Environmental Protection
Agency
June 1980
Office of Research and Development
EPA Research
Summary
Industrial
Waste water
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In 1746 Benjamin Franklin wrote "when
the weH'sldry, we know the worth of.
water." In those days, people were .
primarily concerned with finding a reliable
source of water, its quality was often
taken for granted. The quantity of
- pollutants contaminating our water ° - ,
resources was relatively small, and those
pollutants were removed through, natural
processes, increasing population, growing
-industry, and rapidly'deyelopingi- .. : !-:
technology since the industrial revolution
have sorely tested nature's capacity for . j
, maintaining clean, water. Increased water
use and wastewater discharge have added
impurities to water which overload natural
cleansing processes, either because of the
amount or the chemical complexity of the-
irnpuritiesl Herice; wfe are compelled to : .
turn to technology:tp proiect;our water ;'"
supply. . :*.. ^ ;: .* -_;.-" '-'.-.- _'- ,
.Water is a,resource we cannot afford '-'
.tahaye kushprt supply^-a resource we : .
,cannot take,-for grdhted.^ It is^^n^cess^ary '-':-:
that we know the. worth ofyvater now,
and that we take-steps to, protect jt before
.theiwelF becomes,dry^ 6,r pollute^.; , ,
Stephen J, Gage '-" - -
Assistant Admin&tr^.for. / ":;
for-Research and^rJeyelopmerit
"This brochure js one of a series providing a bnef description of
major areas of the EnvironmentaJ Protectibn Agcncy's_tesearch
and development program. AddftTonal 'copies may be obtained
by writing to: - " " ' ". *--'"- .-* -.-"","- ~~'~' :" '
"Publications, >' .--~ ~ -~ ,-*'.
Center for Environmental Research Information -'. . -
USEPA^ -' 1° _ '" ' - '' ,-' --''*''_ '
Cincinnati/OH 45266,.',,''.-. \~- '-''.''
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industrial wastewater
More than 300 billion gallons of water are withdrawn from
our Nation's lakes, rivers, and streams each day. Of this
quantity 91 percent is devoted to industrial use, an amount of
water roughly equal to 75 percent of the daily flow of the
Mississippi River at its mouth.
While some water is evaporated, or is incorporated into
the product itself, most is discharged back to its source.
The U.S. Department of Commerce estimates that major
industrial water users discharged approximately 285 billion
gallons of wastewater daily in 1975.
This water, usually altered considerably in the industrial
process, may contain contaminants which degrade water
quality and pose a threat to human health. Degradation of
water quality comes about with the addition of large amounts
of nutrients, suspended sediments, bacteria, and oxygen-
demanding matter. The possible addition of toxic pollutants
is even more serious. These pollutants are particularly
important because of their persistence, harmful effects at low
concentrations, and ability to enter the food chain.
percentage of water withdrawn
from'national sources by sector
domestic,
commercial,
public
' 9%
source: U.S. Department of Commerce
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U.S. wastewater discharges
45
o
ID
D)
I
(D
O
steam agriculture
electric
power
generation
source: U.S. Department of Commerce
manufacturing
and minerals
production
domestic,
commercial,
public
Past water use and discharge practices have levied their toll
on the Nation's water supply. A particularly severe example,
illustrating the potential hazards associated with uncon-
trolled discharge, occurred in South Charleston, West
Virginia, in 1977. A 5,000-pound discharge of carbon tetra-
chloride into an Ohio River tributary contaminated the river
for more than 600 milesfrom Gallipolis, Ohio, to Paducah,
Kentucky. Since carbon tetrachloride is a carcinogen, and
can cause damage to the liver, kidneys, lungs, and central
nervous system, this contamination was a matter of great
concern. EPA, through its sampling and analysis program,
was able to detect the contamination and notify cities on
the Ohio River to close their water treatment plant intake
gates, thereby protecting drinking-water supplies along the
river's course. The map below shows the areas that were
affected by the spill.
The effects of past use and discharge practices are increas-
ingly in evidence; from the contamination of New York's
Hudson River by polychtorinated biphenyls (PCB's), to the
presence of Kepone in the James River in Virginia. Such
incidents are particularly alarming in light of documented
evidence that some organisms can ingest, accumulate, and
bioconcentrate toxicants such as these to lethal levels.
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the carbon tetrachloride discharge
south Charleston
west Virginia
federal
legislation
In recognition of the need for industrial wastewater control
measures. Congress enacted the 1972 Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Act Amendments identifying several major
environmental goals for the nation. The elimination of
pollutant discharges or "zero discharge" into navigable
waters by 1985 highlighted the Act, with the preservation of
water quality providing for fishable and swimmable waters
by 1983 as an interim goal.
To meet these goals with respect to industrial wastewater,
the Act mandates the establishment and imposition of
discharge limitations based on protection of receiving water
quality, toxicity, and technological practicability. The latter
regulatory effort requires the definition and achievement of
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
(BPCTCA), and Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable (BATEA). Best Practicable Control Technology
levels require industries to use the best broadly demonstrated
technology available while the Best Available Technology
levels require the use of the best technology available.
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NRDC
consent degree
regulatory
responsibility
the research
program
From 1972 to 1976, EPA concentrated on developing Best
Practicable Control Technology and Best Available Tech-
nology limitations for conventional pollutants such as
suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and
chemical oxygen demand (COD). BOD is a measure of the
oxygen required to biologically decompose organic matter in
water, while COD is a measure of the oxygen required to
chemically oxidize both organic and oxidizable inorganic
compounds in water. As such, both BOD and COD are
used to determine the degree of pollution in an effluent.
In June 1976, in settlement of a suit with the Natural
Resources Defense Council (NRDC), EPA agreed to devote
more attention to potentially toxic substances in industrial
wastewater. The resulting NRDC Consent Decree required
EPA to promulgate regulations for 65 classes of toxic
pollutants associated with 21 industrial categories-
updated in 1979 to 34 industrial categories. The 65 classes
represent 129 specific substances referred to as "consent
decree priority pollutants" or simply "priority pollutants."
