vvEPA
United States Municipal Environmental Research EPA-600/8-82-011
Environmental Protection Laboratory June 1982
Agency Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
Field Manual for Oil Spills
in Cold Climates
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EPA-600/8-82-011
June 1982
FIELD MANUAL FOR OIL SPILLS IN COLD CLIMATES
by .
Paul C. Deslauriers, Barbara J. Morson, and Edwin J.. Sobey
Science Applications, Inc.
Boulder, Colorado 80301
Contract No, 68-03-2648
Project Officer
Leo T. McCarthy, Jr.
Solid & Hazardous Waste Research Division
Oil & Hazardous Materials Spills Branch
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory-Cincinnati
Edison, New Jersey 08817
MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
view and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does men-
tion of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recom-
mendation for use.
n
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FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increas-
ing public and government concern about the dangers of pollution to the health
and welfare of the American people. Noxious air, foul water, and spoiled land
are tragic testimonies to the deterioration of our natural environment. The
complexity of that environment and the interplay of its components requires a
concentrated and integrated attack on the problem.
Research and development is that necessary first step in problem solution;
it involves defining the problem, measuring its impact, and searching for solu-
tions. The Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory develops new and im-
proved technology and systems to prevent, treat, and manage wastewater and
solid and hazardous waste pollutant discharges from municipal and community
sources, to preserve and treat public drinking water supplies, and to minimize
the adverse economic, social, health, and aesthetic effects of pollution.
This publication is one of the products of that research and provides a most
vital communications link between the researcher and the user community.
This report is a field manual intended for use by On-Scene Coordinators
(OSCs) responding, to oil spills in cold regions. The manual documents the
state-of-the-art response techniques as of early 1979. The first part of the
manual consists of matrices which summarize applicable response techniques
for various conditions, while the remainder contains supporting and amplifying
documentation for the first part. For further information on the subject of
this report, contact the EPA Oil & Hazardous Materials Spills Branch,.Edison,
New Jersey 08817.
Francis T. Mayo, Director
Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory
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ABSTRACT
The probabilities for the occurrence of oil spills are increasing along
with our growing need to exploit the natural resources of the arctic and other
cold regions. The technology used to respond to oil spills in cold regions
has been evolving rapidly, but effective responses cannot yet be achieved in
all environmental conditions for all types of "oil. This manual documents the
state-of-the-art response techniques as of early 1979.
The manual has been divided'into two basic parts: A field manual (Sec-
tion 2) and supporting data (Sections 3 through 12). The field manual consists
of a set of matrices that summarizes applicable techniques for various condi-
tions. The on-scene coordinators will be able to use the matrices as a quick
reference while they are responding to spills.
The supporting data in the second part of this manual give a detailed
summary of information on.oil behavior and cleanup techniques. In the prepar-
ation of this manual, it was assumed that on-scene coordinators would have the
opportunity to become knowledgeable enough about;the material in this section
so that only quick references to the;field manual would be needed while re-
sponding to spills. It is also hoped that the on-scene coordinators will have
had time to gather the information suggested (for example, maps delineating
habitats and access roads) before the spill occurs. The ultimate success or
failure of a response to an oil spill in cold regions will largely hinge on
the on-scene coordinator's understanding of the information presented here and
on his knowledge of the area in which the spill occurred.
In a fast-moving technology, a manual documenting accepted practices will
be shortly outdated. Thus the reader is cautioned that newer philosophies,
techniques, and equipment than those discussed in this publication may be
available.
This report was submitted to Rockwell International in fulfillment of
Contract No. 68-03-2648 by Science Applications, Inc. under the sponsorship of
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers the period Sep-
tember 1978 to May 1979, and work was completed as of June 1979.
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CONTENTS >
Foreword iii
Abstract . ', V . iv
Acknowl edgments . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . *. '. . '. xi i i
1. Introduction '....'.' 1
2. Field Manual ......... ....... 4
Use of the Field Manual ...... :. ............. 4
Decision Matrices ......... -. 4
Example of Use. .. .............. 13
3. Oil Properties .................;....... 18
Specific Gravity .............. ... 18
Viscosity . . ' . . . . ..;:.. 20
Pour Point. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . ... . . 21
Boiling Point of Oil 21
, Oil Aging . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ... 24
Explosion and Fire Risk .................... 24
Toxicity of Oil . 26
4. Oil Spill Behavior in Cold Regions . 1 .......... ^ .. 28
Aquati c 28
Ice Porosity ................... 28
Ice Strength ................... 30
Shorefast Ice ............. '. . . . 33
Oil Spreading on or Under Shorefast Ice ... .....'. 33
Oil in Growing Shorefast Ice. '.' .". i 36
Oil Interaction With Decaying Shorefast Ice . ... . . . 36
Fractured/Deformed Ice ........... 37
Rafted Ice '....... 37
Piled-Ice ....'. 39
Leads . ' 41
Ice Floes 42
Up to 20% Ice Floe Concentration. 43
20% to 80% Ice Floe Concentration 45
80% to 100% Ice Floe Concentration ........... 46
Oil Spill Trajectory Modeling in Cold Regions ; 47
Coastal ...........:.........'.. 49
On-Shore Oil Distribution Parameters 49
Ice . '49
Waves .;...... 50
Tides 51
Sedimentary Characteristics . 53
Oil Quantity. 53
Winds 53
Offshore Transport . . 55
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CONTENTS (continued)
Environments: Vulnerability and Response. ...''.' 55
Exposed, Steeply Dipping, or Cliffed Rocky Headlands. . . 56
Eroded Wave-Cut Platforms 56
Flat, Fine-Sand Beaches 57
Steeper, Medium- to Coarse-Grained Beaches 58
Exposed, Compacted Tidal Flats 58
Mixed Sand and Gravel Beaches 59
Gravel Beaches 59
Sheltered Rocky Coast 60
Sheltered Estuarine Tidal Flats 60
Sheltered Marshes 60
Terrestrial 61
Permafrost 61
Snow 61
Ground Cover: Soils and Vegetation 62
Tundra 63
5. Surveillance 64
Aquatic 65
Exposed Oil in Ice 66
Oil in Moving Ice 66
Oil Covered by Ice 68
Coastal/Terrestrial 71
6. Containment 73
Aquatic Containment 74
Open-Water Booms 74
Deployment of Booms , ....... 76
Exclusion Booming 76
Diversion Booming 76
Containment Booming 77
Oil/Ice Boom 78
Ice Slotting 80
Coastal and Terrestrial Containment 81
Trenches and Dikes . . . , . . 81
Water Bypass Dams 82
Snow Berms 83
Water Spraying 83
7. Recovery . . . , 85
Aquatic 85
Mechanical Recovery Devices 85
Weir Skimmers 85
Belt Skimmers 86
Disc Skimmers 87
Direct Suction 88
Ice Removal 88
Nonmechanical Recovery 88
In-Situ Burning 88
Sorbents 90
Dispersants 90
Biodegradation 91
Coastal and Terrestrial 92
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CONTENTS (continued)
Mechanjcal Recovery ..... ..... 92
Nonmechanical Recovery 93
8. Temporary Storage 95
Aquatic-Based Storage 95
Ship-Dependent Storage 96
Air-Deployable Aquatic Storage . 96
Natural Features for Aquatic Storage 97
Land-Based Storage 98
Road-Dependent Storage 98
Air-Deployable Land Storage 98
Natural Land Features for Storage 100
9. Pumping Systems - Pumps ...... 101
Prime Movers and Hoses >, 104
10. Disposal 107
Incineration ...., ;.: ........ 107
Flare Burners 108
Open-Pit Incinerators . 109
Rotary Kilns . , . . Ill
Stoker-Type Incinerators Ill
Salvage ....-... 112
Pipeline Reinjection . , 112
Direct Reuse - 113
Land Disposal 113
Land Cultivation T . 116
Landfill ing With Solid Wastes 116
Burial .. . 116
11. Logistics 121
Transportation 121
Air Transportation 121
Aquatic Transportation . 124
Land Vehicles 126
Amphibious Vehicles ........... ,129
Preparation of Equipment for Transport. .... 130
Estimation of Cleanup Crew and Equipment Meeds . 130
Requirements for Personnel 133
Training 133
Physiological Problems 133
Clothing , 134
Emergency Procedures 134
Guides to Cold-Weather Operation 135
Field Support Requirements 136
Food Requirements 137
Clothing Requirements 138
Shelter Requirements 139
Miscellaneous Requirements .... 140
Survival and Emergency Equipment .... 140
Personal Equipment .- 141
Communications Equipment ....." 141
Fuel Requirements 141
Sewage Disposal 141
vii
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CONTENTS (continued)
12. Restoration ...... 142
Natural Restoration in Cold Regions 142
Selection of Species for Restoration 143
Cultural Practices 144
Seeding 144
Seedbed Preparation 147
Alternatives to Seeding 147
Fertility 148
Mulching 149
Long-Term Management 149
References 150
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.FIGURES
Number Page
1 Bouchard 65 oil spill chronological chart, January 28/29, 1977. 14
2 Oil and ice in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, January 29, 1977. . 15
3 Conversion of API gravities to conventional density units ... 19
4 Density of Norman Wells crude oil versus temperature and aging. 20
5 Oil viscosity versus temperature 22
6 Viscosity of Prudhoe Bay crude oil 23
7 Ice formation 29
8 Freshwater ice-bearing capacity chart 31
9 Maximum oil velocity under ice 35
10 Aerial view of first-year ice 38
11 Flow of oil in rafted ice 39
12 Pressure ridge cross-section (sketch) 40
13 Oil flowing into a rubble field (idealized cross-section) ... 41
14 Suction hoses recovering oil around ice floes
Buzzards Bay, January 1977 44
15 Prediction of slick movement 45
16 Deployment location and drift of satellite-tracked
buoys released on August 9, 1979 48
17 Oil deposits at high-water level -- plan view of
migrating rhythmic topography 52
18 Depth of oil burial and thickness of oiled sediment
as a function of grain size 54
19 Sipre corer 70
ix
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FIGURES (continued)
Number Page
20 Oil containment boom components 75
21 Placement of boom to offset different current
speeds in flowing water 77
22 The Tsang boom 79
23 Ice slot installation 80
24 Dike and trench . 82
25 Water bypass dam (valved pipe) 84
26 Water bypass dam (inclined tube) 84
27 Donut storage container and oil/water separator 97
28 Air-transportable incinerator schematic 110
29 Simple drum incinerator 112
30 Schematic cross-section of debris burial site
as designed and constructed 117
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TABLES
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Oil Characterization Tests
Detection and Surveillance Techniques
Electromagnetic Surveillance: Useful Devices
in Limiting Environmental Conditions
Containment
Recovery of Low/Medium-Viscosity Oils
Recovery of High-Viscosity Oils
Methods of Temporary Storage
Disposal Techniques
Annual Sea Ice Sheet Mechanical Properties
Minimum Allowable Sea Ice Thicknesses for
Representative Equipment and Vehicles
Comparisons -of Solar Albedo . . .
Retention Capacity of Various Soils
Schematic Basis for Thickness-Appearance Relationship
Oil Film Thickness Versus Surface Coverage
Relationship of Current and Velocity to Boom Angle . .
Pumps for Handling Highly Viscous Oils
Hydraulically-Powered Submersible Pumps
for Transferring Viscous Oil
Flexible Oil Transfer Hose
Advantages and Disadvantages of Alternative
Debris Disposal Methods
Page
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
12
32
32
, . . . . 37
62
67
68
..... 78
103
105
105
119
XI
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TABLES (continued)
Number Page
20 Comparison of Land Disposal Methods for Oil Spill Debris .... 120
21 Aircraft Characteristics: Fixed Wing 122
22 Aircraft Characteristics: Helicopters 125
23 Summary of Land Transportation Vehicles used in the Arctic . . . 128
3 '
24 Estimated Crew and Equipment Needs for a 7950-m
(50,000-Barrel) Oil Spill Under Winter Ice Cover . . ... . 132
25 Comparison of Diets for Temperate and Cold Regions . . 137
26 Clothing Issue (Pacific Strike Team) . . . . 139
27 Revegetation Species Under Investigation .... 145
xn
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This manual was prepared by Science Applications, Inc. (SAI) under con-
tract to Rockwell International for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The Rockwell Project Officer was Dr. Walter Unterberg, and the EPA Project
Officer-was Mr. Leo T. McCarthy, Jr. Mr. Mark Phillips wrote the section on
restoration. Dr. S'eelye Martin, Dr. Miles Hayes, Mr. Eric Gundlach, Mr.
Christopher Ruby, Dr. Jay McKendrick, and Mr. Ken Fucik contributed material
or suggestions.
xm
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
As the recovery of natural resources in cold regions becomes more econom-
ical because of rising market values for these products, increased insults
from oil spills in these areas become inevitable. Two potential sources exist
for environmental impacts from oil: exploration for and production of petro-
leum, and marine or terrestrial transport of both petroleum and nonpetroleum
oils.
The technology for extracting resources and for working in cold regions
is rapidly advancing. Though the capabilities for responding to spills of oil
are also improving, much is unknown about the impacts of oil and about how to
minimize or mitigate them. This manual provides current information (as of
early 1979) on how to respond to cold-region oil spills. The purpose for writ-
ing this manual was to consolidate available literature and expertise on pro-
tection, cleanup, and restoration of ocean, estuarine, and inland cold cli-
mates and cold weather shorelines endangered or contaminated by oil spills.
The manual has two main parts: A field manual (Section 2) and supporting
information (Sections 3 through 12). Though these parts have been bound to-
gether for ease of distribution, it is intended that they be separated for use.
Section 2, the field manual, consists of matrices and other summarizing tables
as well as a practical example of their use. The matrices and tables are pro-
vided to give the on-scene coordinator (OSC) the information that is needed
for rapid response to spills of oil. Backup information on items mentioned
in the field manual matrices can be located via the detailed Table of
Contents.
In many spill situations, logistics will constrain the response effort.
The on-scene coordinator will have to make decisions regarding the utilization
of limited resources to effect the maximum protection benefit. Determining
priorities for response is not a simple analytic process but one that has many
parameters to be evaluated and compared with each other. Parameters include
the major areas of: vulnerability of a coastline to impacts; the potential
for biological impacts; and the potential for social, economic, and political
impacts on man in terms of recreation, industrial, and natural resources.
Given limitations on time, manpower, and equipment, the OSC must have some
means of ordering the priorities for protecting these three resource types.
In some situations, the solutions will be obvious; in others, careful consul-
tation with local experts will be necessary.
Cold regions appear to have much longer recovery times than warmer cli-
mates, making protection of critical resources very important (Vandermeulen,
1
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1978). Seasonal influences also will have an impact on the priorities for
protection. For example, in summer a recreational beach may be given a higher
value for protection than a waterfowl nesting area, where the birds have left
the nest and may not return until next spring. (Of course, the marsh would
need to be cleaned before the birds returned.) Many decisions must be left
for the individual OSC, his/her staff, and local scientific experts to make
within each region.
The OSC will have roughly gauged the extent of the cold-climate oil spill
problem when first called to the scene. This should enable him to specify the
disciplines in which expert advice may be needed, and hence to gather together
an on-scene panel of advisors in those disciplines. The function of the panel
members would be to offer information in their areas of expertise to the OSC,
and be available as resource persons and to answer his questions. While actual
decision-making rests with the OSC, he may choose to involve the on-scene ad-
visors to any extent he deems useful to the optimum response to the oil spill.
Certainly, the advisors should gather data for effective use of this manual.
In order to assign priorities for protection within any region, certain
data must be gathered. The most compact and useful way of assembling these
data is in visual form on maps. Suggestions for maps needed by the OSC are
presented below:
1. Base maps governmental boundaries, access roads, shipping lanes.
2. Overlay maps physical characteristics and land and water use of
shoreline, including wind, current, and tide information.
3. Biological resources/seasonal maps showing data on fishes, shellfish,
birds, endangered species, marine mammals, and marshes. Emphasis to
be on fishing areas, spawning grounds, and habitats.
Maps should be on a scale of 1:50,000, with larger-scale maps for special
areas. Maps should'be in an easily reproducible size, in black and white.
Data should be gathered first on areas with high probability of spill occur-
rence and then on other areas, as time permits.
Information presented in Sections 3 through 12 covers the details of oil
properties, oil behavior in cold environments, cold-region response techniques
and equipment, logistics, and restoration considerations.
Familiarity with the information in Sections 3 through 12, coupled with
detailed information about the transportation problems, environmental con-
straints, and availability of equipment, will allow the OSC to respond most
effectively to a spill. As he reads Sections 3 through 12, the potential OSC
should continuously ask himself, "What would be my response to a spill at this.
location under these conditions?" The site-specific information that he will
need to answer this question should be gathered before a spill occurs. Infor-
mation that would be useful includes maps of access roads, maps delineating
coastal habitats (especially rare, endangered, or threatened species), location
of response equipment, and maps showing direction and speed of coastal cur-
rents. Reading Sections 3 through 12 will make the potential OSC aware of the
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needs for various types of information and for the types of considerations that
must guide Jnm in the decision-making process.
Sections 3 and 4 present a discussion of oil properties and the changes
they undergo in various environmental conditions. Through weathering and bio-
degradation, the properties (density, Viscosity, etc.) of spilled oil change.
As these changes occur, the interactions between oil and biota change, as do
the techniques required to respond to a spill. Thus the OSC must be aware of
the changes, and to some degree, he must be able to predict them and how they
will affect the response effort.
The sections on response (Sections 5 through 8) are subdivided into tech-
niques that apply to aquatic, coastal, and terrestrial environments. The sec-
tions on transfer (Section 9) and disposal (Section 10) do not follow the out-
line, as techniques for these are less dependent on the location of the spill.
Logistics considerations are briefly discussed in Section 11. Ultimate-
ly, the success of responding to an oil spill will depend on the ability to
get equipment and personnel to the scene and to keep both operating effective-
ly. Transportation requirements and the housing and survival needs of person-
nel are discussed.
Section 12 addresses restoration. Although the OSC will not be involved
directly with any restoration efforts, restoration can be made easier by the
types of response that the OSC employs.. Much effort can be saved in the
restoration process if the response techniques have riot .damaged the area to
be restored. Unfortunately thereis little information on restoring coastal or
wetland areas in cold climates. ,
Besides determining the priorities for protection or cleanup response, the
OSC must determine the larger question bf whether or not any response should be
made at all. In some situations, responding to a spill may be more hazardous
to the environment (or to the responding crew) than the impacts of the oil
spill itself. There is no easy method to prescribe how such decisions should
be made. The OSC must understand the appropriate response techniques, the
impact that the response and the oil have on the environment, and the fate of
the oil if no response is initiated. The information provided in this publi-
cation will help the OSC make these decisions, but oil spill experience and
knowledge of the particular areas to be impacted are the essential prerequi-
sites.
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SECTION 2
FIELD MANUAL
USE OF THE FIELD MANUAL
The field manual is a set of eight matrices (Tables 1 through 8) designed
for use by the OSC and his/her staff in the field. These matrices .are devoted
to the spill response actions in the chronological order generally found neces-
sary. The techniques of response to cold-region oil spills are listed for var-
ious environmental conditions and/or oil characterizations. Sections 3 through
12 contain technical backup material paralleling the matrices, as follows:
Table 1: Oil characterization tests Section
2: Detection and surveillance j I
techniques t \
3: Electromagnetic surveillance] I
4: Containment
5: Recovery of low/medium j
viscosity oils 1
6: Recovery of high viscosity J
oils
7: Methods of temporary storage
8: Disposal techniques
3: Oil Properties
4: Oil spill behavior
cold regions
5: Surveillance
6: Containment
7: Recovery
9: Pumping systems
8: Temporary storage
10: Disposal
11: Logistics
12: Restoration
The next subsection discusses the matrices in more detail , and the last
subsection contains an example that illustrates the use of the field manual.
DECISION MATRICES .
The first matrix (Table 1) is an oil characterization test. Qualitative
tests are suggested that will allow the OSC to estimate the viscosity range of
the spilled oil. The interaction of oil with the environment and the tech-
niques for recovering spilled oil depend on the oil's viscosity. Information
on the type (and viscosity) of the oil may be available from the party from
whom the oil escaped. However, since the oil characteristics change with am-
bient temperature, weathering, biodegradation, etc., the characteristics of the
oil at the time of the spill response may be different from those at the time
the spill occurred. Periodic testing is needed to ascertain whether or not
significant changes have occurred, since these changes may necessitate a dif-
ferent response strategy. Laboratory tests of oil properties may be desirable,
especially from the scientific aspect of learning more about the rates of
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change of properties under various conditions. However, the simple tasks out-
lined in the first matrix should provide the OSC with the information needed
to respond to the spill.
Surveillance techniques are outlined in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2 lists
applicable techniques for oil spilled under different environmental condi-
tions. Table 3 gives additional information on electromagnetic methods of
detection and surveillance. It lists the equipment that can provide useful
data under limiting conditions such as darkness, high sea state, cloud cover,
and presence of ice or flotsam.
For containment of oil spills (Table 4), as for surveillance, the applic-
able methods have little dependence on the oil characterization. Containment
methods include using specially designed equipment and building barriers of
naturally occurring materials (for example, snow or sand). The matrix in Table
4 lists various environments in which spilled oil may occur and recommends con-
tainment methods.
Information on the recovery of oil has been summarized in two matrices
(Tables 5 and 6). Table 5 covers both low- and medium-viscosity oils (refer
to Table 1 for definitions of oil viscosity ranges). High-viscosity oils are
treated in Table 6. Checks in the body of the matrix denote which techniques
are recommended for the various environmental conditions.
See the Contents page for location of data on the recovery devices and
techniques in Section 7.
The information on temporary storage (Table 7) is categorized according
to the environment (aquatic or coastal/terrestrial) and nature of the storage
type (deployed by air or surface vehicles or utilizing natural features or
materials). Storage type is independent of oil characterization.
The last matrix (Table 8) is a summary of disposal techniques. Though
the success of these methods depends to some degree on the type of oil to be
disposed, there are other factors that can limit the effectiveness of disposal.
The most important of these factors are the types and quantities of material
mixed with the recovered oil.
The matrices have been designed to provide a quick reference to the tech-
nical material in response to cold-region oil spills. It is hoped that they
will be a valuable information source for the coordinator at the scene of an
oil spill. However, it must be realized that in many incidents, the response
to an oil spill will be controlled by the availability of equipment, manpowers
and other resources. Non-optimum methods will be employed because of the Tack
of optimum methods or the inability to bring in sufficient quantities of needed
resources in a.realistic time scale. Thus though the OSC may find the matrices
useful at a spill site, the ultimate success of response will depend on the
availability of needed resources and the OSC's in-depth knowledge of techniques
and oil behavior in cold climates. Such a greater level of understanding can
be derived from this manual and from experience at spills.
A detailed Table of Contents has been provided for ease in locating speci-
fic items in Sections 3 through 12 to elaborate on Tables 1 through 8.
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TABLE 2. DETECTION AND SURVEILLANCE TECHNIQUES
Environment of condition
Detection and surveillance techniques
Aquatic
Open water
Ice present
Oil exposed on .surface
Oil not exposed
Terrestrial (Shorelines)
Exposed on surface
Buried in sediment
In Snow
Exposed on surface
Oil covered by snow
Visual
Electromagnetic (EM)
Visual
EM
Use augers or drills
Visually by SCUBA 'divers
Impulse radar
Visual
'Use augers or drills
Visual
Manual probing
Gas analyzers
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TABLE 4. CONTAINMENT
Environment
Containment Method
Aquatic
Shorefast Ice
On top of ice
Below ice
Sandwiched in decaying ice
Fractured/Deformed Ice
Rafted/piled
In leads
Ice Floes
<20% concentration
20-80% concentration
>80% concentration
Coastal
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Eroded, Wave-Cut Platforms
Flat, Fine Sand
Steep, Medium-Coarse Sand
Tidal Flats
Mixed Sand and Gravel
Gravel Beaches
Sheltered Marshes
Terrestrial
Tundra
Rocky Terrain
Forest
Grasslands
Berms
Sorbent booms
Slot
Ice barrier
Slot and boom
Cut and deep-skirted boom
Wait until rises, trenches
Occurs naturally
Conventional booms
Conventional booms
Ice-oil boom
Bubble barrier
Oil-ice boom
Dike, berm
Dike, berm
Dike, berm
Dike, berm
Dike, berm, trenching
Dike, berm, trenching
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TABLE 7. METHODS OF TEMPORARY STORAGE
Storage type
Aquatic
Coastal/terrestri al
Surface vehicles
Air-deployable
systems
Environmental
features
Ships, tanks, and
barges
Pillow bags,
donuts
Lakes, lagoons,
shorefast ice,
snow on ice berms
Vacuum trucks, tankers, flatbeds
with bladders and drums
Pillow bags, open top containers
Lagoon pits, dikes, snow on ice
berms
TABLE 8. DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES
Type
Limitations
Mechanical
Flare burners
Open-pit incincerators
Rotary kiln
Stoker incinerators
Salvage
Pipeline reinjection
Inject to well
Refinery
Direct reuse
Land Disposal
Land cultivation
Landfill/solid waste
Burial
Little debris tolerance
Solids only (oil and sediment)
Combustible solids
Relatively clean oil
Limited debris
Clean oil
Seasonally limited
Dependent on local regulations
12
-------
EXAMPLE OF USE
To illustrate the use of this manual, an example of an oil spill is de-
scribed and the decision matrices are applied. The example used is the Buz-
zards Bay oil spill of 1977, which was one of the few spills in ice that has
occurred in the lower 48 States where a major response effort was mounted.
3 At 1800 hours on 28 January 1977 the barge Bouchard 65, carrying 12,100
m (3.2 million gallons) of No. 2 heating oil, ran aground on Cleveland Ledge
in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. Four of the barge's tanks .were holed. At
2030 hours the barge was floated off the ledge and towed to Wings Neck, where
it was intentionally run aground to stop the leakage. Following off-loading,
the barge was towed through the Cape Cod Canal to Boston (see Figure 1).
Approximately 307 m^ (81,000) gallons of oil were spilled (Baxter, et al.,
1978).
Icing conditions at the.time of the spill are shown in Figure 2. The
active ice zone consisted of an 80% to 100% surface area! coverage of ice
floes and rafted and piled ice. Ice thicknesses were between 0.3 and 1.2 m
(1 to 4 ft). Air temperatures ranged from -13° to 3°C (8.6 to 37°F); wind
speeds varied from 3.7 to 64.6 km/hr (2 to 35 knots) in the first 2 days of
the spill.
If the OSC had been provided with this document at the time of this
spill, he would have proceeded in the following manner.
Step One: Spilled Oil Characteristics
First, determine oil characteristics to judge potential for movement,
cleanup, and disposal processes. Tests with the oil indicated that it is
clear, pours easily, spreads quickly, does not adhere to surfaces, and has a
strong odor. Turning to the matrix on oil characterization, the OSC finds
that this is to be treated as a low-viscosity oil (Table 1).
Step Two: Resources to be Protected
The OSC next must consider the resources that must be protected in this
area. In talking to local experts, he finds out that in Buzzards Bay the areas
along Wings Neck north to Phinneys Harbor are prime shellfish production areas
for the local fishermen. There are no major marsh systems, but waterfowl win-
ter in the bay. A large number of resort homes located along Wings Neck and
Scraggy Neck are occupied only in the summer. It can be seen by looking at
the map that little can be done to protect the shoreline areas because they
are encased in shorefast ice, and the area is too large to boom off in any
fashion. So, no protection measures will be taken. If protection had been
possible, the shellfish production areas would have received first priority
because of their prime economic importance.
Step Three: Spill Surveillance
Surveillance of the spill is a task that must be continued throughout
cleanup operations. The oil has been spilled in an aquatic environment where
13
-------
> s 4 i-.Wi^v.. V
"--^
Jan. 28 (2200) -
Jan. 29 (1600)
"BOUCHARD 65" OIL SPILL
CHRONOLOGICAL CHART
JANUARY 28-29,1977
..
Cleveland Ledge ^l
Figure 1. Bouchard 65 oil spill chronological chart.
14
-------
<8? ?$S^;x N<^ iS' SSJS-N' **» "^W-N- * '.-S
ik^iW .^"BOUCHARD 65
OIL AND ICE IN BUZZARDS BAY.S
Heavy Oil
Concentration
Light Oil
Concentration
Oil Sheen on
Open Water
Open Water
-Bouchard 65 grounded and
streaming oil at Wings Neck
-oil slipping under and
through broken ice
-lightly oiled ship track
visible from Cleveland Ledge
to Wings Neck
Figure 2. Oil and ice in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, January 29, 1977,
15
-------
oil is jboth exposed and hidden in ice. Looking at the detection and surveil-,
lance matrix (Table 2), the OSC discovers that he may use"visual or electro-
magnetic devices for exposed oil. For hidden oil, augers and drills, impulse
radar, and SCUBA divers may be used (Table 2).
The electromagnetic devices (Table 3) are also outlined according to the
limiting environmental conditions. In this situation, photography would be
the best electromagnetic technique.
In the Buzzards Bay spill, drills, augers, impulse radar, and visual
techniques were used, with varying degrees of success. Daylight photography
was the only electromagnetic device employed. Visual observation was often
obstructed because of high winds, fog, and cloud cover. In addition, problems
were found with motor-driven augers because of the extremely cold temperatures.
Overall, the surveillance options recommended proved useful, within the limits
of the equipment availability and usefulness in cold temperatures.
Step Four: Spill Containment
Containment of the spill is the next priority. Since the oil is in
rafted and piled ice, in ice floes in concentrations of greater than 80%, and
underneath shorefast ice, consulting the containment matrix (Table 4) shows
the OSC that containment may occur naturally in rafted and piled ice and is
not possible in greater than 80% ice concentrations. For oil beneath shore-
fact ice, there are several techniques (Table 4).
In Buzzards Bay, the oil was contained naturally. Continuous surveillance
of the shorefast ice zones indicated that too little oil was present to warrant
any of the more active suggested methods.
Step Five: Spill Recovery
Recovery of the spill may be accomplished next. In rafted and piled ice
with a low-vis'cosity oil, the matrix (Table 5) shows that in-situ burning,
direct suction, and sorbents may be useful. In greater than 80% ice flow con-
centrations, the matrix (Table 5) shows in-situ burning as the only possible
mechanism. Oil concentrations under shorefast ice have already been deter-
mined to be too low to warrant cleanup.
In the Buzzards Bay spill, direct suction was the primary method used.
Problems were found with pumps and hoses freezing. In-situ burning was used
at one site with moderate success, but it was not attempted again because of
the air pollution problem. Sorbents were not available for use.
Step Six: Temporary Storage and Disposal
Once the recovery process has begun, storage and disposal systems (Tables
7 and 8) must be put into use. The disposal matrix (Table 8) outlines the sys-
tems available and their limitations. Since the oil is relatively free of
debris, flare burners, any of the salvage techniques, and landfill may be used.
In Buzzards Bay the oil was taken to a refinery and re-refined, and some
16
-------
was transported,to a landfill for disposal. Flare burning was not possible
because of equipment limitation's. No intermediate storage was necessary.
Overview
This scenario shows that the manual can be used for quick and easy ref-
erence in the field, with background information quickly available. The back-
ground information should be read thoroughly and understood by the OSC before
any spill incidents. Decisions can thus be made most effectively in the
field. It should be strongly emphasized that the manual can be used effec-
tively only if the OSC and his staff have a thorough knowledge of the local
area and the resources and equipment for spill response available therein.
This is even more important in remote areas where information is generally
less accessible.
17
-------
SECTION 3 '
OIL PROPERTIES .
The type of spilled oil determines the characteristics needed for optimum
response to the spill: . .
1, Aging rates,
2. Danger of fire and explosion,
3. Biological impact, .''."
4. Spreading/ and
5. Penetration into soil, snow, and ice.
These characteristics are related to these measurable oil properties:
1. Specific gravity,
2. Viscosity,
3. Pour point, and
4. Boiling point.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity of oil is defined as the ratio of its density to the
density of water at the same temperature. The density is usually measured in
grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). if the density of oil is greater than
1 g/cm3, it will sink in water. In the petroleum industry, specific gravity
is usually expressed in degrees API. The relationship between specific grav-
ity values and degree API at 16°C (60°F) is provided in Figure 3.
The specific gravity will increase with decreasing temperature and with
oil aging, as evidenced by evaporation of the most volatile components. Fig-
ure 4 illustrates typical variations in specific gravity that occur resulting
from temperature and aging. For reliable data on specific gravity, it is best
to take measurements at the spill site with equipment such as hydrometers
(refer to ASTM Methods E-100 and D-1298).
Information on specific gravity will provide several insights into the
oil-spill behavior. Specific gravity will affect the ease with which the oil
18
-------
0.95
950
g/cmc
kg/m3
Density units
Figure 3. Conversion of API gravities to conventional density units
(Nadeau and Mackay, 1978).
19
-------
E
o
CO
Z
UJ
Q
0.940
0.920
QSOO
0.880
0.860
0.840
0.82O -
0%
EVAPORATED
10 15 20
TEMPERATURE °C
25
Figure 4. Density of Norman Wells crude oil versus
temperature and aging (Mackay et al., 1975).
mixes throughout the water column. When oil has a specific gravity of 0.9 or
larger (such as Bunker C or No. 6 fuel oil) the combination of evaporation,
cold temperatures, and attachment of mineral particles may cause the oil to
sink within a few days. Considerations of specific gravity may also be impor-
tant in projecting whether oil will spread on top of or underneath an ice
cover.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity of a fluid relates to its internal friction or resistance to
flow. Oil viscosity is categorized into three ranges, which can be estimated
by making a few simple tests (more accurate measurements can be made by instru-
ments, such as a Brookfield viscometer, ASTM Method D -1298):
20
-------
1. Low Viscosity: pours easily, spreads rapidly, has a strong odor,
has a high evaporation rate, does not adhere, is removed by flush-
ing, and is clear or translucent in appearance.
2. Medium Viscosity: pours sluggishly, adheres to surface, can be
partially cleaned by flushing, and has a mild odor.
3. High Viscosity: does not pour, has a tarry texture, is very sticky,
cannot be removed from surface by flushing, and may sink in water.
. Viscosity will change with temperature, oil aging, and emulsion forma-
tion. As the temperature'drops, oil viscosity will increase (Figure 5). This
increase becomes very rapid as the ambient temperature approaches the pour-
point temperature. The viscosity will also increase as the oil ages, partic-
ularly during the early stages of the spill, because of processes such as
evaporation and emulsification. Evaporation is often the most important pro-
cess that alters the viscosity; a procedure for determining evaporation is
discussed later on in this section. The aging of Prudhoe Bay crude oil, for
example, may cause the viscosity to change by a factor of 3 or more during
the first 24 hours and by a factor of 10 in a week (Isakson et al., 1975).
