*' •
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EPA/600/R-00/109
April 2001
Logistics of Ecological Sampling on
Large Rivers
Joseph E. Flotemersch and Susan M. Cormier
National Exposure Research Laboratory
Bradley C. Autrey
SoBran, Inc.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
National Exposure Research Laboratory
26 W. M. L. King Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45268
/T~~V 80% Recycled/Recyclable
£A.y. Printed with vegetable-based ink on
7~\ \ \ paper that contains a minimum of
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^—IN.-/ processed chlorine free
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Notice
This research described in this report has been funded wholly or in part by
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This document has been prepared at
the EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory (Ecological Exposure Research
Division, Cincinnati, Ohio) under the following contract: Contract 68-C6-0019 to
SoBran, Lie.
This research was supported in part by an appointment to the Postgradu-
ate Research Participation Program administered by the Oak Ridge Institute
for Science and Education through an interagency agreement between the
U.S. DOE and the U.S. EPA.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation of use.
The correct citation for this document is:
Flotemersch, IE.1, B.C. Autrey2, and S.M. Cormier1 (editors). 2000. Logis-
tics of Ecological Sampling on Large Rivers. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati OH.
Section authors and addresses are listed below.
Section 1: Bradley C. Autrey2
Section 2: Joseph E. Flotemersch1
Section 3: Bradley C. Autrey2 and Gerilyn Ahlers2
'U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, 26 W. M. L. King
Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268
2Sobran, Inc. c/o U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, 26
W. M. L. King Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268 '
3DepL of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Water Quality, 4401 Reedy Creek Road,
Raleigh, NC 27699
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Section 4: Jennifer Everett3 and Bradley C, Autrey2
Section 5: Joseph E. Flotemersch1 and Bradley C. Autrey2
Section 6: Bradley C. Autrey2 and Gerilyn Ahlers2
Section 7: Ann Case2 and Bradley C. Autrey2
'U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, 26 W. M. L. King
Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268
2Sobran, Inc. c/o U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, 26
W. M. L. King Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268
3Dept. of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Water Quality, 4401 Reedy Creek Road,
Raleigh, NC 27699
ill
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Table of Contents
Section
Page
Notice ii
Tables x
Figures xi
1 Introduction 1
2 Equipment, Maintenance, and Field Repairs 2
2.1 Introduction 2
2.2 General Philosophy On Equipment 2
2.3 Boat Selection 3
2.3.1 Construction 3
2.3.1.1 Riveted Versus Welded Hulls 3
2.3.1.2 Hull Gauge 4
2.3.2 Size 4
2.3.3 Shape 5
2.3.3.1 Width and Length 5
2.3.3.2 Side Depth 6
2.3.3.3 Squared Bow Versus Pointed Bow 6
2.3.3.4 Flat, Semi-Vee, and Vee-bottoms 6
2.3.4 Options 7
2.3.4.1 Steering Console or Tiller Drive 7
2.3.4.2 Flooring 8
2.3.5 Color 8
2.3.6 Additional Notes 9
2.3.7 Standard Onboard Equipment 9
2.4 Boat Maintenance, Care and Optional
Modifications/Fortifications 9
2.4.1 Modifications/Fortifications 9
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Table of Contents (continued)
Section
Page
2.4.1.1 Non-Skid Surfaces 10
2.4.1.2 Additional Handles 10
2.4.1.3 Carrying Capacity Enhancement 10
2.4.1.4 Bow Eye Fortification 11
2.4.1.5 Bow and Transom Fortification 11
2.4.1.6 Railings 11
2.4.2 Common Boat Field Repair/Patches 11
2.4.2.1 Hull Repairs 11
2.4.2.2 Maintenance Items to Have Available 12
2.5 Boat Trailers 13
2.5.1 Trailer Selection 13
2.5.2 Modifications/Fortifications • 13
2.5.3 Trailer Maintenance and Care 15
2.5.3.1 Common Trailer Field Repairs/Patches 15
2.5.3.2 Trailer Maintenance Items 16
2.5.3.3 Trailering Notes 17
2.6 Outboard Motors 17
2.6.1 Outboard Motor Selection 17
2.6.2 Outboard Motor Maintenance and Care 18
2.6.2.1 Lubrication 18
2.6.2.2 Ignition System (Spark Plugs and Spark Plug
Wires) 19
2.6.2.3 Fuel Pump Filter 20
2.6.2.4 Propeller 21
2.6.2.5 Manual Start Pull Rope 21
2.6.2.6 Emergency Kill Switch Modification 21
2.6.2.7 Fuel/Oil Ratio (Two-Stroke Engines Only) 21
2.6.2.8 Gas Tank Storage 22
2.6.3 Outboard Motor Trouble Shooting : 22
2.6.4 Outboard Motor Storage (General Procedures
for Motors < 50 HP.) 22
2.6.4.1 Outboard Motors with External Tanks 24
2.6.4.2 Storage Procedures for Outboard Motors With
Internal Tanks 24
2.6.5 Common Outboard Motor Field Repairs/Patches...: 24
:!l!.j' |^.'ii:»i!!IJ.^,i'"!"!
"St'SfiSBia'jilS"
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Table of Contents (continued)
Section
Page
2.7 Overview of Field Maintenance and Repair 27
2.8 The Towing Vehicle 29
2.8.1 Tools Specific to the Towing Vehicle 29
2.8.2 Towing Vehicle Maintenance Notes 29
3 Safety 30
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 General Field Safety 30
3.2.1 Heavy Equipment 30
3.2.2 Field Attire 31
3.2.2.1 Eye Protection 32
3.2.2.2 Hearing Protection 32
3.2.3 Electrical Shock 32
3.2.4 Communication 33
3.2.5 Safety on the Road 33
3.2.6 Chemical Safety 34
3.2.6.1 Formalin 34
3.2.6.2 Ethanol 34
3.2.6.3 Gasoline 35
3.2.6.4 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) 35
3.3 Boating Safety 35
3.3.1 General Boating Safety 36
3.3.2 Drowning 37
3.3.3 Storms 38
3.3.4 Boat Rescues 39
3.4 First Aid 39
3.4.1 Cuts and Bleeding 39
3.4.2 Bruises... 39
3.4.3 Puncture Wounds 40
3.4.4 Heat Emergencies 40
3.4.4.1 Heat Cramps 41
3.4.4.2 Heat Exhaustion 41
3.4.4.3 Heat Stroke 42
3.4.5 Hypothermia 42
3.4.5.1 Mild Hypothermia 42
3.4.5.2 Moderate Hypothermia 42
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Table of Contents (continued)
Section
Page
3.4.5.3 Severe Hypothermia 42
3.4.5.4 Treating Hypothermia 42
3.4.6 Frost Bite 44
3.4.6.1 Symptoms of Frostbite 44
3.4.6.2 Treatment of Frostbite 44
3.4.6.3 Prevention of Frostbite 45
3.5 Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) 45
3.6 The Heimlich Maneuver 46
4 Access and Legal Issues ; 49
4.1 Site Access 49
4.1.1 Public Land 49
4.1.2 Private Land 49
4.1.3 Primitive Access 50
4.1.4 Targeted Sites 50
4.1.5 Access Etiquette 51
4.2 Permits 51
5 Crew Logistics 52
5.1 Introduction 52
5.2 Crew Size 52
5.3 Crew Structure 53
5.4 Crew Training 53
5.4.1 Protocol Training : 54
5.4.2 Safety Training 55
5.4.3 Crew Etiquette 55
5.5 Crew Activities , 55
5.5.1 Workday Length 55
5.5.2 Work Flow 56
6 Recording Data 57
6.1 Field Forms 57
6.1.1 Field Form Completion 57
6.1.2 Field Form Design 57
6.2 Labels 58
6.2.1 Label Completion 58
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Table of Contents (continued)
Section
Page
6.2.2 Label Design , 58
6.3 Chain of Custody Forms 61
6.4 Logging Samples 62
7 Preparing the Laboratory 63
7.1 Sample Storage 63
7.2 Sample Transport 63
7.3 Sample Tracking 63
7.4 Sample Preservation 64
7.4.1 Water Chemistry 64
7.4.2 Algae 64
7.4.3 Benthic Macroinvertebrates 64
7.4.4 Fish 65
7.5 Holding Times 65
8 Literature Cited 66
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Tables
Table
Page
2-1 Size Considerations for Selecting Research Boats 5
2-2. Basic Trouble Shooting Checklist for Outboard \
Motors 23
2-3. Protocol for Properly Storing Small Operable Motors with
External Gas Tanks 25
2-4. Protocol for the Minimum Steps to be Taken in Motor
Storage Preparation 26
2-5. Protocol for Properly Storing Small Motors with
Internal Gas Tanks 26
2-6. Tools Suggested for a Small Basic Tool Kit 28
2-7. Equipment to be Added to the Basic Tool Kit in
Order to Create an Advanced Tool Kit 28
3-1. Suggested Daily Checklist for Trailer Inspections 33
3-2. General Boating Safety ., 36
3-3. Treatment for Serious Bleeding 40
3-4. Treatment for Minor Cuts and Scrapes 41
3-5. Symptoms and Treatments for Heat Emergencies 41
3-6. Symptoms and Treatments for the Three Levels of
Hypothermia 43
3-7. Treatment for Frostbite 45
3-8. Summary of CPR Protocol 46
3-9. Summary of Heimlich Maneuver Protocol 47
3-10. Summary of Heimlich Maneuver Protocol
Recommended for Unconscious Victims 48
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Figures
Figure
Page
2-1. An example of a jon boat, trailer and outboard motor. 3
2-2. A jon boat in a sampling area that requires a great
deal of maneuverability. 4
2-3. A smaller jon boat inverted and placed on top of a
larger jon boat 6
2-4. A jon boat heavily loaded with sampling equipment 7
2-5. A jon boat with a steering console 8
2-6. A jon boat that has had handles added to it 10
2-7. A jon boat with a reinforced bow eye 12
2-8. A long neck trailer (background) is contrasted with a
short neck trailer (foreground) 14
2-9. An eye bolt has been added to this trailer. 16
2-10. An outboard motor being lubricated 18
2-11. A spark plug is being removed from an outboard motor. 20
2-12, An excessively worn propeller (left) is contrasted with
a relatively unworn propeller (right) 22
2-13. The proper positioning of an outboard motor when
preparing it for storage 26
2-14. A collection of tools that may be needed for field repairs
of vehicles, boats, motors, trailers and/or sampling
equipment 27
3-1. A member of a field crew removes fish from the river
during an electroshocking fish sampling effort 32
3-2, A low-head dam can be a hazard during a field effort 38
4-1. An example of a primitive access point 50
5-1. An example of a crew working together, 53
5-2. Field crews are trained by experienced personnel 54
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Figures (continued)
Figure
Page
6-1. An example of a properly-designed field form : 59
6-2. An example of a properly-designed sample label 61
6-3. An example of a properly-designed Sample Log form 62
7-1. A member of a field crew processes a benthic
macroinvertebrate sample in the field
63
i
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Section 1
Introduction
by
Bradley C. Autrey
The objectives of this document are to
provide an overview of the logistical prob-
lems associated with the ecological sampling
of boatable rivers and to suggest solutions to
those problems. It is intended to be used as a
resource for individuals preparing to collect
biological data from large rivers. Its greatest
benefit to project planners will be the knowl-
edge and awareness necessary to provide a
greater level of safety to the crew members
who will be collecting ecological data on large
rivers. A large river can be a hazardous work
environment, but can be made relatively safe
with adequate training and preparation. In
addition to the safety benefit, this document
will provide the means needed to ensure the
accurate and complete collection of data. The
execution of preparatory steps outlined in this
document will minimize the collection of in-
accurate or incomplete data, thereby decreas-
ing wasted lime and money. A third benefit
that can be derived from this document is the
more efficient collection of data hi the field.
There are many aspects of conducting eco-
logical research on large rivers which can
cause delayed or inefficient data collection.
A well-designed study with adequate prepa-
ration, including thorough training of field
crews, will minimize problems and maximize
efficiency, which will increase the likelihood
of successful field endeavors.
Prior to the sampling season, a Project
Plan should be developed. The Project Plan
should include a detailed outline of every as-
pect of the project. The development of the
plan should include managers, field crews,
laboratory personnel, statisticians and anyone
else that has the experience necessary to pro-
vide constructive input. Involving all the in-
dividuals that will be involved in the project
in the planning process will help ensure that
the correct data are collected and that they are
collected correctly.
This document addresses the specific
steps needed to prepare for the collection of
biological data from large rivers. Therefore,
the information provided in this document is
essential to, but not necessarily exclusive to,
large river sampling.
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Section 2
Equipment, Maintenance and
Field Repairs
by
Joseph E. Flotemersch
2.1 Introduction
Tills section is largely constructed to be
of assistance to those engaged in ecological
research on beatable streams requiring the use
of jon boats of 16 feet or less in length. Gen-
erally, the jon boat is a wide-bodied, flat-bot-
tomed, shallow, square-ended utility boat par-
ticularly well-suited for rivers (Figure 2-1). A
boat of 16 feet or less is frequently used be-
cause of a lack of access sites that were de-
signed for boats and/or shallow waters, both
of which may lead to situations which require
portage of equipment in order to sample the
stream. However, many of the topics dis-
cussed apply to larger boats and will prove
worthy of consideration. Some of the com-
ments are personal preferences attributable to
the author. Where this occurs, there has been
an effort to include justifications and/or rea-
soning. The overall goal of this section is to
provide assistance to those tasked with mak-
ing equipment purchasing decisions as well
as those conducting the research on beatable
streams.
Most items discussed in this discussion
are included as a result of the author's experi-
ences in the field. There are likely numerous
additional items that other experienced per-
sonnel could contribute. These items will be
added to this section as they make themselves
evident or are brought to the attention of the
author.
2.2 General Philosophy
on Equipment
Most equipment purchased for research
on boatable systems is not designed for the
extreme wear and tear to which it is subjected
once in the hands of biologists. However,
purchasing heavy-duty equipment can limit
where and how effectively one can sample.
Consequently, a balance between the mobil-
ity and the durability of equipment must be
found. Although some pieces of equipment
are better viewed as consumable, there are
several actions that can be taken to increase
the life-expectancy of specific equipment.
Most of these actions are maintenance opera-
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Figure 2-1. An example of a jon boat, trailer and outboard motor.
tions, but others are field-proven modifica-
tions/fortifications. Both types of actions are
included in the text where appropriate.
Essentially, the basic philosophy regard-
ing field equipment is that it should be kept
simple. There are three primary benefits to
purchasing less complex equipment; 1) more
complex equipment has more areas of poten-
tial problems, 2) more complex equipment is
more difficult to repair in the field or have
repaired and 3) readily available, off-the-shelf
items are easier to find and purchase when
on the road.
2.3 Boat Selection
The selection of a boat that best fits the
needs of a study is difficult and is a topic of
much debate among experienced field person-
nel. Often, there is no single "right boat" but
rather one of a few options that, depending
on the preferences of the personnel utilizing
the equipment, may be the best choice.
2.3.1 Construction
2.3.1.1 Riveted Versus
Welded Hulls
When purchasing an aluminum boat, an
important issue related to the construction of
the vessel is whether the hull is riveted or
welded. This refers to how the individual
components of the hull are attached to each
other to produce the hull. Typically, the type
of construction found in the boats that an in-
dividual boat dealer is selling is what is touted
as the better choice. In truth, a riveted boat is
stronger, flexes instead of cracks, and is easier
to repair in the field when necessary (see Sec-
tion 2.4.2). While welds themselves are rela-
tively strong, the process of welding weak-
ens the metal around the weld. As a result,
when cracks occur, they usually occur adja-
cent to the weld and not on the weld itself. As
evidence of the strength of riveted construc-
tion, fighter jets are riveted rather than welded.
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A positive aspect of welds, however, is that
they are more aesthetically pleasing than a rivet
line.
2.3.1.2 Hull Gauge
Of the options available, a boat con-
structed of a lighter gauge of aluminum is
usually preferred for conducting field work.
A boat constructed of lighter-gauged alumi-
num allows the field crews greater flexibility
in maneuvering the boat, on land and in the
water. Figure 2-2 illustrates the type of diffi-
cult situation on a river that may require a high
degree of maneuverability. Lighter-gauge
aluminum also allows for more efficient mo-
tor performance. Because lighter-gauge alu-
minum boats are more susceptible to hull dam-
age, one of their negative aspects is the de-
creased length of time that they are useful.
However, the cost of a new jon boat every
few years is offset by the ability to access a
broader range of access sites, thereby being
much more efficient in the field.
2.3.2 Size
Many factors can influence the selection
of a suitable boat size for the field component
of a research endeavor. Some of these factors
are:
• The nature of the site to be sampled
• Who will be conducting the sampling
• The type of vehicle to be used to haul the
boat
• Who will be available for loading and
unloading the boat
• The type of access that will be available
• The amount of equipment that is required
• The number of people that the boat will
need to transport
Some basic pros and cons related to boat
size are listed in Table 2-1.
Figure 2-2. A jon boat in a sampling area that requires a great deal of maneuverability.
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fable2-l. Size Considerations
|ese.ar,ch Boats. ....
""'
^ * ^ » ?
* \ J^ §1iier , ,
Consideration *Boat~ Soaf ^
E*""* _ *• I- » yt « -,;
, increases
jt *
increases
increases
^ « n,
decreases
t^ a * ^
decreases
^~
& <
decreases
decreases
Includes not only a crew's ability to cany a boat to ^
premote or primitive launching site, but a crew's f
Lbility to pull equipment over obstacles and ,,
jjrough shallows. I
Many additional factors may be worthy
of consideration prior to the purchase of re-
search vessel. If boats are selected carefully,
transportation options may present them-
selves. As an example, if a wide 12-foot boat
is selected rather than a narrow 14-foot boat,
the option exists to transport the boat in the
bed of a pickup truck. This is a useful option
when access roads are especially tricky or
when field personnel are not particularly
skilled at towing a trailer.