The Clean Water Act of 1977 (PL 95-217), which further
amends the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, incor-
porates substantial portions of the NRDC settlement and
broadens regulations to improve water quality and the con-
trol of potentially toxic pollutants.
Other Federal legislation related to industrial wastewater
treatment and control includes: the National Environmental
Policy Act, the Toxic Substances Control Act, the Ocean
Dumping Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Clean Air Act.
Federal responsibility for promulgating and enforcing indus-
trial wastewater control regulations is held by EPA. The
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES),
a national permit program administered through EPA, was
created under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 to control the discharge of pollutants
into waterways from all point sources including industrial,
municipal, and commercial facilities. Under the law, it is
illegal to discharge pollutants into the Nation's waterways
without a permit. Through this system EPA regulates what
may be discharged and in what quantity by imposing the
discharge limitations described above.
EPA's Office of Research and Development (ORD) supports
the Agency's regulatory activities by producing the scien-
tific data and technology necessary for development of
effective pollution control strategies and environmental
standards. This research falls under two major categories:
Treatment, and
Reuse and recycling and other process modifications.
Researchers at ORD's Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratories in Cincinnati, Ohio, and Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina, and the Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory in Ada, Oklahoma, perform EPA's
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inhouse research. The majority of the industrial wastewater
control research, however, is performed extramurally
through contracts, grants, and cooperative agreements with
universities, research foundations, trade associations, pro-
fessional societies, and industrial companies.
JRDC consent decree -
14 industrial categories
idhesives
3ather tanning
and finishing
oaps & detergents
iluminum forming
tattery manufacturing
:oil coating
:opper forming
flectroplating
oundries
ron & steel
lonferrous metals
>hotographic supplies
plastics processing
porcelain enamel
gum & wood chemicals
paint & ink
printing & publishing
pulp & paper
textile mills
timber
coal mining
ore mining
petroleum refining
steam electric
organic chemicals
pesticides
Pharmaceuticals
plastic & synthetic
materials
rubber
auto & other laundries
mechanical products
electric & electronic
components
explosives manufacturing
inorganic chemicals
SIR DC consent decree
»5 toxic pollutant classes
icenapthene
icrolein
icrylonitrile
tldrin/dieldrin
intimony and compounds
irsenic and compounds
isbestos
>enzene
>enzidine
>eryllium and compounds
:admium and compounds
:arbon tetrachloride
;hlordane
;hlormated benzenes
ihlorinated ethanes
:hloralkyl ethers
chlorinated phenols
;hloroform
>-chlorophenol
rhromium and compounds
copper and compounds
cyanides
DDT and metabolites
dichlorobenzenes
dichlorobenzidine
dichloroethylenes
2, 4-dimethylphenol
dinitrotoluene
diphenylhydrazine
endosulfan and metabolites
endrin and metabolites
ethylbenzene
fluoranthene
haloethers
halomethanes
heptachlor and metabolites
hexachlorobutadiene
hexachlorocyclopentadiene
hexachlorocyclohexane
isophorone
lead and compounds
mercury and compounds
napthalene
nickel and compounds
nitrobenzene
nitrophenols
nitrosamines
pentachlorophenol
phenol
phthalate esters
polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs)
polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons
selenium and compounds
silver and compounds
2,3,7,8,-tetrachlorodibenzo-
p-dioxin (TCDD)
tetrachloroethylene
thallium and compounds
toluene
toxaphene
trichloroethylene
vinyl chloride
zinc and compounds
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treatment
testing and
evaluation facility
Treatment technologies reduce or eliminate industrial waste
water pollutants, thereby producing an effluent that can either
be discharged into a nearby waterway without threatening
environmental quality, or can be accepted by a local munici-
pal treatment plant without disturbing treatment processes.
In March 1979, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
opened a wastewater Test and Evaluation Facility in
Cincinnati, Ohio. The facility both increases EPA's capacity
for in-house research on pollution control technologies, and
enhances its capability to evaluate the health and environ-
mental impacts of these controls.
Through a cooperative agreement with EPA, the City of
Cincinnati is providing the land for the facility for 20 years
at no cost. A sewage treatment plant, located adjacent to th<
facility, provides the industrial and municipal wastewaters
and sludges needed for research efforts. The Test and
Evaluation Facility is especially suited for research on tech-
niques to remove or treat toxic and hazardous materials in
industrial wastewaters.
Three technologies for removal of toxic materials from waste-
water currently being tested are carbon adsorption, acti-
vated sludge, and steam stripping. Carbon adsorption
removes toxic organic compounds through adsorption, or
attraction and accumulation, onto the surface of activated
carbon. Activated sludge processes essentially duplicate
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steam stripping
organic chemicals
concentrated
pollutant
laden
pollutants
for reuse or
disposal
natural stream purification mechanisms through biological
degradation of water pollutants by bacteria and other micro-
organisms. The principal difference is that treatment is carried
out in a controlled environment with high concentrations of
bacteria and microorganisms, thereby speeding up and
increasing the efficiency of the process. Steam stripping
involves the removal of certain volatile organic pollutants
from wastewater through distillation. Limited information
exists concerning the efficiency of carbon adsorption,
biological treatment, and stream stripping in removing priority
pollutants from industrial plant wastewater streams.
Research, development, and demonstration of these treat-
ment technologies will answer important questions such as:
Can these technologies be made more energy efficient and
cost effective? And can they be broadly applied?
Due to the wide variability in industrial wastewater dis-
charges, wastewater treatment research must be performed
on an industry-by-industry basis. The discussion that follows
focuses on several major U.S. industries requiring use of
wastewater control technologies.
Projects in support of research and development in the
organic chemical industry are conducted largely through
EPA's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory in
Cincinnati, Ohio (lERL-Cincinnati). The organic chemical
industry is exceedingly complex. There are thousands of
companies involved in the manufacture of a multitude of
products from such organic chemical sources as petroleum.
