&EPA
            United States      Office of Research and  Office of International   Off ice of Water    EPA/600/M-91/032
            Environmental Protection  Development     Activities       Washington, DC 20460 October 1991
            Agency        Washington, DC 20460  Washington, DC 20460
Small Community
Wastewater Systems

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                                   EPA Technical Information Packages


      This brochure is part of a series of information packages prepared by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Aimed
at the international community, the packages focus on key environmental and public health issues being investigated by EPA. The products
highlighted within these packages provide a sound technical basis for decisions regarding the development of environmental policy, abatement
activities, and pollution prevention. By pooling expertise in the areas of environmental science and technology, significant progress can be
anticipated to ensure a habitable environment for all nations.

      Small Community Wastewater Systems discusses the scope of the wastewater problem in small communities, wastewater collection and
treatment systems, as well as sludge management Brochures and associated support material are available on the following topics:

      • Ensuring Safe Drinking Water ....EPA/600/M-91/012          . Water Quality	EPA/600/M-91/033
      • Mining Waste Management	EPA/600/M-91/027          • Risk Assessment	EPA/600/M-91/034
      • Pesticide Waste Disposal	EPA/600/M-91/028          • Pesticide Usage Guidelines	EPA/600/M-91/035
      • Air Quality Management	EPA/600/M-91/029          • Pollution Prevention	EPA/600/M-91/036
      • Solid Waste Disposal	EPA/600/M-91/030          * Environmental Impact
      • Hazardous Waste Management ..EPA/600/M-91/031                Assessments	EPA/600/M-91/037
      * Small Community Wastewater                              • EPA Information Sources	EPA/600/M-91/038
           Systems	EPA/600/M-91/032          • Environmental Management ...EPA/600/M-91/039


      Each complete Technical Information Package (TIP) consists of a cover brochure as well as all of the documents highlighted within the
body of the brochure. Generally, the cover brochures contain a section discussing the environmental issue, associated health and environmental
effects, guidelines, sampling and analytical methods, as well as treatment and disposal technologies. Following this section, a bibliography is
provided to identify other important sources and documents in the field. An attempt has been made to provide references that are readily available
in technical libraries. Finally, a number of Office of Research and Development (ORD) technical experts followed by some additional EPA
resources are listed to facilitate consultation and technical assistance. Document ordering information is provided on the back inside cover.

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Scope of the Wastewater
Problem in Small
Communities
Fully 25 percent of the homes in the United
States (U.S.) are not served by centralized col-
lection and treatment of domestic wastewater.
This percentage is relatively stable, and is un-
likely to drop below 20 percent since large
numbers of unsewered homes
constructed each year. A 1975
still are being
World Health
Organization (WHO) study of developingcoun-
tries showed, hi contrast, that 75 percent of
urban dwellers were not served by sewers, and
25 percent had no disposal system of any kind.
Only 1 5 percent of rural dwellers had adequate
excreta disposal methods. In the U.S., small
communities that are serviced by centralized
collection and treatment (of < 1 mgd) constitute
more than 80 percent of all wastewater facili-
ties. Sixty-four percent of all treatment facili-
ties serve fewer than 3,500 people. A complete
breakdown is given in Table 1.

In terms of environmental impact, 90 per-
cent of the rural communities of the U.S. obtain
Table 1. U.S. WASTEWATER SYSTEMS BY SIZE DISTRIBUTION
SIZE NO.
(POPULATION
SERVED)
UNSEWERED *
<1,000 5,983
1,000-3,500 3,920
3,500-10,000 2,670
10,000-100,000 2,427
>100,000- 446
NATIONAL 15,591
TOTAL
% OF POPULATION
%
TOTAL SERVED POPULATION
POTW (MILLION)
0 69
38 2
26 9
17 18
16 72
3 80
100 . 250


