&EPA United States Office of Research and Office of International Office of Water EPA/60Q/M-91/012 Environmental Protection Development Activities Washington, DC 20460 August 1991 Agency Washington, DC 20460 Washington, DC 20460 Ensuring Safe Drinking Water ------- EPA Technical Information Packages This brochure Is part of a series of information packages prepared by the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA). Aimed at the international community, the packages focus on key environmental and public health issues being investigated by EPA. The products highlighted within these packages provide a sound technical basis for decisions regarding the development of environmental policy, abatement activities, and pollution prevention. By pooling expertise in the areas of environmental science and technology, significant progress can be anticipated to ensure a habitable environment for all nations. "Ensuring Safe Drinking Water" describes drinking water contaminants, the steps taken to determine maximum allowable contaminant levels, sampling and analysis methods, and current treatment technologies. Brochures and associated support material are available on the following topics: Ensuring Safe Drinking Water ....EPA/600/M-91/012 Water Quality EPA/600/M-91/033 Mining Waste Management EPA/600/M-91/027 Risk Assessment EPA/600/M-91/034 * Pesticide Waste Disposal EPA/600/M-91/028 Pesticide Usage Guidelines EPA/600/M-91/035 Air Quality Management EPA/600/M-91/029 . Pollution Prevention EPA/600/M-91/036 Solid Waste Disposal EPA/600/M-91/030 Environmental Impact Hazardous Waste Management ..EPA/600/M-91/031 Assessments EPA/600/M-91/037 * Small Community Wastewater * EPA Information Sources EPA/600/M-91/038 Systems EPA/600/M-91/032 Environmental Management ...EPA/600/M-91/039 Each complete Technical Information Package (TIP) consists of a cover brochure as well as all of the documents highlighted within the body of the brochure. Generally, the cover brochures contain a section discussing the environmental issue, associated health and environmental effects, guidelines, sampling and analytical methods, as well as treatment and disposal technologies. Following this section, a bibliography is provided to identify other important sources and documents in the field. An attempt has been made to provide references that are readily available in technical libraries. Finally, a number of Office of Research andDevelopment (ORD) technical experts followed by some additional EPA resources are listed to facilitate consultation and technical assistance. Document ordering information is provided on page 9. FRONT COVER: Photo by Jon Longtin ------- Drinking Water Contamination Surface and groundwater supplies often require treatment to remove particles of solid matter, reduce health risks, and improve aes- thetic qualities such as appearance, odor, color and taste. The introduction of the disinfection and/or sand filtration processes into water treatment at many utilities has dramatically reduced the incidence of waterborae diseases such as typhoid, cholera and hepatitis. How- ever, more than 89,000 cases each year of waterborae disease caused by microorgan- isms still occur in the United States. Chemical contaminants, both natural and synthetic, might also be present in water sup- plies. Contamination problems in ground water are frequently chemical in nature and can include pesticides and nitrates from agricul- tural lands, metals and organic chemicals from leaking underground storage tanks and land- fills, and microbial contaminants from septic tanks. More recently, concern has increased about contaminants that are introduced by the water treatment process and distribution sys- tem, such as lead, copper, coliforms from biofilm growths on the inside of piping, and disinfection by-products. The following is the product of a com- pendium of scientists and engineers meeting to discuss outbreaks of waterborne disease, methods of public notification, and the inves- tigation and resolution of the incidents: EPA 600/l-90/005a "Methods for the Investigation and Prevention of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks" - The em- phasis of this document is on the prevention of infectious waterborne diseases and the im- provement of surveillance, reporting, epidemiologic investigations, and laboratory analyses. The need for multiple barriers to infection is stressed. In addition to a high quality supply, proper disinfection and per- haps filtration, including any required pre- treatment, may be required in all but excep- tional situations to insure the removal and inactivation of waterborne pathogens. Giardia lamblia trophozoite What Level of Contamination is Acceptable? The document, "Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality," has been developed by the WorldHealth Organization (WHO) foruse by countries as a basis for the development of standards to ensure the safety of drinking water