United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Washington DC 20460
EPA/800/8-90/042
January 1991
xvEPA
Indoor Air - Assessment
Indoor Concentrations of
Environmental Carcinogens
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EPA/600/8-90/042
January 1991
INDOOR AIR — ASSESSMENT
INDOOR CONCENTRATIONS
OF ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENS
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Printed on Recycled Paper
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DISCLAIMER
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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PREFACE
In October 1986, Congress passed the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
(SARA, PL 99-499) that includes Title IV—The Radon Gas and Indoor Air Quality Research
Act. The Reauthorization Act directs EPA to undertake a comprehensive indoor air research
program.
Research program requirements under Superfund Title IV are specific. They include
identifying, characterizing, and monitoring (measuring) the sources and levels of indoor air
pollution, developing instruments for indoor air quality data collection, and studying high-risk
building types. The statute also requires research directed at identifying effects of indoor air
pollution on human health. In the area of mitigation and control, the following are required:
development of measures to prevent or abate indoor air pollution, demonstration of methods
to reduce or eliminate indoor air pollution, development of methods to assess the.potential for
contamination of new construction from soil gas, and examination of design measures for
preventing indoor air pollution. EPA's indoor air research program is designed to be
responsive in every way to the legislation.
In responding to the requirements of Title IV of the Superfund Amendments, EPA-ORD
has organized the Indoor Air Research Program around the following five categories of
research: (1) sources of indoor air pollution, (2) building diagnosis and measurement
methods, (3) health effects, (4) exposure and risk (Health Impact) assessment, and
(5) building systems and indoor air quality control options.
EPA is directed to undertake this comprehensive research and development effort not
only through in-house work, but also in coordination with other Federal agencies, state and
local governments, and private sector organizations having an interest in indoor air pollution.
The ultimate goal of SARA Title IV is the dissemination of information to the public.
This activity includes the publication of scientific and technical reports in the areas described
above. To support these research activities and other interests as well, EPA publishes its
results in the INDOOR AIR report series. This series consists of five subject categories:
Sources, Measurement, Health, Assessment, and Control. Each report is printed in a limited
quantity. Copies may be ordered while supplies last from:
111
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Center for Environmental Research Information
26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45268
When EPA supplies are depleted, copies may be ordered from:
National Technical Information Service
U.S. Department of Commerce
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
IV
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ABSTRACT
In this report, indoor concentration data are presented for the following general
categories of air pollutants: radon-222, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), asbestos, gas
phase organic compounds, formaldehyde, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
pesticides, and inorganic compounds. These pollutants are either known or suspect
carcinogens (i.e., radon-222 and asbestos) or more complex mixtures or classes of
compounds that contain known or suspect carcinogens.
Concentration data for individual carcinogenic compounds in complex mixtures are
usually far from complete. The data presented for complex mixtures often include
compounds that are not carcinogenic or for which data are insufficient to evaluate
carcinogenicity. Their inclusion is justified, however, by the possibility that further work
may show them to be carcinogens, cocarcinogens, initiators or promotors, or that they may
be employed as markers (e.g., nicotine, acrolein) for the estimation of exposure to complex
mixtures.
This report is the fourth in a series of EPA/Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office Monographs. The series includes the following titles;
»
I. DEVELOPMENT OF A RISK CHARACTERIZATION FRAMEWORK
H. A REVIEW OF INDOOR AIR QUALITY RISK CHARACTERIZATION STUDIES
ffl. USE OF BENZENE MEASUREMENT DATA IN RISK CHARACTERIZATION
ESTIMATES: A PRELIMINARY APPROACH
IV. INDOOR CONCENTRATIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENS
V. METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENS
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CONTENTS
Section Pjgfi
DISCLAIMER ii
PREFACE ... iii
ABSTRACT v
FIGURES vil
TABLES viii
AUTHORS AND REVIEWERS ix
INTRODUCTION 1
RADON 2
ENVIRONMENTAL TOBACCO SMOKE (ETS) 8
ASBESTOS . 13
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 18
Gas Phase Organic Compounds . 18
Formaldehyde 19
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) 25
Pesticides ....'. 27
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 31
REFERENCES . 33
VI
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FIGURES
Number Bags
1 Complementary cumulative frequency distribution of the
222Rn concentration in dwellings 3
2 Benzene and trichloroethylene: estimated frequency
distributions of personal air exposures, outdoor air
concentrations, and exhaled breath values for the combined
Etizabetfa-Bayonne target population (128,000) 20
3 Weighted frequency distributions for 24-h exposures of
355 New Jersey residents to aromatic and chlorinated
hydrocarbons (Fall 1981) 21
Vll
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TABLES
Number Elge.
1 Summary of radon-222 and daughter (RnD) concentrations in
various countries 4
2 Measured concentrations of various toxic agents in rooms
polluted with ETS 9
3 Indoor concentrations of major ETS marker compounds ........ 11
4 Summary of indoor airborne asbestos concentration data
measured by TEM 14
5 Summary of VOC concentrations in 230 homes in the Federal
Republic of Germany 22
6 Summary of VOC concentrations in 319 homes in the
Netherlands 23
7 Indoor concentrations of formaldehyde 24
8 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and nitro PAH
indoor air concentrations 26
9 Indoor air concentrations of pesticides in
United States residences ; 28
10 Pesticides monitored in indoor air in U.S. EPA
non-occupational pesticides exposure study (NOFES) . 29
11 Elemental concentrations of five carcinogenic metals in
20 indoor samples 32
Vlll
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AUTHORS AND REVIEWERS
This report was written by Dr. Karen W. Gold and Dr. Dennis F. Naugle, Research
Triangle Institute, and Dr. Michael A. Berry, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC.
The authors wish to thank Drs, Betty Dodet, Lance Wallace, and Gun Astri Swedjemark
for serving as reviewers of this manuscript. The report was also reviewed by Mr. Charles
Ris, Human Health Assessment Group, and Dr. Jacqueline Moya, Exposure Assessment
Group, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
IX
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INTRODUCTION
In this report, indoor concentration data are presented for the following general
categories of air pollutants: radon-222, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), asbestos, gas
phase organic compounds, formaldehyde, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
pesticides, and inorganic compounds. These pollutants are either known or suspect
carcinogens (i.e., radon-222 and asbestos) or more complex mixtures or classes of
compounds that contain known or suspect carcinogens.
Concentration data for individual carcinogenic compounds in complex mixtures are
usually far from complete. The data presented for complex mixtures often include
compounds that are not carcinogenic or for which data are insufficient to evaluate
carcinogenicity. Their inclusion is justified, however, by the possibility that further work
may show them to be carcinogens, cocarcinogens, initiators or promoters, or that they may
be employed as markers (e.g., nicotine, acroiein) for the estimation of exposure to complex
mixtures.
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RADON
Average outdoor ground-level radon-222 concentrations have been estimated to be in the
order of 5 to 10 Bq/m3 (about 0.15 to 0.30 pCi/L), with concentrations over uranium
ore-grade soil typically between 20 to 40 Bq/m3 (Eichholz, 1987; Nazaroff and Nero, 1988).