The viscosity changes resulting from a combination of aging and temperature
can be significant (Figure 6). For aquatic spills, oil/water emulsions
caused by water turbulence may considerably increase the viscosity within a
short time (Twardus, 1979a).
Oil viscosity can have a significant impact on the outcome of the oil-
spill behavior and preferred cleanup response. The spreading rate of the
spilled oil is partially dependent upon the viscosity. Low-viscosity oils
spread thinly over ice and water, and high-viscosity oils tend to flow into
thick lenses. In addition, the amount of. penetration into a surface is par-
tially governed by viscosity. Light or low-viscosity oils tend to be absorbed
easily into materials, while highly viscous oils tend to adhere to surfaces.
POUR POINT
Another important measurement (usually provided with the oil specifica-
tions) which directly relates to the oil's viscosity is the pour point. This
is the lowest temperature at which an oil can be poured.
BOILING POINT OF OIL
The boiling point of oils is directly related to oil aging and explosion
and fire risk. Low boiling fractions are volatile and will evaporate readily
when exposed to the atmosphere. Simulated evaporative weathering tests, under
controlled temperature conditions (Kreider, 1971; Smith and Maclntyre, 1971)
indicated that virtually all hydrocarbons with a boiling point of less than
250°C (482°F) will volatilize from the sea surface within 10 days. Many
lighter petroleum materials tend to disappear in hours. Hydrocarbons that
boil between 250 and 400°C (482 and 752°F) will evaporate in more limited
amounts and will, therefore, remain largely in the oil slick. Hydrocarbons
that have boiling points greater than 400°C (752°F) will be retained. Since
oil is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons, the composition of a
21
-------
100,000 -
10 20 30 40
TEMPERATURE <°C)
50
Figure 5. Oil viscosity versus temperature (Mittleman, 1978)
22
-------
4000
1000
500
O
o>
(0
1
100 -
25 15
-5 -15 -25
Temperature, °C
Figure 6. Viscosity of Prudhoe Bay crude oil (Mackay et al., 1975)
23
-------
particular oil will change while weathering as the various components evapo-
rate at their own rate.
OIL AGING
The aging rate of spilled oil in cold climates is different from that in
warmer climates. The low temperatures and presence of ice and snow restrict
vapors from escaping. The aging of oil is governed by three types of proces-
ses: physical processes, such as evaporation, dissolution, emulsification,
and absorptioni chemical processes, such as direct oxidation and reduction
reactions in the water column; and biological processes, such as aerobic and
anaerobic microbial degradation.
During the early stages of a spill, the aging of the oil is primarily a
function of the physical process of evaporation. Evaporation occurs when low
molecular weight compounds are volatilized into the atmosphere. This process
will remove nearly all light distillates and 30% to 50% of typical crude
petroleums (Maiins, 1977). Therefore, the evaporation rate is important in
deciding the actual volume of oil present shortly after the spill.and the
potential threat to the ecosystem. It will directly affect the specific
gravity, viscosity, and toxicity of the oil. Also, fire and explosion haz-
ards will decrease as the lighter, more volatile fractions evaporate.
The evaporation rate for pools of spilled oil on an exposed solid or
liquid surface can be calculated using a procedure formulated by Nadeau and
Mackay (1978). This calculation can be made from information on the product
volatility, wind speed, temperature, and slick thickness. Spilled oil cov-
ered by ice or snow or absorbed into ice, snow, or soil will age at a much
There are presently no aging rate calculations
in-
slower rate than exposed oil.
available for these spill situations, but observations from several spill
cidents can provide an indication of the expected aging losses.
Deslauriers et al. (1977) reported that No. 2 diesel oil underneath an
ice cover with water currents of 1 m/s (3.3 ft/s) had one-fifth the loss of
oil from a free surface. NORCOR (1974) observed that losses resulting from
the aging of oil underneath an ice cover were in the range of one-ninth of
the loss for a sample exposed to the atmosphere over the same period.
Ramseier et al. (1973) reported that in a spill involving arctic diesel oil
and gasoline, the oil absorbed into the porous ice surface had an evaporation
rate of one-fourth of the rate from the free surface. NORCOR (1975) found
that oil sandwiched in between ice had a negligible aging loss. When oil is
buried in sediments, the oxygen supply is often the rate-controlling factor
of weathering. In some anoxic sediments, unweathered hydrocarbons have been
observed to be present 7 years after a spill (Teal et al., 1978). Though no
systematic studies of cold-region weathering for different snow, ice, and
soil interactions have been performed, these preliminary results can be a use-
ful indicator of aging rates.
EXPLOSION AND FIRE RISK
An explosion and fire risk may be present while oil is evaporating at a
high rate. To constitute a risk, the escaping hydrocarbon vapor must exceed
24
-------
a certain concentration. This explosion and flammability -limit is about 10
torr partial vapor pressure for the lighter hydrocarbons such as gasoline,
diesel fuel, and crude oil. Equipment that is not explosion-proof should be
used only after a satisfactory explosimeter test when the more volatile
hydrocarbons are involved. The usual procedure of containing a spill at or
near its source might result in the unnecessary exposure of people and prop-
erty to explosion and fire risks. There are situations where it may be more
desirable to route a flammable product away from its spill source. This may
result in some level of environmental impact and/or inefficiency in response;
however, such action may avoid an unacceptable risk to human life.
Vapor pressure decreases during evaporation and will drop below the min-
imum explosion and flammability value when a certain percentage of the oil
has evaporated. For gasoline, the vapor pressure at 2°C will drop below 10
torr (mm Hg) when about 60% has evaporated. At higher temperatures, vapor
pressure will increase, and so a higher percentage of oil must be evaporated
before the explosion and fire risk has passed.
The vapor pressure of a typical medium
(mm Hg) for temperatures below 2°C (36°F)
(68°F), only 6% needs to be
the flammability limit.
crude
At an
evaporated before the
oil falls below 10 torr
ambient temperature of 20°C
vapor pressure falls below
Products such as kerosene, lubricating oil, and high distillates do not
possess sufficient vapor pressure to cause an explosion hazard, but they can
ignite on floating debris, which acts as a wick. The cooling action of the
underlying surface will confine the fire of these products to the area of the
wick, except in the case of very thick oil layers. The process of burning
oil in situ will be discussed in more detail in Section 10.
Fire-fighting agents may become necessary in some situations. Three
agents commonly used in petroleum fires are water, foams, and dry chemicals
(American Petroleum Institute, 1974). Water (in liquid form) is universally
used as a fire-fighting agent, for cooling, quenching, smothering, emulsify-
ing, diluting, and displacing. Foams for fire protection purposes are an ag-
gregate of gas-filled bubbles that will float on the surface of a flammable
liquid. Several foams are available that are principally used to form a co-
hesive floating blanket on the liquid surface. These foams include the fol-
lowing:
Protein air foams:
Protein foam-liquid concentrates
Fluoroprotein foam-liquid concentrates
Special-purpose foam-liquid concentrates
Aqueous film-forming foam
High-expansion foam
Chemical foams
25
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The foam extinguishes the fire by smothering and cooling the fuel and
prevents reignition by preventing formation of combustile mixtures of vapor
and air. Finally, dry chemicals are recognized for their efficiency in ex-
tinguishing fires involving flammable liquids. The following finely-
divided powders act by inhibiting the oxidation process within the flame
itself:
Sodium bicarbonate - ordinary dry chemical
Sodium bicarbonate - foam-compatible dry chemical
Potassium bicarbonate - purple K dry chemical-
Potassium oxalate - Monnex
TOXICITY OF OIL
Marine organisms exposed to oil selectively accumulate certain types of
hydrocarbons, particularly the aromatic compounds (Varanasi and Mai ins 1977).
Much of the toxicity from oil has been primarily attributed to these aromatic
compounds (Anderson et al., 1974) though some recent findings have identified
other compounds found in petroleum, including several heterocyclics and nitro-
gen or oxygen substituted aromatics, to be toxic to certain aquatic organisms
(Neff, 1980).
Within an aromatic series, toxicity increases with increasing alkyl sub-
stitution on the aromatic nucleus. For example, in the benzene series tox-
icity increases in the order benzene, toluene, xylene, trimethyl benzene,
tetramethylbenzene. Not all organisms are equally sensitive to the aromatic
hydrocarbons; in general, the crustaceans have been shown to be the most sen-
sitive; polychaete worms are intermediate; and fish are the most resistant
(Neff, 1980). Neff (1980) has summarized the literature with regard to the
levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that produce acute toxicities in
various marine organisms. Craddock (1977) has done a similar summarization
for various types of oils and oil mixtures.
Marine organisms accumulate hydrocarbons either through direct ingestion
of the oil or through transfer across membranes. Within the organism, the oil
is either accumulated to toxic levels, metabolized, or depurated. The rate'of
hydrocarbon uptake is a function of the amount and type of the oil, the length
of the exposure, and a combination of environmental parameters. An oil with
a high aromatics content will pose a potentially greater impact than one with
a low aromatics content.
Most of our present information on the effects of oil in cold waters has;
originated from the BLM/NOAA-sponsored program in the Alaskan Outer Continen-
tal Shelf. Much of this work has been summarized in Mai ins (1977). Addition-
al data has been provided through various Canadian programs. Presently, the
Canadians are conducting the Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program (AMOP) studies to
determine the effects of oil spills in Arctic regions. Various studies were
conducted in Swedish waters following the Tsesis spill in October 1977. The
results of studies conducted during the first year following this spill have
recently been summarized by Kineman et al. (1980).
26
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1 Rice (1977) compared the sensitivities of cold-water fish and shrimp
with; those of similar species from warmer climates and found the cold-water
species to be less resistant to oil. He speculated that this was due to a
greater persistence of toxic aromatic compounds at the colder temperatures
due to reduced rates of bio-degradation and evaporation.
In spite of the fact that temperature is a major influence on the physi-
ology of aquatic organisms, few studies have been conducted on the effect of
temperature on petroleum accumulation by these organisms. Harris et al.
(1977), however, observed that the copepod Gal anus helgolandicus retained 44%
more naphthalene when exposed at 6°C as opposed to 10°C. Fucik and Neff
(1977) also observed that the uptake of naphthalenes by temperate and boreal
clam species was higher at the lowest exposure temperatures. However, when
the clams were moved to clean water, temperature had no noticeable effect on
the depuration of the hydrocarbons. Information obtained in these studies
suggests that the observed patterns may be due to inherent physiological mech-
anisms rather than a slower rate of degradation of the oil at the lower tem-
peratures.
For past oil spills, few impacts to pelagic organisms have been docu-
mented. This is probably due to a number of factors, including sampling dif-
ficulties. Most pelagic fish species can avoid the area of a spill while the
time that other nektonic and planktonic species spent in the vicinity of a
spill can be minimal due to water movements or other factors (for example,
vertical migrations). Percy and Mull in (1975) found that most neritic inver-
tebrates in arctic waters were relatively tolerant of high concentrations of
dispersed oil.
The sediments are the final sink for most contaminants that enter the
marine environment. Once oil reaches the sediments, it may remain for long
periods of time. Therefore, the organisms that inhabit the sediments in an
area where oil has been deposited are exposed to a potentially chronic source
of hydrocarbons. This is potentially one of the most significant impacts of
an oil spill. Biological recovery in such an area can take many years. Most
of the effects from such cases have been studied in easily accessible near-
shore or intertidal areas (for example, the Metula spill [Straughan 1978], the
Amoco Cadiz spill [Conan et al., 1978], etc.7^ TTTis is undoubtedly due to the
ease of sampling these areas as opposed to the deeper, offshore waters.
27
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SECTION 4
OIL SPILL BEHAVIOR IN COLD REGIONS
The most important environmental conditions that determine the behavior
of cold-region oil spills are freezing temperatures, ice in its many forms,
and snow. A description of the cold-region environments is provided, followed
by a summary of the information presently available on the oil spill behavior,
the vulnerability of the environment, and persistence of oil, with suggestions
for oil containment and removal.
AQUATIC
In cold waters, the presence and nature of the ice cover is often the most
important factor determining the spill behavior. Ice can be mushy or hard,
smooth or irregular, consolidated or broken, and each condition results in a
different oil behavior. A classification scheme (Michel, 1971) for the vari-
ous common types of ice formations is illustrated in Figure 7 . There are
three important ice types that have different influences on oil spill behavior
and response. These are shorefast ice, fractured/deformed ice, and ice floes.
Oil spilled on or under shorefast ice is often the simplest situation for
response. If the ice is of sufficient strength, heavy equipment and recovery
crews can approach the oil from the shore. Oil spill response in fractured or
deformed ice is more difficult since oil can be concentrated in leads, rafted
ice, or piled ice, and the logistics of getting equipment and manpower to these
oil pools can be a problem. The most difficult cold-region spill to respond to
is an oil spill in moving ice floes. In this situation, few recovery tech-
niques are available, and the hazards created by the moving ice may make re-
sponse and cleanup very difficult.
Local ice properties also affect the spill behavior and response for each
of these three ice conditions. These properties include ice salinity and por-
osity, ice strength, and extent of snow cover. In the following pages, these
properties will be described and a discussion of oil spill behavior for the
three ice conditions and optimum spill response techniques will follow. A fam-
iliarity with these sections will provide the OSC with information on contain-
ment and recovery strategies, oil persistence, oil distribution, potential eco-
logical effects, and safety considerations for the cleanup crews.
Ice Porosity
As ice warms up and decays, its porosity increases, greatly affecting the
penetration depth of the oil. The porosity increases less in freshwater ice
28
-------
f
COOLING
CALM
WATER SURFACE
ADJACENT TO SHORE
| SHORE ICE
| ICE SHEET
SHOREFAST ICE
SALINE OR FRESH WATER
TURBULENT
WATER SURFACE
FRAZIL PARTICLES |
| PLATE ICE 1 | FRA2IL SLUSH]
-BROKE AWAY FROM SHORE -
SNOW COVER
[SNOW SLUSH |
AWAY FROM SHORE
| SLUSH BALLS |
PANCAKE ICE
ICE FLOES
Figure 7 . Ice formation (Michel, 1971)
29
-------
than in sea ice, because of the salt content of the latter. Therefore, oil
spilled on or under freshwater ice will not penetrate as deeply as it would
in sea ice.
The porosity of first-year sea ice varies greatly over the growing season.
While it is growing, the ice has a low porosity, probably less than 0.1% of its
total volume. As the ice warms up, the overall porosity rises to a value of
about 1% of the total ice volume (NORCOR 1975; Martin 1977). The increase in
porosity is due to the growth of large numbers of brine channels within the
ice. The maximum oil concentration, in a 1.2-m2 (12.9 ft^) surface area for
1-m (3.3-ft) thick ice, is one barrel (159 liters = 42 gal) of oil, independent
of the oil pooled on the ice surface.
The enlarged brine channels allow oil spilled during the spring to migrate
down intOj or up through, the ice. The brine channels also permit oil, trapped
within the ice during the winter growth, to migrate to the surface where it is
accessible for recovery. If an under-ice spill occurs during the decaying ice
period, it will also surface, as illustrated by a field experiment at Balaena
Bay, Northwest Territories (NORCOR, 1975). It was observed that oil spilled
under 1.95-m (6.4-ft) thick ice rose to the surface in 50 min. The volume of
oil within the cores taken at the site varied from 0.5 to 5%.
Therefore, as ice decays, oil easily penetrates and permeates the ice, be
it seawater or freshwater, the penetration depth increasing with increase in
ice porosity and decrease in oil viscosity. In a field test using Prudhoe Bay
crude oil conducted by the U.S. Coast Guard (Glaeser, 1971), a porous ice sur-
face, consisting of a layer of recrystallized ice approximately 5 cm (2 in)
thick, was found to absorb oil up to 25% of its volume. In comparison, at
Buzzards Bay the less viscous No. 2 fuel oil penetrated approximately 5 cm (2
in) into nonporous and less saline ice with a volumetric concentration of no
more than 5% (Deslauriers et al., 1977).
No practical recovery technique exists for oil that has penetrated ice.
Gathering contaminated ice and melting it down to remove the oil from the ice
has been tried (Jerbo, 1973; Monsma et al., 1975). However, the small quantity
of oil that can be recovered often does not justify the cost and time required
for such an effort. Ice removal and cleaning techniques are discussed in Sec-
tion 7.
Ice Strength
Response operations often require that men and equipment be on the ice.
The safety of the ice as a work platform is measured in terms of bearing
strength. Ice salinity, temperature, and cracks within the ice all affect the
ice sheet bearing strength. Usually, the more saline the ice, the weaker it
will be, except at temperatures below -20°C (-4°F). For temperatures above
-20°C (-4°F), the maximum possible strength of sea ice is one-third the strength
of freshwater ice (Assur, 1960). Figure 8 shows the freshwater ice-bearing
capacity with the equipment weights used for spill response on shorefast ice.
The formation or cracks in ice will decrease the ice-bearing strength.
cracks are parallel to travel, the load on the ice should be reduced by 50%
If
30
-------
(Figure 8 )-. A reduction in load by 75% is recommended if cracks are both
parallel and perpendicular to travel. In addition to cracks., areas of thin
ice'may exist where the ice appears to be thick and safe. These thin areas
are formed by leads (open water areas in ice) that refreeze. Refrozen leads
can be a serious problem, particularly if heavy equipment is being used.
Therefore, ice thickness should be monitored by drilling or electronic de-
tectors.'
The ice temperature will also greatly influence the ice-bearing strength.
From research on the antarctic pack sea ice, ice surface temperatures were
divided into four categories or thermal periods (Table 9 ) (Vaudrey and Katona,
1975). The table shows that flexural ice strength is considerably reduced at
the higher temperatures. Table 10 presents the minimum allowable ice sheet
thickness for various vehicles and the four thermal periods. The safety fac-
tor used in these calculations was 1.5, so that in each category, ice failure
occurs at a 50% increase in vehicle weight.
Snow has a significant impact on both oil-spill behavior and spill re-
sponse efforts. At.the Buzzards Bay oil spill, the accumulation of 12-cm
(4.7-in) snow onto spilled oil that was in deformed and fractured ice greatly
hindered the cleanup attempts (Deslauriers et al., 1977). Surveillance was
hampered because the oil on the ice surface was covered by the snow, making it
invisible from the air. In addition, an oil/snow mulch, consisting of 70 to
80% snow, was formed, making recovery, storage, and disposal difficult. The
FRESHWATER ICE BEARING CAPACITY CHART
(1) "White" ice only W as effective aa "Blue" ice.
(2) Reduce load by W if cracks parallel to travel.
(3) Reduce load by 3/4 If cracks both parallel and normal to travel.
(4) Use extreme care if weather extremely cold after warm period
or warm after cold period.
(5) Control speed in shallow water to avoid wave build-up.
(6) Reduce load by V* for young sea ice.
*&
0.1
0.3
456 78910 15 20 30 40 60 80 100
LOAD P (tons)
Figure 8. Freshwater ice-bearing capacity chart (Quam, 1978).
31
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TABLE 9 . ANNUAL SEA ICE SHEET MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(Vaudrey and Katona, 1975)
Thermal period
1
2
3
4
Ice sheet surface
temperature (°C)
-20
-10
- 5
- 3
to
to
to
to
-10
0
- 3
- 2
Flexural
(kN/m2)
480
430
400
275
strength
(psl).
69.6
62.4
58.0
39.9
TABLE 10. MINIMUM ALLOWABLE SEA ICE THICKNESSES FOR REPRESENTATIVE
" EQUIPMENT AND VEHICLES (Vaudrey and Katona, 1975)
Minimum allowable ice thickness (cm)(=.39 inj
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Vehicle
Pickup - Dodge W300
(GVW = 40.0 kN)
Pers. Carrier - Rodwell
(GVW = 122.5 kN)
Pers. Carrier - Track-
master (33.5 kN)
Caterpillar D-4
(76.5 kN)
Caterpillar D-8
(300.5 kN)
Caterpillar 950
(110.8 kN)
Caterpillar 955
(134.4 kN)
Road grader - Caterpillar
12F (125.9 kN)
Crane, wheeled-Petti bone
70 (314.6 kN)
Thermal
Period 1
28
43
26
51
109
61
74
66
102
Thermal
Period 2
33
54
31
61
122-
71
84
74
114
Thermal
Period 3
43
71
41
79
152
89
107
94
145
Thermal
Period 4
53
86
51
97
180
107
127
112
175
32
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interaction
and will be
of oil and 'snow
discussed later
is possible for all
in this section.
exposed spills in cold regions
Shorefast Ice
Oil spilled on top of or underneath solid shorefast ice requires certain
containment and recovery techniques, which are determined by the oil behavior.
This behavior depends on the oil properties, ice salinity, under-ice currents,
and whether the ice is growing or decaying. Oil spilled under or on solid ice
has been the subject of intensive study. In the following pages, the infor-
mation on oil and shorefast ice is divided into three topics: oil spreading
on or under ice, oil behavior in growing shorefast ice, and oil interaction
with decaying shorefast ice.
Oil Spreading on or Under Shorefast Ice
The spread of oil on or under ice is determined by the ambient tempera-
ture; the ice surface slope, roughness, and porosity; the oil properties; and,
to a certain extent, wind velocity and water currents. For the basic case of
oil spreading in still water under smooth, nonporous ice, experiments by Chen
and Scott (1975) and Keevil and Ramseier (1975) reveal that crude oil gathers
in layers that are 10-15 mm (.39-.59 in) thick. Equations have been derived
for the calculation of the oil spreading rate on or underneath an ice cover
(McMinn, 1972; Hoult, 1975; Chen et al., 1974). From a practical standpoint,
the oil in any given spill likely will have spread to its maximum area
before the initiation of any response action.
The maximum area of a spill on or under shorefast ice is determined pri-
marily by the roughness and porosity of the ice surface. In addition, exter-
nal forces such as wind for spills on the ice and water and currents for
spills under the ice, also influence the area! spread. A description of the
influence of ice surface roughness, ice porosity, wind, and water currents on
oil spreading on and under shorefast ice follows.
Ice generally has a rough surface caused by its initial growth from
frazil crystals, deformation by winds and currents, flooding and refreezing of
the ice, lifting and dropping of the ice cover by tidal action, and variations
in the distribution of the insulating snow cover. These conditions create
many undulations and cavities in the ice. When oil is spilled on or under the
ice, it spreads from the spill source, filling one undulation after another.
This process has been observed in experiments conducted by Hoult (1975),
NORCOR (1975), Ad.ams (1975), and Glaeser and Vance (1971).
.Oil may pool in ice undulations and cavities, greatly aiding recovery.
Unfortunately, the under-ice undulations and cavities are difficult to locate.
The presence of under-ice undulations may be indicated by snow drifts (Martin,
1978). Snow drifts that form a hard, crusty surface do not migrate and make
very good insulators. Thus they play an important role in limiting the ice
growth in that area, creating an under-ice undulation. Therefore, if a spill
occurs under the ice with hard snow drifts present, pools of oil may be con-
centrated below the snow drifts. Another way to locate under-ice undulations
is by using an ice thickness sensor. Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. has
developed a VHF impulse radar that can profile ice thickness and irregularities;
33
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it can be used from aircraft or on the ice (see Section 6).
It has been observed in the Canadian Arctic (NORCOR, 1975) that under-
ice irregularities tended to be sinusoidal and of a depth approximately equal
to 15% to 20% of the mean ice thickness. Kovacs (1977), in a study of ice
thickness profiling near Prudhoe Bay, estimated that the under-ice roughness
would limit the area! coverage of one barrel (159 a = 42 gal) of oil to 5.9
m2 (63.5 ft2) in ice 2 m (6.6 ft) thick. It should be noted that this number
is based on a limited amount of data. The under-ice roughness is normally
greater than the surface roughness; therefore, the ultimate area of spread on
top of ice without snow cover could be expected to be larger than under the
ice, assuming the same ice porosity and neglecting the effects of winds and
currents (Hoult, 1975).
Aside from the ice-pocket filling process, the absorption of oil by the
ice surface limits the area! distribution of the oil. In ice with a porous
crystal structure, light-viscosity oils freely penetrate the ice, while more
viscous oils do not penetrate as easily. Ice porosity will become greater
during thaw and will also increase in salinity.
In addition to these spreading mechanisms, high winds can also transport
oil on top of ice. In a spill at Deception Bay (Ramseier et al., 1973) and at
Buzzards Bay (Deslauriers et al., 1977), oil that was initially concentrated
in pools on the ice surface was blown out onto the ice in thin layers. This
wind-spreading of the oil greatly increases the rate of evaporation but makes
recovery more difficult.
Under the ice, water currents help to spread spilled oil. A minimum cur-
rent velocity is needed to initiate the movement of an oil slick. For the
simplest case of smooth ice, this minimum current for No. 2 oil has been ob-
served to be about 3.5 cm/s (1.38 in/s), while for more viscous crude oil, the
minimum current was substantially higher, 10 cm/s (3.94 in/s) (Uzuner and
Weiskopf, 1975). Therefore, if a slick is to be transported underneath an
ice cover, the water velocity must exceed these values. Once movement is ini-
tiated, the slick transport is a function of water velocity and depth as shown
inFigure9 (Quam, 1978). These measurements were taken under river ice with
wave-like undulations and may not be reliable for different ice surfaces.
Neither Uzuner and Weiskopf (1975) nor Quam (1978) noted oil adherence to the
ice, and the ice had an oil-free surface once the oil had passed.
Oil moving on or under the ice can be contained using any of several
techniques. For oil containment on the ice surface, berms could be made of
snow or ice (see Section 7), or sorbent booms (see Section 7) could be used.
For oil moving under shorefast ice, ice slots cut at a 30° angle to the water
flow would contain oil and also allow access to the oil for recovery. Ice
barriers, such as ridges and keels, provide collection points. Other methods
include cutting through the ice and installing a conventional open-water boom
or, if water currents are low and oil volume high, installing a deep-skirted
boom.
Recovery techniques for oil slicks on the ice surface include use of sor-
bent material (see Section 7.). The employment of motorized graders may be
34
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CURVE FOR ESTIMATING
MAXIMUM OIL VELOCITY UNDER ICE
0.9
0123456
AVERAGE WATER VELOCITY Vw ft./sec.
Note: The velocity at which oil will travel under ice is dependent
upon the water velocity and the average depth of water below the
ice. These measurements were taken under river ice, with wave-like
undulations, and may not be reliable for different ice surfaces
Figure 9. Maximum oil velocity under ice (Quam, 1978).
practical for large spills. For oil pools on the ice surface either in-situ
burning_or direct suction provide a fast response. No ealy methods ex st for
recovering oil under the ice. Access to the oil would first require methods
such as ice slotting or drilling through the ice (see Section1) The use of
an oil mop oleophilic rope (see Section 8) may be useful for under- ce spnis
when put through two holes in the ice. Once the oil is exposed ?n a
conventional mechanical
35
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Oil in Growing Shorefast Ice-- -
Ice growth can incorporate oil, either spilled on top or underneath the
ice. When oil is spilled under a solid ice sheet, the ice will grow both
around and beneath the spilled oil. If the air temperature is below freezing,
a lip of ice forms around the edge of the under-ice oil lens within a few
hours after the oil comes in contact with the ice. During cold periods, new
ice grows beneath the oil within a few days (Martin, 1977; Keevil and Ramseier,
1975; Hoult, 1975; Adams, 1975; Uzuner and Weiskopf, 1975). The oil remains
trapped underneath the ice until the ice warms and brine channels open.
Oil on the ice surface can also be entrapped by growing ice. In tests
conducted with oil spilled in calm open water under ice-forming conditions,
an ice layer formed beneath the oil (Scott and Chatterjee, 1975). If snow-
falls, the oil on top of the ice can be covered. Then, the absorption of solar
radiation by the oil under the snow can cause melting and collapse of the snow.
The melted snow later refreezes from heat loss either to the atmosphere or to
underlying ice into an ice layer on top of (Deslauriers et al., 1977) or under-
neath (Martin, 1977) the oil. Therefore, the melting and refreezing of snow
can form an ice/oil/ice layer that will affect cleanup.
It can be concluded that when oil is spilled in growing ice conditions,
it nearly always will be encapsulated in the ice. Therefore, if spill re-
sponse occurs during ice-forming conditions, it should occur shortly after the
spill. Otherwise, recovery crews will be faced with a more difficult recov-
ery situation. One possible technique is to drill to the oil lens and use
direct suction (see Section 7) to recover the oil. If the oil can be located
and is pumpable, suction may prove to be a good means of recovering oil with
very little water content. If oil is entrapped within the ice, it may be best
to wait for the ice to decay. When the ice decays, the oil rises through the
brine channels to the surface.
Oil Interaction With Decaying Shorefast Ice--
During spring thaw, the decaying shorefast ice increases in porosity and
decreases in strength. The increase in ice porosity is greater for sea ice
because of the salt in the ice that leads to brine channel growth, as described
in this section. Brine channels allow oil to rise through the ice to the sur-
face. Therefore, oil spilled under the ice or sandwiched between ice will rise
through and collect on the surface of decaying, porous ice.
Once the oil is on top of the ice, even under snow, the oil causes an in-
creased absorption of solar radiation, hastening ice melting. A comparison of
typical solar albedo (ratio of the solar energy reflected from a surface to
the total solar energy incident upon the surface) values is presented in Table
11. Glaeser (1971) reports that oiled ice melted approximately 2 cm (0.8 in)
more per day than clean ice. In Balaena Bay (NORCOR, 1975), oil reaching the
surface of the ice led to the formation of oiled melt ponds.
then rapidly deteriorated. This study concluded that.
The ice sheet
depending upon the
nature and location of the ice sheet, oiled areas are likely to be free of ice
between 1 and 3 weeks earlier than unoiled areas.
Oil spilled beneath decaying ice or incorporated between ice
bly migrate to the surface before the ice breaks up; spill r
probably migrate
layers will
response can
36
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TABLE 11. COMPARISONS OF SOLAR ALBEDO*
Albedo ratio
0.9
0.6
0.5
0.1
0.1
Type of surface
New snow
Clean ice
Oiled snow
Open water
Oil pool
* Source: Deslauriers and Schultz, 1976.
take place at this time. However, ice breakup is unpredictable and may be
premature because of storms. Since oiled ice decays faster than the surround-
ing ice, cleanup crews should use caution when on the ice. As the acceler-
ated ice melt continues, drainage pools will form where oil will concentrate,
making recovery easier. Complete ice melt under these pools will result in
some oil being drained from the pond and swept under the surrounding ice.
Few practical containment techniques exist for this type of spill behav-
ior. The oil will naturally form its own containment pools. The oil could
possibly be directed to large containment pools by digging shallow trenches
on the ice surface. The most favorable recovery technique would be in-situ
burning (see Section 7). If burning is not feasible, direct suction of the
pooled oil could be used. Another technique for thinly oiled areas or high-
viscosity oil is the application of sorbents.
Fractured/Deformed Ice
Oil behavior in ice-covered waters is strongly dependent on the movement
and deformation of ice. Ice that is not attached to the shore or bottom re-
sponds to wind and water currents by moving and deforming, leading to the for-
mation of rafts, pressure ridges, rubble fields, and leads (Figure 10). These
irregularities in the ice tend to concentrate the oil and shelter it from fur-
ther spreading. Therefore, oil-spill response efforts under these conditions
should initially focus on the areas of these ice formations.
Spill response logistics may be hazardous if the ice is susceptible to
motion. The use of ice-strengthened marine vessels may be required, with men
travelling a short distance on the ice to the concentrated oil.
Rafted Ice
Rafted ice forms when a flat ice sheet is subject to a compressive stress,
generated by a combination of current and wind forces. The ice breaks by buck-
ling, rather than by crushing, which frequently results in segments of ice
37
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Figure 10. Aerial View of first-year ice.
The photograph was taken 60 miles west of Cape Lisburn, Alaska, in
March 1978, by Seelye Martin. The aircraft was approximately 500
ft above the surface. Ice thickness was 1 m. There are two leads
extending diagonally across the lower part of the figure. Pressure
ridges and hummocked ice are in the upper part.
38
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sheets sliding one over the other (Parmerter, 1974). This sliding occurs
when the ice is less than 1 m (3.3 ft) thick and is elastic.
the upper ice depresses the lower sheet to a point where sea
over the lower sheet to form a wedge-shaped fluid layer.
The weight of
ice will flow up
Oil spilled on top or under rafted ice can replace the water in this
wedge to form a contained oil pool. AT the Buzzards Bay spill, these rafted
ice pools held approximately 30% of the oil spilled, and individual pools con-
tained as much
of sketches in
zards Bay.
as 7.57 m3 (2000 gal) of oil (Deslauriers, 1977). The sequence
Figure IT shows an oil capture scenario as it occurred at Buz-
The natural pools formed by rafted ice makes direct oil recovery possible.
In-situ burning would be the preferred response. If this is not used, direct
suction or sorbents (see Section 7) could be employed. If these oil pools are
approached by marine vessels, caution should be used not to disrupt the natur-
al containment of the rafted ice. ,
Piled Ice
Pressure ridges, rubble fields, ice
different forms of piled broken ice that
sites for spilled oil. Pressure ridges and rubble
sea ice, while ice jams and hanging ice dams occur
Ice formation in each of these cases is different,
tions are similar.
jams, and hanging ice dams are each
can serve as additional accumulation
fields occur in lake and
in swift-moving rivers.
but the oil/ice interac-
T
WATERLINE
WATER CURRENTS
DIESEL FUEL
c.
Figure 11. Flow of oil in rafted ice.
(a) oil flowing underneath the ice comes in contact with rafted ice;
(b) current reversal encourages oil filling into rafted ice pocket;
(c) reversal of current sweeps unsheltered oil away
(Deslauriers et al., 1977).
39
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Pressure ridges and rubble fields form from forces exerted on the ice by
wind, currents, waves, or moving ships that force the ice to pile. In piled
ice, the ice sheet is broken into pieces, extending above and below the water-
line. Figure 12 is an idealized sketch of the cross-section of a pressure
ridge. The ice extending above the normal ice surface is called the sail,
and the ice below is called the keel. Unlike a ridge with its clearly de-
fined crest, a rubble field consists of randomly piled broken ice pieces.
Weeks (1976) states that the ratio of sail height to keel depth is about 1 to.
