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Ten percent of the samples contcined organics (toluene extractables) at
levels of 1 to 5 percent; these sampleb are classified as "contaminated" by
GLC guidelines. Sulfide concentration^ greater than 500 mg/kg were found in
58 percent of the samples. This level
"unusually heavy contamination" for suLfide.
Coking Plant Area—
A number of operations were car:
meets the GLC classification of
ied out in the coking plant area. In
1
addition to the coke ovens and coke wharf, there were various process stages
to condense the water and tars from the coking offgases and to recover tar,
sulfur gases (for acid production), ammonia, and hydrocarbon products. The
various structures and process areas once active in the plant area included a
condensation tower, detarrers, tar storage tanks, sludge tanks, ammonia
washers, sulfuric acid plant, propane -;ank, naphthalene washers, naphthalene
storage tank, liquor coolers, liquor tanks, and decanters. The contamination
encountered in this area is entirely consistent with the previous use of the
site (Barry, 1984, p. 9). There was generally heavy contamination from
cyanides and organic compounds, mostly
confined to the upper 0.75 meter (2.5
In one area cyanide-rich residues from
Heavy metals and sulfur salts
feet) of ground (Barry, 1984, p. ii).
an old gas main were present on the surface.
were also found extensively.
Other Areas--
In addition to high levels of sulfur salts, found throughout the
remainder of the site, occasional pockets with high concentrations of organics
and heavy metals were found. Slurry deposits in the northwestern section of
the site contained high concentrations
of sulfur salts and heavy metals;
cyanides and organics were also present . A lime plant slurry lagoon was
located in the western section. The western edge of the site had been
occupied by a series of minor-sized industries. High levels of cyanides and
phenols were found in this area (Barry,
western edge of the site had been used
1984. p. ii). One section at the
by a company whose operations involved
asbestos. Although there was no visua] evidence of asbestos, it was expected
that asbestos materials were present id the topmost layers of soil.
Remediation Activities
Decommissioning of the BSC works
announced. At the same time,
District Council to acquire the plant
negot iat i ons
site
began soon after the plant closure was
were commenced for the Corby
for redevelopment. In the initial
79
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phase of the site reclamation effort, all equipment, materials, above-ground
structures, and foundations were removed. Foundations and underground pipes
were located from existing drawings of the former plant and from visual
examination of conditions at the site as excavations proceeded.
In April 1981 contracts initiated by the BSC to demolish most of the
plant structures were turned over to the Council to be implemented as part of
the reclamation and redevelopment effort (CDC 1985) . An agreement was worked
out whereby BSC would salvage scrap metal from its vacated Corby facilities;
this material was to be removed for recycling in electric arc furnaces at
other locations. Some new problems occurred as a result of the BSC salvage
operations when a number of pipes containing hazardous material were severed.
The materials leaked onto the ground, resulting in additional cleanup costs to
the government. Visual examination was relied upon in judging the need for
removal of obviously contaminated material.
The Corby District Council let additional contracts to complete
demolition of the former steel works structures. The last major project was
the demolition of a 110 meter (360 feet) sinter plant chimney in June 1984. A
local landmark for many years, this stack was the last tall structure of the
Corby steelworks ("Environment...", 1985, p. 4). Due to the high unemployment
rate which spurred the industrial redevelopment program in Corby, local labor
was used extensively in the reclamation efforts. All contracts in the
reclamation efforts that began in 1981 have required 75 percent of the labor
to be provided by local workers (CDC, 1985).
The site reclamation plan was developed on the basis of the detailed
site assessment work described previously. An effort was made to determine
the extent of contamination within the various areas and to excavate and
dispose of materials in a manner that would preclude future problems with
chemical contamination. Considerable excavation was required. Most of the
excavated material was redeposited at different onsite locations. Some
material judged to be "Special Waste" or heavily contaminated waste was
transported offsite for disposal in specially licensed facilities.
The buried slurry deposits, which were deemed unsuitable for
engineering purposes, were excavated and removed to the Deene Quarry Area.
Although the slurry deposits showed significant levels of contamination, they
were not considered to be "Special Waste" as defined in the Control of
Pollution (Special Waste) Regulations 1980 (SI 1980 No 1709).
The excavated slurry "hole" provided a convenient receptacle for
materials excavated from other nearby locations. The material overlying the
slurry deposits (thickness varying from 1.0 to 3.0 m) was not deemed to be a
Special Waste, although the high levels of cyanides and organics in this
80
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material made it unsuitable for use as
material be deposited iri the base of
materials were also placed in the
the contractor who performed the site
contaminated materials placed in the
at least four meters below finished
level of any likely sewers, whichever
filled slurry pit would finally be
preparation for site development.
The contractor also recommended
evidenced as blue crystalline substanc
asbestos, shall be disposed of to a
statutory regulations (Barry, 1984, p.
top, soil. It was recommended that this
the slurry excavation. Other excavated
slurry "hole." W. S. Atkins and Partners,
assessment, recommended that all
excavation should be at a depth that is
ground level or one meter below the lowest
is lower (Barry, 1984, p. v). The
capped with clean boulder clay in
that any "hotspots" of contamination,
3s (high in cyanide), tars or oils, or
special" tip in accordance with the
v) .
Coking Plant Area—
Reclamation of the site of the former Deene By-product Coking Plant
involved excavation and removal of the buried slurry deposits (disposed of in
the Deene Quarry) and removal of some cyanide-contaminated residues classified
as Special Wastes to a licensed tip (Biirry, 1984, p. 9). The entire area was .
stripped (0.5 to 1.0 meter of ground removed) to remove soils containing
cyanides, organics, and heavy metals; deeper excavations were required in the
northeastern sector where organic contaminants had penetrated to a depth of 3
meters (9.8 feet) (Barry, 1984, p. 12)1 The site of the coke ovens (bank of
some 50 ovens) was reclaimed by stripping the top 2.5 meters (8.2 feet) of
ground and then filling with clean stone. In all, reclamation of the site
involved excavation of approximately 0
yards) of material (CDC, 1985). Following the removal of the excavated
material, the site was overlaid with 0
cover, which consisted primarily of boulder clay.
landscaping were also provided.