25
1
4
7
29
34
100

*23 x 106 Septic tank/soil absorption systems
their drinking water from ground water sources,
and a high percentage of these are served by
septic tank-soil absorption systems (ST-SAS),
which represent a health risk to the quality of
that ground water.
    The sewered small communities represent
the dominant number (estimated well in excess
of 90 percent) of non-compliance violations of
the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permits. Since the majority
of these systems discharge to higher quality,
lower flow streams, the local impacts of these
violations are often disproportionately higher
than would be the case if only the population
were considered  on  a comparative national
basis.
    Despite the intensive wastewater facility
public works programs of the last two decades,
the number of dwellings served by individual
or non-sewered systems has risen steadily, e.g.,
from 20.2 million in 1970 to 22.6 million in
1980. With the end of the federal construction
grants program, the total number of unsewered
facilities is likely to increase at a rate greater
than the 320,000-per-year rate of the 1970s.
    The following products have been devel-
oped to maximize the efficiency of these onsite
systems and to provide a basis for the optimal
use/disposal of resulting residual solids from
these onsite treatment devices:

       EPA 625/1-80/012 "Design Manual:
Onsite Wastewater Treatment and Disposal
Systems" ~ The document deals with a variety
of alternative system designs to overcome site
     Printed on Recycled Paper

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                                  Roof Terminal
                                       Plumbing Rxtures to be
                                       Property Trapped and
                                       Vented
             House
             Sewers to be
             Laid on WeN
             Compacted
             Earth
Absorption
field
                 Non Perforated
                     Tite
Figure 1. Typical Onsite System

2
limitations which preclude conventional onsite
systems. It describes how to evaluate the site to
choose the optimal design and management.
The document also presents design and opera-
tion requirements, as well as performance and
applicability criteria for dozens of alternative
subsurface soil disposal and surface disposal
alternatives. Detailed wastewatercharacteriza-
tion and pollution prevention/recycle concepts
are provided to facilitate optimum solutions to
onsite disposal problems.

      EPA/625/6-84/009   "Handbook:
SeptageTreatmentandDisposal" -Thisdocu-
ment was prepared by an international team of
experts to maximize the technical information
provided on  each of the alternative means of
treatment and disposal. A strategy of septage
management options also is provided to assist
localities and their engineers in choosing the
most advantageous approach for each set of
circumstances.

    Both of these documents are being up-
dated at this time, but both remain germane to
present-day needs for assistance until the new
documents are completed.

Appropriate Wastewater

Collection Systems
    In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a  gen-
eral awakening to the dilemma of wastewater
facilities for small communities revealed that
conventional gravity sewers constituted the

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great majority of the total cost This spurred
interest in alternative collection systems that
employ  small-diameter, light-weight piping
buried at shallow depths to serve economically
the rural areas with low population densities.
These alternative collection systems are classi-
fied as three types in accordance with their
predominant motive force: pressure, vacuum
and gravity.
    Pressure sewers  are subdivided  into
grinder-pump (GP) systems, which macerate
sewage solids before pumping, and septic tank
effluent pumping (STEP) systems, which use
septic (interceptor) tanks to remove grit, grease
and settleable solids prior to pumping. Both
systems have been widely applied in North
America and in several European and Asian
countries. Pressure sewers have been the most
popular alternative collection systems in the
U.S.,  with more than 200 systems installed
through the federal grants programin the 1980s.
    Small-diameter gravity (SDG) sewers are
nearly as popular as pressure sewers in the U.S.,
owing to their innate simplicity. These sewers
use septic (interceptor) tanks to  remove the
problem-causing settleable and floatable mate-
rials prior to entry into the sewer.  This system
minimizes concerns of sewer clogging and re-
quired self-cleaning velocities, which cause
costs of conventional sewers to escalate due to
the deep burial and lift stations needed to satisfy
these  codified requirements.  Small-diameter
gravity sewers and similar, simplified gravity
collection systems also are becoming popular
in North and South America, Australia  and
Asia because of their reduced capital costs and
operating requirements when compared with
conventional sewers.
    Vacuum sewers (VS)date back to the 19th
century and utilize a central vacuum source that
draws wastewater  and air through collection
pipes  to the central collection point. These
systems have been the least popular of the three
alternatives, with fewer than 50 installations in
the U.S. However, their popularity has been
growing in the past few years since they can
serve denser developments in rural areas and
provide wastewater in a fresher condition.
    The following design manual represents
the culmination of more than twenty years of
experience with alternative collection systems:

       EPA/625/1-91/024 "Manual: Alterna-
tive Wastewater Collection Systems" - This
document outlines the history of non-conven-
tional sewer systems, why and where they may
be advantageous as alternatives, their design
and performance histories, their operation and
maintenance requirements and cost examples.
The text carefully documents component fea-
tures and their impact on performance, pro-
vides examples of site conditions that have
been serviced effectively by these systems and
deals  with the myths that are commonly en-
countered when these systems are proposed as
solutions to local problems. The manual pre-
sents in detail the materials of construction,
sizing and key features of each component part
of the various alternative sewer systems. The
material provided illustrates the variability of
operation and maintenance requirements, as
well as system performance due to different
design approaches, materials of construction
and construction/procurement procedures.