For the general population, the radiation dose to the lung from inhaled radon-222 daughters
comprises about half the total dose equivalent to that received from natural radioactivity. The
most important source of this exposure is the residential dwelling.
Over the past decade, major research efforts have been undertaken in several European
countries, Canada, and the United States to assess the sources, levels, and risks of indoor
radon-222 exposures and to develop appropriate control measures. The indoor measurement
studies have focused primarily on residential dwellings and have generated a substantial data
base of indoor radon-222 concentrations from which exposure estimates and risk assessments
can be developed. These studies have often differed greatly in design, scope, measurement
methods employed, and objectives. However, two significant findings have been
recurrent: (1) radon-222 concentrations inside residences are routinely much higher than
outdoor levels, and (2) indoor concentrations in individual homes are sometimes an order of
magnitude or more above the average, with radon-222 concentrations in the range of
200 to 2000 Bq/m3 occurring with surprising frequency (Nazaroff and Nero, 1988).
Figure 1 shows the frequency distributions of indoor (residential) radon-222
concentrations based on large surveys conducted in Canada (Letourneau et al., 1984;
McGregor at al., 1980), the Federal Republic of Germany (Federal Republic of Germany
Ministry of the Interior, 1986; Schmier and Wicke, 1985), Italy (Sciocchetti et al., 1985), the
Netherlands (Put et al., 1985), Scandinavia (Finland, Norway, Sweden) (Castren et al., 1984,
1985; Stranden, 1986; Swedjemark and Mjones, 1984a), the United Kingdom (Green et al.,
1985; Wrixon and O'Riordan, 1985; Wrixon et al., 1984), and the United States (Nero
et al., 1986). In all cases, the measured frequency distribution of indoor radon-222
concentrations approximates a log-normal distribution. Except for the Scandinavian
countries, these frequency distributions indicate mean and median indoor radon-222
concentrations of 30-60 Bq/m3 and 15-50 Bq/m3, respectively•. (The combined frequency
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ss
90
I"
i
i
1 *>
I
10
a.
J ,
0.5
OS
0.1
Numter of RMMN
Mind IMMMM
10
20 50 100 200
Indoor 22ZRn eonetntzmtion
BOO
tooo
figure 1. Complementary cumulative frequency distribution of the 222Rn concentration
in dwellings.8
'Source: International Commission on Radiological Protection (1987)
^Single family houses only
distribution for Finland, Norway, and Sweden yields mean and median indoor radon-222
concentrations of 100 Bq/m3 and 60 Bq/m3, respectively.) Based on a mean equilibrium
factor in which F = 0.45 for radon-222 daughters in indoor air, the mean concentration of
radon-222 daughters has been estimated to be in the range 9-30 Bq/m3 (International
Commission on Radiological Protection, 1987). Table 1 provides a more complete summary
of several radon-222 surveys conducted in various countries.
Many countries have been found to have geographical areas or housing types in which
indoor radon-222 concentrations are much higher than the average. In Sweden elevated
levels have been associated with the use of alum shale concrete building materials in houses
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TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF RADON-222 AND DAUGHTER (RnD) CONCENTRATIONS IN
VARIOUS COUNTRIES8
No. of
homes
Country monitored Type
U.S. 817 Single-family
453
Canada 13,436 Single-family
Sweden1*' 500 Detached
(315)
Apartments
(191)
96 Detached
50,367 Multi-and
single-family
homes
Concentration
(Bg/m3)
USD or
GM AM % of tail
33 55 2.8
38 54 2.36
17 2.7
69 122 10% > 266 Bq/m3
2% > 800 Bq/m3
53 85 10% > 187 Bq/m3
0.5% > 800 Bq/m3
59 10% > 140 Bq/m3
(max. 280 Bq/m3)
7% . > 70 RnD Bq/m3
34% > 200 RnD Bq/m3
10% > 400 RnD Bq/m3
2% > 800 RnD Bq/m3
0.5% > 2,000 RnD Bq/m3
Notes
Aggregated 22 data sets
adjusting to annual average
Non-representative sampling:
100 geographical locations
Median values from 19 city
surveys; mostly basement
values; EEDC converted
assuming equil. factor = 0.5
Built before 1975;
representative sampling
Built between 1978 and
1980; representative sampling
Suspect buildings built before
1981; maximum annual
average 18,000 RnD Bq/m3
Reference
Nero et al. (1986)
Cohen (1986)
McGregor et al.
(1980)
Swedjemark and
Mjones (1984a)
Swedjemark and
Mjones (1984b)
Swedjemark (1987)
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TABLE 1 (cont'd). SUMMARY OF RADON-222 AND DAUGHTER (RnD) CONCENTRATIONS IN
VARIOUS COUNTRIES11
Country
'Sweden*-0
(cont'd)
Denmark
Finland
Norway
FRG
Netherlands
No. of
homes
monitored
1,165
22
4,500
1,500
6,000
1,000
Concentration
(Bg/m3)
USD or
Type GM AM % of tail
Multi- and
single-family
- conventional 81 RnD 20% > 70 RnD Bq/m3
construction 2.6% > 400 RnD Bq/m3
(383)
- Rn-safe 30 RnD 6% > 70 RnD Bq/m3
construction 0.5% > 400 RnD Bq/m3
(782)
Single-family 70
flats 82
Small houses 90 1.4% > 800 Bq/m3
All types, 160 1% > 800 Bq/m3
except blocks
of flats
40 49 1.8
24 1.6
Notes
Suspect buildings built
after 1981
Preliminary surveys;
average winter and
Stratified random
sampling; strong
geographical dependence
Population weighted
average of 110 Bq/m3 in
heating season
High levels show excess
above lognormal
Reference
Swedjemark (1987)
Sorensen et al.
(1985)
Castren et al.
(1987)
Stranden (1987)
Keller and Folkerts
(1984)
Put and De Meijer
(1985)
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TABLE 1 (cont'd). SUMMARY OF RADON-222 AND DAUGHTER (RnD) CONCENTRATIONS IN
VARIOUS COUNTRIES11
Country
Belgium
France
UK
Ireland
Japan
No. of
homes
monitored Type
79
765
2,000
250
251
Concentration
(Bg/m3)
GM
41
44
15
43
19
GSDor
AM % Of tail
1.7
76 2% > 200 Bq/m3
25 2.6
10% > 100 Bq/m3
2% > 100 Bq/m3
Notes
Preliminary national survey
Incomplete national survey
Living areas; bedrooms had
GM of 11 Bq/m3
Preliminary survey
Composite of 4 city surveys
Reference
Poffijn et al. (1985)
Rannou et al. (1985)
Green et al. (1985)
McAulay and McLaughlin
(1985)
Aoyama et al. (1987)
'Adapted from Nazaroff and Nero (1988).
bSwedish remedial action level of 400 Bq/m3 EEDC (assuming a typical equilibrium factor of 0.5) = 800 Bq/m3 Rn-222 concentration.
"Swedish homes built before 1975, with concrete having elevated radium-226 content; built after 1975, with concrete not having elevated radium-226 content.
AM = Arithmetic mean.