5, and that both ridges and rubble fields are in approximate hydrostatic equi-
librium. When ridges first form, the blocks making up the ridge are separated
from one another by air- and water-filled spaces called voids. Weeks (1976)
states that from field observations, approximately 30% of the volume of a
young pressure ridge is void space, making it very permeable to oil. After
some time, and under proper conditions, these voids begin to freeze.
Hanging ice dams and ice jams are piled ice formations in rivers. Hang-
ing ice dams occur when frazil ice or ice pieces accumulate underneath a
stable ice cover at one point to form a dam. Ice jams occur when the ice is
breaking up and ice floes pile up at one point, jamming further progress of
the ice. Bath of these ice formations have keels and void spaces.
Oil released either on or under the ice that comes in contact with these
piled ice formations will be contained at the base of the sail or keel, flow
into the void spaces, become trapped within it during its formation, or flow
around or under it. Oil spilled under the ice can effectively be contained
by the keel. In an experiment (NORCOR, 1975) where water currents were 10
cm/s (3.9 in/s), oil was spilled under ice in the vicinity of an old pressure
ridge with few void spaces. The currents transported the oil at the base of
the keel, so that the oil gathered in a pool adjacent to the pressure ridge.
The oil remained there until the ice began to decay.
SAIL
Figure 12. Pressure ridge cross-section (sketch)
(Deslauriers et al., 1977)
40
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011 can be trapped within piled ice during'its formation. Contaminated
ice pieces are compressed together, creating a pile of oiled ice, with some
oil possibly pooled in the void spaces. Oil also can be trapped in a lead
that is squeezed together into a pressure ridge or rubble field. Oil then is
mixed within the broken ice and possibly spread on top or underneath the sur-
rounding ice cover.
Oil can flow also into the void spaces of piled ice. At Buzzards Bay,
oil spilled under the ice was contained by a newly formed porous rubble field
(Deslaurier et al., 1977). Oil flowing under the ice hydrostatically filled
the many cracks and appeared on the surface (Figure 13). Once in the rubble
field, the oil was prevented from spreading further. The oil also pooled suf-
ficiently in the rubble field so cleanup crews could recover the oil by direct
suction.
Factors affecting the transport of oil under or around piled ice forma-
tions are the oil volume and type; the ice keel depth, slope, roughness, and
width; and, most important, the current. Research is presently being con-
ducted by Arctec, Inc., Columbia, Maryland, to investigate further how ice
keels contain oil. Until these findings are complete, it is necessary to
assume that an ice keel's ability to contain oil is similar to that of an oil
boom. In general, a current velocity of about 51 cm/s (1 knot) normal to the
boom can be considered the upper limit for successful retention of oil.
Cleanup crews should concentrate their efforts on the upcurrent side of
the ice keels where oil is most likely to collect. Access to under-ice oil
spills can be accomplished by ice-slotting techniques. Access holes can be
made also by powered hand-held augers or large truck-mounted drills.
Once the oil is exposed, recovery methods (see Section 7) include in-situ
burning, the use of sorbents, or the use of mechanical recovery skimmers. Oil
pooled within the void spaces of the piled ice could be collected by drilling
and direct transfer; however, recovery may not be practical if the ice pieces
are piled high and close together.
Leads
When sheets of ice converge, they form rafts, pressure ridges, and rub-
ble fields, as described in the previous pages. Conversely, when the sheets
OIL
WATER CURRENT
Figure 13. Oil flowing into a rubble field (idealized cross-section)
(Deslauriers et al., 1977).
41
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diverge, they leave long linear regions of open water called leads. These
leads will open and close, depending upon wind stresses, water currents, and
ship traffic. Birds, seals, polar bears, and walrus often gather in these
open-water areas, making leads one of the most biologically vulnerable areas
in ice-covered waters.
Oil spilled in a lead will come in contact with the surrounding ice edge.
When a lead closes, the oil along the ice edge can be either contained, forced
beneath the ice, dispersed in the water, or washed on top of the ice. Fac-
tors that determine the direction of oil movement include the forces (for ex-
ample, waves and winds) pushing the oil against the ice, the specific gravity
of the ice and oil, and the thickness of the ice edge.
The ice edge can serve as an effective containment mechanism. In several
cold-region spills, the ice edge contained, or partly contained, the oil and
served as an effective barrier against further spreading (Ramseier et al.,
1973; NORCOR, 1974; Lamp1!, 1973). However, at the Buzzards Bay spill, the
oil generally flowed under the ice edge of leads. The ice failed to contain
the No. 2 oil because of wind and current stresses -- the water velocity was
approximately 50 cm/s (1 knot ) and the wind averaged 12 m/s (23.4 knots)
(Deslauriers et al., 1977).
Spill-response efforts should, therefore, concentrate on the downwind
ice edge of a lead where the oil is most likely to collect. Unfortunately,
this natural containment system may fail if the winds or currents are too
strong. These leads may close or open farther without warning, so precautions
should be taken. Containment or concentration of the oil for recovery in
leads may be accomplished by booms constructed for cold-region use (see Sec-
tion 7). Use of booms, however, would appear to be practical only in very
large leads.
Recovery techniques (see Section 7) must consider that broken ice pieces
will probably be mixed with the oil. If oil is sufficiently concentrated
along the lead edge, in-situ burning may be used. If mechanical recovery is
necessary, the Lockheed disc or the Oil Mop rope could recover the oil with
small ice pieces present.
Ice Floes
Response to an oil spill in ice floes will probably be the most difficult
and hazardous cold-region operation. Ice floes are defined as any ice, float-
ing freely on the water, that can move under the influence of winds and cur-
rents. Spill response becomes very complicated under these conditions, and
even a large cleanup effort may yield negligible results.
The Buzzards Bay spill that occurred in fractured/deformed ice was ini-
tially confined to an area of 0.1 km2 (25 acres) but after ice breakup, the
oil spread in between floes covering a 19.4-km2 (7.5-sq.mi.) area, making fur-
ther cleanup impractical. Therefore, if oil is spilled in shorefast or frac-
tured/deformed ice, all efforts should be concentrated on cleanup before the
ice breaks into ice floes.
42
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: Oil behavior is determined by the oil properties and ice floe size, por-
;osity, .movement, and,;most important, concentration. Low-viscosity oil has a
tendency to penetrate into the ice and spread thinly on the open water between
the floes. High-viscosity oil tends to adhere in a thick layer to the ice
surface and concentrate between the ice floes. The floe size (varying from
1-m [3.3-ft] diameter pancakes to floes several kilometers [miles] in diameter)
affects the oil spill movement, response logistics, and choice of cleanup
technique (Figure 14). The ice porosity will depend on the salinity of the
ice and on the ice growth/decay cycle and affects oil penetration into the
ice. Ice movement will be approximately at the same speed and in the same
direction as the water current, neglecting wind effects. Mobile ice floes
move at about 3% of the wind velocity, and generally at an angle of 20° to 40°
to the right of the predominant wind direction (Goddard Space Flight Center,
1974). The ice movement will greatly influence spill transport, particularly
at the higher ice concentrations.
The most important factor influencing the spill behavior and response in
ice floes is the ice concentration. Discussion of oil spill behavior can be
divided according to ice floe concentration (realizing that there are varia-
tions in spill behavior resulting from differences in ice floe size), poros-
ity, and movement. The ice floe concentration is divided into three ranges
(1% to 20%, 20% to 80%, and 80% to 100%), corresponding to three different
types of preferred spill responses.
Up to 20% Ice Floe Concentration--
Oil slick behavior on water covered by up to 20% ice floes is in many
ways similar to that in open-water spills. Oil moves away from its source
through the combined effects of spreading and drift. Oil does not usually
spread in the form of a single slick of nearly constant thickness but rather
in relatively thick slicks with diameters in the range of 0.5 to 10.0 m (1.6
to 32.8 ft) and a 5- to 10-mm (0.2- to 0.4-in) thickness (Milgram, 1978).
These slicks may contain nearly 90% of the oil by volume, concentrated at the
leading edge in an area about 1/8 of the total slick area (Jeffrey, 1973;
Mackay, 1977). Generally, the oil in the thick slicks is removed in success-
ful cleanup operations.
Coatings of oil may exist on some of the floes, but most of the oil will
be transported by winds, waves, and currents. Slick transport by wind (wind
velocity measured at 10 m from the water surface) varies from 1% to 5% of the
wind speed. Usually a wind drift factor of 3% of the wind speed is used.
Drift angles of 1° to 45° have been recorded when measuring the deflection of
the slick to the right of the wind vector as a result of the Coriolis force.
Usually a drift angle of 20° is used. A simplified method of predicting the
slick movement is provided in Figure 15.
Cleanup response is feasible for oil spilled in ice floe concentrations
of up to 20%. Equipment should be able to separate oil from broken ice,
withstand impact from ice floes and also to be operated in below-freezing tem-
peratures by personnel with heavy gloves. One of the most difficult problems
is containment in moving water. Any attempt to restrict the movement of ice
on moving water to contain or divert oil immediately results in two signifi-
cant problems: stress on the boom and blockage of oil movement. However,
43
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MARINE AREA
Vw = (Wind Speed) x 0.03 Vector (Knots)
Vc = Water Current Speed Vector (Knots)
Vs = Slick Speed Vector (Knots)
SLICK
Procedure:
1. Lay out 3% wind speed and current vectors from known head-
ings. Use same scale (inches/knot) for both vector lengths.
2. Draw line parallel to V\y at the tip of VQ (A-A) and line parallel
to Vc at the tip of Viff (B-B).
3. Draw line connecting intersection of AA, BB, and O. This is the
slick speed vector. Vs.
4. Measure length of Vg in inches and determine knots from scale
in Step 1.
5. With compass heading and speed of slick known, estimate
time of arrival at sensitive areas; deploy men and equipment as
required.
NOTE: 1 knot = approximately 1.7 ft/sec = 102 ft/min.
Figure 15. Prediction of slick movement
(U.i. Navy, 1977)
conventional containment and cleanup devices could perform in these ice con-
centrations if water currents are not high.
Containment booms that meet the criteria discussed in Section 7 could be
used. Marine vessels would be required to prevent large ice floes from enter-
ing the containment boom. If ice accumulation occurs in the boom, the boom
should have the ability to ride up over the ice and let it pass. Oil/ice
booms may have some application in river ice situations. Air bubble barriers
could be useful in limited situations.
Recovery devices (see Section 7) would have to separate the oil and ice.
Devices with this capability include the Oil Mop rope and the Lockheed disc.
Dispersants may be practical if conditions are suitable for its use.
20% to 80% Ice Floe Concentration-
Spilled oil in ice concentrations from 20% to 80% is often the most dif-
ficult situation to respond to. Low-viscosity oil will penetrate into the ice
(depending on the ice porosity) and flow between the ice to a thickness parti-
ally dependent upon the concentration of the ice field. Medium-viscosity oil
45
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will typically adhere to the ice surfaces and bleed oil sheen, or the lighter
ends, into the surrounding waters. High-viscosity oil would have a far
greater tendency to be contained by the broken ice., with resulting greater
oil thickness. If there is enough interaction between the oil and ice, all of
the heavy fractions of the spilled oil may adhere to the ice surfaces.
Oil that initially penetrates into the ice floes will probably be later
released as a thin oil sheen. During the 1977 Buzzards Bay spill (Deslauriers
et al., 1977), No. 2 fuel oil, incorporated in the relatively stable ice, was
slowly released at breakup. As the ice floes deteriorated, oil that had pen--,
etrated into the ice streamed from the floes in the form of sheen. The oil
was therefore allowed to travel a considerable distance with the ice before
being released into the open water. During ice breakup, spill response opera-
tions were attempted with essentially no recovery. Contaminated ice floes
that drifted into coves settled on the beaches and leaked the oil into the
sediments and beach grasses.
Oil that adheres to ice floes would also be impractical to recover. In
the 1977 Ethel H spill on the Hudson River (Morson and Deslauriers, 1977),
No. 6 oil was spilled in a broken ice field. Before the spill, ice floes cre-
ated from the breakup of the shorefast ice covered 80% of the river at some
locations. As these ice floes traveled down the river, heavy tarry oil ad-
hered to many of the ice floes. In some instances, the ice floe surface was
50% covered with oil. A thin sheen of oil was observed streaming from some
of the more heavily oiled ice pieces. When the ice floes became more closely
packed, the oil between the floes was contained to a greater thickness. Re-
covery operations in the moving broken ice were attempted, but no significant
volume of oil was recovered.
Frazil and slush ice are often seen between ice floes, where the spilled
oil will be concentrated, on open water, and under solid ice. Laboratory ex-
periments conducted by Martin et al. (1976) revealed that slush and frazil ice
have high porosities. It was concluded that because of the high porosity and
warm surface temperature, oil spilled within slush ice probably behaves as if
the slush ice were not present. Based on these tests, it appears that oil
would have to be recovered with, or separated from, the frazil or slush ice
it is floating on.
The only available containment technique for 20% to 80% ice concentration-
is the oil/ice boom (see Section 7), which would create an open-water area
where conventional response equipment could be used. No recovery techniques
are presently available for these ice floe concentrations.
80% to 100% Ice Floe Concentration--
Spill response in ice concentrations from 80% to 100% is difficult and
hazardous. However, medium- and high-viscosity oils may be sufficiently con-
centrated by the tightly packed ice to allow in-situ burning.
Experiments (Vaudrey and Katona, 1975) on the dispersion of Prudhoe Bay
crude oil and No. 2 diesel fuel, in a broken ice field of 95% concentration, ,
showed the importance of oil viscosity. When the crude oil was poured into
the broken ice field, it built up in thickness between the ice pieces instead
46
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of spreading. After 91 L (24 gal) of crude oiT were deposited, the slick
covered an area of only 2.8 m2 (30 ft2,):. On temperature waters, the same vol-
ume would cover approximately 28 m2 (300 ft2). The oil thickness in the cen-
ter was 9.5 cm (3.7 in), varying to about 6.4 cm (2.5 in) near the boundary.
When No. 2 oil was spilled under the same conditions, it spread rapidly and
thinly through the broken ice field.
If there are waves present in broken ice of high concentration, the ice
field will periodically compress and expand so that the oil will be progres-
sively pumped along channels. If a channel is restricted and the film is suf-
ficiently thick, the oil will be forced onto the ice surface (Martin et al.,
1976). Oil spilled under these conditions will be concentrated in the open
water between the pancakes and along the edges of the ice pancake surface.
The only response technique available for this broken ice condition is in-situ
burning (see Section 7>).
Oil Spill Trajectory Modeling in Cold Regions
In modeling of oil spill trajectories, surface ocean current and wind
fields need, to be specified (though uniform winds are usually used for the
entire region). In regions without ice, trajectory modeling Has been success-
ful. '
The presence of ice makes the problem much more complex. In the Beaufort
Sea, for example, there are three dynamically changing regions where different
processes act to trap and/or advect oil (Wadham, 1976):
Inner fast ice under this ice,
thickness.
oil tends to spread to .equilibrium
Outer fast ice -- oil trapped by ridges and hummocks under the ice.
Shear zone oil partially trapped under the ice. With the forma-
tion of leads, oil becomes incorporated in pressure ridges. Oil is
advected by moving ice with downstream lateral movement (Lewis, 1976).
Campbell and Martin (1973) and Lissauer and Tabeau (1980) reviewed the
large-scale processes that act in the Beaufort Sea and indicate possible move-
ment of 1 to 2000 km over a period of 2 to 3 months. Drifter trajectories are
shown in Figure 16, which gives both references in full.
As oil comes to the surface of the ice, either by working its way through
first-year ice (Lewis, 1976) or by pumping the formation of ice pancakes
(Martin et al., 1976), the surface albedo of the ice is significantly lowered.
Conceivably the lowering of the albedo could increase the surface absorption
of solar energy and cause melting. Such interactions make predicting the fate
of oil a complex process.
In regions of fast-moviffg Currents, such as were observed during the
Arrow oil spill (Task Force, 1970), the edge of an ice field can act as a. bar-
rier to oil flow, similar to a boom. However, if the current exceeds the cri-
tical velocity for the boom, oil will flow under the ice and be entrapped by
47
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the uneven bottom surface of the ice. Oil then would be transported princi-
pally by the movement of the ice. Recent laboratory experiments have quanti-
fied some of the conditions that control the movement of oil under ice (Schultz
and Cox, 1979). Other studies have shown that the underside of sea ice has an
enormous capacity for containing oil (Kovacs, 1979). Martin (1981) discusses
anticipated interactions between oil and ice in the Bering Sea.
Research efforts currently underway are making advances in our under-
standing of oil-ice interactions. However, reliable techniques for predicting
the location of oil spilled near or under ice will not be available for at
least several years.
COASTAL
Coastal environments vary significantly in response to a wide range of
ice, wave, tide, wind, and sediment conditions. Understanding the roles that
each of these conditions plays will provide insights into the spill behavior
and proper response for each coastal environment discussed.
It is important to first discuss the conditions that determine oil spill
behavior within various coastal environments. Much of this information has
been gathered from publications by Owens (1971, 1977a, 1977b). Then the dif-
ferent coastal environments, their vulnerability to spilled oil, and the types
of cleanup procedures best suited to each environment are discussed. A large
part of this information is from publications by Hayes, Gundlach, and associ-
ates (Gundlach and Hayes, 1977; Gundlach et al., 1977, 1978; Gundlach et al.,
unpublished manuscript; Hayes and Gundlach, 1975; Hayes et al., 1976).
On-Shore Oil Distribution Parameters
Distribution and persistence of spilled oil on shores in cold regions is
controlled primarily by ice, waves, tides, sedimentary characteristics, oil
quantity, winds, and offshore transport. These parameters can vary signifi-
cantly within different coastal environments, determine if the oil is readily
buried, penetrates into the sediment, is swept off the shore, or is stored
within some coastal environment.
Ice
The formation of ice on the shoreline modifies littoral processes. Most
important, ice can prevent or restrict spilled oil from reaching the shore or
penetrating into the sediment. Ice can be present on the shore as shorefast
ice, ice feet, or frost between sediments.
Shorefast ice extends as a solid sheet from the shore to a point bounded
by open water or free-floating ice. Shore contamination is very unlikely if
shorefast ice exists. The ice normally serves as an effective containment
mechanism, preventing oil from spreading to shore.
Two past spills illustrate the effectiveness of shorefast ice in protec-
tion of the coast. In the 1977 Hudson River oil spill (Morson and Deslauriers,
1977), No. 6 fuel oil accumulated on the shores exposed to open water. In
areas where shorefast ice existed, no oil was observed underneath the shorefast
49
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ice. However, at the Buzzards Bay oil spill (Deslauriers et al., 1977), No. 2
oil was observed to flow under the edge of the shorefast ice. There the ice
failed to contain the oil because of wind and current stresses (water velocity
was approximately 50 cm/s (1 knot) and wind averaged 12 m/s (24 knot). How-
ever, negligible shore contamination resulted because of the low water velo-
cities in the shallower waters adjacent to the shoreline. Only a light oil
sheen was observed flowing under the shorefast ice in the protected coves and
bays. Based on these observations, it is concluded that if shorefast ice
exists, the littoral zone probably will be protected, and coastal cleanup ef-
forts should be directed to areas where shorefast ice does not exist.
The ice foot is a narrow fringe of ice attached to the coast, unmoved by
tides, and remaining after the shorefast ice has moved away. Oil that has
been deposited on an ice foot can be eroded if the adjacent water areas are
ice-free, or the oil could be enclosed and buried by further accumulations of
ice that would result from snow or from the freezing of wave spray and swash.
Upon subsequent exposure, this oil would be released either into the sea or
onto the shoreline.
When the beach is free of ice, individual ice floes can be pushed into
the littoral zone by wind action. If the ice grounds on the beach, it can
push sediment landward to form a sediment ridge. This movement mixes the oil
with beach sediment or buries oil beneath the ice-pushed ridge.
On beaches in'cold regions, water between sediments freezes during per-
iods of sub-zero temperatures. This subsurface ice fills the spaces between
the sediment particles and acts as a lower limit for oil penetration. A pos-
sible spill containment technique would be to spray water on a beach before
oil reaches the shoreline (see Section 7). However, temperatures would have
to be below freezing and the beach would have to be prepared well in advance
of an approaching oil slick.
Waves--
Wave energy is important in dispersing, mixing, and burying oil. The
levels of wave energy depend on duration, fetch, and wind stress. Coasts open
to swell and/or storm waves are high-energy environments. Environments that
are sheltered, or have limited waves, have lower energy levels. The transfer
of energy to the littoral zone has a direct effect on oil. Mechanical energy
from breaking waves causes the physical dispersion and speeds chemical break-
down of oil on the water and on the shoreline. In addition to the breaking
up of an oil slick into smaller slicks or individual oil particles, mixing of
oil and water can lead to the formation of emulsions, such as "chocolate
mousse." Also, as waves break on a shoreline, oil can be splashed in the same
manner as wave spray splashes beyond the normal high-tide swash!ine.
The most important effect of the energy transfer associated with wave
action is the dispersal and redistribution of sediments. On a shoreline that
has a large seasonal difference in wave energy levels, erosion predominates in
one season and construction (or accretion) in another. Usually referred to as
a summer/winter beach cycle, with erosion predominating in winter months, an
example is commonly seen on the West Coast of North America. In other areas,
such as on the Northeast Coast of North America, a storm/post-storm cycle
50
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predominates. In this situation, the seasonal variations are overshadowed by
higher frequency cycles of erosion, during the passage of storms, and construc-
tion * in the post-storm recovery period. During an erosion phase on a beach,
sediments and oil would be removed and transported into the nearshore area.
If oil is deposited on a beach immediately following the erosion phase but be-
fore recovery has commenced, the oil on, the beach would be buried as construc-
tive waves return sediment.
Waves that
of sediment by a
suiting from the
backwash combing
continuous state
grating rhythmic
approach the beach at an angle cause the longshore movement
process that is referred to as longshore or beach drift, re-
swash running up a beachface at an oblique angle and the
down the sediments. Material on the beach surface is in a
of motion and is transported along shore. The resulting mi-
topography can erode and deposit oil, as shown in Figure 17.
In the event of very high levels of wave action or a rise in water level
caused by storm surge, wave activity may extend over the highest parts of the
beach system. This process is referred to as overwash. If overwash is taking
place, oil may be washed over the beach into the dune system and likely into
the backshore lagoon.
Tides--
Tides influence the aging and distribution of oil and also control the
effects of wave energy on oil. The variation in water level resulting from
tides is one of the most important controls on the distribution of wave energy
on a shoreline. In low tidal environments, wave energy is transmitted to the
shoreline in a small range of elevation. The effectiveness of wave action to
erode decreases as tidal range increases, because wave energy is dissipated
over an increasingly larger vertical section of shoreline (Hayes, 1975).
Since wave energy is a primary factor in the physical breakdown and dispersion
of stranded oil, the increase in tidal range reduces the effectiveness of waves
to clean an oiled shoreline.
Tidal range varies during monthly and six-monthly cycles. This cycle, or
spring (high) and neap (low) tidal ranges, is particularly noticeable in re-
gions that have high tidal range. If oil is stranded on the higher parts of
the shoreline at times of spring tides, it cannot be affected by waves until
the next spring tide (unless there is an increase in wave height that allows
waves to affect that part of the shoreline).
The range of tides has a significant effect on the nonmechanical degrada-
tion of oil. Oil adhering to the sediments near the low-water level is sub-
merged during approximately 75% of the time for each tidal cycle, whereas oil
near the high-water mark is exposed for 75% of the time. As a result of this
differential exposure, oil in the upper intertidal zone is subject to higher
rates of weathering than oil that is covered by water during most of the tidal
cycle.
Tidal range is a critical element in the distribution of oil on the shore-
line. As the range increases, oil can be distributed over a wider intertidal
zone. If the range is low, oil is concentrated over a narrower vertical band,
and, therefore, the concentration of the stranded oil is greater. If the range
51
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a.
\:\-.\;-':.:.;:v/-:-v::'-;:'.BERM .'.;-; ^''v-: ^V
HIGH
WATER
LINE
b.
c.
d.
e.
Figure 17. Oil deposits at high-water level -- plan view
of migrating rhythmic topography (Owens, 1971).
52
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is large, oil is spread over a wider
oil, therefore, tends to be thinner.
surface area, and a layer of stranded
Tidal currents can also play an important part in oil distribution. Ero-
sion and deposition of sediments by tidal currents in the intertidal zone can
cause burial or erosion of oil deposited there. Tidal currents in inlets or
restricted channels lead to the transport, mixing, and breakup of oil on the
water surface.
Sedimentary Character!'sties--
The sedimentary characteristics of a spill-affected beach are also impor-
tant considerations in oil-spill behavior. The grain size of the sediments
affects the depth to which stranded oil can penetrate, though this also var-
ies with the viscosity of the oil. Low-viscosity oils can permeate all except
the finest grained sediments, such as compacted mud. For fine-grain sediment,
the spaces between the particles are extremely small and are usually filled
with water. High-viscosity oils do not usually penetrate sand more than a few
centimeters, except where high air temperatures reduce oil viscosity or when
the oil has been on the beach for some time. If the sand is saturated with
water, or the spaces between the particles are frozen, oil will not penetrate
beyond the surface.
On well-sorted pebble or cobble beaches, where the spaces between the
particles are not filled with smaller sized sediments, even the semi-solid and
tarry oils can penetrate the beaches. This occurred in Chedabucto Bay, where
weathered Bunker C oil was observed to have penetrated as much as 1.5 m (4.9
ft) below the surface of a pebble/cobble beach (Owens, 1977a).
In general, for depositional beaches, the thickness of oiled sediment in-
creases as grain size increases. At the Urquiola spill site in Spain (Figure
18) observations noted the depth of oil burial as a function of grain size,
measured from most of the affected beaches in Spain. The emulsifying action
of chemical agents enables oil to penetrate farther into the beach, making
cleanup more difficult (Northeast Region Research and Development Program,
1969; Duerden, 1976). However, further research is necessary to document the
actual increase in oil penetration that occurred as a result of dispersants on
beaches of differing grain size.
Oil Quantity--
The quantity of oil spilled influences the possible total extent of af-
fected shoreline, the distribution of oil on the beach, and the duration for
which oil shoreline interactions (such as burial and mixing) can be maintained.
Once oil impacts the shoreline, the quantity of oil determines its surface dis-
tribution on beaches. If there are low quantities of oil, oil is deposited
primarily along the high-tide swashline. As the quantity increases, oil cov-
ers more of the beachface. Under heavier accumulation, the entire intertidal
zone becomes covered with thicker concentrations, forming along the high tide
swashline. Greater penetration into the sediment and deeper burial occurs
with higher oil quantities.
Winds
In addition to transporting oil slicks on water, winds can cause the
53
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65
55
UJ 45
I 35
CO
Q 25
ui
o 10
CO
CO 8
Ul
z
y = 2.58-0.08x
r2=0.71
SCALE CHANGE
- RANGE OF VALUES
_L
-20 -10 0 10 20
MEAN GRAIN SIZE (0)
30
40
100-1
^x
J 90-
< 80-
cc
S 70-
o so
H 40 H
D.
ui
Q 30-
20-
10-
WAVE ENERGY
+ LOW
HIGH
y=3.26-0.06x
r2=0.50
-20
30
-10 0 10 20
MEAN GRAIN SIZE (0)
I GRAVEL ICOARSE-SAND! MED I FINE-SAND
40
Figure 18. Depth of oil burial and thickness of oiled sediment
as a function of grain size (Gundlach et al., 1978).
54
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burial of oil by sediment or snow, and Affects, .the oil aging rate. Material
that is sand-sized or smaller can be transported near the ground by wind. In
an area where oil has been deposited, any transported sediment could bury the
oil, which would be likely in a situation where the beach is backed by dunes
and where the winds are offshore. During periods of storm winds, large vol-
umes of sand can be transported, and an oil layer could be partially or com-
pletely buried within a few hours. The effect of such burial would be to re-
duce aging.
If loose snow is present, the wind can transport it over an area where
oil has been deposited. Drifting snow can cover the oil in a very short time
period. Also, as discussed before, the wind affects the aging rate by trans-
porting volatized hydrocarbons.
Offshore Transport
Offshore bottom pollution can come from oil that has impacted the shore.
Mixing of oil and sediments on beaches and tidal flats forms a mixture that is
denser than water. The manner in which oil is attracted to the sediment is
important. If oil is unattached as tar balls, then the sediments may be
cleaned easily by natural processes. However, if oil is directly attached to
clay particles or organic detritus, then natural processes may only transfer
the mixture to another site.
Once the oil adheres to the sediment, it forrnr a very stable mixture.
In experimental work, tests were run to determine the uptake of different
hydrocarbon species. Resuspensions of the oil-affected sediment, such as that
which would occur in the natural environment, succeeded in removing only 15%
of the oil, thus indicating a stable association. However, biological activ-
ity and dissolution may, with time, cause further hydrocarbon release (Meyers
and Quinn, 1973).
The oil and sediment mixture can be removed from the beach by natural
processes such as erosion. Sediment transport, driven by wave action, can
take this contaminated mixture a considerable distance offshore. Storm-
generated transport of bottom sediments on the continental shelf have been
found in water depths as great as 80 m (262 ft) (Smith and Hopkins, 1972).
Storms can also mix the oil with the sediment offshore. It has been observed
that turbulence produced by hurricanes mixed the top 10 cm (3.9 in) of surface
sediments, in depths up to 35 m (115 ft) (Hayes, 1967); In addition to trans-
port by waves, longshore currents can also cause considerable sediment trans-
port. . ' :
Environments: Vulnerability and Response
Coastal environments can be categorized by their coastal geomorphology
and vulnerability to spilled oil. Vulnerability is primarily based on the
long-term persistence of the oil, though initial biological effects are con-
sidered. Variations of oil-spill behavior will occur within each coastal en-
vironment based on ice, waves, tides, sedimentary characteristics, oil viscos-
ity and quantity, winds, and offshore transport. By combining the information
on the variable conditions within the affected coastal environment, a reason-
ably accurate picture of the spill behavior can be obtained, which would serve
55
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as a guideline for cleanup operations.
The major coastal environments have been classified on a scale of 1 to
10 in terms of potential vulnerability to oil-spill damage. The scale empha-
sizes oil persistence, with a consideration of initial biological impacts.
Exposed rocky headlands and wave-cut platforms (numbers 1 and 2 on the index)
are generally least affected by an oil spill. Coarse-grained, sandy or gravel
beaches, which are subject to oil penetration and burial, are assigned inter-
mediate index values of 4 to 7. Sheltered environments, such as sheltered
rocky coasts and salt marshes (index values of 8 to 10) are the environments
most likely to be affected by oil spills. For example, oil persistence of
more than 10 years is predicted for some salt marsh areas, compared with 2
weeks for exposed rocky headlands.
Exposed, Steeply Dipping, or Cliffed Rocky Headlands
Exposed rocky headlands are often open to high wave energy. Oncoming
waves are reflected back off the rock scarps, usually generating a return
flow. In the event of an oil spill, this return flow would keep most of the
oil off the rocks. In addition, the great mixing action associated with the
swash zone at the base of the rocks aids in the natural breakdown of the oil
into smaller volumes that are more easily degraded by bacteria. Persistence
of oil on rocky or cliff coasts depends on the rates of natural erosion, the
levels of wave energy, and the location of the oil. For example, if the oil
is splashed above the normal wave activity, it will persist longer.
Oil-spill control and cleanup is usually unnecessary on these coasts be-
cause of the low level of contamination and rapid rate of natural cleanup.
However, if cleanup is desired, several techniques have been proven effective
in past spills. Hydraulic dispersal, steam cleaning, sand blasting, or manual
scraping can be used to remove viscous oil that adheres to rock surfaces when
wave energy is low. These techniques only disperse the oil that would have to
be collected and removed. Sorbent materials placed at the base of the rock
would aid oil collection. If oil is deposited on unconsolidated material,
these techniques are not recommended, since the cliff face would be washed
away by mechanical cleaning. . ,
Eroded Wave-Cut Platforms
Eroded platforms consist of narrow, wave-swept beaches of eroding glacial
material or platforms cut directly into crystaline or sedimentary rock that
may be covered with sand or gravel. Wave action is usually high, and a natural
cleansing of the beach occurs rapidly, generally within weeks. The rate of re-
moval is a function of wave climate. The greater the wave energy, the more
rapidly oil will be removed.
In most cases, oil-spill cleanup or control methods are not necessary.
If cleanup is desired, several techniques are available. For medium- and high-
viscosity oil, high-pressure hydraulic dispersal, steam cleaning, sand blast-
ing, or manual scraping can be used to remove the oil from rock surfaces. For
low-viscosity oil, low-pressure hydraulic dispersal is recommended. These
techniques will only disperse the oil; it should be collected and removed by
other methods. Sorbents would be suitable for oil collection. However, oil
may flow from the rock surfaces in between the rocks and penetrate to greater
56
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depths. If this occurs, cleanup by these,methods is not recommended. Where
oil collects in pools or hollows, it can be burned in situ, removed manually
with sorbents, or can be picked up with cans, buckets, or direct suction.
This plan should be carried out before tides rise and the pooled oil is moved
to adjacent areas. Otherwise, this oil could contaminate or recontaminate ad-
jacent shoreline areas.
Flat, Fine-Sand Beaches--
Fine-grained beaches (0.0625 to 0.25 mm [.00025 to .098 in] grain size)
usually have a flat profile and are hard-packed. The grains of fine sand are
close together and effectively inhibit oil penetration to less than a few
centimeters below the surface. Oil persistence varies over a wide range, de-
pending upon the variables discussed in an earlier part of this section.
Several methods are available to protect sand beaches from an approaching
oil slick. In areas where wave energy is low, conventional booms may be use-
ful. In areas of low tidal range, the beach can be protected by construction
of a dike or trench at the water level. This can be carried out by machinery
pushing sand to the water line. In higher tidal areas, a dike would be built
at or near the high-water line to prevent oil from being deposited on the back
shore. Wet sand makes a more effective dike; therefore, the sediment from the
iritertidal zone should be used rather than dry backshore sand.
Recovery is simplified because of the flat, hard surface and limited oil
penetration. A thin layer of oil on the surface can often be scraped off with
a motorized scraper. Under heavier oil accumulations, with penetration depths
of up to 3 cm (1.2 in) the most effective method is the use of a motorized
scraper in conjunction with a motorized elevator scraper. In cases where it
is not necessary to remove the oil, machinery can be used to push the oil and
contaminated material into the intertidal zone. Though this may recontamin-
ate other areas, wave action will subsequently abrade and disperse the oil,
and in this way the aging of the oil is increased with the necessity of remov-
ing any oil from the beach.