Appropriate Small
Community Wastewater
Treatment Systems
     Recent information from EPA's Office of
Water "Needs Survey" indicates that more than
10,000 small communities are in need of some
form of wastewater management assistance.
The 1988 Survey indicates thatmore than 10,000
faculties have documented  water quality or
public health problems. The efforts initiated in
the 1970s determined that urban technologies
cannot be downsized and successfully used in
small communities for  a variety of reasons.
Conventional gravity sewers become prohibi-
tively expensive in rural areas, where median
incomes are significantly lower than in urban/
suburban areas. Operation and maintenance
(O&M)-intensive treatment systems, commonly
employed in urban areas, e.g., conventional
activated sludge, have failed to function prop-
erly in rural areas. In fact, even the simplified
activated sludge concepts, such as oxidation
ditches, extended aeration, etc., have exhibited
poor performance in plants processing less than
50,000 to 100,000 gallons per day (gpd). Most
of these processes require a level of  process
expertise rarely found in available operating
personnel in rural locations, and when it is
attained through training and experience, it is
                                      3

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lost to largo1 cities due to concomitantly in-
creased salaries. Therefore, the high rate of
non-compliance in small community activated
sludge systems is completely rational.
     One advantage of small communities over
urban areas is the general availability of land.
Wastewater stabilization ponds are the most
frequently employed (>7,000) treatment sys-
tem in the U.S., which trades off simplicity of
operation for land. To a lesser degree the trick-
ling  filter operation  also is a larger  space-
intensive system, which is far easier to operate
than an activated sludge system. The more than
2,000 of these processes that are in operation
also verify their applicability in small- to me-
dium-size communities.
     Unfortunately, small community systems
often are located on high quality streams with
low flows. Therefore, many of the ponds and
Miters in use require upgrading to meet more
stringent water quality standards. This goal
should be accomplished in a manner which is
low in capital cost with minimal O&M  de-
mands of the staff. Probably the most popular
approach has been use of various forms of land
treatment that require large land areas,  but
minimal operation and maintenance.
     Constructed wetlands have recently come
to the forefront as a treatment approach that fits
a small community's needs, i.e., land intensive
and operationally simple. Because of the lack
of verified design criteria, these systems are not
yet being constructed in  an optimal fashion.
The number of such systems has already reached
150,  and they are being widely touted in the
popular press as a panacea to small community
treatment problems. These systems potentially
may be ideal for small communities in cases
whereonly conventional poUutantremoval (sec-
ondary treatment) is required or in combination
with other simple approaches or even other
types of constructed wetlands.
     Other natural or simple (less mechanical)
systems that show great promise for  use in
small communities are several forms of inter-
mittent sand filters and recirculating  filters.
These systems take advantage of additional
available land and limited O&M to treat waste-
waters from small communities to a more con-
sistently high  level than presently employed
activated sludge systems. Also promising are
some newer, highly automated treatment sys-
tems that utilize sequencing or periodic ap-
proaches to activated sludge treatment This
approach, which minimizes the need for pro-
cess (mechanistic, kinetic, etc.) understanding
but relies on mechanical aptitude of the O&M
staff (easily found in rural settings), has been
successfully employed in small European fa-
cilities.
    The following documents provide detailed
information on the above treatment problem
assessment, upgrading concepts, and appropri-
ate treatment alternatives:

       EPA 625/6-89/020 "Handbook: Retro-
fitting POTWs" - This document provides the
engineering community with  two important
sets of information.  The first is descriptive
information on a variety of techniques for ret-
rofitting existing treatment facilities to upgrade
theirperfonnance withoutmajor capital expen-
ditures. The second is the comprehensive per-
formance evaluation/composite correction pro-
gram technique of assessing existing facilities
to determine the critical problems that prevent
better performance. The handbook provides
experience data and costs on low-capital-inten-
sive treatment plant upgrading/retrofitting. It
focuses on the small- to medium-sized facili-
ties and attempts to provide maximization of
existing structures through basic improvement

