel
Labor
Pipe and Valves
Electrical Equipment &
Instrumentation
Housing
Index
ENR Skilled Labor Wage Index
(1967)
BLS General Purpose Machinery
and Equipment - Code 114
BLS Concrete Ingredients
Code 132
BLS Steel Mill Products
Code 1013
ENR Skilled Labor Wage Index
(1967 Base)
BLS Valves and Fittings
Code 114901
BLS Electrical Machinery and
Equipment - Code 117
ENR Building Cost Index
(1967 Base)
October 1978
Value of Index
247
221.3
221.1
262.1
247
236.4
167.5
254.76
The principal disadvantages of this approach are the lack of
geographical specificity of the BLS indices and the use of seven indices
rather than a single index.
To update the construction costs using the above two ENR and six BLS
indices, the construction cost from the construction cost curve must first
be broken down into the eight component categories. One acceptable
method of accomplishing this breakdown is to utilize all the detailed cost
estimates included in the construction cost table to determine the average
percent of the subtotal construction cost for each of the eight (or fewer)
construction cost components. The appropriate index for each component
can then be used to update the component cost. For example, in the con-
struction cost table for package complete treatment plants, the sum of the
manufactured equipment costs for the eight designs is $566,190, and the
subtotal of construction costs for these eight designs is $1,355,310. The
ratio of these two costs is 0.4178, meaning that on the average, manufactured
equipment is 41.78 percent of the subtotal construction cost. Therefore,
if the construction cost curve gives a construction cost of $250,000, and the
BLS General Purpose Machinery and Equipment Index is 250, the manufactured
equipment cost would be:
Manufactured Equipment Cost = 0.4178 ($250,000)
= $118,000
When this approach is used with each of the components of construction cost,
the updated sum gives the subtotal of construction cost, and the updated
-------
total construction cost is obtained by adding 15 percent to this updated
subtotal cost. Either this approach or the previously described approach
using the CCI may be used with the computer program presented in Volume
4 of this report.
Updating of total operation and maintenance costs may be accomplished
by updating the three individual components: energy, labor, and maintenance
material. Energy and labor are updated by applying the current unit cost to
the kilowatt-hour and labor requirements obtained from the energy and labor
curves. Maintenance material costs, which are presented in terms of dollars
per year, can be updated using the Producer Price Index for Finished Goods,
The maintenance material costs in this report are based on an October 1978
Producer Price Index for Finished Goods of 199.7.
FIRMS THAT SUPPLIED COST AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION
During the development of both construction and operation and maintenance
cost curves, a large number of equipment manufacturers and other firms were
contacted to determine cost and technical information. The help provided by
those that did respond is sincerely appreciated, for the information furnished
was instrumental in assuring a high level of accuracy for the curves. The
manufacturers and other firms that provided input to this study were:
Acrison, Inc.
Advance Chlorination Equipment
Aqua-Aerobic Systems, Inc.
Aquafine Corporation
BIF, a Division of General Signal Corporation
Bird Centrifuge
Capital Control Company
Ralph B. Carter Company
Chemical Separations Corporation
Chicago Bridge and Iron Company
Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad Company
Chromalloy, L.A. Water Treatment Division
Clarkson Industries, Inc., Hoffman Air & Filtration Division
Colt Industries, Inc., Fairbanks Morse Pump Division
Continental Water Conditioning
Copeland Systems
Crane Company, Cochrane Environmental Systems
Curtiss-Wright Corporation
DeLaval Turbine, Inc.
Dorr-Oliver, Inc.
Dravo Corporation
The Duriron Company, Inc., Filtration Systems Division
E.I. Dupont De Nemours & Company, Inc.
The Eimco Corporation
Electrode Corporation, Subsidiary of Diamond Shamrock Corporation
Englehard Industries
-------
Envirex, Inc. - A Rexnord Company
Environmental Conditioners
Environmental Elements Corp., Subsidiary of Koppers Co., Inc.
Envirotech Corporation
Fischer and Porter Company
FMC Corporation
General Filter Company
Infilco Degremont, Inc.
Ionics, Inc.
Johns-Manvi1le
Kaiser Chemicals
Keystone Engineering
Komline-Sanderson Engineering Corporation
Merck & Co., Inc., Calgon Company
Mixing Equipment Company, Inc.
Morton-Norwick Products, Inc., Morton Salt Company
Muscatine Sand and Gravel
Nash Engineering Company
Neptune Micro Floe, Inc.
Nichols Engineering & Research Corp., Neptune International Corp.
Northern Gravel Company
Ozark-Mahoning Company
Pacific Engineering & Production Company of Nevada
PAGO
R.H. Palmer Coal Company
Passavant Corporation
PCI Ozone Corp., A Subsidiary of Pollution Control Industries, Inc.
Peabody Welles, Inc.
Peerless Pump
Pennwalt Corporation
The Permutit Company, Inc., Division of Sybron Corporation
Reading Anthracite Company
Robbins & Meyers, Inc., Moyno Pump Division
Rohm and Haas Company, Fluid Process Chemicals Department
Shirco, Inc.
D.R. Sperry & Company
Sybron Corporation, R.B. Leopold Co. Division
TOMC02 Equipment Company
Union Carbide Corporation - Linde Division
Universal Oil Products Company, Fluid Systems Division
U.S. Filter Co., Inc., Calfilco Division
Westvaco Corporation, Chemical Division
Western States Machine Company
Worthington Pump, Inc.
Zimpro, Inc.
PACKAGE COMPLETE TREATMENT PLANTS
Construction Cost
The use of package complete treatment plants (coagulation, flocculation,
sedimentation and filtration) has grown substantially during the last 10
-------
years. These plants, which are available either as factory-preassembled
units or field-assembled modules, significantly reduce the cost of small
facilities (110,000 gpd to 2 mgd). The units are automatically controlled
and require only minimal operator attention.
Cost estimates were developed for standard manufactured units incorporat-
ing 20 rain of flocculation, tube settlers rated at 150 gpd/ft2, mixed-media
filters rated at 2 and 5 gpm/ft2, and a media depth of 30 in. The costs
include premanufactured treatment plant components, mixed media, chemical feed
facilities (storage tanks and feed pumps), flow measurement and control
devices, pneumatic air supply (for plants of 200 gpm and larger) for valve
and instrument operation, effluent and backwash pumps, all necessary con-
trols for a complete and operable unit, and building. The three smaller
plants utilize low-head filter effluent transfer pumps and are to be used
with an above-grade clearwell. The larger plants gravity discharge to a
below-grade clearwell. A typical installation is shown in Figure 1.
Raw water intake and pumping facilities, clearwell storage, high-service
pumping, and sitework, exclusive of foundation preparations, are not included
in the costs.
Construction costs are presented in Figure 2 and Table 1.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Complete treatment package plants (coagulation, flocculation, sedimen-
tation, and filtration) are designed for essentially unattended operation -
that is, they backwash automatically on the basis of headless or excessive
filtered water turbidity and return to service.
The principal use of energy is for building heating, cooling, and
ventilation, and these requirements have been based on a completely housed
plant. Process energy is required for flocculators, rapid mix, chemical
pumping, and filter backwash.
The cost of maintenance material was based on information obtained
from typical operating installations. Included are the costs of anthracite
coal to replace that lost during backwash, miscellaneous small replacement
parts for controls and instrumentation, and other general supplies related
to the operation of the treatment plant proper. Excluded are those costs
related to treatment plant administrative activities, laboratory services,
chemicals or other related supplies, and general facility maintenance.
Operator attention is required to replenish treatment chemicals, make
proper chemical dosage requirements, perform routine laboratory quality
assurance tests, and carry out necessary daily maintenance and other house-
keeping tasks. Labor estimates were based on performance of these tasks.
Operation and maintenance requirements for plant filtration rates of 2
and 5 gpm/ft2 are presented in Figures 3 and 4 and summarized in Table 2.
10
-------
/-Control panel
L assembly
Compressed
air supply
Feed pumpsj assembly
Polyelectrolyte
feed assembly
Chemical storage
PLAN VIEW
Filtered water to
storage
Backwash
from
storage
Package treat-
ment plant -9
4"Concrete slab
Washwater sewer-
ELEVATION VIEW
Figure- 1. Typical package complete water treatment plant installation.
11
-------
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CAPACITY- gpm '
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CAPACITY - liters/sec
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Figure 2. Construction cost for package complete treatment plants
at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2
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PLANT FLOW RATE-gpm
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Figure 3. Operation and maintenance requirements for
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and maintenance material at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft .
14
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3 4 56789100 234 567891000
PLANT FLOW RATE-gpm
t
456 789
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PLANT FLOW RATE-I iters/sec
Figure 4. Operation and maintenance requirements for
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15
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PACKAGE GRAVITY FILTRATION PLANTS
Construction Cost
Cost estimates were developed for package gravity filtration plants
preceeded by a 1-hr detention basin. The capacity range utilized was 80
to 1,400 gpm for filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2 and a media depth of
30 in. Package filtration plants with capacities smaller than 80 gpm are
not recommended because operational skill and attention are often severely
limited. At flows less that 80 gpm, package complete treatment plants (co-
agulation, flocculation, settling, and filtration) are generally recommended.
Conceptual designs for the cost estimates are presented in Table 3.
These conceptual designs are representative of package gravity filter plants
currently in widespread service, and much of the construction cost data
utilized was obtained from equipment manufacturers and from actual installa-
tions. The conceptual designs analyzed in the report include a 1-hr de-
tention control basin before filtration. The contact basin removes rapidly
settling materials such as sand and silt that could hamper operation of
the filters, and it also provides additional time for coagulant dispersion
and flocculation. The contact basin serves to dampen the effects on coagulant
requirements caused by raw water quality changes and provides the operator
with additional time to make necessary chemical dosage changes. The effic-
iency of chlorine disinfection is also enhanced by the detention time pro-
vided in the contact basin.