EEDC = Equilibrium-equivalent decay-product concentration.
GM = Geometric mean.
GSD = Geometric standard deviation.
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built before 1975 and with high levels of soil gas radon-222 (Swedjemark, 1987; Swedjemark
and Mjones, 1984a,b). Areas of Finland (Castren et al., 1987) and the United Kingdom
(Green et al., 1985) have been found where average indoor radon-222 concentrations arc as
high as 350 to 400 Bq/m3. In one area on the south coast of Finland, 12% of the houses had
average indoor radon-222 concentrations greater than 800 Bq/m3. In Canada elevated indoor
radon-222 concentrations have been associated with contamination from uranium and radium
refining industry processes and geological areas with elevated uranium content (National
Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, 1984). Extremely high indoor
concentrations of radon-222 have also been found in localized areas in the United States,
where average winter concentrations range from 500 to 7,500 Bq/m3 and maximum
concentrations can reach as high as 100,000 Bq/m3 (Nazaroff and Nero, 1988).
More detailed information on recent nationwide radon-222 surveys and other
investigations of indoor radon-222 concentrations can be found in the reports of the United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (1982, 1989) and other
review articles and conference proceedings (Berglund et al,, 1984, 1986; Hopke, 1987;
Nazaroff and Nero, 1988; Steinhausler, 1985).
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ENVIRONMENTAL TOBACCO SMOKE
Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), which is a combination of diluted sidestream
smoke (SS) released into the air from the cigarette's burning end, mainstream smoke (MS)
exhaled by the active smoker, and some volatile components (e.g., carbon monoxide) that
diffuse through cigarette paper, is a major contributor of particulate and volatile organic
matter to indoor air pollution. More than 4,500 compounds have been identified in the vapor
and particulate phases of tobacco aerosols: 60 of these are known or suspect carcinogens,
including 51 in the particulate phase (Surgeon General of the United States, 1982). Thorough
treatments of the physicochemical characteristics of tobacco smoke, including data on relative
concentrations of the principal toxic and carcinogenic constituents of ETS, SS, and MS, can
be found in the recent literature (Surgeon General of the United States, 1984, 1986; National
Research Council, 1981a, 1986; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1986).
Several ETS components—carbon monoxide, nicotine, nitrogen oxides, aromatic
hydrocarbons, acrolein, acetone, nitroso compounds, benzo[fl]pyrene, and respirable
suspended particles (RSP)—have been measured as markers of the contribution of tobacco
combustion to indoor air pollution. However, no single compound has been found to
represent ETS exposure reliably or to estimate accurately the disease-causing potential of
ETS. Nicotine is the best potential marker for ETS because it is unique to tobacco smoke, is
present as a major constituent, and can be collected and analysed in both the particulate and
vapor phases with high sensitivity (Hammond et al., 1987).
Concentrations of toxic and carcinogenic compounds measured in various indoor
environments polluted with ETS are summarized in Table 2. Benzene, N-nitrosoamines, and
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are of concern because of carcinogenic activity.
Levels of N-nitrosoamines and PAH often exceeded maximum levels reported for ambient
urban air pollutants by one to three orders of magnitude (Brunnemann and Hoffmann, 1978;
International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1986). Additional data on PAH concentrations
in homes with and without smokers are provided in the Organic Compounds section
(Table 8). Similar data for several ETS markers are presented in Table 3. The possibility of
contributions from sources other than ETS cannot be excluded.
8
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TABLE 2. MEASURED CONCENTRATIONS OF VARIOUS TOXIC AGENTS
IN ROOMS POLLUTED WITH ETSa
Pollutant
Benzene
W-nitrosodimethyl-
amine
N-nitrosodi-
ethylamine
Anthanthrene
Benzo[a]fluorene
Benzo[gAi]-
perylene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Location
Public places
Residences
(randomly selected)
Residences
(randomly selected)
Restaurant, public
places
Restaurant, public
places
Coffee houses
Indoors
Restaurant, public
places
Restaurant, public
places
Concentration
range (mean)
20-317 /ig/m3
< 1.0-39 (9.3") /tg/m3
(10) /ig/m3
0.01-0.24 /ig/m3
< 0.01-0.2 /tg/m3
0.5-9.4 ng/m3
39 ng/m3
5-25 ng/m3
2.8-760 ng/m3
Nonsmoke control concentration
range (mean)
(6.9b) /ig/m3 (indoors)
(7) /ig/m3 (indoors)
0.005 /tg/m3 (inside)
'1 ___
2.8-7.0 ng/m3 (outdoors)
4.0-9.3 ng/m3 (outdoors)
References'"
Badre et al. (1978)
Krause et al. (1987)
Wallace (1987);
Pellizzarri et al.
(1987a,b)
Brunnemann et al.
(1977); Stehlik et al.
(1982)
Stehlik et al. (1982)
Just et al. (1972);
Grimmer et al. (1977)
Grimmer et al. (1977)
Grimmer et al. (1977)
Just et al. (1972)
Galuskinova (1964); Just
et al. (1972); Peny
(1973); Grimmer et al.
(1977)
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TABLE 2 (cont'd). MEASURED CONCENTRATIONS OF VARIOUS TOXIC AGENTS
IN ROOMS POLLUTED WITH ETSa
Pollutant
Benzo[e]pyrene
Coronene
Dibenz[oi]anthra-
cene
Fluoranthene
Perylene
Pyrene
Phenols (volatile)
Location
Coffee houses
Coffee houses
Restaurant, public
places
Coffee houses
Coffee houses
Coffee houses
Concentration
range (mean)
3.3-23.4 ng/m3
0.5-1.2 ng/m3
6 ng/m3
50-116 ng/m3
0.7-1.3 ng/m3
4. 1-9.4 ng/m3
7.4-1 1.5 ng/m3
Nonsmoke control concentration
range (mean)
3.0-5.1 ng/m3 (outdoors)
1.0-2.8 ng/m3 (outdoors)
0.1-1.7 ng/m3 (outdoors)
0.1-1.7 ng/m3 (outdoors)
References11
Just et al. (1972)
Grimmer et al. (1977)
Just et al. (1972)
Grimmer et al. (1977)
Grimmer et al. (1977)
Just et d. (1972)
Just et al. (1972)
Just et al. (1972)
•Adapted from U.S. National Research Council (1986).
bFor complete citations of references other than Krause et al. (1987), Wallace (1987), and Pellizzari et al. (1987a,b) refer to the source document for this table.
°Median value.