       EPA 625/1-83/015 "Design Manual:
Municipal Wastewater Stabilization Ponds" -
This document is a comprehensive assessment
of stabilization pond technology for small com-
munity wastewater treatment It provides dis-
cussion of theory, design, performance, con-
struction, upgrading alternatives, energy re-
quirements, and capital, operation and mainte-
nance costs to ensure that this technology is
utilized in the most appropriate manner. The
information has applicability for both new and
existing stabilization ponds and presents cold
and warm climate  information, as well as a
comprehensive comparison of alternative de-
sign methods. It also provides suggestions for
maximizingpond performance, based on expe-
rience on numerous issues other that normal
sizing criteria.
       EPA 625/1-81/013 "Process Design
Manual: Land Treatment of Municipal Waste-
water" -Thisdocumentprovidesacomprehen-
sive description of land treatment methods (in-

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eluding rapid infiltration, overland flow and
slow-rate infiltration). Energy, health and de-
sign issues are presented, along with perfor-
mance and operational data. A supplement (EPA
625/l-81/013a "Process  Design Manual:
Supplement for Land Treatment of Municipal
Wastewater") provides additional data on rapid
infiltration and overland flow to improve the
sections in the original design manual. The
wealth of dataprovided on climate, soil infiltra-
tion rates and various plant uptake rates can
guide the engineer through the process of de-
sign. These  systems require a more skillful
design capability. These documents are com-
prehensive in nature to address the numerous
features required for adequate design.

      EPA  625/1-88/022  "Design Manual:
Constructed Wetlands and Aquatic Plant Sys-
tems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment" -
This document was developed in 1988 to as-
semble the state-of-the-art design information
on natural wastewater treatment systems. Both
free-water-surface and subsurface constructed
wetlands are described and assessed, since both
have been usedin the U.S. for small community
wastewater treatment. In the aquaculture sec-
tion, data on both water hyacinth and duckweed
systems are  provided. The information pre-
sented consolidates early worldwide experi-
ence.
Sludge Management in
Small Communities
    Traditionally, the sludges generated by
smaller  wastewater treatment facilities and
onsite systems have presented difficult prob-
lems for small communities, even though the
general availability of land should make these
simpler to solve than sludge problems in urban
areas. The mostcommon scenariofor wastewa-
ter treatment plant sludge handling is digestion
by aerobic or anaerobic means, air drying on
sand beds and dried solids burial in landfills or
trenches. Aerobic digesters have been shown
generally to be unable to meet EPA's proposed
sludge regulations regarding pathogen reduc-
tion, while anaerobic digesters are costly to
build and demand higher employee skill levels
to operate. Operator-friendly concepts such as
autothermal  thermophilic aerobic digestion
(ATAD) need to be implemented in  the U.S.
The process of sand bed drying of sludges has
been seriously questioned by several states and
foreign countries in recent years, and  low-cost
                 Heat Loss to
                 Surroundings
                                Mixing
                                Heat Input
     Feed Sludge
                              Biological Heat
                              Production
                                                             Influent Gas
                                                             (Air)    	
                                                               Sensible and Latent
                                                               Water Vapor Heat
                                                               Loss in Gas Effluent
                                                               Heat Loss in
                                                               Sludge Effluent
                                          Figure 2. Heat Balance Schematic of a Thermophilic Aerobic Digester

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retrofitting concepts, based on comprehensive
studies of these systems, and compatible alter-
native technologies are needed. Landfilling of
small community sludges becomes increas-
ingly less acceptable each day. Although land
spreading is now widely practiced, only 2 8 % of
the small community treatment plant sludges
arc presently being utilized for this form of
beneficial reuse, despite the local availability
of land.
     The following documents provide engi-
neering design, performance and operating and
maintenance information on sludge manage-
ment systems for small communities:

       EPA  625/10-89/006 "Environmental
Regulations andTechnology- ControlofPatho-
gens in Municipal Wastewater Sludge"  - This
document describes the need for concern and
the U.S. regulations on pathogens in sludge. It
also describes the pathogen-removal capability
of a variety of sludge processing steps includ-
ing those incorporated in "processes to signifi-
cantly reduce pathogens" and "processes to
further reduce pathogens" definitions. Finally,
it discusses proposed regulatory changes and
provides listings of federal and state personnel
who can provide assistance.