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coal, and natural gas. Typical industry products include syn-
thetic detergent bases, fuel additives, solvents, plastics,
resins, and synthetic fiber bases.
The wastewater produced during the manufacture of these
products is frequently heavily contaminated with toxic sub-
stances that require specialized treatment. ORD has initiated
several research projects to look into the technical and
economic aspects of various treatment technologies for
these wastewaters. Both activated carbon treatment and
wet air oxidation treatment are receiving particular attention
As stated earlier, activated carbon is a highly adsorbent form
of carbon to which specific pollutants adhere. After remov-
ing pollutants from water, the carbon can be changed, or
cleaned and used again. ORD is assessing activated carbon
technology through the use of four mobile pilot plants.
These plants have small-scale activated carbon treatment
systems wholly contained within trailers. Wastewaters from
organic chemical plants are treated in the mobile units and
analyzed in an accompanying mobile laboratory. When
testing and analysis is completed, the mobile trailer units
can be easily relocated to other plants.
A second process, wet air oxidation, is being investigated
through a cooperative agreement with the Michigan
Technological University. This process involves exposing
toxic organic wastewaters to high temperatures and
pressures while they are confined in a reactor. These condi-
tions cause the oxidation and conversion of toxic organic
substances into nontoxic forms. The resulting effluent is
suitable for discharge directly to a waterway or to a nearby
municipal wastewater treatment facility.
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wet air oxidation
wastewater
with toxic
organic
wastes
The data obtained through these efforts will provide EPA's
regulatory offices with a basis for evaluation of the Best
Available Technology Economically Achievable for waste-
waters from the organic chemical industry,
petrochemicals The petrochemicals industry produces wastewaters rich in
chemicals which can be extremely hazardous. One chemical
that has an especially deleterious ecological impact is
caprolactam, used in the manufacture of nylon. Biological
treatment of wastestreams containing caprolactam has not
been successful. Steam stripping, while somewhat more
successful, requires large amounts of energy and is costly
to apply. In order to develop a more inexpensive, energy-
conserving technology to treat chemical wastestreams, ORD
has been examining the use of a new solvent to extract
caprolactam from industrial wastewaters. After removal, the
caprolactam can be extracted from the solvent and recovered
for reuse. Research is also being conducted on the use of
powdered activated carbon in combination with biological
treatment to treat petrochemical industry wastewaters.
ORD is conducting a full-scale demonstration of a powdered
activated carbon treatment system at an operating chemical
plant in New Jersey. The demonstration system will treat a
40 million galfon-per-day wastestream and will represent
the first application of powdered activated carbon in a large
industrial wastewater facility.
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petroleum refining
The petroleum refining industry, one of the five largest
industrial wastewater dischargers in the nation, requires
large volumes of water to produce its products. Sour water,
which results from some of its refining processes, contains
high concentrations of sulfur and cyanide compounds, and
ammonia. Treatment techniques employ a form of steam
stripping known as sour water stripping. This process offers
the benefit of recovering ammonia and sulfur which can
later be sold. Unfortunately, the sour water stripping process
has not been as efficient in removing high concentrations of
ammonia as predicted. Apparently, other constituents in the
sour water are preventing removal of the ammonia.
ORD, along with the American Petroleum Institute, is con-
ducting studies to determine the feasibility of using waste-
water from several industrial stripping operations to determine
what constituents in sour water prevent efficient stripping.
The results of this project will assist engineers in predicting
the concentrations of sour water constituents that can be
stripped, and in designing more effective stripping systems.
Research efforts in the petroleum refining industry are also
being directed at the catalytic cracking process, a major
source of sour water. Catalytic cracking involves splitting
large crude oil molecules into smaller molecules, as described
schematically in the figure below.
catalytic cracking
crude
oil molecules
refined petroleum products
H-C-C = C-C-C = C-C-H
i i i i i
H H H H H
10
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pesticides
inorganic
chemicals
EPA, in cooperation with the Oil Refiners Waste Control
Council and Oklahoma State University, is characterizing and
treating effluents from catalytic cracking operations. Through
intensive treatment of the effluents from these operations,
the cost of "end of pipe" treatment for wastewaters from the
entire petroleum refining process can be reduced.
Pilot plant testing of treatment methods is underway at an
operating petroleum refinery which is currently using biologi-
cal treatment. If these treatment methods prove to be effec-
tive in treating wastewaters from catalytic cracking operations,
then recycle/reuse techniques may be applied throughout
the petroleum refining industry.
The manufacture of pesticides involves substantial production
of toxic chemicals. In conjunction with treatability research,
the EPA is developing a guideline document to review best
available technology to support 1984 effluent limitations
and standards. The document will concentrate on identifying
pesticides industries and evaluating wastewater control
and treatment technologies. In support of this effort, the
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Research
Triangle Park (EMSL-RTP) is developing analytical procedures
for measuring pesticide and priority pollutant levels in
wastewaters.
In a recent study, the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory in Research Triangle Park (IERL-RTP) investi-
gate_d.the treatability of three herbicides and one fungicide.
Pesticide wastewaters were sampled, analyzed, and treated
using small-scale activated sludge and activated carbon
adsorption systems. To determine the effectiveness of treat-
ment, measurements were made on several parameters:
removal of pesticides, levels of biological and chemical
oxygen demand, and color. Research is currently underway
to assess the treatment of five additional pesticides through
similar chemical and biological characterizations.
The inorganic chemical industry comprises about 1,600
plants, produces 110 million metric tons of products annually,
and generates 40 million metric tons of wastes per year.
Large quantities of water are used for cooling, processing,
product washes, waste transport, and other production
purposes. Resulting wastewaters contain heavy metals and
cyanide, suspended solids, fluoride, iron, ammonia, and have
a high chemical oxygen demand. Although many plants
operate sophisticated treatment systems capable of pro-
ducing high quality effluents, the inorganic chemical industry
continues to have significant water pollution problems which
are difficult and expensive to solve.
Projects in support of research and development in the inor-
ganic chemical industry are conducted at lERL-Cincinnati.