supplies. Recommended values are given for the levels of fecal coliforms and total coliforms; 17 inorganic constituents of health significance including cadmium, chromium, cyanide and lead; 22 organic constituents of health significance including trihalomethanes, hexachlorobenzene.DDTandaldrin; and gross alpha and beta activity. The USEPA was in- strumental in the production of the WHO guidelines and continues to develop and com- pile health effects information for use in as- sessing the risks from various contaminants in drinking water. This information is then used to provide advice on safe levels for the con- taminants in drinking water (Health Adviso- ries) and in the development, as needed, of updated Federal and State drinking water regulations. Several compendmms exist of current U.S. health assessments and standards. The following documents address acceptable levels of contaminants and some associated health effects: EPA 625/4-89/024 "Risk Assess- ment and Management of Drinking Water Contamination" - Principal topics include Printed on Recycled Paper ------- information on health effects of contaminants, an approach to risk assessment, risk commu- nication, corrosion control, and abatement of lead, biological contaminants, particulates,or- ganics, and radon. A case study is included to illustrate the elements of risk assessment, com- munication, and management "IRIS Database" - Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) contains summa- ries of health risk and regulatory information and authoritative consensus opinions on a range of chemicals and other agents. The database is updated quarterly and is very use- ful in deciding when water treatment is neces- sary. The IRIS software and introductory material is included in the Technical Informa- tion Package. Sampling and Analysis Proper sampling and analysis of drink- ing water supplies and treated waters are es- sential to ensure that current standards and guidelines are met Giving credibility to a contaminant concentration that was deter- mined in a poor sampling and analysis pro- gram could lead to serious health concerns for the consumers. Methods manuals are avail- able that present approved sampling and analy- sis methods, requirements for laboratory cer- tification, and appropriate quality assurance programs. For regulators and decision mak- ers, it must be recognized that the standard for a specific contaminant must not be set below the detection limit of the available analytical techniques. The following documents deal with sampling and analysis techniques: EPA 600/4-85/076 'Test Methods for Escherichia coli andEnterococci in Water by the Membrane Filter Procedure" - A report on methods used to measure the bacteriologi- cal quality of recreational, shellfish growing, ambient, and potable waters. EPA 600/8-78AH7 "Microbiological Methods for Monitoring the Environment: Water and Wastes" - A manual containing methods selected by consensus of EPA senior microbiologists for important parameters. National agencies, states, municipalities, uni- versities, private laboratories, and industry should find this manual of assistance in moni- toring and controlling microbiological pollu- tion in the environment. EPA 600/4-79/017 "Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes" - The manual contains the chemical analytical procedures used in USEPA laboratories for the examination of ground and surface waters, domestic and industrial waste effluents, and treatment process samples. It provides test procedures for the measurement of physical, inorganic, and selected organic constituents and parameters. EPA 600/4-88/039 "Methods for the Determination of Organic Compounds in Drinking Water" - The manual provides thir- teen analytical methods for the identification and measurement of organic compounds in drinking water. Six of the methods are for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and cer- tain disinfection by-products. The other seven ------- methods are designed for the determination of a variety of synthetic organic compounds and pesticides. EPA600/4-84/013 "USEPAManual of Methods for Virology" - The manual pre- sents a standardized, step-by-step procedure for recovering viruses from most environ- mental samples other than air. Sources of Lead in Drinking Water Water Treatment Processes Major water treatment processes include filtration, disinfection, treatment of organic and inorganic contaminants. Often ahead of filtration are several processes to clean up the water by removing solids and turbidity. These may include chemical addition, rapid mixing, coagulation and flocculation, and sedimenta- tion. Filtration to remove the remaining solids as well as microorganisms like Giardia and Cryptosporidium can be accomplished by con- ventional filtration systems (rapid sand, di- rect, slow sand, diatomaceous earth, mem- brane) or cartridge filtration systems. The three most commonly used disin- fection technologies are