Sorbents also can be spread over the beach at low tide if cleanup is
planned. These mix with the oil as the oil is washed ashore and could make
the subsequent cleanup easier. It has been noted that sorbents are much more
effective if laid down before or immediately following the stranding of oil,
since this reduces the penetration of oil into the sediments (Sartor and Foget,
1971). In-situ burning may be feasible in some situations; however, the oil
may penetrate deeper into the sediments because of reduced oil viscosity.
Sand-cleaning machines have been developed for the removal of oil, but these
have only been used in experimental situations or for minor spills. Small
amounts of oiled sand can be cleaned by a small rotary-kiln-type burner, con-
structed from old oil drums. Mobile equipment has been developed for removing
high-viscosity oils (such as emulsified, aged, or Bunker C oils) from the sur-
face of beaches, using screens, sieves, drums, or discs. For small spills, in
areas where vehicle access is not possible, manual removal using shovels,
rakes, and plastic bags is- an effective technique.
Caution must be taken to wait until all the oil has drifted onto the
beach, in order not to repeatedly drive over the oiled portions during the
57
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cleanup effort (further grinding the oil into the beach). Caution also should
be taken to remove only minimal quantities of: sand. Long-term beach erosion
may become a serious problem if excessive amounts.of sand are removed. If
removal of sediment from the beach crest is necessary, it is advisable that
the material be replaced by an equal volume of the same-sized sediment. This
can be achieved using machinery to push material from backshore dunes to re-
build the natural berm.
Steeper, Medium- to Coarse-Grained Beaches--
These beaches (0.25 to 2.0 mm [0.1 to 0.8 in] grain size) are present in
a variety of coastal environments, from low-energy beaches to higher-energy
environments. Oncoming oil may readily sink 15 to 25 cm (5.9 to 9.8 in) into
the sand and be buried by natural processes to much greater depths. Oil
stranded on the beachface slope is usually abraded and dispersed rapidly by
the constant movement of sediments, unless the oil layer is very thick and/
or wave energy levels are low. An indicator of wave energy on beaches is the
degree of beach sediment sorting, with distinct zonations of one,sediment size
in beaches with high-wave energy and poorly sorted sediments for low-wave en-
ergy beaches. The degree of sorting can be a useful indicator of the persis-
tence of oil in this environment.
Oil-spill cleanup becomes very difficult where oil is buried deeply in
the beach. No effective onshore protection method can be recommended; how-
ever, suggestions may be useful. Trenches and dikes, constructed at the high-
water mark, can protect the backshore areas by acting as collectors of oil arid
thus preventing it from reaching sensitive areas such as marshes.
Recovery of oil by mechanical equipment is possible; however, it may be
difficult to use on these beaches because of low traction provided by the sed-
iments. Graders and elevating scrapers could be used if oil penetration is up
to 3 cm (1.2 in). If the oil is 3 to 22 cm (1.2 to 8.7 in), use only a motor-
ized elevating scraper. If the oil penetration is greater than 22 cm (8.7 in),
use a wheeled front-end loader or bulldozer. Bulldozers are more effective on
loose, coarse-grained beaches. Where steep slopes exist, backhoes could be
used. Sediments can be pushed down the beqch- to allow wave action to abrade
and disperse the oil. Also, machinery can be used to break up oil cover, par-
ticularly if it forms an asphalt pavement crust. Sorbents spread over the
beach can reduce the penetration of oil. This technique is less effective if
spaces between the sediments are large, and collection of the sorbent/oil mix-
ture is frequently a difficult operation. Manual removal may prove to be par-
tially successful if the oil has pooled in some areas.
It is important to note that complete removal of oil-contaminated sediment
could result in long-term damage to the beach. As an additional problem, heavy
machinery can easily be trapped and immobilized'in the loosely packed sand.
Fortunately, the same high-energy beach processes that cause rapid oil burial
will also remove much of the oil from the beachface within a relatively short
period of time, usually weeks to months if wave action is fairly high.
Exposed, Compacted Tidal Flats-
Tidal flats are compacted, fine-grained mud or sand that are relatively
exposed to wind, waves, and currents. The tidal flats are usually water-
58
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saturated, and oil does not penetrate the surface sediments because the spaces
between the particles are filled with water. Most of the oncoming oil is
readily moved over the surface of the tidal flat and onto the adjacent beach.
Any oil remaining on the flat will be degraded rapidly by natural processes.
On wide, intertidal flats, cleanup operations could be hazardous, because
of rapidly rising tides and the presence of soft patches of sand. These areas
often have low bearing capacity and the machinery could get stuck. Cleanup on
these wide flats is not advisable unless absolutely necessary. If necessary,
cleanup activity should concentrate on manual removal of possible small oil
pools left after each tidal cycle. In-situ burning may be feasible if the oil
is of sufficient thickness. Machinery, such as graders and elevating scrapers,
should be used only if oil coverage becomes very extensive, and they should be
used with caution.
Mixed Sand and Gravel Beaches
Beaches of this type are often located in moderate- to high-energy envi-
ronments. Oil readily penetrates TO to 20 cm (3.9 to 7.9 in) into the sedi-
ment, and burial may be rapid, possibly within a few days. Oil spilled on
this type of beach may remain for long time periods.
Removal of oil-can be extremely difficult without further damaging the
beach. Under most circumstances, it would probably be best to let natural
processes eliminate the,oil on the beachface and concentrate mechanical or
manual labor on the removal of oil deposited at the upper edge of the high
tide swash zone. Oil will concentrate the most in this zone and, if deposited
at a spring tide, will degrade at a very low rate. Methods for recovery would
be similar to those described in the section on steeper, medium- to coarse-
grained beaches.
(0.08 in). Oil pene-
this beach type. In
under high-wave energy
abraded and dispersed
Gravel Beaches--
Gravel beaches have grain sizes greater than 2 mm
trates rapidly and deeply into the coarse sediments of
addition, oil may be buried rapidly by gravel shifting
conditions. Oil stranded on the beachface can also be
by the constant movement of sediments unless the oil layer is very thick and/
or wave energy levels are low. Sediment shape and sorting are indicators of
energy levels. Angular, poorly sorted materials reflect low-energy environ-
ments; well-sorted materials occur in environments with high energy levels.
A moderately- to heavily-oiled gravel beach is difficult to clean without
removal of large amounts of sediment. The removal of gravel may result in pos-
sible adverse effects to the long-term stability of the beach. The oil/sedi-
ment ratio of these beaches is very low, and large volumes of material would
have to be removed to recover relatively small amounts of oil.
Mechanical equipment is difficult to use on these beaches because of the
low traction provided by the sediment. Front-end loaders may be partially
successful in removing some of the oiled sediments. Front-end loaders with
tires are preferred; however, if gravel is very loose, tracked vehicles are
recommended.
59
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As rates of sediment transport are relatively low on gravel beaches be-
cause of the large size of the sediment, rates of replacement of removed mate-
rial are also low. Therefore, any material removed should be replaced by sed-
iment of similar size. Replacement of material removed from the upper beach
or storm ridge could be affected by pushing sediments from the backshore into
the removal area.
Sheltered Rocky Coast-
Oil will coat the rough surfaces and tidal pools found within the numer-
ous coves and protected embayments along the rocky coastline. The longevity
of oil-spill damage is influenced by the degree of wave activity. In more ex-
posed areas, oil will degrade fairly rapidly, but in the very protected envi-
ronments, oil could remain for years.
Cleanup in this type of environment is difficult and very expensive since
this environment is often inaccessible. If cleanup is desired, several tech-
niques are available. For medium- and high-viscosity oil, high-pressure hy-
draulic dispersal, steam cleaning, sand blasting, or manual scraping can be
used to remove the oil from rock surfaces. For low-viscosity oil, low-
pressure hydraulic dispersal is recommended. These techniques will only dis-
perse the oil that should be collected and removed by other methods. Sorbents
would be suitable for oil collection. However, oil may flow from the rock sur-
faces in between the rocks and thus penetrate to greater depths. If this
occurs, cleanup by these methods is not recommended., Where oil collects in
pools or hollows, it can be burned in-situ or removed manually with sorbents
and picked up with cans, buckets, or direct suction. This action should be
carried out before tides rise, releasing the pooled oil to adjacent areas.
Otherwise, this oil could contaminate or recontaminate adjacent shoreline
areas. Only if an area is inundated with heavy oil concentrations should
cleanup be considered.
Sheltered Estuarine Tidal Flats-
Protected tidal flats are common within estuaries and lagoons. Biologi-
cal activity is usually high. Oil spilled in this coastal type may have long-
term deleterious effects. In addition, removal of the oil contaminant is im-
possible without further destroying the area and its residential biological
community. During an oil spill, efforts should concentrate on preventing oil
from entering this environment by using booms and oil-absorbent materials.
The type of cleanup procedures discussed for compacted tidal flats could
apply.
Sheltered Marshes--
Salt marshes should be delineated, as part of the contingency plan, as
the primary environments to receive protection upon the occurrence of a spill-.
Booms or absorbent material should be applied to prevent oil from entering
these areas. In extreme cases, booms may be utilized to trap oil within one
area to prevent it from spreading to others. Oil removal in a marsh is diffi-
cult and can result in more damage than leaving the marsh uncleaned. However,
during cold seasons, biological activity will be low, and it may be advisable
to pursue an active cleanup program. If the marsh is iced over, cleanup will
be greatly simplified. Manual techniques of cutting oiled debris are recom-
mended. Also, hydraulic dispersal of the oil in the marsh under low water
60
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pressure may prove useful. Often the -greatest long-term damage to the marsh
is inflicted by heavy machinery and the untrained people brought into the
marsh to clean it. Where tidal action or seasonal plant growth is great,
physical marine processes should be allowed to naturally cleanse the marsh.
The Manual of Practice relating to marshlands endangered by oil spills (Maiero
et al., 1978) should be consulted.
TERRESTRIAL
Permafrost
Permafrost is any earth material (soil, rock, etc.) that remains at or
below 0°C for 2 or more years. Ice is not a necessary prerequisite for perma-
frost; however, its presence and amount in proportion to the earth material
can'be of great importance. Permafrost occurs, for the purposes of this pub-
lication, only in Alaska. It is commonly overlain by an active layer of vary-
ing depth and some kind of vegetative ground cover.
When an oil spill occurs in a permafrost area where snow is not present,
the oil will penetrate the active layer to a depth depending on the oil vis-
cosity, the moisture content of the active layer, the soil type, and whether
or not the active layer is frozen. In summer, spilled oil may sink to the
permafr ost table and then will move laterally along the top of the permafrost
until the oil finds its lowest level (Wein and Bliss, 1973). The oil will not
sink into the permafrost layer as long as the soil is completely saturated.
(Dry frozen soils can be penetrated by oil whose temperature is above the pour
point.)
Degradation of permafrost can occur through phsyical or thermal disrup-
tion of the active layer, causing thawing of both the active layer and perma-
frost (thermokarst). Long-term oil compaction and erosion may result from
this process. If large amounts of heated oil (such as in the Alaska pipeline)
were spilled in an ice-rich permafrost region, thermokarsting could result.
Care in cleanup and protection methods must be taken to see that the overly-
ing vegetative mat is disturbed as little as possible and that heavy machinery
and large amounts of manpower are used only when absolutely necessary. Thermo-
karst problems may prove to cause much more severe damage than the oil itself.
Snow
Physical properties of snow that are important in the behavior and fate
of oitl include snow depth, crystaline structure, void fraction, moisture con-
tent, and temperature. When oil is spilled on snow, it will penetrate the
snow and fill the void space, causing some melt water to form and some possible
compaction of the snow layer.
Snow tends to absorb oil, preventing penetration into the ground layers
and retarding lateral spread of the oil. Snow is also an excellent heat ab-
sorbent, as shown by Mackay et al. (1975) during an experimental spill with
heated oil. In this spill, oil (at 60°C [140°F]) penetrated the snow and
flowed laterally beneath it but reached ambient air temperatures (0°C [32°F])
within 5 minutes. The absorbent quality of snow will help to minimize poten-
tial thermokarst damage to the ground layers.
61
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Snow may act as an effective physical barrier, resulting from the melt-
ing and refreezing of water and causing blockage of the pores in the snow
body. The resultant ice layer prevents the oil from penetrating. In addi-
tion, if air and snow temperatures are cold enough, more viscous oils may be
cooled to the point where they form their own barriers to the .spread of newly
flowing oil. Lighter oils may form oil/snow mulches containing 50% or more
oil by volume.
Ground Cover: Soils and Vegetation
In general, oil behavior in soil is .governed by oil type, soil type,
amount of moisture in the soil, and ambient temperature. While few studies
have been conducted on oil-sediment relationships, some generalizations can be
made concerning oil behavior in soil.
When oil is spilled on the ground, it will spread on the surface as well
as penetrate the surface layers of soil. Volatile components will evaporate
at a rate depending on ambient temperature and wind conditions. Soil tex-
ture, soil moisture content, and oil viscosity will determine the rate and
depth of penetration as well as the amount of oil retained within the material
(Table 12). .
TABLE 12. RETENTION CAPACITY OF VARIOUS SOILS*
Soil texture
1 Oil retention capacity
U/m3) or (parts per 1000 by volume)
Stone-coarse gravel
Gravel-coarse sand
Coarse-medium sand
Medium-find sand
Fine sand-silt
5
8
15
25
* Source: German Federal Ministry of Health, 1969.
Interacting with dry, coarse-grained sediment, low-viscosity oils will
produce the fastest rate and greatest depth of penetration into the soil. As
the soil moisture increases, the rate of penetration of oil will slow because
of the lack of available pore spaces. In a frozen soil (permafrost or season-
ally frozen), the rate of penetration is likely to be very slow and proceed
only with the amount of melt that may be caused by the oil as it spreads over
the ground. Finely textured soils with higher moisture content will prevent
much penetration because of pore size and availability.
Vegetative ground cover may take various forms, depending on the soil
type, overstory type, soil moisture regime, and latitude or altitude. In
62
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areas of thick organic mats, with either living or dead material., the organic
matter acts like .a sponge, soak-ing up.'the oil and preventing it from penetrat-
ing far into the soil and subsoil. In areas with little or no ground cover,
oil will penetrate to a depth that will depend on moisture conditions, temper-
ature, and soil type.
Tundra
Arctic tundra occurs north of the boreal forest in Alaska and is charac-
trized as a frozen plain with a vegetative cover of sedges, mosses and lich-
ens, grasses, and low-growing shrubs. Because of the presence of permafrost,
much of the flat, low-lying areas of the tundra are wet or ice-rich. The con-
tinual thawing and refreezing of the active layers makes much of the substrate
unstable and, therefore, highly susceptible to 'disturbances, both man-made and
natural. The most prevalent form of disturbance is thermokarst, where the
thermal regime of the ground is disrupted. Removal of vegetation,* compaction
or removal of soils, and changes in moisture regimes may cause severe erosion
and degradation of the area (Smith,, 1974). '
Protection techniques consist principally of building dikes or berms to
prevent oil flow and trenching to collect oil. If spills occur in winter,
dikes should be built of snow whenever possible to avoid disturbing vegeta-
tion or soils. In other seasons, or where snow is not present, dikes and
berms should be made of artificial materials if they are obtainable. The use
of heavy equipment should be avoided if possible; manpower at the site should
be limited to that which is absolutely necessary (Allen, 1979). In winter,
solidly frozen ground can provide a stable platform for response efforts.
However, care should be taken to avoid disturbance to the insulating organic
mat, especially where moving snow for diking purposes (Buhite, 1979).
Recovery techniques for tundra areas include direct suction of oil or
flooding of the area and subsequent skimming or burning of the oil. If snow
is present, recovery of oil/snow mulches should be done mechanically by hand
or machine (Buhite, 1979). Theuse of heavy machinery may cause more damage
than the oil itself, particularly in the summer when the active layer is
thawed and can be easily disturbed. Careful eyaluation of the need for such
equipment should be made. In some areas, natural biodegradation processes
may be the best cleanup technique available because of the potential for long-
term (hundreds of years) damage from the use of heavy equipment (Everett,
1978).
63
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SECTION 5
SURVEILLANCE
Two general applications of spill surveillance are detection and monitor-
ing. Detection of oil alerts personnel that a spill has occurred. Monitor-
ing is used to assist in cleanup operations; its function is to give the aer-
ial extent, points of concentration, and drift of tracking. Knowledge of the
aerial extent and drift is important for the effective placement of contain-
ment devices and the implementation of protection measures. Identification
of points of concentration optimizes the positioning of recovery equipment.
Surveillance technology has advanced greatly for aquatic spills but has
advanced more slowly for,land spills. While several types of surveillance
sensors have been developed for remote sensing of open-water spills, each sur-
veillance sensor has at least one blind spot, or condition in which oil slicks
cannot be detected (Edgerton et ,al., 1975). For temperate, open-water sur-
veillance, limitations include the amount of available light, cloud cover,
sea state, oil type and thickness, and observation angle. In addition to
these limitations, mixing of oil with snow and ice greatly intensify problems
of surveillance in cold regions.
Snow and ice may hide a slick from surveillance within hours after a
spill. Oil can flow under ice, sandwich within growing ice, spread between
ice floes, intermingle with fractured and deformed ice, or mix with snow. In
addition, the following natural and man-related optical phenomena further com-
plicate the oil detection and monitoring problem in cold regions:
Prolonged darkness occurs- in the more northern latitudes. The daily
period of sunlight changes rapidly- throughout the year in the North;
for example, at Point Barrow the amount of daylight varies in less
than 4 months from complete darkness to continuous daylight.
Blowing snow will occur with winds of only 7 m/s (16 mph or 14 knots)
in the treless plains. Blowing snow, which usually does not extend
more than 10 or 15 meters into the air, may be a .local condition
lasting for only a few hours; however, when associated with cyclonic
activity, it may last much longer. It can cover exposed oil within
a few hours.
Mirages, or terrestrial refraction, are caused by temperature inver-
sions that result in above-normal refraction in the lower atmosphere.
Objects beyond the horizon normally not visible may be lifted into
fiew, or objects normally visible may sink below the horizon.
64
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Optical haze, or terrestrial scintillation, blurs the landscape,
increasing the problem of the identification of spills. Optical
haze results from irregular refraction effects, produced by the pas-
sage of light through air with differing densities. The effect is
pronounced when isolated heating of the earth causes thermal turbu-
lence in the surface layer of the air.
Whiteout is an atmospheric optical phenomenon in which depth per-
ception is completely lost. One appears to be engulfed in a white
glow, losing all orientation. It is produced by either a diffuse,
shadowless illumination or uniform white surface.
Snow blindness, or niphablepsia, results from exposure to intense,
direct, and reflected sunlight. Because the sun's rays are always
relatively low in the arctic region, there is an unusually high
intensity of light striking the eye from below, where it is unpro-
tected, creating this form of imparied vision or temporary blind-
ness.
Steam fog, caused by low vapor capacity or low humidity, is an at-
mospheric condition present in any cold climate. Cold arctic air
is easily saturated by water vapor, creating low steam fnn This
clinging fog may reach an altitude of 1500 m (4900 ft) above the surface
of the water.
Ice fog is a common phenomenon in the proximity of human habitation
during extremely cold weather. Water vapor sublimates on hydrocar-
bon molecules in temperatures of approximately -37°C (-34.6°F) or
colder, creating an ice fog.
Supercooled fog, or cold fog, results when droplets are suspended
in the atmosphere in temperatures below 0°C-(32°F).
AQUATIC
The difficulty of detecting and monitoring a spill in ice-covered waters
is somewhat mitigated by the restraining effect of the ice field,on oil
spreading. Generally, if the ice concentration is high, one may expect to
monitor a spill over a much smaller area than an equivalent spill on open
water, allowing the practical application of surface-deployable techniques
such as drills, augers, and divers.
Three types of spill situations are common to ice-covered waters, each
having an optimum response: exposed oil in ice, oil in moving ice, and oil
covered by ice. Exposed oil in ice is oil that is visible by air; for this
condition, remote sensing techniques may be useful. Oil in moving ice could
be detected by remote sensing (if it is visible). To trace the spill move-
ment with respect to the ice, ice-tracking buoys could be used. Oil ..covered
by ice most probably will be stationary, provided water currents -a're not fast
enough to initiate oil movement (more than 3.5 cm/s,[1.4 in/s] for low-
viscosity oil and more than 10 cm/s [3.9 in/s] for high-viscosity oil). Sur-
veillance techniques for detection of unexposed oil include impulse radars,
augers, drills, and divers.
65
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Exposed Oil in Ice
The most sophisticated remote surveillance package has been developed by
the U.S. Coast Guard and is called the Airborne Oil Surveillance System
(AOSS). This system provides remote sensing for a wide range of environmental
conditions: around-the-clock visibility; clear to dense undercast; winds,
calm to 30 km/hr (26 knot); waves, calm to 4 m (13 ft); and surveillance
ranges in excess of 18 km (10 nmi) (Edgerton et al., 1975). This system con-
sists of an infrared/ultraviolet line scanner, a low-light-level television
camera (to be replaced by a laser-attenuated TV system), a vertically polar-
ized X-band side-looking radar system, a 37-GHz passive microwave imager, a
data annotation and display system, and a photographic camera. At present,
AOSS, with the exception of the passive microwave imager, is being flown on
an HC-130 aircraft. The system will be redesigned for Falcon-20 aircraft and
renamed AIR EYE.
Visual sighting of an oil slick often provides the fastest, most econom-
ical way to monitor an oil spill. Visibility of an oil film is not constant,
but depends upon conditions of observation, as well as upon the inherent
characteristics of the oil. Visibility, of course, is limited to periods of
daylight and by obstructions such as clouds, fog, or blowing'snow. Optimum
conditions include the absence of direct sunlight, a white overcast, a high
viewing angle (approaching vertical), and low background brightness from the
underlying water (Hornstein, 1972). Under optimum conditions, oil films on
water as thin as 38 nm (1-5 x 10~° in) can be detected (American Petroleum
Institute, 1963). As viewing conditions deviate from the optimum, the visi-
bility of a given oil film is reduced.
In the visible spectrum, 0.4 to 0.7 nm, the detection mechanism for oil
slicks is based upon the reflective signature of oil. For oil on open water,
reflectance and color effects vary with film thickness and oil type (Table
13). These relationships are very important; observers can estimate the con-
centrations and approximate the volume of oil on open water and between ice
floes (Tablel4), and the cleanup strategy can be planned accordingly.
In cold regions, visual detection of oil is aided by the contrast of the
surrounding" snow or ice. Oil spilled in ice floes may stain the edges of the
floes, making the oil visible from the air. If the ice is deteriorating,
holes will appear where the oil has contacted the ice because of the acceler-
ated melting caused by the albedo effect. Oil under ice could possibly be
detected by aerial surveillance if the oil has migrated through the ice cracks
and flaws at some locations. Oil and snow mixtures are easily seen from the
air. However, if the surrounding snow has absorbed all the oil (the mixture
being about 30% oil and 70% snow) and additional snow covers the mixture, the
oil will be hidden from view. Precautions are required so as not to confuse
grease ice floating on water with an oil slick.
Oil in Moving Ice
In mobile ice of high concentration (more than 50%), oil movement is
closely coupled to the ice, and therefore the problem of monitoring is re-
duced to one of determining ice motion. In some situations regular aerial
66
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TABLE 14. OIL FILM THICKNESS VERSUS SURFACE COVERAGE*
FT 1m f'hipknpQQ
(nanometers)
3.8 x 101
7.6 x TO1
1.5 x 102
3.1 x 102
1.0 x 103
2.0 x 103
gal /acre
0.04
0.08
0.16
0.32
1.08
2.16
Coverage
gal /mile
25
50
100
200
666
1332
mg/m **
38
76
150
310
1000
(1 gm)
2000
(2 gm)
* Hornstein, 1972.
** Computed values, assuming film specific gravity = 1.0.
surveillance may not be feasible or adverse weather conditions may restrict
existing surveillance capabilities. In large areas of ice-covered waters,
such as the Arctic Alaskan coast, it may be best to monitor the spill using
ice-tracking buoys. Two types of ice-tracking buoys have been found suitable
for this purpose: a macro-tracking system using a satellite-reporting trans-
mitter, and a micro-homing system using a pulsed UHF transmitter (Blackall,
1978). The macro system allows flight to the general area of the slick, and
the micro system would provide homing to the actual slick location.
The macro component has a positioning capability of absolute location on
the earth's surface to an accuracy of a few kilometers (miles) and has unlim-
ited range. On the micro scale it was recommended that a combination of an
HF and UHF radio beacon and a radar reflector be used (Blackall, 1978). The
advantages of these devices are low cost, high position accuracy, and compat-
ibility with typical search aircraft. These systems have been used in the
arctic for site relocation and for .the recovery of oceanographic equipment.
Oil Covered by Ice
Oil under ice will collect in under-surface irregularities of the ice,
provided that water currents are not strong (see Section 4). Impulse radar
has the capability of mapping the under-ice surface roughness, and in this
way will aid in locating oil pockets. This device has been used successfully
on a sled and also flown from helicopters to map under-ice irregularities.
Under some conditions, this device can actually detect oil under the ice.
The radar system produces an electromagnetic pulse generated on the ice
surface, and reflections from the surface and the ice/water interface are
68
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displayed on a' continuous strip-chart recorder. Travel time of the reflected
pulses can be converted directly to ice thickness. System calibration is re-
quired to obtain an accurate interpretation of ice thickness. This calibra-
tion is accomplished by augering one or more holes in the ice and mechanic-
ally measuring ice thickness at loations where profile data is also recorded.
This system has been successfully used under varying conditions of first-
year and multi-year sea ice and freshwater ice. Operational surveys have been
performed for oil companies and geophysical contractors in the arctic to en-
sure the safety of on-the-ice operations and to contribute to the more econom-
ical utilization of personnel and equipment. In addition, this system has
been successfully used to map the under-ice surface roughness along Prudhoe
Bay (Kovacs, 1977). These measurements were then translated into potential
aerial coverage by an under-ice spill.
Perhaps the most economical, and certainly the simplest, technique for
checking the underside of the ice is to drill a hole through the ice. How-
ever, the technique is very labor-intensive and is an inefficient trial-and-
error procedure. A search pattern should be established, based on the maximum
likelihood of detecting oil from a discharge, given the spill volume, currents.
and an indication of the under-ice profile before drilling is attempted. Ice
surface features may provide a useful indicator of oil concentrations. These
indicators include hard-packed snow drifts, which insulate the ice and limit
ice growth, forming an under-ice undulation.
Augers and drills suitable for this purpose include hand-operated Russian
and Sipre corers, hand-held powered augers, and truck-mounted drills. Sipre
and Russian corers allow a core to be taken out in one solid piece. They have
been used extensively for ice research. The Sipre corer cuts a 7.6-cm (3-in)
diameter core, and the Russian corer produces a 12.7-cm (5-in) diameter ice
core. Because these devices cut a clean hole without any additional contamin-
ation (for example, from lube oil), they are ideally suited to collect oil
samples for both research and legal purposes (Figure 19).
The use of a portable powered auger provides a suitable means of survey-
ing the ice. Starting problems may be encountered in very cold weather. It
is estimated that a two-man crew with a portable power head could auger over
10 holes per hour through ice up to 2 m (6.6 ft) thick (Logan et al., 1975).
Truck-mounted drills may be suitable for use if the ice is strong enough
and if the spill volume is large. Commercial drilling units that could be
used in such an operation include the Nodnoell drill, which weighs 11,340 kg
(25,000 Ib) and can drill a 10-cm (3.9-in) hole through 1.8 m (5.9 ft) of ice
in approximately 5 min. Another commercially available drill is the Ingersoll-
Rand T-5 Drill master, which was used for drilling piling holes in the construc-
tion of the trans-Alaskan pipeline. The drilling unit weighs 38,500 kg
(85,000 Ib), and it is capable of drilling a 60-cm (23.6-in) diameter hole
through 1.8 m (5.9 ft) of ice in 4 min. Problems may occur when using truck-
mounted drills. For example, as soon as the drill passes through the ice, it
may spray the pocketed oil over the ice surface, making recovery more diffi-
cult (Schultz et al., 1978).
69
-------
*.» J^*Ci.
I"- - .' ^.1 - :*-'*
Figure 19. Sipre qorer.
70
-------
Divers have proven to be useful in observing oil-spill behavior under-
neath ice in two field experiments (NORCOR, 1975; ,Quam, 1978). Sufficient
light is required to see the contrast of oil against the ice. Oil concentra-
tions could be mapped if radio communications are provided with the surface,
using some means of identifying diver locations. This method is not recom-
mended in high-water currents.
COASTAL/TERRESTRIAL
In land spills, the limits of oil seepage must be found so that recovery
wells can be placed at optimum points. When groundwater or permafrost is
near the surface, inspection pits are dug (Betts, 1973). These pits provide
the best means of assessing the oil spread and double as recovery points.
Holes dug by augers can also be used for inspection.
Deep groundwater or permafrost require, the use of drilling devices.
These devices can be hand- or machine-operated, and can be rotary or percus-
sion types. Large-scale investigations involving very deep groundwater or
permafrost will usually require the services of a specialized drilling con-
tractor. Caution is necessary in all drilling operations to avoid drilling
deeper than necessary, since disruption of impermeable soil layers may allow
the oil to seep deeper. The position of deep groundwater levels can be mea-
sured with the aid of a paste that changes color when immersed in water. The
paste is applied to a rod inserted down a bore hole on a measured lead.
Drills and augers must be cleaned before each .insertion to prevent contamina-
tion of the samples. Similarly, when using powered drills, oil or grease from
the driving parts of the drill must be kept away from the drill head.
Several techniques are available for testing soil samples for the pres-
ence of oil. The most common method of testing soil samples is by smell.
This should preferably be done by several people immediately after the sample
is obtained. However, in the vicinity of a recent oil spill, background odor
can mask any odor from the sample. A far more reliable indication of the
presence of oil in the soil samples is the presence of visible oil, particu-
larly in the case of a volatile product (Betts, 1973). Chemical analysis of
soil samples can also be employed, but this is rarely appropriate because of
time and cost. ,
In heavy snow-covered areas, hot oil may melt a cavern under the snow,
and the oil can flow a considerable distance under snow cover without being
detected from above. In addition, after an,adequate volume of snow falls to
produce saturation of the snow/oil mixture, any additional falling or blowing
snow accumulates on the surface of the mixture with no further absorption of
oil by the snow. During heavy snowfalls, this covering may occur within hours
of the spill, further aggravating the spill location problem.
Probing is one of the easiest and most economical ways to map the area!
coverage. Probing can be accomplished by using heavy construction equipment
in heavy snow covers (where ground conditions permit), or by using men with
shovels for small spills.
Gas analyzers or sniffers could be useful in detecting oil under ice, in
71
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soil or in snow, provided some gases are released. Gas analyzers operate by
detecting the decrease in energy in the incoming radiation resulting from the
presence of an absorbing target gas. Standard instruments can detect as lit-
tle as 250 ppm, by volume, of hydrocarbons in air; highly sensitive instru-
ments can detect less than 25 ppm (American Petroleum Institute, 1972).
NORCOR Engineering and Research Limited successfully employed a gas analyzer
on the ice surface during their 1974/75 oil field studies for the Beaufort
Sea (NORCOR, 1975). In a gasoline,spill at Nenana, Alaska, the initial extent
of contamination and the acceptability of the final cleanup were determined
using a gas analyzer. The spill area, which had a snow cover, was mapped by
digging holes at numerous locations and inserting the sniffer probe near the
bottom of each hole (Allen, 1979).
72
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SECTION 6
CONTAINMENT
Once a spill has occurred, the most important initial action is to at-
tempt to contain the oil. A wide variety of containment barriers and methods
have been developed for spill response. Containment barriers are designed to
be capable of:
1. Retaining oil slicks and preventing further movement,
2. Concentrating oil slicks to aid recovery, and
3. Serving as a diversionary or protection barrier to keep the oil out
of a specific area.
Nearly all commercially-available barriers have been developed for use on
water, where the oil is highly mobile, with only a few basic methods avail-
able for land.
In aquatic spills, boom performance is affected by wind, waves, cur-
rents, and -- in cold regions -- low temperatures and ice. Waves can cause
booms to fail by splashing oil over the freeboard if the wave steepness (wave
height divided by wave length) is greater than 0.08 and the waves are higher
than the freeboard (Logan et al., 1975). Wind and waves acting together make
a slick hard to contain, but water currents, or the relative velocity between
the boom and the water, generally provide the force that causes booms to phys-
ically fail.
Containment barriers, positioned perpendicular to the current, are ef-
fective with only slight oil loss until the current exceeds 51 cm/1 (1 knot),
at which time oil droplets form at the leading edge of the slick and are
swept under the barrier. As the current increases to roughly 77 cm/1 (1.5
knots), the oil loss increases by a factor of 10. The upper limit of any use-
ful containment for the majority, if not all, booms is 154 cm/s (3 knots).
Even at a water velocity of 102 cm/sec (2 knots), most booms become ineffec-
tive (Isakson et al., 1975).
In cold regions, the usefulness of many booms is further limited by the
additional environmental conditions, such as low temperatures, stable ice
covers, broken ice fields, moving ice floes, and snow. Moving broken ice
floes create the worst containment situation, with few practical solutions.
These problems are partially balanced by the natural reduction of oil spread-
ing as a result of cold temperatures, the effectiveness of ice as an oil
73
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barrier, and the ability of snow to absorb oil.
can result in:
However, low temperatures
1. A reduction of barrier buoyancy because of icing,
2. A decreased ability to conform to waves caused by material
stiffening,
3. Deployment and retrieval problems, and
4. Cracking of the boom material.
Containment barriers come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes, and
their operation is based on a wide variety of principles. The following sub-
sections discuss the most practical available containment techniques for cold-
region use and also discuss boom deployment. For aquatic spills, these in-
clude open-water booms, oil-ice booms, and ice slots.
In coastal and terrestrial situations, the appropriate procedures for
containment include the construction of trenches, dams, dikes, berms, and the
use of water spraying.
AQUATIC CONTAINMENT
Open-Water Booms
In cold regions, the usefulness of most commercially-available open-
water booms is severely restricted by ice and low temperatures. However,
some booms can be applied in limited broken ice conditions. Their usefulness
can be determined by examining the boom construction.