Other Areas--
A former slurry lagoon located ii the north central portion of the
Willow Brook West and Central Area was reclaimed to a depth of 2.0 meters
(6.56 feet) and backfilled with slag (Barry, 1984, site plan).
In the Phoenix Park Industrial Area, ironmaking works (including two
75 million cubic meters (981,000 cubic
5 to 0.75 meters (1.6 to 2.5 feet) of
Drainage provisions and
sinter plants and four blast furnaces)
structures were also removed.
were demolished. Foundations from the
-------
In February 1984, the Corby District Council adopted a local budget
which allocated of £3.5 million ($4,678,000) for land reclamation. This
included £2,810,000 ($3,755,800) for land reclamation/infrastructure at the
Phoenix Park Industrial Area; £575,000 ($768,500) for land reclamation at the
Weldon Industrial Area; and £115,000 ($153,700) for land reclamation at the
Soot Banks area southeast of the town (Corby Civic News, April 1984, p. 5).
New Roads—
A new road to link the Earlstrees and Weldon Industrial Estates was
constructed in 1984 through the Willow Brook West and Central Industrial Area.
This road construction progressed even as the extensive site reclamation work
was underway.
Site Reuse
The Corby District Council recognized early that the land vacated by
the BSC would have to be reclaimed and restored to productive use if jobs lost
to the steel works closure were to be replaced. Although other Corby sites
could be developed more rapidly and easily, particularly with the designation
of an Enterprise Zone, the available land apart from the former steel works
site was limited and-could not support sufficient industry to restore local
employment to the former level. Both immediate and future development
planning was needed. It was this recognition that spawned Corby's aggressive
and innovative efforts to assure continuing industrial development.
Efforts to develop industrial land and attract new industry to the
Corby area are coordinated through the Joint Industrial Development Committee,
which includes representatives from the Corby 'District Council, the
Northampton County Council, the Commission for the New Towns, and British
Steel Industries. In 1980, this Committee developed a "Strategy for Corby,"
described as "an all-embracing community plan which recognized the immediate
problems and proposed solutions to meet the needs of the community in terms of
employment through attraction of new diversely based industry, maintenance and
improvement of the built environment..., and improvement of the town's
transport links" (CDC, 1985). Reflected in this plan are the reuse of the
reclaimed BSC land for industrial expansion as well as the other developments
in the Corby area.
The fact that the sites offered are in some cases reclaimed
contaminated land does not appear to have had any influence oh the
attractiveness of the redevelopment properties. Both the Corby District
Council and the Commission for the New Towns offer industrial land for sale or
82
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lease. The promotional activities of
the Corby Industrial Development Centre
have greatly aided the effort to attract new enterprises (and jobs) to the
area. Firms establishing facilities in Corby are doing so for several
reasons. Some have moved to Corby because of the need for larger quarters
with future expansion room. Some firms have consolidated operations
previously located in separate areas cjf the country. In both these cases, the
central' location, the benefits package offered, and the available local work
force have provided strong incentives
Future use plans for the reclained BSC site focus primarily on
industrial development that will provide a substantial number of jobs.
commercial development and amenity use
will be built to about 40 percent capacity. The Commission for the New Towns
began development of the Willow Brook
proceeded at the Willow Brook West and
Christmas 1984, reported that the form
for choosing Corby.
are also planned.
Some
Eventually, the site
East Industrial Area as reclamation
Central Areas. The Corby Civic News,
er Steel Works land is "now seeing the
start of the rebuilding process with the development by Curver Products
Limited" ("Rebuilding Our Town," 1984) . The Curver Consumer Products'
facility, first announced July 11, 1984, is sited on a 5.67 hectare (14 acre)
tract formerly occupied by the steelmaking operations. Curver is a Dutch firm
that produces consumer plastics; they kxpect to provide some 240 new jobs in
their first phase of operation at the new facility.
Other sites on the former steel works land are also near development
stage. The former site of the Glebe c|>ke Ovens was cleared and ready for
development in early 1985. A combined heat and power generating plant will be
built on the former BOS plant site when demolition/excavation there is
complete. Land reuse following the reclamation is indicated in Figure 7. A
major shopping, leisure, hotel, and of::ice complex is planned for the eastern
portion of the former steelworks site.
development is a combined venture by 1
The £30 million ($36 million)
>cal agents, architects, builders.
surveyors, and Corby District Council '(" £3 OM Complex. ..," 1984, p. 3). The
first phase of the development plan was scheduled to begin construction in
1985, (See Authors' Note below.) Another shopping center is planned for a
site in the Phoenix Park Industrial Area formerly occupied by ironmaking. All
remnants of the blast furnaces and sinter plants have been removed and their
foundations torn out in preparation for the development.
arero
HO=~ I
omcer?
Phoenix Centre Development Site has now been reclaimed and a new Supastore,
onal shops, petrol station, and car parking area, have been constructed. The
the public in November 1986L The remainder of the shops planned for the
shortly. The development of the railway station area is still to be
83
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One reclamation area which had
many years is scheduled to be cleared
disturbed strata make the site unsuitable
engineering work is undertaken. This
visit. A quarry site adjacent to the
scheduled for reclamation for amenity
Criteria for Cleanup
been used as a dumping site by BSC for
and landscaped as open area. The
for building unless major site
site was fenced at the time of our
by-product coking plant site was also
use (CDC, 1985).
One of the main issues in the reclamation at Corby was how clean a site
must be in order to be safe for new development. Since the cleanup action is
funded entirely by Derelict Land Grants, the _Local Authorities are intent on
seeing that the cleanup measures are very thorough, they want to avoid any
future problems from inadequate site engineering or problems associated with
the contaminated soils. Ironically, the idea of building on formerly
contaminated land does not seem to be
in the assessment of the Willow Brook
of concern to the firms moving to the
reclaimed sites.