Another potential benefit to careful se-
lection of boat size is realized when multiple
boats are required at a single site. If two boats
are of compatible size, a smaller boat can be
inverted and placed on top (within the perim-
eter) of a larger boat (Figure 2-3). This re-
duces the requirements from two tow vehicles
and two trailers to one tow vehicle and one
trailer. If the boats are locked together, it also
provides an easy way to safely transport and
protect equipment within the boats.
2.3.3 Shape
2.3.3.1 Width and Length
Among two boats of equal length and
different widths, the wider of the two will be
more stable. This is especially true of small
jon boats (10-12 feet). However, this is not
intended to be an endorsement for the pur-
chase of the widest boat possible. Carried to
an extreme, buying too wide of a boat will
actually defeat the advantages of using a small
boat.
An example of a width-versus-length
choice would be whether to buy a wide 12-
foot boat or a narrower 14-foot boat, each
with the same square-footage. From a safety
standpoint, in relatively calm water, the wide
12-foot boat provides more stability and also
results in more of the equipment being within
reaching distance of the crew, thus reducing
the need for crew members to traverse the
length of the boat. However, a longer boat of
equal square-footage will perform better in
rough water or when attempting to ascend
rapids, both issues responding positively to
the fulcrum point of a longer boat.
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Figure 2-3. A smaller jon boat inverted and placed on top of a larger jon boat. This is an efficient
method for transporting two boats to the same sampling site.
2.3.3.2 Side Depth
Because field biologists often have the
need to load boats with a large amount of
equipment (Figure 2-4), it seems wise to se-
lect boats of increased side depth. This issue
is of increasing importance as the length of a
boat decreases. The smaller the boat, the more
susceptible it is to shifts in weight and listing
during turns, but a greater side depth helps to
counteract this effect. The added weight of
increased side depth is usually minimal. How-
ever, it should be noted that some boats with
an increased side depth may also have an in-
creased transom height.
2.3.3.3 Squared Bow Versus
Pointed Bow
A pointed bow excels at performance
while a square bow excels at hard work. A
pointed bow increases the overall perfor-
mance of a boat and rides smoother, especially
in rough water. But if one is working from
the boat, a squared bow has some advantages.
Equipment is much easier to retrieve over a
squared bow than a pointed bow. This is es-
pecially true of gill, trammel, fyke, trap and
hoop nets which can become snagged on the
point. Reenforcing the bow of a boat is also
much easier with a squared bow (see Section
2.4.1.5).
Another positive aspect of a squared bow
is its usefulness as a pivot point. When work-
ing on beatable waters, a useful skill to mas-
ter is the technique of maintaining location hr-
the system by positioning the bow of the boat
against an available structure and using the
motor to hold the boat in position against the
structure. This maneuver is much easier if the
bow of the boat is squared instead of pointed.
2.3.3.4 Flat, Semi-Vee, and
Vee-Bottoms
The advantages of a vee-bottom boat are
largely performance based, although in rough
E:
-ftV "• —
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Figure 2-4. A jon boat heavily loaded with sampling equipment. This illustrates the need for boats
with deep sides.
water, a strong argument could be made for
safety. In rough water, vee-bottom boats cut
through the water and run smoother than flat-
bottom boats which have a tendency to skip
and slap the water. Vee-bottom boats also have
the ability to turn sharper than flat-bottom
boats which have a tendency to slide out in
turns. Another advantage of a vee-bottom boat
is that the "V" shape of the bow will displace
rough water at the bow and lead to a dryer
bow and boat.
From a research perspective, a flat-bot-
tom boat runs better in shallow water and also
requkes less horsepower to maintain planing
speed. Because outboard motors with less
horsepower are lighter and require less fuel
than those with more horsepower, this further
reduces the weight of the total outfit, and con-
sequently, increases the flexibility of the field
crew with respect to their maneuverability on
the water.
2.3.4 Options
2.3.4.1 Steering Console
or Tiller Drive
Steering consoles are a great luxury
aboard a boat, but on smaller research boats,
they are not practical. Steering consoles re-
quire the dedication of a motor to a specific
boat. This means that if the motor should re-
quire service, the boat to which it is dedicated
is also out of commission. Another negative
aspect of a steering console is that it limits the
ability to reduce the components of a research
vessel to their individual elements in the event
that they must be carried to the water's edge.
Finally, a steering console is a disadvantage
for field work because it has more complex
parts and, therefore, requkes a higher degree
of skill and more time to repak in the field.
A tiller drive set-up has several advan-
tages. These advantages include the ability to
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store boats and motors in separate locations,
the easy removal of a motor from a boat if it
is necessary, and the lack of the additional
choke, shift, and throttle linkages of a steer-
ing console.
2.3.4.2 Flooring
Flooring on a jon boat is also a luxury
that comes at a cost. While it does improve
the appearance of a boat and the ease with
which the boat can be made to appear clean,
it also adds weight to the boat, makes it diffi-
cult to thoroughly remove accumulated sedi-
ment from beneath the flooring, and makes it
difficult to implement hull repairs. The com-
bined added weight of the flooring and trapped
sediments reduces the variety of sites where
the gear can be utilized because it:
• increases the load on the trailer,
• limits the ability of a boat to be run in
shallow water,
• limits the ability of a crew to carry the
boat to the river,
• limits a crew's ability to pull a boat
through shallow water,
• may increase motor requirements and
• is a barrier to retrieving items that are
inadvertently dropped in the boat.
As an alternative to no flooring, 1/4 inch
plywood can be cut to serve as removable
flooring. This allows for easy cleaning under
the flooring of the boat. The flooring will pro-
tect the inside-bottom of the boat from dam-
age from hauled equipment, especially while
on the road.
2.3.5 Color
When considering the color of a research
vessel, there are a few factors to consider. If
the vessel is to be used in the summer, darker
colors absorb a great deal of heat, which can
Figure 2-5. A jon boat with a steering console.
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be uncomfortable for a crew and harmful for
equipment. However, the amount of light re-
flected from excessively light or bright colors
may be blinding.
From a safety standpoint, a unique color
may help identify a boat as a research vessel.
Having a well marked vessel can help to avoid
the problems that can arise from people not
recognizing that the crew is a team of research-
ers. This can be a problem especially when
the crew is using sampling equipment that is
illegal for anything except research. Color
selection may also increase the ability of oth-
ers to see the boat from a distance. Because
research on flowing waters often requires
anchoring, it is important to make the boat as
visible to other water crafts as possible. This
is especially important on larger rivers where
large crafts (e.g.., barges) are common. Some
manufactures offer jon boats in various col-
ors including orange and red.
2.3.6 Additional Notes
When purchasing a boat that is to be
powered by a motor that is already owned, it
is important to make sure that the motor can
move the boat upstream and is compatible
with the transom height of the new boat. It is
important to avoid buying a boat that is too
large or too small for the existing motor.
2.3.7 Standard
Onboard Equipment
When considering the cost of purchas-
ing a boat, additional equipment should be
considered. These items include:
• life jackets (1 per crew member),
• throwable lif e preserver/seat cushion (1
per crew member),
• fire extinguisher,
• anchor with attached rope of ample
length (See Section 3.2.1),
• two oars,
• first aid kit (kit should respect potential
remoteness of field work),
• air horn,
• flashlight and spare batteries (1 or 2),
• flare gun,
• emergency communication equipment
(e.g., cellular telephone) and
• tool box (to be discussed in greater
detail in Section 2.7).
Some of these items may need to be kept
in waterproof containers.
While the list of needed field equipment
will be different for almost every field en-
deavor, it is useful to prepare a simple check-
list of essential and safety related equipment
necessary for every outing. This can help en-
sure that all equipment needed to operate the
boat safely is onboard. Additionally, all the
equipment on the list should be kept in good
repair, replaced, or updated as needed.
2.4 Boat Maintenance,
Care and Optional
Modifications/
Fortifications
2.4.1 Modifications/
Fortifications
There are several modifications that can
be applied to the boat that will aid the crew in
the field by extending the life of the equip-
ment and increasing the safety of field efforts.
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Most of the suggested modifications are not
necessary if equipment usage is infrequent,
but if usage is heavy, the modifications may
decrease the amount of time the equipment is
in the shop and increase the amount of time
the equipment is in the field.
2.4.1.1 Non-Skid Surfaces
Among the simplest of safety modifica-
tions is the addition of non-skid surfaces to
walking areas on the boat. An especially ad-
vantageous area for this application is on the
deck of the boat where personnel may be en-
tering and exiting the boat or working with
gear. A simple way to meet this objective is
to apply a mixture of paint and sand (or a com-
mercially available equivalent) to the surface.
Other options are non-skid tape and non-skid
strips made for showers and tubs.
2.4.1.2 Additional Handles
If research is expected to require a fair
amount of portage of the boat, an advisable
modification is the addition of user-friendly
handles to the hull of the boat (Figure 2-6).
Location, size and angle of these handles is
critical. It is highly advised that handles be
located where they will not interfere with gear
(such as nets), hang on debris in the water, or
be easily destroyed. Also, if the handles are
to be utilized in cold weather, they should be
big enough to be used by a gloved hand.
2.4.1.3 Carrying Capacity
Enhancement
When field work necessitates the use of
smaller jon boats, it is easy to approach and
exceed the official carrying capacity of a ves-
sel. If this is a reasonable possibility, it may
be worthwhile to consider the incorporation
of additional flotation to the hull of the boat.
This does not necessarily require the perma-
nent loss of space hi the boat because remov-
able floatation is an option.,Possible locations
for supplemental floatation are under front
decking and in the rear of the boat behind the
seat.
Figure 2-6. A jon boat that has had handles added to it. These handles allow field crews to more
easily maneuver the boat when it is in shallow portions of a stream or river or when the boat is not on
the water.
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Important Note: While the addition of
floatation to the hull of the boat may
increase safety, it does not increase the
carrying capacity of the vessel.
2.4.1.4 Bow Eye
Fortification
A common weakness in stock jon boats
used in ecological research is the bow eye.
The bow eye is the loop located at the front
of the boat. It is used as an attachment point
for hauling the boat or retrieving it from the
water. Recognition of this weakness is espe-
cially important when proposed field research
is expected to include sites with poor access.
Most stock bow eyes are made of aluminum
and are not reinforced. This can result in dam-
age to personnel, the towing vehicle, and the
boat itself. A weak bow eye can easily fail or
result in damage to the boat during winching
of the boat onto the trailer. If the bow eye fails
during winching, the tensioned winch cable
can injure personnel or damage the tow ve-
hicle to which the trailer is attached. The un-
expected release of the jon boat can also en-
danger personnel.
This risk can be largely negated by re-
placing the bow eye with a stronger substi-
tute and reinforcing it at its anchor point (Fig-
ure 2-7). A bow eye that is backed and faced
with reinforcing plates will distribute the force
exerted on the eye across the bow. It also in-
creases the life of the boat by reducing the
likelihood of hull damage at the bow eye an-
chor point.
2.4.1.5 Bow and Transom
Fortification
If aluminum jon boats are likely to be
subjected to excessively harsh conditions, an
advisable modification is the addition of bow
and transom plates at the time of the boat's
purchase. While this may be a substantial cost,
it will likely be offset by days lost in the field
and the untimely need for replacement equip-
ment. The bow plate will protect the boat
while winching the vessel and also provides
an ideal surface for anchoring a fortified bow
eye. This modification is especially advised
if the boat will be used in a manner which
requires that the bow will be frequently
docked or placed against hard surfaces.
Transom fortification is advisable if a
boat and motor are going to be used in sys-
tems that are particularly deleterious to the
motor. These situations are not only demand-
ing for the motors, they also wear on the tran-
som of the boat. To alleviate this, a plate can
be welded across the entire area of the tran-
som. The fortification should include a plate
to protect the top of the transom where the
weight of the motor will rest. If installed with
care, the transom plate can also serve to rein-
force the drain plug opening as well.
2.4.1.6 Railings
Some manufactures offer jon boats with
railings attached to the outside hull of the boat.
These could be used to assist with portage of
the boat, but depending on the application,
may only manifest themselves as additional
places to snag debris.
2.4.2 Common Boat
Field Repair/Patches
2.4.2.1 Hull Repairs
The rigors of boat-based field work will
eventually take their toll on a boat. Damage
to the boat may take the general form of
cracks, punctures or rivets that have popped
loose. Hull cracks and punctures should even-
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Figure 2-7. A jon boat with a reinforced bow eye. The fortification of a bow eye can help protect the
boat from damage and help prevent injuries and accidents.
tually be repaired by a qualified aluminum
welder, but in the field, temporary repairs may
be necessary. The majority of punctures and
minor cracks can be easily field-repaired with
either a marine-grade silicone sealant or a fu-
sion bondage epoxy that is designed for such
repairs. Major hull cracks may compromise
the integrity of the hull and should be profes-
sionally repaired.
Rivets that have been severely loosened
or completely detached as a result of an im-
pact can be field repaired with a nut and a
bolt. A proper-fitting washer and lock washer
should, also be used to ensure that the bolt does
not pull through the hull or become loose.
Eventually, field-repaired rivets should be re-
placed by a professional. Usually, it is pos-
sible to wait until a few welding needs accu-
mulate before a visit to the welder. This is the
most cost effective course of action since most
welders charge a minimum fee.
2.4.2.2 Maintenance Items
to Have Available
If field work involves extensive time
away from a base station, some items which
may be advisable to have for field repairs in-
clude:
• marine-grade silicone sealant for minor
hull repairs,
• aluminum welding/brazing rods,
• torch for aluminum welding rods,
• fusion bondage epoxy aluminum boat
repair sticks,
• a hammer and chisel to remove
damaged rivets, and
• nuts and bolts to field-repair damaged
rivets.
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It is also strongly advised to have a few
extra boat drain plugs on board the boat. A
practical way to store one plug is tied to the
transom of the boat. When tying the spare
drain plug to the transom, it is important to
not use too big of a piece of string so that the
plug may be retrieved in a short amount of
time. This maintenance equipment is included
in the tools and hardware list of the Field
Overview of Field Maintenance and Repair
Section (2.7) of this chapter.
2.5 Boat Trailers
2.5.1 Trailer Selection
The selection, modification and outfit-
ting of a well-suited trailer can be a tremen-
dous asset to a field effort. Most importantly,
a trailer used for field work must be of a ca-
pacity sufficient to support the boat, motor,
gas for the motor, and any equipment that the
boat may be required to carry. If given the
option of tire size, a larger-sized tire offers a
few advantages. The primary advantage is
that it provides additional clearance under the
trailer. This is especially important if the po-
tential exists for poor site access points or
primitive roads leading to the sites. Trailer axle
hubs that are equipped with grease fittings
which allow for the easy and convenient ap-
plication of grease to the hubs of the trailer
are also an asset.
Another desirable attribute of a field
trailer is a long neck (Figure 2-8). It is easier
to back a long-neck trailer. A long-neck trailer
also permits the towing vehicle to make
sharper turns in both forward and reverse.
This is a result of the increased distance be-
tween the boat on the trailer and the rear of
the vehicle. Common limiting factors for this
clearance are the mounting location of the
jack-stand on the trailer and the mounting lo-
cation of both the tow vehicle and boat trailer
spare tires. Long-neck trailers can also be a
tremendous asset at poor access points.
If the neck of the boat trailer is short, it
may be possible to make a modification which
will make the trailer more suitable. If the tow
vehicle is equipped with a receiver base for
towing, an extended receiver hitch can be
purchased. This will serve to increase the dis-
tance between the vehicle and trailer in the
same manner as a trailer with a long neck. As
a safety note, because the length of the hitch
has been lengthened, it is highly recommended
that the extended hitch be removed from the
receiver hitch.
If an option exists for how and where
the spare tire should be mounted, the best lo-
cation for field work is horizontally on the
tongue (Figure 2-8). This should be far
enough back that it will not interfere with the
turning clearance of the towing vehicle but
not so far back that it will interfere with the
trailered boat. It is highly advised to carry two
spare tires.
At the time of the boat and trailer pur-
chase or when preparing for a field endeavor,
additional items which may need to be pur-
chased include an additional spare tire, a four-
way lug wrench, a tire plug kit, a spare set of
bearings, races and seals for the trailer axle,
grease for the axle hubs, and spare bulbs for
the trailer lights.
2.5.2 Modifications/
Fortifications
The most frequently occurring problems
with boat trailers are malfunctions in the light-
ing system. There are several simple modifi-
cations/fortifications that can greatly reduce
the occurrence of malfunctions. Many prob-
lems are a result of damage to the wiring sys-
E
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Figure 2-8. A long neck trailer (background) is contrasted with a short neck trailer (foreground). Note
that the spare tires for the trailers are mounted horizontally on the trailers.
tern. One simple action which can limit dam-
age to the wiring system is adequately pro-
tecting all exposed wires. If the wires hang
down on the trailer or are excessively exposed
in a vulnerable area, fasten them so that they
are not exposed or re-wire the trailer in order
to make the wires less susceptible to damage.
This is especially important in the neck of the
trailer because wires in this area are subjected
to much abuse. These wires can be easily pro-
tected by wrapping them with electrical tape
or by running the wire through a piece of
hose.
The tail lights are another vulnerable area
of the trailer's lighting system. From the fac-
tory, most tail lights are mounted unprotected
on the rear corner of the trailer. When this is
the case, a simple preventative measure is to
relocate the rights more forward so that they
are less exposed. To further protect the tail
lights, tail light guards can be added to the
frame of the trailer. If the entire tail light hous-
ing requires replacing, choose a housing that
is commonly available. This makes field re-
pairs more feasible. A uniform brand among
tail lights also allows for efficient and conve-
nient use of spare parts among trailers.
