&EPA
United States       Office of Research and  Office of International   Office of Water     EPA/60Q/M-91/012
Environmental Protection  Development      Activities        Washington, DC 20460  August 1991
Agency         Washington, DC 20460  Washington, DC 20460	
Ensuring Safe  Drinking
Water

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                                 EPA Technical Information Packages


      This brochure Is part of a series of information packages prepared by the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA). Aimed
at the international community, the packages focus on key environmental and public health issues being investigated by EPA. The products
highlighted within these packages provide a sound technical basis for decisions regarding the development of environmental policy, abatement
activities, and pollution prevention. By pooling expertise in the areas of environmental science and technology, significant progress can be
anticipated to ensure a habitable environment for all nations.

      "Ensuring Safe Drinking Water" describes drinking water contaminants, the steps taken to determine maximum allowable contaminant
levels, sampling and analysis methods, and current treatment technologies. Brochures and associated support material are available on the
following topics:

      • Ensuring Safe Drinking Water ....EPA/600/M-91/012          •  Water Quality	EPA/600/M-91/033
      • Mining Waste Management	EPA/600/M-91/027          •  Risk Assessment	EPA/600/M-91/034
      * Pesticide Waste Disposal	EPA/600/M-91/028          •  Pesticide Usage Guidelines	EPA/600/M-91/035
      • Air Quality Management	EPA/600/M-91/029  .        •  Pollution Prevention	EPA/600/M-91/036
      • Solid Waste Disposal	EPA/600/M-91/030          •  Environmental Impact
      • Hazardous Waste Management ..EPA/600/M-91/031               Assessments	EPA/600/M-91/037
      * Small Community Wastewater                             *  EPA Information Sources	EPA/600/M-91/038
          Systems	EPA/600/M-91/032          •  Environmental Management ...EPA/600/M-91/039


      Each complete Technical Information Package (TIP) consists of a cover brochure as well as all of the documents highlighted within
the body of the brochure. Generally, the cover brochures contain a section discussing the environmental issue, associated health and
environmental effects, guidelines, sampling and analytical methods, as well as treatment and disposal technologies. Following this section,
a bibliography is provided to identify other important sources and documents in the field. An attempt has been made to provide references that
are readily available in technical libraries. Finally, a number of Office of Research andDevelopment (ORD) technical experts followed by some
additional EPA resources are listed to facilitate consultation and technical assistance. Document ordering information is provided on page 9.
FRONT COVER: Photo by Jon Longtin

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Drinking Water
Contamination

    Surface and groundwater supplies often
require treatment to remove particles of solid
matter, reduce health risks, and improve aes-
thetic qualities such as appearance, odor, color
and taste. The introduction of the disinfection
and/or sand filtration processes into water
treatment at many utilities has dramatically
reduced the incidence of waterborae diseases
such as typhoid, cholera and hepatitis. How-
ever, more than 89,000 cases each year of
waterborae disease caused by microorgan-
isms still occur in the United States.
    Chemical contaminants, both natural and
synthetic, might also be present in water sup-
plies. Contamination problems in ground water
are frequently chemical in nature and can
include pesticides and nitrates from agricul-
tural lands, metals and organic chemicals from
leaking underground storage tanks and land-
fills, and microbial contaminants from septic
tanks.
    More recently,  concern has increased
about contaminants that are introduced by the
water treatment process and distribution sys-
tem,  such  as  lead, copper, coliforms from
biofilm growths on the inside of piping, and
disinfection by-products.
    The following is the product of a com-
pendium of scientists and engineers meeting
to discuss outbreaks of waterborne disease,
methods of public notification, and the inves-
tigation and resolution of the incidents:
      EPA 600/l-90/005a  "Methods for
the Investigation  and Prevention  of
Waterborne Disease Outbreaks" - The em-
phasis of this document is on the prevention
of infectious waterborne diseases and the im-
provement of surveillance,  reporting,
epidemiologic investigations, and laboratory
analyses. The need for multiple barriers to
infection is stressed. In addition to a high
quality supply, proper disinfection and per-
haps filtration, including any required pre-
treatment, may be required in all but excep-
tional situations to insure the removal and
inactivation of waterborne pathogens.
     Giardia lamblia trophozoite
What Level of
Contamination  is

Acceptable?