Guidelines developed by the Greater London Council (GLC) were applied
West and Central site to determine the
extent of excavation needed and an appropriate disposition of the excavated
materials (i.e., whether materials could be buried at some depth onsite or
whether offsite disposal at an authorized facility was warranted. The GLC
guidelines specify concentration ranges that are considered typical for
uncontaminated soils as well as ranges representative of "slight
contamination," "contaminated," "heavy contamination," or "unusually heavy
contamination." The GLC guidelines for total cyanides and for organics were
compared to the levels measured at various depths throughout the site. Based
on this information, the extent of contamination that would remain after
different excavation scenarios was determined arid plotted on maps. This
approach allowed graphical presentation of the effectiveness of various levels
of cleanup.
A complete list of the GLC guidelines is given in Table 4. The GLC
guidelines for total cyanides and toluene-extractable organics that were the
most critical in the Corby site assessment are listed below (values in mg/kg
on air-dried soils):
85
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Value typical for
uncontaminated soils
Slight contamination
Contaminated
Heavy contamination
Unusually heavy
contaminat ion
Cyanide-total
0-5
5-25
25 - 100
100 - 500
greater than 500
Toluene extract
0 - 5,000
5,000 - 10,000
10,000 - 50,000
(1 to 5 percent)
50,000 - 250,000
,(5 to 25 percent)
greater than 25,000
(25 percent)
The Regional Water Authority tends to promote more stringent cleanup
criteria than other responsible authorities might require for site
reclamation. In particular, levels of phenolic compounds in excess of 5 ppm
are of concern because of the potential for tainting of drinking water. This
concern by the Regional Water Authority arises because of the possibility of
formation of chlorinated phenols if phenolic compounds are present in water
supplies treated with chlorine. Very low levels of chlorinated phenols (below
0.1 mg/L) can cause odors and tainting of fish flesh.
•Much of the site work at the former BSC site is being carried out to
insure adequate bearing capacity for building sites and suitable ground
material for installation of infrastructure' Such work includes excavation
and removal of buried slurry deposits; removal of existing pipes (often still
i
containing process materials) and surface spils contaminated from leaks, and
complete removal of old foundations.
Funding; Assistance for Reclamation and Redevelopment
Since the closure of the steel works, the Town of Corby has allocated
substantial resources to land reclamation and infrastructure to support new
factories (and therefore new jobs). These efforts could not have been
supported alone by local tax revenues, especially in view of the high
unemployment problems faced by the region after the steel works closure. The
grants and economic aid that Corby has received from outside sources has been
crucial to the reclamation and redevelopme.nt efforts and has enabled the work
to be accomplished without major increases in local rates.
Shortly after the announcement of closure of the steel works, Corby was
granted Development Area Status by the Department of Trade and Industry. This
status qualifies Corby for Regional Development Grants and insures continuing
financial aid and incentives from Europe and the European Economic Council
(EEC). Regional Development aid is available to the municipality to assist
86
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with funding for infrastructure such es roads, power stations, and treatment.
'works in developing areas. Additional government funding assistance was made
available when the Corby Enterprise zdne was opened in 1981. Reclamation
efforts at the former BSC site in Cor^y have been funded by Derelict Land
Grants from Central Government.
Derelict Land Grants—
Under the Derelict Land Act of 1982, grants are provided by the Central
Government to provide 100 percent of the cost for the purchase and reclamation
of land that i.s so damaged by industrial use that extensive treatment is
necessary in order for the land to be
awarded to the Corby District Council
hectares (340 acres) of land formerly
adjoining the BSC Tube works is being
Phoenix Park Industrial Areas. Both qhe Department of Environment (DOE)
Regional Office at Nottingham and the
Skyline," 1984, p. 9; CDC Notes, 1985)
Derelict Land Grant, monies recovered
reclamation will be remunerated to Cen
reused. A Derelict Land Grant was
for reclamation of approximately 138
occupied by the BSC. This land
developed as the Willow Brook and
Central Directorate on Environmental
Pollution (CDEP) in London provided assistance to Corby in securing the
Derelict Land Grants. By the end of 1984, some £7.5 millions (equivalent to
about $11 million) had been spent on these reclamation efforts, and the 1985
budget for £3.5 million (just over $4 million) was approved ("The Changing
In accordance with conditions of the
from land sales following site
tral Government. It appears unlikely,
however, that the land values when the sites are ready for redevelopment will
totally offset the costs of the reclamation work.
Status—
id by the Department of Trade and
Economic Aid Based on Development Area
Regional Development Grants offer
Industry are paid in relation to new ajssets for qualifying industries which
include manufacturing and some service industries (Corby Facts, 1985, p. 2).
These grants can amount to 15 percent of capital costs subject to a limit of
f10,000 ($13,366 based on 1984 exchange rates) per job created by the industry
or, alternately, may be paid as a job brant of. up to 3,000 ($4,000 at 1984
exchange rates) for each job created (Corby Facts, 1985, p. 2) . The grants
are ignored for the purposes of Corporation Tax.
Loans are offered from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) to
investment projects offering employment in former steel-producing areas (Corby
Facts, 1985, p. 7).- The reduced cost loans are available for up to 50 percent
of fixed asset investments; interest rates are reduced by 5 percent per annum
for the first 5 years of the loan, thu
s reducing the average interest rate of
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an 8-year, 11.75 percent loan to around 7.5 percent per annum (Corby Facts,
1985, p. 7). The loans require strong security from the borrower in the form
of a mortgage on industrial property or bank guarantee.
Regional Selective Assistance is available for certain types of
investment projects that offer benefits to the U.K. economy such as import
substitutions, increases in imports, productivity gains, or new technology
development/ demonstration. Financial assistance may include phased cash
grants against capital expenditure; loan repayment guarantees; and Exchange
Risk Guarantees for ECSC loans (an important factor in securing the ECSC loans
described above) (Corby Facts, 1985, p. ,2)>.