      EPA  625/10-90/007  "Environmental
Regulations  and Technology - Autothermal
Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion of Municipal
Wastewater Sludge" - The report summarizes
the data from Europe on the Autothermal Ther-
mophilic Aerobic Digestion (ATAD) technol-
ogy. The principles, design, performance and
costs of the ATAD systems are included. The
variations in ATAD system design are clearly
described and their relative merits are high-
lighted. A design example is provided, as is a
comparison of ATAD system performance ver-
sus U.S. regulatory requirements for pathogen
reduction and vector attraction. German crite-
ria for agricultural use of sludge are also pro-
vided.

       EPA 625/1-87/014 "Design Manual:
Dewatering Municipal Wastewater Sludges" -
This document provides the necessary engi-
neering data for selection of the optimum de-
watering  system for new installations and for
upgrading existing sludge handling schemes. It
emphasizes the need for proper conditioning
prior to dewatering, and it provides accurate
estimates of product quality and its  impact on
disposal schemes. Many case studies are pro-
vided for all types of dewatering  discussed
under the categorical designations of air dry-
ing, belt presses, centrifugation, vacuum filtra-
tion  and  pressure filtration. However, only a
few  of these are potentially viable for small
communities.
       EPA 625/10-84/003  "Environmental
Regulations andTechnology - UseandDisposal
of Municipal Wastewater Sludge" -This docu-
ment provides a review of the various alterna-
tive methods of sludge disposal and reuse. Key
information is provided to assist municipalities
in choosing the optimum method of reuse/
disposal.  The report features flow diagrams to
lead die reader through the required sludge
processing steps; additionally, typical chemi-
cal and biological constituent information is
presented for the various stages of sludge pro-
cessing. Evaluations and case studies are pro-
vided for  the following major options: land
application, composting/marketing, landfilling,
and incineration.

       EPA 625/1-83/016 "Process Design
Manual:  Land Application  of Municipal
Sludge" -  This manual provides the detailed
engineering  data for the land application of
municipal  sludges. Extensive  information is
provided on site evaluation and planning, as
well as the key information on design, monitor-
ing and operational requirements for agricul-
tural, forest land, and disturbed land disposal of
sludges. It includes  cost information, public
participation concepts  and other concerns of
the engineer in considering this most widely
applied beneficial reuse of sludge.

       EPA 600/6-90/002a "Pathogen Risk
Assessment for Land Application of Municipal
Sludge:Volume I-Methodology andComputer
Model and Volume  II - User's Manual" —
These document describe a methodology and
associated computer model for assessing the
risk to humans of pathogens in treated munici-
pal sewage sludge applied to land. Land appli-
cation of sludge in this methodology refers to
the distribution of sludge on or just below the

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soil surface where it is employed as a fertilizer
or soil conditioner  for growing human food-
chain and non-food-chain crops. The two cat-
egories of land application addressed in this
model  are (1) agricultural utilization and (2)
distribution and marketing (D&M),  and  the
source of microbial pathogens is (1) liquid or
(2) dried  or composted municipal  sewage
sludge. Volume  I  describes the  conceptual
framework of the risk assessment methodology
and the structural organization, including as-
sumptions and components, of the computer
model. Volume H contains background infor-
mation to provide the user with an understand-
ing of the actual functioning of the model. This
information includes descriptions of operating
variables and their default values, explanations
of the various subroutines, and the mathemati-
cal basis for process and transfer functions.

       EPA/600/6-88/003   "Pathogen Risk
Assessment Feasibility Study" — This report
evaluates the practicality of formulating guide-
lines to assess the risk associated with exposure
topathogensin sludge. Risk assessment may be
used to determine the likelihood that an envi-
ronmental agent may cause human disease (that
is, potential to cause human cancer or toxicity).
On the assumption that the agent causes  a
particular disease, given current and projected
exposure levels, a quantitative evaluation can
be made on the magnitude of the likely impact
of the agent on public health. The feasibility of
performing a microbiological risk assessment
for pathogens in municipal wastewater sludge
by various disposal options was also evaluated.
                    Active sewage treatment lagoon.