chlorine, ozone, and chlorarnines. When choosing the most appro- priate disinfection technology for a given water system, the specific requirements for residual disinfectant levels in the distribution system must be considered along with the health risks associated with the by-products of the chosen disinfection technology. Treatment technologies for organics re- moval include granular activated carbon, Conventional Treatment Chemicals Floccu- lation Filtration Rapid Mix Sedimentation packed column aeration, powdered activated carbon, diffused aeration, multiple tray aera- tion, oxidation, andmembrane filtration. Treat- ment technologies for inorganics removal in- clude corrosion control, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and aeration. The following documents describe many of the concerns inherent to the treatment of drinking water: EPA 625/4-89/023 'Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities" - Top- ics covered in detail are filtration, disinfec- tion, organic contaminant removal and cur- rent and emerging research. Case histories are provided for improving existing systems and the use of emerging technologies. EPA 625/5-90/025 "Drinking Wa- ter Treatment for Small Communities" - This report provides information for small system owners, operators, managers, and local deci- sion makers regarding drinking water treat- ment requirements and the treatment tech- nologies suitable for small systems. Major sections discuss in detail the topics of: selec- tion of drinking water treatment technologies, filtration, disinfection, organic and inorganic contaminant removal, sources of assistance, collection of bacteriologic samples, a check- list on factors affecting water treatment sys- tem performance, selecting a consultant, chlorine residual monitoring, and contact time values and their calculation. ------- EPA 600/2-81/156 "Treatment Techniques for Controlling Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water" - This report provides a state-of-the-art review of treatment techniques for trihalomethane control, of control mea- sures on the bacteriologjc quality of the treated water, and economic impact of their applica- tion. Basic Elements of a Slow Sand Filter * Additional References What Level of Contamination is Acceptable? DeRosa, Christopher T. Project Summary: Health Effects Assessment Documents. ECAO/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA/540/S1-86/D59. (1986). Health and Environmental Effects Profiles: Fiscal Year 1984. ECAO/USEPA. EPA-600/S8-88/072. Sampling and Analysis Covert, Terry C., Lois C. Shadix, Eugene W. Rice, John R. Haines, and Ronald W. Freyberg. 1989. Evaluation of the Autoanalysis Colilert Test for Detection and Enumeration of Total Coliforms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 55:2443-2447. Ho, James Shou-Yien. 1989. A Sequential Analysis for Volatile Organics in Water by Purge-and-trap Capillary Column Gas Chromatog- raphy with Photoionization and Electrolytic Conductivity Detectors in Series. Journal of Chromatographic Science. 27:91-98. Hurst, C J., W. H. Benton and RE. Stetler. 1989. Isolation of Enterovirus and Reovirus from Sewage and Treated Effluents in Selected Puerto Rican Communities. Journal of American Water Works Association. 81:71-80. McDaniels, A.E., RJL Bordner, P.S. Gartside, J.R. Haines, K.P. Brenner and CC. Rankin. 1985. Holding Effects on Colifonn Enumera- tion in Drinking Water Samples. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 50:755-762. Sauch, Judith F. 1985. Use of Immunofluorescence and Phase-contrast Microscopy for Detection and Identification of Giardia Cysts in Water Samples. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 50:1434-1438. ------- Water Treatment Processes Costs Gumerman, Robert C, Russell L. Gulp, and Sigurd P. Hansen. 1979. Estimating Water Treatment Costs. Volume 1. Summary. MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/2-79-162a. Gumerman, Robert C, Russell L. Gulp, and Sigurd P. Hansen. 1979. Estimating Water Treatment Costs. Volume 2. Cost Curves Appli- cable to 1 to 200 mgd Treatment Plants. MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/2-79-162b. Gumerman, Robert C., Russell L. Gulp, and Sigurd P. Hansen. 1979. Estimating Water Treatment Costs. Volume 3. Cost Curves Appli- cable to 2,500 gpd to 1 mgd Treatment Plants. MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/2-79-162c. Gumerman, Robert C., Bruce E. Burris, and Sigurd P. Hansen. 1985. Estimation of Small System Water Treatment Costs. MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/S2-84-184. PB 85-161644. Lettennan, Raymond D. and Thomas R. Cullen, Jr. 1985. Slow Sand Filter Maintenance: Costs and Effects on Water Quality. WERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/S2-85/056. PB 85-199669/AS. Lineck, Thomas S., Robert C. Gumerman, and Russell L. Gulp. 1979. Estimating Water Treatment Costs. Volume 4. Computer User's Manual for Retrieving and Updating Costs Data. MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-60Q/2-79- 162d. Pyper, Gordon R. 1985. Slow Sand Filter and Package Treatment Plant Evaluation: Operating Costs and Removal of Bacteria, Giardia, and Trihalomethanes. WERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/S2-85/052. PB 85-197051/AS. Treatment Adams, Jeffrey Q., Robert M. dark, and Richard J. Miltner. 