     The document, "Guidelines for Drinking
Water Quality," has been developed by the
WorldHealth Organization (WHO) foruse by
countries as a basis  for the development of
standards  to ensure the safety of drinking
water supplies. Recommended values are given
for the levels of fecal  coliforms and total
coliforms; 17 inorganic constituents of health
significance including cadmium, chromium,
cyanide and lead; 22 organic constituents of
health significance including trihalomethanes,
hexachlorobenzene.DDTandaldrin; and gross
alpha and beta activity. The USEPA was in-
strumental  in the  production of the WHO
guidelines and continues to develop and com-
pile health effects information for use in as-
sessing the risks from various contaminants in
drinking water. This information is then used
to provide advice on safe levels for the con-
taminants in drinking water (Health Adviso-
ries) and in the development, as needed, of
updated Federal and State drinking water
regulations. Several  compendmms exist of
current U.S. health assessments and standards.
The following documents address acceptable
levels of contaminants and some associated
health effects:
       EPA 625/4-89/024   "Risk Assess-
ment and Management  of Drinking Water
Contamination" - Principal topics include
                                                                                   Printed on Recycled Paper

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information on health effects of contaminants,
an approach to risk assessment, risk commu-
nication, corrosion control, and abatement of
lead, biological contaminants, particulates,or-
ganics, and radon. A case study is included to
illustrate the elements of risk assessment, com-
munication, and management

       "IRIS Database" -  Integrated Risk
Information System (IRIS) contains summa-
ries of health risk and regulatory information
and authoritative consensus opinions on a
range of chemicals and other agents. The
database is updated quarterly and is very use-
ful in deciding when water treatment is neces-
sary.  The IRIS software and introductory
material is included in the Technical Informa-
tion Package.
Sampling and Analysis

    Proper sampling and analysis of drink-
ing water supplies and treated waters are es-
sential to ensure that current standards and
guidelines are met Giving credibility  to a
contaminant concentration that was deter-
mined in a poor sampling and analysis pro-
gram could lead to serious health concerns for
the consumers.  Methods manuals are avail-
able that present approved sampling and analy-
sis methods, requirements for laboratory cer-
tification, and appropriate quality assurance
programs. For regulators and decision  mak-
ers, it must be recognized that the standard for
a specific contaminant must not be set below
the detection limit of the available analytical
techniques. The following documents deal
with sampling and analysis techniques:

      EPA 600/4-85/076 'Test Methods for
Escherichia coli andEnterococci in Water by
the Membrane Filter Procedure"  -  A report
on methods used to measure the bacteriologi-
cal quality of recreational, shellfish growing,
ambient, and potable waters.

      EPA 600/8-78AH7 "Microbiological
Methods for Monitoring the Environment:
Water and Wastes"  - A manual containing
methods selected by consensus of EPA senior
microbiologists  for important parameters.
National agencies, states, municipalities, uni-
versities, private laboratories, and industry
should find this manual of assistance in moni-
toring and controlling microbiological pollu-
tion in the environment.
       EPA 600/4-79/017    "Methods for
Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes"  -
The manual contains the chemical analytical
procedures used in USEPA laboratories for
the examination of ground and surface waters,
domestic and industrial waste effluents, and
treatment process samples. It provides test
procedures for the measurement of physical,
inorganic, and selected organic constituents
and parameters.

       EPA 600/4-88/039  "Methods for the
Determination of Organic Compounds  in
Drinking Water" - The manual provides thir-
teen analytical methods for the identification
and measurement of organic compounds in
drinking water. Six of the methods are for
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and cer-
tain disinfection by-products. The other seven

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methods are designed for the determination of
a variety of synthetic organic compounds and
pesticides.

