&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Cincinnati, OH 45268
EPA/600/F-98/008
October 1998
http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Providing Solutions for a
Better Tomorrow
A Progress Report on U.S. EPA's
Drinking Water Treatment
Technology Demonstrations in
Ecuador, Mexico and China
Testing Water in China
Drinking Disinfected Water in Ecuador
Providing Access to Treated Water in Mexico
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"It has been estimated that 35 percent of all deaths in developing
countries are directly related to contaminated water."
W,
ithout appropriate treatment mechanisms in
place to remove dangerous chemicals and disease-
causing microorganisms from a water supply, taking
a drink of water can be very risky. To reduce these
risks, researchers at the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency's (U.S. EPA) National Risk Manage-
ment Research Laboratory have been developing and
refining drinking water treatment technologies for
decades through internal research efforts and part-
nerships with the academic sector and private
manufacturers. Their successes have resulted in
many of the current drinking water treatment tech-
nologies in use worldwide. However, a significant
challenge remains: How can we get the best possible
water treatment technologies in place to reduce the
threat of water-related illness in less developed
countries?
One important approach for meeting this chal-
lenge is the U.S. Technology for International
Environmental Solutions (U.S.TIES) program. U.S.
TIES, a component of President Clinton's Environ-
mental Technology Initiative, was initiated in 1994
to match pressing environmental problems in other
countries with the suppliers of proven and cost-
effective environmental technologies in the U.S.
Once their proposals were approved and funded
under U.S. TIES, scientists and engineers at the
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
became "drinking water ambassadors" to several
countries. In this role, the Agency's researchers
developed partnerships with government and health
officials as well as utility operators at proposed sites
with the following goals:
Thoroughly assessing the contamination risks to
drinking water supplies
Considering current and future drinking water
needs at each proposed site
• Matching most appropriate, low-cost drinking
water treatment technologies with specific
demonstration sites
• Objectively brokering the purchase and
operation of chosen technologies at the various
sites
Assisting in start-up and operation of the
selected "demonstration" treatment technologies
» Monitoring demonstration technology
effectiveness
• Assessing available health records before and
after treatment technologies begin operation to
evaluate the positive impact of installed
demonstration treatment devices
Final performance results from each project will be
available within two years. As drinking water
treatment technologies are proven at the various
demonstration sites, it is hoped that decision makers
in those countries will choose to expand the use of
such technologies and develop lasting relationships
with the participating American technology vendors.
Descriptions of demonstration projects in Ecuador,
Mexico and China follow.
Technology representatives Lino Gallo (left) and Chip
Landman (kneeling) explain the operation of a point-of-use
water treatment unit to regional and local health staff in
Ecuador. Landman noted, "The U.S. TIES program is
certainly the most result-oriented, risk-reducing government
program Watersolve International, LLC, has ever been
associated with. The program has afforded our company an
opportunity to collaborate with U.S. EPA and foreign
authorities to help prove the effectiveness of U.S. technology
in reducing waterborne disease — and saving lives — in
developing locations throughout the world. "
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Ecuador
The intent of this project is to reduce diseases
caused by waterborne pathogens through the use of
U.S. technologies that can be purchased, operated
and maintained at a reasonable cost. Complicating
factors include sporadic availability of electricity
(for treatment devices and maintaining continuous
positive pressure in the distribution system), incon-
sistent system maintenance, and difficult terrain.
EPA's governmental partners in the Ecuador project
are the U.S. Agency for International Development
and the Manabi Provincial Water Authority. Hagler
Bailly, Inc. and Watersolve International, LLC, are
the American companies providing consulting
services and drinking water treatment equipment
respectively.
U.S. EPA Contact: Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr.