1989. Controlling Organics with GAC: A Cost and Performance Analysis. Journal of American Water Works Association. 81 (4): 132-140. Baier, Joseph H., Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr., Carol A. Fronk, and Steven J. Kramer. 1988. Using Reverse Osmosis to Remove Agricultural Chemicals from Groundwater. Journal of American Water Works Association. 79(8):55-60. Geldreich, Edwin E. 1989. Drinking Water MicrobiologyNew Directions Toward Water Quality Enhancement International Journal of Food Microbiology. 9:295-312. Geldreich, Edwin E., J.A. Goodrich, and R.M. Clark. 1990. Characterizing Surface Waters that May Not Require Filtration. Journal of American Water Works Association. 82(12):40-50. ------- Treatment (cont.) Logsdon, Gary S., James M. Symons, Robert L. Loye, Jr., and Michael M. Arozarena. 1981. Alternative Filtration Methods for Removal ofGiartUa Cysts and Cyst Models. Journal of American Water Works Association. 73(2):111-118. Logsdon, Gary S., Thomas Sorg, and Robert M. Clark. 1990. Capability and Cost of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems. Journal of American Waterworks Association. 82(6):60-66. Love, O. Thomas, Jr. and Richard G. Eilers. 1982. Treatment of Drinking Water Containing Trichloroethylene and Related Industrial Solvents. Journal of American Water Works Association. 74:413-425. Miltner, Richard J., David B. Baker, Thomas F. Speth, and Carol A. Fronk. 1989. Treatment of Seasonal Pesticides in Surface Waters. Journal of American Water Works Association. 81(l):43-52. Najm, Issam N., Vernon L. Snoeyink, Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr., and Jeffrey Q. Adams. 1991. Using Powdered Activated Carbon: A Critical Review. Journal of American Water Works Association. 83(l):65-76. Reasoner, Donald J. 1988. Drinking Water Microbiology Research in the United States: An Overview of the Past decade. Water Science Technology. 20(11/12): 101-107. Schock, MichaeL 1989. Understanding Corrosion Control Strategies for Lead. Journal of American Water Works Association. 81(7):88- 100. Sorg, Thomas J. 1978. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Inorganics, Part I: Nitrite and Fluoride. Journal of American Water Works Association. 70(2):105-112. Sorg, Thomas J. and G. Logsdon. July 1978. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Inorganics, Part Dt Arsenic and Selenium. Journal of American Waterworks Association. 70(7):379-393. Sorg, Thomas J., M. Csanady, and G. Logsdon. December 1978. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Inorganics, Part HI: Cadmium, Lead, and Silver. Journal of American Water Works Association. 70(12):680-691. Sorg, Thomas J. August 1979. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Inorganics, Part IV: Chromium and Mercury. Journal of American Water Works Association. 71(8):454-466. Sorg, Thomas J. and G. Logsdon. July 1980. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Inorganics, Part V: Barium and Radionuclides. Journal of American Water Works Association. 72(7):411-422. ------- Treatment (cont.) Sorg, Thomas J., R. Forbes, and D. Chambers. April 1980. Removal of Radium-226 from Sarasota County, Florida's Drinking Water by Reverse Osmosis. Journal of American Water Works Association. 72(4):230-237. ****»******** Drinking Water Expertise List Project Area Contact FAX Drinking Water Treatment Inorganics Control Technology Thomas Sorg . 513-569-7609 Corrosion MikeSchock 513-569-7609 Microbiology Treatment Donald Reasoner 513-569-7609 Organics Control Technology Ron Dressman 513-569-7609 Gran. Act Carbon Adsorption Richard Miltner 513-569-7609 Ground Water Contaminant Transport CarfEnfield 405-332-2256 Hydrogeology Joseph D*Lugosz 702-798-2692 Monitoring Richard Scalf 405-332-2256 Health & Environmental Effects Cynthia Sonich-Mullin 513-569-7475 Sampling and Analysis Bacteriology Robert Bordner 513-569-7276 Inorganic Chemistry Larry Lobring 513-569-7276 Organic Chemistry James Eichelberger 513-569-7276 Parasitology and Immunology Walter Jakubowski 513-569-7276 Radiochemistry - Terence Grady 702-798-2233 Virology Robert S. Safferman 513-569-7276 Waterborne Outbreaks Gumher Craun 513-569-7609 Note: Telex number to contact most of the above scientists and engineers is 989-2%-(DS EPA UD). ------- Additional Opportunities for Obtaining Technical Information EPA WORKSHOP: Emerging Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities A presentation of technical information on proven technolo- gies to encourage their use in either planning process modification or new