Cost estimates are for filter vessels that are open-top, cylindrical
steel tanks sized to permit shop fabrication and over-the-road shipment.
The plants are complete, including filter vessels, mixed media, piping,
valves, controls, electrical system, backwash system, surface wash system,
chemical feed systems (alum, soda ash, polymer, and chlorine), raw water pumps
(no intake structure), 1-hr detention pre-filter contact basin, backwash/
clearwell storage basin, building, and other ancillary items required for a
complete and operable installation.
The estimated construction costs for filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2
are shown in Figure 5 and presented in Table 4.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Building-related electrical energy for lighting, ventilation, heating,
and other uses was projected for each size facility based on floor area of
the structure. In all cases, the filters, piping, controls, chemical feed
equipment, and other mechanical appurtenances are entirely enclosed. Pro-
cess-related energy is for filter supply pumping, filter backwash, and
filter surface wash.
The cost of maintenance material was estimated from background informa-
tion obtained from several operating facilities. This item includes the
cost of anthracite coal to replace that which is backwashed out of the fil-
ters, miscellaneous small parts for controls and instrumentation, recorder
ink, and charts and other general supplies related only to actual operation
17
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CAPACITY -gpm
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Figure 5. Construction cost for
package gravity filter plants at filtration rates
of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2.
19
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of the filters. These costs do not include those related to administrative
activities, laboratory chemicals or supplies, general facility maintenance
nor do they include treatment chemicals.
Labor requirements were developed assuming that the treatment facilities
would be only partially attended over a 24-hr period. This mode of operation
is typical for modern package treatment plants that are designed to perform
unattended and to backwash automatically on the basis of headloss or excessive
filtered water turbidity and then return to service.
Operation and maintenance requirements for filtration rates of 2 and 5
gpm/ft2 are presented in Figures 6 and 7 and summarized in Table 5.
PACKAGE PRESSURE FILTRATION PLANTS
Cons tru ction C os t
Package pressure filters can be used for iron and manganese removal
from well waters, and in some States, as a final treatment process following
chemical coagulation and clarification of surface waters. Pressure filters
are available from many manufacturers with either rapid sand, dual-media or
mixed-media filter beds. Units can be either totally automatic or manual in
operation.
Construction costs were developed for package pressure filtration plants
of capacities ranging between 1,000 gpd and 0.5 mgd, for filtration rates
of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2 and a media depth of 30 in. Conceptual designs for the
plants are shown in Table 6, and a typical installation is shown in Figure
8. Vessel sizes selected are those generally available in the industry.
Costs are based on completely housed filtration plants.
All units are skid mounted, completely self-contained, and include a
single vertical pressure vessel with internals, automatic control valves,
filter supply pump, filter media (mixed), backwash pump, and control panel.
Included with each unit are two chemical feed units including tank, mixer,
and chemical feed pump. Finished water is discharged to an at-grade storage
tank/clearwell, which is not included in the cost estimate.
Backwash water is pumped from the storage tank by an end suction cen-
trifugal pump. The filter supply pump is also an end suction centrifugal
pump and requires a flooded suction. The filter units are designed for
automatic operation. Backwash is initiated by excessive headloss or by
elapsed operating time. Surface wash is obtained from a separate pump or
from a pressure distribution system through a backflow preventer.
Estimated construction costs are presented in Table 7 and illustrated
in Figure 9.
Operation and Maintenance Costs
Operating and maintenance costs have been developed from estimates of
energy, labor, and maintenance material requirements for the conceptual
21
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Figure 6. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package gravity filter plants - building energy, process energy, and
maintenance material at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2.
22
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Figure 7. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package gravity filter plants - labor and total cost
at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2.
23
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FILTER
INFLUENT
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L
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Figure 8. Typical package pressure filter installation.
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Figure 9. Construction cost for
package pressure filtration plants
at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft2,
28
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designs presented in Table 6. Building energy requirements are for heating,
cooling, ventilation, and lighting. Process energy, which is not nearly
as large as building-related energy, is for backwash and filter supply
pumping and the chemical feeders.
Maintenance material requirements are related primarily to replacement
of pump seals, application of lubricants, replacement of parts for chemical
feed pumps, instrumentation repair, and general facility maintenance supplies.
The maintenance material costs do not include the cost of treatment chemicals.
Labor requirements were developed assuming that the treatment plant oper-
ates automatically and virtually unattended. Operator attention is only neces-
sary to prepare the treatment chemicals, establish proper dosages, carry out
routine quality assurance tasks, and perform necessary maintenance tasks. No
allowance was included for administrative or laboratory labor.
Operation and maintenance requirements for filtration rates of 2 and 5
gpm/ft are summarized in Table 8 and illustrated in Figures 10 and 11.
FILTER MEDIA
Construction Cost
Filter media costs were developed for rapid sand (30 in. silica sand),
dual media (20 in. anthracite coal and 10 in. silica sand), and mixed media
(16.5 in. anthracite coal, 9 in. silica sand, and 4.5 in. garnet sand). A
supporting gravel depth of 12 in. was used with each different filter media.
It was assumed that all materials would be contained in 50- and 100- Ib bags
and truck-shipped to the job site. Mixed media are generally placed under
technical direction of the manufacturer, and separate costs are presented
for installation with and without manufacturer's supervision. It should be
noted that filter media (mixed) costs are included in the curves for package
complete treatment plants, package gravity filtration plants, and package
pressure filtration plants.
Costs for filter media, supporting gravel, and contractor installation
for filters ranging in size from 4 to 280 ft2 are presented in Table 9 and
Figure 12.
PACKAGE PRESSURE DIATOMITE FILTERS
Con_s^ruction Cost
Construction costs were developed for a series of diatomaceous earth
filter units capable of treating flows between 28,000 gpd and 1 mgd. The
conceptual designs' used to develop these construction costs are presented
in Table 10. A filtration rate of approximately 1 gpm/ft2 of filter area,
in accordance with standard industry practice, was used to determine filter
size. The cost estimates are for a complete installation, including dia-
tomaceous earth storage, preparation and feed facilities, pressure filtra-
tion units, filter supply pump, filter valves, interconnecting pipe and
fittings, and control panel for automatic operation. Housing costs were
29
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PLANT FLOW RATE-gpm
345 6789
1000
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PLANT FLOW RATE-liters/sec
Figure 10. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package pressure filtration plants - building energy, process energy, and
maintenance material at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft .
31
-------
345 678910 2 3456 789100
PLANT FLOW RATE - gpm
456 789
1000
0.1
1.0 10
PLANT FLOW RATE - liters/sec
Figure 11. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package pressure filtration plants - labor and total cost
at filtration rates of 2 and 5 gpm/ft .
32
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TOTAL
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FILTER AREA- ft2
5 6789
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TOTAL FILTER AREA-m2
Figure 12. Construction Cost for
filter media.
34
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developed assuming total enclosure of the filters in a modular steel building,
with minimum additional space for access on all sides of the filter units
for maintenance.
Construction costs are presented in Table 11 and Figure 13.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Process energy is for filter pumps, backwash pumps, mixers, and other
items associated with the filter system. A cycle time of 24 hr between
backwashes was assumed in developing electrical requirements. The energy
requirements do not include those associated with raw water or finished
water pumping.
Maintenance material requirements are related primarily to replacement
of pump seals, application of lubricants, chemical feed pump replacement
parts, and general facility maintenance supplies. Maintenance material cost
estimates were furnished by manufacturers and are based on years of exper-
ience at many plants. Costs for treatment chemicals, including diatomaceous
earth, are excluded. It should be noted that diatomaceous earth is a costly
chemical, and its cost must be included.
Labor requirements were developed assuming that the diatomite filter
installation operates automatically and virtually unattended. Operator
attention is necessary only for preparation of body feed and precoat, and for
verification that chemical dosages are proper and that the equipment is
producing a high-quality filtered water.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 12 and
are illustrated in Figures 14 and 15.
PACKAGE VACUUM DIATOMITE FILTERS
Construction Cost
Construction cost estimates were developed for package vacuum diatomite
filters with capacities ranging from 30 to 720 gpm. These units are pre-
assembled at the factory and require minimal onsite assembly and installation
attention. The construction features and operating principles of package
vacuum diatomite filters generally parallel those of larger units.
The conceptual designs used to develop the construction costs are pre-
sented in Table 13. A filtration rate of 1 gpm/ft2 of filter area, in
accordance with manufacturer's recommendations, was used to size the filters.
The costs are for a complete installation,- including diatomaceous earth
storage, preparation and feed facilities, vacuum filtration units, filter
pumps and motors, filter valves, interconnecting pipe and fittings, and
control panel for automatic operation. The costs also include sitework and
excavation within the immediate vicinity of the plant, building floor slab,
and modular steel building. The plant was assumed to be totally enclosed.
Excluded are costs associated with pretreatment, clearwell storage, and high-
service pumping.
36
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Figure 14. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package pressure diatomite filters - building energy,
process energy, and maintenance material
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Figure 15. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package pressure diatomite filters - labor and total cost
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Construction costs are presented in Table 14 and are also shown in
Figure 16.
Operation_and Maintenance Cost
Operating and maintenance requirements were developed from estimates
of energy and labor requirements for the treatment unit conceptual designs
listed in Table 13. The information used to develop these requirements was
furnished by manufacturers and is representative of minimum operating re-
quirements.
Process electrical energy usage is for filter pumps, hold pumps, mixers,
and other items associated with the filter system. A cycle time of 24 hr
between backwashes was assumed in developing electrical requirements. The
process energy requirements do not include those associated with raw water
or finished water pumping.
Maintenance material requirements are related primarily to replacement
of pump seals, application of lubricants, instrument and chemical feed pump
replacement parts, and general facility maintenance supplies. Costs for
treatment chemicals, including diatomaceous earth, are not included. It
should be noted that diatomaceous earth is a costly chemical, and its cost
must be included.