Enterprise Zone Benefits—
The concept of creating Enterprise Zones is a fairly recent program by
the Central Government to encourage industrial and commercial activity by
removing certain tax burdens and by relaxing or speeding up the application of
certain statutory or administrative burdens. The first Enterprise Zone in
England was opened at Corby on June 22, 1981. The program has not yet been in
existence long enough to determine its success or failure in the U.K. as a
whole. At Corby, however, the incentives offered by the Enterprise Zone have
clearly been a positive factor in attracting new industries.
The specific benefits for firms establishing facilities within an
Enterprise Zone are listed in the "Corby Facts" (1985, p. 6) brochure provided
by the Corby Industrial Development Center. The following benefits are
available for a 10-year-period from June 22, 1981:
1. Exemption from Development Land Tax.
2. Exemption from local authority rates (local property tax) on
industrial and commercial property.
3. One hundred percent allowances for Corporation and Income Tax purposes
for capital expenditure on industrial and commercial buildings.
4. Priority processing of applications and relaxing of certain criteria
for certain customs facilities.
5. Exemption of employers from industrial training levies and from the
requirement to supply information to Industrial Training Boards.
6. A greatly simplified planning regime—developments that conform with
the published scheme for the zone will not require individual planning
permission.
7. Expeditious administration of those planning controls remaining in
force.
8. Reduction in Government requests for statistical information.
88
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The local government receives mo:iies from Central Government to offset
the loss in tax revenue. While Enterprise Zone tenants are exempt from some
of the extensive planning controls normally in force, they must comply with
existing pollution regulations.
WANDSWORTH GAS WORKS, LONDON BOROUGH OF WANDSWORTH
The 16-hectare (40-acre) site of
located on -the south bank of the Tharm
the former Wandsworth Gas Works is
s River in the London Borough of
1S
Wandsworth. The surrounding area is occupied by industrial and utility
operations.
Land Use History and Redevelopment Obiectives
The Wandsworth Gas Works began operation about 1860, producing gas from
coal for about 100 years. Coal for the works was brought to the riverside
site by barge. The gas works site extended some 550 meters (1,804 'feet) along
the Thames River. Other than gas manufacture, the exact operations (e.g. by-
products recovery and, possibly, refining)'carried out on the site are not
known. During the time the plant was in operation, many process changes
occurred altering the original plant design. As there are no as-built
drawings to reflect periodic modifications in the plant systems, the exact
locations of underground foundations.
tanks, pits and pipelines are not known.
During the plant's operation, parts of the gas works site were reclaimed from
river marsh; process wastes, such as spent iron oxide from the gas cleanup
operations, were deposited to make new solid ground for plant expansion. Some
wastes were taken offsite. • '
After the plant was closed, the GLC purchased the site with the objective
of developing it for housing. The plant had been decommissioned and the
above-ground structures removed. Bas^d on findings in 1976 of extensive site
contamination, the GLC determined (on
the basis of borehole evidence) that the
site was unsuitable for development as housing and that redevelopment of the
site would have to be planned for less sensitive land uses.
At the western end of the site, d 20-hectar'e (8-acre) area was designated
for development as a refuse transfer station by the GLC Department of Public
Health Engineering. With the exception of -an area on the south side which was
Authors' Note: The information presented in this case study was obtained during a visit to the
site in March 1985 and from reports prepared by the GLC Scientific Services Branch, Land
Pollution Group (Goaman, 1983) and by the GLC Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel (GLC, 1983).
GLC Officers, Mr. George Lowe and Mr. Ray Carpenter accompanied the Authors on the site visit.
89
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scheduled for use as a parking area, the remainder of the site was found to be
grossly polluted. Remedial measures would be necessary prior to any
redevelopment of the site. Figure 8 indicates the layout of the Wandsworth
Gas works site before demolition of the plant structures. The redevelopment
objectives proposed for the site are shown in Figure 9. Reclamation of the
gas works site to bring the land to a greenfield site condition was to be
initiated in late 1987.
Nature and Extent of the Contamination
Investigations were carried out in 1976 and in 1980 to assess the extent
of the chemical contamination over the site. It was found that ground
pollution from the gas works operations was severe, and the distribution of
the contamination appeared to be random. In the 1976 survey, 343 samples were
taken from boreholes spaced over the site in a 30-meter grid. Analyses of
these samples showed heavy pollution in some areas by coal tar, phenols,
sulfur compounds, and free and complexed cyanides (Goaman, 1983).
A 1980 investigation involving 40 trial pits focused on the western
portion of the site which was slated for redevelopment as a refuse transfer
station. Samples from 24 pits indicated a considerable amount of combustible
material to be present. Based on these findings, it was decided that further
investigation over the remainder of the gas works site should be carried out
to determine the extent of the buried combustible material and the presence of
methane.
During July 1982, an additional 21 trial pits (actually slit trenches, in
some cases) were dug 3 meters (9.8 feet) deep at various locations over the
site. Severe pollution by liquid and solid residues was encountered, and
strong odors of creosote and tar were apparent from several of the pits.
Three workers employed by the Local Authority investigating road construction
problems became ill during the trial pit excavations. It was decided that the
trial pit samples should be analyzed for the full range of gas works related
contaminants (as recommended by the ICRCL). A total of 104 samples collected
from depths down to 3 meters were analyzed for gas works pollutants (coal tar,
free and complexed cyanides, elemental sulfur, sulfide, sulfate, phenols,
acidity). Of these samples, 76 were tested for combustibility, based on
calorific value. Five boreholes for methane testing were drilled down to
depths of 12 to 15 meters (39 to 49 feet) near the river.
90
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92
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The section to the east of the refuse transfer station site and bounded
by the Thames River and the new Estate Road was found to contain particularly
high concentrations of pollutants. The trial pit strata logs (Goaman, 1983)
for pits A through H listed the types
Trial pit A
Trial pit B
Trial pit C
0.20 m Concrete
3.00 m Fill: Soil, brick rubble, ashes, coke; all material
below 1.
1.80 m of black liquid.