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                                            Additional References

Scope of Problem in Small Communities
Deese PI and JJ1. Hudson. 1980. Planning Waste water Management Facilities for SmaUOfflQmunities.USEPA Publication No. 60Q/8-80/030,
NTISNo.PB81-111064.
DeWalle, F.B., et aL 1985. Determination of Toxic Chemicals in Effluent from Household Septic Tanks. USEPA Publication No. 600/2-85A>50,
NTIS NO.PB85-196798/WEP.
Feacnem, R.G, D.J. Bradley, H. Garelick, and DD. Mara. 1980. Sanitation and Disease - Health Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management
World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation No. 3, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
Kalbermatten JM SJ.DeAnne,CG.Gunnerson, and D.D. Mara. 1982. AppmiwiateSaiutation Alternatives-A Plaiining and Design Manual.
World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation No. 2., Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

Kreissl, JJ7.1985. North American and European Experience with Biological Toilets. Proceedings of JAWPRC Conference on Treatment and
Disposal of Human Wastes, Tokyo, Japan.
Tomson, M., et al. 1984. Characterization of Soil Disposal System Leaehates. USEPA Pub. No. 600/S2-84/101, NTIS No. PB84 196229.


Appropriate Wastewater Collection Systems

EPA. 1977. Alternatives for Small Wastewater Treatment Systems: Pressure Sewers/Vacuum Sewers. USEPA Publication No. 625/4-77/011,
NTIS No. PB299608 set
Huffsey, R.R. 1985. Proceedings - 1985 International Symposium on Urban Hydrology, Hydraulic Structures and Water Quality Control,
University of Kentucky Publication No. BU138, Lexington, KY.
Otis, RJ. 1986. Small-diameter Gravity Sewers - An Alternative for Unsewered Communities. EPA/600/S2-86V022,  NTIS No. PB86-167335/
AS.'
Rezek, J.W. and LA. Cooper. 1985. Investigations of Existing Pressure Sewer Systems. USEPA Publication No. 600/S2-85A>51. NTIS No. PB85-
197044/AS.
Water Pollution Control Federation. 1986. Alternative Sewer Systems. WPCF MOP No. FD-12.

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Appropriate Small Community Wastewater Treatment Systems
Bauer D.R E.T. Conrad, and D.G. Sherman. 198 l.Evaluation of Existing and Potential Technologies for On-site Wastewater Treatment and
Disposal. USEPA Publication No. 600/S2-81/178, NTIS Publication No. PB82-101635.
Canter L W E W Akin, J.F. Kreissl, and J.F. McNabb. 1983. Microbial Health Considerations of Soil Disposal of Domestic Wastewaters.
USEPA Publication No. 600/9-83/017, NTIS No. PB84-122100.
Cashell* M M D D. Effert, and J.M. Morand, 1987. Alternative Onsite Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems on Severely Limited Sites,
USEPA Publication No. 600/S2-86/116, NTIS Publication No. PB87-140992/AS.
Ciotoli, P.A. and K.C. WiswaU. 1982. Management of Small Community Wastewater Systems. USEPA Publication No. 600/8-82/009, NTIS No.
PB82-260829.
Deese, P.L. 1986. An Evaluation of Septic Leachate Detection. USEPA Publication No. 600/S2-86/052, NTIS Publication No. PB86191616/AS.
Eikrnn, A.S. and R.W. Seabloom. 1982. Alternative Wastewater Treatment - Low-cost Small Systems, Research and Development. D. Reidel
Publishing Co., Dortrecht, Netherlands, ISBN 90-277-1430-4.
EPA. 1980. Wastewater Alternatives for Small Communities. USEPA Publication No. 600/9-80/062, NTIS Publication No. PB81-131658.
Farrell, S.0.1985. Evaluation of Color Infrared Aerial Surveys of Wastewater Soil Absorption Systems. USEPA Publication No. 600/2-85/039,
NTIS Publication No. PB85-189074.
Guo, PKM. and B.E. Jank. 1980. Design and Selection of Small Wastewater Treatment Systems. Environment Canada Report No. EPS-WP-80-3.
Hudson, J. 1986. Forecasting Onsite Soil Absorption System  Failure  Rates. USEPA Publication No. 600/S2-86/060, NTIS No.
PB 86-216744/AS.
Kalbermatten, J.M., D.S. Julius, and C.G. Gunnerson. 1982. Appropriate Sanitation Alternatives - A Technical and Economic Appraisal. World
Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation No. 1, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
KreisslJJU977.USEPAResponsetoP.L.92-500RelatingtoRuTalWastewater Problems. Proceedings of 3idNational Conference on Individual
Onsite Wastewater Systems. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, ML
Middlebrooks, E.J. and C.H. Middlebrooks. 1979. Energy Requirements for Small Flow Wastewater Treatment Systems. EPA Publication No.
MCD-60 and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Special Report No. 79-7.
Nilsson, P. 1990. Infiltration of Wastewater - An applied Study on Treatment of Wastewater by Soil Infiltration. Lund (S.W.) University.
Publication No.  1002.