Labor requirements were developed assuming that the diatomite filter
installation operates automatically and virtually unattended. Operator
attention is necessary only for preparation of body feed and precoat, chem-
ical feed adjustment, and measurement of product water quality.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 15 and
illustrated in Figures 17 and 18.
PACKAGE ULTRAFILTRATION PLANTS
Construction Cost
Ultrafiltration is a relatively new process that can have application
for the removal of suspended and colloidal material from water without the
need for coagulation. It is applicable where the water supply has a fouling
index of less than 10, an index that is characteristic of most well waters
and low-turbidity surface waters. The ultrafiltration process utilizes a
specially extruded hollow-fiber membrane that excludes particles larger than
O.Olym. The pore structure of the membrane, unlike reverse osmosis membranes,
permits passage of inorganic salts and other electrolytes. The membranes
are cleaned by backwashing, which restores the original porosity and allows
continuous use for indefinite periods. Ultrafiltration systems perform
efficiently at pressures of 10 to 100 psig.
Construction costs were developed for package ultrafiltration systems
ranging from 2,500 gpd to 1 mgd in capacity. Table 16 provides conceptual
design information used to develop the construction costs. The costs in-
clude skid-mounted ultrafiltration units containing the hollow-fiber
43
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package vacuum diatomite filters.
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package vacuum diatomite filters - building energy,
process energy, and maintenance material.
47
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100
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PLANT CAPACITY- gpm
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Figure 18. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package vacuum diatomite filters - labor and total cost.
48
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cartridges, automatic and manual valves for backwashing and unit isolation,
flow meters, pressure gauges, integral backwash pump, and control panel. A
separate supply pump is included, as is all interconnecting piping serving
plants with multiple units. The costs also include storage tanks and solution
pumps for membrane cleaning. Housing is provided for ultrafiltration equip-
ment and supporting appurtenances. Product water storage facilities are
not included in the cost estimates.
Construction costs are presented in Table 17 and in Figure 19.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Process energy requirements were calculated using connected horsepower
sizes recommended by manufacturers. Continuous 24-hr/day, 365-day/year
operation with one backwash/day of 30 min duration was assumed in the process
energy calculations.
Maintenance material requirements are related to replacement of hollow-
fiber membrane cartridges once every 4 years, replacement of pump seals,
small parts for chemical feed pumps and instruments, and for general facility
operation. Membrane cleaning chemical costs are not included.
Labor requirements were developed assuming that the plant operates auto-
matically and that attention is necessary only to provide routine maintenance
and occasional membrane cleaning.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 18 and
illustrated in Figures 20 and 21.
PACKAGE GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON COLUMNS
Construction Cost
Construction costs were developed for factory-assembled, package granular
activated carbon columns. The carbon columns were sized on the basis of a
o
7.5-min detention time, an activated carbon loading rate of 1 gpm/ft of
carbon, a bed depth of 5 ft, and a hydraulic loading rate of 5 gpm/ft . Con-
ceptual designs for the package activated carbon units are presented in Table
19.
The costs are based on the use of cylindrical, pressurized, downflow
steel contactors conforming to the ASME code for pressure vessels designed
for a working pressure of 50 psi. Tanks have a skirt base and are furnished
with inlet and outlet nozzles, a nozzle-style underdrain system, access man-
holes, manual ball or butterfly valves, differential pressure gauge, and an
initial charge of activated carbon. The units are designed for manual oper-
ation. A supply and backwash pump designed for flooded suction application
is furnished skid-mounted with the activated carbon columns.
Housing costs are included in the cost estimate. Not included in the
cost estimate are supply piping to the carbon column and spent or regenerated
activated carbon handling or conveyance systems.
50
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1000 234 5678910,000 334 56789100,0002 3 4 56789
PLANT CAPACITY-gpd 1,000,000
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Figure 19. Construction cost for
package ultrafiltration plants.
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Figure 20. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package ultrafiltration plants - building energy,
process energy, and maintenance material.
54
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1000
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Figure 21. Operation and maintenance requirements for
package ultrafiltration plants - labor and total cost.
55
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Construction Costs are shown in Table 20 and also in Figure 22.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Operation and maintenance costs were developed for package granular
activated carbon columns from the conceptual designs presented in Table 19.
In developing the costs, it was assumed that the carbon columns function as
adsorption units and that where required, they are preceded by filtration.
Process energy requirements include both supply and backwash pumping.
Building energy requirements are for heating, lighting, and ventilation of
the structures.
Maintenance material requirements were estimated from anticipated costs
of replacement parts and replenishment of consumable supplies involved in
the daily operation of the equipment. Replacement of activated carbon is a
major portion of the maintenance material costs. It was assumed that acti-
vated carbon would be replaced with virgin or off-site regenerated carbon
once per year.
Labor requirements were developed assuming that the facilities operate
essentially unattended. Labor requirements involve backwashing the carbon
column once per week, performing routine maintenance tasks (such as pump
lubrication and occasional replacement of pump seals), and monitoring the
performance of the carbon column. No allowance for administrative or for
laboratory labor (other than for minimal routine quality assurance testing)
is included.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 21 and
are shown in Figures 23 and 24.
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE FEED SYSTEMS
Construction Cost
Construction cost estimates were developed for feed systems using dry,
97-percent pure, potassium permanganate, with on-site mixing of the perman-
ganate solution. Solutions are prepared in a 150-gal tank and fed to the
point of application using a dual-head diaphragm pump. A standby metering
pump is not included in the cost estimate.
The potassium permanganate feed system would be essentially the same for
all water systems with a capacity less than 1 mgd. Such a system would have
a construction cost of $7,360, as shown in Table 22.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
At the low feed rates encountered in small water supply systems, oper-
ation and maintenance requirements are not a function of the amount of potas-
sium permanganate fed.
Process electrical energy (1,800 kw-hr/year) is required for the
57
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59
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process energy, and maintenance material.
61
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62
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Table 22
Construction Cost for
Potassium Permanganate Feed Systems
___ Cost Category Cost
Manufactured Equipment $1,380
Pipe and Valves 300
Labor 300
Electrical Equipment and Instrumentation 220
Housing 4,200
SUBTOTAL 6,400
Miscellaneous and Contingency 960
TOTAL 7,360
63
-------
metering pump and the solution tank mixer. Building energy requirements are
2,050 kw-hr/year, for a total electrical energy requirement of 3,850 kw-hr/
year.
Annual maintenance material requirements are for periodic maintenance
of the metering pump and pipe and valving. Maintenance material requirements
were estimated at $50/year.
Labor requirements are principally for solution preparation and periodic
checking and readjustment of the metering pump, as well as for maintenance
of the metering pump. Requirements were estimated to be 101 hr/year.
Annual operation and maintenance costs are shown in Table 23.
POLYMER FEED SYSTEMS
Construction Cost
Construction costs are identical for all polymer feed systems with
capacities up to 10 Ib/day. The manufactured equipment consists of a manu-
factured feeder-mixer, which contains a hopper for storage of the dry polymer.
Dry polymer is fed manually to the hopper tank. The cost estimates were
developed for a single system with no backup equipment. The estimated con-
struction cost for a system capable of feeding up to 10 Ib/day of polymer
is shown in Table 24.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Process energy requirements (17,300 kw-hr/year) are for the feeder/mixer
and for a diaphragm metering pump." Building-related energy for 80 ft2 is
8,210 kw-hr/year, for a total energy requirement of 25,510 kw-hr/year.
Annual maintenance costs were estimated to be 2 percent of the cost of
manufactured equipment and pipe and valves. The annual cost would be $240/
year, which does not include the cost of polymer.
Labor requirements are for operation and maintenance of the feeder/mixer
and the metering pump, and they are estimated to be 198 hr/year.
Operation and maintenance requirements and costs are shown in Table 25.
POWDERED ACTIVATED CARBON FEED SYSTEMS
Construction Cos_t
The principal use of powdered activated carbon in small water systems
is for taste and odor control, generally on a seasonal basis. Powdered carbon
preparation and feed facilities are generally designed to use bagged carbon
because of the small quantities involved. A feed slurry is prepared by mix-
ing the carbon with water at a concentration generally not exceeding about 1
Ib/gal. The slurry is continuously mixed and applied to the water using a
slurry feed pump.
64
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Table 23
Operation and Maintenance Summary for
Potassium Permanganate Feed Systems
Item , Amount
Electrical Energy:
Process 1,800 kw-hr/yr
Building 2,050 kw-hr/yr
TOTAL 3,850 kw-hr/yr
Maintenance Material $50/year
Labor 101 hr/yr
TOTAL COST* $l,180/year
Calculated using $0.03/kw-hr and $10,00/hr of labor.
Table 24
Construction Cost for
Polymer Feed Systems
Cost Category Cost
Manufactured Equipment $11,000
Labor 670
Pipe and Valves 260
Electrical and Instrumentation 1,230
Housing 3,360
SUBTOTAL 16,520
Miscellaneous and Contingency 2,480
TOTAL 19,000
65
-------
Table 25
Operation and Maintenance Summary for
Polymer Feed Systems
Item Amount
Electrical Energy:
Process 17,300 kw-hr/yr
Building 8,210 kw-hr/yr
TOTAL 25,510 kw-hr/yr
Maintenance Material 240/yr
Labor 198 hr/yr
TOTAL COST* 2,990/year
*Calculated using $0.03/kw-hr and $10.00/hr of labor.
66
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Construction costs were developed for feed systems capable of applying
1, 5, and 10 Ib/hr of powdered activated carbon. Each system consists of
two 55-gal slurry preparation tanks using a vacuum bag unloading and
slurrying technique, a feed tank with mixer, and a slurry-style feed pump
along with all associated piping and valving adjacent to the equipment.
Although housing is required, it was assumed that carbon feed facilities
will be used in conjunction with package complete treatment plants, for
which the required housing includes adequate space for the powdered carbon
feed facilities.