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TABLE 3. CONCENTRATIONS OF MAJOR ETS MARKER COMPOUNDS8
Indoor concentration
Smoking
Compound
Acetone
Acrolein
Carbon Monoxide
Nicotine
Nitrogen Oxides
NO2
NO
Particulates
TSF
RSP*
Range (n)b
0.36-5.88 /tg/m3 (2)
0.2-0.12/tg/m3(2)
0-42 ppm (25)
0.7-52 /tg/m3 (6)
1-151 ppb (5)
2-414 ppb (5)
40-986 /tg/m3 (7)
10-1, 140 /tg/m3 (3)
Range of means (n)
0.32-1.20 /tg/m3 (4)
0.004-0.185 /tg/m3 (8)
1.0-50 ppm (31)
0.9-1,010 /tg/m3 (14)
21-76 ppb (5)
9-195 ppb (5)
< 10-486 /tg/m3 (11)
16.8-133 /tg/m3 (9)
Non-smoking
Range (n) Range of means (n)
0.4-15.0 ppm (6) 1-11.5 ppm (8)
27 ppb (1)
5 ppb (1)
9. 1-92 /tg/m3 (3) < 10-55 /tg/m3 (5)
6-1 18.9 /tg/m3 (3) 9-46 /tg/m3 (7)
Outdoor concentration
Range (n) Range of means (n)
3.0-3.5 ppm (1) 0.4-9.2 ppm (7)
48-63 ppb (3)
11-115 ppb (3)
41-73 /tg/m3 (1)
1-63 /tg/m3 (3) 11.3-42.9 /tg/m3 (6)
"Adapted from National Research Council (1986).
bn = Number of different environments or studies. For references to individual studies, refer to the source document for this table.
TSP = Total suspended particles.
dRSP = Respirable suspended particles.
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Most of the studies measuring indoor levels of ETS have been conducted in a variety of
public buildings; fewer investigations of home and office environments have been reported.
The overall contribution of ETS to indoor air pollution in residences has been assessed
primarily by site and personal monitoring for RSP (Moschandreas et al., 1981; Sexton et al.,
1984; Spengler et al., 1981, 1985) and more recently by site monitoring for fine particles
(effective aerodynamic diameter <2.5 jim) (Spengler et al., 1986, 1987). In all of these
studies significant increases in RSP and fine-particle concentrations (over background or
outdoor concentrations) have been measured in homes with smokers.
Concentrations of other ETS constituents have also been found to be significantly
elevated in residences with smokers. Recent large-scale studies in over 500-600 homes have
found benzene concentrations to be significantly higher (30-50%) in homes with smokers
(Krause et al., 1987; Pellizzari et al., 1987a,b; Wallace, 1987). In a survey of over
300 homes, Lebret et al. (1986) found significantly elevated (35-50%) concentrations of both
straight-chain and aromatic hydrocarbons in homes with smokers. A large study of indoor
CO concentrations in the United States (Akland et al., 1985) is the first to give reliable
estimates of the effect of smoking on indoor CO concentrations; in one city the average
residential, indoor mean exposure of non-smokers (from personal exposure monitors) was
increased 84% from 1.89 to 3.48 ppm, by the presence of smokers in the home—
a statistically significant increase of about 1.5 ppm. Moschandreas et al. (1981) have found
that indoor iron, arsenic, and cadmium concentrations exceed outdoor levels only for those
homes with smokers. Lebret et al. (1987) also found significantly elevated levels of cadmium
in homes with smokers and a high correlation between cadmium and fine-particle
concentrations. These results suggest the possible use of cadmium as a marker compound
for ETS.
12
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ASBESTOS
Average concentrations of asbestos in urban ambient air are typically less than 1 ng/m3
and rarely exceed 5 ng/m3. Concentrations of 100 ng/m3 to 1,000 ng/m3 have been
measured in ambient air near specific asbestos emissions sources and in schools and office
buildings containing visibly damaged or deteriorating friable asbestos materials. Buildings
with intact asbestos-containing materials seldom show increased concentrations of airborne
asbestos over ambient levels (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987b).
Comparison of the data from different studies of asbestos concentrations in indoor air is
complicated by the different analytical methods used for airborne asbestos. The most reliable
data come from a number of independent, well-documented transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) studies conducted to evaluate airborne asbestos concentrations in a variety of different
building types and circumstances. Results of these studies are summarized in Table 4,
Differences can be attributed to variations in sampling and analytical protocols, building types
and conditions, and study objectives. The earlier studies (prior to 1980) were directed
primarily toward evaluating extreme exposure conditions and thus were not representative of
average or normal indoor exposures. Nevertheless, the overall results are consistent. In
buildings with severely damaged or deteriorated asbestos surfacing materials, elevated
concentrations of airborne asbestos (often 100 times greater than ambient air levels) were
usually found. In buildings with intact asbestos surfacing or insulating materials, elevated
concentrations of airborne asbestos were rarely detected.
A serious potential source of indoor non-occupational asbestos exposure is
contamination from asbestos abatement operations, although this can be minimized by
adhering to proper procedures. Recent studies (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1986; Chesson et al., 1985) monitored the effectiveness of abatement and cleaning procedures
in five schools and found little residual contamination (1.2 ng/m3, maximum geometric mean
concentration) after completion of the work.
Several potential sources of indoor airborne asbestos exist other than friable surfacing
and insulation materials. These include weathering and entrainment indoors of asbestos
cement wall and roofing materials, wearing of vinyl asbestos tile, and emissions from
13
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TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF INDOOR AIRBORNE ASBESTOS CONCENTRATION DATA MEASURED BY TEM%
Type of site sampled
Outdoor ambient
2 U.S. control buildings
8 U.S. buildings with cementitious asbestos
material in plenums or as surfacing materials (no
visible damage)
9 U.S. buildings with friable asbestos material in
plenums or as surfacing materials (no visible
damage)
Outdoor ambient
10 U.S. public schools with visibly damaged
friable sprayed asbestos surfacing materials
Outdoor ambient
7 control buildings in Paris, France
21 buildings with friable sprayed asbestos in
Paris, France (visible damage)
Outdoor ambient
Rooms not containing asbestos surfacing
materials (in 19 randomly-selected U.S. schools
with friable asbestos material)
Rooms containing friable asbestos surfacing
materials (in 25 randomly-selected U.S. schools)
Outdoor ambient
19 Ontario buildings with friable sprayed
asbestos
Number of samples
analyzed
23
12
28
54
3
27
128
16
135
31
31
54
24
63
Arithmetic mean
ng/m3 f>5jim/Lb f/Lc
(range) (range) (range)
83% <20
52% <7
92% <20
33% <7
15 C"
48 C
14
217 C
<1
(0.1-4)
35; 25 C, 10 A
(0.1-70C)
6
61; 53 C, 8 A
183; 179 C, 4
A
<0.1
2.1
(0.1-11)
Reference
Nicholson et al. (1975)
Nicholson et al. (1978)
Sebastien et al. (1980)
Constant et al. (1983)
Ontario Royal Commission
(1984)
-------
TABLE 4 (cont'd). SUMMARY OF INDOOR AIRBORNE ASBESTOS CONCENTRATION DATA
MEASURED BY TEM*
Type of site sampled
8 Ontario office and school buildings
Outdoor ambient
11 UK buildings with friable sprayed asbestos
insulation (1 with visible damage)
23 UK houses and flats with warm air heaters
containing asbestos
4 UK control houses, warm air heaters
without asbestos
Outdoor ambient
U.S. houses with air conditioning units with
asbestos paper ducts and asbestos in textured
paint (no visible damage)
U.S. houses with air conditioning units with
asbestos paper ducts with no asbestos in
textured paint (no visible damage)
Number of samples
analyzed
55
13
103
72
19
7
24
6
ng/m3
(range)
l.lf
(ND-17)
<0.1 C, 0.3 A
<0.1C, 1.5 A
( <0. 1-0.2 C)
(ND-15A)'
<1C
<1C
0.9
(0.0-4.3)
4.5
3.3
Arithmetic mean
f>5/im/Lb
(range)
<>ll
(<0.1-2 C+A)h
(<0.1-2C+A)
(< 0.3-1 C)
(0.0-12.7)
(0.4-5.4)
f/Lc
(range) Reference
Chatfield (1985)
Burdett and Jaffrey (1986)
(<1-40C+A)
(<1-15C+A)
(<0.5-15 C)
Nicholson (1989)
-------
TABLE 4 (cont'd). SUMMARY OF INDOOR AIRBORNE ASBESTOS CONCENTRATION DATA
MEASURED BY TEM*
Type of site sampled
5 U.S. houses with friable asbestos materials in
basement (1 with visible damage)
-basement
-living area
-outdoor ambient
1 U.S. control house
-living area
-outdoor ambient
Number of samples
analyzed
5
5
8
2
1
Arithmetic mean
ng/m3 N f>5/tm/Lb
(range) - (range)
24.2
(0.0-115)
0.8
(0.0-4.0)
a
e
f/Lc
(range)
339.8
(0.0-1253)
68.6
(4.0-312)
10.3
(0.0-27)
Reference
Perkins (1987)
•Adapted from Nicholson (1989).