80 m colored black.
0.30
1.30
0.30
1.70
Trial pit D
Trial pit E
1.20
1.80
0.20
0.30
0.30
2.50
m Concrete
m Fill: Top soil
clinker.
m Fill: Ash, coke,
of materials encountered; these included
m Concrete
m Fill: Brick dust, ashes, brick rubble, and gas works
waste.
, brick rubble, coke, sand, clay, and
top soil
m Sandy gravel: badly polluted with diesel oil at 2.50 m.
m Granite setts
m Concrete
m Hardcore
m Fill: Soil, black sandy gravel, concrete, peat, and
clay.
Trial pit F
Trial pit G
Trial pit H
0.10
3.00
m Concrete
m Fill: Ash, cli
iker, soil, brown clay, brick rubble,
and pockjets of black material between 2 and 3
meters.
m Fill: Brick dujst, sand, coke, clay, ash, old garden
soil, and brick rubble.
3.00
2.60 m Fill:
Ferrous
concrete
2.4 m of
Dxide, ferric-ferrocyanide, peat, clay,
(dig abandoned due to obstructions);
black liquid.
The specific levels of contaminants in samples of the materials listed
above were reported. Some of the significant findings for samples from trial
pits A through H (summarized from the
listed in Table 6.
Contamination from coal tar posed
1981) for soil contaminants. In nine
detailed soil analyses reports) are
the most serious potential hazard based
on the tentative guidelines recommended by AERE Harwell (Wilson and Stevens,
samples from the area, coal tar was
considered to be at "unacceptable" levels for land used for industrial
purposes. The number of samples with "unacceptable" coal tar levels increased
to 17 if the site were to be developed for public open space.
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TABLE 6. SUMMARY OF CONTAMINATION LEVELS INDICATING SERIOUS POLLUTION
AT WANDSWORTH GAS WORKS SITE*
Contaminant
Level of Contamination
PH
Sulfate
Range: 2.6 - 10.9
Levels were consistently high over most of the site.
Highest level: 14.8 percent. One or more samples
from five trial pits contained levels above 5 percent.
Sulfide
Cyanide (CN-)
Phenols
Toluene extract
Coal tar
Elemental sulfur
Ferricferrocyanide
Thiocyanate
Free cyanide
Range: Concentrations determined in 1980 were much
lower than in the 1976 tests, possibly due to long
time lapse between sampling and analysis.
Levels exceeded 500 ppm in one or more samples from
three trial pits. Highest levels were at 1 m depth
from pit A.
Levels of 10 ppm were found in two samples from one
pit; all other samples contained 2 or 3 ppm.
Range: 500 ppm - 13.5 percent. Highest level was
found in pit B. Two or more samples from five
pits had levels above 10,000 ppm (1 percent).
Extracted material from pit H consisted mainly
of mineral oil.
Range: 500 ppm - 10 percent. Highest levels were
found in pit B. Levels in pit B ranged from 1.3
percent to 10 percent. Levels in pit A (four
samples) ranged from 1 percent to 2.2 percent.
Levels in pit G (four samples) ranged from
5,0 0 0 ppm to 1.5 percent.
Range: 500 - 8500 ppm. Highest levels were found
found in trial pit H.
Range: 100 - 5,000 ppm. Highest levels were found
in trial pit A.
Level reported for all samples was 50 ppm except for
one sample from pit H which contained 290 ppm.
Range: 2 - 120 ppm. Levels exceeding 50 ppm were
found -only in pits A, B, and H.
*Source: Based on information in Goaman, 1983a, Appendix 2.
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It is assumed that high sulfide concentrations are present within the
ground, especially at depth. The high levels of sulfates and organics
throughout the site would, under most
circumstances, prompt, the need for
special measures to protect structures and services below ground.
Methane was detected in three boreholes. It was believed to arise from
decomposing natural organic material within undisturbed ground below the
filled area by the Thames River. Ten
combustibility (including four samples from an area identified as a coal
bunker) had calorific values greater than 6,978 kJ/kg (3,000'Btu/lb).
Remediation Activities
of the 76 samples tested for
After the site for the refuse transfer station was developed, it was
concluded that remedial action would be required to 'enable development of the
southernmost part which was intended to
be used for truck parking. (This southern area was considered to be substan-
tially free from contamination and required no special remedial activity.) It
was recognized that disturbing the contaminated ground would release foul
odors and,toxic gases (hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen cyanide, volatile
hydrocarbons) and that mixing the various contaminated.soils could further
complicate the potential hazards to workers at the site.
After evaluating the available site investigation data for the site, the
GLC Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel recommended the following protective
measures (GLC, 1983a):
a) Protection of the workforce.
b) Reduction of site disturbance
g) Avoidance of deterioration tc
to the minimum possible.
c) Avoidance of excavation which would create spontaneous combustion
risks.
d) Minimizing the amount of surp'lus excavated material for disposal.
e) Containment of pollution and provision of a barrier layer for long-
term protection.
f) Creation of conditions suitable for planting and maintenance of
landscaped areas.
structures and services.
The excavations carried out in ccnjunction with the proposed Estate Road
had revealed extensive obstructions below ground from the old gas works
,d
operations. A number of pipelines had been disturbed during this work which
resulted in the inadvertent release of tar and other liquids. The various
building foundations, tanks, pipelines, and other structures below ground were
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considered to pose a major pollution problem if further removal operations
were undertaken since removal of these obstructions would entail contact with
solid and liquid residues from the old gas works. Recognizing that it would
be virtually impossible to avoid deep excavations altogether, the Inter-
Departmental Assessment Panel (1983a) noted that for excavation below a depth
of 1.5 meters (4.9 feet), mechanical ventilation may need to be used.
Examples of essential excavations include trenches for water mains and sewers.
Heavily polluted material excavated from the site should not be returned
to the excavations if the material is judged to pose a serious hazard to
buried installations or to workers who might come in contact with the material
in conjunction with maintenance operations. Any surplus materials excavated
from the site will be subject to disposal in accordance with the Control of
Pollution Act 1974. Coal-derived liquors and tars and any excavated spoils
found to be exuding tars are classified as "Special Waste" for handling and
disposal. Other solids are classified as "Hazardous Industrial Waste."