Construction costs are presented in Table 26 and Figure 25.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Process energy requirements are for operation of the vacuum bag unload-
ing and slurrying system, slurry mixer, and slurry feed pump. Continuous
operation on a yearly basis was assumed with 1 hr/day downtime to maintain
equipment, flush the feed pump, and allow for backwashing of the plant filter,
Maintenance materials are related to slurry pump replacement parts, re-
placement vacuum dust bags, and other small parts associated with the feed
assembly. Labor requirements are for preparation of the carbon slurry and
for maintenance of the equipment.
Operation and maintenance requirements are listed in Table 27 and shown
in Figures 26 and 27.
CHLORINE FEED SYSTEMS
Construction Cost
Feed of small quantities of chlorine may be either by direct-feed gas
chlorination or by feeding a sodium hypochlorite solution. Hypochlorite
feed is generally more economical at low feed rates, but operating labor
is higher for hypochlorite solution feed than it is for direct-gas feed
systems.
Direct-Feed Gas Chlorination
Chlorine gas is fed from a 150-lb cylinder through a small chlorinator
located either directly on the cylinder or on an adjacent wall. Chlorine
gas is transferred under vacuum from the chlorinator to an eductor, which is
located at or near the point of application. The educator generates the
vacuum using a high-pressure water supply. This high-pressure water supply
is generally created by withdrawing a portion of the water from the main
supply line, passing it through a small booster pump, and then injecting it
back into the main supply line. The advantage of using the booster pump
is the ability to convey chlorine under a vacuum, and the disadvantage is
the need for electricity, the booster pump, and additional piping and valving.
An alternative approach to the use of the booster pump is to feed chlo-
rine gas under pressure directly to the point of application. This approach
67
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71
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labor and total cost
72
-------
is generally not recommended because of the safety hazard involved in con-
veying chlorine under pressure. The advantage of feeding chlorine gas under
pressure is that cylinder pressure operates the system and no electrical
power is required.
The estimated costs for a gaseous chlorine feed system using a vacuum
transport and booster pump are constant for delivery rates up to 100 Ib/day
of chlorine. Construction costs are shown in Table 28.
Sodium Hypochlorite Solution Feed
Sodium hypochlorite solutions are prepared in a day tank and then pumped
by a diaphragm metering pump to the point of application. Use of a metering
pump allows injection into a pumped supply pipeline or application to a
gravity flow. Automatic proportioning may be desirable, but it is not in-
cluded in the cost estimates. Costs would be constant for flows between
2,500 gpd and 1 mgd. Construction costs are shown in Table 29.
Operation and Maintenance Costs
Direct-Feed Gas Chlorination
In general, operation and maintenance costs are independent of flow.
Process energy requirements are for the booster pump only and would be about
1,630 kw-hr/year. Building energy requirements for a 25-ft building would
be 2,560 kw-hr/year. Maintenance material requirements would only be for
miscellaneous repair of valving, electrical switches, and other equipment,
and it would be about $40/year. Labor requirements are for periodic checking
of equipment, with an average requirement of 1/2 hr/day, or 183 hr/year.
Operation and maintenance requirements are shown in Table 30.
Sodium Hypochlorite Solution Feed
As with direct-feed gas chlorination, operation and maintenance require-
ments are independent of flow. Process energy requirements are for the
diaphragm metering pump and are 570 kw-hr/year. Building energy requirements
for a 25-ft building would be 2,560 kw-hr/year. Maintenance material would
be only for minor component repair and would be $20/year.
Labor is required for periodic mixing of the sodium hypochlorite solution
as well as for checking of the equipment. Requirements are difficult to
estimate because the chlorination station may be remote and transit time may
be extensive. Based on a labor requirement of 1 hr/day, the annual require-
ment would be 365 hr/year.
Operation and maintenance requirements are shown in Table 31.
OZONE GENERATION SYSTEMS AND CONTACT CHAMBERS
Construction Cost
Small ozone generators are available for use with either air or pure
73
-------
Table 28
Construction Cost for
Direct-Feed Gas Chlorination
Cost Category Cost
Manufactured Equipment $1,300
Labor 300
Pipe and Valves 100
Electrical 200
Housing (25 ft2) 1,850
SUBTOTAL 3,750
Miscellaneous and Contingency 560
TOTAL 4,310
Table 29
Construction Cost for
Sodium Hypochlorite Solution Feed
Cost Category Cost
Manufactured Equipment $1,100
Labor 300
Pipe and Valves 300
Electrical Equipment and 200
Instrumentation
Labor 300
Housing (25 ft2) 1,850
SUBTOTAL 4,050
Miscellaneous and Contingency 610
TOTAL 4,660
74
-------
Table 30
Operation and Maintenance Summary for
Direct-Feed Gas Chlorination
Item Amount
Electrical Energy:
Process 1,630 kw-hr/yr
Building 2,560 kw-hr/yr
TOTAL 4,190 kw-hr/yr
Maintenance Material $40/yr
Labor 183 hr/yr
TOTAL COST* $2,000/yr
Calculated using $0.03/kw-hr and $10.00/hr of labor,
Table 31
Operation and Maintenance Summary for
Sodium Hypochlorite Solution Feed
Item Amount
Electrical Energy:
Process 570 kw-hr/yr
Building 2,560 kw-hr/yr
TOTAL 3,130 kw-hr/yr
Maintenance Material $20/yr
Labor 365 hr/yr
TOTAL COST* $3,760/yr
Calculated using $0.03/kw-hr and $10.00/hr of labor,
75
-------
oxygen feed. Normally, air feed would be used for small generation rates,
as pure oxygen storage is not economical. However, an ozonator operated on
pure oxygen feed would have approximately double the generating capacity of
the same ozonator on air feed. Significantly less energy is also required
when pure oxygen feed is used.
Construction costs were developed for air-feed ozone generating systems
with capacities between 0.5 and 10 Ib/day. The costs include the ozonator,
dissolution equipment, and all required electrical equipment and instrumen-
tation. Ozone contactor costs must be added separately because they are a
function of flow treated and contact time. A separate curve is included for
the ozone contactor. Costs for the ozone generation system are shown in
Table 32 and Figure 28.
Ozone contactors for small systems are best constructed of PVC pipe
standing on end, or FRP tanks. The contact chamber should be approximately
18-ft high with a water depth of 16-ft; it should provide a detention time
of 10 to 15 min. Costs were developed for the 18-ft-high FRP contactors
located out-of-doors. Dissolution equipment is included with the generation
system costs, and it is not included with the contactor. Contactor costs
are shown in Table 33 and also in Figure 29.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Electrical energy is required for building, heating, lighting, and
ventilation, as well as for process energy for ozone generation. Process
energy for ozonation is based on a usage of 15 kw-hr/lb of ozone for the
smallest system, decreasing to 11 kw-hr/lb of ozone for the largest system.
Maintenance material requirements are for periodic equipment repair
and replacement of parts. Based on manufacturers' recommendations, an
annual maintenance material requirement of 1 percent of the manufactured
equipment cost was utilized.
Labor requirements for for periodic cleaning of the ozone generation
apparatus, maintenance of the oxygen generation equipment, annual maintenance
of the contact basin, and day-to-day operation of the generation equipment.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 34 and
are shown in Figures 30 and 31.
CHLORINE DIOXIDE GENERATING AND FEED SYSTEMS
Construction Cost
Chlorine dioxide may be generated in small quantities by mixing a sodium
chlorite solution with an acidified sodium hypochlorite solution. Mixing
of the solutions takes place in a PVC chamber filled with procelain Raschig
Rings, with the chlorine dioxide generation occurring in the chamber following
mixing. A required pH of 4 and sufficient chemicals for the reaction to go
to completion will result when equal parts of a 1-percent sodium hypochlorite
solution, a 25-percent sulfuric acid solution, and a 2.4-percent sodium
76
-------
Table 32
Construction Cost for
Ozone Generation Systems
Cost Category Ozone Generation Capacity (Ib/day)
0-5 5.0 10.0
Manufactured Equipment $11,540 $ 19,880 $ 28,530
Labor 1,860 3,300 4,840
Housing 6,000 6,000 6,000
SUBTOTAL 19,400 29,180 39,370
Miscellaneous and 2,910 4,380 5,910
Contingency
22,310 33,560 45,280
77
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Figure 28. Construction Cost for
Ozone Generation Systems.
78
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29. Construction cost for
ozone contact chambers.
80
-------
Table 34
Operation and Maintenance Summary for
Ozone Generation Systems
Maintenance Total*
Ozone Generation Electrical Energy (kw-hr/yr) Material Labor Cost
Rate
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Figure 30. Operation and maintenance requirements for
ozone generation systems - building energy,
process energy, and maintenance material.
82
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Figure 31. Operation and maintenance requirements for
ozone generation systems - labor and total cost.
83
-------
chlorite solution are mixed.
Construction costs are independent of generating capacity, up to about
50 Ib of chlorine dioxide/day. Cost estimates were made based on use of a
dual-head diaphragm pump for the sodium hypochlorite and sulfuric acid solu-
tions, and a separate diaphragm pump for the sodium chlorite. The chlorine
dioxide generator was sized for a detention time of approximately 0.2 min.
Estimated construction costs are shown in Table 35.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Generally, operation and maintenance costs are independent of the quan-
tity of chlorine dioxide generated. Process energy requirements, which are
for the metering pumps and mixer for the sodium chlorite solution, would be
1,240 kw-hr/year. Building energy requirements for 40 ft2 would be 4,100
kw-hr/year. Total energy requirements are therefore 5,340 kw-hr/year. Maint-
enance material requirements would only be for minor equipment repair, amount-
ing to $100/year.
Labor is required for preparation of the three required solutions and
periodic maintenance of the equipment. The annual labor requirement is
estimated to be 365 hr/year. Operation and maintenance requirements are
shown in Table 36.