       EPA600/4-84/013  "USEPAManual
of Methods for Virology" - The manual pre-
sents a standardized, step-by-step procedure
for recovering viruses from most environ-
mental samples other than air.
           Sources of Lead
           in Drinking Water
Water Treatment Processes

    Major water treatment processes include
filtration, disinfection, treatment of organic
and inorganic contaminants. Often ahead of
filtration are several processes to clean up the
water by removing solids and turbidity. These
may include chemical addition, rapid mixing,
coagulation and flocculation, and sedimenta-
tion. Filtration to remove the remaining solids
as well as microorganisms like Giardia and
Cryptosporidium can be accomplished by con-
ventional filtration systems (rapid sand, di-
rect, slow sand, diatomaceous earth, mem-
brane) or cartridge filtration systems.
    The three most commonly used disin-
fection technologies are chlorine, ozone, and
chlorarnines. When choosing the most appro-
priate disinfection technology for a given
water system, the  specific requirements for
residual disinfectant levels in the distribution
system must be considered along with the
health risks associated with the by-products
of the chosen disinfection technology.
    Treatment technologies for organics re-
moval include granular  activated carbon,
                                                Conventional Treatment
                                         Chemicals
            Floccu-
            lation
           Filtration
      Rapid
       Mix
Sedimentation
 packed column aeration, powdered activated
 carbon, diffused aeration, multiple tray aera-
 tion, oxidation, andmembrane filtration. Treat-
 ment technologies for inorganics removal in-
 clude corrosion control, reverse osmosis, ion
 exchange, and aeration.
     The following documents describe many
 of the concerns inherent to the treatment of
 drinking water:

       EPA 625/4-89/023   'Technologies
for Upgrading  Existing or Designing New
Drinking Water Treatment Facilities" - Top-
 ics covered in detail are filtration, disinfec-
 tion, organic contaminant removal and cur-
rent and emerging research. Case histories are
provided for improving existing systems  and
the use of emerging technologies.

       EPA 625/5-90/025   "Drinking Wa-
ter Treatment for Small Communities" - This
report provides information for small system
owners, operators, managers, and local deci-
sion makers regarding drinking water treat-
ment requirements and the treatment tech-
nologies suitable for small systems. Major
sections discuss in detail the topics of: selec-
tion of drinking water treatment technologies,
filtration, disinfection, organic and inorganic
contaminant removal, sources of assistance,
collection of bacteriologic samples, a check-
list on factors affecting water treatment sys-
tem  performance, selecting  a consultant,
chlorine residual monitoring, and contact time
values and their calculation.

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      EPA 600/2-81/156     "Treatment
Techniques for Controlling Trihalomethanes
in Drinking Water" - This report provides a
state-of-the-art review of treatment techniques
for trihalomethane control, of control mea-
sures on the bacteriologjc quality of the treated
water, and economic impact of their applica-
tion.
Basic Elements of a Slow
       Sand Filter
                                                                                                •••••••••••••*•
                                            Additional References
What Level of Contamination is Acceptable?
DeRosa, Christopher T. Project Summary: Health Effects Assessment Documents. ECAO/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA/540/S1-86/D59.
(1986).

Health and Environmental Effects Profiles: Fiscal Year 1984. ECAO/USEPA. EPA-600/S8-88/072.

Sampling and Analysis
Covert, Terry C., Lois C. Shadix, Eugene W. Rice, John R. Haines, and Ronald W. Freyberg. 1989. Evaluation of the Autoanalysis
Colilert Test for Detection and Enumeration of Total Coliforms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 55:2443-2447.

Ho, James Shou-Yien. 1989. A Sequential Analysis for Volatile Organics in Water by Purge-and-trap Capillary Column Gas Chromatog-
raphy with Photoionization and Electrolytic Conductivity Detectors in Series. Journal of Chromatographic Science. 27:91-98.