Researchers are currently assessing the industry to identify
research and development needs for solving major air,
water, and land pollution problems.
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battery
manufacturing
metal finishing
Low concentrations of toxic metals such as lead, arsenic,
cadmium, and antimony are often contained in battery
manufacturing wastewater discharges. Wastewater treatment
technology is expensive, both in terms of high costs and
large land requirements. Since most battery manufacturing
operations are inside cities, neither land nor money to
purchase high-priced land, is available for building large
treatment facilities.
ORD is involved in the development and demonstration of a
microfiltration treatment system for battery manufacturing
wastewater that is both compact and inexpensive to operate.
The system filters out heavy metals which remain in the sus-
pended solids after primary treatment, thereby producing a
final effluent suitable for discharge into waterways or to local
municipal treatment plants. Results of a one-year demonstra-
tion at a battery manufacturing plant show that the
microfiltration system is successful in producing a final
effluent that more than meets the regulatory requirements for
this industry.
Metal finishing operations daily produce more than 1 billion
gallons of wastewaters containing toxic heavy metals and
cyanide. Metal finishing processes add a protective metal
coating or plating to metal surfaces such as precision
instruments and tools, or to nonmetallic surfaces such
as plastics.
An object is plated by being submerged first in a plating
tank and then in a series of rinse tanks. The concentration
of heavy metals declines in each consecutive bath until the
product is essentially "clean." As the concentration of
metals increases in the rinse baths after extended use, the
bathwater must be discharged and replaced.
Over the past several years, ORD has assisted in developing
several methods for the cost effective treatment of waste
rinsewaters from metal finishing plants. The most promising
methods involve membrane and electrochemical techniques,
and centralized waste treatment.
Using membrane techniques it is possible to concentrate
rinsewater pollutants on the membrane through which the
rinsewater is passing while simultaneously generating an
effluent stream which is relatively pollutant free. The effluent
can then be discharged, or reused in the process, while the
concentrated pollutants can be returned to the plating bath
or treated by chemical means. Major benefits of membrane
technologies are that they recover reagents used in the pro-
cess, do not require the addition of treatment chemicals,
do not generate sludge, and are low in energy consumption.
Recently ORD, in cooperation with the Metal Finishers Foun-
dation, initiated a full-scale demonstration of an electro-
chemical reactor at an operating metal plating plant. This
reactor removes heavy metals and cyanide from the rinse
tank water through electrical attraction, thereby preventing
accumulation. In the process of removing toxic pollutants
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the membrane technique
concentrated
metals for
reuse or
ultimate
disposal
from wastewater, heavy metals may also be recovered for
possible reuse.
The electrochemical reactor occupies minimum floor space,
can be used within the metal finishing process, and has
the potential for not generating sludge if the metals
recovered can be reused. A full-scale demonstration of this
reactor will be undertaken to verify reductions in wastewater
flow, pollutant concentrations, chemical use, and costs.
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Although inexpensive treatment technologies for metal
finishing wastewaters are being developed, the total cost of
pollution control will be high because of the enormous
number of metal finishing plants in the U.S. It is estimated
that there are currently about 20,000 electroplating plants in
operation. Although some plants will not suffer financially
from implementing wastewater treatment technologies, EPA
predicts that some plants in the metal finishing industry may
be forced to close because of the high cost of installing and
operating treatment systems. Clearly, the need exists for an
alternative to individual plant onsite treatment that will
remedy wastewater problems without debilitating a significant
portion of the industry.
One method is centralized waste treatment. Centralized
treatment of wastes is possible where industries producing
similar types of waste are located in close enough proximity
to allow the economical transportation of waste materials.
Wastes can either be treated at one centralized location, or
individual plants can exchange wastes and treat those for
which they are best technologically suited. The Federal
Republic of Germany has successfully used this concept of
industrial wastes treatment for many years, and the Office
of Research and Development is examining its feasibility in
the United States.
To investigate the technical and economic feasibility of
centralized treatment of metal finishing wastewaters, EPA is
studying five geographical areas with the highest densities
of metal finishing facilities.
Centralized Waste Treatment systems are being concep-
tualized for these five areas and one case study has been
chosen for detailed analysis and design of a facility which
will be considered for future demonstration. The information
generated from this project will be useful in making deci-
sions about broad U.S. utilization of the centralized treat-
ment concept.
iron and steel Water pollution is among the major environmental problems
associated with the iron and steel industry. The largest single
industry in the U.S., it has an annual production capacity
of approximately 150 million metric tons. Wastewaters from
steel plants contain such pollutants as suspended and dis-
solved solids, oils and greases, phenols, cyanides, ammonia,
surfide, and have a high biochemical oxygen demand.
ORD is using two mobile wastewater treatment systems to
investigate the effectiveness of advanced wastewater
treatment technologies for steel plant effluents. The systems
house equipment for advanced physical/chemical treatment,
as well as biological treatment.
Initial studies using mobile wastewater treatment systems
have focused on coke plant and blast furnace wastewaters,
two of the most contaminated wastewaters found in steel
plants. Additional work will be carried out over the next
few years on wastewaters which the Agency considers to be
14
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foreign countries surveyed
most important. Data from these studies will support develop-
ment of effluent limitations and standards for the industry
as well as provide information to help industry meet estab-
lished requirements. Efforts are also underway to evaluate
foreign water pollution control technologies for treating
coke and blast furnace effluents. Significant technological
advancement in the control of pollutants has been made in
recent years in both domestic and foreign iron and steel
industries.
To accumulate the most current information on the state-of-
the-art of water pollution control in the iron and steel
industry, ORD scientists are visiting plants in the 14 coun-
tries in Europe and the Far East highlighted on the map
above. Sampling and analysis of plant effluents is performed
at local laboratories, and analyses are made for applicable
conventional, nonconventional, and toxic pollutants at
various treatment stages.