Variations in boom construction (see Fig. 20) are affected by the design
of its basic components, as shown in the following (Deslauriers and Schultz,
1976):
The skirt or barrier material may be:
o Rigid
o Semi-rigid
o Flexible
The flotation member may consist of:
o Air-inflated tubes or pockets
o Internal or external rigid or flexible foam
o Crimped plastic tubes entrapping air
o Spherical hollow plastic beads
Placement of the flotation may be:
o Integral with the curtain or wrapped within the curtain
o Mounted external to the curtain
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FLOTATION
SKIRT
.BALLAST
Figure 20. Oil containment boom components (Deslauriers and Schultz, 1976).
o Continuous or intermittent
Placement of the ballast may be:
o Continuous cables or chains attached to the bottom of the boom
o Individual lead or steel weights attached to the bottom of the
boom
The tension member can be:
o The curtain material itself
o Steel cable, synthetic rope.
externally
or chain placed internally or
Differences in structural design and the ruggedness and temperature re-
sistance of the boom material are important factors to consider when assessing
the applicability of various containment booms for use in cold regions. U.S.
Coast Guard field tests on 10 oil-containment barriers in Kachemak Bay, near
Homer, Alaska (Getman, 1975) found certain constructional features to be best
suited for use in cold regions. These features include smooth sides, non-
inflatable buoyancy members (in view of the possibility of ice puncture), ten-
sion members integral with the boom, strength suitable to withstand some ice
loads, connectors easy to manipulate with gloves, additional reserve buoyancy
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(to counteract the potential loss of boom flotation because of icing), and
boom material that maintains its flexibility and strength at cold tempera-
tures .
It should be stressed that booms are not meant for use where large ice
floes are present, with concentrations greater than 10% to 20%, or where ice
fields are moving. It may be found that if there are no suitable means to
allow Accumulated ice to pass, eventually either the boom will fail or the
ice will restrict the oil from getting to the recovery devices. Light-duty
containment booms have potential for use in skim ice conditions. Medium-duty
booms are suitable for light brash ice conditions. Heavy-duty booms are
suitable for use in the presence of small broken ice pieces. If ice accumu-
lation becomes heavy, the booms should be capable of allowing the ice -- and
any oil collected with the ice to pass beneath them.
Deployment of Booms
Speed in deploying a boom is essential. Selection of appropriate deploy-
ment techniques depends upon the type of water body (for example, rivers,
bays, or open water), velocity of water currents, land form and water body
configurations, depth of water, presence of breaking waves, amount of oil to
be contained, and the type of ice conditions present. Deployment techniques
include exclusion booming, diversion booming, and containment. A brief dis-
cussion of each of these techniques follows. For more detailed information,
refer to the Manual of Practice for Protection and Cleanup of Shorelines
(Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 1979).
Exclusion Booming
Exclusion booming is used across small bays, harbor entrances, inlets,
and river or creek mouths, where currents are less than 1 knot and breaking
waves are less than 25 cm in height. The current velocity can be measured by
timing a floating object that is mainly submerged over a distance of 30 m
(98.4 ft). A time of 60 s or longer over this distance indicates a water cur-
rent of (at most) 0.5 m/s (1 knot). The boom may be placed across or around
sensitive areas and anchored in place.
Diversion Booming
Diversion booming should be used where waves are less than 25 cm (10 in)
and the water current is greater than 0.5 m/s (1 knot) or when the area to be
protected is so large that the available boom would not be sufficient to con-
tain oil or protect the shoreline. Diversion booming is useful for diverting
oil away from sensitive areas to other shoreline locations that are less sen-
sitive and/or more easily cleaned up. The booms may be deployed as a single
section, as multiple booms staggered across a channel, or in conjunction with
berms or river bars. Diversion booms should be deployed at an angle from the
shoreline closest to the approaching oil slick to divert oil toward shore,
where pickup of pooled oil is easier. The faster the water flow, the greater
the boom angle should be to prevent oil from going under the boom (Figure 21
and Table 15). The more acute the angle, the greater the length of boom re-
quired, so that there is a practical limit to the use of the angling tech-
nique. Booms have been successfully employed using this technique in currents
up to 1.2 m/s (2-1/3 knots). Successful use requires a boom length of three
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CURRENT, Knots 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.8
BOOM ANGLE, " 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 ,
for Vgff =1.3 knots
Figure 21. Placement of boom to offset different
current speeds in flowing water (Betts, 1973).
times the river width. When deploying the booms in swift currents, the boom
forms a catenary (or J shape), and there may be loss of oil at the apex. To
make the boom more horizontally rigid, several anchored guys are required, or
deflectors or rudders along the boom can be used to reduce the catenary
(Brodsky et al., 1977).
Containment Booming
Containment booming is used on open water to surround an approaching
oil slick, as a means of protecting shoreline areas where surf is present or
where the oil slick does not cover a large area. This type of booming is used
also on inalnd waters where currents are less than 0.5 m/s (1 knot). The boom
should be deployed downwind or in the direction of the surface current, around
the leading edge of the floating slick, and then back into the wind or cur-
rent. When the boom is deployed, it forms a U shape in front of the oncoming
slick. The ends of the boom are anchored by drogues or work boats. Contain-
ment efforts should concentrate in areas where the slick is thickest, which is
where it takes on a dull or dark appearance. These thick pools may contain
nearly 90% of the spilled oil, in an area about 1/8 of the total slick area
(Jeffrey, 1973; Mackay, 1977).
Anchoring requirements for exclusion and diversion booms can be a prob-
lem, particularly if ice pile-up on the boom creates abnormal boom tension. ,
If moving ice is present, it is important that the boom have the ability to
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TABLE 15. RELATIONSHIP OF. CURRENT AND VELOCITY TO BO.QM,ANGLE*
(1 knot = 51 cm/s, 1 ft/min ='0.3.05 m/min * , --', ' '
Boom angle
(for effective speed
Current (knots)
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.0
2.3
2.6
3.1
3.8
Velocity (ft/min)
150
159
170
184
202
227
260
307
380
of 1 .3 knots)
70°
65°
60°
55°
50°
45°
40°
35°
30°
* Source: Betts, 1973.
ride over the ice when tension is high; otherwise, the boom or mooring will
fail. When a boom is anchored to a shoreline, it can be attached to large
boulders or trees by a cable sling and shackles. Frozen ground adds to the
problem of establishing suitable anchor- points. When an anchor is used, a
line approximately twice as long as the water depth is attached to the anchor.
The other end is fixed to a buoy float, which is then attached to the boom
with a short piece of line. The buoy float prevents the boom from being
dragged un'derwater by the pull of the anchor.
Oil/Ice Boom
The combination of an ice retention boom and oil containment boom can be
applied in moving ice of limited size and concentration. When oil is spilled
in rivers with drifting ice floes, conventional containment booms and recov-
ery apparatus have great difficulty in performing their functions. The ice
floes will rip conventional booms apart if significant ice accumulates behind
the boom and will jam the intakes of recovery machinery. To effectively con-
tain oil in moving ice, an ice-free area must be created. To do this, a bar-
rier can be set up that, while permitting the oil slick to pass through, will
bar ice floes from entering the area. This type of boom has been developed
by Dr. G. Tsang (Tsang, 1975; Tsang and Vanderkooy, 1978).
The double-boom system consists of a perforated ice-retention boom
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designed to pass..the oil,and divert the ice, with an inner open-water boom
for oil containment. To reduce mooring requirements, the Tsang boom is held
out by a number of short fins:or rudders (Figure 22). The angle between the
boom and the fins is adjustable. The upstream end of the boom is tied to the
shore. As the fins, are gradually opened, the force of the current on the fins
brings the boom into the flow. Very large floes, or high ice concentrations,
push the boom toward shore, thus preventing boom and mooring damage. Openings
are provided in the boom for the oil slick to pass through. Tests have shown
(Tsang and Vanderkooy, 1978) that approximately 95% of simulated oil passed
through the opening.
H»
This approach to containment appears to be the most realistic containment
concept presently available for moving ice conditions. The prototype per-
formed well at Amherstburg, Ontario. Further tests are presently planned in
Alberta and on the St. Clair River. This type of boom may be useful to have
in certain EPA districts. More information on design specifications can be
obtained from Dr. Tsang at the Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington,
Ontario.
Figure 22 . The Tsang boom (Tsang and Vanderkooy, 1978).
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Ice Slotting
Oil moving under solid ice can be intercepted and contained by, slotting
the ice cover. Laboratory and field tests (Quam, 1978) have verified this
technique as an important spill response. From laboratory experiments, it
had been found that ice slots at a 30° angle to the current, with a width 1
to 1.5 times the thickness of the ice, were, best for oil containment. The
ice blocks were cut by a Ditch Witch and chain saw and then removed with a
crane (Figure 23) (Quam, 1978). Oil released under the ice upriver generally
maintained contact with the underside of the ice and travelled at a maximum
25% to 30% of the average current velocity. The'- oil surfaced rapidly in the
recovery slot and was easily removed. Water quality monitoring indicated
that very limited quantities of spilled oil passed under the slot. It was
established that a slot 1.2 x 1.2 m (3.9.x 3.9 ft) would hold about a 13-cm
(5.1-in) layer of oil on the water surface in an ice thickness of 71 cm (28
in) and an average current velocity of 0.5 m/s (1 knot).
Predominant
Landmark
D
CURRENT
Slotting
Ditch
Witches
Polecat Crane
\
Cross Cuts
Lifting Holes
Pedco Ice Skimmer-
Cross Cut
Ditch
Witch
7'
30°
Additional Slot
Configuration in
the Event of a
Spill to Intercept
Oil on the Other
Side of River.
Figure 23. Ice slot installation'(Quam, 1978)
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Implementing this technique first requires planning the location of the.
ice slots, which should be downcurrent of the moving slick. The next step is
to make slots rn the ice and to remove the ice from the slots. Slotting tech-
niques include using a trencher chain saw or circular saw. The ice blocks
are lifted out with a crane or pushed under the ice. The ice blocks can be
lifted by using a T-bar inserted through the drill holes of ice blocks and
hoisted out by a crane. Smaller equipment, or men working with hand tools,
could push the ice blocks under the downcurrent edge of the stable ice. Once
the blocks are removed, ice chips and slush ice should also be removed from
the slot.
The problem in using the ice-slotting technique is in locating the best
place to recover the oil. Accurate prediction of slick location is beyond the
state of the art. Heavy equipment may be required to slot thick ice. In cold
temperatures, the slots may refreeze fairly rapidly. Oil and water may travel
up over the ice, spreading onto the top of the ice. In thin ice, a trench
will alter the structural properties of the ice sheet. In spite of these
problems, ice slotting shows potential as an aid in spill response in solid
i ce.
COASTAL AND TERRESTRIAL CONTAINMENT
Trenches and Dikes
Trenches and dikes are useful to collect oil from terrestrial spills and
to protect the upper beach and backshore areas of sandy, low-energy coasts.
The need for terrestrial containment is primarily in the warmer months. Dur-
ing the winter, ice and snow will serve as natural containers and sorbents of
oil and will prevent percolation into the soil. However, rapid absorption
into the soil during spring and summer months is quite possible, so methods
should be employed to contain oil, especially if the spill, occurs before the
spring thaw. The meltwater would inevitably spread the oil over large areas
if precautions are not taken to contain it.
If oil has percolated into the soil, trenches are particularly useful in
containing and intercepting the spill. On sloping terrain, the oil follows
the topography and takes the route of steepest descent, following water drain-
age channels. Trenches should be dug in the path of the oil flow. In areas
where permafrost exists, precautions should be taken. Ideally, the contain-
ment method should involve minimum disruption of the area and should avoid
removing the active soil layer and exposing permafrost. Whenever possible,
trenching operations should not depend on heavy equipment, which is likely to
compact and destroy the active layer. The trenches should be dug down to an
impermeable layer, such as permafrost, water, or clay. Tests in permafrost
(Mackay et al., 1974) showed this to be an effective means of containing and
preventing subsurface spreading with only a relatively small amount of oil
seeping beyond the trench. Therefore, the oil can be controlled by offering
a zone of low resistance to the oil flow.
Upper sandy beaches or backshore areas may be protected by construction
of dikes or trenches parallel to the water line near the highwater level. In
construction of a dike, wet sand pushed up from the intertidal zone makes a
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more effective barrier to oil, as it is possible to construct a higher dike
than if dry backshore sand is used (Owens, 1977). The dikes'should be approx-
imately 2 m (6 ft) wide and 1 m (3 ft) high, but these are dependent on the
maximum height of the incoming tide (Woodward-Clyde, 1979). The use of
tracked vehicles for construction is recommended because of the need for
traction in sand. Observations of tidal action on constructed dikes indicate
that they could successfully protect backshore areas for at least one tidal
cycle (and possibly two), assuming no large storm waves or winds occur
(Woodward-Clyde, 1979).
Trenches can be dug to act as collectors for oil (Figure 24). When
water and oil run up into the trench, water is drained out through the,beach
sediments. Oil in the trenches can then be removed with cans, buckets, pumps,
or vacuum skimmers. These methods are less effective on coarse sediment.
beaches, since the oil can penetrate into the substrate. Nevertheless, a dike
at the highwater mark would collect oil within the pebble-cobble sediments and
protect sensitive backshore environments such as marshes and lagoons.
Water Bypass Dams
Water bypass dams are used to contain oil in drainage courses that have
little or no water flow (Woodward-Clyde, 1979). The dam should be con-
structed where there are high banks buttressed to support oil and water pres-
sure. Construction materials can include earth, snow, sandbags, or other
materials that block flow.
Low water line
Intartldal area
Figure 24. Dike and trench (Woodward-Clyde, 1979)
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Water trapped behind the dam can be pumped by placing a hose near the
bottom. Trapped water can also be moved across the dam with siphons. For
higher water velocities, pipe or tube can be used (Figures 25 and 26 ). The
diameter of the pipe used will depend on the flow rate of the stream and the
depth of the water behind the dam. For example, 60- to 76-cm (23.6- to 29.9-
in) diameter pipe will have sufficient capacity for a flow rate of up to 0.85
m3/s (30 ft3/s).
Problems such as upstream flooding may result from ice buildup. In this
case it may be necessary to remove some of the ice if water flow is restricted.
Snow Berms
Snow berms may serve as an effective barrier to oil spilled on the sur-
face. Berms can be made easily with heavy construction equipment or snow
blowers, or they can be built manually. The barrier also can be established
using empty oil barrels as a wind break, allowing snow to drift against them.
During field tests (NORCOR, 1975), the oil did not penetrate more than 15 to
20 cm (5.9 to 7.9 in) into a snow berm. If the barrier is breached, holes
can be patched quickly with snow. The snow can be sprayed with water during
freezing temperatures to form a more solid barrier.
Water Spraying
Oil penetration into beach sediment and soil can be minimized by forming
a protective ice covering. This covering can be formed by spraying water
lightly on the beach in freezing temperatures. The likelihood of this being
accomplished before a spill strikes an area is slight; however, this tech-
nique would be very practical if the opportunity arises.
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Valved pipe(s) of
adequate capacity
to bypass water.
=Water
Water flow of stream or surface water drainage is bypassed
to maintain reservoir level. Oil is skimmed off or absorbed as
conditions dictate. Crest of dam should be of sufficient width
to accommodate compaction vehicle. Height of fill is 2 or 3
feet above fluid level. Normal fall angle of fill will suffice for
sloping.
Valved pipe
Figure 25. Water bypass dam (valved pipe) (Woodward-Clyde, 1979)
«»*.«,.««.-..... .i. » « I «*
....*..:....-- Earth fill
Water flow or stream is bypassed to maintain reservoir level.
Elevate discharge end of tube(s) to desired reservoir level.
Inclined tube
Figure 26. Water bypass dam (inclined tube) (Woodward-Clyde, 1979)
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SECTION 7
RECOVERY
AQUATIC
Mechanical Recovery Devices
A great variety of mechanical oil-spill recovery devices has been devel-
oped for use on open water. These devices lose effectiveness if wave height
exceeds 0.46 to 0.61 m (1.5 to 2 ft) or if current exceeds 31 to 46 cm/s (0.6
to 0.9 knot). In cold regions, moreover, freezing temperatures can make a de-
vice inoperable because of icing or failure of seals and bearings due to in-
creased viscosity of the spilled oil. Ice conditions can range from light
slush to large ice floes of varying concentration, interfering with oil recov-
ery devices.
Most mechanical systems can be modified for operation in remote cold re-
gions through changes in handling techniques, materials, the addition of insu-
lation, or the addition of localized heating. Rubbers and plastics must be
carefully selected to provide good service at low temperatures. Synthesized
hydrocarbons specifically formulated for cold-region applications should be
used in all lubricant and hydraulic systems. Consideration should be given
to in-line air dryers, heaters, alcohol injectors, and in-line lubricators
for pneumatic systems. Electrical insulation must be carefully selected for
flexibility at low temperatures. The handling aspects of all equipment must
allow for the fact that very heavy, bulky clothing required in cold regions
severely restricts the manual dexterity of personnel. As a result, all hand-
ling and fastening devices must be simple mechanisms, and all access openings
must be extra large.. In addition, because of possible icing, safety shields
should be installed around all moving parts. Finally, the equipment should
be packaged in small containers because of the possible unavailability of con-
veyance devices in remote cold-region areas such as Alaska.
Mechanical oil recovery devices,commonly called skimmers, are classified
into five groups: weir, belt, disc, drum, and vortex devices. In addition to
skimmers, mechanical recovery can also include direct suction of oil from
pooled areas.and the direct removal of oil-contaminated ice. A description of
various mechanical recovery methods will be given with reference to previous
testing and experiences in cold regions. Drum and vortex skimmers will not
be discussed since their use in ice-infested waters has not been successful.
Weir Skimmers
Oil floating on the surface of the water is separated by passing over
the weir that holds back the water. Weir--type skimmers come in a great
85
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variety of shapes and sizes, ranging from the very, small handheld variety to
the relatively large vessels or barges. > > %
In cold regions weir skimmers are clogged by broken ice pieces in the
recovery intake, and suffer icing resulting from water spray that could change
the ballast of the skimmer^ In broken ice, a weir needs a debris grid or
screen to avoid rapid clogging by^broken ice pieces. With a debris grid or
screen there is still the problem of broken ice greatly restricting the flow
of oil to the skimming device.
A weir-type skimmer may be effective in cracks, leads, and polynoyas that
occur in regions of solid ice cover. A related application might consist of
employing a weir device in conjunction with ice slotting. The slotted ice
would essentially provide an open-water region in the solid ice cover that
would act as a reservoir for the spilled oil. The weir-type oil spill recov-
ery device could be used in the slot to remove oil from .the water surface.
Heating elements on the skimmer may be effective in preventing ice crys-
tals from forming and.adhering to the leading edge of the. weir. A heating
element would be an important addition,to these types of devices when used
in below-freezing temperatures in ice-free areas. It is also possible to use
the weir device in broken ice fields in conjunction with an ice-processing
device that would clear ice for the weir skimmer.
Belt Skimmers--
Belt skimmers use a flexible belt that is drawn through the oil. The
oil adheres to the belt and is then scraped off or squeezed out of the belt
into a collection sump. Several belt materials can be used, including steel,
nonporous fabrics, porous fabrics, and stranded fabrics. The belt configura-
tion also varies from belts resembling conveyor belts to circular tubes and
stranded rope. The devices that use nonporous belts typically depend upon
the coating characteristics of the oil on the belt surface and on the subse-
quent removal of the oil from the belt with a.wiper. .The belts that have a
porous or stranded'nature collect oil on the surface and within the pores or
strands. Generally, a wringing mechanism of some type is used to remove the
oil from the belt.
Belt skimmers cover a wide range of sizes from small hand-held units to
larger units installed on offshore vessels. They also vary widely in the
placement and direction of the belt movement. The belt can be arranged in a
vertical position or at an angle to the water surface, and it acts in a way
similar to a conveyor. Some units depress the oil along a moving belt down-
ward below the water surface. Systems are also available in which the moving
belt floats on the surface of the water being skimmed.
Three belt units show potential for use in cold regions, though all may
have problems collecting highly .viscous oils. These belt units are the Oil
Mop, the Marco Filter Belt, and the Shell Zero Relative Velocity (ZRV) skimmer.
The Oil Mop spill recovery system consists of a plastic rope mop that
absorbs oil and rejects water, pulleys to expose the mop to floating oil, and
wringers to clean the mop of the absorbed oil. The rope forms a continuous
86
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loop threaded through the wringers that provide the motive force for moving
the rope through the oil.
The Marco filter belt skimmer collects oil by absorbing it in a synthetic
foam material with a stranded, open-cell construction that permits water to
float through the open cells while oil is trapped within it. After the oil
becomes attracted to the belt, it is transported to a squeezer and scraper,
where it is removed, A characteristic of the Marco unit, which could prove_
advantageous when recovering oil in broken ice, is the tendency for this unit
to recover small, oil-coated ice pieces. While the recovery of slush ice and
small ice pieces may be desirable in some field applications, it adds to the
problem of transfer, storage, and disposal.
The Shell ZRV system uses ah endless, sorbent belt driven at a speed
matching that of the water moving past the skimmer. The velocity difference
between the device and the water layer is reduced to near zero, minimizing the
entrainment of oil droplets as a result of little turbulence. The system uses
a continuous belt contacting the water for 12 m (40 ft) to allow a long con-
tact time for absorption of oil. Belt tension is kept low so that the belt
conforms to the shape of the waves and may move over ice fragments in broken
ice fields. The belt has a polypropelene surface for the absorption of low-
viscosity oils. Oil is squeezed from the sorbent belt by passing it through a
wringer consisting of a perforated drum and conveyor belt.
Disc Skimmers
The disc type of skimmer typically consists of a series of vertical discs
that are rotated into the slick. The oil adheres to the disc as it rotates
through the slick and is wiped off by a series: of wipers into a sump.
The only disc device showing potential for use in a broken ice field is
the Lockheed Clean Sweep, which consists of a' series of relatively closely-
spaced discs. Oil adheres to the rotating discs, and it is wiped off by a
series of stationary wipers into a central collecting trough. A conveyor
screw located in the trough moves the oil into a collection sump.
One of the major advantages of the unit is that the rotating drum sub-
merges broken ice pieces and the oil between the ice pieces is made accessible
for recovery. If some oil adheres to the surface pf the ice pieces, the oil
tends to float free and can be recovered by the device. Though this device
does show promise for use in broken ice, several problems exist with operation
in cold regions. High-viscosity oil does not flow through the veins to the
disc but merely coats the outside surface of the drum with a heavy oil layer.
Also, the equipment weighs over 7 tons.
A second disc-type device that has been tested for arctic use is the
Morris skimmer (Morris, 1979). This device has rotating discs that pick up
the oil. The oil is scraped off and transferred to a central collection area.
However, this device does not have the in-processing ability. This device
proved to have adequate performance in recovering oil with viscosities of 2000
centistokes at 0°C. The device also performed well at air temperatures of
-14°C and water temperatures of -3°C. .Though these devices show promise for
use in cold temperatures, they will encounter problems when used in a broken
ice field.
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Direct Suction--
Direct suction by pumps (see Section 9) and other transfer systems, such
as vacuum trucks, is one of the most successful cleanup techniques used in
cold regions. The reasons for success are that oil slicks tend to be thick
and oil pools are often present. The thick slicks are due to increased oil
viscosity, caused by low temperatures. In addition, the natural containment
of snow and ice has proven to be a great aid to direct suction in many spill
incidents.
The major problems in using direct suction for oil recovery is that water
taken in with the oil must be separated later. In addition, small ice pieces
may be taken into the hose, or water taken into the hose could freeze, thus
restricting the efficiency of the transfer process. Also, the increase in oil
viscosity by weathering, emulsification, and reduced temperatures may restrict
the use of pumping.
Ice Removal
In some extreme cases the removal of contaminated ice has been used in
oil-spill cleanup. In general, the amount of oil in the ice is very small,
and the volume of ice required to recover even a slight amount of oil would
be very large. This technique is often extremely costly and may result in
more damage to the environment than just leaving the oil to weather naturally.
However, in some cases ice removal may be a practical solution for cleanup.
Before using this technique, it is important to estimate the amount of oil
contained in the ice and the volume of ice being considered for removal.
Equipment availability, cost, and manpower requirements should be estimated.
In addition, potential damage by heavy equipment, secondary spillage, and oil/
ice removal facilities should be weighed against treating the oil in situ by
other means.
Nonmechanical Recovery
Nonmechanical techniques often are viable in cold regions because of en-
vironmental restrictions, logistics, and limits in equipment and skilled man-
power.
In-Situ Burning--
In-situ burning has been proven to be one of the most important cold-
region spill response options. The remoteness of many cold-region spill sites
has resulted in the smoke posing less of a threat to nearby communities. Cold
temperatures keep the oil viscous, the slick adequately thick, and restrict/
the escape of volatiles, which greatly aids combustion. Also, the containment
and absorption by ice and snow greatly helps in-situ burning of oil. The
burning of oil in between ice floes and on the ice surface will likely serve
as an important oil pollution countermeasure in the response to cold-region
spills.
The basic requirements for slick ignition are raising fuel surface tem-
perature to its fire point, having enough vapors present to'ignite, and having
sufficient slick thickness and oxygen. Insufficient oxygen allows unburned
fuel particles and soot to escape; thus levels of soot can be controlled by
increasing the flow of air by fans or blowers. On the other hand, if excess
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oxygen is present, it cannot react in the flames and acts as a coolant.
Burning an oil slick on cold, open water can be considered the most dif-
ficult situation for in-situ burning. The oil slick must be thick enough to
support combustion, more than 5 mm (0.2 in) (NORCOR, 1975). In arctic field
trials, unconfined slick thickness was observed to be typically 1 to 2 mm
(0.04 to 0.08 in). Conventional booms are available to thicken slicks, but
they are not sufficiently fireproof to'avoid being consumed by intense flames
during spill combustion.
Wicks can help sustain combustion in fluids that would not burn other-
wise. The wick provides many tiny pores through which fuel rises from the oil
slick for easier preheating, vaporization and ignition. Wicks can consist of
inexpensive materials, such as straw, peat moss, asbestos fibers, and/or var-
ious cinder-like materials, or commercial preparations such as Cab-0-Sil,
Aerosil, and Fibreperl. Wicks should be used where the oil is thin and/or un-
confined, and in waves. Wicked slicks burn much longer and with less smoke
than non-wicked slicks. Unfortunately, some residues from burning slicks with
promoters (such as woodchips and straw) do sink. Commercial wicking materials
such as Fibreperl are toxic, and should be handled by personnel wearing gloves
and dust masks.
The ignitability of the slick is affected by oil characteristics and wind
Heavy oils, such as Bunker C, have few volatile materials and require a high
fire point. Hydrocarbon evaporation and the formation of emulsions also raise
the fire point, but fresh oil slicks emulsified with up to 50% water can be
ignited (Twardus, 1979). Though aging raises the fire point, many types of
crude oil can be burned after being aged for intervals of up to 4 weeks. The
wind speed limiting ignition for directly exposed fuels was found to be 4.5
m/s (14.8 ft/s). However, even with a narrow obstruction at the upstream edge,
the flame is able to withstand much higher wind speeds, and the burning rate
will increase. It was found that a projection 3.2 mm (0.13 in) above the
slick raised the limiting wind velocity to 24 m/s (78.7 ft/s).
The slick can be ignited by oily rags, flame-throwers, or brush-burners.
Once oil begins to burn, it will spread, burning at a fairly constant rate
until the flame goes out. Large area fires will burn about 1.5 mm/min (0.6
in/min) of oil from the surface of the spill and burn out when the thickness
decreases below 5 mm (0.2 in).
Unconfined oil slicks may be burned when the concentration of ice floes
is high enough. Ice serves as an effective containment mechanism, especially
for oil of high viscosity. Slicks of heavy oils probably will exceed the re-
quired 5-mm (0.2-in) thickness when ice concentrations are 90% or higher. Low-
viscosity oils, such as diesel fuel, require ice concentrations of greater than
95% to provide adequate confinement. For thin, slush ice conditions, there
was not enough advantage in using wicks over burning the oil alone. However,
for thick slush ice conditions, wicking agents increase the fraction of oil
burned (Tarn, 1979).
Oil that has pooled on solid ice can be burned easily. Such oil will
settle into the crevices and depressions to form thickened lenses that can be
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burned without wicking agents if over 5 mm (0.2 in) thick. Wicking agents
can extend burning down to 2 mm (0.08 in) oil thickn'ess (Peterson et al.,
1975 b). If the ice is rough the raised edges of the ice serve to block the
wind, lessening the chance of the flame being blown out. Oil that has
spilled underneath the ice and that rises, though slowly, to the surface dur-
ing ice decay can be burned since it has undergone little weathering while
underneath the ice. Despite some of the problems encountered, in-situ burn-
ing on solid ice has proven to be a successful spill countermeasure.
One of the main concerns of in-situ burning is the amount of soot and
smoke released from the fire. The principal concern is the high soot concen-
tration in the immediate vicinity of the fires. Human entry into such areas
should be avoided, as there is doubt about the effects of polynuclear-
aromatic hydrocarbons and metals that will be present in the soot. It is
prudent to minimize the exposure of personnel and communities to these sub-
stances by careful planning of the burning operation, using short-range
weather forecasts.
Sorbents
Desirable sorbents are floating substances (inorganic, natural organic,
polymeric) that soak up or absorb the oil or present a surface for the oil to
cling or adhere to. In cold regions some sorbents are effective on very thin
slicks of oil, some too thin for mechanical recovery or in-situ burning.
Sorbents can also be used as a second-stage response after recovery devices
have removed most of the oil. Some adhesive sorbents are effective with
highly viscous oil.
A number of disadvantages may be associated with the use of sorbents.
No system for a large-scale mechanical recovery of sorbents exists. Use of
sorbents may involve high cost, including the cost of acquisition, labor,
transportation, storage, application, recovery, and disposal. Recovery of
spent sorbent is difficult, except in calm seas, and may not be feasible in
an ice environment. Some sorbents may interfere with the operation of other
recovery devices. 'The recovered oil-soaked sorbent may present a disposal
problem, though in some cases it may be possible to use the recovered product
as fuel. Some sorbents sink when saturated, making the product unrecoverable.
Dispersants-
Dispersants are generally most effective when applied to unweathered oil-
slicks in relatively warm water, and normally must be applied in a ratio of
about 1 part dispersant to 5 to 10 parts oil, depending on the type of oil
and its viscosity, the efficiency of the dispersant, and the available mixing
energy. In cold regions, the amount of dispersant required to emulsify a
given slick is greater. As temperature drops, the oil viscosity increases
and the quality of dispersant needed also increases (Mackay et al., 1977).
In laboratory tests it was found that decreasing the temperature from 20°C to
10°C caused a factor of 2 decrease in the quantity of oil dispersed. Simi-
larly, dispersion dropped by a factor of 3 as the temperature dropped from
20°C to 5°C. Though these test results are preliminary, they do indicate
that dispersants have reduced effectiveness at lower temperatures.
The use of chemical dispersants is a highly controversial issue that has
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received considerable attention from government regulatory agencies that have
specified, acceptable:'dispersants. Their use is usually considered a last
resort in most cleanup programs, since dispersion of oil throughout the water
column may harm a far greater number and variety of organisms than would be
affected when the oil is concentrated on the surface. Use of dispersants may
be considered in open seas, where booms and skimmers are ineffective and where
the oil'slick is threatening areas of major biological importance.
The subject is fully discussed in the manual on dispersants (U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, 1981).
Biodegradation
The ability of microorganisms to degrade petroleum is a geographically
common characteristic. Over 200 hydrocarbon-utilizing microbes have been
identified wherever careful attempts have been made to isolate these organ-
isms, though numbers are greater in areas where oil has been previously added
(Zo Bell, 1973a; Karrick, 1977).
Because the marine bacteria are predominantly cold-adapted organisms that
grow fairly rapidly at .temperatures near the freezing point (psychrophilic),
it is not unexpected that microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons can
occur in cold regions. Kinney et al. (1969) found that biodegradation was
more important than physical flushing in removing hydrocarbons from Cook Inlet,
estimating biodegradation of crude oil to be essentially complete in 1 to 2
months.
Temperature may be the major factor influencing microbial degradation
rates in cold regions; it suppresses growth and metabolic rates of the mi-
crobes involved, resulting in lowered rates of degradation (Atlas, 1977).
Degradation can also be influenced by an inhibition of growth resulting from
an increased retention of toxic components in the petroleum at the lower tem-
peratures. A direct relationship has been demonstrated (Zo Bell, 1973b) be-
tween temperature and microbial degradation in samples collected from oil-
polluted waters, oil-soaked soil, and tundra of the North Alaska Slope and oil .
seeps along the Colville River. Reproduction rates at 8°C were twice as fast
as rates at -1.1°C; rates were almost the same at 4°C and -1.1°C. Microscopic
observations indicated that the tendency for the lower temperature to retard
reproduction was offset, in part, by the beneficial aspects of the surface
substrate provided by the slush ice at -1.1°C.
Nitrogen and phosphorous (available as N02, NOs, NH4, and P04) have been
shown to be limiting factors to both rates and extents of petroleum hydrocar-
bon degradation (Atlas, 1977; Bartha and Atlas, 1973; Reisfield, 1972). These
nutrients would probably be more commonly limiting in the open oceans than in
inshore waters. In Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, small, contained oil slicks were sup-
plemented with an oleophilic fertilizer that contained .nitrogen and phosphorus.
The addition of the nutrients enhanced the rate of biodegradation. Oxygen is
also critical to the degradation of oil, though it is probably not limiting in
surface and near-surface waters. However, incorporation of the oil into anox-
ic sediments can cause the hydrocarbons to persist for long periods of time
(Hunt et al., 1969).
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COASTAL AND TERRESTRIAL
Oil spills on land are of two types: coastal spills originating in open :
water and later washed ashore, and terrestrial spills originating from pipe-
line failures, storage ruptures, tank truck accidents, etc. Criteria impor-
tant in the selection of proper response equipment for coastal and terrestrial
areas include oil properties and volume, logistics, and environmental condi-
tions, such as composition of sediment, slope, and the season. During winter
the presence of ice and snow minimizes not only the surface area covered, but
also the penetration of oil into the sediment. Frozen ground provides a solid
surface for the use of heavy mechanical equipment to'remove oil. When oil is
spilled on permafrost areas or marshes during the warmer months, heavy equip-
ment should not be used. Heavy vehicles compact the insulating active layer
of permafrost and cause an eventual melting (thermokarsting) or damage the
root system of marsh vegetation. Several mechanical recovery devices com-
monly used for coastal and terrestrial spill response include heavy construc-
tion equipment, steam cleaning, sand blasting, hydraulic flushing, mechanical
beach cleaners, and groundwater skimming and suction. Nonmechanical recovery
devices include in-situ burning, manual removal, sorbents, and biodegradation.