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT DISINFECTION
Construction Cost
Ultraviolet light may be utilized to sterilize water, provided that
the turbidity is very low. The ultraviolet rays, which are generated by a
mercury lamp, sterilize by penetrating the microbial cell wall and reacting
with the cell contents, a process that is complete within a few seconds. The
mercury lamp is contained in a quartz glass sleeve, and the water to be dis-
infected is passed through a tubular chamber surrounding the quartz glass
sleeve. The principal advantage of this process is that no chemicals are
added and the chemical quality of the water is not changed. The principal
disadvantage is the lack of any residual disinfectant.
Construction costs were developed for single and multiple ultraviolet
sterilizing units ranging in capacity from 10 to 780 gpm. The units are
available from a number of manufacturers and are furnished in a modular
form requiring only piping and electrical connections. The units are extreme-
ly compact, and a 780-gpm module would occupy an area of less than 24 ft^.
The costs include the manufactured units and the related costs of piping,
electrical equipment, and equipment installation, and a building to house
the equipment.
Construction costs are shown in Table 37 and also in Figure 32.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Process energy is for the mercury lamp. Continuous 24-hr/day operation
84
-------
Table 35
Construction Cost for
Chlorine Dioxide Generating and Feed Systems
Cost Category
Manufactured Equipment
Labor
Pipe and Valves
Electrical Equipment and
Instrumentation
Housing (40 ft2)
SUBTOTAL
Miscellaneous and Contingency
TOTAL
Cost
$4,050
600
500
400
2,860
8,410
1,260
9,670
Table 36
Operation and Maintenance Summary for
Chlorine Dioxide Generating and Feed Systems
Item
Electrical Energy:
Process
Building
TOTAL
Maintenance Material
Labor
TOTAL COST*
Amount
1,240 kw-hr/yr
4,100 kw-hr/yr
5,340 kw-hr/yr
$100/yr
365 hr/yr
$3,910/yr
*Calculated using $0.03/kw-hr and $10.00/hr of labor
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Figure 32. Construction cost for
ultraviolet light disinfection.
87
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was assumed, with only occasional shutdown to clean cells and replace weak
ultraviolet lamps. Building energy is for heating, lighting, and ventilation.
Maintenance materials are related to the replacement cost of the ultra-
violet lamps, which are generally replaced after operating continuously for
about 8,000 hr.
Labor requirements are related to occasional cleaning of the quartz
sleeves and periodic replacement of the ultraviolet lights.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 38 and
also presented in Figures 33 and 34.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
Construction Cost
Reverse osmosis utilizes membranes to remove a high percentage of
almost all inorganic ions, turbidity, bacteria, and viruses. Most organic
matter is also removed, with the exception of several materials, including
most halogenated and low-molecular-weight compounds.
Construction costs were developed for complete reverse osmosis plants
in the size ranges from 2,500 gpd to 1 mgd. Commercial units are available
in sizes up to about 5,000 gpd for the membrane elements and up to 30,000 gpd
for the reverse osmosis modules (pressure vessels). Therefore, large-scale
plants are composed of many smaller, parallel modules. Components taken into
account in the construction cost estimates include housing, structural steel
and miscellaneous metalwork, tanks, piping, valves, pumps, reverse osmosis
membrane elements and pressure vessels, flow meters, cartridge filters, acid
and polyphosphate feed equipment, and also cleaning equipment. The cost
curves are based on the use of either spiral-wound or hollow fine-fiber
reverse osmosis membranes.
The efficiency of the membrane elements in reverse osmosis systems may
be impaired by scaling (because of slightly soluble or insoluble compounds)
or by fouling (because of the deposition of colloidal or suspended materials).
Because of this possibility, a very important consideration in the design
of a reverse osmosis system is the provision of adequate pretreatment to
protect the membrane from excessive scaling and fouling and to avoid fre-
quent cleaning requirements. In the development of the cost curves, adequate
pretreatment was assumed to precede the reverse osmosis process, but costs
for pretreatment are not included in the estimates.
The construction cost curve applies to waters with a total dissolved
solids (TDS) concentration ranging up to about 10,000 mg/1. Other consider-
ations, such as calcium sulfate and silica concentrations and also the
desired water recovery, affect cost more than the influent TDS concentration.
The temperature of the feedwater is assumed to be between 65° and 95° F, and
the pH of the feedwater is adjusted to about 5.5 to 6.0 before the reverse
osmosis process. A single-pass treatment system (only one pass through the
membrane) is assumed, with an operating pressure of 400 to 450 psi. The
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ultraviolet light disinfection - building energy,
process energy, and maintenance material.
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Figure 34. Operation and maintenance requirements for
ultraviolet light disinfection - labor and total cost
91
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assumed water recoveries for different flow ranges are as follows
_Rang e _ Water Recovery (%)
2,500 - 10,000 gpd 60
10,000 - 100,000 gpd 70
100,000 gpd - 1.0 mgd 75
Brine disposal costs are not included in the estimates. Construction cost
estimates are presented in Table 39 and also in Figure 35.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Electrical energy usage is included for the high-pressure feedwater
pumps, based on an operating pressure of 450 psi and on the water recoveries
listed in the construction cost write-up. For other pumps and chemical
feed equipment, an energy usage of 10 percent of the usage for the high-
pressure pumps was assumed . Electrical energy for lighting, heating, and
ventilating was calculated, based on an estimated floor area required for
complete housing of the reverse osmosis equipment.
The largest maintenance material requirement is for membrane replacement;
a membrane life of 3 years was used in the cost estimates. Other mainten-
ance material requirements are for replacement of cartridge filters, for
membrane cleaning chemicals, and for materials needed for periodic repair
of pumps, motors, and electrical control equipment. Costs for pretreatment
chemicals, such as acid and polyphosphate, are not included in the estimates.
The chemicals utilized and the dosages required will show great variability
between different water supplies and should be determined from pilot plant
testing.
Labor requirements are for cleaning and replacing membranes, replacing
cartridge filters, maintaining the high-pressure and other pumps, preparing
treatment chemicals and determining proper dosages, maintaining chemical
feed equipment, and monitoring performance of the reverse osmosis membranes.
Membrane cleaning was assumed to occur monthly. In estimating labor require-
ments, a minimum of about 1.5 hr/day of labor was assumed for the smallest
plant.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 40 and
illustrated in Figures 36 and 37.
PRESSURE ION EXCHANGE SOFTENING
Construction Cost
Cation exchange resins can be utilized for the removal of hardness,
barium, trivalent chromium, lead, manganese, mercury, and radium. Construc-
tion costs were developed for pressure ion exchange softening systems using
the conceptual information presented in Table 41. The contact vessels were
fabricated steel, with a baked phenolic lining added after fabrication and
constructed for 100 psi working pressure. The depth of resin was 6 ft,
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Figure 35. Construction cost for
reverse osmosis.
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Figure 36. Operation and maintenance requirements for
reverse osmosis - building energy, process energy,
and maintenance material.
96
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Figure 37. Operation and maintenance requirements for
reverse osmosis - labor and total cost.
97
-------
Table 41
Conceptual Design for
Pressure Ion Exchange Softening
Plant Capacity
(gpd)
70,000
280,000
440,000
630,000
860,000
Number
of Contactors
2
2
2
2
2
Diameter of Housing
Contactors (ft) (ft2)
2 132
4 210
5 255
6 304
7 357
Total Salt
Storage/Brining
Capacity (ft3)
110
435
680
975
1,330
98
-------
and the contact vessel was designed to allow for up to 80-percent media ex-
pansion during backwash.
Facilities were sized based on an exchange capacity of 20 kilograins/ft3
and a hardness reduction of 300 mg/1. Regeneration facilities were sized on
the basis of 150 bed volumes treated before regeneration and a regenerant
requirement of 0.275 Ib of sodium chloride per kilograin of exchange capacity.
The total regeneration time required is 50 min. Of this time, 10 min is for
backwash, 20 min is regeneration brine contact time (brining and displace-
ment rinse), and 20 min is a fast rinse at 1.5 gpm/ft . Feedwater was assumed
to be of sufficient clarity to require backwashing only for resin reclassifi-
cation. Backwash pumping facilities and resin installation are included in
the construction cost. In-place resin costs of $45.00/ft3 were utilized.
Regeneration facilities include two salt storage/brining basins, which
are open, reinforced concrete structures constructed with the top foot above
ground level. Saturated brine withdrawal from the salt storage/brining basins
is 25 percent brine by weight. A salt storage of A days of normal use was
provided in the storage/brining basins. Pumping facilities were included to
pump from the brining tanks to the contact vessels. An eductor is utilized
to add sufficient water to dilute the brine to a 10-percent concentration
as it is being transferred from the salt storage/brining tank to the contact
vessel. No facilities are included in the construction cost for spent brine
disposal.
Construction costs for pressure ion exchange softening are presented in
Figure 38 and summarized in Table 42.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Electrical requirements are for regenerant pumping, rinse pumping, back-
wash pumping, and building heating, lighting, and ventilation. Backwash
pumping was based on a 10-min wash period at 8 gpm/ft . Regenerant pumping
was based on a regenerant rate of 0.7 gal/min/ft3 of resin and a regeneration
time of 20 min. Fast-rinse pumping was based on a 20-min rinse at a rate of
30 gal/ft of media. All pumping was assumed to be against a 25 foot TDK.
Feed water pumping requirements are not included.
Maintenance material costs for periodic repair and replacement of com-
ponents were estimated based on 1-percent of the construction cost. Resin
replacement costs are for resin lost annually by physical attrition as well
as loss of capacity as a result of chemical fouling. A 3-percent annual loss
of resin capacity because of physical and chemical causes is typical for
cation resins. To account for this loss of resin and the required replacement
every 8 to 10 years, an annual cost equivalent to 13 percent of the resin cost
is also included in the maintenance material. No cost is included for sodium
chloride regenerant.