construction. Removal processes for lead, radon, volatile organ- ics, synthetic organics and disinfection by-products are discussed along with filtration, disinfection and corrosion control technologies. Sessions are primarily intended for drinking water regulatory personnel who approve plans for upgrading existing drinking water facilities or the construction of new ones. Consultants and drinking water treatment equipment manufacturers will also find these work- shops helpful. For EPA workshop information, contact: J. E. Smith, USEPA, CERI, G-75, Cincinnati, OH 45268. FAX: 513-569-7566. EPA WORKSHOP: Risk Assessment, Management and Communication of Drinking Water Contamination Workshop designed to provide uniform and consistent ap- proaches and processes nationwide for those officials involved in investigating, communicating about, and managing drinking water contamination incidents. Lecture topics include corrosion control, information on health effects of contaminants, an approach to risk assessment, risk communication, and abatement of lead, biological contaminations, particulates, organics, and radon. Current regulatory initiatives and an update of the Office of Water's Health Advisory Program are discussed. Each workshop attendee participates in a hands-on case study designed to illustrate the elements of risk assess- ment, communication and management Participants who can benefit from attending this program include drinking water regulatory personnel working in the health and technology areas related to the development of new or upgraded drinking water treatment facilities as well as those who must respond to contamination incidents. The program should also be of interest to consultants and drinking water utility staff actively engaged in the design, operation and/or upgrading of their treatment systems. ORD TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER NEWSLETTER An ORD newsletter thatprovidesacurrentlisting of scheduled workshops, conferences, and seminars. It also announces the avail- ability of new publications, reports, databases, and expert systems. A publication order sheet is included. To be added to the Technology Transfer Newsletter mailing list, write to: CERI, Technology Trans- fer, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, P.O. Box 19963, Cincin- nati, OH 45219-0963. DATABASES ATTIC - The Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center database is an information retrieval network that provides up- to-date technical information on innovative treatment methods for hazardous wastes. It facilitates access to innovative technology dem- onstration studies, remediation ideas and experiences, vendor identi- fication, and expert assistance. This on-line system contains literature search databases, treatability databases, a message center, a calendar of events, and apublication listing. Call 301-816-9153 for information or assistance. ------- Additional Opportunities for Obtaining Technical Information ORD-BBS - The ORD Electronic Bulletin Board System, in conferences, and on-line databases for identifying ORD publications. addition to fostering communication among officials, researchers and For additional information and assistance in using the BBS, call 513- the private sector, facilitates the exchange of technical information and 569-7272 or write to: CER1, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ORD products in the form of electronic messages, brief bulletins about ORD-BBS, G-76, Cincinnati, OH 45268. ORD products and activities, files for downloading, participation in I* Ordering Technical Documents The EPA documents mentioned in the Technical Information Package brochures can be ordered at no charge (while supplies are available) from the Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI). Once the CERI inventory is exhausted, clients will be directed to the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) where documents may be purchased. Orders can be placed by mail, phone, or FAX. To order documents, have the document number or the EXACT tide ready. The journal articles listed in the Additional References section may be ordered from the U.S. National Focal Point of INFOTERRA. CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INFORMATION (CERI) NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS) U.S. EPA, P. O. BOX 19963 5285 PORT ROYAL ROAD CINCINNATI, OH, 45219-0963 SPRINGFIELD, VA, 22161 513-569-7562 PHONE 989-296-(US EPA UD) TELEX 703-487-4650 PHONE 513-569-7566 FAX 703-321-8547 FAX NEEDED TO ORDER: EPA document number or the EXACT title. NEEDED TO ORDER: EPA document number, NTIS number, or EXACT title. INFOTERRA U.S. NATIONAL FOCAL POINT U.S. EPA 401MST..S.W., PM211A WASHINGTON, D.C., 20460 202-260-5917 PHONE (23) 4979995 TELEX 202-260-3923 FAX NEEDED TO ORDER: Name of journal, volume number, and page numbers. ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- EPA TIPs Technical Information Packages ------- |