bAspect ratio >3:1, where the aspect ratio is the fibre length to width.
CA11 lengths with aspect ratio >3:1.
dC, chrysotile; A, amphibole.
"Less than a detection limit of approximately 4 f > 5/tm/L.
two additional samples had concentrations of 640 and 360 ng/m3. The 360 ng/m3 was from a single fibre.
•One sample had a concentration of 20 f > 5/un/L. All others were less than the detection limit of approximately 4 f > 5/tm/L.
hMost sample sets had an average concentration less than a set detection limit of 0.3 f > 5/tm/L.
'Amosite detected in 9 of 103 samples; at 5 of 11 sites.
-------
asbestos brake pads. Concentrations ranging from 20 ng/m3 to 4,500 ng/m3 (and as high as
5 fibers/L for fibers >5/*m long) have been measured in a variety of enclosed spaces (i.e.,
schools, buildings, subways, and traffic tunnels) (Nicholson, 1989). While most of these
sources represent infrequent exposures, the high concentrations measured indicate that in
some instances they may pose substantial risk.
Unfortunately, none of the measures of airborne asbestos concentration (i.e., mass,
fibers of all lengths, fibers >5/tm) has been found to correspond directly to increased cancer
risk. Nicholson (1989) points out that mass measurements may better relate to carcinogenic
risk than do total fiber counts, since they better account for the length dependence of
carcinogenic risk. However, mass measurements may not be meaningful if they are
dominated by large bundles of fibrils of low carcinogenic potential. Given the size
dependency of the carcinogenic potential of asbestos fibers, the best measurement of airborne
asbestos concentration is one in which every fiber is identified and sized (Nicholson, 1989).
Where practical, inclusion of such information in reported results of future studies is
recommended.
17
-------
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Gas Phase Organic Compounds
Gas phase organic (GPO) compounds include semivoktile (SVOC), volatile (VOC), or
very volatile (WOC) organic compounds. The indoor concentration data presented here are
token primarily from studies of indoor VOC concentrations, although some SVQC and
WOC are also included because of the overlap of these categories.
Several studies conducted over the last decade (De BortoU et al., 1986; Gammage
et al., 1984; Handy et al., 1987; Jarke, 1979; Krause et al.f 1987; Lebret et al., 1984, 1986;
Molhave and Moller, 1978; Monteith et al., 1984; PelHzzari et al., 1987a,b; Seifert and
Abraham, 1982; Wallace, 1987) provide a substantial body of data characterizing the sources
and levels of indoor VOC in residential environments. The results of these studies,
conducted in more than 1,500 homes in Europe and the United States under widely differing
protocols, show remarkable agreement in the following areas: (a) an extremely wide variety
of VOC was found in all indoor residential environments, with more than 300 different
compounds detected in some studies; (b) a number of these VOC were detected consistently
in all studies; (c) concentrations of most VOC varied widely within and among homes (often
differing by two or more orders of magnitude), and more than 250 VOC were found at
concentrations higher than 1 ppb (Sterling, 1985); (d) except in the case of extreme outdoor
pollution (Wallace, 1987; PeUizzari et al,, 1987a,b), indoor VOC concentrations were higher
than outdoor concentrations, with median indoor/outdoor concentration ratios normally
ranging between 2 and 5, and occasionally up to several orders of magnitude for some
compounds; (e) indoor sources, which varied widely in number and type, were the most
important contributors to indoor VOC concentrations.
Among the most comprehensive studies of exposure to indoor VOC is the Total
Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) Study recently conducted by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (Handy et al., 1987; PeUizzari et al., 1987a,b; Wallace,
1987) in which 12-h integrated personal exposures and corresponding breath and outdoor
concentrations of 11 to 19 target VOC were determined in 650 households at five sites.
Estimated frequency distributions of personal air exposures, outdoor air concentrations, and
18
-------
exhaled breath concentrations were determined for all target VOC; examples are presented in
Figure 2 for two VOC that are known or probable human carcinogens, determined for one
target population. Nighttime personal exposures were considered to be best estimates of
indoor air concentrations. Weighted estimates of the population frequency distributions
determined at one site for 11 target VOC (five aromatic compounds and six chlorinated
hydrocarbons) are shown in Figure 3. Breath concentrations correlated more closely with
personal exposures than did outdoor concentrations—a result also observed in a concurrent
study of personal exposures and breath concentrations of halogenated organic compounds for
146 residents in two United States studies (Hartwell et al., 1984; Pellizzari et aL, 1983).
Benzene concentrations were found to be significantly (30-50%) higher in homes of smokers
than of non-smokers.
The results of the TEAM study are supported by two other large studies conducted in
the Federal Republic of Germany (57 VOC measured in 500 randomly selected homes)
(Krause et al., 1987) and the Netherlands (45 VOC measured in more than 300 randomly
selected homes) (Lebret et al., 1986), and by a more limited study conducted in Italy
05 VOC measured in 14 homes) (De Bortoli et al., 1986). A working group of the World
Health Organization has recently used the date from these studies and the TEAM study to
derive overall concentration distributions for the individual VOC measured as a basis for a
tentative population risk assessment for VOC (World Health Organization, 1987a). Summary
data are shown in Tables 5 and 6, respectively, on indoor concentrations of VOC found hi
the large surveys in the Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands.