Mechanical Recovery ,
In all mechanical recovery operations it is critical to remove as little
uncontaminated sediment as possible. Where large volumes of sediment are re-
moved, it is advisable, in most cases, to replace that sediment to prevent
adverse alterations of the beach or terrain equilibrium. Oil removal from
beaches should be carried out as soon as possible, provided there is no danger
of recontamination. Removal of the top layer of contaminated sediment from
large areas is best accomplished by heavy construction equipment. This equip-
ment includes motorized graders, elevating scrapers, front-end loaders, bull-
dozers, backhoes, drag lines, and clam shells. Use of this equipment has been
described in detail by Woodward-Clyde (1979).
Steam cleaning equipment uses a high-pressure steam jet that will remove
oil from almost any surface. It drives oil off one surface onto another, re-
quiring that precautions be taken to avoid recontamination of previously un-
affected areas. It is used as a means for removing oil coatings from bould-
ers, rocks, and man-made structures. However, this method is harmful to flora
and fauna, as well as being expensive and is not usually recommended for sur-
faces that support living plants or animals. Sand blasting uses sand applied
to surfaces of man-made structures at high velocity to remove oil from the
substrate by the abrasive action of the sand. The accumulation of sand, oil,
and surface material in the area near the operation must be removed and trans-
ported to a disposal area.
Hydraulic flushing includes both high-pressure and low-pressure disper-
sion. High-pressure methods can be used to wash oil from coarse sediment,
rock surfaces, or man-made structures. This method uses high-pressure jets of
water (often heated), and should be used only by trained personnel who can
properly control the powerful jets. Low-pressure hydraulic dispersion is a
biologically preferred method and can be used in marshes and for flushing out
oil-contaminated sediments. This method is not applicable to sand beaches as
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the water would wash away the sediments, and on coarse sediment beaches it
would lead to greater penetration of the oil. Under no circumstances should
hydraulic dispersion be used to clean unconsolidated cliffs because this
would result in undercutting of the cliff or slumping. The runoff from the
flushing operation must be properly channeled and collected. Test flushing
should be done in each situation to, determine the suitability of this tech-
nique. Soaking the substrate will generally float oil off the surface without
any adverse effects. The flushing should begin at the highest contaminated
point and work downs!ope.
Mechanical beach cleaners have proven to be a fast and efficient method
of cleaning sand or gravel beaches lightly contaminated with high-viscosity
oil. The majority of beach cleaners are towed behind a tractor or front-end
loader. A blade or rotating drum fitted with blades scoops up the top layer
of sand, debris, and viscous oil. It places the collected debris on an in-
cline wire mesh conveyor that moves the contaminated material up while allow-
ing the clean sand to fall through. The remaining oil and debris are dumped
into a refuse container mounted on the rear of the conveyor belt. The con-
veyor may be a wire mesh screen, a series of bars,, or a rotating conical
screen. These units typically travel at a speed of3tolOkm/hr (1.9-6.2 .mi/hr.
The spined drum (Caltrop machine) beach cleanup concept developed and
tested by Environment Canada is useful for recovering high-viscosity oils
spilled on sandy beaches (Russell et al., 1979; Blackall, 1979). The spined'
drum has viscous oil or emulsions adhere to it as it is rolled over the
spill, and a rotating brush removes the oil into a collection bin.
Nonmechanical Recovery
In-situ burning is used on coastal and terrestrial substrates and vegeta-
tion where sufficient quantities of oil of proper volatility have collected.
The mechanisms of burning and the use of wicking agents have been described
in the section on aquatic recovery. The feasibility of burning should be de-
termined by a test ignition away from the actual spill site. Once burnability
has been demonstrated, permits must be obtained from appropriate regulatory
agencies such as the EPA, state fish and wildlife agencies, and local air pol-
lution agencies. Consideration must be given to the potential environmental
damages resulting from burning. Concern about public and wildlife safety and
potential air pollution.strongly affect the granting of permits.
Oil can be burned more successfully if it is contained on an ice surface,
and in this case the residues are relatively easy to remove. Oil that is mixed
with snow can also be burned. Oil in marshes can be successfully burned during
cold temperatures, but great care must be taken that the root systems of the
vegetation are not damaged. Controlled burning is frequently used in marsh
management (Castle, 1978). It should be noted that when oil is burned on sed-
iments an undesirable, heavy, difficult to remove residue may remain, and the
smoke from burning can be undesirable in heavily populated areas. Also, the
oil not yet burned will heat up and can penetrate more deeply into the sedi-
ments.
Manual removal of oil is in order for small amounts of oil spilled or in
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areas inaccessible to machinery. It is labor-intensive and can therefore be
expensive. This method has been an integral part of cleanup programs in the
past and has been found to be effective in restoring contaminated shorelines
and terrestrial areas. Sorbents can be used on land as well as in water.
They are most effective on shorelines when they are distributed on the beach
before the arrival of the oil slick. Wave energy mixes the oil and sorbents,
and sorbents also limit oil penetration into sediments.
The primary method of recovering oil from groundwater by skimming and
suction is to create a local cone of depression in the water table by drilling
a well. The well interrupts the water flow, so that the withdrawal of water
creates a depression. Oil, floating oh the water table within, the depression
is prevented from migrating farther and can be pumped off for disposal.
A second method involves constructing a ditch across the-entire front of
the migrating body of oil and below the top of the water table. The ditch
should be at least 0.91 or 1.22 m (3 or 4 ft) below the water table, and the
pumping capacity should be great enough to keep the water drawn down to the
bottom of the ditch. The ditch must be wide enough to accommodate the neces-
sary pumps or other removal devices. Ditches deeper than 1.8 to 2.4 m (5.9
to 7.9 ft) are usually impractical; the limitation is imposed by the need to
avoid caving of the ditch walls. As the oil floats across the ditch, it is
skimmed off the surface of the water. If the ditch is to be a collection
point for skimming, its downstream wall should be lined with an- impermeable
material, such as polyethylene film. The film will block floating oil but
permit water to pass below. Skimming must be continuous, or collected oil
will tend to move to the ends of the ditch and pass around the barrier.
Ditches are usually less effective than wells for creating a depression
in the water table. However, ditches produce much less fluid to be handled
at the surface and with a small spill the ditch method may be preferable.
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SECTION 8
TEMPORARY STORAGE
Temporary storage is often required as a buffer between recovery and dis-
posal. In addition, smaller containers may be useful when ferrying oil from a
skimmer to a tanker or a holding unit of larger capacity. Actions taken to
store the recovered product will depend largely on the following factors
(Peterson, et al., 1975b). ' ;
1. Aquatic or terrain conditions,
2. Transportation, access, and logistics,, , " ..
3. Availability of storage systems, . .
. 4. Presence, of .debris (including snow and ice), :. . .
5. Properties of .the recovered product (for example, viscosity and
density), . . - ...-, .
6. Ecological damage caused by storage, ; ,
7. Cost of storage,
8. Weather conditions,
9. Storage capacity required,
10. Time to place storage in operation,
11. Durability or reuse possibility of storage, and
12. Personnel safety.
Storage alternatives are classified in terms of location: aquatic or
land-based storage. These storage classifications are subdivided according to
transportation access (by water, land, and air) and logistics requirements for
the storage operation. The use of natural features to store spilled oil is
also considered. ,
AQUATIC-BASED STORAGE
The most desirable aquatic-based storage are tankers, barges, and ships.
This is true particularly in cold regions where shifting ice could easily
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easily puncture inflatable containers, though air-transportable, flexible
containers may be useful on solid ice. When these portable means of storage
are not available, the use of natural features may prove useful.
Ship-Dependent Storage
Tankers provide an excellent means of temporary storage for large oil
spills. Conventional tankers can be used in limited ice conditions. Ice-
breaking tankers are being developed and potentially could be used for heav-
ier ice conditions. A wide variety of sizes are available, ranging from an
oil-holding capacity of one million gallons up to the multimillion-gallon
capacity of a supertanker. The problems with ship storage include the dis-
tance that an available tanker might be from the spill site, local ice condi-
tions, local water depths, and the tanker's ability to transit through ice at
a fast enough speed to be at the spill site when needed.
Tank barges may be used in limited ice conditions. They normally range
in size from approximately 757 to 15,140 m3 (200,000 to 4 million gal). A
typical small barge has a 1125 m3 (300,000-gal) capacity. These barges have
the potential for use as work platforms. The cargo heating elements installed
on some barges can be used for heating the recovered oil/water/ice mixtures
and separating the oil and water. Problems associated with using barges are
the same as those for tankers.
Locally available ships can afford excellent temporary storage, but they
are generally limited to handling liquid products and have smaller storage
capacity, usually less than 151 m3 (40,000 gal). Portable tanks can be
hoisted on board these ships. Fishing tenders are capable of holding several
thousand barrels of recovered oil in holding tanks below the deck. Immediate
storage in these vessels is advisable only if other satisfactory alternatives
are lacking. Disadvantages in using locally available vessels include the
need for secondary cleanup or restoration of the vessels. Also, ic,e condi-
tions may severely restrict their use.
Air-Pep!oyable Aquatic Storage
Collapsible floating containers may have some use as temporary storage
units in cold regions. These containers are flexible and are usually con-
structed of synthetic rubber and nylon fabric. They collapse into air-
transportable size for quick spill response. After being filled, they can be
towed from the spill site by tugs. These containers are only effective for
collecting oil that is pumpable and without debris. Oil may be pumpable dur-
ing initial storage, but cooler temperatures may increase viscosity, making
secondary transfer from the container difficult. Abrasion by ice needs to be
minimized. One way to do this is to place the container on a solid ice plat--
form or on a large ice floe until other storage systems become available.
Problems with using the collapsible containers are that they are difficult to
maneuver in heavy seas, and they are vulnerable to puncture.
Another type of air-deployable storage is the donut (Figure 27), and it
can also be used as a floating oil/water separator. It is a modified version
of the U.S. Navy oil disposal raft. The donut floats partially submerged
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FLOATING RING
ATER LEVEL
OPEN
(FOR SEPARATED WATER
TO PASS)
Figure 27. Donut storage container and oil/water separator.
while an oil/water mixture is loaded. The oil and water separate, as a re-
sult of gravity, and the water is forced out the bottom. The remaining oil
is contained in the donut-shaped raft. The donut is not considered usable
in broken ice; however, it may have some application for storing oil in solid
ice. A hole could be drilled through the ice, and the oil/water separator
could be floated in the hole.
Natural Features for Aquatic Storage
Natural aquatic features, such as lakes, lagoons, and solid ice, can
provide readily available and effective temporary storage for recovered oil.
The use of these features is recommended only in cases in which oil cannot be
burned in situ or stored in portable containers. Large spills will severely
strain the utility of all portable storage systems. The use of natural fea-
tures may be necessary to complement portable systems for these large spills
when the oil cannot be burned. Using natural features for storage can be jus-
tified only if the potential ecological threat associated with not providing
storage outweighs the local damage threat from the use of natural storage.
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Lakes or lagoons can serve as effective containers. The petroleum com-
panies at Prudhoe Bay have developed contingency plans to use local thaw
lakes for emergency oil storage (Peterson, et al.', 1975b). The procedures for
use vary with the seasons. During the summer, the lake is pumped out with
high-capacity transfer pumps and the oil is subsequently pumped in. During
spring runoff, secondary containment barriers or dikes are constructed to
prevent loss of the oil. In the winter, the bottom of the deeper lakes re-
mains unfrozen, so the water is pumped out and replaced with recovered oil.
Shorefast ice can also provide an effective means of containment. Oil
could be transferred onto the ice surface, where it would be retained by
natural or man-made barriers. A storage pond could be constructed on the ice
by building a containment wall of ice and snow. If temperatures are below
freezing, the wall could then be sprayed with water to provide a solid ice
lining. Several problems, however, occur when using this technique. The
temperature of oil stored on ice may be reduced to a value well below its
pour point. Thus, immediate storage may be successful, but ultimate disposal
could be made more difficult. Secondly, oil may be quickly mixed with blow-
ing snow, also making disposal more difficult. In addition, oil stored on
ice may penetrate through the brine channels of decaying ice, further com-
plicating disposal.
LAND-BASED STORAGE '
The most desirable land-based storage systems are those easily trans-
ported to the spill site by roads. When the site is not accessible by road,
storage units probably will be air-transported. When portable temporary
storage is not available, the use of natural features is the final alternative.
Road-Dependent Storage
Tank trucks and vacuum trucks are often used for temporary storage.
Tank trucks, used to transport petroleum products on roads, typically have a
capacity of 3.8 to 24.6 m3 (1000 to 6500 gal). Vacuum trucks typically have
holding capacities varying from 3.8 to 17m3 (1000 to 4500 gal).
A wide variety of land-based vehicles can be used with portable storage
containers. For example, flat-bed trucks could be used to transport collaps-
ible pillow tanks. Dump trucks lined with an oil-impermeable barrier can be
an effective means of removing oil-contaminated debris, snow, and ice. Drums
with a capacity of 208 liters (55 gal) mounted on trucks may also prove use-
ful for small spills.
Other types of storage, such as in sled-mounted tanks, would be useful
on snow or ice roads. Various land transportation systems have been developed
for use on ice, snow, and tundra, and many are capable of transporting pillow-
type containers.
Air-Pep!oyable Land Storage
Local terrain will influence the choice of air-deployable storage con-
tainers. Permafrost is common throughout many cold regions. Instabilities
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in ground footing occur in locations where soil contains moisture, such as
typical tundra. Containers placed on moist terrain and on permafrost are
susceptible to shifting during the thaw cycle of the active layer. Two ap-
proaches have historically been used to ensure sound footing for structures
in permafrost regions: (1) destroy the permafrost, and (2) insulate the
surface layer to prevent thawing. Neither of these alternatives appear fea-
sible for temporary storage because of the emergency nature of spill response.
A third approach for placement of temporary struc tures would be to provide a
device capable of floating or shifting as the active layer thaws (Peterson,
et al., 1975b). Therefore, flexible tanks are preferred over the rigid-wall
type.
Pillow tanks (or
transportable storage
for storage of oil on
rently available in a
capacities that range
cold climates. Pillow
dies that are easily
trucks. These tanks
hides such as flat-bed trucks or
bladder bags) are considered the most satisfactory air-
for permafrost areas. Pillow tanks can be used also
large ice floes or shorefast ice. These tanks are cur-
variety of shapes (generally square or rectangular) and
from 0.45 to 37.9 m3 (120 to 10,000 gal) for use in
tanks can be folded into small, relatively light bun-
transported by fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, or
when filled, can be easily moved by a variety of ve-
sleds. Storage containers sized up to 1.89
m3 (500 gal) are transportable by medium-lift helicopters that have 2265 kg
(5000 lb) capacity for slug loads (Logan, et al., 1975). Pillows are common-
ly used for fuel storage, both in the Arctic and Antarctic, though their
outer surfaces may chafe or puncture. Also, these bags are not capable of
handling non-pumpable oil and debris.
Open-topped containers are an excellent means of storing highly viscous
oil and debris. The open tops allow pumping by several hoses at once. Pre-
fabricated open-topped containers are available that have an inflatable ring
around the top edge that rises as the oil level increases. Portable pools,
such as commercial aboveground swimming pools, also are an economical'means
for storing small volumes of oil. These pools have the advantage of low cost,
availability, transportability, and the capability of storing debris. Both
types of open-top containers can sustain some shifting with permafrost thaw,
but they are not as safe as closed-pillow tanks. A pillow-type cover, with
good seals, could be used on open-topped tan.ks to protect the stored product
from rain and snow.
Some spill situations may require containers that are lightweight, rug-
ged, combustible, and capable of being handled both by personnel and light
equipment. The most suitable containers identified for handling small quanti-
ties of light debris are portable shipping containers, developed primarily for
air cargo (Peterson, et al. , 1975b). Thecontainers are mounted on standard
pallets and consist of knockdown waxed cardboard sides and a lid. The dimen-
sions are approximately 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 1.2 m. A suitable plastic liner
would be required to prevent leakage of liquids from the container.
Conventional steel tanks are available in a wide range of sizes. They
can be heated for the separation of oil and snow mixtures and possibly used
for disposal by burning. However, they are considerably heavier and bulkier
than flexible storage containers, and may tip as a result of ground thaw.
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Natural Land Features for Storage
Storage in natural features is advisable only if the potential ecologi-
cal threat of the uncontrolled spill far outweighs the localized damage
threat from the storage technique.
Lagoon pits and containment dikes have been used on land in the Arctic
as a safety measure to contain oil spills from tank farms. In general, there
is no standard approach to the construction of these pits; however, it has
been recommended that, because of the relative scarcity of clays or other per-
meable soils in the north, a synthetic impermeable barrier should be used.
The plastics, used as impermeable films, include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), oil
PVC, polyethylene (PE), chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), chlorosulphated poly-
thene (COSE), urethane, and butyl rubber. The edges of the sheet must be
weighted with stones or earth to prevent wind damage.
Snow could be used for the support walls of a storage pit. If perma-
frost is present, the active layer should not be removed. However, the per-
mafrost ice lens could serve as a good impermeable base if necessary. Water
can be spra'yed to form an ice liner if ambient temperatures are cold enough.
If firm clay soil exists, storage without liners may be possible, but extra
protection is still desirable. If a plastic sheet is not used, a flat-
bottomed pit should be excavated and a layer of water maintained across the
base to help keep the oil from the substrate.
100
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SECTION 9
PUMPING SYSTEMS
Pumping systems are used to drain skimmers, to move collected oil to
temporary storage and from temporary storage to a disposal facility, and to
recover oil directly from locations where it has pooled.
PUMPS
For use in cold regions,
(Purves and Solsberg, 1978):
pumps should have the following characteristics
1. Suction-lift and self-prime with high-viscosity fluids,
2. Tolerance to debris, including ice and snow,
3. Importing low shear to the pumped fluid,
4. Ease of handling and repair with gloves, and
5. Reliability at below-freezing temperatures.
Suction-lift and self-prime with high-viscosity fluids is of particular,
importance in cold regions, where heavy oil spills are common. Each step of
the recovered oil transfer process -- from skimmer to temporary storage to
disposal facility normally involves raising the fluid volume 2 to 6 m (6.6
to 19.7 ft), typical for the freeboard of a vessel or the height of a dock at
low tide. The first step of transfer, from a skimmer to temporary storage,
involves taking suction near the water level. Unless the pump is mounted be-
low the water!ine, the pump must provide suction-lift. Also, typical near-
shore skimmers are very small vessels with low stability, storing about 1 m3
(264 gal). Any small disturbance can cause the pump to lose prime. There-
fore, a pump should be capable of moving No. 6 fuel oil (150,000 sSU viscos-
ity at 0°C) at 190 liters per minute (50 gal per minute) through 2 to 6 m
(6.6 to 19.7 ft) head, and it should be self-priming. If a pump does not
meet this criterion, it will be unsuitable in many common spill applications.
Most recovered oil contains solid debris, particularly high concentra-
tions of ice of every shape and size. Oil/snow mixtures, of approximately
70% snow, may also require transfer. An ability to pass solids, such as ice
chips and slurries of oil and snow, is thus an important qualification. This
reqirement is commonly met in pumps used in construction applications to dry
out excavations. These pumps routinely pass stones, mud, and ice without
clogging or breaking down.
101
-------
Low shear of the pumped fluid is important in reduci-ng emu!sification of
oil and water, the latter often present in large quantity. Stable emulsions
of 50% or more water could form, adding to storage volume" and creating dispos-
al problems. Not all spilled materials form stable emulsions easily, but
this possibility should be considered in pump selection. Studies of the
emulsion-forming processes within a pump (Harvey,et al., 1973; Fruman and
Sundaram, 1974) found that centrifugal pumps, with their vigorous accelera-
tion of fluid, generally emulsify more than positive displacement pumps.
Ease of handling and repair is also a desired quality. Personnel wear-
ing mittens should be able to accomplish common manipulations (such as start-
ing and moving pumps) and routine maintenance (for example, changing oil and
air filters).
Reliability of operation at below-freezing temperatures is essential.
Pumps with impellers could,freeze in place, and the motor might not have suf-
ficient torque to start the pump. The pump body could become brittle and be
subject to fracture upon impact. Synthetic rubber seals might crack andjeak
at cold temperatures. Lubricating grease, normally used in temperate cli-
mates, might solidify. Therefore, if possible, inquiries should be made to
the manufacturer to find out if their pump has been successfully used in cold
climates.
Pumps commonly used for oil-spill response fit into two general classes:
centrifugal pumps and positive displacement pumps for comparable lift capacity.
Centrifugal pumps are typically simpler and less expensive, with few moving
parts or precision clearances. Unfortunately, the practical viscosity limits
are much lower in most centrifugal pumps than positive displacement pumps.
Viscosity affects the operation of the centrifugal pump by reducing the vel-
ocity of the oil flow through the pump. Centrifugal pumps are widely used
in the construction industry for drying out excavations, and they are usually
driven by diesel or gasoline engines.
Positive displacement pumps are often precision designs for fixed in-
stallation in chemical processes. Unlike centrifugal pumps, they are gener-
ally self-priming and produce a flow not severely affected by pressure varia-
tions. The higher pressure capability of positive displacement pumps is use-
ful in overcoming the frictional losses in pipes due to high-viscosity fluids.
The flow capacity of a positive displacement pump is restricted by the ability.
of the fluid to fill the pump's internal cavities, so its speed is usually
reduced as fluid viscosity increases. Most positive displacement pumps have
a high viscosity range, far greater than that of centrifugal pumps. Positive
displacement pumps exert less shear on the fluid than centrifugal designs and
thus are less likely to form emulsion when
et al., 1973; Fruman and Sundaram, 1974).
signed for pumping clean fluids, and their
will not tolerate suspended solids.
pumping oil/water mixtures (Harvey
Unfortunately, many types are de-
valves and precision clearances
Laboratory and field tests and engineering analyses have been performed
on several available pumps to evaluate their suitability for cold-region oil-
spill response. Information on seven pumps for arctic use reportedly capable
of handling viscous oil and oil/water mixtures are listed in Table 16.
102
-------
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McLaren (1978) investigated several pumps for arctic pollution response and
found the Moyno 1L10H, Roper 71228NL, Midland 1600/630EH, and Offshore De-
vices pumps to have the best designs. Purves and Solsberg (1978) conducted
laboratory tests on 11 pumps and found the Megator LI50 and Gorman Rupp 3D-
BKND pumps to be best suited for cold-region spill cleanup. Mittleman (1978)
conducted tests on five hydraulically-powered, submersible pumps for trans-
ferring cold viscous oil at high rates for offloading stricken vessels, but
did not evaluate their ability to pass debris (Table 17). The Prosser pump
was chosen for its design specifications. Presently, the Framo TK-5, a new
pump design, is being evaluated and shows the best potential of all the pumps
for offloading viscous oil. Pumps listed as having the highest performance
will not necessarily perform trouble-free in the cold regions. Modifications
to many of these pump designs will further enhance their cold-region per-
formance.
PRIME MOVERS AND HOSES
The prime mover is the power source for the pumping system. It is gen-
erally a gasoline or diesel engine, or gas turbine. In addition to the usual
space, weight, and power considerations, the prime mover must be designed or
retrofitted for cold-region operation.
As an alternative to starting the prime mover at extremely cold tempera-
tures, it is a common practice in the Arctic to enclose the engine in a
heated shelter or to use a portable heater to bring the engine up to a higher
temperature before attempting to start it. Once started, the engine may be
kept running as long as it is needed.
Additional factors and precautions apply to cold-weather operation.
These include the use of special seals, gaskets, gauges, starter valves, fan
belts, and fluids designed for cold regions.
Transfer hoses must be lightweight and flexible to allow deployment and
recovery with a minimum of manpower and equipment. A 7.6-cm (3.0-in.) dia-
meter hose probably would provide the combination of flexibility and ease of
handling needed for cold-region spill countermeasures (Logan et al., 1975).
A hose of this diameter is capable (with 30 m [98.4 ft] of pump discharge
head) of transferring oil of 60 sSU viscosity at the rate of 310 liters per
minute (82 gpm) for 425 m (1394 ft). Under similar conditions, 200 sSU oil
can be pumped for 90 m (295 ft). Technical information on transfer hoses,
suitable for use at low temperatures, is provided in Table 18 (Logan et al.,
1975).
Brittleness at low temperatures may result in the cracking of many stan-
dard hoses. It is expected that this will occur when unrolling and flexing
the hose before pumping. Therefore, special hose material should be used,
specifically designed for cold-region use. Standard couplings and gaskets on
hoses may fail, and many standard connections may prove difficult to manipu-
late with mittens.
During response operations, the oil/water/ice mixtures may freeze and
clog the hose if there is a considerable distance between the pump and storage
104
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TABLE 1.7. HYDRAULICALLY-POWERED SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
FOR TRANSFERRING VISCOUS OIL*
Make
Model
Type
Prosser
Byron-Jackson
Framo
Midland-Bornemann
Moyno
7-13185-20 with #1,2,3
impellers
8 in. H6-H
TK6
EH1600-630
IL12
Centrifugal pump
Two-stage vertical tur-
bine pump
Centrifugal pump
Progressive cavity pump
Progressive cavity pump
* Mittleman, 1978.
TABLE 18. FLEXIBLE OIL TRANSFER HOSE*
Size
(mm)
31.8
38.0
50.5
63.5
76.2
101.6
127.0
152.4
203.2
Approx
OD (mm)
48.5
29.5
42.0
82.5
95.25
120.6
146.0
171.5
225*4
Wt per m
(kg)
1.54
1.77
2.23
2.95
3.77
5.15
6.92
8.63
13.09
Working pressure
(kPa)
1035
1035
1035
1035
1035
1035
690
517
345
Bending radius
(mm)
15
203
229
305
308
457
760
914
1220
* Logan et al., 1975.
105
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container, as occurred at the 1977 Buzzards Bay oil spill (Deslauriers et al.,
1977). Hoses extending 400 m (1312 ft) from the vacuum trucks on shore to
pools on the ice were clogged by small ice chunks, sucked from the pool, and
water freezing in the lines.
For thawing the clogged hoses were disconnected and attached to the ex-
haust of trucks, a move that was marginally successful. It was found that if
little air was taken into the hoses, the freezing problem was minimized.
Other methods have been proposed to reduce clogging, such as insulation.
Mittleman (1978) proposed wrapping heating coils around the hose, not only to
prevent clogging but also to form a low-viscosity oil film on the hose wall,
greatly reducing the drag of viscous oil.
106
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SECTION 10
DISPOSAL
Techniques for the disposal of recovered oil and debris vary widely, but
they can be categorized as incineration, salvage, and land disposal. Factors
that help determine the most suitable technique for a specific response
include:
1. Logistics,
2. Equipment availability,
3. Properties of the recovered product (for example, volatility and
viscosity),
4. Spill volume,
5. Amount and type of debris, and
6. Impact of disposal techniques on the environment.
Often disposal techniques cannot be pre-planned, and the OSC should be
familiar with the available disposal alternatives. For example, _if_the re-
covered product is mixed with snow and other debris, mechanical incineration
at the spill site, by open-pit or rotary kiln burners, may be suitable._ it a
spill occurs near an oil well or pipeline and the recovered product is in a
liquid state, salvage techniques such as reinjection into the pipeline may
provide the best disposal means. Other situations, such as a large spill
that occurs in a remote area with a high percentage of oil-contaminated soil
and gravel, may require land disposal techniques, such as land cultivation or
burial.
Some oil disposal techniques, such as in situ burning, chemical treat-
ment, and biodegradation, do not involve the recovery step These techniques
are described in Section 7 of this report. This section covers only disposal
of recovered oil.
INCINERATION
Mechanical incineration provides a viable and safe method of eliminating
recovered oil. Controlled incineration greatly reduces smoke, as burning
takes place at a very high temperature in a combustion chamber. Because the
burning process is efficient, very little residual material s left after in-
cineration, and what little is left may be disposed of at a landfill site.
107
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Several types of 'incinerators have been designed for disposal of recovered
oil and debris. They include flare burners, open-pit incinerators, rotary
kilns, and stoker-type incinerators.
Each type of incinerator is designed to dispose of certain recoverable
materials and volumes. For burning large amounts of liquid oil that can be
readily collected and pumped, the high-capacity flare burners offer the best
approach. For burning large quantities of oil that is mixed with snow or
with combustible debris, open-pit incinerators are best suited. The disposal
of large amounts of noncombustible materials, such as oil-soaked sand, is
best accomplished by using rotary kilns. Stoker-type incinerators are best
suited for small volumes of oil and can burn combustible solids as well as
combustible material off incombustible matter (for.example, burn oil-soaked
gravel to give clean gravel). The list of incinerator types to be considered
is not complete, but rather includes examples of those devices showing the
greatest potential for disposing of oil and various oil/debris mixtures.
Flare Burners
For burning large quantities of liquid oil while suppressing smoke, com-
mercially available flare burners appear to be the most practical choice.
Flare units have been used to burn up to 1980 m^ (12,000 barrels) per day of
unrefineable crude oil during offshore well tests. This test oil brought up
by offshore drilling platforms (while checking the potential capacity of new
wells) usually contains water, mud, drilling compounds, rocks, and other im-
purities that would foul processing equipment. Some burners are capable of
disposing up to 50% water/oil mixtures.
The size and weight of flare burners vary with manufacturers. A typical
burner weighs approximately 550 kg (1212 Ib). Each burner, with all auxil-
iary equipment (pumps, generator, etc.), might be loaded onto one or two
HC-130 transports. The U.S. Coast Guard is investigating the, feasibility of
making open-flame burners on pallets transportable by helicopter to remote
areas, with a minimum amount of assembly in a harsh, cold environment.
Firing the largest designed burner releases a tremendous amount of heat,
especially at full capacity with its flame 50 m (165 ft) long and 4.6 to 6.1
m (15 to 20 ft) in diameter. The burner's 879-MW (3 x 109 Btu/hr) firing
rate is equivalent to the combined heat input of six medium-sized refineries
or a 300-MW power plant (Peterson, 1975).
Surprisingly, despite the great volume of oil consumed, a flare burner
can be smokeless, even at high firing rates. Three major factors combine to
achieve the complete combustion necessary for eliminating smoke: good oil
atomization, combusted air infiltrated over the length of the flame, and
water spray to control fuel cracking in the rich part of the flame. High oil
pressure is needed for good oil atomization, with an oil pump providing the .
atomized pressure. This type of atomizer usually requires pre-heating of the
oil to a temperature that lowers the viscosity to 15 to 20 centistokes. This
low viscosity requirement will almost certainly necessitate pre-heating the
product in cold regions before atomization.
108
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It appears that the flare burner could easily handle even a large oil
spill of 7950 m3 (50,000 barrels) over a period of four to five days (Peter-
son, 1975). For a spill in which oil is contaminated only with small bits of
rock, sand, and debris, this type of burner would be all that is required.
However, for spills involving significant amounts of larger solid materials,
an additional incinerating device will be required.
Open-Pit Incinerators
Three types of open-pit incinerators are being considered for the dis-
posal of oil, oiled snow and ice, and other combustible materials: non-air-
transportable, air-transportable, and earthen pits. Non-air-transportable
incinerators are found at municipal dumps and industrial plants. Good incin-
eration characteristics result from high burning rates, long residence times,
and high flame temperatures. Extensive tests have been made in which many
solid and liquid wastes have been burned with good results.
An air-transportable open-pit incinerator has been recently developed by
Environment Canada (Lombard, 1979), as shown in Fig. 28. The design of the
open-pit incinerator is an open box with a forced air blower, for recircula-
tion of combustion gases that eliminate smoke. The overall dimensions are
approximately 3.6 m x 2.1 m x 2 m (11.8 ft x 6.9 ft x 6.6 ft). Transporta-
tion of this open-pit incinerator requires 14 helicopter lifts. Each section
of the disassembled incinerator weighs approximately 410 kg (904 Ib), with a
total weight of 10 tons. At least three personnel are required to assemble
the incinerator. The unit is capable of incinerating oil-soaked.burnable
material at a rate of one ton per hour (though it is not designed to dispose
of oiled snow or sand). The incinerator can be loaded using front-end load-
ers or manual techniques. The cost of this unit is approximately $50,000.
It would be particularly useful in permafrost areas, where it is not possible
to burn debris in earthen pits. When placed on a platform, the incinerator
will not cause deterioration of permafrost.
Another open-pit incinerator, made by Renting Oilfield Services Ltd. in
Edmonton, is the Kleen-Up incinerator, which has been designed for transpor-
tation to a remote oil spill. Units are presently being built having pit
dimensions of 2.1 m x 2.7 m x 2.4 m (6.9 ft x 8.9 ft x 7.9 ft) and having
a weight of 13,600 kg (30,000 Ib). Test results indicated that a heavy crude,
having the characteristics of Bunker C oil, could be burned with up to 40%
water by volume without auxiliary fuel and without visible smoke (Peterson,
1975).
The third technique of open-pit burning involves burning of waste oil
and oily debris in an open earthen pit (ditch or trench). Once this material
is ignited, a blower is activated alongside the pit to provide an abundant
source of air for the burning process. This technique is particularly advan-
tageous because it substantially reduces the amount of air pollution and con-
fines the burn to a relatively small area. In addition, the trench burner
is highly portable and for this reason makes on-site disposal in remote areas
highly practical. This trench technique can only be used where the ground is
suitable (such as in sand, gravel, or earth). This technique would not be
practical in permafrost because heat would be conducted into the ground for
109
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OVERHEAD SCREEN
LOADING
Figure 28. Air-transportable incinerator schematic (Lombard, 1979),
110
-------
some distance on either side of the trench. In particular, burning on tundra
vegetation can be hazardous, because once the insulating mat over permafrost
is disrupted, erosion is inevitable. The time of year is critical. Summer
burn vegetation is almost always destroyed and takes years to return. In
winterj the effects are milder, and this method may be marginally suitable.
Despite the fact that only a slight possibility of an explosion exists at an
oil-spill site, certain precautions, nevertheless, should be taken, such as
keeping all personnel 450 m (1500 ft) from the trench site.
Rotary Kilns
One type of incinerator that exhibits considerable promise for disposing
of oil-soaked sediment and debris is the rotary kiln. The rotary kiln also
provides the design flexibility for incineration of a wide variety of liquid
and solid wastes. It provides a mixing action to achieve combustion of oil
and oiled debris, which is especially desirable when disposing of oil-soaked
sediments.