After sampling results are analyzed, the best foreign tech-
nologies will be ranked according to the cost and efficiency
of contaminant removal. Where foreign technologies are
found to be superior to domestic technologies, their appli-
cability to domestic industry will be determined. The results
of this research will aid U.S. industry and State and Federal
regulatory agencies in developing water pollution control
technologies for iron and steel plants.
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steam electric
power
Large quantities of water are used by the steam electric
power industry, but most is used for steam generation, or
cooling, and is returned to its source containing few pollu-
tants. However, boiler cleaning operations at these power
plants result in wastewater containing toxic pollutants.
During operation, corrosion products accumulate in the
boiler tubing and, "rf uncontrolled, cause the power plant
to become less efficient. These corrosion products contain
heavy metals such as iron, copper, zinc, and nickel. Strong
chemicals are used to dissolve the corrosion products in
the cleaning process. As a result, the heavy metals previously
contained in the boiler tubing are put into a solution which
ultimately becomes a toxic industrial discharge.
The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory in Research
Triangle Park (IERL-RTP), in cooperation with the Utilities
Water Act Group, which represents the steam electric power
industry, is conducting numerous laboratory studies to assess
the effectiveness of lime treatment in precipitating and
removing heavy metals in boiler cleaning solutions. The
diagram below illustrates this treatment concept. Boiler
wastewaters from six steam electric power plants using
different boiler tube cleaning methods are presently being
treated and analyzed. The results of this project will demon-
strate which boiler cleaning methods used in conjunction
with lime treatment can achieve the highest quality waste-
water, and will provide EPA with the data on which to base
effective effluent limitations and standards.
lime treatment of
boiler cleaning wastes
boiler
' cleaning
wastewater
16
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textiles
Wastewater from textile mills presents an environmental
problem in several regions of the U.S. due to the large
volume and the widely varying and specialized character of
the wastes. Textile processing plants utilize a variety of
dyes and chemicals such as acids, bases, salts, detergents,
and finishes. Many of these are not retained in the final
textile product but are discarded in wastewaters after they
have served their purpose.
A study initiated in 1974 is being conducted jointly by EPA,
the American Textile Manufacturers Institute (ATMI), the
Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI), and the Northern Textile
Association (NTA) to gather sufficient technical and economic
data to identify the BATEA for removing priority pollutants
from textile wastewaters. To evaluate the Best Available
Technology, two mobile pilot plants have been constructed
for treatment studies. During the first phase of the study,
seven advanced treatment processes were evaluated at 23
textile plants.
The second, and current, phase of the study addresses the
reduction in toxicity and priority pollutant concentrations
achieved by those technologies. There are three major
levels of wastewater treatment: primary treatment to remove
pollutants which will settle or float; biological treatment, to
speed up the breakdown of degradable organic pollutants;
and advanced treatment, for further removal of pollutants
primary and biological treatment
sludge
(settled
matter)
and large
objects
sludge
(degraded
cell
material)
-------
leather processing
paper
when biological treatment is inadequate. Results to date have
shown that in cases where acute toxicity is observed in fish
and algae exposed to textile plant effluents which have
received biological treatment, advanced treatment often
results in a nontoxic effluent. Data from this study and
other information collected by EPA's regulatory offices will
be used to propose 1983 effluent limitations and standards
for the textile industry.
Water is used extensively to process leather in cleaning,
tanning, and dyeing operations. Cleaning is required to
remove flesh and fat from the inside of animal skins. Tanning
involves soaking the skins in chemicals to produce a flexible,
long lasting product. And dying involves numerous chemicals
to color the hides. Consequently, the process effluents are
high in BOD and suspended solids, rich in process chemicals,
and noticeably colored.
Wastewater from leather processing is treated to settle
suspended solids. The resulting water does not, however,
meet effluent guidelines. In 1976 EPA initiated a full-scale
demonstration of the use of an oxidation ditch in which many
of the pollutants in wastewater can be biologically degraded
by bacteria and other microorganisms. After extended
full-scale operation, it has been shown that this treatment
method is successful in producing water which meets effluent
limitations. This treatment technique represents not only the
best available technology for the leather tanning industry,
but the most cost effective method available as well.
The success of this project has encouraged EPA's support of
further research and development at the tannery. The new
phase of the project involves full-scale demonstration of the
addition of powdered activated carbon (PAC) to the oxida-
tion ditch system to further reduce priority pollutants which
remain in the effluent in very low concentrations. The proj-
ect will result in data on the costs, personnel requirements,
and operational problems of PAC/biological treatment on
which to base future technological developments.
More than 7 billion gallons of wastewater are discharged
daily by pulp and paper mills across the country. Soap-like
resins and the fatty acids of pulp and paper manufacturing
effluents are suspected of contributing to foam problems on
rivers, streams, and lakes receiving mill effluents. In Maine,
the threat to the aesthetic quality of the Androscoggin
River due to unsightly mounds of foam, was first brought to
the public's attention by local duck hunters. Four pulp and
paper mills occupying sites along the river were the target of
complaints by area residents. However, since municipalities
and other industries line the river's banks, and since the river
has its own natural foam, the blame could not be fairly
placed entirely on the pulp and paper industry.
EPA, in cooperation with Maine's Department of Environ-
mental Protection, recently initiated a study to look into ways
of eliminating foam from pulp and paper mill effluents. Three
river surveys are being conducted on the Androscoggin River
18
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Doug Wilson/EPA-Documerica
environmental
fate studies
to determine which chemicals are causing the foams, and to
develop foam removal techniques and mill effluent treatment
systems.
Treatment technologies involving the elimination of foam
through recovery of resin and fatty acids, technologies
currently employed in Southern mills, are a prime considera-
tion for use in Northern manufacturing plants. Foam separ-
ation and chemically assisted treatment techniques are also
being evaluated in this study.
The fate of priority pollutants in the biological treatment of
wastewaters from the wood preserving, Pharmaceuticals,
petrochemicals, petroleum refining, pesticides, and rubber
industries is the focus of much research at ORD's Robert S.
Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory in Ada, Oklahoma.