A simple modification to make a trailer
more field worthy is to adjust, trim or remove
any hardware that hangs excessively low be-
neath the trailer. This will help reduce the
chances of dragging or snagging the trailer
on debris at a launch point or when traveling
on unimproved roads. If more clearance is
desired and the axle is mounted above the
springs, additional ground clearance can be
provided by placing the axle below the springs.
Another simple modification that in-
creases the safety of trailering a boat is the
addition of heavy-duty eye-bolts along the
length of the trailer frame (Figure 2-9). These
permit the boat to be better secured to the trailer
by providing logical anchor points for tie-
down straps rather than available points which
!' '
» -
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may be less advantageous. It also makes se-
curing the boat to the trailer more convenient.
2.5.3 Trailer
Maintenance and Care
At least once every year, all bolts on the
trailer and associated hardware should be
checked and tightened as needed. All aspects
of the trailer's running boards should be in-
spected. This includes each running board's
anchor points to the trailer, the quality of the
materials with which the running boards are
constructed and the quality of the materials
with which the running boards are covered.
These materials should be replaced or repaired
as needed. In addition, the running boards and
rollers should be adjusted, as needed, in or-
der to insure that when the boat to be trailered
rests upon them, it is fully supported. If the
boat does not properly rest on the trailer, stress
fractures may occur and rivets may become
loosened.
The winch strap or cable on the trailer
should also be inspected. When doing so, it
is important to check the full length of the
which strap or cable for strength and integ-
rity and to make sure it is properly anchored
to the winch. To minimize wear on the winch
strap or cable, when winching a boat onto a
trailer, the which strap or cable should be pro-
tected from kinks, twist and knots. It is also
important to properly lubricate the winch to
ensure that it is functioning properly.
Ratchet straps are often used to secure
the boat to the trailer (Figure 2-9). When us-
ing ratchet straps in this capacity, assuring that
there is at least one twist in the strap per point-
to-point section will eliminate strap vibration
and reduce wear on the straps at all contact
points.
The trailer's spare tire and its associated
equipment should also be inspected. This in-
cludes assuring that the spare tire can be re-
moved from its storage location. Common
problems associated with removing and us-
ing the spare tire are; the keys to the lock on
the trailer's spare tire have been lost, the lock
is damaged or corroded, the threads on the
spare tire bracket are damaged, the spare tire
is flat, the spare tire has dry rot, the spare tire
is not the correct size, the spare tire rim has
the incorrect number of lug stud holes or the
spare tire is not present.
The trailer's bearings should be inspected
at least once per year and packed or replaced
when necessary. The hubs themselves should
be lubricated often, especially if the trailer has
gone into the water and/or it has gone through
mud or loose dirt. The grease seals on hubs
can fail for many reasons or, occasionally, for
no discernable reason. The ill effects of such
an occurrence can largely be reduced by fre-
quently checking the hubs. Freshly repacked
hubs may often be warm to the touch for a
while, but in general, hubs in proper working
order should be no more than slightly warm
to the touch. Check the temperature of axle
hubs frequently. Every time the trailer is
parked is an opportune time to inspect the
trailer's hubs.
2.5.3.1 Common Trailer
Field Repairs/Patches
The most common field repairs are as-
sociated with the trailer light system. This in-
cludes the replacement of trailer lightbulbs,
the replacement of trailer light housings; and
the re-soldering, replacement or repair of
trailer wires.
The second most frequent category of
field repairs are associated with the trailer
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Figure 2-9. An eye bolt has been added to this trailer. This simple modification allows the boat to
be securely fastened to the trailer with a ratchet strap so that the boat can be safely transported..
hubs. Problems can arise with the hubs even
when they are well maintained. If a problem
is detected with a hub (i.e., it is hot to the
touch), the hub will likely need to be disas-
sembled, cleaned, repacked and reassembled
in the field. While this can be an untidy task,
if the needed materials are available, it is not
very difficult to execute.
However, if the bearings of the hub
should overheat and seize, rebuilding of the
hub in the field can become much more diffi-
cult and time consuming. The worst-case sce-
nario is that the bearings (or what remains of
the bearings) and the races will need to be cut
off of the axle. This can be accomplished with
the use of a chisel and possibly a hacksaw. If
this is required, all burrs on the axle should
be removed prior to reassembly of the hub
with new bearings, races and grease seals.
Failure to do so may result in premature fail-
ure of the new assembly.
2.5.3.2 Trailer
Maintenance Items
In order to perform trailer.maintenance
and repair tasks in the field, a number of items
should be made available to the field crew.
These items are:
• trailer light plugs (spare set),
• spare set of wheel bearings, races and
seals for the trailer,
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• spare length of wire suitable for the
trailer lights,
• supply of grease,
• grease gun,
• hammer,
• cutting chisel,
• hacksaw,
• soldering gun and solder,
• metal file,
• sandpaper and
• an extra set of winch straps and hooks.
As a safety precaution, a portable set of
pre-wired trailer lights which can be tempo-
rarily attached to the trailer should be carried
in the tow vehicle. The pre-wired lights should
have ample wire to permit them to be directly
plugged into the wiring harness of the tow-
ing vehicle. Numerous options exist for how
these lights attach to the trailer or boat. One
of the simplest options is to mount the lights
on clamps which can be attached to the trailer
or boat. Another option is to mount the lights
on a length of a 2"X4" piece of lumber that
will span the width of the boat. If the assem-
bly is needed, it can quickly be placed over
the width of the boat and secured to either the
boat or trailer. This will permit safe passage
to a suitable location where more permanent
repairs can be made.
2.5.3.3 Trailering Notes
When towing a trailer, it is important that
the lighting system of the trailer function prop-
erly. It is also important that the safety chains
of the trailer not only be attached to the trailer,
but that they be attached correctly. If an ad-
equate length of safety chain is available, the
chains should be crossed under the trailer
tongue and then hooked to the vehicle's hitch
or frame. If the tongue disengages while the
vehicle is in transit, it will drop down on the
cradle created by the crossed chains and that
should keep the tongue from dipping to the
roadway and keep the trailer attached to the
vehicle.
2.6 Outboard Motors
2.6.1 Outboard Motor
Selection
When buying an outboard motor for a
new or used boat, one of the most important
things to consider is the boat(s) on which it is
to be used. Too big or too small of an engine
can drastically impact the effectiveness and
safety of the field crew. The weight of the
motor should also be considered if field crews
may be called upon to carry the engine to re-
mote launch sites. The weights of motors do
not always increase with horsepower. Some
models may be more recently updated than
others.
Outboard motor models may also differ
in the length of the shaft. The shaft length of
the motor should be checked to ensure that it
is appropriate for the transom height of the
boat with which it is to be used. If the shaft is
too short, the efficiency of the engine will be
severely hampered and if it is too long, it will
limit the depth of the water in which the boat
can be used. A long shaft will also increase
the likelihood of encountering underwater
debris which not only increases the likelihood
of motor and boat damage, but also poses a
serious safety concern. Entanglement of an
outboard motor in underwater debris can trap
or send a boat dangerously out of control,
placing all involved in danger.
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2.6.2 Outboard Motor
Maintenance and Care
An ideal source for learning about the
maintenance and care of outboard motors is
the owner's manual. In case a manual is not
available, however, this portion of the docu-
ment deals with the outboard motor mainte-
nance tasks that should be addressed before,
during and after field season.
2.6.2.1 Lubrication
There are several points on a boat motor
that should be greased on a regular basis. The
frequency at which boat motor components
should be greased is largely dependent upon
how, when and where the boat motors are
used. Motors used in salt or polluted waters
require lubrication approximately twice as fre-
quently as motors used in fresh or unpolluted
waters. Areas where grease should be applied
generally includes all grease fittings and parts
that swing, swivel or roll (Figure 2-10). This
includes all of the components that allow the
motor to swivel and tilt, and linkages associ-
ated with the carburetor, throttle, and shifting
systems. To ensure that enough grease is in-
jected into the grease fittings, it should be
pumped into the fitting until some grease is
forced out of exit points. This also serves to
replace the older grease. If the grease is ex-
cessively deteriorated, the decision may be
made to pump enough grease into the fitting
until some of the new grease is forced out of
the exit points.
The lubricant in the gearcase (lower unit)
should be checked after every 50 hours of use
and replaced after every 100 hours of use. If
motors have been operated under harsh con-
ditions, the gearcase lubricant should be
checked more frequently. When the lubricant
is drained, the lubricant should not appear sig-
Figure 2-10. Ah outboard motor being lubricated.
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nificantly different from when it was added.
If the lubricant contains metal shavings, has a
milky appearance, or is excessively black and
smells burnt, the engine likely requires ser-
vice.
The presence of metal shavings in the
gearcase lubricant indicates problems with the
gears and pending failure. Their occurrence
necessitates service of the gearcase. Failure
to have the unit serviced will likely result in
complete failure of the gearcase and additional
damage to the unit.
A milky appearance of the gearcase lu-
bricant indicates that water is leaking into the
gearcase. This is most frequently caused by a
failure of the rear seal of the lower unit. It can
also be caused by a loose fill screw or a
cracked lower unit. The most common cause
for a rear seal failure is harsh use conditions
in which the propeller has been frequently
impacted.
If the gearcase lubrication is an exces-
sively black liquid with a burnt smell, this
most frequently indicates that the gearcase
lubricant is overdue to be changed. As a re-
sult, the oil no longer possesses the qualities
that help protect the gearcase from overheat-
ing. If the fluid is not overdue to be changed,
a burnt smell likely indicates a problem in the
lower unit which has caused the assembly to
overheat.
Important Note: When servicing the
gearcase, the rubber seal at the base of
the drain/fill plugs should be inspected.
If it appears worn or even questionable,
it should be replaced. This is a relatively
inexpensive piece of equipment com-
pared to the expense of a failed seal.
Important Note: When servicing the
gearcase, care should be taken to not
over tighten the drain/fill plugs. The
screws are metal but they are threaded
into an aluminum receptacle of the
lower unit housing. If these screws are
stripped, the gearcase lubrication can
leak out of the unit, water can seep into
the unit and metal shavings can get into
the gears of the gearcase. All of these
conditions will lead to major repairs.
Important Note: When servicing the
gearcase, the shift cradle screw(s) and
the drain/fill plugs should not be con-
fused. The shift cradle screw(s) are
usually significantly smaller than the
drain/fill plugs which are fairly broad
and flat-headed.
2.6.2.2 Ignition System
(Spark Plugs and Spark Plug
Wires)
The spark plugs of an engine should be
inspected periodically. The spark plugs should
be removed in order to properly inspect them.
To remove a spark plug, the lead to the spark
plug is first removed. Once the plug wire is
removed, then the spark plug can be removed
from the cylinder head by using a spark plug
tool or socket (Figure 2-11).
Important Note: When removing spark
plugs from an aluminum head of an
engine, first pop the plug loose by
smacking the wrench. This helps to
break loose the aluminum threads from
the steel threads of the spark plug which
helps to prevent stripping the aluminum
threads.
If upon inspection, the plugs appear
worn or damaged in any way, they should be
replaced. However, if the sparkplug is in good
condition, it can be reinstalled. To install or
reinstall a sparkplug, first, the sparkplug seat
IBj
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Figure 2-11. A spark plug being removed from an outboard motor.
should be cleaned with an unsoiled rag or
paper towel. The spark plug should be tight-
ened to the specified torque setting. If the
torque setting or a torque wrench is unavail-
able, care should be taken to not over tighten
the spark plug. While inspecting or replacing
the spark plugs, it is important to inspect the
plug wires. If there is any evidence of dry rot,
vibration damage, or heat damage, the wires
must be replaced immediately. Failure to re-
place damaged plug wires could result in dam-
age to the motor or potentially ignite fuel
within the engine cover.
Important Note: It is vital that the leads
of different spark plugs are not con-
fused. An easy way to avoid this is to
only remove one plug wire at a time.
Important Note: During inspection, the
plugs are to be handled with care in
order to avoid damage. Damaged plugs
may not only fail, they may also emit
sparks outside of the ignition chamber
which could ignite fuel within the en-
gine cover.
Important Note: If possible, the spark
plug should initially be installed without
the aid of a tool in order to minimize the
chances of cross-threading the spark-
plug threads with those of the cylinder
head. It is equally important not to over
tighten the spark plug because this can
also damage the threads of the cylinder
head. If the threads of the cylinder head
are damaged, the cylinder head itself
will likely need to be replaced.
Important Note: When possible, it is
preferred to install spark plugs into a
cool cylinder head.
2.6.2.3 Fuel Pump Filter
The fuel pump filter should be inspected
on a regular basis. An ideal time for this is
when the gearcase lubricant is changed or
whenever the filter is suspect. The fuel pump
-------
filter on smaller engines varies gready by year,
make and model. Because of the great diver-
sity of fuel pump filters, specific guidance for
inspection has not been included in this docu-
ment.
Important Note: During the process
of inspecting the fuel filter, the fuel
hose should be disconnected from the
.motor in order to prevent excessive
fuel spillage.
2.6.2.4 Propeller
The extent and frequency of propeller
maintenance activities will vary greatly de-
pending on how and where the motor is used.
If the motor is used exclusively in deeper
waters that are free of debris, maintenance
activities will be minimal. However, if the
motor is used in shallow waters or in waters
that have a great deal of debris, propeller
maintenance can be a daily activity.
If the propeller hits a solid object, the
propeller may be damaged. Damage may oc-
cur to the blades or to the hub of the propel-
ler. If the blades are excessively damaged, the
propeller should be repaired or replaced. Be-
yond hampering the performance of the en-
gine, running an engine with an excessively
damaged propeller can damage the lower unit
of the engine. If the hub is damaged, the pro-
peller may slip on the shaft. When this oc-
curs, the propeller usually cannot be repaired
or rebuilt and must be replaced.
The engine can also be damaged by an
excessively worn propeller (Figure 2-12). A
worn propeller could permit the engine to be
over-revved and eventually overheat. This
may result in the motor seizing which would
require that the power-head be replaced.
In waters that have extensive fishing
activity, discarded fishing line may become
entangled in the propeller. It is important that
this line be entirely removed from the propel-
ler and the shaft of the lower unit. This may
require removal of the propeller. Failure to
remove the line could lead to the rear seal of
the gearcase being damaged.
2.6.2.5 Manual Start Pull
Rope
If the motor being used is manual start,
the pull rope attached to the manual start
handle should be inspected for wear. If the
rope displays excessive wear, it needs to be
replaced the next time the outboard motor is
serviced.
2.6.2.6 Emergency Kill
Switch Modification
If the motor being used for field work is
equipped with a emergency stop switch with
a clip and lanyard assembly, check the length
of the lanyard when fully extended. Depend-
ing on the application and type of work be-
ing done, it may be advisable to shorten the
length of the lanyard. This will serve to de-
crease the possible distance an operator can
be from the controls of an engine before the
clip is disengaged from the emergency stop
switch. While it may present itself as an oc-
casional inconvenience, it will increase all
around safety in the field.
2.6.2.7 Fuel/Oil Ratio
(Two-Stroke Engines Only)
As a general rule, the fuel/oil ratio of all
non-oil injected two-stroke engines, beyond
the break-in period, is 50:1 (2% oil). The
owner's manual on some older motors rec-
ommended a 100:1 fuel/oil ratio, but that rec-
ommendation has since been recalled by the
manufacturer.
-------
Figure 2-12. An excessively worn propeller (left) is contrasted with a relatively unworn propeller (right).
Many problems can result from improper
gas/oil mixture. If the mixture is too lean (not
enough oil) the motor can run hot resulting in
excessive wear and damage to the engine. If
the mixture is too rich (too much oil) the en-
gine may be difficult to start, smoke exces-
sively, or idle roughly. In most cases, the worst
consequence of having too rich of a gas/oil
mixture is poor performance or the premature
fouling of plugs. In fact, if twice the required
oil is accidentally added to the gas, it will only
be at the mixture recommended for the break-
in period of the engine. Therefore, if it is sus-
pected that the mixture is lean, more oil should
be added to be safe.
2.6.2.8 Gas Tank Storage
If motors are not going to be run for an
extended period of time, the ideal situation is
to have no gas left in the tanks. However, this
is rarely the case. If the gas will be sitting for
a considerable period of time (greater than 50 50 H.P.)
days), adding gas stabilizer to the fuel tank is
advised.
2.6.3 Outboard Motor
Trouble Shooting
Determining the cause of outboard mo-
tor problems and correcting those problems
can be very challenging. This is often true
because many problems are basic to outboard
motor operation and, therefore, are easily
overlooked. Usually, outboard motors are
fairly reliable. If motor problems are encoun-
tered, the trouble shooting process should
begin with the most basic possibilities. To
assist in this effort, a basic trouble shooting
check list (Table 2-2) has been compiled from
various engine manuals and supplemented
with field experiences.
2.6A Outboard Motor
Storage (General
Procedures for Motors <
When outboard motors are to remain
unused for an extended period of time, proper
-------
fable2-2. Basic Trouble Shooting Checklist for Outboard Motors.
. ,'ti.U S,vJr/%^< , JE« * V*\ ~J slU V" *v
Symptoms Possible Cause
Engine will not start
Starting procedure not followed
'^ Fuel tank empty
Fuel hbste disconnected, kinked f " ,"" ,
fuel hpsejnptalled baclcwardjso that gas is pumped in the wrong direction
uej system contaminated with water or dirt
4, JPuei pump filter obstructed
^ t"' CQLD ENGINE: Engine not choked
ARM ENGl|p;'Engine floodedl
" - _ " 'y- • Spark plug incorrect
' " '4 ' r$park plugs improperly gapped,^ carBoned^ burrieH or wet
' 5 * 1' Ignition system componentfailure
' j . ; ' Emergency stop switcli cBp not properly engaged
" "•• FueHaiik not properly vented and starving engine of fuel
'I"" " ,;i Jtf equipped, be sure the fuel valve is open
S « X, * *" " pT^^"^^™*!