Before discharge of any water from the site, including discharges to foul
sewer, permission would have to be obtained from the Water Authority. No
discharge into the Thames River would be allowed.
Some additional recommendations ,for remedial works given by the Inter-
Departmental Assessment Panel (GLC, 1983a) are summarized below:
• The site should be filled overall to a depth of 1.2 meters (3.9 feet)
with imported granular fill (excepting the area occupied by the new
metropolitan road and the truck parking area at the southern edge of
the site). This level of fill should provide an acceptable
environment for most utility services to the site.
• Consolidation techniques that minimize disturbance below ground
should be used (e.g., vibroflotation which involves installation of
"stone columns" rather than piles).
• A suitable environment should be provided for sustained growth of
trees. Root penetration into the original ground can be avoided by
local mounding or raised planting areas.
Based on the findings from the 1982 investigation, the GLC concluded that
the presence of methane and combustible soils did not, pose major problems
overall, although combustible materials at the eastern end of the site might
require some precautions during site development to guard against combustion
and release of toxic gases. Fires for destruction of rubbish or other
purposes must not be allowed on the site at any time. In general, precautions
required to deal with other hazards at the site were believed to be sufficient
to protect against fire hazards.
Sufficient remedial work was carried out to insure that contamination
from the gas works site did not pose a hazard to the surrounding areas. The
most heavily contaminated surface soils were excavated and removed to a
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licensed disposal facility at Aylesbuiy, Buckinghamshire. The cost of
transport and disposal of this materiel was £20 (about $30 U.S.) per cubic
meter (based on 1983 exchange rates). | Clean fill was brought in to cover the
site to a depth of 1.1 meters (3.6 fe«it) .
Application has been made for a Derelict Land Grant to reclaim the site
to a greenfield site condition. This
capacity up to 80 KN/m2.(3/4 ton/squar
will require bringing the ground bearing
e feet). Vibroflotation is proposed as
the most appropriate form of ground inprovement. This entails installation of
stone columns through the fill at about 2.5 meters on center. Most of the
existing concrete cover slabs could remain undisturbed thus minimizing
exposure of workers to contaminated material. Filled tanks and pits can also
be vibroflotated.
Site Reuse
The Wandsworth Gas Works site is Dwned by the GLC, which can control its
reuse. The initial plans to develop tjhe site for housing were abandoned due
to the extensive contamination. At the time of the Authors' site visit, the
major portion of the site adjoining the Thames River was fenced and vacant.
Some scrubby grass and moss were growing on some parts, but the ground was
exposed over much of the site.
The westernmost area of the former gas works land has been developed as
the Western Riverside Waste Transfer Station. (The transfer station was under
construction at the time of the Authors' visit.) The refuse station, designed
to handle some 600 tons of municipal waste daily, was scheduled to begin
operation in May 1985. Municipal waste from the London Borough of Wandsworth
will be brought to the station where it will be compacted in preparation for
barging to Essex for final disposal.
The southern area of the- site is used for truck parking. A municipal
roadway (Estate Road) Is being constructed through the site by the London
Borough of Wandsworth. A car park is planned next to the railway. These
areas were exempt from the requirement
for clean fill because the road base
plus the road construction asphalt will provide the necessary protective
cover.
The GLC intends to develop portions of the remainder of the site as the
Wandsworth Enterprise park for light industry, preferably labor intensive
industries to provide jobs. New buildings constructed on the site will be of
a light, flexible single story construction. Concentrated loads should be
distributed through a semi-raft or spread footings to the vibroflotated
grounds (Snow and Partners, 1984) . This type of construction was recommended
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to avoid cracking of brick or block work or internal walls and to minimize
loads. During the site development, special provisions will be encouraged for
the protection of workers on the site, (i.e., protective clothing and
showers). In the event that any unusual soil or objects (e.g., highly colored
or malodorous soil, sealed drums or cylinders) are encountered, testing will
be carried out before further work in the vicinity is continued.
Criteria for Cleanup
Findings from the chemical investigation of the site were compared with
tentative guidelines developed by AERE Harwell for "unacceptable" levels and
"undesirable" levels for contaminants arising from gas works and similar sites
(Wilson and Stevens, 1981) . These levels were recognized in 1981 as the
recommended guidelines. The levels designated by Harwell as "undesirable"
were incorporated in the guidelines issued by the ICRCL in 1983 where they are
called "Trigger Concentrations" for contaminants associated with former coal
carbonization sites.
THAMESMEAD, LONDON
The planned Community of Thamesmead on the south bank of the Thames
River, is being developed by the Greater London Council (GLC). The
development area is located 16 kilometers (10 miles) east of central London in
the London Boroughs of Greenwich and Bexley between Woolwich and Erith. The
unique 688 hectare (1700 acres) site extends some 5.6 kilometers '(3.5 miles)
along the river. Some 400 hectares (988 acres) of the planned development is
on the site of the former Royal Arsenal in Woolwich. The portion of the site
apart from the old Arsenal land lies in the southern part of the community and
has no contamination problem. The Thamesmead site is show in Figure 10.
The development at Thamesmead was started in 1967 oil a site in Bexley,
south of the Arsenal, and it was not until 1975 that the extent of the
contamination arising from activities in the Arsenal area was recognized as a
major issue in the development. Since that time, large-scale remediation
efforts to deal with the contaminated land and also with the problems caused
by the high water table have been undertaken to render the area suitable for
building. The GLC's Assessment Panel on Contaminated Land, was established as
the working group to address land pollution problems at Thamesmead. (See
Authors' note below.)
Authors' Note: The information for this case study is drawn largely from GLC Inter-Departmental
Assessment Panel Reports, Laboratory Reports, and Development Briefs. Much of the historical
information is from a paper by GLC Officer, Mr. George Lowe. The Authors visited the Thamesmead
site in March 1985 accompanied by Mr. Lowe and Mr. Ray Carpenter of the GLC.