A major objective of this research is to determine whether the
priority pollutants that are removed from wastewater in
biological treatment are degraded to an innocuous state, or if
they are transferred to another medium such as the air, or to
sludge where they create new pollution problems.
Observations from sampling and analysis at industrial sites
have shown that biological treatment is generally very suc-
cessful in removing priority pollutants from wastewaters.
However, some priority pollutants are removed from the
wastewater but appear in significant quantities in air emis-
sions and sludges. Compounds not originally present in the
untreated wastewater are also appearing in air emissions
and sludges. Apparently, additional compounds are generated
in the biological treatment of industrial wastewaters.
ORD has initiated several studies to further examine the fate
of priority pollutants in industrial treatment systems and to
determine the oriain of these "new" compounds. Researchers
-------
are conducting tests using several technologies to treat
wastewaters from the Pharmaceuticals, organic chemicals,
and electronics industries. A complete analysis of air emis-
sion, sludge, influent, and effluent at each site for each
treatment will provide the data which may lead to new
industrial wastewater control theories.
20
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reuse, recycle and process modifications
Water use practices in industry have undergone radical
changes in recent years. Whereas early water pollution
control measures focused on "end of pipe" treatment to
reduce the hazardous potential of industrial discharges,
recent legislation, which has a goal of zero pollution
discharge by 1985, has encouraged recycle/reuse alter-
natives. As shrinking fresh water supplies become an
increasing problem, recycle/reuse systems are gaining atten-
tion as water conserving techniques. In California, for exam-
ple, repeated cycles of drought and flooding have prompted
the State to enact a law allowing allocations of fresh water
only if manufacturing facilities can prove they cannot
operate on, or cannot locate, used water. Industrial
wastewater recycle/reuse systems offer the additional
advantage of allowing reagent and by-product recovery
and reuse.
Major benefits of recycle/reuse systems include: reduc-
tion of wastewater volume; reduction of intake water and
related harmful effects to aquatic life; improved treatment
efficiency; conservation of water, raw materials, and other
natural resources; and containment of conventional and toxic
pollutants. Water reuse can bring about intake reductions by
reusing the effluent of one process or plant in the same, or
another, process or plant. Treatment of each effluent must
be tailored to its contaminants and its next use. Effluent
from another process may be used directly in processes
which do not require pure water. In contrast to water reuse,
water is recycled in a closed loop and is continuously applied
to one production process. Such a cycle usually includes a
treatment system to remove contaminants from the process
water to a degree suitable for reuse.
Continued research on wastewater treatment technology is
essential because treatment will not only remain a major
method for pollution control for many years to come, but is
also an inherent part of any recycle/reuse system. Industry
involvement in EPA's program is encouraged for the benefit
of the program and for the benefit of industry as well. The
fact that industrial water intake has been falling dramatically
while gross water use has been steadily rising is indicative
of this increasing industrial awareness of recycle/reuse
technologies. This trend in water use is expected to continue
at least through the rest of the century, according to U.S.
Department of Commerce projections.
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projected manufacturing water use patterns
400
300-
1975
1985
2000
source: U.S. Department of Commerce
recycling in steam
electric power
plants
closed loop
fiberglass
production
Recycle/reuse efforts are gaining attention in the steam
electric power industry. Water-cooled power plants are well
known for their abundant water use. The water coming into
the plant must first be treated to ensure that suspended and
dissolved solids will not settle, clog the cooling system, and
reduce its efficiency. In a coal-fired power plant, fly ash pro-
duced in the combustion process is sluiced or flushed from
the system. As a result, the treated water regains dissolved
solids from the fly ash as it passes through the cooling
system. In the past, water involved in the cooling process
was used on a once-through basis to prevent the buildup of
fly ash solids and subsequent cooling system clogging.
In an effort to reduce water intake requirements and achieve
zero wastewater discharge in coal-fired plants, IERL-RTP is
building a mobile pilot plant which will be able to remove
dissolved solids in water from a wet sluicing operation so
that the water can be recycled in the power generation
process. Pilot plant demonstrations will be carried out at
three operating power plants.
Large volumes of water are used in the production of
fiberglass, particularly in the cooling process. To melt the
glass and form the fibers, high temperatures are required.
Once the fibers are formed, they are cooled with water. One
fiberglass textile industry plant, through an EPA grant, has
implemented a closed loop system for the reuse of process
water. Prior to the initiation of this project in 1973,
approximately 350 gallons of water per minute were dis-
charged from the plant following primary and biological
treatment. To obtain water of suitable quality for reuse, a
three-stage advanced treatment system was added to the
facility. The first stage, sand filtration, removes biological
22
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closed cycle
dyeing
solids; the second stage, carbon adsorption, removes
organic chemicals; and finally, chlorination provides adequate
disinfection. Under present operating conditions, an 80
percent discharge reduction to approximately 70 gallons of
water per minute has been achieved. It is expected that
zero wastewater discharge will be achievable in the very
near future.
When the system is complete, the only intake water
required by the industry will be that needed to compensate
for evaporation and other small losses. This intake water
should amount to approximately 130 gallons per minutea
considerable reduction from the 1,000 gallon-per-minute
requirements of many fiberglass plants prior to implementa-
tion of recycle/reuse programs. A schematic view of the
closed loop system is shown in the figure below.
In textile operations, dyes, and chemicals used to set dyes,
are typically diluted with effluent from the rest of the
plant. The effluent is then treated and discharged. Since
pure water for dyeing is necessary for obtaining high quality
colored fabrics, dye water is typically used on a once-
through basis. As a result, industries must make large
expenditures to treat and remove the color from water which
they never use again.
In an effort to eliminate dye water discharges from textile
plants, reduce intake water needs, recover materials, con-
serve energy, and save money, EPA has funded a major
the closed loop system
-------
non-treatment
alternatives
activated carbon
regeneration
project to evaluate and demonstrate closed cycle dyeing. The
technology which is applied is called reverse osmosis or
hyperfiltration.