Engine will not idle properly Motor angle excessive
. "* - i ~l Carburetor mixture oujpf adjustment
\ ' *> Spark plug damaged or incorrect
Fuel system contaminated witE water or dirt
' t ' Fuel/oil mixture incorrect
« * Fuel tank not properly vented and starving engine of fuel
gngine loses power
Spark plug damaged or incorrect
t JFiiel pump filter obstructed
* " ^ ,, • *"• Fuel system contaminated wiffi water or dirt
J , * V '-, Water intakes obstructed
> f j ys V 7 *» * J ^ J'^^fL.
, „ "„ Fuel tank not properly vented and starving engine of fuel
' ' i f I V • T t , " / «
ngine vibrates excessively Propeller shaft bent
k Propeller damaged or fouled and restricted
t *t*jpu^"system"cbntaminafedwitH"wateror•'dfit'"" '" "
"" * Carburetor mixture out qf adjustment
' v W Engine mount(s) damaged
Engine propels boat weakly Propeller hub loose, slipping
p- " '"**',;!''%»"" Propeller shaft b"ent ""
*" ' ": *' '',' Propeller "damaged or fouled and restricted
jr ^^^ __v.-_j,™_-^.__ ,, ^ ^ . .... ...}
U£ the engine is suspected of being flooded, disconnect the fuel hose at the engine, push in the choke, and j
J*~'~the engine a few times. If the engine starts, let it continue to run until it clears. If it does not start, wait j
.minutes jaiji then try again to start the engine. If the engine will still not start, consider replacing the j
ugs with spare plugs that have been kept with the motor. Patience and persistence are key when ;
SKbrking with a flooded engine. If all efforts to start an engine fail, let the engine sit for a few minutes. If engine *
rfails to start or flopds frequently, check the vent on the fuel tank.
4 „
-ft'
\
A
-------
storage can minimize the occurrence of prob-
lems when they are used again. This section
focuses on the procedures for preparing mo-
tors for storage.
2.6A.I Outboard Motors
with External Tanks
The supplies needed to properly prepare
outboard motors with external gas tanks for
storage are listed below:
• Fuel Conditioner/Stabilizer
• Fogging Oil
• Gear-case Lube
• Grease gun
• OH
Table 2-3 lists the protocol for properly
storing outboard motors that are of 50 h.p. or
less, are in operable condition and have ex-
ternal gas tanks.
In order to properly store non-operable
motors, first the outboard motor is positioned
horizontally with the propeller facing toward
the ground (Figure 2-13). In order to prevent
water from entering the cylinders, the engine
unit should not be lower than the propeller.
This position will help to drain residual gaso-
line from the carburetor. The motor should
be left in this position for up to 1 week. After
this process has been completed, continue
with the storage protocols from step 5 of Table
2-3.
If the lack of supplies or time prevent
the procedure in Table 2-3, then a few mini-
mum steps will suffice. Those steps are given
in Table 2-4. Storing an engine using these
methods is better than doing nothing. How-
ever, the engine will likely need to be serviced
prior to its next use.
2.6.4.2 Storage
Procedures for Outboard
Motors with Internal Tanks
The supplies needed to properly prepare
outboard motors with internal gas tanks for
storage are listed below:
• Fogging Oil
• Gear-case Lube
• Grease gun
• Oil
Table 2-5 lists the protocol for properly
storing outboard motors that are operable and
have internal gas tanks.
2.6.5 Common
Outboard Motor Field
Repairs/Patches
Listed below are some of the common
repairs or patches made to outboard motors
while in the field. It is important that all crews
have the supplies to perform these tasks and
at least one person on each crew has the
knowledge to execute each task.
• Replacing the spark plugs on the boat
motors
• Replacing the propeller on the boat
motor
• Clearing debris from the water intakes
of the cooling system on the outboard
motor
• Clearing debris from the water pump
operation indicator port
• Replacing or repairing the gas hose
fittings on the gas tanks and occasion-
ally on the outboard motor
-------
Table2-3. Protocol For Properly Storing Small Operable Motors With External Gas Tanks.
3) Stabilize the fuel remaining in the external tank(s) with an appropriate fuel stabilizer.
-
After the fuel in the tank has been stabilized, run the engine long enough (~ 5 minutes) to distribute the J
pr stabilized fuel through the fuel system. Be sure to have attached to the engine an appropriate flushing ]
"j^ • deyise.to provide circulating coolant water to the engine. Running the engine without supplying water ]
k- to its cooling system will damage engine components.
I
|). Fog the engine by spraying fogging oil into the carburetor's air intake. See specific directions on brand ;
t of fogging oil used.
" » T«*- • - •** •."!*
Stop the engine by stopping the fuel delivery (disconnect the fuel hose), letting the engine run the
carburetor out of fuel. "_
l""1 .^f^ ., f ' ^ T- * __ , i.
Remove and examine the spark plugs. Clean or replace as needed.
I
Spray fogging oil into the spark plug holes in the engine. Witfthe spark plugs still removed, slowly
rotate the fly wheel several revoluSbns'to distrifiute the oil and to drain water from the water pump.
Re-install the spark plugs and tighten to specifications. (Note: Leave spark plug leads unattached J
during storage to prevent accidentaf start-up.)
v ^ ^ f * >• , «
Clean or change fuel filter as needed.
' t ^ - , j 1 t . t ,*
Check screws, bolts, and nuts and tighten any that are loose.
-, a
10)_ Check the electrical, ignition, and fuel systems for misplaced leads and damaged or deteriorated parts.
ll) Remove and inspect the propeller (replace or have repairs made as needed).
* * ^^ T
') With propeller removed, clean the propeller shaft and lubricate it.
13) Drain and fill the gear-case and lubricate the lube points on the engine.
___ - _> *tt,
L4) Store the engine on the boat (or on a motor stand/rack) in a vertical, self-draining position.*
15) Cover the engine to protect it from dust, and stand the outboard vertically in a dry, well "ventilated area.
m<* »• { J-. - j n t > -1" " "j ' i - - i
:Prior to storing an engine in a vertical position for an extended period of time, the engine should be run until i
jtis_outofjfuel. When this is complete, the engine should lay, propeller down, for approximately 24 hours, j
This will permit all fuel in the carburetor to drain, helping to prevent the needle valve from sticking in the "*
barburetor.
Replacing the coil spring for starting the
outboard motor
Starting the motor with a pull rope if the
spring is broken
Listed below are the spare motor parts
that each crew should have when in the field.
Having these parts as well as the ability to
Remove fishing line, rope, etc. from perform repair tasks may mean the difference
between being able to complete the required
work and being delayed for a day or more.
Changing the lower-unit oil on the
outboard motor
lower unit (may require removing
propeller)
-------
Figure 2-13. The proper positioning of an outboard motor when preparing it for storage.
Table 2-4. Protocol for the Minimum Steps to be j
taken in Mp|o,r Storage Preparation. 4
Jf the engine is not vertically oriented, j
reposition the engine to assure that the engine^
is drained of water. :
: ::"- :::-:::,! - j ]
Pull the spark plugs and spray a liberal amount,
of fogging oil into the spark plug holes. (Note: *
If fogging oil is unavailable, WD-40TM can be £
'Ssed'" as a'substitute). ( 1
I,-t;,,^ ,^.^^,,^t' - i-Tf nTT ™ -r~r- T jft~r i HIV'li 4 ^r i ^Tml|
vith the spark plugs still removed, slowly j
rdHte the flywheel several revolutions to j
distribute me oil and to drain'water firom the.
; water pump.
ke-install the spark plugs and tighten to <
iil||§pecjficatipns. ' ' |
tame 2-5, ProtpcoWpr Properly Storing Small
*'5tofs With internal Gas Tanks
«•* .
Drain fuemom the engine, fuel pipes, fuel cock
and carburetor anil clean parts
*» JI# VflM" rti ™^^&,*l* «fjj™mn^ * *& w »
A
* rtrk V
|) ^)ptional Disassemble the carburetor, remove
^any internal dust, and clean it using gasoline and
,~ t jiH *jt^ jjai« j^jjj K ^^ ^ i ^ «i i
Remoye the^ spark plugpid feed engine oil (1
^^e^poon)^ oFstor^^ "fogging jpil dorough the
; sparlc pfug hole Slowly pull the starting rope a
:"" few times to circulafe the oil to the internal parts *
h *u WA^,^ ^^Msfc. mi& ^ Jfc ^ 01 V<^. ^ **&
" -- - ~~
~
Kk A mm, tjiw^ ««i ^ * ±? > *»*• ® u *t i „
4) Remove the propeller, clean the shaft and apply
fc«* t.*.*.«i ,. «— j* fj»- -. «« - »"••'••'
the propeller shaft
., j; F, _ - „, . v. , ,
rchange th*e gear7)irin the gear case"
t tit*. A * Jr
*
i Apply grease to all sliding parts, bolts and nuts
Cover the engine to protect it fiom dust,
stand jthe outboar|l vertically in a dry, well-
fVentilated area. „,,'
1
-------
• spare spark-plugs for the boat motors
• spare emergency motor kill-clip for
outboard boat motor
• spare gas hose for outboard motor
2.7 Overview of Field
Maintenance and Repair
Personnel conducting field research will
eventually be confronted with the task of con-
ducting field repairs. A crew's ability to suc-
cessfully execute such repairs will depend on
a combination of the nature of the repair job,
a crew's combined experience, and available
tools and hardware. Additionally, field crews
engaged in research that requires extended
periods of travel will need to conduct regular
maintenance activities on equipment. Essen-
tial to both of these tasks is a well-equipped
tool box and repair kit (Figure 2-14).
Two general approaches can be adopted
when amassing tools and hardware for boat-
able river research. The first approach is to
have a downsized kit (Table 2-6) which will
be primarily kept in the boat and used while
conducting the research and one larger tool
kit (Table 2-7) which is kept in the vehicle
used for towing the boat. The actual compo-
sition of the downsized tool kits will vary with
the type of research being conducted by a boat
crew. The advantages of this approach are:
1) more tools and hardware can be housed
without adding to a boat's weight, 2) tools are
better maintained because they are less fre-
quently exposed to the elements and 3) a
single large tool kit does not take up exces-
sive space in the boat(s). The disadvantage
of this approach is that fewer tools are avail-
able to affect repairs without returning to the
vehicle.
Figure 2-14. A collection of tools that may be needed for field repairs of vehicles, boats, motors,
trailers and/or sampling equipment.
1'X 44 '.
-------
T,abJeJ:6. Tools Suggested for a Small Basic j
III Mill III III |ll IIII
Basic ^oat-Based
Tool Kit
Basic Truck-Based
Channel-lock Phers Adjustable Wrench
WN.'*&SH ^iimf'M « sisi! m, m:stf> • i in e/; 4111 , I
•#?aiii%nanKpr; Kit loaifi K«lSi»i^;i";;W!i»;t?:iTii|
^ilj^liSll-'! * -.i/.; Ssiltes m J
< i 1,|il, dinliiiJll|i||l
-------
2.8 The Towing Vehicle
2.8.1 Tools Specific to
the Towing Vehicle
Before traveling, the crews should be
supplied with the basic tools and equipment
needed for any motorized vehicle. Jumper
cables are one of the most important pieces
of equipment to have in the vehicle. It is im-
portant to note that the vehicle's battery is
more susceptible to being drained when the
crew is using a portable freezer for the stor-
age of certain samples. Another important
piece of equipment to have in the vehicle is a
winch strap. This can be used to free the ve-
hicle if it becomes stuck in the mud. How-
ever, it is not necessary if the vehicle is
equipped with an electric winch.
2,8.2 Towing Vehicle
Maintenance Notes:
Above and beyond normal maintenance
activities, there are a few items which should
be monitored on vehicles used for boat-based
field research.
• Check the oil level on the towing vehicle
every time the vehicle is refueled.
• Check the tire pressure on the tow-
ing vehicle every time the vehicle is
refueled.
• Check tires for punctures or cuts after
each off road activity.
-------
Section 3
Safety
by
Bradley C. Autrey and Gerilyn Ahlers
3.1 Introduction
There are many safety hazards associ-
ated with biological sampling on beatable riv-
ers. These hazards are encountered when
working in inclement weather (e.g., heat
stroke, hypothermia), on bodies of water (e.g.,
drowning), or with sampling equipment (e.g.,
electrical shock). Therefore, it is important that
stringent safety guidelines be established for
every aspect of field sampling. These guide-
lines should be established before the begin-
ning of field sampling and integrated into
crew training. If safety is treated as an essen-
tial part of field work and crew training, the
threat of hazards can be minimized and the
safety of sampling crews maximized.
Many hazards can be avoided by mak-
ing inexperienced crew members aware of
possible hazards and emphasizing the impor-
tance of strictly adhering to established safety
guidelines. It is the responsibility of the
project's coordinator or planner to provide the
safety training necessary to give crew mem-
bers the knowledge needed to be safe during
the field season (see Section 5.3.2). The
American Red Cross (1989), the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(1981), U.S. Coast Guard (1987), Ohio EPA
(1990), and Lazorchak et al. (1998) provide
information useful for safety training. Once
field work begins, the responsibility of pro-
viding the safest possible working conditions
lies with the crew leader, but the responsibil-
ity of adhering to safety guidelines ultimately
lies with each individual crew member.
It is important that crew members be
aware of and take a common sense approach
to safety hazards that are not closely associ-
ated with field work but may be encountered
in the field. These safety hazards include, but
are not limited to, venomous snakes, poison
ivy, stray dogs, and illegal human activities.
While these safety hazards can be serious in
nature, they can all be avoided if the crews
are aware of their presence.
3.2 General Field Safety
3.2.1 Heavy Equipment
Field work often includes tasks that re-
quire physical exertion. When river access is
not convenient, crews may be required to carry
-------
heavy equipment, including boats and motors
to the river. It is important for crew members
to recognize their individual limits for lifting
and carrying equipment. Heavy equipment
should be carried by two or more people.
When lifting heavy objects, crew members
should bend at the knees, not the waist, and
lift with the legs, not the back. Back strain
can easily occur and cause an individual to
work in discomfort or be forced to not work
at all. Most importantly, crew members must
be aware of the effort they are exerting and
the terrain they are traversing when carrying
equipment. If a crew member falls while strug-
gling with a piece of heavy equipment, such
as a boat, serious injuries can be incurred.
In addition to lifting and carrying haz-
ards, heavy equipment can present other haz-
ards to crew members. When working with
heavy objects in the boat (e.g., anchor, ponar
grabs), crew members should be mindful of
the other people in the boat. Careless handling
of such an object can result in a serious in-
jury. Also moving heavy equipment within
the boat has the potential of unbalancing the
boat. In order to avoid this hazard, crew mem-
bers should alert the other crew members
prior to the movement, remain low in the boat
and be careful not to shift large amounts of
weight quickly.
3,2.2 Field Attire
Usually, the most appropriate field attire
will depend on the weather. If the tempera-
ture is high, then field crews should be most
concerned with protecting themselves from
the sun, dehydration, and heat exhaustion/
stroke. But when temperatures are low, hy-
pothermia and frostbite should be the primary
concern. However, there are a few principles
of safe field attire which should always be
followed.
Many injuries can be avoided by simply
wearing appropriate attire. Open-toed shoes,
while comfortable, leave toes vulnerable to
injury from rocks, propellers, dropped equip-
ment, or a myriad of other hazards. Likewise,
long pants may not be as comfortable as short
pants while sampling during the summer
months, but will better protect the legs from
injuries and irritants (e.g., poison ivy).
If research requires crew members to
wade in the river, it may be advisable for them
to wear waders. Because many pathogens
may be present in the water, keeping the river
water separated from the skin is the safest
course of action. If crew members wear wad-
ers, they should make sure that they fit prop-
erly and do not restrict movement. If a crew
member is wearing chest waders and inad-
vertently wades into water that is too deep,
falls while wading in the river or falls out of
the boat, water will go over the top of waders
and fill them. If this occurs, the weight of the
water in the waders may pull the crew mem-
ber underwater, creating a serious danger. This
hazard can be avoided by wearing a belt, at
waist level, on the outside of waders. This
will prevent the water from completely fill-
ing the waders and avert a potentially disas-
trous situation. Also, the suspenders on the
waders should not be worn so tight so that
the waders could not be quickly removed in
the event of such an emergency.
If field sampling will be taking place in
heavily wooded areas or areas with recre-
ational activity, crew members should wear
brightly-colored clothing. This will allow
them to be more easily seen by the other
people using the area. Also, long sleeves
should be worn in wooded areas in order to
provide protection from hazards such as poi-
son ivy and ticks. After returning from work-
ing in wooded areas, field workers should
-------
thoroughly inspect themselves for ticks. Any
ticks found should be removed as soon as it
is possible.
3.2.2.1 Eye Protection
There are many times when some eye
protection should be worn. When working
outside during daylight hours, it is advisable
for crew members to wear sun glasses in or-
der to protect their eyes from harmful UV rays
(Figure 3-1). When working in heavily
wooded areas, sun glasses or safety goggles
should be worn in order to protect the eyes
from abrasions. In addition, eye protection
should be worn when crew members are
working with substances that may be harm-
ful if splashed into the eyes (e.g., formalin).
3.2.2.2 Hearing Protection
Under certain circumstances, hearing
protection will be required for field workers.
It may be advisable for the person operating
the boat motor to wear hearing protection.
When a generator is being used (i.e., during
electroshocking) hearing protection is required
for all personnel in the boat (Figure 3-1).
3.2.3 Electrical Shock
The use of certain sampling devices re-
quire a great deal of training and care.
Electrofishing equipment, in particular, can be
a danger to those using it. All crew members
working with or around electrofishing equip-
ment must be trained by personnel experi-
enced in its proper use. Crew members should
be specifically aware of the proper set up and
maintenance of the electrofishing equipment,
as well as the protective clothing and gloves
to be worn while this equipment is in use (Fig-
ure 3-1). Section 3.4 contains more informa-
tion about electrofishing equipment and elec-
trical shock.