Hurst, C J., W. H. Benton and RE. Stetler. 1989. Isolation of Enterovirus and Reovirus from Sewage and Treated Effluents in Selected
Puerto Rican Communities. Journal of American Water Works Association. 81:71-80.

McDaniels, A.E., RJL Bordner, P.S. Gartside, J.R. Haines, K.P. Brenner and CC. Rankin. 1985. Holding Effects on Colifonn Enumera-
tion in Drinking Water Samples. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 50:755-762.
Sauch, Judith F. 1985. Use of Immunofluorescence and Phase-contrast Microscopy for Detection and Identification of Giardia Cysts in
Water Samples. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 50:1434-1438.

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Water Treatment Processes

Costs
Gumerman, Robert C, Russell L. Gulp, and Sigurd P. Hansen. 1979. Estimating Water Treatment Costs. Volume 1. Summary.
MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/2-79-162a.

Gumerman, Robert C, Russell L. Gulp, and Sigurd P. Hansen. 1979. Estimating Water Treatment Costs. Volume 2. Cost Curves Appli-
cable to 1 to 200 mgd Treatment Plants. MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/2-79-162b.

Gumerman, Robert C., Russell L. Gulp, and Sigurd P. Hansen. 1979. Estimating Water Treatment Costs. Volume 3. Cost Curves Appli-
cable to 2,500 gpd to 1 mgd Treatment Plants. MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/2-79-162c.

Gumerman, Robert C., Bruce E. Burris, and Sigurd P. Hansen. 1985. Estimation of Small System Water Treatment Costs. MERL/USEPA,
Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/S2-84-184. PB 85-161644.

Lettennan, Raymond D. and Thomas R. Cullen, Jr. 1985. Slow Sand Filter Maintenance: Costs and Effects on Water Quality.
WERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/S2-85/056. PB 85-199669/AS.

Lineck, Thomas S., Robert C. Gumerman, and Russell L. Gulp. 1979. Estimating Water Treatment Costs. Volume 4. Computer User's
Manual for Retrieving and Updating Costs Data. MERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-60Q/2-79- 162d.

Pyper, Gordon R.  1985. Slow Sand Filter and Package Treatment Plant Evaluation: Operating Costs and Removal of Bacteria, Giardia,
and Trihalomethanes. WERL/USEPA, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-600/S2-85/052. PB 85-197051/AS.


Treatment
Adams, Jeffrey Q., Robert M. dark, and Richard J. Miltner. 1989. Controlling Organics with GAC: A Cost and Performance Analysis.
Journal of American Water Works Association. 81 (4): 132-140.

Baier, Joseph H., Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr., Carol A. Fronk, and Steven J. Kramer. 1988. Using Reverse Osmosis to Remove Agricultural
Chemicals from Groundwater. Journal of American Water Works Association. 79(8):55-60.

Geldreich, Edwin E. 1989. Drinking Water Microbiology—New Directions Toward Water Quality Enhancement International Journal of
Food Microbiology. 9:295-312.

Geldreich, Edwin E., J.A. Goodrich, and R.M. Clark. 1990. Characterizing Surface Waters that May Not Require Filtration. Journal of
American Water Works Association. 82(12):40-50.

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Treatment (cont.)
Logsdon, Gary S., James M. Symons, Robert L. Loye, Jr., and Michael M. Arozarena. 1981. Alternative Filtration Methods for Removal
ofGiartUa Cysts and Cyst Models. Journal of American Water Works Association. 73(2):111-118.

Logsdon, Gary S., Thomas Sorg, and Robert M. Clark. 1990. Capability and Cost of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems. Journal
of American Waterworks Association. 82(6):60-66.

Love, O. Thomas, Jr. and Richard G. Eilers. 1982. Treatment of Drinking Water Containing Trichloroethylene and Related Industrial
Solvents. Journal of American Water Works Association. 74:413-425.