513/569-7460 (Telephone)
513/569-7185 (Fax)
Email: lykins. benjamin@epamail.epa.gov
Manta
In this coastal town, the demonstration site is a
220-bed hospital. Here, when available, drinking
water is provided by the city distribution system;
additional water is often trucked in. From these
sources, water is piped to large holding tanks, and
disinfected by mixed-in chlorine. Even with a
capable engineering staff, drinking water quality
remained poor. With diarrheal diseases most preva-
lent at this hospital, patients often brought drinking
water with them from home.
Problems: Potential problems included a question-
able supply and resuspension of settled-out contami-
nants during the chlorine mixing process. Intermit-
tent power outages meant that water pressure was
not continuous — allowing siphonage of surround-
ing contaminants into distribution pipes (see figure
at right).
Solutions: A drinking water package plant —
employing filtration and ozone disinfection as well
as chlorine addition to maintain a residual disinfec-
tant in the water — was installed to ensure that water
being distributed throughout the hospital would be
contaminant-free. Several members of the hospital
staff were trained by the equipment manufacturer to
maintain the package plant. Weekly cleaning of the
storage tanks will help prevent resuspension of
settled-out contaminants.
Monteoscuro
This community of 150 families is primarily
served by well water drawn and stored in a 13,000
gallon storage tank. Most of the residents boiled
their drinking water for disinfection prior to the
installation of the demonstration drinking water
EPA microbiologist
Hector Moreno
(front center)
performing a
bacteriological
assay in
Monteoscuro,
Ecuador. Here,
samples were
taken at the
drinking water
source, immedi-
ately outside of the
treatment plant,
and ten houses
away from the
plant to monitor
disinfection
effectiveness.
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Positive Pressure in Water Lines
Negative Pressure in Water Lines
An uninterrupted power supply to pumps enables the maintenance of a "positive pressure " in a drinking water
distribution system (above left). Should leaks occur in connections (e.g., poorly fitted joints) or pipes, treated water
(in blue) under positive pressure would flow out of the system at the point of the leaks — with no contamination of
the drinking water remaining in the lines. However, when a power supply is interrupted, pumps can no longer
operate and a "negative pressure " or vacuum can occur in the distribution line (above right); contaminants (brown)
may then be drawn into the system and distributed to consumers.
treatment technologies. Medical records at the local
clinic showed that diarrhea was a very common
illness among the residents.
Problems: The source water has a high concentration
of particulate matter (favoring the presence of
"pathogens" or disease-causing bacteria, viruses and
protozoa). Animal and human wastes are potential
sources of the pathogens.
Solutions: A backwashable multimedia filter has
been installed to reduce particle presence; ultraviolet
(UV) disinfection, in operation whenever the water
is pumped from the well, has significantly reduced
the risk of pathogens in the filtered drinking water.
Finally, a chlorine residual is maintained in the
distribution system to help guard against contamina-
tion of the water after UV disinfection.
La America
This community receives spring water stored in
an uphill 15,000 gallon storage tank. Water is
distributed to the 56 homes connected to the water
supply system during a two-hour period every two
days. Residents refill their individual storage tanks
This treatment unit
was installed at the La
America clinic with
untreated water
entering through the
green hose at top left.
The filters (circled in
blue) are set up in
order of decreasing
porosity. The top filter
traps particles larger
than 30 micrometers in
diameter. The bottom
two filters, with 5
micrometer (left) and 1
micrometer porosity,
remove bacteria and
protozoa. Brownish
yellow materials
visible on these filter
cartridges are trapped
contaminants. UV
disinfection occurs in
the grey box at top
right.
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La America demonstration site, (a) Local clinic records are being reviewed for incidence of illness and death caused by
diarrhea, (b) Drinking water source for LaAmerica. (c) Water storage tank for La America clinic, (d) One of the point-of-use
treatment units installed in La America. Blue cannister contains an easily replaceable filtration cartridge.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
during this period; a negative pressure inside the
distribution lines is likely during off hours (see
figure at top of previous page). Residents find a
yellow slime on the bottom of their home storage
tanks when the water is allowed to settle. Records
from the local health clinic indicate that diarrhea is
the most common disease; residents have suffered
from such parasites as Entamoeba histolytica,
Giardia, andAscaris lumbricoides (worms).