Formaldehyde
Numerous monitoring studies have been conducted to measure the concentration of
formaldehyde in indoor environments. The results for a variety of housing types in several
different countries are summarized in Table 7. Much of this data was collected in older
homes, homes in which urea formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) had been installed or
homes in which occupants had filed complaints of formaldehyde irritant symptoms. Data
appropriate for describing current residential exposures are obtained from studies evaluating
randomly selected, non-complaint homes constructed after 1980, when builders began using
more energy-efficient construction, and most pressed wood manufacturers began using resins
19
-------
400
Population axcaading concentration shown
116,200 64,000 12.800 1.280
90% 60% 10% 1%
100
\
10
i i
Night
~ Ltpmd
Benzene
Partonil air
•—• Braath
-------
1000
600
200
100
60
20
10
PopuhtiM txcMding conctntritiMi shown
64000 32000 12600 2600
I
O P-Xyltni
D o-Xylini
A I thylbuuiiw
• Btnsiiw
.• SryrMt
1000 1000
600
PopuUtion MCMdlni eMtmlritlon ihown
64000 32000 12600
2600
60
O 1,1,1-TrfcMorotthiM
Q p-OtehlorobMUMi
A Titr«ehlor(MthYlMi«
• Ctibon mraehloild*
• TriehlorotthytaM
A Chloroform
76 80 66
GimwIitiM fraquancy. p«mnt
M 99
1000
600
200
100
60
20
60 76 80
Cumulrtlti frvqutncy, pirctirt
M MM'
.10
Figure 3. Weighted frequency distributions for 24-h exposures of 355 New Jersey residents to aromatic and chlorinated
hydrocarbons (Fall 1981).a
•Source: Wallace (1987)
-------
TABLE 5. SUMMARY OF VOC CONCENTRATIONS IN 230 HOMES IN THE
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY8
Compound
£ n-ADtanes
n-Hoane
H-Heptane
n -Octane
fl-Nonane
n-Decane
n-Undecane
n-Dodecane
n-Tridecane
£ i-Mfcanes
-------
TABLE tf. SUMMARY OF VOC CONCENTRATIONS IN 319 HOMES IN THE NETHERLANDS8
Compound
n-Alkanes
(C6-C1S)
i-Alkanes*
Cycloalkanes0
Aromatic hydrocarbons*
Chlorinated hydrocarbons'
Indoor concentration
Range of geometrical means
for three age-group homes
39-76
7-9
4-6
63-100
6-7
Oig/m3)
Maximum
1781
515
687
4149
300
Outdoor
concentration(/ig/m3)
Geometrical mean Maximum
5
4
2
15
1
21
10
5
57
22
•Homes divided into three age groups (built before World War II, built after World War II, built after 1976). Adapted from Lebret et al. (1986).
^-methylpentane; 2-methylhexane; 3-methylhexane.
"cyclohexane; methylcyclohexane; dimethylcyclopentane.
''benzene; toluene; xylenes; ethylbenzene; n-propylbenzene; i-propylbenzene; o-methylethylbenzene; m-methylethylbenzene; p-methylethylbenzene;
1,2,3-trimethylbenzene; 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene; 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene; n-butylbenzene; p-methyl-i-propylebenzene; naphthalene; 1-methyhiaphthalene.
tetrachloromethane; trichloroethene; tetrachloroethene; chlorobenzene; m-dichlorobenzene;/>-dichlorobenzene; 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene; 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene;
to 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene.
-------
TABLE 7. INDOOR CONCENTRATIONS OF FORMALDEHYDE
Concentration (ppm)
Building type
WithUFFI
Canadian homes
UK building
1 Swiss residences
US homes
Without UFFI
Canadian homes
UK buildings
Swiss building (new)
US homes
Complaint
Dutch buildings
US mobile homes
(some non-complaint)
Noncomplaint
Italian homes (1 office)
Yugoslavian buildings
US homes, randomly selected
US mobile homes, randomly selected
By Age
US mobile homes '
New
Older, occupied
US homes
0-5 years old
5-15 years old
> 15 years old
Overall
No.
-1850
128
43
>1200
>1200
383
50
50
73
131
>500
14
35
560
-1200
260
18
11
11
40
Range
10% >0.1 ppm
-0.01-M
(7% >0.1ppm)
0.04-2.3
0.01-3.4
3% >0.1 ppm
<0.02->0.3
(3%>0.1 ppm)
0.14-0.60
0.01-0.17
60-80% >0.1 ppm
0.00-4.2
0.007-0.042
0.007-0.345
<0.005-0.48
< 0.01-2.9
<0.02-0.4
Mean
0.054
0.093
0.4
0.05-0.12
0.036
0.047
0.025-0.07
0.1-0.9
0.022
0.027-0.091
0.091-0.62
0.86
0.25
0.08
0.04
0.03
0.06
Reference
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
Rothweiler et al. (1983)
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(1987a)
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
Wanner and Kuhn (1986)
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
Van der Wai (1982)
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
De Bortoli (1988)
Kalinic et al. (1986)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(1987a); Stock (1987)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(1987a)
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
Gammage and Hawthorne (1985)
Hawthorne et al. (1986)
Hawthorne et al. (1986)
Hawthorne et al. (1986)
Hawthorne et al. (1986)
-------
with low formaldehyde-to-urea ratios. More complete summaries of residential formaldehyde
studies are contained in recent reviews on this topic (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
1987a; National Research Council, 1981b; Versar, Inc., 1986 a,b).
Despite the wide variety of conditions under which these residential formaldehyde
studies were conducted, results for given types of housing tend to be consistent within certain
broad ranges. Indoor residential concentrations of formaldehyde are generally found to be
significantly higher than outdoor concentrations, which range from 0.002 to 0.006 ppm in
remote, unpopulated regions to 0.010 to 0.020 ppm and sometimes 0.050 ppm in highly
populated areas and industrial urban air. The range of formaldehyde concentration measured
in complaint homes, mobile homes, and homes containing large quantities of particleboard or
UFFI tends to be from 0.02 ppm to 0.80 ppm, with levels as high as 4 ppm in some
instances. Older conventional homes tend to have the lowest indoor concentrations of
formaldehyde, with values typically less than 0.05 ppm. Formaldehyde levels in new (less
than one year old) conventional homes generally Ml within the range of 0.05 ppm to
0.2 ppm; few measurements exceed 0.3 ppm.
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)
Exposure to polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in air is related to the total
amount of these compounds distributed between the gas and aerosol phases and to the particle
size distribution. At present, the most reliable estimates of PAH exposures come from
studies reporting total PAH concentrations from filter and sorbent extracts.
Recent evaluations of sampling and analysis methods for indoor airborne PAH have
shown that, of the major variables influencing PAH exposure, smoking has the greatest effect
on both PAH concentrations and mutagenicity (Lewtas et al., 1987; Wilson et al., 1985).
Hie concentrations of PAH in tobacco smoke and smoke-polluted environments have been
summarized in the IARC monograph series (World Health Organization, 1983); reported
concentrations of several PAH (ananthrene, benzofojfiuorene, benzo[gAr]perylene,
benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[ejpyrene» coronene, dibenz[a/]anthracene, fluoroanthene) in various
indoor environments ranged from 0.1 to 99 ng/m3. The effect of smoking on indoor PAH
levels was recently evaluated in a study of eight U.S. homes (Wilson and Chuang, 1989).