Figure 3-1. A member of afield crew removes fish from the river during a fish sampling effort in which
electroshocking equipment is being used. Note that the crew member is wearing hearing protection, eye
protection, a life jacket, an orange safety vest, protective gloves and protective waders. The gloves and
waders help to protect the crew member from electric shock.
-------
3.2.4 Communication
An important safety feature that should
be built into the field sampling work plan is
the establishment of strong communication
lines. The telephone numbers of all person-
nel, especially those who work from the home
base should be provided to all crew members.
If crews are not returning to the home base
daily, they should contact home-based per-
sonnel on a daily basis. If possible, each field
crew should be supplied with a cellular tele-
phone. In addition, field crews should be sup-
plied with the telephone numbers of local law
enforcement contacts and local emergency
medical services. If these numbers are not
readily available, "911" can be dialed in the
event of an emergency.
3.2.5 Safety on the Road
While driving to and from sampling sites,
it is important that the driver and passengers
keep safety as the highest priority. Every per-
son in the vehicle must wear seat belts. The
driver and passengers should always be aware
of and avoid the potential driving hazards
around them. It may be helpful if the persons
responsible for driving during the project take
a course in defensive driving before the field
season begins.
When sampling large rivers, it is usually
necessary to tow a boat and a trailer, further
increasing the potential for traffic hazards. In
order to ensure safe trailering, the proper trailer
and hitching equipment must be in proper
working order and properly installed, the ve-
hicle must be of the proper weight and power
for the task, and the driver should be experi-
enced in trailer towing.
Most trailers, hitches, and vehicles have
capacity labels which indicate the maximum
weight that each can safely negotiate. These
weights should never be exceeded. In addi-
tion to the hitching mechanism on the trailer,
safety chains should be crossed and attached
to the vehicle in a location that is secure but
separate from the bracket that secures the
hitching ball. It is crucial that the driver con-
duct an inspection of the trailer before each
trip. Table 3-1 is a suggested checklist of items
that should be inspected and maintained on a
daily basis. Items that should be inspected
include the trailer's wheels, axle, frame, bear-
ings, tires, brake lights, turn signals and spare
tire. Crew members who are experienced at
towing a trailer and boat should be the pri-
mary drivers. Inexperienced drivers should be
particularly aware of the hazards associated
with backing and trailering. It may be helpful
for inexperienced crew members to practice
ihle_3-U Suggested Daily Checklist for frailer
tions.
ection
Action, ,
fail lights *" " Check that the lights for
_..._.!",.'/'"." „','_.,,',',„/"*„'"-' ,'.11•"';'"'. J^niKsS; turn, si^ncils,
—working.
and jail lights are
_..
SScesL
Check air pressure, tread
; : : «'.•• - and lugnuts. Check for
to,the wheels,
irQWffls of the tires.
ipare^ire Make sure it is present, j
"'l";'''"'" ''•""'''" " ':~""Tl :J" "slcufSl, properly inflated, 1
S^lii^j'SS: ^iM^feiepfly treaded, able j
:::::vT,:~:~-r;77" to fit on the trailer, and J
..-.. th^t the crew's lug wrench j
.^^^L^-^iiii±:.^iil .fitJ1?. lugnuts on the _j
^,;.,.,.....,:. - .'^"rzrr^... trgfe. ^^^.... __ .~' j
WJtieel^beajcings Periodically lubricate. d
I
i, light connection J
;H''aric| safety chain are all in '
frailer connection Check to make sure that
'& .securely attached to the
'
P"1"";^^^:™""^
-------
backing and other trailering skills in a low-
risk area such as an empty parking lot. While
towing a trailer, it is important to always re-
member that it is there and the hazards it pre-
sents. Driving speed should be reduced in
order to compensate for the added hazard of
a trailer and it is advisable to stop periodically
hi order to check the temperature of the wheel
bearings and the security of the boat ties.
Additional instructions for the proper care and
maintenance of trailers can be found in Sec-
tion 2, Equipment, Maintenance, and Field
Repairs.
3.2.6 Chemical Safety
Field crews are routinely required to
work with chemicals. Because improper ex-
posure to some chemicals can present poten-
tial health risks to those individuals, all pre-
cautions must be observed.
3.2.6.1 Formalin
Formalin, which is often used to preserve
biological samples, is a potentially hazardous
chemical that members of a field crew may
be required to use. It is a colorless liquid with
a pungent odor that can be fatal if ingested
and can irritate skin and eyes if contacted. If
formalin vapors are inhaled, they can cause
irritation, headache, unconsciousness, nausea
or vomiting. Long term exposure to formalin
is suspected to be carcinogenic. Crew mem-
bers can circumvent the adverse effects of
working with formalin by avoiding ingesting
the chemical; wearing chemical resistant safety
gloves, chemical safety goggles, and protec-
tive clothing; and by using the chemical in a
well-ventilated area. If formalin comes in con-
tact with the skin or eyes, the exposed areas
should be flushed with water for 15 minutes.
If a crew member is overexposed to formalin
vapors, he/she should be moved to an area
that is well-ventilated and medical assistance
should be sought. If a crew member ingests
formalin, medical treatment should be sought
immediately.
3.2.6.2 Ethanol
Ethanol, like formalin, is used by the field
crews to preserve some biological samples. It
is a clear liquid that is a potentially hazardous
chemical and the members of the field crew
should be aware of these hazards. The pri-
mary concern when using ethanol is its flam-
mable nature. It should be kept away from
high temperatures, sparks and open flames.
Ethanol vapors, which are also flammable,
may be moved by air currents, and therefore,
present a further fire hazard. Ethanol can
cause irritation when contacting the skin and
can cause irritation or blindness when con-
tacting the eyes. Ingestion of ethanol or inha-
lation of ethanol vapors can cause headaches
or nausea. Crew members can avoid the ad-
verse effects of ethanol by using it in a well-
ventilated areas; wearing chemical resistant
gloves, chemical safety goggles and protec-
tive clothing, and by washing the hands thor-
oughly after ethanol has been handled. If etha-
nol contacts the eyes, they should be irrigated
with water for 15 minutes and medical atten-
tion should be sought. If ethanol contacts the
skin, it should be immediately flushed with
water. If the vapors are inhaled to the point of
overexposure, the crew member should be
moved to a well-ventilated area, artificial res-
piration should be given, if needed, and medi-
cal attention should be sought. If ethanol is
ingested, vomiting should be induced and
medical attention should be sought. If etha-
nol ignites, a water spray, dry chemical, car-
bon dioxide, or alcohol foam extinguisher
should be used. A direct water stream should
not be used to extinguish an ethanol fire be-
cause it will only serve to further spread the
fire.
|p=!3!;^
-------
3.2.6.3 Gasoline
Gasoline is a chemical compound that
crews are required to use when working with
outboard motors or generators such as those
used for electroshocking. Like ethanol, the
primary safety concern when working with
gasoline is its flammable nature. It has the
potential to be explosive and should, there-
fore, never be kept near extreme heat, open
flames or sparks. Because gasoline is so vola-
tile, it should never be kept in a container that
was not specifically designed to store gaso-
line. Inhalation of gasoline vapors can irritate
the mucous membranes, induce the onset of
pneumonia and cause narcosis. Prolonged
inhalation of gasoline vapors can affect the
peripheral nervous system and blood alter-
ations. Exposure of gasoline to skin or eyes
can cause irritation and dermatitis. Ingestion
of gasoline can cause a number of gastrointes-
tinal disturbances and can be fatal. Long term
exposure to gasoline is suspected to be carci-
nogenic. Crew members can avoid the adverse
health effects of working with gasoline by
keeping it in a proper storage container. If
gasoline must be handled outside of the proper
storage container, the crew member should
work in a well-ventilated area; wear imper-
meable gloves, safety goggles, and protective
clothing; and thoroughly wash any exposed
areas prior to eating, drinking, or the use of
toilet facilities. If gasoline contacts the eye, it
should be flushed with water for 15 minutes.
If the skin is contacted with gasoline, it should
be thoroughly washed with soap and water.
If the fumes are inhaled to the point of over-
exposure, the crew member should be re-
moved to a well-ventilated area, artificial res-
piration should be given, if necessary, and
medical attention should be sought. If gaso-
line is ingested, the crew member should be
given a dose of vegetable oil to prevent ab-
sorption and medical attention should be
sought immediately. Vomiting should not be
induced. If gasoline ignites, it should be ex-
tinguished with a Class B medium such as
foam, carbon dioxide or a dry chemical.
3.2.6.4 Material Safety
Data Sheets (MSDS)
A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
provides the crew members with the proper
procedures for handling or working with a
substance. It includes information such as the
physical data, toxicity, health effects, first aid
procedures, reactivity to other substances,
storage and disposal procedures, needed pro-
tective equipment, and spiU and leak proce-
dures. The MSDS for substances that crew
members are required to use must be made
available to the crew members by the project
planner. The MSDS for each substance can
be obtained from the manufacturer of the sub-
stance.
3.3 Boating Safety
The U.S. Coast Guard or a state boating
official can provide a copy of the rules and
regulations for boat operation. These rules
should be strictly followed because most of
them were created in order to increase the
level of safety enjoyed by boaters. Table 3-2
lists some of the general rules for safe boat-
ing. Each of these rules is vital to the assur-
ance of crew safety.
In most states, boats with motors are re-
quired to have fire extinguishers, life jackets
or floatation cushions, flares or communica-
tion devices, and boat horns. Section 2 of this
document provides a more detailed list of the
tools and safety equipment that should be on
board boats.
-------
Efable 3-2. General Boating Safety.
P> . 111* . , i ...
• the proper equipment and know how to use •,
ep the equipment in proper working order. ;
familiar with the laws concerning boatj
Operations." j
'! •;;• '"',>" ; • • .,, j
Operate boat with care, courtesy and common j
laintain complete control of the boat at ail times.
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,fe jackets must always be worn by everyone in j
he-boat.
[jen the bqat is in motion, all passengers must be 1
paled.
iy.oidiioyerloac}ing the boat.
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pp lifesaving and emergency equipment 1
Jj
3.3.1 General Boating
Safety
Because the ecological sampling of large
rivers is generally conducted from a boat, it is
essential that field crews be prepared with the
general knowledge of how to work in and
around boats. This knowledge and its proper
application will help prevent accidents from
occurring in a relatively inhospitable environ-
ment. In order to ensure that someone can
operate the boat during an emergency, at least
two crew members should have sufficient
training and knowledge to safely handle the
boat.
Boats used to sample large rivers are
often relatively small and this feature should
be taken into consideration during operation.
Because of the nature of large rivers, field
crews may encounter boats which are con-
siderably larger, faster and/or less maneuver-
able. Under normal circumstances, the safest
action for the sampling boat would be to yield
to other water crafts. Cargo ships, river tows,
barges and other large vessels are very re-
stricted in their ability to stop and turn, and
will probably not be able to steer clear of a
small boat. Therefore, when in restricted
channels, these larger vessels should be kept
at a maximum distance from the sampling
boat. Some heavily-loaded ships pull in strong
currents and leave large wakes. When en-
countering such a ship, it may be safer to take
the sampling boat to shore and wait until the
disturbance has settled.
Small boats, while easier to handle and
maneuver, can be unsteady, especially if the
crew is not accustomed to working in small
boats. While a crew member is boarding the
boat from the water, it is advisable for the other
crew members to shift their weight to the op-
posite side. During operations, crews should
be seated close to the centerline and should
remain seated while the boat is in motion.
Care should be taken to ensure that a
boat is never overloaded. The Coast Guard
requires that boats be outfitted with a capac-
ity plate which states the maximum safe num-
ber of people or carrying weight, and the
maximum safe horsepower for the boat. In
rougher water, the safe carrying capacity of
the boat is decreased. An overloaded boat is
generally off balance and has a higher risk of
capsizing. Weight should be evenly distrib-
uted in the boat with special care taken to
avoid placing heavy loads near the bow. When
the boat is in motion, too much weight in the
bow may cause it to dip thereby causing the
boat to take on water. If a boat begins to take
on water over the bow, slowly stop the boat
and redistribute the weight.
-------
If the boat begins to take on water from
a loss of structural integrity, an attempt should
be made to stop the leak and proceed to shore.
Many objects on board, such as a bucket, an
ice chest, or an emptied tool box, can be used
to bail water from the boat and may make the
difference between sinking and staying afloat.
There should not be unnecessary ropes
tied to the side of the boat. If ropes tied to the
side of the boat hang on the outside, they have
the potential to become entangled in objects
in the water and present a very real threat to
the integrity of the boat and the safety of the
crew.
When anchoring, slowly lower the an-
chor to the bottom, then allow the boat's drift
to set the anchor. In order for the anchor to
properly hold, approximately five meters of
anchor rope are needed for every one meter
of distance from the boat to the river bed. In
windy or wavy conditions, a 7:1 ratio is rec-
ommended. Never tie a boat to buoys or other
navigation aids. It is both dangerous and ille-
gal.
When planning a trip or day on the wa-
ter, the " 1/3 Rule" for fuel consumption should
be used. The" 1/3 Rule" states that trips should
be planned with enough fuel so that 1/3 will
be used going and 1/3 will be used returning.
This will leave another 1/3 in reserve for those
times when wind, waves, or drift make the
running time longer than expected. However,
there should always be a pair of oars on board
in case there is not enough gasoline.
All maneuvers in and around other boats,
piers, and docks should be done slowly and
skillfully. Dams, however, pose an extreme
danger to boats in their vicinity. They are
among the common hazards encountered on
large rivers and should be avoided. The up-
stream side of low-head dams can be particu-
larly hazardous because they can be difficult
to see even from a close distance (Figure 3-
2).
The operation of boats at night is much
more hazardous than their operation during
daylight. If boats are operated at night, they
should be operated at reduced speeds and with
greater caution. The operation of boats at night
require that they be outfitted with not only
the proper lights needed to see hazards in the
water, but also with the proper lights needed
to be seen by other water crafts.
3.3.2 Drowning
Each crew member must be assigned a
properly-fitting life jacket. The straps should
be secure and adjusted properly. When in the
boat, all crew members should always wear
their life jackets.
Crews should be familiar with the proper
procedures in the event that a crew member
falls out of the boat. It is generally recom-
mended that the following four steps be fol-
lowed in this order. First, reach for the person
with a hand, life jacket, belt, oar, or thalweg
pole. If reaching fails to retrieve the person,
then throw a floating object, such as a seat
cushion, life jacket, plastic bottle, water jug,
or ice chest to the person. However, if the
person is too far away to reach by throwing a
floating object, then row toward the person.
If oars are not available, use your hands or
any other means necessary to row the boat. If
exhausting the first three options does not re-
trieve the person from the water, the last op-
tion is for another crew member to go into
the water. This is the most hazardous of the
four options because it puts two people in
danger and therefore, should only be used
when all other options have proven to be un-
successful. Because of thedangers associated
with this life-saving option, the crew mem-
-------
Figure 3-2. A low-head dam can be a hazard during a field effort. They are particularly hazardous
because they are difficult to see from the water.
her who goes into the water should be a
strong swimmer and should have some train-
ing in retrieving a drowning person.
If the victim must be retrieved by boat,
it is best to approach the person in the water
from the upwind or up-current direction and
the propeller should be disengaged. The per-
son should be brought on board over the boat's
stern. Care should be taken to make sure that
the rescue boat does not become overloaded.
Crews should review and practice this
drill before beginning the sampling season.
See Section 3.4, Cardiopulmonary Resusci-
tation, to review the procedures for treating a
drowning victim.
3.3.3 Storms (Nielson
and Johnson 1992)
Because locally severe storms are not
always predicted, crew members should
know how to interpret the clouds. Cumu-
lonimbus clouds are towering clouds with an
anvil-shaped leading edge at the top and a
churning, rolling bottom edge. A dark area
between the clouds and the earth indicates
approaching rain, hail, or lightning. Some
time should be spent by crew members learn-
ing or reviewing the sky characteristics that
may indicate potential weather problems.
Lightening is one dangerous feature of
thunderstorms. The best course of action to
avoid the dangers of lightening is to remain
away from the water during thunderstorms.
Strong winds and rapidly-rising water
are also dangerous features of thunderstorms.
The typically-small boats used for sampling
large rivers should avoid these conditions
when possible. If there is a doubt of the safety
of the crew during storm conditions, the crew
should leave the river as soon as possible. If
returning to the access point is not possible,
then a sheltered location should be located.
Making headway in rough water requires a
-------
great deal of both experience and skill. The
boat should approach waves slowly at a 45o
angle. The approach angle can be varied to
maximize progress and minimize roughness.
When the boat is flooded, it will probably re-
main floating and crew members should usu-
ally stay with the boat. Remaining with the
boat will enable the crew members to con-
serve body heat and will afford them more
protection from drowning than being afloat
in a rapidly-rising river.
3.3.4 Boat Rescues
If another boat is in distress, immediate
action must be taken. If the sampling boat is
unable to serve as a rescue vessel, then some-
one with a capable vessel should be contacted
as soon as possible. When the emergency
calls for people to be rescued from the water,
follow the guidelines given in Section 3.2.2.
Towing another boat can be an extremely
dangerous operation and should, therefore,
only be attempted when absolutely necessary
and both boats are structurally "able to man-
age the strain. In calm waters, towing the boat
by tightly securing it beside the rescue boat is
the best route. However, hi rough water, the
disabled boat should be towed behind the tow
boat. One end of a towline should be attached
to the towing craft as far toward the bow as
possible and the other end should be attached
to the bow eye of the disabled boat. Before
attaching either end of the towline, inspect the
points of attachment to ensure that they will
be able to withstand the strain. The length of
the towline should be proportionate to the
roughness of the water. The towing boat
should proceed at a slow and controlled speed
and remain constantly aware of the reactions
of the disabled boat.