Problems: The source water (see picture "b" above)
and the holding tank are susceptible to contamina-
tion. Periods of negative pressure in the distribution
system increase potential for contaminants to enter
into the lines.
Solutions: To reduce potential contamination, the
spring was contained in a concrete structure. Three
point-of-use devices were installed because there
was no potential for a central treatment facility in
this community. These devices, employing filtration
and UV and/or iodine disinfection, were installed in
several locations to facilitate access to treated water.
Filtering out contaminants and disinfecting the
drinking water at the point of use can reduce risks
associated with contaminants present in the source
water and those entering the distribution lines. While
not as convenient as having a contaminant-free
drinking water supply in each household, access to
the three sources of treated water is expected to
greatly reduce exposure to diarrhea-causing parasites
in this small village.
Mexico
Demonstrations of drinking water treatment
technologies in Mexico are being funded under an
Poster used in
a Mexican
clinic to
explain
measures to
take when
stricken with
diarrhea.
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interagency agreement between the U.S. EPA and
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign
Agricultural Service. After considering needs and
willingness to cooperate, three demonstration sites
were identified. Health records indicate that gas-
trointestinal disease is prominent at the sites; doctors
and nurses in clinics serving the selected areas
suspect that contaminants in the drinking water are
the primary cause of the noted illnesses. Fearing the
presence of diseases such as cholera, clinics post
warning signs and sets of instructions to educate
residents on symptoms and proper sanitary practices.
Aimed at cost-effectively reducing microorgan-
ism-related disease at the selected sites, this project
involves numerous partnerships. Government
partners include U.S. EPA and USDA, as well as
local Mexican officials and the Comision Nacional
Del Aqua. The American Commonwealth Manage-
ment Service Company has teamed with a Mexican
host company to install and operate the chosen
technologies. IT Corporation and MIOX Corporation
are the American manufacturers of the drinking
water treatment technologies to be demonstrated.
U.S. EPA Contact: Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr.
513/569-7460 (Telephone)
513/569-7185 (Fax)
Email: lykins. benjamin@epamail.epa.gov
Ixhuacan de los Reyes
This demonstration site is a community of 5,500
people with an estimated water demand of 85
gallons per minute. Water is drawn from a river and
piped into a presedimentation tank, a sedimentation
basin, and then a stone storage tank. Prior to installa-
tion of the demonstration treatment devices, disin-
fection (chlorination) occurred at the point where
water left the stone storage tank for distribution to
the town.
Problems: The river source suffers from high
turbidity during heavy rains. High levels of microor-
ganisms are present in the source water. System
capacity must be expanded to accommodate antici-
pated increasing water usage.
Solutions: Multimedia filters were installed followed
by bag filters and a chlorination unit. The Vera Cruz
state government has shown a great deal of interest
in the drinking water treatment demonstration
project at Ixhuacan. Improved drinking water quality
is part of an overall plan to encourage residential and
industrial growth in this part of Mexico.
Drinking water treatment and storage facility at
Ixhuacan, Mexico.
In the top photo, USDA representative (left) and Vera
Cruz state governor (2nd from left) viewing treatment
technology at the dedication ceremony in Ixhuacan.
Plaque (inset) honors contributions by the U.S. EPA
and USDA. At bottom, the governor officially opens
operations at the Ixhuacan treatment facility.
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Treatment facility
and storage unit
installed at La
Luz, Mexico
demonstration
site. Drinking
water is provided
to nearby elemen-
tary school and
also made
available to
community
residents.
Professor at F.I. Madero School in La Luz. Newly
installed fountains will help provide students access
to treated water from the U.S. EPA demonstration
facility at top of page.