Miltner, Richard J., David B. Baker, Thomas F. Speth, and Carol A. Fronk. 1989. Treatment of Seasonal Pesticides in Surface Waters.
Journal of American Water Works Association. 81(l):43-52.

Najm, Issam N., Vernon L. Snoeyink, Benjamin W. Lykins, Jr., and Jeffrey Q. Adams. 1991. Using Powdered Activated Carbon: A
Critical Review. Journal of American Water Works Association. 83(l):65-76.

Reasoner, Donald J. 1988. Drinking Water Microbiology Research in the United States: An Overview of the Past decade. Water Science
Technology. 20(11/12): 101-107.

Schock, MichaeL 1989. Understanding Corrosion Control Strategies for Lead. Journal of American Water Works Association. 81(7):88-
100.

Sorg, Thomas J. 1978. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Inorganics, Part I: Nitrite and
Fluoride. Journal of American Water Works Association. 70(2):105-112.

Sorg, Thomas J. and G. Logsdon. July 1978. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for
Inorganics, Part Dt Arsenic and Selenium. Journal of American Waterworks Association. 70(7):379-393.

Sorg, Thomas J., M. Csanady, and G. Logsdon. December 1978. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water
Regulations for Inorganics, Part HI: Cadmium, Lead, and Silver. Journal of American Water Works Association. 70(12):680-691.

Sorg, Thomas J. August 1979. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Inorganics, Part IV:
Chromium and Mercury. Journal of American Water Works Association. 71(8):454-466.

Sorg, Thomas J. and G. Logsdon. July 1980. Treatment Technology to Meet the Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations for
Inorganics, Part V: Barium and Radionuclides. Journal of American Water Works Association. 72(7):411-422.

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Treatment (cont.)

Sorg, Thomas J., R. Forbes, and D. Chambers. April 1980. Removal of Radium-226 from Sarasota County, Florida's Drinking Water by
Reverse Osmosis. Journal of American Water Works Association. 72(4):230-237.
••*••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••*•*•*»*•••*•••••••*•••••••••***•••••••••*•*•••


                                    Drinking Water Expertise List

              Project Area                            Contact                              FAX


              Drinking Water Treatment
                Inorganics Control Technology         Thomas Sorg  .                      513-569-7609
                Corrosion                          MikeSchock                        513-569-7609
                Microbiology Treatment              Donald Reasoner                     513-569-7609
                Organics Control Technology          Ron Dressman                       513-569-7609
                Gran. Act Carbon Adsorption          Richard Miltner                      513-569-7609

              Ground Water
                Contaminant Transport               CarfEnfield                         405-332-2256
                Hydrogeology                      Joseph D*Lugosz                     702-798-2692
                Monitoring                         Richard Scalf                        405-332-2256

              Health & Environmental Effects          Cynthia Sonich-Mullin                 513-569-7475

              Sampling and Analysis
                Bacteriology                       Robert Bordner                      513-569-7276
                Inorganic Chemistry                 Larry Lobring                        513-569-7276
                Organic Chemistry                   James Eichelberger                    513-569-7276
                Parasitology and Immunology          Walter Jakubowski                    513-569-7276
                Radiochemistry        -             Terence Grady                       702-798-2233
                Virology                           Robert S. Safferman                   513-569-7276

              Waterborne Outbreaks                 Gumher Craun                       513-569-7609
              Note: Telex number to contact most of the above scientists and engineers is 989-2%-(DS EPA UD).

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                                        Additional Opportunities for
                                     Obtaining Technical Information
EPA WORKSHOP:  Emerging Technologies for Upgrading
Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities

      A presentation of technical information on proven technolo-
gies to encourage their use in either planning process modification or
new construction. Removal processes for lead, radon, volatile organ-
ics, synthetic organics and disinfection by-products are discussed
along with filtration, disinfection and corrosion control technologies.
      Sessions are primarily intended for drinking water regulatory
personnel who approve plans for upgrading existing drinking water
facilities or the construction of new ones. Consultants and drinking
water treatment equipment manufacturers will also find these work-
shops helpful. For EPA workshop information, contact: J. E. Smith,
USEPA, CERI, G-75, Cincinnati, OH 45268. FAX: 513-569-7566.