3.4 First Aid
It is important that some or all of the
members of each sampling crew receive some
formal first aid training. Below are some ba-
sic first aid instructions which may aid in re-
freshing the memory of a crew member who
has already received some teaming. This sec-
tion is not intended as, and should not be used
as, a comprehensive training manual.
First aid is the initial care of the injured
or sick. It is administered as soon as possible
after an accident or illness. This prompt care
may mean the difference between life and
death, or between a full and partial recovery.
If possible, it is best to bring first aid to the
patient. Moving an injured person may cause
additional injuries.
3.4.1 Cuts and
Bleeding
In most cases, the application of pres-
sure to a wound is sufficient to stop the flow
of blood. However, in severe cases such as
when major veins or arteries have been dam-
aged, more vigorous steps may be required
to stop the flow of blood. Table 3-3 lists the
steps suggested to stop serious bleeding. Small
cuts and scrapes usually don't require profes-
sional medical treatment, but proper care is
necessary to keep infections or other compli-
cations from occurring. Infectious agents such
as viruses, bacteria, rickettsia, fungi, or para-
sites may be present in the water that is being
sampled. Special care should be taken when
the portion of the river being sampled is known
or suspected to be pollutedwith sewage or
other biological waste. Table 3-4 contains the
suggested steps for treating small cuts and
scrapes.
3.4.2 Bruises
Bruises, caused by bleeding beneath the
skin, usually occur after a blow or a fall. If
the skin is not broken, a bandage is not nec-
essary. However, the effects of the bruise can
-------
Fable 3-3. Treatment For Serious Bleeding.
1
fte injured person should lay on a stable surface. If possible, blood flow to the brain is increased by ;|
KJsitioning trie person so that his/her head is slightly lower than the trunk of his/her body or his/her legs are ]
ste-vated. The flow of blood from the wound should be reduced by elevating the site of bleeding.
I
fteady, firm pressure should be applied directly to the wound using a sterile bandage, a clean cloth, or a j
land. Pressure should be maintained until the bleeding stops, then the wound is wrapped with a tight ]
'lessing and secured with adhesive tape. Most bleeding can be controlled this way. Professional medical ]
eatment should be sought as soon as it is possible. 1
[the bleeding continues and seeps through the bandage, more absorbent material should be added without j
emoving the first bandage.
; severe bleeding, pressure should be applied to the major artery that delivers blood to the area of the j
Jury. The pressure points are illustrated in most first aid manuals and include the neck, armpits and groin. ^
!, , ., , , , u i, ,' , ,i ,, "-„.„' «„!,. r,,,,,,,^,,, ",':',, , |
hen the bleeding has stopped, the injured portion of the body should be immobilized. Another part of the
dy, such as a leg or torso, can be used to immobilize the area. The bandages should be left in place and the '
hjured person should be taken for professional medical treatment as soon as it is possible.
be diminished by elevating the injured area
and applying ice or cold packs for 30 to 60
minutes each day for the first few days fol-
lowing the injury. Bruises accompanied by
persistent pain or headache may indicate a
more serious underlying illness and require
professional medical attention.
3.4.3 Puncture Wounds
A puncture wound usually results in little
blood flow and the surface of the wound, in
most cases, closes almost instantly. However,
puncture wounds are dangerous not because
of the threat of blood loss, but because the
object that punctured the skin may carry bac-
teria that can cause serious infections and the
depth of the wound may prevent topical anti-
biotics from being effective. A puncture
wound should be treated by first stopping any
bleeding by applying pressure with a sterile
gauze pad or clean cloth. Professional medi-
cal treatment should then be sought in order
to prevent infections. A tetanus booster may
be necessary.
3.4.4 Heat Emergencies
Field personnel working in excessive
heat are potentially in danger of suffering a
heat emergency. When working in hot
weather, a larger portion of a person's circu-
lation is directed to the blood vessels in the
skin which enables heat to be radiated from
the body: However, during times of exces-
sively high temperatures or excessively long
periods of exposure to heat, the ability to con-
trol body temperature is lost and the person
can suffer from one of the following three
types of heat emergencies: heat cramps, heat
exhaustion, or heat stroke. Each of these heat
emergencies has a different set of symptoms,
a different set of treatments, and a different
level of urgency. Individuals can avoid being
victims of these heat emergencies by mini-
mizing their direct exposure to the sun and
by drinking plenty of fluids. Table 3-5 lists
the symptoms and treatments for the three
types of heat emergencies, usually in the legs
and abdomen, extreme exhaustion, and pos-
sibly dizziness or periods of faintness.
-------
&ule3-4. TreatmenjT^For^ JAmor^C^^And
4 -Scrapes.
Tie bleeding should be stopped by applying
rSssure to the wound using a gauze pad or clean
loth.
' J f v
; wound should be kept clean by washing the
xeajwithjsoap and water and removing any debris."
Tie area should then be dried gently with a clean',
iqth, treated with an anti-bacterial agent (e.g.
[Dpropyl alcohol) and covered with a protective'
jmdage. ^ ' *
je bandage should" *be changed at least once a:
ayTlfthe wound* becomes tenSer and reef or oozes ^
iuid seek professional medical tFeatment.
I
Treatments include cooling the patient,
giving salted water or sports drinks to the pa-
tient, and easing the patient's cramps by mas-
sage. Although it is likely that the victim of
heat cramps will resist taking fluids, it should
be strongly encouraged by those administer-
ing the treatment.
3.4.4.1 Heat Cramps
After a long period of exposure to heat,
an individual's loss of both water and salts
due to sweating can bring on painful muscle
cramps. Symptoms include cramps
3.4.4.2 Heat Exhaustion
Heat exhaustion occurs when the circu-
latory system begins to fail as blood collects
near the skin in an effort to rid the body of
excess heat. Symptoms include rapid and
shallow breathing, a weak pulse, cold and
clammy skin with heavy perspiration, weak-
ness, and dizziness sometimes leading to un-
consciousness.
Treatments include moving the patient
to a cool place, making sure the patient rests,
TabIe3-5. Symptoms And Treatments For Heat Emergencies.
L- < ."1,.»t^'««.r-,.,f <••"•- .
Jeat Emergency Symptoms
' Treatment
Sfeat Cramps
ie_atjjxhaustion
Cramps (usually in the legs
Efeat Stroke
, E'xhaiistion^
Possibly dizziness or faintness
Rapid and shallow breathing
' * "^ %Weakfpulse
^ ,._*, t: Coid and clammy skin
* " "- Heavy Perspiration
«* \\[eaknes,s andjlizziness
, 4 ,. (possible unconsciousness)
*.' * ,!'/"' ' ' 3 % „- •
Deep breaths followed by
ff shallow breaths
**' Rapid strong^pufse followed by
t a rapid weak pulse
* Hot, dry skin
Dilated pupils
Unconsciousness
Convulsions
Cool the patient
Administer fluids (salted water or sports
^drinks)
Massage the cramped areas
Move the patient to a cool place
Cool the patient
_ _Resi the patient
Adminlster'fluids (salted water or sports
drinks)
Treat as a shock victim but do not cover
^ ^ H^P -JL ^ ^ *
Immediate professional medical treatment
Cool the patient as rapidly as possible
" (e.g. ice packs)
Treat as a shock victim but do not cover
-------
cooling the patient, giving the patient salted
water or sports drinks. Although it is likely
that the victim of heat exhaustion will resist
taking fluids, it should be strongly encouraged
by those administering the treatment. The
patient should be treated as a shock victim
with the exception that heat exhaustion pa-
tients should not be covered. If the field crew
is in a remote area, an option for quickly cool-
ing a victim of heat exhaustion is placing him/
her in a shaded portion of the river. Cool wa-
ter has the ability to quickly draw heat away
from the body.
3.4.4.3 Heat Stroke
Heat stroke is a serious emergency. All
cases of heat stroke require that the patient to
be sent to a medical facility as quickly as pos-
sible. Symptoms include deep breaths fol-
lowed by shallow breathing, a rapid strong
pulse followed by a rapid weak pulse, skin
that is hot and dry, dilated pupils, loss of con-
sciousness, and convulsions. Treatments in-
clude cooling the patient as rapidly and in any
manner possible including placing ice packs
under the armpits, and at each wrist and ankle.
As with heat exhaustion, the patient should
be treated as a shock victim with the excep-
tion that heat stroke patients should not be
covered.
3.4.5 Hypothermia
Hypothermia occurs when the core body
temperature decreases to a level such that
normal muscular and cerebral functions are
impaired. Conditions which may lead to hy-
pothermia include cold temperatures, im-
proper clothing and equipment, wetness, fa-
tigue, exhaustion, dehydration, poor nutrition,
and alcohol intake.
While hypothermia normally occurs at
below-freezing conditions, any ambient tem-
perature below 37°C may lead to hypother-
mia. Cool water has the ability to quickly draw
heat away from the body (25 times faster than
air). Therefore, prolonged submersion in cool
water can lead to hypothermia. The time re-
quired for hypothermia to occur shortens as
the water temperature decreases. Table 3-6
lists the symptoms and treatments for the three
levels of hypothermia.
3.4.5.1 Mild Hypothermia
Mild hypothermia occurs when the core
body temperature is between 35 and 37°C.
Symptoms of mild hypothermia include in-
voluntary shivering and the inability to per-
form complex motor functions. A person suf-
fering from mild hypothermia can still walk
and talk.
3.4.5.2 Moderate
Hypothermia
Moderate hypothermia occurs when the
core body temperature is between 33.9 and
35 °C. Symptoms of moderate hypothermia
include dazed consciousness, loss of fine
motor coordination, slurred speech, violent
shivering, and irrational behavior.
3.4.5.3 Severe Hypothermia
Severe hypothermia occurs when the
core body temperature is between 30 and
33.9°C. Core body temperatures below 30°C
are immediately life threatening. Symptoms
of severe hypothermia include violent shiv-
ering that occurs in waves, the inability to
walk, muscle rigidity, pale skin, dilated pu-
pils, and decreased pulse rate.
3.4.5.4 Treating
Hypothermia
The basic principles of rewarming a hy-
pothermic victim are to conserve the heat they
t
-it,
,i,a
-------
U
fable 3-6. Symptoms and Treatments for the Three Levels of Hypothermia.
3 i, , * ' v r * it * *« #«n if» <*' .'! jtrationalbehavior" ^ .
^ f j J "2 " * W 7" t™ ^ IMl^f" ^^^T^ ^ ^*' *^^
«% ^f ^ f ^ ^ *\ V^ =" »* ^ ^*'fo M ^ » K W^"^ ^ n^l*^ *% J ^
Severe Hypothermia Violent shivering hi waves
,_, Inability to walk
- -1 Aiuscle rigidity
" , Pale skin "" ^ T~_-->
i .s^TDilaterfpupils
_^, rf Decreased pulse rate
Reduce heat loss
Provide additional clothing
Replace wet clothing with dry
'clothes
Increase victim's physical
Provide shelter/rom cold and
wind
Administer food and liquids
>V»*BR 3S&« -i M i3 -," ' •• J
Place patient in a hypothermia ;
"wrap 1
Administer warm, sugared liquids 3
^(e.g., dilute gelatin mixture) 1
Add heat to areas near major
!
arteries
'A core body temperature of less than 30°C is immediately fife tfireatemng.
have and to replace the body fuel they are
burning to generate that heat. If a person is
shivering, they have the ability to rewarm
themselves at a rate of 2°C per hour.
Treatment for a person suffering from
mild or moderate hypothermia is to reduce
heat loss by providing additional clothing,
replacing wet clothing with dry clothing, in-
creasing the victim's physical activity, and
providing shelter from the temperature and
wind conditions. In addition to preventing
additional heat loss, it is important to provide
food and liquids to a hypothermic person.
Foods high in carbohydrates are good for
nourishing a hypothermic person because
they are rapidly released into the blood stream
and provide a quick surge of heat. Foods high
in protein or fat are also desirable because
even though the heat gained from these foods
is released slowly, it is released over a longer
period of time.
A person suffering from severe hypoth-
ermia should be placed in a hypothermia
wrap. The principal of a hypothermia wrap is
to provide a shell of total insulation for the
patient. A patient's ability to internally warm
his/herself is much more efficient than any
external rewarming. The patient should be dry
and have a polypropylene layer to minimize
sweating on the skin. Multiple sleeping bags,
wool blankets, and wool clothing can be used
and a minimum of 4" of insulation should be
formed around the patient, especially between
the patient and the ground. An aluminum blan-
ket can be used to help prevent radiant heat
loss. The entire insulation blanket should then
be wrapped in plastic to protect the patient
from wind and water.
When administering hydration to a hy-
pothermic person, hot liquids are preferred be-
cause they provide calories in addition to be-
ing a source of heat. Warm sugar water should
». -..-.,.,
-------
be given to people in severe hypothermia. In
severe hypothermia victims, the stomach has
probably shut down and will not digest solid
food but can absorb water and sugars. A di-
lute mixture of warm water and sugar should
be administered every 15 minutes. Dilute gela-
tin mix works well to treat severe hypother-
mia because it is part sugar and part protein.
A person suffering from hypothermia should
not be given liquids that contain alcohol or
caffeine. Alcohol promotes heat loss and caf-
feine increases dehydration.
Tobacco or other products containing
nicotine should not be given to a hypother-
mia victim because nicotine is a vasoconstric-
tor which increases the risk of frostbite.
An additional treatment for hypothermia
victims is adding heat. This can be accom-
plished by building a fire or exposing the vic-
tim to another external heat source such as an
electric heater, chemical heat packs, hot wa-
ter bottles, warm rocks, towels, compresses,
or the body heat of a normothermic person.
For victims suffering from severe hypother-
mia, added heat should be applied specifically
to areas where the transfer of heat to major
arteries (e.g., neck, armpits, groin, palms of
the hands) can be transferred.
Hypothermic people will need to urinate
due to cold diereses. Because a full bladder is
a place for additional heat loss, urinating will
help conserve heat.
3.4.6 Frost Bite
Frost bite is the damage to skin and un-
derlying tissues caused by extreme cold. Frost-
bite occurs when the skin and body tissues
are exposed to cold temperatures for a pro-
longed period of time. If only the skin and
underlying tissues are damaged, recovery may
be complete. However, if blood vessels are
affected, the damage is permanent and gan-
grene can follow which may necessitate am-
putation of the affected part.
A person with frostbite on the extremi-
ties may also be subject to hypothermia. Be-
cause hypothermia is a more threatening con-
dition, it should be treated first.
3.4.6.1 Symptoms of
Frostbite
The first symptom is a pins-and-needles
sensation which is followed by numbness.
Frostbite is distinguishable by the hard, pale
and cold quality of the skin that has been ex-
posed to the cold for a length of time. The
area is likely to lack sensitivity to touch, but
may have a sharp, aching pain. With more
severe frostbite, the skin may appear white
and is numb. The severest cases of frostbite
may cause blister; gangrene; or hard, frozen
skin.
Although any part of the body may be
affected by frostbite, hands, feet, nose and ears
are the most vulnerable.
3.4.6.2 Treatment of
Frostbite
Frostbite can be an extremely threaten-
ing ailment and should be treated as soon as
possible. Table 3-7 lists the suggested steps
for treating frostbite. This list is meant to be
used as a quick reference guide and should
not be used as a substitute for formal medical
training.
Upon warming, it is common to experi-
ence pain and tingling or burning in the af-
fected area. In addition, blisters (in severe
cases), shivering, slurred speech, and some
memory loss may occur.
ll •JiilililiBBiiiiiilllliBili
-------
Professional medical assistance should
be obtained if there has been severe frostbite
and feeling and color do not return after field
treatment; or if frostbite has occurred recently
and new symptoms develop, such as fever,
malaise, discoloration or drainage from the
affected body part.
When treating frost bite, there are sev-
eral actions which could further damage the
patient. These actions include thawing a frost-
bitten area that cannot be kept thawed, using
direct heat on the frostbitten area, rubbing or
massaging the affected area, disturbing blis-
ters on frostbitten skin and allowing the pa-
tient to smoke tobacco or drink alcoholic bev-
erages during recovery. All of these actions
should be avoided when treating a frostbite
victim.
fe victim shoulil be sjieltergd frpm'the cpkL,^,,,'^
ay cbristricting jeWeLrj or wet clothing should be %
^^i^M^^f'tffJrs^sBffieeSsas^BB
yOT^c^^.jm^^i^o)uJi^.^jniir|^^!aiin warm •
to affected j
1^rdr chee' Inestreatmerits should "last
ig is completejwhen the skin is soft andj
i:::5=:i^S*;S-i;:*S:S:i;S^««;S^
, steme dressing should be apphed to the 1
3.4.6.3 Prevention of
Frostbite
Several factors contribute to the occur-
rence of frostbite. These factors include ex-
treme cold, wet clothes, high winds, and poor
circulation. Poor circulation can be caused by
tight clothing or boots, cramped positions,
fatigue, certain medications, smoking, alco-
hol use or diseases that affect the blood ves-
sels (e.g., diabetes). Therefore, it is advisable
for crew members to wear suitable clothing
in cold temperatures and protect susceptible
areas. The most effective clothing includes
mittens; wind-proof, water-resistant, many-
layered clothing; a pair of wool socks on top
of a pair of cotton socks; and a scarf and a hat
that cover the ears. Before anticipated pro-
longed exposure to cold, crew members
should not drink alcoholic beverages or use
tobacco and they should be properly nour-
ished and well rested.