Reverse osmosis is a method of reversing nature's osmosis
process in which a dilute or less concentrated solution
passes spontaneously through a semi-porous membrane into
a more concentrated solution. In reverse osmosis, sufficient
pressure is applied to the concentrated solution to reverse
the flow through the membrane. Membrane filters are
designed to prevent molecules or dissolved solids larger than
a designated size from passing through. In this way, the
quality of the recycled water is strictly controlled.
The closed-cycle dyeing project initiated in 1977 includes:
the preliminary evaluation of hyperfiltration membranes; the
construction of a demonstration unit designed for installation
at a fiberglass plant; and a twelve-month, full-scale opera-
tion of the closed-cycle system.
For those industries at which recycle/reuse is not possible,
EPA is examining "nontreatment" alternatives. The theory
behind nontreatment is to modify the industrial process so
that there is no pollution produced in the first place. Modi-
fications include process changes, such as water reduction
techniques, and material substitutions, which involve using
less polluting materials in manufacturing. These methods of
industrial wastewater control may prove to be more efficient
and economical than "end of pipe" wastewater treatment.
One million gallons or more of wastewaters saturated with
pesticides are produced daily at many pesticide manufactur-
ing plants. Biological treatment alone often does not success-
fully remove toxic organics from wastewater and, in many
instances, the pesticides are poisonous to microorganisms
used in the treatment process. For this reason, activated
carbon treatment has been applied extensively in the pesti-
cides industry. When the carbon becomes "loaded" through
continuous adsorption of soluble components in waste-
water, it is either discarded or regenerated. Due to the high
cost of activated carbon, many industries have implemented
regeneration technologies. Thermal regeneration is frequently
employed. However, this process is often not considered to
be a desirable alternative because it is expensive, highly
energy consuming, and is not applicable for many types of
wastewater.
EPA, in cooperation with private industry, is developing and
laboratory testing the use of high pressure carbon dioxide,
or supercritical fluid CO2, for regenerating activated carbon
in an inexpensive and energy conserving manner. As super-
critical fluid CO2 passes through the activated carbon, it
removes the adsorbed pesticide components by putting
them into solution. The pesticide components are later
separated out of solution, and with further purification can
be sold as dry pesticides or recycled back into the process.
In this way, resource recovery is also made possible. The
24
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water reduction
in food
processing
success of this technology has inspired future ORD research.
Plans to initiate programs involving pilot and full-scale
demonstrations of supercritical fluid C02 at pesticide manu-
facturing plants are under consideration.
The development of techniques to reduce the amount of
water used in food processing has been a major focus of
ORD research for several years. Dry peeling, recently initiated
in potato processing, represents an important breakthrough
for the food processing industry. Prior to dry peeling, large
volumes of water directed at high pressure forced the peels
off of potatoes. In the dry peeling process, potatoes and
other fruits and vegetables, are pretreated to soften the skin
and then moved over rubber rollers which wear off the peels.
In 1969, EPA funded the first commercial plant in the world,
in North Dakota, to implement full-scale dry peeling. The
success of that project has encouraged the widespread use
of this technique. Currently, about 250 food processing
plants around the world use dry peeling in the preparation
of beets, tomatoes, pears, peaches, carrots, etc. Because
food processing wastes contain such high concentrations of
organic matter, water pollution problems can also be reduced
through water reduction processes.
-------
future research
Over the next 5 years, ORD's research will continue in three
major areas: determining and analyzing industrial
wastewater sources, evaluating and developing control
methods, and developing recycle/reuse alternatives.
Any meaningful pollution control strategy requires the ability
to determine which pollutants are, and will be, created; as
well as the ability to accurately measure those pollutants.
Analyses will be performed to determine probable future
pollutant problems, and their environmental impacts. In
order to assess those impacts, dependable methods of deter-
mining the presence and concentration of pollutants will be
developed. One such method calls for the determination of
indicator organisms or substances which have character-
istics similar to problem pollutants, and are usually found in
the same contaminated water, but are easier to detect.
A second major focus of future ORD research will be the
evaluation and development of pollutant control techniques.
Continued research will be performed on the treatability of
specific pollutants by a wide range of conventional biological,
physical, and chemical methods. Since individual pollutants
increasingly disrupt, or are incompatible with, traditional
treatment processes, more emphasis will be placed on
developing new technologies or nontreatment alternatives,
to meet changing pollution control problems. This may
involve either process changes or raw material substitutions
to eliminate or minimize the production of toxic wastes.
In light of national energy concerns, a final major area of
focus will be the continued development of reuse/recycle
alternatives. Research in this area has previously focused on
industries producing highly toxic chemicals, or on industries
for which alternative wastewater solutions are not being
brought into full-scale operation. Future research efforts
will emphasize the development of reuse/recycle techniques
which are applicable to a variety of installations, and on
reuse/recycle alternatives which will result in more efficient
pollution control.
26
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individual research projects
Industrial
environmental
research laboratory
(IERL) -
Cincinnati, ohio
The projects described in this Research Summary represent
only a small fraction of ORD's Industrial Wastewater Control
Program research efforts. Selected projects being performed
by or through the various ORD laboratories are listed below.