EPA WORKSHOP:   Risk Assessment, Management and
Communication of Drinking Water Contamination

      Workshop designed to provide uniform and consistent ap-
proaches and processes nationwide for those officials involved in
investigating, communicating about, and managing drinking water
contamination incidents. Lecture topics include corrosion  control,
information on health effects of contaminants, an approach to risk
assessment, risk communication, and abatement of lead, biological
contaminations, particulates, organics, and radon. Current regulatory
initiatives and an update of the Office of Water's Health Advisory
Program are discussed. Each workshop  attendee participates in a
hands-on case study designed to illustrate the elements of risk assess-
ment, communication and management
       Participants who can benefit from attending this program
include drinking water regulatory personnel working in the health and
technology areas related to the development of new or upgraded
drinking water treatment facilities as well as those who must respond
to contamination incidents. The program should also be of interest to
consultants and drinking water utility staff actively engaged in the
design, operation and/or upgrading of their treatment systems.

ORD TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER NEWSLETTER

       An ORD newsletter thatprovidesacurrentlisting of scheduled
workshops, conferences, and seminars. It also announces the avail-
ability of new publications, reports, databases, and expert systems. A
publication order sheet is included. To be added to the Technology
Transfer Newsletter mailing list, write to: CERI, Technology Trans-
fer, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, P.O. Box 19963, Cincin-
nati, OH 45219-0963.

DATABASES

       ATTIC - The Alternative Treatment Technology Information
Center database is an information retrieval network that provides up-
to-date technical information on innovative treatment methods for
hazardous wastes. It facilitates access to innovative technology dem-
onstration studies, remediation ideas and experiences, vendor identi-
fication, and expert assistance. This on-line system contains literature
search databases, treatability databases, a message center, a calendar
of events, and apublication listing. Call 301-816-9153 for information
or assistance.

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                                    Additional Opportunities for

                                  Obtaining Technical Information


      ORD-BBS - The ORD Electronic Bulletin Board System, in  conferences, and on-line databases for identifying ORD publications.
addition to fostering communication among officials, researchers and  For additional information and assistance in using the BBS, call 513-
the private sector, facilitates the exchange of technical information and  569-7272 or write to: CER1, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
ORD products in the form of electronic messages, brief bulletins about  ORD-BBS, G-76, Cincinnati, OH 45268.
ORD products and activities, files for downloading, participation in
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••I*

                                   Ordering Technical Documents

      The EPA documents mentioned in the Technical Information Package brochures can be ordered at no charge (while supplies are
available) from the Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI). Once the CERI inventory is exhausted, clients will be directed
to the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) where documents may be purchased. Orders can be placed by mail, phone, or FAX. To
order documents, have the document number or the EXACT tide ready. The journal articles listed in the Additional References section may
be ordered from the U.S. National Focal Point of INFOTERRA.

CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INFORMATION (CERI)      NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS)
U.S. EPA, P. O. BOX 19963                                        5285 PORT ROYAL ROAD
CINCINNATI, OH,  45219-0963                                    SPRINGFIELD, VA, 22161
513-569-7562 PHONE     989-296-(US EPA UD) TELEX                703-487-4650 PHONE
513-569-7566 FAX                                              703-321-8547 FAX
NEEDED TO ORDER: EPA document number or the EXACT title.            NEEDED TO ORDER: EPA document number, NTIS number,
                                                               or EXACT title.

INFOTERRA U.S. NATIONAL FOCAL POINT
U.S. EPA
401MST..S.W.,  PM211A
WASHINGTON, D.C.,  20460
202-260-5917 PHONE (23) 4979995 TELEX
202-260-3923 FAX
NEEDED TO ORDER: Name of journal, volume number, and page numbers.

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EPA TIPs
Technical Information Packages

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