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99
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The Thamesmead area is composed mostly of drained marshland. The site is
a natural drainage basin, receiving water from nearby hills and discharging it
via tidal sluices into the Thames River. The land has a high water table and
poor load-bearing capacity. To prevent flooding, a riverside pumping system
has been devised, with connecting lakes and canals within the community.
Land Use History and Redevelopment Ob-jectives
The process of reclaiming land from the Thames River marsh was begun by
Roman settlers and continued by Augustinian monks who established an abbey
south of the current Thamesmead site in the 12th century. From about 1600,
the responsibility for maintaining the river wall and flood control was passed
to the government. The Woolwich Naval Dockyard was established on the Thames
River just upstream from the current Thamesmead site by Henry VIII, and the
area soon became active in military and industrial activity. The first
manufacturing industry in the areas was a brass foundry where cannons were
cast starting in 1716. During the 18th century, convict labor was used to
fill the swampy ground with mud and debris from excavations at St. Katherine's
Dock near the Tower of London! By the beginning of the 19th century, the area
was incorporated into the "Royal Arsenal." A variety of structures were built
and various operations were carried out at the Arsenal. Facilities for the
making and testing of guns as well as transportation provisions, including
roads and railways dotted the site. Docks and piers were established on the
Thames River for receiving coal and other raw materials. Some 30 moated
magazines, known as tumps, were built. From 1850, the Arsenal had its own
facilities for gas production and later steam and electricity. Industrial
wastes from gas production and other Arsenal activities were used to fill in
the marshland.
Use of the Royal Arsenal for the manufacture of heavy weapons,
ammunition, and explosives reached a peak during the First World War, and
after the War the activity at the Arsenal declined. During World War II the
area was heavily bombed, and surplus explosives were burned on the site
following the war. The area gradually deteriorated after World War II. In
the mid 1960's the old Arsenal site was purchased from the Ministry of Defense
by the GLC for residential development. At that time, the Arsenal site was
the largest single area of vacant land in London (Lowe, 1984).
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Nature and Extent of Contamination
It is difficult to determine exac ;ly what activities were carried out at
various locations on the site during previous centuries since the previous
land use was classified military information. Almost all of the original
structures have long been demolished.
following activities:
The site bears evidence of the
Heavy machine shop and forging work,
Non-ferrous metal foundries,
Cadmium and other metal plating,
Town gas manufacture,
Development and testing of paints
Manufacture of acetylene.
Manufacture and testing of weapons and explosives,
Destruction of surplus explosives]and incendiary devices,
Storage of coal stocks on the surface, and
Dumping of industrial and utilities wastes. (Lowe, 1984)
Vast quantities of waste generated by industrial processes, manufacture
of town gas, and generation of electricity were left at various locations on
the old Arsenal site. The wastes were
serve as cover for sensitive installations or used as foundations for
buildings, roads, and railways that ne
sometimes formed into large mounds to
^worked the site. It has been estimated
that as much as 1.5 million cubic meters of contaminated materials present on
the Thamesmead site would require dispbsal (Lowe, 1987, p. 479).
The potential problems stemming from buried chemicals at Thamesmead
became evident in 1975 when a heavily contaminated area was excavated;
underground phenol tanks from the formpr gas works were penetrated, and a
chemical fire occurred. After this, construction operations were suspended to
avoid further risks to contracts personnel. These events made clear the
necessity for thorough site investigation and remedial action planning prior
to site development.
Chemical contaminants of concern
t the site include heavy metals (lead.
cadmium, mercury, antimony, arsenic, zinc, nickel, "and copper) ,- organics (coal
tars, oils, phenols); elemental sulfur', sulfide, and sulfate; free and
complexed cyanides, combustible materials, and asbestos. The analytical
determinations for samples from different sites vary based on the use history
and preliminary site investigations.
Asbestos insulation was found on the surface along the lines of a network
of overhead steam and hot water pipes from the two boiler plants (Lowe, 1984).
These lines extended for several kilometers, and a detailed search for
asbestos 'residues was carried out. Asbestos materials cleared from Thamesmead
sites are disposed in a licensed facility on site.
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Enormous quantities of coal were brought to the Arsenal for use in town
gas production, electricity and steam generation, and in foundry operations.
Huge stocks of coal were piled on the surface behind the old river embankment.
Over time, large quantities of this coal sank below the surface under its own
weight and remained in the ground after the main stocks were removed. In
1976, underground fires at two locations (apparently the result of spontaneous
combustion of the buried coal) burned through the roots systems of trees that
had colonized the areas (Lowe, 1984). Although remaining trees and flammable
'materials were removed from the surface, these underground fires continued to
burn through the coal over a 2-year period.
Because the Thamesmead site is largely reclaimed marshland, the presence
of methane gas from the breakdown of organic material in river silt remains a
concern, particularly for sites close to the river wall.
Remediation Activities
Reclamation measures are designed to resolve contamination problems by
the simplest possible means. These measures include the following (Lowe,
1984, p. 563):
"Overfilling with clean imported material;
"Excavation and removal of contaminated soil and replacement with clean
imported fill where the original ground level has to be maintained;
"The covering of sloping surfaces when the contaminated inner cores of
raised mounds are exposed or deep cuts are formed for canal construction
through raised areas;
"Special arrangements for prevention of direct contact and erosion when
excavations near lakes bring subsurface contamination into conflict with
open water;
"Change of land use."
Sand dredged from the North Sea has been used extensively as fill
material in the Western Area of Thamesmead. Because of the high water table
and poor load-bearing capacity at Thamesmead, all construction work must be
piled or preloaded (surcharged) to achieve adequate consolidation. Prior to
development of any areas affected by underground fires, the sites will be
excavated down to natural clay and filled with clean granular material (Lowe,
1984).
A licensed disposal facility was created sufficient for 350,000 cubic
meters (457,765 cubic yards). This was completely filled in 1985. A second
disposal facility is now in use.