The problem of transporting a rotary kiln to a spill site is being stud-
ied under the auspices of the Petroleum Association for Conservation of the
Canadian Environment (PACE). A small rotary kiln has been built and tested
to burn contaminated sediments at a rate of about one,ton per hour. Sedi-
ments can be as large as 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter. The basis of construc-
tion is materials normally available in the area. The incinerator is con-
structed from second-hand oil drums, angle iron, sheet metal, auto wheels,
and lengths of wire rope. The driving power is provided'by a vehicle with
one wheel removed. The total cost for parts is a few hundred dollars. This
kiln will burn out in a few weeks, but the fact that it can be locally built,
when needed, out of scrap materials, outweighs the problem of a short life.
A manual for-construction design is available from PACE.
Stoker-Type Incinerators ' .
Stoker-type incinerators are similar to coal furnaces. They consist
basically of a grate on which burning takes place. They can be of the contin-
uous feed or batch feed type. The burning is self-sustaining. They will
burn combustible solids and will also burn combustibles off incombustible
matter. One type of incinerator that can be home-made -is; often.very practi-
cal for very small oil spills, up to 15.9 m3 (100 barrels). .
Home-made incinerators, such as 208-liter (55-gal) ''drums, would prob-
ably be sufficient for burning the oil and debris from small spills. A 208-
liter (55-gal) drum incinerator can be constructed (Betts, 1973) by attaching
a gas-fired bunsen burner to the inside surface of the drum firing into the
wall or debris. Combustion air vents should be punched in the drum above the
maximum oil level (approximately halfway up the drum). Alternatively, an in-
clined air inlet pipe of 2.5 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in.) in diameter could be posi-
tioned tangentially to the drum near the top (Figure 29). The resulting
swirl of air around the inside surface of the drum would aid combustion and
greatly reduce smoke. The air can be supplied by a small fan or compressor.
The bottom of the drum can be left intact or removed and the drum set upright
on a raised grating. In this case, the residue of the burned material falls
111
-------
AIR
.GRID
PLAN
Figure 29. Simple drum incinerator (Betts, 1973).
through the grating and the incinerator can be operated continuously.
SALVAGE
Salvage may be considered a highly desirable disposal technique when
local conditions permit this alternative. Salvage techniques include injec-
tion into the pipeline, injection into an oil well, refining the oil, and
direct reclamation. The feasibility of these alternatives depends on the
condition of the recovered oil, the logistics of the situation, and the
availability of necessary equipment.
Pipeline Reinjection
One technique that is increasingly being utilized for disposal of oil
discharged from a pipeline involves reinjecting that oil back into the pipe-
line. For example, discharged oil that has pooled along the pipeline may be
reinjected at a nearby pump station, pipeline valve assembly, or directly at
the spill site, with the on-scene installation of a T device that can be in-
stalled within a few hours. In some instances, techniques for heating the
oil would have to be employed before reinjection to reduce its viscosity.
Heating could be done by transferring the viscous oil into a warming tank be-
fore reinjection.
A second problem to be considered in terms of reinjection into a pipeline
is that of separating the oil from any water that may have come in contact
112
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with it. A highly'effective approach for dealing with this problem involves
the use of an oil/water separator. Such a device can be made under field con-
ditions by fabricating a metal box that has a bottom drain pipe and a valve,
or by constructing a plastic-lined temporary holding pond. The water/oil mix-
ture would be poured into the box or pond and allowed to settle, after which
the valve is opened and the water decanted or pumped out. The remaining oil,
assuming that it is free of debris, could then be reinjected directly into
the pipeline.
If the discharged oil is contaminated by gravel or other debris, a mech-
anical separation technique must be employed. A portable screen can be used
to separate the debris from the oil. The oil, in this instance, would be
contained in a storage tank before being reinjected into the pipe.
Reinjection of recovered oil was recently used during cleanup operations
for an Alyeska Pipeline spill (Buhite, 1979). Crude oil was collected in vac-
uum trucks and transferred to tank trucks, which were dispatched to the two
nearest downstream pump stations for reintroduction into the pipeline. Ini-
tially, the crude was introduced into the ballast water treatment facility at
Valdez Marine Terminal, but problems were encountered with debris. There-
the oil was pumped first into a pit, then through screens to collect
, next into the sludge pit sump of the ballast water treatment plant,
into the crude-oil storage tanks. All remqved organics were in-
after,
debris
and finally
cinerated. A 63-day cleanup effort
crude oil being reinjected into the
resulted in
pipeline.
2465 m3 (15,500 barrels) of
Direct Reuse
Oil directly recovered from spills could be put to a number of possible
uses. Diesel and lubricating oil could be used directly as a low-grade heat-
ing fuel. The surface of unpaved roads is sometimes oiled to reduce traffic
dust. Waste oils of many kinds are often used for this purpose, usuall-y
without processing. If the oil is not too viscous, it is simply sprayed onto
the road.
LAND DISPOSAL
Land disposal is a viable technique for the disposal of spill debris.
However, this technique should only be used after methods such as salvage and
mechanical incineration have been fully rejected. Disadvantages of. using
land disposal are groundwater pollution, the need for long-term monitoring,
and high costs. Land disposal techniques include land cultivation, landfill-
ing with refuse, and burial.
Land cultivation is recommended where debris size characteristics and
access to suitable land permit. In land cultivation, the oil is degraded
under aerobic conditions that result in relatively rapid breakdown of the
bulk of the hydrocarbons. Landfill ing with refuse is acceptable at individual
burial sites or existing sanitary landfill sites. Landfill ing is definitely
less desirable than land cultivation because of the anaerobic conditions that
greatly extend the period for groundwater pollution potential and monitoring.
Burial is the least desirable method, with secondary pollution and slow
113
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anaerobic degradation creating problems. For any land disposal technique,
the factors that should be considered are: ,..'.','
1. Permafrost,
2, Transportation,
3. Hydrology,
4. Topography, and
5. Geology.
The top insulative layer of permafrost soil may be damaged when dis-
turbed by digging, vehicular movement, or sometimes simply by walking. In
areas where disposal sites are made without regard to permafrost, solar heat-
ing may melt the ice in the soil around the site, forming a puddle that may
begin to erode around the dump. Subsequent heating may melt deeper ice,
thereby enlarging the pool. If the oiled material is to be buried, this ero-
sion (thermokarst) process should be avoided. In addition to the possible
problems of thermokarst action is the problem of providing a vegetative cover
over the landfill site. In cold regions, it may be difficult to provide veg-
etation cover over the disturbed areas.
Hydrology and topography are also important factors to consider in es-
tablishing or identifying disposal waste sites. Those areas, unsuitable for
the disposal of oil waste material from a topographic standpoint, are all low-
lying areas where standing water exists. These low-lying areas include flat-
lands, adjacent to streams and rivers, areas covered by muskeg, and any other
areas where either surface water or groundwater could become contaminated as
a result of disposal procedures.
The geology of the-disposal site should be investigated. Areas under-
lain by loose sand'or gravel should not be considered for burial sites be-
cause of the high probability that oil seeping from the waste material could
pollute that groundwater. Similarly, areas underlain by shallow permafrost
are not sui'table for disposal purposes because oil may penetrate to ground-
water or permafrost and be carried to the surface when the groundwater eventu-
ally surfaces. Materials used to cover a.burial site should have a sandy,
silty consistency.
Information and guidelines required to assess the feasibility of Using
land disposal techniques in cold regions are as follows (Slusarchuk, 1978):
1. Locate site inland of maximum storm surge zone, or on land at least
3 m above mean water level.
2. Locate site as close as possible to spill area.
3. Check level of groundwater table and permafrost and their fluctua-
tions. Investigate details of groundwater flows, such as direction,
speed, and convection with, other water bodies.
114
-------
6.
7.
Do not locate sites on alluvial fans or active flood plains, par-
ticularly on braided rivers. This does not mean that high ground,
which exists within alluvial fans as remnant landscape features that
have not been"eroded by the river, cannot be used.
Identify type of soil and its permeability to oil, particularly dur-
ing the summer months. For summer construction, locate site and
access roads on soil type with the following priority:
a. Frozen sand, gravel, or rock deposits with little (less than
0.5 m) fine-grained soil at the surface,
b. Frozen sand, gravel, or rock deposits with some (more than 0.5 m)
fine-grained soil at the surface,'
c. Fine-grained soil with low ice content (less than 35% average),
and
d. Fine-grained soil with high ice content (more than 35% average)
(though access roads can be located over this type of terrain
in the summer, it is recommended that landfill disposal sites
not be constructed in such terrain in the summer).
For winter construction (oiled debris has been stockpiled at a tem-
porary storage site), locate sites on soil type with the following
priority:
a. Fine-grained soil with low ice content (less than 35% average),
b. Fine-grained soil with high ice content (35-75% average),
c. 'Frozen sand, gravel, or rock deposits with some (more than 0.5 m)
fine-grained soil at the surface, and
d. Frozen sand, gravel, or rock deposits with little (less than
0.5 m) fine-grained soil at the surface.
Locate sites on terrain that is as level as possible, and;at least
50 m from the toe or crest of significant slopes greater than 10
degrees, and at least 100 m for significant slopes greater than 15
degrees. All ice-rich slopes must be checked individually to ensure
that the above guideline is satisfactory for the actual field condi-
tions at the site. Special attention will be required in all hum-
mocky moraine terrain.
Depending on the specific field conditions and the potential danger to
the environment of an uncleaned oiled beach, it should be understood that the
guidelines may reasonably be altered in some cases. Oil-spill debris requir-
ing disposal should contain mostly oiled soil, vegetation, rocks, sorbents,
and other solids collected during spill cleanup. Any excessive oil should be
recovered before or after debris collection but certainly before disposal.
In many cases, debris consisting largely of soiled soil can be used as a road
115
-------
base, thus* reducing or eliminating the need for disposal. For more informa-
tion on disposal site location and techniques, refer to the reports by the
Environmental Protection Agency (Stearns, et al, 1977) and Environment Canada
(Slusarchuk, 1978).
Land Cultivation
The land cultivation process is known by various other terms, including
land farming, land spreading, and land treatment. Regardless of the name,
the process involves the spreading of oily wastes over the land so that sub-
sequent cultivation and mixing will expose the oil to air and soil microbes
(Stearns et al, 1977). This technique is deemed directly applicable to oil-
spill debris that does not contain excessively large or bulky solids.
Oil-waste material can be applied from about 2 to 5 cm (0.8 to 2.0 in)
thick in cooler, more humid northern parts of the United States and Canada.
A tractor-drawn rototiller, plow, or harrow is used to break up the oily
crust and mix it with soil organisms present in the surface layer. Practices
vary from one location to another, with respect to the frequency of such mix-
ing. A common practice is to plow the material to a depth of 15 to 20 cm
(5.9 to 7.9 in) and to occasionally aerate and blend the oily waste with soil.
In an EPA study (Stearns et al, 1977), all contacted practitioners of land
cultivation till the soil/oil mixture at least twice a year for several years.
In cold climates where microbial degradation occurs at a much lower rate, cul-
tivation should be done more frequently.
Landfill ing With Solid Wastes
Debris that is relatively free of liquid oil and water should not cause
leaching problems in a conventional landfill, assuming the volume of debris
is small compared with the waste volume in place. Thus, the option of sani-
tary landfill disposal of debris is usually available to all collected mate-
rials. Mixing with refuse will provide opportunities for oil and water pres-
ent to be absorbed and, thus, impede outward migration. A properly situated
and operated sanitary landfill can adequately protect underlying and surface
waters from oil-spill debris contamination. No data has been obtained on the
degradation rates of oil-spill debris on these landfill sites (Stearns et al,
1977). From numerous studies of sanitary landfills, it is known that all
waste decomposition is anaerobic. Thus, oil is expected to be one of the
last materials to decompose, if indeed it ever does. Estimates of the time
for total decomposition range from 5 to 100 years (or longer), though_the
latter is the more realistic estimate in an anaerobic environment (Plice,
1948).
Burial
Burying, or landfill ing oil-spill debris, is another commonly practiced
disposal method, particularly when conventional sanitary landfills are rela-
tively inaccessible to the oil-spill site or if landfill operators are unwill-
ing or unable to accept the debris. Debris may be buried either below grade
in excavated trenches or abandoned quarries or above grade over properly pre-
pared subsoils, with appropriate barriers or berms placed around the disposal
site perimeter.
116
-------
in the past, sites with underlying impervious soils, were selected as a
fail-safe guarantee that oily materials would not leach from-the disposal
area. In the-absence of naturally-occurring areas with'such conditions, im-
ported clay barriers have been placed to seal the disposal areas. Figure 30
shows a schematic cross-section of a debris burial site as designed and con-
structed by EPA (Jones, 1975 ).
The oiled debris should be layered with clean soil so that if oil is
squeezed out of the debris there will be void spaces in the clean soil for
the oil to occupy. The oiled debris should be placed in about 1-m (3.3-ft)
layers with 0.3-m (1.0-ft) layers of clean material above it. In permafrost
areas, it is important that the active layer does not penetrate down to the
uppermost level of buried oil debris. If the soil contains ice, the terrain
at the site should be built up and graded so that when thaw settlement occurs,
water will not pond. Drainage ways should be provided around the area to en-
sure that the bermed area does not unduly affect the local drainage system.
The berm then should be revegetated.
PVC MONITORING WELL WITH 1 FT OF CLEAN SAND AND GRAVEL
CO VER \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^^^
PERVIOUS THAN EARTH
VYU\u\u\\\\u\u\\\m\\u\u\ \\x\\'
MINIMUM 4'
DISTANCE FROM
BASE OF EARTH
SEAL
Figure 30. Schematic cross-section of debris burial site
as designed and constructed (Jones, 1975).
117
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A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of
landfilling with* refuse, and burial is provided-in Table
parison of operating factors, environmental factors, and
the three landfill techniques is listed in Table 20.
land cultivation,
1,9. A second corn-
estimated costs for
118
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120
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SECTION 11
LOGISTICS
Oil-spill response logistics involve the on-scene movement of personnel,
equipment, facilities, supplies, and the recovered product until the response
effort is completed. They start with transporting the spill response team
and its equipment to the spill area and include the needs of personnel at the
spill site. The remoteness of likely spill sites, plus severe weather condi-
tions (snow, ice, permafrost, and cold-region optical phenomenon) make spill
response operations in cold regions more difficult than those in warmer cli-
mates. A discussion of spill response logistics begins with a review of air,
aquatic, land, and amphibious transportation and the handling of equipment
and is followed by a section on personnel requirements o,f food, shelter,
clothing, and first aid.
TRANSPORTATION
Air Transportation
Air transportation is the prevalent method of emergency response used in
cold regions, and it will undoubtedly continue as such in the near future.
The combination of fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft during rapid spill re-
sponse is generally constrained only by weather.
Several restrictions are imposed on flight operations in cold regions.
Some of the problems include poor visibility, adverse weather, and darkness,
as well as the difficulty of operating aircraft in extremely cold ambient tem-
peratures. In addition, in remote areas such as in Alaska, problems include
poor runway or landing strip conditions, limited availability of alternate
air fields, limited availability of adequate air navigation systems, limited
availability of fuel, and inadequate ground support. Many of the visibility
problems common in cold regions were discussed in Section 5. Many advanced
visual flight rules (VFR), which means that in
darkness at an inadequately lighted field,
could be interrupted. Helicopters are able to
and visibility conditions than fixed-wing air-
more vulnerable to icing conditions and do
air bases are suitable only for
a whiteout, in blowing snow, or
landings of fixed-wing aircraft
operate VFR under lower ceiling
craft. However, helicopters are
not have the endurance of fixed-wing aircraft.
Fixed-wing aircraft can be divided into three classifications of heavy,
medium, and light transports, depending upon speed and payload capacity. Air-
craft operating in the north have been summarized in Table 21 (Gather, 1978).
According to this classification, disposal weight refers to the poundage
121
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TABLE 21 (concluded)
Runway requirements
Normal ,
Name/Model
Heavy transport
Boeing 727/QC
Boeing 737/200
Douglas DC6/AB
Lockheed E1ectra/L-188C
Lockheed Hercules/
HC-130
Medium transport
Bristol freighter/170
DeHavilland Buffalo/
DHC 5
Douglas DC-3
Fairchild/F27
Fokker/F227
Hawker/HS-748
Siddley/HK 11 A
Nihon/YS 11A
Light transport
Beechcraft/G-18
Cessna/180, 185
Cessna/3376
Cessna/402, 421
DeHavilland Beaver/
DHC-2
DeHavilland Otter/DHC-3
DeHavilland Twin Otter/
DHC6-300
Short Skyvan/SC-7
Paved
6,000
' 9,000
5,000
5,000
5,000
3,000
3,000
3,400
4,000
4,200
4,000
2,500
1,500
3,500
3,500
1,500
1,500
2,200
2,200
Gravel
6,000
9,000
5,000
5,000
5,000
3,000
3,000
3,400
4,000
4,200
4,000
2,500
1,500
3,500
3,500
1 ,500
1,500
2,200
2,200
Snow/
Ice Water
6,000
5,000
5,000
5,000
3,000
3,000
5 ,000
4,200
4,000
2,500
2,000 3,000
3,500
3,500
2,000 3,000
2,500 3,000
2,500 3,500
2 ,200
, ft (3281 ft = 1
Paved
5,000
6,000
4,500
3,600
4,000
1,500
1,500
2,500
3,500
3,000
4,000
1,500
1 ,500
1.800
2,500
900
800
1,000
1 ,500
km)
Emergency
Gravel
5,000
6,000
4,500
3,600
4,000
1,500
1,500
2,500
3,500
3,000
4,000
1,500
1,500
2,000
2,500
900
800
1,000
1,500
Snow/
Ice
5,000
4,500
3,600
4,000
1,500
1,500
3,500
3,000
4,000
1,500
2,000
2,000
2,500
1,500
1,500
1,500
1 ,500
Water
3,000
2,500
2,500
3,000
123
-------
available to carry payload and fuel. The runway requirements are for fully-
loaded aircraft. In actual operations, partial loads can be landed on shorter
strips. The use of shorter strips is also facilitated by two factors that
increase air density -- low temperatures and altitude -- and thus, the lift
capability of the wings (Gather, 1978).
One of the most important fixed-wing aircraft for transporting spill -
response equipment is the Hercules (HC) 130. The U.S. Air Force has a restric-
tion from using the HC-130 aircraft from Barrow, Alaska, at temperatures below
-20°F (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1968). Private industry has oper-
ated HC-130 aircraft in temperatures colder than -37°C (-20°F) during airlift
operations to the North Slope of Alaska. The HC-130 has the capability of
landing on 1-m (3.3-ft) thick ice with a runway length of approximately 1200 m.
Helicopters also can be defined as light, medium, and heavy, but this
classification pertains only to load capacity (Table 22) (Gather, 1978). The
relatively slow ferrying speeds eliminate helicopters as a long-range delivery
vehicle. The major advantage of using helicopters is the small area required
for landing and the flexibility, with respect to size and shape of packages
that can be -transported externally (Gather, 1978).
Aircraft usually available in the Arctic can carry equipment weighing up
to 3629 kg (8000 Ib), using prepared air strips, and can carry equipment weigh-
ing 1361 kg (3000 Ib), using isolated, short-term air landing strips. Remote
locations may also be serviced by helicopters, which can sling items of less
than 3175 kg (7000 Ib) a maximum distance of 483 km (300 miles) from base.
There are some special helicopters available, such as the Sikorsky S63 Sky
Crane helicopter, with a 10-ton lift capacity.
In Alaska, seasons determine when different types of aircraft can be used
on different terrain. By November, aircraft converted to skis or wheel skis
can be landed on frozen tundra or frozen lakes. Temporary air strips on land
may be closed for extended periods, as a result of melting in the active perma-
frost zone or flooding. Aircraft could use wheels or skis on river deltas in
winter, while floats would be needed along the coast in summertime. Helicop-
ters are by far the most versatile transportation system available in spill-
cleanup operations, and at least one helicopter should be available in remote
area cleanup operations for emergency evacuation use. For large spills, par-
ticularly those in remote areas where few roads are available, it is best to
establish helicopter landing pads and, if possible, a temporary landing strip
for fixed-wing aircraft.
Aquatic Transportation
Ice conditions, water depth, and navigable routes generally determine the
accessibility of marine vessels and spill-response equipment to an offshore
spill site. In heavy ice conditions, ice breakers can prove to be an impor-
tant response vessel. The arctic survey boats carried by Coast Guard ice
breakers would provide excellent work boats for local transportation at, or
near, the spill location. The main problem with using ice-breaker support is
in the draft, typically greater than 7.9 m (26 ft), required by these large
vessels.
124
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In lighter ice conditions, tug and work boats could be used as support
vessels. Fishing vessels could also be used for spill-response support in ~
light ice conditions. The rigging and gear on some types of fishing vessels
are particularly suited to oil-spill cleanup operations. The holding tanks on
the fishing boats could be used also as temporary storage; however, secondary
cleanup would be required. Barges could be used to support cleanup operations
in areas of low ice concentration. The use of these barges as temporary stor-
age would be extremely useful in cleanup operations of large oil spills. Tugs,
work and fishing boats, and barges probably would be limited to local trans-
portation and field operations at or near the scene of the spill.
Land Vehicles
Land vehicles must be capable of traversing a variety of terrains and sur-
face features in cold regions, particularly in Alaska where access roads are
few. Ice, water, snow, tundra, and permafrost are the most common terrains in
Alaska's arctic regions. Subarctic Alaska includes all terrains described
above, plus rocky or mountainous areas, glaciers, forest, and every imaginable
type of beach, including mud. Problems in cold-region land transportation will
be discussed, followed by a description of vehicle types most suited for these
conditions.
Ice can be a most demanding terrain during oil-spill response. Leads and
melt ponds impose a constraint, for that water must be crossed. Several types
of land vehicles are either amphibious or adaptable to amphibious operations
by the addition of flotation units. However, very few, if any, of the trans-
port vehicles that have been operated under these conditions are capable of
climbing out of the water over a 2-foot vertical edge(Eddington and Abel ,
1971). Other problems include surface irregularities formed by the fracturing
and deformation of ice. For example, the sail height on coastal pressure
ridges can extend vertically up to 6 feet, halting most land transportation.
Traversing areas with deep, soft snow incapacitates most types of vehicles
because of high centering. A suitable land vehicle does not exist for opera-
tion in all types of snow found in Alaska (Peterson et al., 1975a). One of
the worst land surface conditions that can be encountered is a fresh layer of
snow over wet, unfrozen tundra. Under these conditions, the vehicle will
break through the snow cover, which has little or no bearing strength, and
lose traction on the moisture-laden ground. The combination of snow, water,
mud, and organic matter can quickly halt even the best machine (Harwood and
Yong, 1972).
Permafrost poses unique problems to land transportation. Local environ-
mental degradation may be particularly severe in permafrost terrain. There
are two general regions of permafrost located in Alaska. The continuous perma-
frost zone is where essentially all land is underlain by frozen ground. The
discontinuous permafrost zone includes those areas where permafrost is re-
stricted to colder and/or more poorly drained sites, such as north-facing
slopes and valley floors. Major problems arise when permafrost occurs on
poorly drained, fine-grained sediments. These sediments contain large amounts
of ice so that thawing makes the sediments unstable. Melting can result from
the disturbance or removal of vegetation, or by warming temperatures
126
-------
(thermokarsting). Even a small physical disturbance, such as driving a ve-
hicle across the tundra, can create .thermokarst features. Some trails have
remained cleared of vegetation for 20 years after a single traverse by a
track vehicle. In some cases, these trails continue to erode (Richard 'and
Slaughter, 1973).
The thermokarst problem has resulted in limitations being placed on off-
road travel during some seasons in Alaska. The Alaskan Department of Envi-
ronmental Conservation does not permit off-road travel from mid-May to mid-
July. Rolligons may be used off road with a permit from mid-July to mid-
September but are not permitted from mid-September until mid-November when
the active permafrost layer once more becomes stable and. hard (Batman, 1978).
In the Rolligon the tires are replaced by a large balloon bag filled to 3 psi
(20.7 kPa). This vehicle operates on the concept that the balloons, deflated
to less than this amount, can assume the shape of an ellipse, allowing nominal
ground pressure to be reduced and rolling resistance to be lowered. These
vehicles have been successfully used in permafrost regions to carry heavy
Toads with very small ground disturbance.
To minimize the adverse effects of off-road vehicular trails on perma-
frost terrain, the following guidelines have been set up (Richard and
Slaughter, 1973):
1. Take care in determining the route to be followed.
2. Avoid permafrost sites with high-ice-content soils.
3. Restrict traffic to low-ground-pressure vehicles (such as
Rolligons).
4. Leave surface organic material intact.
5. Provide an insulating or wearing surface for the trail (such as
logs).
Several types of land vehicles on wheels or tracks are suited for cold-
region operations. The vehicles can be classified according to their running
gear and include half-track vehicles, full-track vehicles, wheeled vehicles,
and articulated vehicles. Table'23 summarizes land transportation vehicles
commonly used in the arctic. A brief description of each of these vehicles
follows.
Half-track vehicles have a running gear that combines the use of skis
and tracks. An example of this type of vehicle is the light, load-carrying
ski mobiles. These vehicles are propelled by a small floating track, mounted
between the skis, that carries about 50% of the gross load. The success of
these machines depends entirely on keeping them on top of the snow cover; so
motion, resistance, and,tractive requirements are kept to a minimum. The
ground pressure required to operate these vehicles over snow is a prime re-
striction to their development into a true load-carrying machine (Peterson et
a!., 1975a).
127
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TABLE 23. SUMMARY OF LAND TRANSPORTATION VEHICLES USED IN THE ARCTIC*
Nominal contact
Vehicle/Manufacturer
Caterpillar D-7
Caterpillar D-8
Weasel M-29C
Bombardier HDH
Husky Eight
Foremost Yukon
Thiokol 1404
Volvo BV 202
Flextrack Nodwell FN 400
Flextrack Hodwell FN 600
Flextrack Nodwell FN 45TT
Floxtrack Nodwell FN 100TT
Flextrack Nodwell FN 600TT
SklDoo Snowmobile - 1 track
SklDoo Snowmobile - 2 track
Rolligon RD-84 (Bechtel)
Musk Ox/WHRE
Amphibious Cargo Carrier T-116
Caterpillar D-2 (LGP)
John Deere 420 Crawler
Polecat MK II/HNRE
Bombardier Snowmobile
M-7 Half-track
Polecat/HNRE
Klrstl Model KT-3
Krlstl Model KT-4
HNRE Dinah
Otaco Ltd Sled - 10 ton
Otaco Ltd Sled - 20 ton
Cushman Trackster
Bombardier Muskeg Tractor
Borabardler Muskeg Carrier
Bombardier Muskeg Transporter
Bombardier Skldozer 301
Rolligon Model 6660
Rolligon Model 4450
Rolligon Model 8860
Thiokol 1200 Series
Sno T'rraln/Consolldated
Tucker Sno-Cat 1500
Tucker Sno-Cat 1600
Tucker Sno-Cat 2700
(1
Type
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
W
W
W
HT
HT
W
T
T
T
T
T
HT
HT
AT
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
W
U
W
T
T
T
T
T,
pressure
psi = 6
@NVW
7.1
8.5
1.26
2.4
1.4
0.6
1.2
1.9
2.1
3.0
2.0
0.2
0.2
3.0
1.9
3.5
2.5
2.6
1.2
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.49
1.69
1.74
0.62
1.0
1.0
M.O
0.7
1.6
0.84
0.68
0.55
Abbreviations: GVH - Gross vehicle weight T
NVW - Net vehicle weight HT
(psi)
.89 kPa)
@GVW
__-
1.8
2.2
5.0
3.0
3.4
3.6
2.7
5.2
0.6
0.4
-x.4.0
2.2
1.0
2.1
.
5.6
7.1
1.0
3.91
3.0
1.5
v-3.0
1.0
Approximate
drawbar
pull (Ib)
(1 Ib = .45 kg)
---
--
3,000
,
---
1,000
1.5,000
M ,500
^7,000
75 ,000
---
- Tracked
- Half-tracked
Net
Weight (Ib)
26,400
40,600
4,800
8,000
85,600
17,800
2,800
6,406
54 ,000
83,000
10,000
14,000
75,000
251
374
26,000
50 ,000
5,350
14,000
4,700
27,000
5,000
2,600
10,000
1 .800
2,800
3,300
9,000
20 ,000
1,040
7,000
8,000
24 ,000
6,000
10,500
3,400
15,500
6,550
5,800
6,000
7,800
Pay load
(Ib)
1,200
6,000
88,700
20,600
1,400
2,000
40,000
60,000
4,500
5,000
60,000
400
400
20 ,000
40,000
3,000
6,800
2,500
500
2,500
2,000
1,000
20,000
40,000
800
---
8,000
30,000
1 2 ,000
2,500
0,20,000
1,900
1,650
1 ,800
7,300
Approximate
personnel
capacity
<4
<4
<4
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
<10
13
<3
<3
30
12
2
4
8
6
»
4
1
2
2
2
<3
<3
<4
10
7
6-8
6-8
6-8
U - Wheeled
AT - Articulated tracked
* Source: Peterson et al., 1975a.
128
-------
Full-track vehicles are the most successful class of self-propelled ve-
hicles. While these Vehicles may not have high mobility in snow, nonetheless,
for economic reasons they appear to be better general-purpose vehicles than
most other types. These full-track vehicles have superior drawbar perform-
ance. This is mainly due to the markedly reduced motion (rolling resistance).
There is a higher performance in snow or muskeg when using the full-track
vehicle with a Space Track, in comparison with conventional tracks. Space
Track is a track with large spaces between the grousers and links. The indi-
cations are that the improvements with using this running gear can only be
achieved in small machines (below 10,000 Ib [4540 kg] gross) (Peterson et al.,
1975a). Wheeled vehicle use in cold regions is limited to cleared ice, snow,
and other prepared roads. Specialized, wheeled vehicles with large-diameter,
low-pressure tires, such as Rolligons, have been tried with some degree of
success in unprepared ground.
Articulated vehicles are designed in such a way that all four tracks
are in contact with the soil and all tracks run at the same speed (or slip).
The front and rear part of the vehicle must be independently free to move
(roll, pitch, and steer). An articulated vehicle can be thought of as two
vehicles back to back, coupled by a universal joint and driven by one motor
through an articulated shaft. Articulated vehicles have disadvantages, the
main ones being the splitting of the vehicle and the complication in driving.
However, units do exist that offset these disadvantages.
Sleds can be very useful in cold regions. The sleds that have the most
highly developed suspension and frames are the Canadian Northland Sleds. They
have spring-mounted runners made of aluminum. These sleds were developed for
two-ton and four-ton loads.
Amphibious Vehicles
Air-cushioned vehicles (ACV) ranked second only to helicopters in ability
to traverse cold-region terrain over short to intermediate ranges (Peterson
et al., 1975a). ACVs have great potential for arctic transportation. An
advantage of ACVs over aircraft is the capability to operate in conditions of
low visibility, such as fog or low clouds. The ACV craft have many advant-
ages over conventional vehicles, primarily speed, amphibious nature, low free-
board, freight capacity, stability, and the ability to travel over tundra,
marsh, rotting coastal ice, or ice floes.
The Canadian Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program (AMOP) (Meikle, 1978) has
developed the use of ACVs as platforms-for oil-spill cleanup in ice-infested
waters. From field trials conducted by the Canadian Coast Guard it was con-
cluded that the air cushion does not disturb an oil slick and that the craft
could be used for recovery operations. Practical oil spill countermeasure
exercises were conducted using an ACV as a transport and work platform.
The many advantages of the ACV used in the arctic must be weighed against
a number of potential problems. ACVs may develop performance loss and mainte-
nance problems from constant operation over rough, broken ice. The current
high cost of such vehicles ($2.5 million for the Bell Voyager) (Peterson et
al., 1975a) may partially limit its use as a spill-response vehicle. In
129
-------
spite of possible problems:, the ACV is well suited for traveling over the
tundra and marsh year-round, with few adverse environmental problems, and it
can transport equipment and men to aquatic areas that would be inaccessible
to other vessels.
Preparation of Equipment for Transport
Personnel are generally transported to the scene of an oil spill much
more readily than heavy equipment. Therefore, the necessary equipment should
be ready to be deployed once it arrives on-scene. Large transportation ve-
hicles will be at a premium or nonexistent in remote areas, particularly in
Alaska. Equipment must be pre-packed in the smallest practical containers
that are adaptable to all potential conveyance methods of handling. Methods
of handling equipment would include (Peterson et al., 1975a):
1. Hoisting by crane or helicopter, using slings,
2. Raising or lowering by forklift,
3. Dragging on sleds or skids, or
4. Manhandling.
All equipment requiring protection from the environment or from shock or
vibration must be pre-packed in shipping containers that afford the necessary
protection, regardless of the mode of transportation. The shipping containers
must further be safely handleable by all means of handling tabulated above,
whenever possible. Proper identification and ready access for maintenance
and/or inspection are also mandatory. For remote areas, the largest container
size desirable is one that will slip, readily into the bed of a pickup truck,
1.2 x 1.8 x 2.4 m (3.9 x 5.9 x 7.8 ft). The maximum desirable weight to per-
mit manhandling is less than 91 kg (200 Ib). Equipment pre-packaged in small
containers should be stored in larger cargo containers for primary transporta-
tion.
Some oil-spill cleanup and containment equipment, and some forms of field
support equipment, will exceed the limits of size and weight for manhandling.
This larger equipment must be suitably pre-packed for handling by any of the
other methods tabulated above. As a general rule for transportation within .
Alaska, the larger equipment should be broken down to the smallest, practical
size, even at the expense of additional assembly time in the field. Too many
instances are likely where a large, heavy package might never reach its destin-
ation, especially in the arctic. (This is in contrast with procedures in the
more heavily populated areas of the lower 48 States, where mobile high-
capacity cranes and similar gear are usually available.) In no case should a
single package exceed the size or weight that can be unloaded from an HC-130
aircraft at a remote airfield approximately 2.4 x 1.5 x 6.1 m (7.8 x 4>9 x
20.0 ft) and 6800 kg (15,000 Ib).
ESTIMATION OF CLEANUP CREW AND EQUIPMENT NEEDS
Considerations involved in estimating cleanup crew and equipment needs
130
-------
for an oil spill in cold regions include the following:
1. Is there ice present? In what form? Land, sea, or freshwater ice?
Is there snow present?
2.
3.
4.
What kind of oil has been spilled? How is it behaving? (Thick, not
fluid; or light oil, moving over ground, ice, or water.)
What are the environmental conditions surrounding the spill? How
are those conditions affecting the movement of the oil? How will
those conditions affect the movement of equipment and personnel?
What kind of decisions has the OSC made about the type of cleanup
needed for the spill? Can the area stand the use of heavy equipment
such as bulldozers and trucks, or cranes, or mobile incinerators?