3.5 Cardiopuimonary
Resuscitation (CPR)
Crew members engaged in large river
research are at risk to several kinds of inju-
ries. Two of these injuries, drowning and elec-
trical shock, are particularly dangerous be-
cause they can cause the victim to stop breath-
ing. When this happens, it is vital that breath-
ing resume within 4-6 minutes. However, re-
suscitation should be aggressively pursued for
anyone who has been submerged for up to
an hour. The best first aid treatment for vic-
tims who have stopped breathing is cardiop-
ulmonary resuscitation (CPR). CPR is a res-
cue and basic life-support technique for some-
one whose heart or breathing has stopped and
can keep a person alive until an ambulance
and medical treatment is available. Before
anyone attempts to resuscitate a victim using
CPR, they should be formally trained. There
-------
should be at least one person on each crew
that has had CPR training. The steps given in
Table 3-6 quickly summarize suggested CPR
procedures to be used for adults. This sum-
mary should not be used as a substitute for
the proper CPR training. It should also be
noted that the technique is often modified hi
order to be more effective and/or safer. There-
fore, the protocol given hi Table 3-8 should
be checked annually for current accuracy.
Improper CPR or CPR performed on a per-
son whose heart is still beating can cause se-
rious injury. This table is meant to serve as a
quick reference or refresher information.
Training in CPR techniques is available from
the Red Cross, American Heart Association,
universities, local hospitals, fire departments,
and other companies and agencies.
3.6 The Heimlich
Maneuver
The Heimlich maneuver is a simple life-
saving technique consisting of a series of un-
der-the-diaphragm abdominal thrusts in-
tended to dislodge a foreign object from a
choking victim's throat. It is a widely recom-
mended technique that may help save the life
of a choking victim.
able3-8. Summary of CPR Protocol.
.....
^yuil.Mll ..... |°:i-|SSpond, then medical assistance should be summoned. . . - j
" and he/she should be positioned on 1
' ™ ~ "~' ....... ' '' "''' "
'sjuface, .
be, victim's iarrway is opened by pushing down on the forehead while'lifting chin. ' :
IKiaAii1'.-! T li::1:11 Kim! « - ii iiiiii (I I ni'i- iliiiil (Is nil psiiii n'iimi-i; Jjiup' w'11"!!.'.! s jii'iii-s'TiJisiH!!. :i s*!a'^BiiifeBi^J*^*t.'isiS>.«.«;'.;'ft.-.i5;:'.J5.B:V,-'w|:4!~ ';"»-' -;:"--1 I
'4Pj^g^%SR^ §feSSM, fe§ S,P?5! ,?,eter??I™i i£,%: X!?1™* is. bie&tiung by l9°,kin§ at the chest forj
vglijgiitj1 listening for breathing sounds, and feeling for breath. ' I
BSffflS^imi^HO«DFii»Wi!MMeF«a'ffiffiiff^:BfW3Btttf. (asaspa asssiiiSfEsssasaaiat-a ;f~?s:~* &&&-'•. ss-;--^;, |
,s,;»a:*!:!!!W^!!!S^ ' '!ir*:~ ; v=u, -„ !:,,;= /::"" ?* „;:;: I -. r
1 , f H „ 'i , ,„ in ' ' i ',',,, ',: ' ,•,;„,, /^n:: ™ , • „ , > : •• %
Lf the air way is obstructed, then the victim's head is repositioned and a second attempt to give the victim two ^
Spick breaths is made.
i ' • »* • *•:'--*• > \
^ the a|rway is still obstructed, then six to ten abdominal thrusts are given to the victim in order to dislodge
—iy obstructions, j
i i MI 'iiil in i i ii ii 1111 ii I ii iii IF i i * *" i i j ii i, i pi a j,"*? i i n I
victim's mouth is cleared of dislodged items.
'the victim's airway is still obstructed, the above steps are repeated. 4
11 i i i f j
'ter two unobstructed breaths are given, 5 to 10 seconds are spent determining the victim's pulse. The ,
Sftlse sg5ui£fge "checked'atlfie"carofid artery (in me heck).
%, , . „ ,.
If no pulse is detected, then the rescuer begins chest compressions.
:«^
-------
y!gB*T':Kaa?g%;!4:ia'.g;m^^^
Continued.
•,y. ;:,.>.; ^:!;.tigp||pa;ja«^^
^;.n.is>/^V;r „,„,!;,'KssfiHifiE^iSB'S'iVMp&'ffiS^S^ i!n,,.S t
hegt coijipressions are 1.5 .to .2. inches, deep for adults, 1 to 1.5 inches deep for children, and 0.5 to 1 inch;
sgp'forinfants."''"""""* ..„.-.„-..„-.,.,.-........ ,,™..„.,..,,_,,,,„„,.,,..„,„_„.,,.,-. ^ „„„.,. „„,„,.
: "adults, ^'ff>.'ct|sTJo^^iiessi6ns areTolfoyredi''by two breaSisTFpr children ana infants, 5 cnest|
Mp«r:f ?:;;''s;;;f/.^/s;-^ WSSsB^FSf!!^A3!pr;?^«?saa ji|:fi!«;^^
r™ .,-=.= .:"'.. ' .' 'i,t ^. ' ' . -L--^- '. -S' '.-.I, '.Lrt', .- ->;>.. V,' £,... .^.-...J'^'^^^ni1:"^- Ja"=,,,.! '.^'^f i*.".^"'p?"=.i:sJV'lj!i.-n j"-'' !nl° '',-?:" ."'^Mft-'r-f •' •1^V/.'^^. B*Jn! -*-''"",'. *s^.:y^:,sf ^^.Ira-.Hl-^JSL",. .lu.,. .^ ; ~-_ 7i"i,|-r ,^:-t ,^', I
. ,-'' >- -:. -!• . ' ' L '^L , 1^1y-;11rf-^i^^IL.^^;.'^V-f---^>^S%*^^^1^^-^.-u'^*h'L:™,^ft.V'^"' ^*;^f^4*'''*.r'-i^-l""-W r^ii?s^("i'Mii1&f >'- rf$ .^f'^u^^"^.*; j s-.p.i^jr:"""1; M •":•', -;'.''Si .,r, c,., , _ J
The= jequence of chest compressions and breaths is regeated_for 4 (adults) toj.0 (children and infants)|
fyQ pulse is detected, the CPR cycle of breaths and chest compressions is begun starting with two breaths. |
""^pulse returns but no breatmhg, one breath is given eyeiy 5 seconds. J
ii_l;' , i. •; •- ->" ':j-^-^';^rf'/i''l'^^ •-'-•-'?• 'i:-;i': I
These procedures should be continued until professional medical assistance arrives. 1
The basic steps for performing the
Heimlich maneuver are given in Table 3-9.
However, this brief overview should not be
used as a substitute for proper training admin-
istered by licensed personnel. The Heimlich
maneuver is not to be used if the victim is
coughing, speaking or breathing. If the per-
son cannot cough, speak, or breathe, the steps
listed in Table 3-9 are recommended. The
protocol for treating an unconscious choking
victim is given in Table 3-10rAlthough the
overall technique remains the same, the spe-
cific steps are occasionally modified. There-
fore, the protocols given in Tables 3-9 and 3-
10 should be checked annually for updates.
ICable 3-9. Summary of Heimlich Maneuver Protocol.
^
The rescuer should stand behind the victini and wrap his/her arms around the victim's waist.
•
I
Tie rescuer clasps his/her hands together in a doubled fist and places the fist (thumb side in) just below the
ictim's rib cage and above the navel.
The rescuer presses into the victim's abdomen (not the rib cage) with a quick, upward thrust.
| """ ' WJ *1- IMF" ft. i, *V mW« IW - "SFt *» F»js ff^" 4fuw f Jffxn f in Si, It, aft id •*«!•!• •" Ha
""^ fl ^ f % ** t-et «. ^ Kfi
Jhe thrusts are repeated until the object is dislodged.
j
I
-------
: -
, Summary of Heimlich Maneuver Protocol Recommended for Unconscious Victims.
'L " lul '"'1' ' ^
The awareness of the victim is determined,
, i ; « t « » '*!'
IJie victim's airway is opened by pushing down on the forehead while lifting chin.
'i 'iii- ' i ' 1 - |r "/ "JiJiijiSfV* i i ' _ '"* |
Oiree to five. _seconds should be spent determining if the victim is breathing by looking at the chest for
iiii.iBJUU^ |[stening for breathing sounds, and feeling for breath.
[f the victim is not breathing, the nostrils are pinched, a tight seal informed around the victim's mouth and the ^
rescuer breathes two quick breaths into the victim's mouth while watching for the victim's chest to rise. 1
victim's airway is still obstructed, then his/her head is repositioned and an additional attempt is made <
;6_breath into the victim's lungs. "'
3* the secon,dr attempt fails, then the victim is given a series of abdominal thrusts.
f\ order to administer the abdominal thrusts, the rescuer straddles, the victim's thighs.
Ill I I I »<-! j
111 I I I Illllllll II I ill I* II III | 1 111 , ' |
Thfinjhe rescuer places the heel of one hand near the victim's navel.
1
The rescuer's other hand is placed on top of the first and together they are thrust toward the victim's nose.
______ _ _____________J_____1_^.__, ,- „_, _,„ __1—. — _ „ „, _,
Six to ten of these thrusts are given. ~~^" ~^
, i I , I t, , ^i y i n *
Fhen the rescuer attempts to clear any dislodged objects out of the mouth.
il'l'i I'll1 IIJIIi'lllll III 'HI HI i I I 111 ill t Jl hi. Ill I I ' "I ' rVlMI (iH Mj ' i *
^ext, the rescuer attempts to breath two quick breaths into the victim's lungs.
I'ft" UMI'iM 'i- i I'l'h'Ml ''ilM'l-WW '/Ydl*^ -
1 , .|
If the airway is still obstructed, the rescuer repeats the abdominal thrusfs.
Ill III I III 111 I ill Illllllll ill III I 111 I Nil Illllllll I ,11 I II ll Pill l| HI HI l!t '" tl-I "I'i 1"! (lli§a> t "1 'I1 ' ' 1
ill 'I I l* I 1 11111 l "Mill Hill Ill II Hllliil I ill III i| I I l II III I I I I " * iM i J Tlr.li >
This procedure is repeated until the airway is cleared or until professional medical assistance arrives.
-------
Section 4
Access and Legal Issues
by
Jennifer Everett and Bradley C. Autrey
4.1 Site Access
When rivers are assessed, a primary lo-
gistical concern is site access. Often the
accessability of sites on a river will determine
the degree to which that river can be surveyed.
In order to evaluate the accessability of a river,
reconnaissance should be conducted well in
advance of the sampling season.
4.1,1 Public Land
It is often productive to determine the
location of boat ramps that are available to
the public. It is helpful to remember that not
only are boat ramps available on public lands,
but are also commercially available to the
public on private lands. Initial reconnaissance
should determine not only the location of these
ramps but also the amount of any fees associ-
ated with their use.
4.1.2 Private Land
Once the avenue of public boat ramps
has been exhausted, the ownership of pri-
vately-owned lands adjacent to the river
should be researched. Because the riparian
zones of large rivers are often the focus of
conservation concerns, private conservation
groups may own these lands. These organi-
zations will often grant access to their land
for the purpose of accessing the river. It is nec-
essary to contact these organizations well in
advance of the sampling season so that the
proper permits can be procured and any keys
that may be needed can be obtained. It is also
necessary to gain access to the lands in ad-
vance of the sampling season so that further
reconnaissance can be conducted to determine
the location of access to the river, as well as
the location of a suitable area for parking ve-
hicles and boat trailers. It is important that the
sampling crews be given a copy of the land
use permit, any keys needed for gate access,
the name and phone number of a contact from
the organization and any pertinent instructions
or restrictions.
Other resources for gaining access to
private lands are government agencies that
conduct biological sampling on large rivers.
If any of these agencies have conducted bio-
logical sampling on the target river during
previous years, they may be willing to share
the locations of the sites they used for access.
With this information, it is then necessary to
-------
conduct reconnaissance to confirm the exist-
ence of adequate launch sites and, when
needed, contact the land owners and .attempt
to gain permission for the use of the land.
The final course of action that can be
used to gain site access is through direct land
owner contact. It may be necessary to visit
local county courthouses in order to determine
land ownership. Once land ownership has
been determined, it is then necessary to con-
tact the land owner to gain permission to use
the site for river access.
When contacting land owners, it is pru-
dent to make available a written description
of the study so that they can be fully informed
of the project's objectives. If a land owner
chooses to grant permission for river access,
it is important to have the land owner com-
plete and sign a form to verify that permis-
sion for the use of his/her land has been
granted.
4.1.3 Primitive Access
If the number of sites with boat ramps is
not adequate for the sampling requkements,
it may be necessary to access the river from
more primitive launch sites (Figure 4-1). It is
possible, and often necessary, to launch boats
from a number of areas such as low banks or
gravel bars. Some adequate launch sites may
be found under highway bridges or areas used
by the public for recreational fishing. If such
an area is to be used on public land, it is im-
portant to contact the local authorities in or-
der to gain permission to use these areas. It
may be helpful to make sure that the sampling
crews using these areas have the names and
phone numbers of the local authorities so that
they may be contacted in the event of an emer-
gency. If the primitive launch sites are located
on private lands, it is important to gain per-
Figure4-1.
point.
An example of a primitive access
mission from the land owner to use these sites
in this manner. When primitive access points
are going to be used during field work, it is
important that the equipment to be used be
selected appropriately. See Section 2, Equip-
ment, Maintenance and Field Repairs, for
additional information.
4.1.4 Targeted Sites
When particular portions of the river are
targeted for sampling and the river has fre-
quent obstructions such as impoundments, it
may be necessary to employ all of the above
tactics to reach all of the targeted sites. When
sampling in areas that are infrequently used
for recreational purposes, the need for primi-
-------
tive sites and permission from private land
owners will increase. However, in areas that
are heavily used for recreational activities,
there may be an adequate number of boat
ramps available.
4,1.5 Access Etiquette
When using land as access to a river,
certain protocol should be followed to ensure
the safety of the crew and to maintain favor-
able public relations with land owners and
other persons using the land. One important
safety measure is for a laminated information
sheet to be placed in each vehicle that is used
for field work. The information sheet should
include the name of the agency conducting
the research, the name of the research project,
and the names and telephone numbers of
home-based personnel that should be con-
tacted in case of emergency. The information
sheet should be displayed in a visible area of
the vehicle such as inside the driver-side win-
dow.
An additional safety measure that should
be taken when the field crew is using pri-
vately-owned land for site access is to make
contact with any individuals that may be us-
ing the land while the field crew is present.
This measure also serves as positive public
relations for the sampling agency. Although
the initial site reconnaissance should have
provided the field crew with permission to use
the land for site access, it is possible that the
individuals using the land are unaware of the
permission granted. Speaking with these in-
dividuals can help avoid misunderstandings.
In addition, urfonning individuals present that
the crew will be on the river gives the crew a
contact on land. This contact may be able to
inform the crew of hazards on the river, help
protect the crew's vehicle and may be the first
to call for help should the crew become
stranded on the river.
4.2 Permits
When sampling rivers, it is important to
make sure that all of the proper permits are
obtained. It will be necessary to contact offi-
cials associated with the natural resource,
wildlife, or fish and game agencies within the
states where the sampling will occur. If any
sampling activities are to take place within the
boundaries of areas designated as a park or
wildlife refuge, it is important to contact the
officials associated with the areas before the
sampling takes place. It may be necessary to
obtain permits specific to these designated
areas. Because the processing of permit re-
quests can be time consuming, it is important
that the process of obtaining permits be started
as soon as possible. It is important to note that
most permits require annual renewals and
may require that a report of the study's results
be submitted to the permitting agency.
- ; t i« -'
-------
Section 5
Crew Logistics
by
Joseph E. Hotemersch and Bradley C. Autrey
5.1 Introduction
As sampling crews gain more experi-
ence over the course of a field season, they
will naturally become more efficient. Often,
the most efficient work flow will evolve as
crew members discover how to effectively
and completely accomplish tasks in the safest
and quickest time possible. This section is
designed to speed the evolution of the most
efficient work flow for an individual crew by
offering solutions to problems that may po-
tentially be encountered hi the field (Figure
5-1).
5.2 Crew Size
The number of persons on each crew is
an integral part of the crew's effectiveness. A
crew with too many members is often ineffi-
cient and lacks the proper structure for main-
taining personal responsibility, while a crew
with too few members can be overworked,
exhausted or unable to complete the assigned
task. Therefore, a great deal of consideration
should be given to the number of people as-
signed to each crew.
The best way of determining optimal
crew size is through trial and error or experi-
ence. Therefore, an option for determining the
best possible crew size is to consult with an
individual who has coordinated a similar
project or worked on a crew with similar
tasks. If such a resource is not available, it
may be advisable to conduct a preUminary trial
run. In the trial run, the members of a mock
crew will simulate the activities to be con-
ducted by the actual crew at a later date. This
activity will not only aid in determining the
optimum crew size, but will also give an ini-
tial view of some logistical problems that may
be encountered by the crews once the real
work begins.
Among the factors that will affect the
number of members needed on each crew are
the tasks to be completed, the number of
working days in which the tasks are to be
completed and the number of hours per day
the crew can spend on the river (see Section
5.4). Once all of these factors have been con-
sidered, it should then be possible to estimate
the number of persons that will be required
for each crew. If the exact number of crew
-------
Figure 5-1. An example of a crew working together. Note that each member of this crew has his/her
own responsibility. While one crew member identifies a fish species, another crew members weighs and
measures each fish and a third crew member records the information on a field sheet.
members needed is uncertain, some experi-
enced field personnel prefer to err toward a
smaller crew. A smaller crew is challenged to
work as a team and excel at efficiently ac-
complishing tasks. These efforts are more
likely to lead to a successful field endeavor
than a larger crew without such challenges.
5.3 Crew Structure
It is advisable for one member of each
crew to be designated as the crew leader. This
person will be the one crew member who is
ultimately responsible for a number of deci-
sions to be made, the successful completion
of the project and the integrity of the data col-
lected. This person is not an authoritarian,
rather he/she seeks and considers the opin-
ions of the other crew members and does not
attempt to make all decisions alone. Essen-
tially, the crew leader is responsible for the
deposition of samples and data forms and the
proper maintenance and care of equipment.