Representative values of concentrations of several PAH and nitro PAH found in homes with
25
-------
and without smokers are shown in Table 8. Additional data on PAH concentrations in smoky
environments are presented in Table 2,
TABLE 8. POLYmrCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH) AND NTTRO
PAH INDOOR AM CONCENTRATIONS (NG/3)*
Homes with
Compound
Naphthalene
Acenaphtitylene
Phenanthrene
Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Pyreae
Benz[a]anthracene
Chrysene
Benzofluoranthene
Benzo[«]pyrene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Benzo[y,ft,i]pyrene
Coronene
9-Nitroanthracene isomer
9-Nitroanthracene
9-Nitrophenirathren.e
2-Nitrofiuoranthene
smokers
Living room
2200
120
210
1.5
23
17
3.4
7.2
5.1
1.0
3.3
2.5
0.64
0.95
0.32
0.25
0.14
Outdoors
330
8.9
54
1.6
9.4
9.4
0.58
2.2
1.4
0.63
0.30
0.81
0.68
0.51
0.10
0.014
0.075
Homes without smokers
Living Room
1000
10
59
2.0
7.2
5.6
0.24
0.93
0.78
0.68
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.45
0.13
0.043
0.020
Outdoors
110
4.6
29
0.64
4.3
5.1
0.23
1.1
0.51
0.28
0.15
0.27
0.18
0.57
0.030
0.027
0.041
•Source: Wilson and Chaang (1989). Total PAH concentrations from filter (quartz) and sorbent (XAD-2 resin)
extracts.
It is estimated that as a result of daily use of biomass fuels for cooking and heating
under unvented conditions, about one-half of the world's population is exposed to
concentrations of PAH that are orders of magnitude greater (102 - 103 0g/m3) than those
normally found in areas using more advanced combustion systems (Smith et al., 1984). In a
recent study that investigated an etiological link between domestic burning of smoky coal
(comparable to medium-volatile bituminous coal) and lung cancer in China (Mumford et al.,
1987), the approximate ranges of measured concentrations in smoky coal environments of six
PAH which are animal and suspect human carcinogens were: benzo[a]anthracene (15 -
25 /ig/m3); 5-methylehrysene (3 - 8jtg/m3); benzofluoranthene (12 - 23 /*g/m3);
26
-------
benzo[a]pyrene (9 - 15 pg/m3); indeno[l,2,3-c»i?]pyrene (5-9 Mg/m3); and
dibenzo[a,e]pyrene (5 - 12 j*g/m3).
Pesticides
Pesticides (including insecticides, rodenticides, termiticides, germicides, fungicides, and
herbicides) are widely used in or in close proximity to indoor spaces. Results of numerous
studies (e.g., Lewis and Lee, 1976; Lewis and MacLeod, 1982; Lewis et al., 1986; Lewis
et al., 1988; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987b) indicate that the atmosphere in
the average United States residence usually contains a number of pesticides at concentrations
that are typically one to two orders of magnitude higher than ambient outdoor concentrations.
Lewis (1988) has recently reviewed the literature evaluating human exposures to household
pesticides and has documented much of the available date on indoor air concentrations of
pesticides in United States residences. Some of these data are summarized in Table 9.
In an extensive survey of indoor pesticide exposures recently conducted by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency to estimate the cumulative frequency distribution of
nonoccupational exposures to pesticides via different routes of exposure, it was determined
that 81 % of the total respiratory exposures to 24 common household and garden pesticides
occurred inside the home (Lewis et al., 1988). In the pilot phase of the Non-occupational
Pesticides Exposure Study (NOPES), air concentrations of 31 of the most commonly used
household pesticides and two oxidation products were measured inside nine residences and
compared with corresponding outdoor concentrations and personal exposures. The pesticides
monitored are shown in Table 10. Twenty-four pesticides were detected in the indoor air
samples, with indoor concentrations ranging from 1.7 ng/m3 to 15.0 ffg/m3. Permethrin;
resmethrin; carbaryl; 2,4-D esters; atrazine; dacthal; and PCBs were not detected in any
indoor air sample. Twenty-five pesticides were found in the outdoor samples. Outdoor
concentrations ranged from < 1.0 ng/m3 to 410 ng/m3. Personal exposure measurements
ranged from < 1.0 ng/m3 to 8.8 ng/m3 and, with few exceptions, exhibited the same profiles
as indoor air samples. Chlorpyrifos, diazinon, chlordane, propoxur, and heptachlor were the
most commonly occurring pesticides in indoor air samples. The concentrations of these
pesticides were generally about one order of magnitude higher than those of any other
pesticide found in the same samples; mean indoor air concentrations ranged from 0.16 to
27
-------
TABLE 9. INDOOR AIR CONCENTRATIONS OF PESTICIDES IN
UNITED STATES RESIDENCES8
Compound
Chlordane
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Naphthalene
/>-Dichlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Chlorpyrifos
Diazinon
Propoxur
Dichlorvos
Malathion
Carbaryl
NAS
guideline11
5
2
1
1
— •
—
10
_
—
_
—
—
Concentration (
Overall range (n)c
0-264(16)
0-14.8 (8)
0-7.0 (4)
0-0.17(3)
0.55-4.2 (1)
0-1500 (1)
0.1-50 (3)
0-37 (8)
0-149 (8)
0-7.9 (4)
0-28(3)
0-13.7 (3)
0-0.1 (1)
jig/m3)
Range of means (n)
0.2-10 (6)
0,03-1.6 (5)
0.01 (1)
0.04 (1)
-(0)
2.3(1)
0.03 (1)
0.007-2.4 (5)
0.05-1.4 (4)
0.03-0.4 (3)
0.003-0. 12 (2)
0.003-0.02 (2)
0.07 (1)
•Adapted from Lewis (1988), where references to the original studies are given.
^Values listed for the five termiticides covered by guidelines established by the National Academy of Sciences
(1982).
"n = number of studies reporting range or mean value.
2.4 pg/m3 and were almost always one to two orders of magnitude higher than outdoor
concentrations. Other investigators have reported comparable indoor air concentrations for
these pesticides (Leidy and Wright, 1987; Leidy et al., 1985; Lewis and MacLeod, 1982;
Wright and Leidy, 1982; Wright et al., 1981). PreMminary results of a more extensive phase
of the NOPES study (Lewis, 1988) are in general agreement with the pilot study results.
Several studies have been conducted to assess indoor exposures to specific pesticides.
Chlordane and heptachlor received attention in the United States when it was discovered that
measurable amounts of these highly persistent termiticides could be found inside housing
where the underlying or surrounding soil had been treated with these chemicals (Livingston
and Jones, 1981).