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 Rantala, P.. R Santala, and H. Vikman. 1984. Proceedings of the International Conference on New Technology for Wastewater Treatment and
 Sewerage in Rural and Suburb Areas. Tampare University Publication No: 19, ISBN 951-720-883-9.


 Reed, S.C., E.J. Middlebrooks and R.W. Crites. 1988. Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.



 S±£s£«»»3^m!B^


 SSWMP, Management of Small Waste Flows. 1978. USEPA Publication No. 600/2-78/173, NTIS No. PB286 560/AS.


 Tetreault, MJ., B. Rusien, AJi Benedict, and J.F. Kreissl. 1987. Assessment of Phased Isolation Ditch Technologies. JWPCF, 59(9):833.


 £yIe£Foi ^VJ'Jlmf• Des«n and Management of Subsurface Soil Absorption Systems. USEPA Publication No. 600/S2-85A)70, NTIS Publication
 No. "oo3-Zlo37U/AS.


 Wa^ °,-H. and A.R. Townshend. 1987, Appropriate Wastewater Management Technologies for Rural Areas Under Adverse Conditions.
 Technical University of Nova Scotia Publication.


 Water Pollution Control Federation. 1990. Natural Systems for Wastewater Treatment WPCF Manual of Practice No. FD-16.



 Sludge Management in Small Communities


 Bitton, G., B.L. Damron, G.T. Edds, and J.M. Davidson. 1980. Sludge - Health Risks of Land Application. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, ML


 Condren, A.J., AT. Wallace, LA. Cooper, and J.F. Kreissl. 1987. Design, Operational and Cost Considerations for Vacuum-assisted Sludge
 Dewatenng Bed Systems. Journal of WPCF, 59(4):228.                                                                     6


 Enwronment Canada. 1984. Manual for Land Application of Treated Municipal Wastewater and Sludge. Environment Canada Publication No.
 EPS o-EP-84-1.


 EPA.  1989.1988 Needs Survey - Report to Congress. USEPA Publication No. 430/09-89/001.


 Feige, W.A., RT. Oppclt, and JF. Kreissl. 1975. An Alternative Septage Treatment Method - Lime Stabilization/Sand-bed Dewaterine. USEPA
 Publication No. 600/2-75/036.


 Goldstein, N. 1991. Sludge Management Practices in the U.S. Biocycle, 32(3):46.


 Gunnerson CG., and D.C. Stuckey. 1986. Integrated Resource Recovery - Anaerobic Digestion - Principles and Practices for Biogas Systems.
 World Bank Technical Paper No. 49.                                                      re./
10

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Page, A.L., T.L, Gleason, I.E. Smith, I.K. Iskandar, and Sommers. 1983. Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge on Land. University
of California, Riverside, CA.
Rezek, J.W., and I. A. Cooper. 1980. Septage Management USEPA Publication No. 600/8-80/032, NTIS Publication No. PBS 1-142481.
                              Small Community Wastewater Expertise List

                          Project Area                       Contact                         FAX
                Small Community Wastewater Collection         James Kreissl                   513-569-7566
                Small Community Wastewater Treatment
                 Constructed Wetlands        .               Donald Brown                  513-569-7276
                                                          Eric Preston                    503-757-4799
                 Filtration Systems                          James Kreissl                   513-569-7566
                 Land Treatment Systems                     Carl Enfield                    405-332-2210
                Sequencing Batch Reactors
                and Biological Package Plants                  James Heidman                 513-569-7276
                Small Community Sludge Management          Joseph Farrell                   513-569-7276
                                                          James Smith                    513-569-7566
                 Ground Water Impact                       James McNabb                 405-332-8800
                 Health and Environmental Effects             Judith Olsen                    513-569-7475
                 Sludge Risk Assessment Methodology          NormKowal                    513-569-7475