In addition, the crew leader should be famil-
iar with and a reliable resource for the execu-
tion of all sampling protocols, keep the crew
motivated and take steps necessary to assure
the crew's safety.
Although the crew leader is ultimately
responsible for the crew's work, each mem-
ber of the crew should have his/her individual
responsibilities. In essence, each task to be
completed should be the sole responsibility
of one individual. As a result, all crew mem-
bers will have a clear understanding of then-
exact responsibilities and the likelihood of
tasks not being completed will diminish.
5.4 Crew Training
Because it is likely that at least some of
the crew members will lack experience in
conducting ecological research on large riv-
ers, crews should be trained by personnel who
-------
have such experience (Figure 5-2). Proper
training will help to ensure that data are gath-
ered properly and safely. Crew training should
occur before the beginning of the sampling
season and should include safety issues such
as proper boat use, first aid/CPR; and the
proper methods for collecting, recording, pre-
serving and processing data and samples.
5.4.1 Protocol Training
It is vitally important that crews be spe-
cifically instructed on the proper protocols for
collecting data. In particular, crew members
who have little or no experience executing
the designated protocols and crew members
who have experience using other protocols
need to be given thorough training specific to
the protocols they will be using.
Crew members should be made aware
of the entire scope of the project in which they
are participating. This will enable them to
appreciate the overall goals of the project and
impress upon them the importance of collect-
ing the most complete and accurate data pos-
sible. However, while it is important for crew
members to understand the overall project,
they should be assigned to and specifically
trained for the particular tasks that they will
be executing during the field season. This will
allow crew members to focus on their par-
ticular aspects of field sampling during the
early portions of protocol training.
It may be advantageous for crew mem-
bers to be trained for more than one set of
sampling tasks. For example, a crew member
may be assigned to and trained primarily for
the collection of benthic macroinvertebrate
samples and data, but may be secondarily as-
signed to and trained for the collection of al-
gae samples and data. This would not only
allow the crew member to replace someone
that was trained primarily for the collection
Figure 5-2. Field crews are trained by experienced personnel. It is often helpful to conduct training
sessions in a field setting.
.U. , J
-------
of algae samples and data, should the need
arise, but also give the crew member the skills
necessary to perform QA/QC checks on the
manner in which the algae samples and data
are collected.
The standard operating procedures
(SOPs) should be demonstrated by experi-
enced personnel and should be accompanied
by literature describing the SOPs. In addition
to full-length, detailed descriptions, the litera-
ture should also include short, one-to-two
page summaries that can be easily referenced
in the field. During the demonstrations, all
equipment that the crew members will be us-
ing during the field season should be dis-
played and the proper maintenance of the
equipment should be explained (see section
2).
5.4.2 Safety Training
All safety training should be conducted
by personnel that are experienced and/or li-
censed to administer such instruction. Li-
censed instructors are particularly important
for first aid and CPR training. It may be nec-
essary to obtain training from an outside
agency or company. The additional expense
of such training is easily justified when con-
sidering that it may prevent serious injuries
from occurring or that it may save the rife of a
crew member. Records of all safety training
should be kept and each crew member's sig-
nature should be obtained for each portion of
safety training that he/she completes. This al-
lows the employing agency to verify that each
crew member was satisfactorily trained. This
will also help protect the employing agency
in the event that a crew member is injured
during the field endeavor. See Section 3 for
further discussion of safety training.
5.4.3 Crew Etiquette
In addition to training crews to properly
execute the designated protocols and safely
negotiate field hazards, there should also be
some time spent impressing upon crew mem-
bers the relative difficulty of the working con-
ditions that they will encounter. Crew mem-
bers should be made aware from the begin-
ning of the project that the behaviors of indi-
viduals will either make these conditions more
difficult or less difficult. A crew that works
well as a team will be more efficient and be
more likely to collect the best possible data
than a team that is strife ridden. While these
are lessons that each crew member will learn
in time; stressing the importance of teamwork,
cooperation, courtesy, and appropriate behav-
iors at an early juncture could save a crew a
great deal of unnecessary stress and periods
of inefficiency. Crews should be encouraged
to consider other crew members during many
aspects of their daily routines. Some of the
aspects that crew members should particu-
larly consider are their work ethics, personal
hygiene and cooperative attitudes. Essentially,
crew members should be aware that every
aspect of their behavior will have some im-
pact on the other members of their team and
ultimately the research itself.
5.5 Crew Activities
5.5.1 Workday Length
It is important to remember that a crew's
workday includes travel time, loading and
unloading equipment, processing and logging
samples, and proofing field forms. Therefore,
five hours spent working on the river can eas-
ily translate into a 10-hour work day. It is also
important to keep in mind that the number of
hours a crew is able to spend on the river will
vary during the course of a year. In the sum-
mer, when there are more hours of daylight,
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the crews usually have ample time to finish
their tasks before nightfall. However, in the
late autumn, winter, or early spring, there may
be less daylight than time required to com-
plete tasks on the river.
5.5.2 Work Flow
One of the most important components
in developing an efficient work day is the flow
of work used among the crew members. It is
important that each crew develop its own
work flow that best suits its own duties and
the assets of each of its members. The goal
should be for each member of the crew to be
perpetually executing some task. When each
crew member always has some task to ex-
ecute and these tasks are coordinated in such
a way that there is very little inefficient use of
time, then a very efficient work flow can be
developed. This enhances the likelihood of
the crew experiencing a successful field en-
deavor.
i+8^
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Section 6
Recording Data
by
Bradley C. Autrey and Gerilyn Ahlers
6.1 Field Forms
6,1.1 Field Form
Completion
The proper completion of field forms is
a vital part of data collection in the field. It is
important for the members of the field crew
who are completing the field forms to do so
legibly. It may be necessary for one member
of the crew (i.e., the crew leader) to review
all field forms to ensure that they are being
completed legibly. Also, field forms should
be completed with a soft lead pencil. This will
allow for mistakes or iUegible handwriting to
be corrected. When field forms are to be com-
pleted while the field crew is on or near a river,
it is also important that the forms be printed
on all-weather paper that is resistant to water
damage.
6.1.2 Field Form
Design
To ensure that field data are collected
completely and efficiently, field forms should
be comprehensive and easily completed un-
der field conditions. It is helpful if the field
forms used for a specific project are designed
specifically for that project rather than using
forms originally designed for use on a differ-
ent project. For example, forms designed for
wadeable rivers may require that the substrate
type at the thalweg depth be recorded. On
large rivers, however, these data are often not
attainable because the water is too deep to
accurately determine the substrate type at the
thalweg depth. Therefore, the crew member
should be able to indicate that the water was
too deep to determine substrate type on the
form. Inconsistencies in data recording can
occur when forms that are not specifically
designed for the relevant research project re-
quire field crews to edit forms in the field.
Creating forms that are specifically tailored
aid in the accurate, complete and efficient
collection of data in the field.
A good field form is one that is stream-
lined to match methods being used and elimi-
nates redundant and or unimportant informa-
tion. Complicated sets of data should not be
recorded on multiple forms. For example, it
is not necessary to include accessory physi-
-sir
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cal habitat information on forms used in the
collection of macroinvertebrates if the same
data are collected on physical habitat forms.
Eliminating this type of redundant informa-
tion will accelerate the collection of field data.
In addition, a concise, streamlined field form
will be completed more accurately because it
is easier to overlook errors when the forms
are redundant and less streamlined.
One way that field forms can be stream-
lined is by creating data fields in which the
recorded data are chosen from a set of op-
tions. This increases the likelihood that the
person completing the form will do so as in-
tended and in a manner that is more consis-
tent with the way that other field workers
would complete them. While not all data can
be recorded in this manner, when appropri-
ate, it is a preferred option.
To reduce inaccuracies, field forms
should be clear in their content. Inconsisten-
cies occur when the forms do not clarify what
data are to be recorded and where they are to
be to be recorded. If the forms are necessarily
complicated, it may be helpful to include ex-
planations on the forms. This can be done by
including text boxes that explain notations and
abbreviations and list the options for multiple-
choice fields.
It is also helpful to have all measurement
units preprinted on the form and include the
formula for any calculations that are to be
completed in the field. Calculations that are
not needed in the field and are easily per-
formed during data analysis should be elimi-
nated from field forms. Many inaccuracies can
be eliminated by clarifying the complicated
aspects of the form on the form itself.
Another method to ensure the efficient,
accurate and complete collection of data on
field form is to remain consistent among the
different forms and within individual forms.
When using separate forms for different types
of data, (e.g. macroinvertebrates, algae, and
physical habitat) the terminology used should
be consistent. All terminology should be clear
and specifically defined. Ah1 units of measure-
ment should be in either the English system
or the metic system and should not vary. An
example of a properly-designed field form is
given in Figure 6-1.
6.2 Labels
6.2,1 Label Completion
All samples collected in the field must
be labeled so that they may be identified at a
later date. Labels should be legibly completed
using a fine point permanent marker, attached
to the sample container and covered with
transparent packaging tape. The packaging
tape will prevent damage to the label or the
writing on the label. An additional measure
that will help assure the accurate tracking of
samples is to place a second label inside the
sample jar. An internal label can be used dur-
ing data processing if the external label is dam-
aged during transport or storage and informa-
tion is lost. The internal label should be
printed on all-weather paper and be com-
pleted legibly using a soft lead pencil.
6.2,2 Label Design
The design of labels should be deter-
mined in the early stages of planning the
project and should be clearly described in the
Project Plan that is produced before sampling
begins. All labels should be clearly titled with
the project name and the sample type (e.g.,
benthic macroinvertebrates). Also, all labels
should have an area designated for the site
identification number, the collection date and
the complete name of the sample's collector.
The inclusion of the sample collector's full
i
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SAMPLE COLLECTION FORM - BENTHIC STUDY 2000
SITE NAME:
DATE: / /
VISIT(X): D1 D2
SITE NAME:
TEAM ID(X): 1D 2D 3 D 4 D 5 D
COMPOSITE BENTHOS SAMPLES
SAMPLE ID
(4-D1GIT)
HABITAT (X ONE)
RIFFLE
POOL
NUMBER
OF JARS
FLAG
COMMENTS
TRANSECT
A
D
G
H
K
RIFFLE OR POOL
-(XONE)
DR
DP
DR
DP
DR
DP
D R
DP
D R
DP
DR
DP
n R
DP
n R
DP
DR
DP
D R
DP
n R
n p
LEFT,
CENTER, OR
RIGHT -(XONE)
DL-
DC
CR
DL
DC
DR
DL
DC
DR
D L
DC
DR
D L
DC
DR
DL
DC
DR
DL
DC
DR
DL
DC
DR
DL
DC
DR
D L
DC
DR
D L
D C
D R
GENERAL COMMENTS
Figure 6-1. Continued.
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name on the sample label may help to pro-
vide a measure of integrity and accountabil-
ity to the sample's collection. In addition, la-
bels should have an area in which the spe-
cific method used to collect the sample (e.g.,
drift net or kick net) can be indicated. Finally,
all labels should be given a unique sample
number (see section 7). Fields for additional
information such as comments on sampling
conditions can be added to the labels. These
data may not be necessary, but they may be
helpful during data processing or sample
tracking. An example of a properly-designed
label is given in Figure 6-2.
The design and production of labels
should be a cooperative effort between the
field workers and the laboratory personnel.
This will ensure that information important
for laboratory processing of field samples is
included on a label that is designed for use in
the field. This may include data that is already
recorded on field forms but may not be readily
available to laboratory personnel.
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Figure 6-2. An example of a properly-designed
sample label.
It may be beneficial to design labels so
that they can be used for more than one type
of sample. For example, it is not necessary,
and may be counterproductive to make sepa-
rate labels for both drift net and kick net
samples of benthic macroinvertebrates.
Multitasking labels eliminates the possibility
of the wrong label being used in the field.
It may be helpful to produce a small set
of training labels. These labels can be used as
practice for field crews during training. In
addition to providing training for field work-
ers, testing labels provides an opportunity to
discover any problems with the properties or
design of the label.
Labels should generally be completed
and applied to the sample containers after the
samples have already been processed. This
will help avoid the production of samples with
inaccurate labels.
6.3 Chain of Custody
Forms
In order to ensure that samples are prop-
erly tracked, a Chain-of-Custody form should
be completed for each sample taken. This
form should include the date, site number,
sample number, type of sample taken, the
name of the person who collected and/or pro-
cessed the sample, and the steps that have been
taken to preserve the sample. This form should
also include a space for the signature of the
crew member who is reUnquishing the sample
to laboratory personnel and the signature of
the laboratory personnel who is taking respon-
sibility for the sample. The Chain-of Custody
form allows samples to be tracked and allows
the personnel that had custody of the samples
to be documented.
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6.4 Logging Samples
When samples are deposited in a sample
storage facility, the should be logged. The
Sample Log form should include spaces for
the date that the samples were collected, the
date that the samples were deposited hi the
storage facility, the type of sample that is be-
ing deposited, the name of the person who is
depositing the sample, and sample numbers
that are given to the deposited samples. An
example of a properly-designed Sample Log
form is given in Figure 6-3.
Benthic Project 2000
Sample Log
Si
• III 111 1 1 111
jSample
Pi ID?
r
i
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Crew
ID#
Field
Collection
Date
Date Lab
Received
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Figure 6-3. An example of a properly-designed Sample Log form.
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Section 7
Preparing the Laboratory
by
Ann Case and Bradley C. Autrey
7.1 Sample Storage
Once samples have been collected, it is
critical to store them in such a way as to main-
tain the highest possible integrity. Often this pro-
cess begins in the field when the samples are
first acquired. Therefore, the sampling crews
must be supplied with the appropriate contain-
ers, labels, preservatives, and training necessary
to initiate the steps required to ensure proper
sample storage.
7.2 Sample Transport
Planning and care are required for trans-
porting samples from the field to the labora-
tory. First, the crew must use the proper trans-
port containers. If samples are required to be
frozen during transport, a portable freezer or
a container with dry ice will be required. If
samples are required to be kept cool, then a
portable refrigerator or cooler with ice will
be required. Samples that can be transported
at the ambient temperature should always be
packed in such a way that they will not be
unduly disturbed during travel. All samples
should be packed tightly in the vehicle or alter-
nate container so that they will not overturn
while en route to the laboratory.
If samples are required to be shipped to
the laboratory via a shipping service, the crew
should take steps to ensure that this can be
executed efficiently and properly. Shipping
containers and shipping labels should be ob-
tained before the field work begins.
7.3 Sample Tracking
Each sample that is collected must be
properly tracked. This may be done through
the use of Chain-of-Custody forms (Section
6.3). These forms track the samples as they
change hands from field personnel to labora-
tory personnel by recording the names of the
personnel who had custody of the samples at
each phase. When samples are deposited into
a sample storage facility, the deposition should
be recorded into a log. The purpose of the
deposition log is to create an inventory of the
samples in the sample storage facility, track
the length of time that samples spend in stor-
age and provide an additional means of track-
ing the personnel who had custody of the
samples at different times.
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7.4 Sample Preservation
7.4.7 Water Chemistry
Before they are processed, it is prefer-
able to keep water chemistry samples at am-
bient river temperature, in a dark container.
These samples should be processed (i.e., fil-
tered, and/or preserved) according to the pro-
cedure for the respective type of analysis, and
refrigerated as soon as possible. It is prefer-
able to keep the water chemistry samples on
ice after they have been processed, and be-
fore they have been transported from the field
to the laboratory.
7.4.2 Algae
Because algae are very sensitive to am-
bient conditions, it is important to keep the
sample collection container under dark and
cold conditions. Therefore, while the sam-
pling crew is on the river, it is advisable to
keep the sample container in a cooler with
ice. Once collection procedures have been
completed, the periphyton/phytoplankton
sample should be filtered, frozen, and/or pre-
served with 10% formalin (depending on the
type of analysis to be conducted) as soon as
possible.
7.4.3 Benthic
Macroinvertebrates
Benthic macroinvertebrate samples
should be held in river water during collec-
tion, then sieved and preserved with 70%
ethanol (Figure 7-1). They should be held and
stored at room temperature.
Figure 7-1. A member of a field crew processes a benthic macroinvertebrate sample in the field. The
proper field processing of a sample is a crucial step to ensure that samples can be properly analyzed.
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7.4.4 Fish
Any fish that are saved or vouchered
should be preserved in formalin, and also held
at room temperature.
7.5 Holding Times
A secondary concern of sample storage
for the preservation of integrity is the holding
times. Many samples have a defined period
within which analysis must occur in order to
obtain accurate data. Water chemistry analy-
sis is especially sensitive to prolonged hold-
ing times, because many of the trace elements
of interest will quickly deteriorate. Chloro-
phyll a andbiomass analysis of algae samples
must be performed within 30 days. Most other
sample types, especially those that have been
preserved, will retain their integrity for longer
periods of tune.
IT
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Section 8
Literature Cited
AmericanRed Cross. 1989. StandardFirst Aid
and Personal Safety. American National
Red Cross. 269 pp.
Lazorchak, J.M., D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck
(eds.). 1998.EnvironmentalMonitoringand
AssessmentProgram- Surface Waters: Field
Operations andMethods for Measuring the
Ecological Condition ofWadeable Streams.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington,D.C.,EPA/620/R-94/004F.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. 1981. Occupational Health Guide-
lines for Chemical Hazards (Two Volumes).
MOSH/OSHA Publication No. 81-123.
U.S. Government Publication Office,
Washington, D.C.
Nielson, L.A., andD.L. Johnson (eds.). 1992.
Fisheries techniques. American Fisheries
Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Ohio EPA. 1990. Ohio EPA Fish Evaluation
Group Safety Manual. Ohio Environmental
Protection Agency, Ecological Assessment
Section, Division of Water Quality Planning
and Assessment, Columbus, Ohio.
U.S. Coast Guard. 1987. Federal Requirements
for Recreational Boats. U.S. Department of
Transportation, United States Coast Guard,
Washington, D.C.
tin
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