Large-scale surveys of U.S. Army and Air Force housing (LilHe and Barnes, 1987;
Olds, 1987) indicated that 0.9% and 5%, respectively, of these housing units treated with
Chlordane had indoor air levels of this pesticide that exceeded U.S. National Academy of
Science guidelines of 5.0 pg/m3 (National Academy of Sciences, 1982). In the survey of
28
-------
TABLE 10. PESTICffiES MONITORED IN INDOOR AIR IN
U.S. EPA NON-OCCUPATIONAL PESTICIDES
EXPOSURE STUDY (NOPES)*
Chlorpyrifos (Dureban1)
Diazinon
Chlordane
Propoxur (haygcai1')
Heptachlor
fra/iv-Nonachlor
LuMJane1" ("y-BHQ
Heptachlor epoxide*
Aldrin
o-Phenyiphenol
Dieldrin
Captan
Folpet
OxycUordane"
Malathion
Bendiocarb (Fleam1")
a-Hexachlorocyclohexane
(a-BHC)
Ronnel
Chlorothalonil (Bravo11)
Pentachlorophenol
Dichlorvos (DDVP)
Dicofol
Methoxychlor
p-p'-DWF
cw-Pennethmi
Wfl/tt-Permethrin
Resmeihiin
Carbaryl (Sewn*)
2,4-D esters
Atrazine
Dacthal
PCBs (Aroclors 1242 and 1260)
Hexachlorobenzene
•Lewis et at. (1988)
^Registered trademark.
"Pesticide oxidation product.
approximately 5,000 U.S. Air Force housing units, location of ventilation ducts and time of
pesticide treatment (i.e., pre- or post-construction) appeared to influence the level of indoor
contamination. Major seasonal shifts were also noted; concentrations were higher in winter
for duct-in-slab type houses and in summer for crawl space houses. Houses at greatest risk
were those constructed over a crawl space with post-construction treatment: 95% of these
houses had a detectable level of chlordane (>0.5 Mg/m3) and 19% exceeded National
Academy of Science guidelines compared to 5% for duct-in-slab type houses and 0% for slab
houses with attic ducts (Lillie and Barnes, 1987).
Studies of nonmilitary residences in the United States have yielded similar results.
Wright and Leidy (1982) have reported levels of chlordane ranging from 0.3 to 5.8 Mg/m3
and of heptachlor from 0.01 to 1.8 pg/m3 in six houses for a period of one year after
treatment. Maximum post-treatment indoor levels of chlordane ranging from approximately
100 to 400 #g/m3 have been measured in some residences (Livingston and Jones, 1981; Louis
and Kisselbach, 1987; Olds, 1987). Livingston and Jones (1981) found mean chlordane
concentrations of 1 to 10 Mg/m3 in apartments 10 to 15 years after treatment. In one
instance, after direct injection of 15 gallons of a 2% chlordane solution into a subslab duct,
29
-------
an indoor airborne chlordane concentration of 1580 /tg/m3 was measured (Lillie and Barnes,
1987). Air concentrations of termiticides are generally significantly higher in basements than
in upper floor rooms, often by a much as an order of magnitude (Lewis, 1988).
30
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INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
In addition to asbestos, a number of inorganic pollutants, especially heavy metals, have
been classified as carcinogens (World Health Organization, 1987b). The metals and metal
compounds of most concern are arsenic (salts, arsenates, arsenites), beryllium, cadmium
(oxide, bromide, chloride), chromium (hexavalent), nickel (carbonyl, subsulfide), and
selenium (sulfide).
Few studies currently exist that provide a specific or exact profile of concentrations of
these toxic metals in indoor environments. Some recent results from a small study conducted
in the United States are shown in Table 11 (Lebret et al., 1987). A high correlation between
cadmium and fine particle concentrations in this study indicated tobacco smoking to be a
primary indoor source of cadmium.
The dusts found indoors originate from surface soil tracked into the building and from
deposition of airborne particles originating outside. They also arise from mechanisms and
activities indoors such as smoking and degradation and use of household products which
contain heavy metals. Where the concentrations of metals, such as lead, have been measured
indoors, alarmingly high levels of heavy metal contamination have been found, mainly arising
from outside sources (Laxen et al., 1987). There is every reason to expect that
concentrations of many metals exist at varying strengths indoors depending on the relation of
the indoor environment to the outdoor pollutant source. Studies around smelters (Roberts
et al., 1974) indicate that the contribution of specific particles indoors is greatest from surface
soils. In some cases, the average metal concentration in house dusts remained close to the
concentration level in the soil. Where indoor environments are relatively remote from a
strong point source of pollution, indoor particle pollutant concentrations average 35% of
those in airborne dusts outdoors and 75% of those in surrounding soils.
Important research needs are better source identification and better characterization of
particular heavy metal concentrations indoors, especially for those metals and metal
compounds that have been classified as carcinogens. Further research is also needed to assess
the use of cadmium as a marker for ETS.
31
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TABLE 11. ELEMENTAL CONCENTRATIONS OF
FIVE CARCINOGENIC METALS IN 20 INDOOR SAMPLES*
Indoor concentration
Element
Cr
Ni
As
Se
Cd
Median
0.00
5,73
1.24
0.56
1.29
Min.
0.00
1.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
90%
3.00
9.31
2.31
0.93
2.87
95%
4.94
10.51
2.51
1.09
2.94
(ng/m3)
MAX.
5.04
10.57
2.52
1.10
2.94
SD
1.58
2.41
0.80
0.34
1.05
Median outdoor Median
concentration15 , indoor/outdoor
(ng/my3) ratio
c
17.02
e
1.18
c
—
0.36
• _
0.44
—
Tine particle samples (effective aerodynamic diameter <2.5 pin). Adapted from Lebret et al. (1987).
""Central-site monitoring.
'Below detection limit.
32
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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: IWI - 54S-IX7/2MIH
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(ftettt
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
an ttu nvtne bcfon cample:
1. BEFOHT NO.
EPA 600/8-90/042
4, TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Indoor Air - Assessment
Indoor Concentrations of Environmental Carcinogens
11ATC
January 1991
I. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION COOK
600/23
7. AUTHOR(S)
See list of authors
S. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
ECAO-R-0382
I. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office (MD-52)
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, OKD
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/BRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY N AMI AND ADDRESS
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment (KD-689)
Office of Research and Development
II. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
13. TYPE Of REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Indoor Air
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
600/21
18. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. AiSTRACT
In till* report. Indoor concentration dita are presented for the following general
categories of air pollutants: radon-222, environmental tobacco smote (ETS),
asbestos, gas phase organic compounds, formaldehyde, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH), pesticides, and inorganic compounds, these pollutants are
either known or suspect carcinogens (i.e., radon-222, asbestos) or more complex
mixtures or classes of compounds which contain known or suspect carcinogens.
Concentration data for individual carcinogenic compounds in complex mixtures are
usually far from complete. The data presented for complex mixtures often include
compounds which are not carcinogenic or for which data are insufficient to
evaluate carcinogenicity. Their inclusion is justified, however, by the
possibility that further work may show them to be carcinogens, cocarcinogens,
Initiators or promoters, or that they may be employed as markers {e.g., nicotine,
acrolein) for the estimation of exposure to complex mixtures. -
T.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lOENTIPIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
S. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
lelease to Public
It. SECURITY CLASS
Unclassified
31, NO. OP PAQI
52
20. SECURITY CLASS jThi*
Unclassified
22. PRICE
•PA P«M» 2220-4 («•*. 4.37) »NBVIOUS KOITIOM •• OMOLBTK
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