Multi-media Assessment of the Inorganic Chemicals
Industry
Removal of Cadmium by Activated Carbon from
Industrial Wastewaters
Evaluation of Soluble Sulfide Precipitation at a Primary
Nonferrous Copper-Lead Smelting Complex Boliden
Treatability of Priority Pollutants by Amoco Powdered
Activated Carbon-Enhanced, High Sludge-Age Treat-
ment System
Evaluation of Synthetic Adsorption Media for Priority
Pollutant Control
Investigation of Treatment Technology for Dyes
Manufacturing Wastewaters
Effluent Guidelines Development Sampling Analysis
Program for Nonferrous Metals Smelting and Refining
Subcategories
Economics of Wastewater Treatment Technologies
Field Demonstration New Reverse Osmosis Membranes
for Closed-Loop Treatment of Electroplating Rinsewater
Plating Catalysts: Change to a Less Polluting Process
Demonstration of Electrodialysis for Recovery of
Chromium from Decorative Chrome Plating
Development of Electrodialysis for Recovery of Fluo-
borates from Fluoborate Plating Rinsewater
Electrochemical Coagulation Study for Fish Processing
Wastewaters
Development of Chemical Toxicity Assay for Pulp Mill
Effluents
Protein Recovery from Meat Packing Effluent
Demonstrating BAT for Slaughterhouses in Cold
Climates
Water Renovation and Reuse in Poultry Processing
Treatment of Wood Preserving Wastewater Containing
Phenolic Compounds Using Existing Technology
Multi-media Pollution Assessment in the Wood Preserv-
ing Industry
Advanced Filtration of Pulp Mill Wastes
Elimination of Phenolic Materials in Bleach Wastes
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industrial
environmental
research laboratory
(IERL) -
research triangle park,
north Carolina
robert s. kerr
environmental
research laboratory
(RSKERL) -
ada, Oklahoma
' Removal of Toxic Pollutants in Textile Wastewaters by
Powdered Activated Carbon
> Chesapeake Bay Study
1 Coagulation Tests for Removal of Metals from
Wastewater
Field Testing and Laboratory Studies for the Develop-
ment of Effluent Standards for the Steam Electric
Utility Industry
1 Comparison of Model Predictions and Consumptive
Water Use of Closed Cycle Cooling Systems at
Selected Power Plants
1 Characterization of Effluents from Coal Fired-Power
Plants
Thermal Pollution Control State-of-the-Art Manual
Assessment and Control of Wastewater Contaminants
Originating from the Production of Synthetic Fuels
from Coal
Demonstration of Charged Fogger on Full Scale Iron
and Steel Fugitive Dust Forces
Sinter Plant Windbox Gas Recycle System Demon-
stration
A Portable Pilot Study to Develop Optimum Steel Plant
Wastewater Treatment Systems
Evaluation of Steel Plant Wastewater Treatment Using
a Mobile Wastewater Treatment System
Indication of Refractory Organic Compounds from
Treated Refinery Wastewaters
Mutagenistic Testing of Industrial Waste from Repre-
sentatives of Organic Chemicals Industry
Treatment of Petrochemical Wastewater for Reuse
Solvent Extraction for Treatment and Recovery of
Chemicals from Acetic Acid Production Wastewaters
Solvent Extraction of Organic Priority Pollutants from
Waters
Susceptibility of Metals to Treatment in Combined
Industrial-Municipal System
Study and Analysis of Muncie Indiana Pretreatment
Program
Treatment Compatibility of Muncipal Waste and
Biologically Hazardous Industrial Compounds
-------
for further information
mblications EPA Research Outlook. February 1980.
EPA-600/9-80-006. 224 Pages.
A description of the EPA's plans for future environ-
mental research.
EPA Research Highlights. January 1980.
EPA-600/9-80-005. 99 Pages.
Highlights of the EPA research and development pro-
gram of 1979.
EPA/ORD Program Guide. October 1979.
EPA-600/9-79-038. 85 Pages.
A guide to the Office of Research and Development
its organizational structure, program managers, and
funds available for contracts, grants, and cooperative
agreements.
EPA Research Summary: Chesapeake Bay. May 1980.
EPA-600/8-80-019. 32 Pages.
EPA Research Summary: Controlling Hazardous
Wastes. May 1980. EPA-600/8-80-017. 32 Pages.
EPA Research Summary: Controlling Nitrogen Oxides.
February 1980. EPA-600/8-80-004. 24 Pages.
EPA Research Summary: Acid Rain. October 1979.
EPA-600/8-79-028. 24 Pages.
EPA Research Summary: Oil Spills. February 1979.
EPA-600/8-79-007. 16 Pages.
Information on the availability of these publications may be
obtained by writing to:
Publications
Center for Environmental Research Information
US EPA
Cincinnati, OH 45268
-------
technical reports
conferences and
workshops
questions or
comments
The Office of Research and Development has published hun-
dreds of technical reports on industry-specific wastewater
control technologies for specific industries. A fisting of these
publications and information on how to obtain them is
available by requesting the EPA Publications Bibliography
(NTISUB/E/042-04) from the above address.
The Office of Research and Development periodically spon-
sors various conferences, workshops, and seminars to inforrr
environmental scientists, engineers, policy makers, and the
interested public of the latest research and development
accomplishments. Individuals interested in information about
upcoming conferences should write to:
ORD Conference Coordinator
Center for Environmental Research Information
US Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
The Office of Research and Development invites you to
address any questions or comments regarding the EPA
industrial wastewater control research program to the
appropriate individuals listed below:
Topic
Industrial Wastewater
Control, General
Information
Organic & Specialty
Chemicals
Petrochemical
Manufacturing
Petroleum Refining
Pesticides
Manufacturing
Inorganic Chemicals
Contacts
Marshall Dick
Office of Research and
Development (RD-681)
US EPA
Washington, DC 20460
Eugene Berkau
US EPA
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Leon Myers
US EPA
Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
Leon Myers
US EPA
Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
Richard Stern
US EPA (MD-62)
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC
27711
Mary Stinson
US EPA, Building 209
Edison, New Jersey 08817
30
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Lead Storage
Battery Industry
Electroplating
Steel Making
Steam Electric Power
Generation
Textile Manufacturing
Food Products and
Leather Industries
Pulp, Paper, and Wood
Combined Industrial
Sources
Chuck Darvin
US EPA
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
George Thompson
US EPA
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Norm Plaks
US EPA (MD-62)
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC
27711
Julian Jones
U.S EPA (MD-61}
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC
27711
Max Samfield
US EPA (MD-62)
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC
27711
Kenneth Dostal
US EPA
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Michael Strutz
US EPA
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Thomas Short
US EPA
Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory
Ada. Oklahoma 74820
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Levy,
» especially appreciated
esearch Summary Edito
itor Kathennet s Weldon
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industrial
Wastewater
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency, RD-674
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use
$300
Office of Research
and Development
401 M Street SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Postage and
Fees Paid
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INFO CENTER
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