Is it an area that requires the use of hand tools exclusively, or
almost exclusively? Is it an area where there is a great amount of
cleanup required, or can much of the area be left to weather
naturally?
5. How accessible is the area, to what types of personnel movers? How
far away is the stockpiled equipment? How can it be moved, and in
what time frame?
6. How well trained are the personnel that are being used to clean up
the spill? (In most cases, better training means fewer people need
to be used in any given situation.)
7. Assuming a winter spill, what kind of cold-weather gear is available
for the cleanup personnel? In general, the colder the weather, the
more personnel will be required because of the rapid decrease in
efficiency after having been in the cold. What kind of rotation
schedules do you need to use for these personnel?
8. What kind of mechanized equipment is available that will work in
cold conditions? How far away is that equipment?
9. How many people are available in the area? What can you afford in
terms of cost to get them there if they are not already there? How
cost-effective would it be to bring in other people, or can the job
be done over a longer period of time with fewer people?
For example, personnel and equipment needs are estimated for a cold-
region oil spill of 7950 m3 (50,000 barrels) in Table 24 with the following
scenario: A subsea oil blowout occurs in winter in the Beaufort Sea, causing
7950 m3 (50,000 barrels) of oil to be lost. In responding to this incident,
the on-scene coordinator would have to consider recovery of the oil in three
environments: on the beach, on open water, and on and under ice. For each
environment a different mix of personnel and equipment would be needed. Re-
quirements for support personnel are difficult to estimate. In any case, the
following specialties should be represented at the scene: medical, communica-
tions, heavy equipment repair, plumbing and heating, food preparation and ser-
vice, and possibly clothing issue.
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TABLE 24. ESTIMATED CREW AND EQUIPMENT NEEDS FOR A 7950-rrf
(50,000-BARREL) OIL SPILL UNDER WINTER ICE COVER
Activity
Equipment
Nonsupervisory personnel
Surveillance 2 helicopters
1 small boat
Containment 1 crane
6 bulldozers
3 front-end loaders
2 ditch witches
4 iced augers
x marker buoys
x boom lights
x anchors
Recovery on 2 current meters
and under ice 2 tank trucks
2 mop skimmers
4 pumps
sorbents
igniters/promoters
generators/lights
tracked vehicles
surface barriers with lights
storage bladders/drums
Recovery on 6 small boats
open water 1524 m (5000 ft) of 12 x 24 boom
610 m (2000 ft) of small harbor boom
Heavy-duty skimmer 3
1 small storage/disposable barge of 954 m
(6000 barrel)
2 tugboats
portable skimmers
pumps and bladders
Recovery on '2 helicopters
the beach 6 all-terrain vehicles
6 small workboats
portable skimmers
sorbents
weed burners
pumps and hoses
shovels and rakes, etc.
Disposal 1 barge-mounted incinerator
3 portable incinerators
20 weed burners
200 air-deployable igniters
Support onsite and offsite ca-pers
command center
communications center
portable and mobile communications equipment
4 pilots
1 boat operator
24 heavy equipment operators
two for each piece of
equipment
28 workmen
1 current meter technician
4 drivers
4 operators
4 workmen
10 general laborers
12 boat operators
2 skimmer operators
20 workmen
8 tug crew
4 pilots
12 operators
6 boat operators
200 general laborers
10 incinerator operators
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REQUIREMENTS FOR PERSONNEL
Training
Oil-spill personnel must be psychologically and physically prepared to
work safely and effectively in cold environments that present special problems
for oil-spill response efforts. Tasks that might be simple under normal con-
ditions would be arduous and time-consuming in the face of extreme wind and
cold; incidents that are of minor importance in warmer climates might quickly
develop into life-and-death situations in the arctic or other cold regions.
Survival is not a matter of luck. Personnel training is an essential part of
oil-spill response operations in the arctic.
The following material on training describes the principal hazards that
may be encountered in cold regions and discusses topics that should be covered
in cold-region training sessions. Training sessions should be geared to per-
sons with no experience in cold-region operations.
Physiological Problems--
Cold regions present special problems to personnel operations,
hazards are briefly defined below:
The main
FrostbiteFreezing of tissue can occur whenever the temperature is below
32°F (0°C).The danger of frostbite is greatly increased in conditions of high
wind and sub-zero temperatures.
HypothermiaLowering of body temperature is caused by insufficient gen-
eration of body heat. Hypothermia may occur above and below freezing and is
especially common in wet conditions. The lowering of body temperature may
result in death if the condition is not recognized and treated.
Wind Chi 11--Wind chill refers to the combined cooling effect of wind and
cold. Windy conditions may contribute greatly to frostbite and hypothermia.
DehydrationDehydration of body fluids occurs rapidly in cold environ-
ments because of low humidity, wind, intense sunlight, diminished thirst, and
diminished water intake. Dehydration increases fatigue, impairs mental activ-
ity, and lowers tolerance to cold (National Science Foundation, 1974). This
condition contributes greatly to hypothermia and frostbite.
SnowblindnessBurning of the retina of the eye results from ultraviolet
rays of the sun. Ultraviolet radiation is particularly intense in cold re-
gions because of the highly reflective'properties of ice, snow, and water.
SunburnLike snowblindness, sunburn results from exposure to ultraviolet
rays of the sun. Sunburn is a common problem in cold regions.
Carbon
there is
Monoxide PoisoningCarbon monoxide poisoning can occur whenever
an engine running or a stove burning in an insufficiently ventilated
space. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by the blood more readily than oxygen, and
the oxygen supply to the body may be effectively choked off by high levels of
carbon monoxide.
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From a training standpoint, the main considerations are prevention and
treatment of these hazards. A basic understanding of these problems'will min-
imize the potential danger and discomfort of cold-region activities.
Clothing--
The selection and proper utilization of clothing is a main concern for
cold-region personnel. The main clothing considerations are protection from
cold, wind, and wetness:
1. Minimize perspiration.
2. Keep insulation dry.
3. Use insulation that retains its insulating ability when wet.
4. Wear layers of clothing to permit adjusting to varying conditions.
5. Wear windproof clothing for protection against wind.
6. Wear loose clothing to prevent restriction of blood circulation.
7. Clothing should be durable.
8. Fasteners should be operable with mittens.
9. Avoid contamination of clothing by petroleum liquids.
10. Wear coveralls that can be discarded when working directly with oil.
Emergency Procedures
Cold-region oil-spill response personnel must be prepared for emergency
situations that may involve basic survival in adverse weather conditions.
Emergency situations are most likely to occur while traveling to and from oil-
spill locations. However, injuries or accidents.may occur at any time during
an oil-spill operation, and relatively minor incidents may become quite seri-
ous in remote areas or in adverse weather conditions. Rescue may not be imme-
diately available. Emergency survival training is important for all personnel
working in cold regions. This training should include in-depth study of:
1. Psychological considerations,
2. Initial emergency procedures such as vacating a hazard area, admin-
istering first aid, collecting survival gear, attempting radio con-
tact, etc.,
3. The decision to stay with vehicle or aircraft ,
4. Methods of building emergency shelters (snow caves and trenches),
5. Principles of first aid,
6. Principles of the use of fire and fuel,
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', .' 7;,-. Rescue signalling, and .'.,.
8. Methods for obtaining water.
Guides to CoId-Weather Operation
The following list of hints .(do's and dont's) will aid those who are work-
ing in cold regions. These are hints on safety and accident prevention (part-
ly from National Science Foundation, 1974).
1. Always -- whether in camp, in a vehicle, on foot, or in the air --
have a plan in case of an accident.
2. Dress for the occasion; do not overdress, for this can be just as
hazardous as underdressing.
3. Use the buddy system during all operations. Keep an eye on each
other -- watch for moving machinery, frostbite, etc.
4. Use your head. Take time to think, plan, and organize. Analyze
the weather, the terrain, the available energy, and resources for a
given operation.
5. Do not fight the environment. Conserve energy. Go around obstacles,
not over or through them.
6. Never touch cold metal with your bare hands. They may stick to the
metal and you may lose skin while getting free. Wear thin contact
gloves that allow dexterity while providing some protection.
7. Be careful in handling fuels. Contact at cold temperatures can
induce immediate frostbite.
8. Do not smoke during fueling operations. Do ,not smoke in airplanes
without the pilot's permission. Never smoke if you smell gasoline.
9. Check all equipment before fueling to make sure you are using the
correct fuel.
10.
11
12.
13.
Make sure your quarters and equipment are well ventilated. Never
sit in an idling vehicle (to utilize heater). Carbon monoxide poi-
soning is a real danger.
When temperature permits, remove bulky outer clothing before operat-
ing equipment with exposed moving parts.
Never attempt to operate an unfamiliar piece of equipment.
that you are inexperienced and seek help.
Admit
Do not overload electrical circuits. Obtain permission before
plugging in heating elements or increasing demands beyond a normal
work load.
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14. Stay away from edges of ice, whether it be bay ice, shelf ice,, ice '
foot, or glaciers. Keep away from the top and bottom of ice 'cliffs.,.
15. In the event of a sudden blizzard or whiteout while away from camp,
dig in for shelter. Wandering aimlessly is an almost sure way of
getting lost.
16. Wear leather gloves at all times while flying. They are indispens-
ible protection in case of fire in a ditching or crash situation.
17. Do not overeat. Eat small amounts often to keep blood sugar and
strength up. Maintain an eating regime that provides a balanced
diet and provides adequate bulk.
18. Drink plenty of water to keep body fluids at a proper level.
19. Learn basic first aid. Medical personnel are rarely present at
field accidents.
Field Support Requirements
Field personnel must be provided with adequate food, clothing, and shel-
ter for the duration of oil-spill operations. Provisioning must be complete,
and all necessary equipment (beyond personal items) must be available within
short notice. Difficulties often may be encountered in providing appropriate
equipment and supplies to sustain operations in many parts of Alaska, and the
development of support plans and requirements is imperative. Cost, availabil-
ity, and/or personal preference may dictate the selection of field support
equipment.
Since polar regions are characterized by a wide range of climatic ex-
tremes, support requirements will vary with season and environment. Winters
in the arctic and in the Alaskan interior tend to be very dry and cold, where-
as winters along the Alaskan coast and in subarctic regions tend to be wet and
cold. Alaskan summers are typically cool and wet. Equipment should be pro-
vided that is appropriate for the conditions of a given area and season.
(Mosquito headnets are not useful in winter, nor are down mittens in summer!)
Methods must be developed for issuing the appropriate provisions and supplies.
Personnel should be prepared for the worst possible expected conditions but
should not be overburdened with useless or excessive items.
Maintaining morale is a primary objective in the consideration of field
support requirements. This is partly accomplished by providing a well-
organized support plan and ample supplies of food, water, clothing, shelter,
and sanitary facilities. Living and work conditions should be made as com-
fortable as possible, so that field personnel expend a minimum of energy on
basic survival functions. Up to 3 days may be required for the initiation of
full support systems, depending on the conditions and location of an oil spill
(Peterson et al., 1975
-------
suspended or delayed if conditions present unnecessary risk to life or limb.
A certain amount of danger is inherent in all oil-spill operations, especially
in cold regions, and these dangers (air travel, mechanical operations,'cold,
storm, etc.) should be recognized. Potential dangers can be minimized by the
selection of qualified personnel who are knowledgeable and capable of parrying
out cold-region duties. Operations in conditions of extreme wind, wet* and
cold should only be attempted by individuals experienced in cold-weather sur-
vival. Contingency plans should be developed for handling emergency/situa-
tions. Whenever necessary, personnel should be advised of basic cold-weather
operating and survival procedures presented earlier in this subsection..
Food Requirements '.-.-:
Strenuous activities, especially in cold conditions, require a high cal-
orie intake and increased amounts of protein, fat, and vitamins in the daily
diet. Carbohydrates should be included for daytime consumption for quick
energy. Foods that are more substantial in protein and fat will yield.;large
amounts of calories from 12 to 14 hours after ingestion. The cold-weather
diet recommended in the Navy Polar Manual is compared below to an average
temperature diet in Table 25 (Peterson et al., 1975a): ;';.
TABLE 25. COMPARISON OF DIETS FOR TEMPERATE AND COLD REGIONS ,
Food element
Carbohydrates (4.1 cal/gm)
Fats (9.3 cal/gm)
Protein (4.1 cal/gm)
Temperate
regions
53%
35%
12%
Cold regions
40%;
40% ;'
20%^.
First-class proteins (meat,
milk, and eggs)
Total calories
(5%)
3500
(10%)
5500':
Hot, nourishing meals will do much for morale and are desirable for ex-
tended periods. Frozen, precooked and prepackaged meals are recommendeid be-
cause they are easy to handle and yet offer wide meal selection. These meals
can be heated in a portable oven and can be thawed and refrozen several times
without spoilage. Field lunches in cold regions should consist of high-energy
foods, such as pemmican, raisins, candy, biscuits, etc. Military CTrations
are suitable for initial response efforts. Daily meal requirements should be
prepackaged so that they are available for immediate dispersal to site .loca-
tions in the event of an oil spill.
Water is almost never a problem in the arctic, as ice, snow, and streams
are readily available in most areas. Surface water should always be treated
by boiling (for 20 minutes) or by chlorination, until it has been tested and
found safe. The daily intake of liquid should be between 2 and 4 quarts per
137 :'
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person per day,-and "an.additional 2 to 5 gallons per person per day should be
available for cooking, washing, and so forth (Peterson et al., 1975a).
Clothing Requirements
Hands and feet are particular problem areas. Mittens should be layered --
an outer protective shell, inner mitts for warmth, and gloves for dexterity.
The half-inched, felt-lined, leather and rubber-soled boots (Sorrel type) have
proven to be very versatile in Alaska, as the tops'afford some ventilation and
the bottoms give protection'from wetness. In extremely wet and/or cold condi-
tions, the Army Mickey Mouse or bunny boot has proven to be very satisfactory
because the insulation is completely encased in rubber, thereby keeping the
insulation dry. These boots tend to be bulky and clumsy, but warm. Mickey
Mouse boots should be worn only with thin socks that absorb perspiration.
Windproof, waterproof garments should be provided. Usually, a garmet
impervious to rain is also impervious to body moisture, and condensation will
often occur within the garment. A few materials and designs have reduced this
problem (for example, Goretex, foam-backed nylons), but they are generally ex-
pensive and less versatile. Many waterproof garments are designed with ventil-
ation flaps (usually on the back or underarm). These are not recommended for
arctic conditions because of high winds and driving rain that will penetrate
the openings. Zippered rain parkas may be desirable because they are easy to
ventilate. Wind garments should be breathable (that is, they should allow for
the escape of body moisture). Wind parkas will offer sufficient protection
against snow in cold weather. Large pockets are desirable in outer clothing.
Special consideration should be given to oil protective clothing. Oil
will permanently affect most clothing materials, rendering them unpleasant
and less effective. Expendable coveralls and gloves should be used when work-
ing directly with oil. This clothing should be provided in addition to wind
and rain gear.
Insulating materials should be chosen according to the particular cli-
mate. Cotton and down clothing should never be used in wet conditions since
they lose most of their insulating capacities when wet. Wool has proven to
be an excellent insulating material in wet weather. Synthetic fiber and pile
materials also work well. Pile is noted for its light weight and resistance
to water; in addition, it dries very quickly (even by body heat) when excess
water is removed by wringing.
Oil-spill operations frequently involve heavy work, and garments should
be durable and tough to resist wear and tear. Plastic zippers are usually
more reliable than metal zippers. Quality materials and workmanship are im-
perative. Special items of clothing may be required, depending on conditions
and the nature of the spill operation.
A recommended list of clothing is presented in Table 26. The equipment
listed is issued to personnel of the Pacific Strike Team. Always equip per-
sonnel for the worst possible conditions. Supply too much rather than too
little clothing. The selection of specific clothing items should be delegated
to a person experienced in cold-weather operations.
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TABLE 26. CLOTHING ISSUE (PACIFIC STRIKE TEAM)
Item of clothing
No. of units
Protective:
Foul weather suit, waterproof
Foul weather suit, windproof
Insulated jacket, with hood
Wool hat
Balaclava and/or facemask
Wool mittens
Leather or nylon outer mitts
Wool gloves
Leather outer gloves
Sorrel-type or other appropriate boot
Boot liners for above
Insulating:
Medium-weight sweater
Wool shirts
Wool underwear, bottom and top
Wool trousers
Wool socks
Other:
pr.
pr.
pr.
pr.
pr.
pr.
pr.
Helmet, with liner
Coveralls
Work gloves
Duffel bag
1
3 pr.
3 pr.
1
Shelter Requirements
Adequate shelters are a necessity in cold regions, and durable structures
must be available for extended operations. In some areas it may be possible
to house all or part of a response team in existing facilities. Potential
existing sources of shelter include Coast Guard cutters or other large ves-
sels, and existing government or private facilities, at or near the spill
location. Frequently, oil operations in Alaska are located in remote regions,
and temporary portable shelters must be available. The following requirements
are desirable in the selection of portable, temporary shelters:
1. The shelters must be transportable by aircraft, ship, or land ve-
hicle. The restrictions on weight and size are imposed by the suit-
ability of transport in conventional aircraft.
Dimensions have been defined according to HC-130 aircraft, which can
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take containers up to 3 m (10 ft) long, 2.4 m (8 ft) wide, and 2.4
to 2.7 m (8 to 9 ft) high. Air-drop capability is highly desirable
for the added ease and speed of transport.
2. Shelters must be adaptable to the constrictions of the environment.
Thus, they should be able to withstand high winds. Shelter compo-
nents must be effective in muddy, rocky, or variable terrain.
3. Shelters must afford adequate protection from wind and cold. Shel-
ter design and materials should minimize heat loss in very cold tem-
peratures. Shelters must be insulated and provided with heating
units.
4. Shelters should be easily and rapidly erectable to avoid diverting
personnel energy from cleanup efforts.
5. Shelters should be durable and reusable.
6. Shelters must be completely self-contained, including all the re-
quired power, heating, and cooking facilities.
See Peterson et al. (1975a) and U.S. Army (1972) for a thorough investi-
gation of available shelters and shelter materials.
Miscellaneous Requirements
Survival and Emergency Equipment
Whiteout or storm conditions may occur very rapidly in cold regions, and
personnel should stay put until conditions improve. The following basic sur-
vival items should be carried at all times by each individual:
1. Knife,
2. Signal mirror,
3. Compass,
4. Whistle,
5. Flashlight,
6. Distress flares (light or smoke signals),
7. Sunglasses and suncream,
8. Emergency .blanket (space blanket), and
9. Food.
These items can be carried in pockets or in a small pack.
In addition to personal items, a more extensive emergency kit should be
140
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available to response teams. THis kit should contain medical supplies and
sufficient equipment for survival in disaster situations. Emergency items
include:
1. First aid kit (including, foot powder, suncream, lip ointment, etc.),
2. Emergency food and stove,
3. Tarps and/or tent, .
4. Snowsaw and shovel,
5. Axe or hatchet,
6. Blankets and/or sleeping bags,
7. Firearm,
8. Signal equipment (mirrors, flares, etc.).
Personal Equipment--
Personnel should be advised of the personal equipment required for a
given operation. Sufficient quantities of .underclothing (socks, underwear,
trousers, shirts, etc.) must be provided to personnel. This clothing should .
be wool whenever possible. Eating utensils and sleeping gear may or may not .
be supplied to field personnel, and this should be indicated (and should be
supplied along with the shelters). Toiletries must be provided by the person-
nel .
Communications Equipment ..., ...'
Successful operations depend on effective communications, and portable
radios should be employed for coordinating personnel activity and movement.
Communication is vital to safety, especially in darkness or storm. Cold-
weather performance is important in the selection of two-way radios. Prob-
lems may occur if cold objects are taken into a warm shelter, thereby causing
condensation that may freeze upon return to the cold.
Fuel Requirements--
Fuel is necessary for cooking and heating and for the operation of ve-
hicles and equipment. Ideally, various equipment should utilize the same
fuel to minimize the variety of fuels required. Fuel should be stored away
from living quarters, and provisions should be made for safe transport.
Sewage Disposal
Sewage disposal may be a serious problem, because of inadequate drainage
in permafrost .and because of the possibility of .malfunction of chemical toil-
ets in cold weather. Sewage disposal should be confined to a specific area.
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SECTION 12
RESTORATION
The definition of a cold region, as presented in this manual, encompasses
a tremendous amount of variation in biotic communities; because of this vari-
ation, it would be impossible to present restoration techniques for all of
these environments. Hence, in this chapter, two major cold-region biotic com-
munities are dealt with: the arctic, including the tundra vegetation forma- .
tions; and the subarctic, including taiga and northern boreal forest forma-
tions. There are two major reasons for dealing with the arctic and subarctic
in this restoration section: (1) they are the most sensitive to spilled oils;
and (2) they present the most restoration problems. Restoration is easier in
southern areas where growing seasons are longer and climatic conditions less
severe, though many of the same principles presented here apply to northern
areas as well. In agricultural areas, restoration is generally a matter of
frequent additions of fertilizers and tillage (Powell and McGill, 1978).
Arctic and subarctic plant communities vary from low-elevation coastal _
communities to high-elevation alpine plant communities; however, the sophisti-
cation of restoration techniques for these cold regions does now allow treat-
ment of each of these various plant communities. For example, in dealing with
a coastal spill in the subarctic, the only available literature concerning
restoration is the general precautions presented by Maiera et al. (1978) and
the general species information as presented in this review.
NATURAL RESTORATION IN COLD REGIONS
In studying plant succession in areas where oil spills have occurred,
some researchers have found that many plant communities will naturally regen-
erate. Johnson and Van Cleve (1976) have found that Carex aguatilis and vari-
ous willows and birches are tolerant to spilled oil if the oil does not pene-
trate the soil surface and kill the root systems. In many cases, regrowth of
these species has been rapid. Total plant recovery is between 20% and 55%
after the first season in an arctic willow-birch plant community (Wein ana
'Bliss 1973). Hence, there is considerable merit in leaving the spilled oil
and not creating additional disturbance through cleanup activities. In deter-
mining whether extensive plant damage will result from a spill, it is important
to know the toxicity of the oil. Straight chain paraffins are the least toxic,
while olefins, naphthenes, cycloparaffins and aromatics are of increasing tox-
icity, in that order. Within each of the above groups, oils with smaller
molecules are more toxic than oils with larger molecules.
Spill cleanup need not necessarily take the form of immediate revegeta-
tion. Oil spilled in winter may be scraped from the snow and ice if the pour
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point of the oil is high; this technique would result in very little surface
disturbance, and the need for revegetation could be greatly reduced if heavy
equipment damage is minimal. Oils with lower pour points and oil spilled in
the summer will naturally flow to the lowest point and must be contained; the
disturbances created to contain these oils will usually require revegetation.
From the above discussion it is evident that there may be merit in leav-
ing spilled oil, avoiding the creation of extensive landscape scars through
cleanup operations. The personnel involved in spill cleanup must be cogni-
zant of alternatives.
To aid the restoration of a site that has been damaged by a highly toxic
spill, bacteria have been used to break down the phytotoxic components of the
oil. It has been demonstrated tfvat bacterial numbers, fungal mycelium, and
soil respiration all increase after an oil spill (Wein and Bliss, .1973); thus,
it is'felt that these organisms are aiding in the decomposition of the oil.
To encourage the natural microbial growth, and hence the breakdown of oil,
seeding of microbial spores may be beneficial, as well as increasing the
available nitrogen and phosphorus (Weih and Bliss, 1973; Jobson et al., 1974;
Gudin and Syratt, 1975; and Lehtomaki and Niemela, 1975).
Irrigation and aeration, in the form of discing or harrowing have been
successful in accelerating the microbial breakdown of oils. Gudin and Syratt
(1975) also suggest that covering the soil with black plastic in winter to
increase temperature and clear plastic in the summer to reduce water loss will
enhance microbial degradation. Much of the literature concerning microbial
degradation stems from research done in temperate environments. However, the
same principles may be useful for cold-region oil spills, with special consid-
erations for arctic conditions.
The primary concern of any restoration is the prevention of offsite envi-
ronmental deterioration in the form of accelerated erosion. In the case of
cold regions wehre soils are underlain with permafrost, the minimization of
the alteration of soil thermal regimes and the inherent melting of permafrost
are important objectives of restoration.
SELECTION OF SPECIES FOR RESTORATION
As a rule, in any revegetation program, native species' should be given
first consideration in the formulation of the seed mix, and introduced species
utilized only for special circumstances. Bliss (1979) states that the most
successful revegetation programs have started by determining the role of native
species in plant succession, and where possible these species have been incor-
porated in the seed mix. Native plants generally exhibit the following advan-
tages, over non-native or introduced species:
1. Because of natural selection and evolution, the native flora can be
considered the best adapted to the environment of a site; thus, a
seeding of natives should be a self-perpetuating plant community.
2. As a result of the evolutionary process, diverse native plant commun-
ities have developed a resistance to pests and disease to which large
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monocultures of introduced species may be susceptible.
3. Native plants have co-evolved with native wildlife; thus, they should
better serve the wildlife species of the area. In addition, a di-
verse native plant community is less subject to total annihilation by
the local wildlife than is a monoculture of an introduced species.
4. The native plants that are adapted to a site have adapted to survive
the most severe site conditions. This is especially important in
arctic revegetation where winter hardiness is one of the major con-
cerns.
5. Native plants do not represent a threat to surrounding plant communi-
ties, as might happen with introduced weedy species that thrive for
a short period to the detriment of surrounding native plants and then
perish during an extreme in temperature or insect pest invasions.
In spite of the adaptive advantages that native species have, the use of
agronomic species cannot be overlooked in a restoration program. Depending
upon the objectives of revegetation, agronomics may be better suited if an
area is going to be returned to domestic utilization. Agronomic species are
generally quicker to stabilize an area (Johnson and Van Cleve, 1976); thus
they may be useful for rapid stabilization and erosion prevention. Agronomic
species may also be useful as a nurse crop.planting to enhance the establish-
ment of more desirable native perennial species. Long-term objectives may
also be fulfilled if native species are simply allowed to reinvade as the
agronomics die out. A distinct advantage of agronomic species is that seed
for them is readily available, whereas seed for most native species suitable
for cold-region revegetation is in very short supply.
Table 27 lists species for revegetation on which research has been car-
ried out, with indications of suitability. Distinctions have not been made
between native, introduced, or agronomic species. Even though a species such
as Arctagrostis latifolia, tall arctic grass, is a native to arctic areas, it
could be considered introduced in subarctic areas.
CULTURAL PRACTICES
Seeding
After selecting the species for use in a restoration program, the source
of the origin of the seed on transplant material must also be checked. The
origin of seed for each species must be as close to the site as possible; gen-
etic differences exist in each species, and by choosing a seed source as close
to the location of use as possible, slight genetic adaptations to environ-
mental factors can be accounted for. For example, if it is decided to seed
bluejoint reedgrass Calamagrbstis canadensis on a'cold-region spill, the seed
source should be from a location as close to the disturbed site as possible.
Bluejoint is a common subalpine grass throughout the Rocky Mountains, and if
seed for a subarctic spill originated in the Colorado Rockies, it would not be
expected to do well. Purity, germination, and the certification of the seed
should also be checked where possible. Timing of seeding is critical, and
.144
-------
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according to the Soil Conservation Service's Vegetation Guide for Alaska,
seedings should be made from May 15 to June 15 for best results; successful
seedings have been made later in the year, but the seedlings are more suscep-
tible to winterkill. Annual rye grass and cereal crops, which may be used to
provide temporary cover to reduce erosion, may be seeded as late as September
Methods of seeding include drill seeding, hydroseeding, and broadcasting.
The best method on nearly level or slightly sloping land is drill seeding,
according to the Soil Conservation Service (1972) publication. Generally,
heavy-duty drills, such as a range!and or brillion drill, must be used to
negotiate rocky or uneven terrain. When seeding with a drill the seed should
be sown no greater than one-half inch in depth and the seedbed should be
firmly packed for best seed/soil contact.
On slopes steeper than four-to-one, tractor-pulled drills are very diffi-
cult and possibly unsafe to use, and either hydroseeding or broadcasting are
the other options. Hydroseeding involves spraying the seed with the fertil-
izer, if it is needed, in a water slurry. Specific recommendations for pro-
cedures should be obtained from the operator before use, because there is con-
siderable variability in the equipment used for hydroseeding. Broadcasting,
either by hand or aerially, has be'en used effectively, and, in the case of re-
mote areas where oil spills may occur, this method is possibly the most prac-
tical. If broadcasting seed by hand, seed should be harrowed or raked into
the soil and the seedbed packed. It is difficult to get good seed soil con-
tact when broadcasting; thus, the seeding rate should be doubled as compared
with a seeding rate for drill seeding (Soil Conservation Service, 1972). Ob-
taining the proper equipment for the first two seeding methods are the obvi-
ous drawbacks; thus, hand-broadcasting seems the most feasible alternative in
remote arctic areas.
Seedbed Preparation
A proper seedbed may be critical to the success of establishing a stand
of grasses. Deneke et al. (1975) experiments discussed previously made it
apparent that seeding on top of the organic mat present in most arctic situa-
tions was of little use. Thus, the organic mat must be removed and seed sown
in the mineral soil. If part of the dead vegetation or organic mat is worked
into the mineral soil, this may enhance the seedbed. Ideally, the seedbed
should be tilled so that it is weed-free and friable enough to permit seeding
operations. On steep slopes or rocky soils, seedbeds must be as well prepared
as possible. Johnson and Van Cleve (1976) state that the main problem in re-
vegetation on an arctic or subarctic oil spill is establishing a good soil-
plant moisture relationship, and proper seedbed preparation is possibly the
best technique of enhancing this relationship.
Alternatives to Seeding
Because seed sources for many species are very limited, revegetating with
other methods such as sprigging, caring, sodding, and using containerized
greenhouse-grown transplants may be feasible alternatives. Sprigging involves
the harvesting of living rhizomes or stolons, cutting them into short segments,
147
-------
and then planting them. This method has advantages as there have been high
rates of successful establishment in arctic situations (Johnson and Van Cleve,
1976), and the material can be harvested over a longer period of time. How-
ever, the disadvantages of sprigging are that it takes a tremendous amount of
time to gather the materials, and often special equipment is necessary to
handle these propagules. In addition, the plant materials are often bulky and
difficult to store and handle.
Coring involves taking plugs of existing vegetation from sites surround-
ing the site to be revegetated. Rowel 1 and McGill (1978) have had consider-
able success using sedge plugs on oil spills in Alberta; however, Johnson and
Van Cleve (1976) do not report such favorable results.
Sodding has been used with success in both arctic and alpine situations,
according to Webber and Ives (1978). Sodding not only works well for plant
establishment but also aids in restoring the thermal balance of a site and
possibly prevents thermokarst development. Problems with sodding are the
source of sod and the expense.
Container-grown transplants are becoming more and more common for reveg-
etation work. Transplanting was originally designed for reforestation proj-
ects, but many nurseries now grow species suitable for other revegetation
efforts as well. Advantages are that plants can be propagated from cuttings,
sprigs, or seed; under ideal greenhouse conditions, a few sprigs or a small
amount of seed may produce a large number of plants in comparison with what
would be necessary for a field planting. The disadvantages of containerized
transplants are, again, cost, handling, and obtaining the stock (usually a
1_ or 2-year lead time is necessary to produce sufficient stock quantities).
A distinct advantage of caring, sprigging, or using greenhouse-grown
transplants is that these methods of re-establishment can be used without dis-
rupting the organic mat of vegetation. And, as most authors have pointed out,
the removal of the organic mat alters the thermal regime and causes slumping
and extensive erosion. The effects of the oil from the organic mat on a con-
tainerized plant or core have not been studied.
Fertility
Most researchers in cold-region revegetation work agree that the native
soils are inherently low in fertility. According to Johnson and Van Cleve
(1976), optimum fertilizer levels have not been determined; however, they rec-
ommend fertilizing with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium while seeding,
repeating applications on problem areas. McKendrick and Mitchell (1978) have
found a very significant response to phosphorus fertilizer. Deneke et al.
(1975) have found liming and manuring beneficial as well as fertilizing.
Spilled oil will often provide some of the fertility requirements; however,
much research needs to be conducted concerning the availability of these nu-
trients. Soil testing is the best method to determine the rate of application
for fertilizers. The fertilizer rate will also be dependent on the land-use
objectives for the restored site; for example, if there will be intensive graz-
ing on the site or other agricultural use, fertilizer rates will have to be
considerably higher.
148
-------
Mulching
Very little research work has-been done with mulchers and mulching tech-
niques as aids in enhancing the re-establishment of arctic or subarctic vege-
tation. However, Johnson and Van Cleve (1976) state that on gravel sub-
strates, revegetation may be limited because of low soil moisture, and that
mulches would improve this moisture regime, improve thermal stability of a
site, and be beneficial to the nutrient regime.
Mulches are very important for the control of erosion while a vegetative
cover is being established; thus, on steep slopes the Soil Conservation Ser-
vice (1972) considers mulches essential. They suggest common types of mulch
materials such as hay, small-grain straw, a straw-asphalt mix, wood fiber
mulches, peat moss, gravel, or jute matting. Locally harvested grass, or
grass hay, may be of considerable value as a mulch, because it often contains
viable seeds. Mulch application can be done by hand on small areas or with
the use of blowers or hydromulchers. Generally, if the mulch is a straw or
hay mulch, it must be tacked to the soil surface to prevent wind blow. This
tacking can be done mechanically with a crimper, with a tacking agent such as
asphalt, or covered with some form of mesh or netting. Mulching must always
be done after seeding to ensure that the seed has good contact with the soil;
in some cases, where hydroseeding and hydromulching have been conducted, the
seed, mulch, and fertilizer have been applied in one application, and the re-
sults were very poor. Mulching is generally an expensive procedure, especi-
ally in arctic situations where material availability is a problem; thus, the
question of using a mulch must be thoroughly addressed with respect to the
objectives of the revegetation effort.
Long-Term Management
Long-term management practices should be dictated by the initial deter-
mination of objectives for a revegetation program. Practices such as herbi-
cide treatment or bush cutting may be necessary considerations for long-term
management. Irrigating and repeated fertilizing also may be considered nec-
essary procedures for the management of a revegetated area. Interseeding or
the interplanting of greenhouse-grown containerized shrubs, grasses, or forbs
may also be a very successful method of establishing a diverse, self-
perpetuating, native plant community, and this interplanting can be done after
the initial establishment of the protective vegetative cover. Long-term man-
agement also may consist simply of monitoring an initial revegetation effort
for future information.
149
-------
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