Francisca I Madero Public Elementary School
The school is located in a small suburb near
Cordoba, Mexico, and serves approximately 300
children. The water supply for the school is a hand-
dug well, covered but not sealed. Water is pumped
to rooftop cisterns to provide pressure to the distri-
bution system within the school. Prior to installation
of the demonstration treatment technology, children
were advised to bring water or beverages for con-
sumption from their homes.
Problems: Unsealed well cover and rooftop cisterns
were open to contamination. A direct supply of
disinfected water is needed at the school.
Solution: An electrolyzed salt-brine system was
installed to disinfect the water supplied directly to
the school. A water tap was also installed to provide
community access to the treated drinking water. The
treatment devices that were installed at the school
and in the community are expected to greatly reduce
the risk of exposure to waterborne pathogens.
China
Safe drinking water has become a high environ-
mental priority in China. After raw water character-
istics were considered, three demonstration sites
were initially chosen where various treatment
technology configurations would be installed. These
systems are aimed at removing high levels of
industrial organic contaminants, heavy metals,
hardness, iron, nitrate, fluoride, and microbial
contaminants from drinking water without generat-
ing large amounts of contaminated residual (as can
be found with conventional treatment approaches).
Through this project, U.S. EPA will not only serve
as a catalyst for expanding the drinking water
technology market, but will gain valuable perfor-
mance data for a variety of drinking water contami-
nants. In turn, China will gain knowledge regarding
the use of effective new technologies as well as
improved public health. Four demonstration sites are
currently operating.
Government partners include U.S. EPA and
USDA, as well as central, provincial, and local
Chinese officials. American consulting and equip-
ment vendors include Ecowater, IT Corporation, and
the American Commonwealth Management Services
Company. Installed technologies include tray and
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packed tower aeration (for removal of volatile
organic chemicals), granular activated carbon (for
removal of organic chemicals), multimedia filtration
(for removal of various suspended solids), ion
exchange (for removal of inorganic ionic species
like calcium and magnesium ions), and reverse
osmosis membranes (for removal of dissolved
solids). An international workshop is planned in
Bejing for Spring, 1999, to disseminate results and
encourage further collaboration among drinking
water experts.
U.S. EPA Contact: Dr. James A. Goodrich
513/569-7605 (Telephone)
513/569-7185 (Fax)
Email: goodrich.james@epamail. epa.gov
Huantai Village
In a small agricultural village outside Zibo City,
a system with shallow wells was chosen as a demon-
stration site. Although no medical data were avail-
able, the drinking water was found to have high
fluoride and nitrate levels with trace levels of
volatile organic contaminants. Low levels of in-
gested fluoride are beneficial. The extremely high
fluoride levels found in the drinking water source for
this community, however, had caused poor dental
conditions and skeletal problems. While microorgan-
isms were not found to be a significant risk in this
aquifer, residents disinfected their drinking water by
boiling it.
Problems: Local drinking water supply contains
unhealthy levels of natural and man-made contami-
Use of locally manufactured materials presented an
unexpected problem. Translucent plastic piping
exposed to sunlight lead to heavy biofilm growth
(green areas in two leftmost columns and inset) in a
treatment system found in China.
U.S. EPA's James Goodrich (back left) discussing
demonstration technology activities with the mayor of
Zibo City (right) and a technical expert (front).
nants. Many residents transported their drinking
water from a less contaminated aquifer nearby which
may be unable to sustain this additional drawdown.
Solution: To ensure the safety of drinking water
drawn from the local groundwater supply, a 10
gallons per minute treatment train was installed;
treatment processes include tray aeration, multime-
dia filtration, granular activated carbon (GAC), and
reverse osmosis. The system has been operating well
since January 1997.
Beijing's First Bottled Water Plant
(Haidian District)
This government owned facility has had prob-
lems producing contaminant-free bottled water. The
existing treatment train includes six steps. The plant
draws water from a deep well with low levels of
industrial contaminants, moderate hardness and
nitrate concentrations.
Problems: Bottled water production, marketed by
the Chinese government as a safe alternative to
potentially contaminated wellwater, has suffered
because of treatment difficulties. Source water is
hard and moderately contaminated with natural and
man-made contaminants such as formaldehyde,
nitrates, chromium, and strontium.