Labor requirements are for operation and maintenance of the ion exchange
vessels and the pumping facilities. Hours were estimated based on comparable
size pressure filtration plants that operate automatically. Labor require-
ments are also included for a periodic media addition and replacement of the
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Figure 38. Construction cost for
pressure ion exchange softening.
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media every 8 to 10 years.
No costs are included for spent brine disposal. Operation arid mainten-
ance costs are presented in Figures 39 and 40 and summarized in Table 43.
PRESSURE ION EXCHANGE NITRATE REMOVAL
Construction Cost
Strongly basic anion exchange resins may be used for the removal of
nitrates, and also sulfates, fluorides, and some forms of organic and in-
organic mercury. When a strongly basic anion exchanger is operated on the
chloride form, the sulfate is selectively removed over nitrate, and the ni-
trate is selectively removed over fluoride. Therefore, the larger the nitrate-
to-sulfate ratio , the greater is the nitrate removal capacity of the resin.
Generally, fluoride removal by anion exchange resins is not considered
practical because of the low capacity.
Costs were developed for treatment of a water supply with the following
anion content: Nitrate = 100 mg/1, sulfate - 80 mg/1, other anions = 120 mg/1.
The assumed nitrate capacity for the strongly basic, anion exchange resin oper-
ated on the chloride form was 7 kilograins of nitrate/ft3, when operated to
nitrate breakthrough. It is important to note that other water supplies with
different quality may have significantly different exchange capacities, de-
pending generally on the nitrate-to-sulfate ratio.
A sodium chloride regenerant was utilized, with a regenerant requirement
of 15 lb/ft^ of resin. A total regeneration time of 54 min was utilized.
Backwash required 10 min, the brine contact and displacement rinse 24 min,
and the fast rinse an additional 20 min.
Construction costs were developed for pressure anion exchange systems
using the conceptual information in Table 44. Contact vessels were fabricated
steel, with a 100-psi working pressure and a baked phenolic lining. A 6-ft
bed depth was utilized, although tanks were sized for up to 80-percent resin
expansion during backwash. A gravel layer between the resin and the under-
drains was not utilized.
Regeneration facilities include two salt storage/brining basins, which
are open, reinforced concrete structures, constructed with the top foot above
ground level. A salt storage capacity of 4 days was provided. A saturated
26-percent brine is pumped from these storage basins to the contact vessel
using an eductor to dilute the brine to 10 percent concentration as it is
being transferred.
Brine, transfer, and backwash pumping facilities are included in the
cost estimate. However, costs for spent regenerant disposal are not included
in the cost estimate. Construction costs are presented in Table 45 and in
Figure 41.
Operation and Maintenance CosJ:
Electrical energy costs are for backwash pumping, rinse pumping, re-
102
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PLANT FLOW RATE-gpd
too
1000 10,000
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Figure 39. Operation and maintenance requirements for
pressure ion exchange softening - building energy,
process energy, and maintenance material.
103
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Figure 40. Operation and maintenance requirements for
pressure ion exchange softening - labor and total cost,
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Table 44
Conceptual Design for
Pressure Ion Exchange Nitrate Removal
Plant Capacity Number Diameter of Housing
(gpd) of Contactors Contactors (ft) ftz
70,000 2 2 132
270,000 2 4 210
425,000 2 5 255
610,000 2 6 304
830,000 2 7 357
106
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Figure 41. Construction cost for
pressure ion exchange nitrate removal,
108
-------
generant pumping, and building heating, lighting, and ventilation. Backwash
pumping was based on a 10-min wash at 3 gpm/ft . Regenerant pumping was
based on a rate of 6 gpm/ft of resin for 24 min, and fast-rinse pumping was
based on a rate of 8 gpm/ft2 for 20 min. All pumping was assumed to be
against a 25-foot TDH. Feed water pumping requirements are not included.
Maintenance material costs for periodic repair and replacement of
components were estimated based on 1-percent of the construction cost plus
the cost of resin replacement. Resin replacement costs are for resin lost
annually by physical attrition as well as loss of capacity as a result of
chemical fouling. As anion resin is typically replaced every 3 to 5 years, a
25-percent annual resin replacement was included to account for resin fouling
and resin loss. Regenerant costs are not included in the maintenance material
cost.
Labor requirements are for operation and maintenance of ion exchange
vessels and the pumping facilities. Hours were estimated based on filtration
plants and filter pumping facilities of comparable size. Labor requirements
are also included for periodic media addition and replacement of the media
every 4 years. No costs are included for spent brine disposal.
Operation and maintenance curves are presented in Figures 42 and 43
and are summarized in Table 46.
ACTIVATED ALUMINA FLUORIDE REMOVAL
Construction Cost
Water supplies with fluoride concentrations up to 10 mg/1 and higher can
be effectively treated by contact with activated alumina. Fluoride reductions
to less than 0.5 mg/1 can generally be achieved with activated alumina, and
blending can then be utilized to meet the desired fluoride concentration.
Treatment is generally selective for fluoride and arsenic, although small
amounts of other anions often are removed. Regeneration of the activated
alumina with caustic removes both exchanged fluoride and arsenic.
Facilities were sized based on a fluoride exchange capacity of 0.6-per-
cent by weight, or 0.25 Ib/ft^ of activated alumina, and a fluoride reduction
from 3 to 0.5 mg/1. Operation was assumed to be a pH 5.5, although higher
pH values may be used with a resulting lower exchange capacity. Regeneration
facilities were sized on the basis of batch rather than continuous regeneration
because of the significant savings in regeneration chemicals that results
from using batch regeneration. Regeneration was assumed to consist of 1-hr
contacts with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide for fluoride removal from the alumina,
followed by a one-half-hour contact with 0.05 N sulfuric acid for neutrali-
zation. In-place resin costs of $13.86/ft were utilized. Feed water was
assumed to be sufficiently low in suspended solids so that backwashing was
not necessary; thus backwashing facilities are not included.
Construction costs were developed for pressure systems using the con-
ceptual information presented in Table 47. The contact vessels are fabricated
steel with a baked phenolic lining; they are constructed for a 100-psi
109
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Figure 42. Operation and maintenance requirements for
pressure ion exchange nitrate removal - building energy,
process energy, and maintenance material.
110
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Table 47
Conceptual Design for
Activated Alumina Fluoride Removal
Diameter of
Plant Capacity (gpd) Number of Contactors Contactors (ft) Housing (ft )
12,700
25,000
100,000
400,000
640,000
910,000
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
4
5
6
70
74
109
160
273
322
113
-------
working pressure. The depth of resin was 10 ft, and the contact vessel was
designed for 80-percent media expansion during backwash. A gravel layer be-
tween underdrains and media was not included.
Regeneration storage facilities were sized for 30 days of storage. Sodium
hydroxide required for regeneration was assumed to be purchased as a solid and
mixed to the required concentration at the plant. Sulfuric acid was assumed
to be purchased in the concentrated form and then diluted at the plant. Meter-
ing pumps were included for transfer of caustic and sulfuric acid from the
dilution tanks to the exhausted contactor.
All facilities were assumed to be located indoors. Construction costs
are presented in detail in Table 48 and are also shown in Figure 44.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Electrical energy costs are for regenerant pumping, and building heating,
ventilation, and lighting. The latter requirements constitute the majority
of the energy requirements, and use of an outdoor installation would have a
very significant impact on energy requirements. Process energy is only for
regenerant pumping, and it is extremely small. Feed water pumping require-
ments are not included.
Maintenance material costs are for periodic repair and replacement of
components and were estimated on the basis of 1-percent of the construction
cost. An activated alumina replacement cost was also included in mainten-
ance material at an annual rate of 10-percent. Regenerant costs are not in-
cluded in the maintenance material costs.
Labor requirements are principally for regenerant preparation and re-
generation of the activated alumina. Labor requirements also include periodic
media addition to make up losses and occasional replacement.
Operation and maintenance curves are presented in Figures 45 and 46 and
are summarized in Table 49.
BONE CHAR FLUORIDE REMOVAL
Construction Cost
Bone char has a high natural calcium content, which makes it useful for
the removal of both fluoride and arsenic compounds. After removal of the
fluoride from the water by the bone char, the fluoride can be removed from
the bone char by exposing the char to a weak caustic solution. A principal
disadvantage of bone char is the nearly irreversible reaction of arsenic
with the bone char, which will rapidly deplete the capacity if high arsenic-
content waters are being treated. When arsenic is present, activated
alumina would be preferred to bone char as a removal method.
Construction cost estimates were developed for 8-ft-deep beds of bone
char contained in fabricated steel contact vessels. The vessels were con-
structed for a working pressure of 100 psi, and they allowed 100-percent media
114
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Figure 44. Construction cost for
activated alumina fluoride removal,
116
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Figure 45. Operation and maintenance requirements for
activated alumina fluoride removal - building energy,
and maintenance material
117
-------
100,000
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Figure 46. Operation and maintenance requirements for
activated alumina fluoride removal - labor and total cost
118
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expansion during backwash. The bone char was assumed to have an exchange
capacity of 200 g of fluoride/ft . Regeneration of spent bone char is
accomplished using a dilute sodium hydroxide solution for regeneration of the
bone char and a weak sodium bicarbonate solution for neutralization of re-
maining sodium hydroxide before a unit is returned to service. Regeneration
requirements were based on a removal of 2.5 mg/1 of fluoride, a sodium hydrox-
ide use of 6.2 Ib/ft per regeneration, and a sodium bicarbonate use of 2.5
Ib/ft^ of resin per regeneration. Both the sodium hydroxide and the sodium
bicarbonate were assumed to be purchased in the solid form and dissolved
into a dilute solution at the plant site. All equipment and chemical storage
was assumed to be completely enclosed.
Construction costs are presented in Table 50 and also in Figure 47.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Process energy is relatively small and is only for regenerant pumping.