                Note: TELEX number for most of the above research staff is 989-296-(US EPA UD).
                                                                                                                  11

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                                         Additional Opportunities for
                                      Obtaining Technical Information
 EPA WORKSHOP:  Alternative Collection Systems for Small
 Communities
       Technical management and administrative information are pre-
 sented to optimize the use of alternative collection systems in rural areas.
 Detailed discussion of design issues vs. performance, planning concepts
 for optimal use, capital costs and operation and maintenance require-
 ments will be incorporated.
       The sessions are primarily aimed at planning, regulatory and
 engineering communities to minimize misuse and optimize proper
 application of alternative collection system technology. For EPA semi-
 nar/workshop information, contact: J. F. Kreissl, USEPA, CERI, G-75,
 Cincinnati, OH 45268. FAX: 513-569-7566.

 EPA National Small Flows Clearinghouse at the University of West
 Virginia. This EPA-supported service maintains a small community
 technology bibliography service and other small community assistance
 activities. For additional information and assistance, call 800-624-8301
 or 304-293-4191, or write to: USEPA Small Flows Clearinghouse, P.O.
 Box 6064, Morgantown, WV 26506.

 ORD TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER NEWSLETTER
       An ORD newsletter that provides a current listing of scheduled
 workshops, conferences, and seminars. It also announces the availabil-
 ity  of new publications, reports,  databases, and expert systems. A
publication order sheet is included. To receive the Technology Transfer
Newsletter, write to: CERI, Technology Transfer, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, P.O. Box 19963, Cincinnati, OH 45219-0963.

DATABASES
      ATTIC - The Alternative Treatment Technology Information
Center database is an information retrieval network mat provides up-to-
date technical information on innovative treatment methods for hazard-
ous wastes. It facilitates access to innovative technology demonstration
studies, remediation ideas and experiences, vendor identification, and
expert assistance. This on-line system contains literature search data-
bases, treatability databases, a message center, a calendar of events, and
a publication listing. Call 301-816-9153 for information or assistance.

ORD-BBS - The ORD Electronic Bulletin Board System, in addition to
fostering communication among officials, researchers and the private
sector, facilitates the exchange of technical  information and ORD
products in the form of electronic messages, brief bulletins about ORD
products and activities, files for downloading,  participation in confer-
ences, and on-line databases for identifying ORD publications. For
additional information and assistance in using the BBS, call 513-569-
7272 or write to: CERI, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ORD-
BBS, G-76, Cincinnati, OH  45268.
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                                 .   Ordering Technical Documents


      The EPA documents mentioned in the Technical Information Package brochures can be ordered at no charge (while supplies are available)
from the Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI). Once the CERI inventory is exhausted, clients will be directed to the National
Technical Information Service (NTIS) where documents may be purchased. Orders can be placed by mail, phone, or FAX. To order documents,
have the document number or the EXACT title ready. The journal articles listed in the ^ddiriona/Be/fercncej section may be ordered from the U.S.
National Focal Point of INFOTERRA.

CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INFORMATION (CERI)      NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS)
U.S. EPA, P. O. BOX 19963                                        5285 PORT ROYAL ROAD
CINCINNATI, OH 45219-0963                                     SPRINGFIELD, VA 22161
513-569-7562 PHONE      989-296-(US EPA UD) TELEX                703^87-4650 PHONE
513-569-7566 FAX                                               703-321-8547 FAX
NEEDED TO ORDER: EPA document number or the EXACT title.            NEEDED TO ORDER: EPA document number, NTIS number,
                                                                or EXACT tide.

INFOTERRA U.S. NATIONAL FOCAL POINT
U.S. EPA
401M ST., S.W., PM211A
WASHINGTON, D.C.  20460
202-260-5917 PHONE (23) 4979995 TELEX
202-260-3923 FAX
NEEDED TO ORDER: Name of journal, volume number, and page numbers.

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EPA TIPs
Technical Information Packages

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