Solutions: A three-step pilot scale treatment train
installed in September, 1997, is operating well near
the existing plant. This technology, employing
multimedia filtration, ion exchange, and GAC, has
an output of 10 gallons per minute (as compared to
the 70 gallon per minute output of the existing
plant).
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This component of the demonstration treatment
technologies is an 'air stripper' used to remove volatile
organicsfrom the water. Its packing (visible in the
porthole and inset photo), white when newly installed,
has been fouled due to high iron concentrations.
Zibo City Water Supply and Wastewater
System, Dawu Aquifer
This demonstration is aimed at improving
drinking water distributed to 2.5 million city resi-
dents. The demonstration technology has been put in
place on a pilot scale, operating at 10 gallons per
minute.
Problems: The groundwater has been contaminated
by oil refinery and plastics industry wastes. High
hardness and iron levels make treatment of the
organic contaminants very difficult. Volatile organic
contaminants include benzene, toluene, and xylene
in the milligrams per liter range. Contaminant levels
have proven to be extremely variable.
Solution: Because of the extremely variable con-
taminant levels, substantial modifications have been
made to the original treatment train as well as repair
to the system following a recent typhoon. The
system includes two iron filters, multimedia filtra-
tion, packed tower aeration, GAC, and reverse
osmosis membranes.
Due to the success of these demonstrations (e.g.,
significant reductions in contaminant levels in the
treated drinking water) and relationships developed
between the government partners, a fourth system
was installed in July 1997. The 20 gpm system was
purchased by Zibo City's Water Supply and Waste-
water Utility from Watersolve International, LLC, a
Colorado Springs based company, to further treat
water for a new housing complex in Zibo City,
China. The system is composed of GAC, cartridge
filtration, UV pre-disinfection, reverse osmosis
membranes, and ozonation. This purchase gives
testimony to the effectiveness of the earlier-demon-
strated technologies. Also significant is that Zibo
City purchased the technology from an American
vendor without U.S. government mediation —
fulfilling a long-range objective of the U.S. Technol-
ogy for International Environmental Solutions
program.
Solutions for a Better Tomorrow
Granular activated carbon...reverse
osmosis... aeration... ultraviolet irradiation.... Drink-
ing water treatment technologies have become very
advanced in the last century. While these advance-
ments can be heralded as lifesavers throughout much
of the world, municipalities in many countries can
afford only the most economical water treatment
technologies. Equally important, these towns and
villages cannot afford to buy and operate treatment
units that are inappropriate for their specific needs.
U.S. EPA's National Risk Management Research
Laboratory, drawing from decades of research and
development successes, is committed to sharing its
expertise. In partnership with other U.S. agencies
and American manufacturers of cost-effective
technologies, the U.S. EPA is demonstrating that
drinking water supplies can be made safer at reason-
able costs.
For additional information about U.S. EPA's
risk management research, visit the following
internet web site:
http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL
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This publication was written and produced by Patrick Burke
of USEPA's National Risk Management Research Laboratory
(NRMRL) within the Office of Research and Development.
Contributors and reviewers include Robert Clark, Benjamin
Lykins, James Goodrich, and Hector Moreno of NRMRL's
Water Supply and Water Resources Division. Additional
comments were provided by Lino Gallo of Hagler Bailly, Inc. and
Chip Landman of Watersolve International, LLC. All photographs
were provided by NRMRL's Water Supply and Water Resources
Division.
An electronic version of this publication can be viewed and
downloaded from the Office of Research and Development's
Internet website at http://www.epa.gov/ORD/publications/ (in
the "Water" category). Printed copies of this publication can be
requested from USEPA's Center for Environmental Research
Information at 513/569-7562 (telephone), 513/569-7566 (fax),
or burke.pat@epamail.epa.gov (email).
Printed on Recycled Paper
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