The building energy constitutes most of the energy required, and use of an
outdoor installation would have a very significant impact on energy require-
ments. If backwash is required, process energy requirements will increase
significantly. Feed water pumping requirements are not included.
Maintenance material costs are for periodic repair and replacement of
components; they were estimated on the basis of 1-percent of the construction
cost. A bone char replacement cost was also included in maintenance material
at an annual rate of 15-percent. Regenerant costs are not included in the
maintenance material costs.
Labor requirements are principally for regenerant preparation and regen-
eration of the bone char. Labor requirements also include periodic bone char
addition to make up for losses and occasional replacement.
Operation and maintenance curves are presented in Figures 48 and 49 and
are summarized in Table 51.
PACKAGE RAW WATER PUMPING FACILITIES
Construction Cost
Construction cost estimates were developed for raw water pumping fac-
ilities with capacities ranging between 20 and 700 gpm. Costs were based
on the use of premanufactured package pump stations using duplex submersible
pumps contained in a 20-ft deep steel pump sump. The pump sump is supported
on a concrete anchor slab at the bottom of the excavation. The pumping
facilities are located adjacent to a stream or lake, and water enters by
gravity flow.
The costs also include manifold piping within the sump, sump intake line
valve, pump check valves, and electrical controls. Excluded are costs of a
raw water intake structure and transmission lines between water source and
pump sump and to the treatment facilities. Costs of these items are excluded
because specific site conditions will result in significant variations in
requirements and cost. No housing for the pumping facilities is required.
120
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Estimated construction costs are shown in Table 52 for facilities capa-
ble of pumping against a head of 50 ft. The costs are graphically presented
in Figure 50.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Process electrical energy requirements are for continuous, 24-hr/day
operation of raw water pumps at a TDH of 50 ft. Power requirements were
based on a pumping efficiency of 80-percent and a motor efficiency of 90-per-
cent. Since the facilities are not housed, no energy for heating, lighting,
and ventilating is required.
Maintenance material requirements for submersible pumps and other pumping
facility equipment were estimated at approximately 1-percent of equipment
cost, according to manufacturers' recommendations.
Labor requirements are for general maintenance of pumping station equip-
ment. Maintenance requirements for the totally sealed submersible pumps are
minimal.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 53 and
illustrated in Figures 51 and 52.
PACKAGE HIGH-SERVICE PUMPING STATIONS
Construction Cost
Package finished water pumping stations may be suitable for use with
certain small systems. Such stations are capable of handling a wide varia-
tion in flow caused by fluctuating system demand while maintaining a rela-
tively uniform system pressure. Costs were developed for single units
ranging in size from 30 to 1,100 gpm to match expected maximum system hourly
demands from plants producing 2,500 to 500,000 gpd.
Pumping stations utilize two end suction centrifugal pumps for capacities
smaller than 400 gpm. Three such pumps are used to handle flows in excess
of 400 gpm. The pumping stations are prepackaged and contain pumps, pressure
sensing and flow control valves, and control electrical equipment and instru-
mentation. Pumps were selected to provide a maximum output pressure of 70
psi. The units are designed for flooded suction applications and are to be
used with above-grade storage tanks or clearwells.
No allowance for housing costs were included, since spatial requirements
are minimal, and adequate floor area within treatment plant structures is
generally available.
Figure 53 and Table 54 present construction costs for package high-
service pumping stations.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Pumping units were selected to handle peak hourly flows and utilize a
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package high-service pumping stations
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two- or three-pump system with a lead pump and one or two main pumps. In
all systems, continuous 24-hr operation of the lead pump and 8-hr operation
of the main pump was assumed to determine energy usage. Pumping costs were
computed based on supplying the indicated flows at 70 psi discharge pressure.
Maintenance material costs are related to replacement costs for seals
and other miscellaneous small parts. Labor requirements consist of pump
seal lubrication, calibration of pressure control devices, and occasional
seal replacement.
Operation and maintenance requirements for package high-service pumping
stations are listed in Table 55 and illustrated in Figures 54 and 55.
STEEL BACKWASH/CLEARWELL TANKS
Construction Cost
Construction costs were developed for backwash water/clearwell storage
tanks with capacities ranging from 500 to 30,000 gal. Conceptual design
information related to tank dimensions is presented in Table 56. Tanks are
either shop fabricated (5,000 gal and less) or field erected; they are 3/16 in,
steel plate in all cases and are painted inside and outside. Tanks are sup-
ported on a concrete pad and are covered. All sizes of tanks are furnished
with inlet/outlet, drain, vent and overflow nozzles, and handrails around
top access hatch and on ladders. Tanks larger than 5,000 gal are equipped
with an additional 24-in. manway in the side of the tank.
Construction costs are presented in Table 57 and also in Figure 56.
SLUDGE HAULING TO LANDFILL
Construction Cost
Sludge may be conveyed to landfill in a liquid form using tank trucks
or in a dewatered form using dump trucks. Separate cost estimates were made
for each form of hauling, based on agency ownership of the trucks and a
truck usage of 8 hr/day. When other than daylight operation is possible
and/or local requirements on route utilization allow operation over a 24-hr
day, a substantial savings in capital expenditure will occur. Serious con-
sideration should be given to operation over time periods greater than 8-hr/
day. If such operation is possible, the costs presented must be adjusted to
reflect the higher daily usage rate.
These criteria utilized to develop costs for liquid and dewatered sludge
hauling are presented in Table 58.
Liquid Sludge
Costs were developed for hauling liquid sludge with volumes ranging from
25,000 to 15 million gal/year for one-way distances between 5 and 40 miles.
All estimates were for use of a 5,500-gal tanker truck, except for the smal-
lest haul volume of 25,000 gal/year, which is based on use of a 1,200 gal
134
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tanker truck. Loading facilities include a truck loading enclosure and
appropriate piping and valving to allow loading in a maximum time of 20 min.
Sludge pumping facilities are not included in these costs, as separate curves
are provided for chemical sludge pumping. The number of trucks required and
the initial costs are shown in Table 59; initial costs are also shown in
Figure 57.
Dewatered Sludge
Costs were also developed for hauling dewatered sludge with volumes
between 100 and 50,000 yd3/year, over one-way distances between 5 and 40
miles. Where loading facilities are utilized, the facilities include a
sludge conveyor, a hopper capable of holding 1.5 truckloads of sludge, and
an enclosure for the sludge hopper. When more than one hopper was required,
multiple conveyors and enclosures were utilized. Initial costs for loading
facilities and trucks are shown in Table 60 and Figure 58.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Energy requirements for sludge hauling are for truck fuel. The type of
fuel used, the fuel cost, and mileage estimates utilized for various truck
configurations that were used in the estimates are shown in Table 58. Process
energy for sludge pumping at the treatment facility is not included, and
the cost curves for chemical sludge pumping should be utilized if pumping is
required.
Maintenance costs for the trucks were calculated on the basis of $/mile
traveled, using the per-mile costs included in Table 58. The maintenance
costs do not include fuel. Labor requirements are for the truck operators.
A loading time of 20 min and an unloading time of 15 min were utilized, and
it was assumed that the truck operator would be responsible for each.
Operation and maintenance requirements for liquid sludge hauling are
summarized in Table 61 and are shown in Figures 59 and 60. Dewatered sludge
hauling operation and maintenance costs are summarized in Table 62 and are
presented in Figures 61 and 62.
SLUDGE DISPOSAL TO SANITARY SEWERS
Annual Cost
Sludge disposal to sanitary sewers usually enhances sedimentation in
the wastewater treatment facility, but also creates a problem as a result of
the additional quantity of sludge that must be treated and ultimately disposed,
The cost for disposal of water treatment plant sludges to wastewater facilit-
ies varies widely, depending on the concentration of the water treatment plant
sludge, the" wastewater quality, and the degree of treatment provided by the
wastewater facility.
To estimate the cost of treating sludge from a water treatment plant,
a charge of $100/million gal of wastewater was used. The wastewater compo-
sition used was assumed to have a BOD of 225 mg/1 and TSS of 275 mg/1. The
142
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ANNUAL VOLUME OF SLUDGE HAULED - mVyr
Figure 57. Initial cost for
liquid sludge hauling at 5- and 40-mile haul distances,
144
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Figure 58. Initial cost for
dewatered sludge hauling at 5-, 20-, and 40-mile haul distances
146
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Figure 59. Operation and maintenance requirements for
liquid sludge hauling - maintenance material and fuel needed for
5-, 20-, and 40-mile haul distances.
148
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100,000
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ANNUAL VOLUME OF SLUDGE HAULED - gal /yr 10,000,000
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ANNUAL VOLUME OF SLUDGE HAULED - mVyr
Figure 60. Operation and maintenance requirements for
liquid sludge hauling - labor and total cost for
5-, 20-, and 40-mile haul distances.
149
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Figure 61. Operation and maintenance requirements for
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151
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100,000
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Figure 62. Operation and maintenance requirements for
dewatered sludge hauling - labor and total cost for 5-, 20-,
and 40-mile haul distances.
152
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$100 charge was allocated as follows: 34-percent to flow, 33-percent to BOD,
and 33-percent to suspended solids, which is equivalent to $85/million gal of
flow, $0.044/lb of BOD, and $0.036/lb of suspended solids. Table 63 presents
the annual cost of discharging water treatment sludges with BOD values of 50
mg/1, at various flow rates and suspended solids concentrations, to this
wastewater system. Costs are not significantly influenced by higher BOD
values, even up to 150 mg/1. Other factors that should be considered in de-
termining the feasibility and cost of sewer discharge are the availability of
trunk sewer capacity and the cost of using this capacity.
SLUDGE DEWATERING LAGOONS
Construction Cost
A popular and economical technique for handling waste sludge from
small treatment plants is a sludge lagoon. Waste sludge, and often filter
backwash water, is discharged to the lagoon for clarification and storage.
Generally more than one lagoon is provided to allow time for the sludge in
the lagoon that is out of service to dewater sufficiently to permit removal.
Construction costs were estimated for unlined, earthen basins fully
excavated to a depth of 7-ft. Lagoons were assumed to have a 2-ft free-
board, and all dike materials are assumed to be obtained from the excavation.
A dike side slope of 3:1 was assumed. Lagoons are provided with an inlet
flow-distributing structure to minimize disturbance of settled sludge. An
outlet structure to skim clarified water is also provided. Conceptual de-
signs used to estimate costs are presented in Table 64.
Construction costs are presented in Table 65 and in Figure 63. The costs
are shown as a function of effective storage volume, which is the volume of
the lagoon minus freeboard volume. The costs exclude those for land.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Operation and maintenance requirements are primarily associated with
sludge removal from the lagoons. Where climatic conditions are favorable
and lagoons allow percolation of entrained water, sludge will dewater suffi-
ciently so that it can be removed by mechanical means.
Operation and maintenance requirements are presented for removing sludge
with a front-end loader and hauling it in dump trucks to a disposal site with-
in 1 mile of the lagoon. Sludge is assumed to be removed from a lagoon on the
average of once every 2 years. Energy requirements are for diesel fuel used
in the removal and transport of sludge. Maintenance material is for periodic
lagoon grading, restoration of dikes, and roadway maintenance. Labor require-
ments are for sludge removal and transport, and for facility maintenance.
Operation and maintenance requirements are summarized in Table 66 and
are shown in Figures 64 and 65.
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sludge dewatering lagoons.
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Figure 64. Operation and maintenance requirements for
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159
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Figure 65. Operation and maintenance requirements for
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160
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SAND DRYING BEDS
Construction Cost
Cost estimates were made for uncovered and unlined sand drying beds
using the conceptual designs presented in Table 67. . The beds were assumed
to be divided into two cells, each totally contained by a concrete curb wall.
The curb wall design will permit access by a small tractor with a front-end
loader for the removal of sludge. Water that percolates downward into the
sand bed is removed by a perforated pipe underdrain system placed beneath 18
in. of graded sand and gravel. The beds are provided with a central sludge
distribution box, complete with removable baffles and associated supply
piping to the end of the bed.
Table 68 presents estimated construction costs, which are also illustrat-
ed in Figure 66.
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Energy requirements are for a small, diesel-powered tractor with front-
end loader, which is used to remove dried sludge from the beds and to perform
grading and sand replacement before the next sludge application. A fuel
consumption of 0.5 gal per hour for the loader and 20 bed cleanings per year
were assumed to determine fuel requirements. It was assumed that dried
sludge would be loaded onto a truck and hauled from the plant site, although
no allowance was made for truck fuel consumption. Separate curves are pro-
vided in this report for dewatered sludge hauling.
Maintenance material requirements are for replacement of sand lost during
bed cleaning. A loss of 1/2 in. of sand per cleaning was assumed. Labor re-
quirements were based on operating installations and on computations of
anticipated time to perform cleaning and bed preparation.
Figures 67 and 68 present operation and maintenance requirements, which
are also summarized in Table 69.
161
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Figure 66. Construction cost for
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164
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165
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166
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SECTION 3
EXAMPLE CALCULATION FOR A 350-gpm
PACKAGE COMPLETE TREATMENT PLANT
This example demonstrates the use of the curves included in this volume
to develop the cost of a 350-gpm package complete treatment facility, in-
cluding sludge handling facilities. In this example, the plant design capa-
city is 350 gpm, but the facility is only operating at 70-percent of capa-
city, or 245 gpm.
The design criteria and operating conditions for the complete facility
are shown in Table 70. As shown, the complete facility consists of a pack-
age raw water pumping station, a package complete treatment plant, a steel
backwash/clearwell tank, package high-service pumping, and sludge dewatering
lagoons. The unit processes and design criteria that are presented in Table
70 represent a hypothetical situation and should not be considered to be
applicable to all treatment plants of this general capacity.
The total of the construction costs for the individual unit processes
shown in Table 70 yield a subtotal cost that is the basis for a number of
special costs more appropriately related to the subtotal of construction cost
than to the construction cost of each individual unit process. These special
costs include: (1) special sitework, landscaping, roads, and interface piping
between processes, (2) special subsurface considerations, and (3) standby
power. The special costs vary widely, depending on the site, the design
engineer's preference, and regulatory agency requirements. Addition of these
special costs to the aggregate cost of the unit processes gives the total
construction cost.
To arrive at the total capital cost, the following costs must be added
to the total construction cost: (3) general contractorTs overhead and profit,
(2) engineering, (3) land, (4) legal, fiscal and administrative costs, and
(5) interest during construction. Curves for these costs, with the exception
of engineering and land, are presented in Figures 69 to 73. A curve for
engineering cost is not included as the cost will vary widely, depending on
the need for preliminary studies, time delays, the size and complexity of
the project, and any construction related inspection and engineering design
activities.
Table 71 presents a calculation of total annual cost and cost per 1,000
gal treated. This calculation involves a number of variables such as amorti-
zation rate and period, labor rate (including fringes and benefits),
168
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100
Figure 69. General contractor's overhead and fee
percentage versus total construction cost.
170
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SUM OF CONSTRUCTION, ENGINEERING AND LAND COSTS-$
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Figure 70. Legal, fiscal, and administrative costs for
projects less than $1 million.
171
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Figure 71. Legal, fiscal, and administrative costs for
projects greater than $1 million.
172
-------
10
10,000 2 345 6789100,000 2 3456789 2
SUBTOTAL OF ALL OTHER COSTS- $ '»00^000
3 456 789
Figure 72. Interest during construction for
projects less than $200,000.
173
-------
10,000,000
1000
100,000
456 789
100,000,000
SUBTOTAL OF ALL OTHER COSTS-
Figure 73. Interest during construction for
projects greater than $200,000.
174
-------
Table 71
Annual Cost for A 350-gpm Package Complete Treatment Plant
Item
Amortized Capital @ 7%, 20 yr
Labor, 3,254 hr @ $10/hr (Total Labor
Costs Including Fringes and Benefits)
Electricity, 233,017 kw-hr @ $0.03
Fuel, 155 gal @ $0.45
Maintenance Material
Chemicals, Alum, 11 tons/yr @ $70/ton
Polymer, 274 Ib/yr @ $2/lb
Chlorine, 1.6 tons/yr @ $300/ton
TOTAL ANNUAL COST*
TotalAnnual Costs
$40,100
32,540
6,990
70
1,850
1,810
83,360
ACents/1,000 gal treated =
= 64.730/1,000 gal treated
175
-------
electrical rates, and natural gas rates. The variables used in Table 71 are
representative of U.S. averages, but they may vary significantly among geo-
graphical areas.
176
-------
REFERENCES
1. National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Federal Register, 40:248:59566, December 24, 1975
2. Drinking Water Regulations; Radionucleides. U.S. Environmental Protect-
ion Agency, Federal Register, 41:133:28402, June 9, 1975.
3. Control of Organic Chemical Contaminants in Drinking Water. Interim
Primary Drinking Water Regulations. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Federal Register, 43:28:5756, February 9, 1978.
4. Public Law 93-523, Safe Drinking Water Act, 93rd Congress, S.433, December
16, 1974.
5. Process Plant Construction Estimating Standards, Volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Richardson Engineering Services, Inc., Solana Beach, California.
6. Building Construction Cost Data. Robert Shaw Means Company, Inc., Duxberg,
Massachusetts.
7. Dodge Guide to Public Works and Heavy Construction Costs. Dodge Building
Cost Services, McGraw-Hill, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New
York.
177
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-79-162c
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
ESTIMATING WATER TREATMENT COSTS
Volume 3. Cost Curves Applicable to 2,500 gpd to 1 mgd
Treatment Plants
5. REPORT DATE
August 1979 (Issuing Date)
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION. CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Sigurd P. Hansen, Robert C. Gumerman,
and Russell L. Gulp
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Culp/Wesner/Culp
Consulting Engineers
2232 S.E. Bristol, Suite 210
Santa Ana, California 92707
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1CC614, SOS 1, Task 38
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-2516
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Municipal Environmental Research LaboratoryCin.,OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
74. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/14
15.SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES project Off icer: Robert M. Clark (513) 684-7488.
See also EPA-600/2-78-182 (NTIS PB284274/AS); Volume 1, EPA-600/2-79-162a; Volume 2,
EPA-600/2-79-162b; and Volume 4, EPA-600/2-79-162d.
16. ABSTRACT
This report discusses unit processes and combinations of unit processes that are
capable of removing contaminants included in the National Interim Primary Drinking
Water Regulations. Construction and operation and maintenance cost curves are
presented for 99 unit processes that are considered to be especially applicable to
contaminant removal. The report is divided into four volumes. Volume 1 is a summary
volume. Volume 2 presents cost curves applicable to large water supply systems with
treatment capacities between 1 and 200 mgd, as well as information on virus and
asbestos removal. Volume 3 includes cost curves applicable to flows of 2,500 gpd to
1 mgd. And Volume 4 is a computer program user's manual for the curves included in
the report. For each unit process included in this report, conceptual designs were
formulated, and construction costs were then developed using the conceptual designs.
The construction cost curves were checked for accuracy by a second consulting engi-
neering firm, Zurheide-Herrmann, Inc., using cost-estimating techniques similar to
those used by general contractors in preparing their bids. Operation and maintenance
requirements were determined individually for three categories: Energy, maintenance
material, and labor. Energy requirements for the building and the process are
presented separately. Costs are in October 1978 dollars.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS AT I Field/Group
Economic analysis, Environmental
engineering, Operating costs, Computer
programming, Water treatment, Cost indexes,
Water supply, Cost estimates, Cost analysis
Energy costs, Cost curves,
Safe Drinking Water Act,
Interim primary standards,
Unit processes, Treatment
efficiency
13B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
196
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)
178
ft U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979 -657-I46/547Z
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