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One area designated for residential development has been found to have
methane at significant levels. Structures built on such sites must be
designed so as to avoid accumulation of ,the gas to an explosive level. During
the course of remedial works and site
development at Thamesmead, the discovery
of any unusual.objects or materials should be reported to the GLC Scientific
Advisor for the site.
• When the geographical extent of the ground pollution problem at
Thamesmead was recognized, it became clear" that the cost and the impact on the
environment of exporting the contaminated material to out-county disposal
facilities would be unacceptable (Lowe, 1987). The only viable alternative
was to provide for disposal within the confines of Thamesmead. The necessary
disposal area was developed within the space created by construction of a new
river wall. (See discussion of Thamesmead Site 4J/4K.)
Land Reuse
For purposes of development, the
GLC into a number of areas, each with
Thamesmead area has been divided by the
its own characteristics and planned use.
The GLC performs site investigations to determine the extent of contamination
problems (if any) at each site. Findings of the site investigation are then
reviewed by the GLC Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel who make
recommendations regarding remediation
and site preparation measures necessary
to make the site ready for development. A "Development Brief" outlining the
•GLC's use plan for the site is then prepared by the GLC Housing Department and
issued to prospective developers for each site. The Development Brief states
the GLC's design and development requirements noting that, "It is intended
that this design advice should be sufficiently flexible to allow the developer
and architect the opportunity to use their specialized abilities to create a
scheme which successfully integrates environmental, financial and market
criteria" (GLC, 1983b; GLC, 1984c).
About 40 percent of the site had
been developed by 1985. When complete,
Thamesmead is planned to accommodate approximately 40,000 people, providing
homes, local employment on purpose bu;
shops and a town center with shopping
of the entire community development is projected to be in the 1990's.
It industrial estates, neighborhood
and recreational facilities. Completion
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Four of the Thamesmead areas for which assessments have been completed
are discussed in the Sections 3.5.6 through 3.5.9. These areas are treated as
independent land reuse case studies to highlight the significant development
issues for each site. These cases serve to illustrate the GLC's approach for
preparing individual areas of Thamesmead for development, or, in one case, the
decision not to develop or in any way disturb the site because of in-ground
contamination.
Criteria for Cleanup
The contamination at each Thamesmead area is evaluated within the context
of the intended site development. Recommendations for remedial measures are
proposed based on projected long-term hazards to site users. Long-term
occupants of houses with vegetable gardens are considered to be the group of
users at highest potential risk. Stringent remedial action planning is
carried out for sites to be used for housing with gardens. Schools are also
considered as a sensitive land use. Since buildings and paved surfaces
provide a barrier to exposure to land pollution, remedial measures at school
sites are focused mainly on landscaped areas.
Samples from areas believed to contain combustible materials are tested
to determine their calorific value. For guidance purposes, materials with
calorific values of 1700 calories (about 7,100 J) per gram are considered to
have a potential for spontaneous combustion (Lowe, 1984, p. 562).
Thamesmead Area 4A
Thamesmead site 4A located in Thamesmead Central comprises approximately
10 hectares (24.7 acres). The 4A site was divided into four areas, each with
a different use designation (Goaman, 1983b). These areas are the Territorial
i
Army Volunteer Reserve (TAVR) site, Public Open Space, the Birchmere Lake 2
expansion areas, and the 4A Housing Area. The area designated for housing was
formerly used for storage and handling of materials and was a major point of
intersection for railway traffic (GLC, 1983c).
Site 4A: Nature and Extent of Contamination--
The first site investigation involving Site 4A was carried out in 1977.
Samples were taken from 31 trial pits at depths of 0.12, 1.0, and 2.0 meters
(6 inches, 3.28 feet, and 6.56 feet, respectively). Although a few random
areas were found to contain sulfide and cyanide near the surface, there was no
evidence of general disposal of gas works wastes (Goaman, 1983b). Based on
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the findings from the site investigatipns the northern section of the site
used by the TAVR appeared to be largelV undisturbed natural material and
substantially free from contamination.
The 1977 investigation revealed tiiat for a large portion of the site the
surface had been covered with fill containing ash as a major component
(Goaman, 1983b). Heavy metal contamination by antimony, arsenic, lead,
cadmium, copper, and zinc was found at
area. Additional testing.was carried
or near the surface over most of the
out in 1983 to reexamine the high
antimony levels reported from the earlier investigation (an analytical problem
was suspected). The 1983 samples show
id antimony levels to be close to
typical values for natural soils.. A summary of the metals contamination
reported in the proposed housing area
Arsenic—Three samples contained higher than 50 mg per kilogram air dried
sample (50 ppm). The highest arsenic
Almost
(Goaman, 1983b) follows:
Level, 140 ppm, was from a trial pit in
all samples contained more than 10 ppm
the southern part of the site.
arsenic.
Lead—Ten samples contained lead at higher than 1,000 ppm; four
additional samples contained lead above 500 ppm. The highest concentration,
7,100 ppm, was found in a sample taken from the area designated for Lake 2
expansion. Almost all of the significant lead contamination was confined to
the top 0.15 meter (6.inches) of soil.
Cadmium—The two highest cadmium levels reported were 30.2 and 15.2 ppm.
Twenty one samples, most from the top 0.15 meter (6 inches), contained levels
above 3 ppm.
Nickel—Twenty-four samples contained nickel at levels between 50 and 100
ppm, and three samples contained greatsr than 100 ppm. The two highest
reported levels were 950 and 430 ppm. Nickel contamination was found in
samples down to 2 meters (6.6 feet).
Zinc—Seven samples contained higher than 1,000 ppm zinc.
The highest
reported level, 125,000 ppm was for a sample from 1.0 meter (3.3 feet) below'
the surface. All other contaminated samples were from a depth of 0.15 meter
(6 inches).
Site 4A: Remediation Activities--
The GLC Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel (1983c) recommended site
cleanup measures designed to deal with
Existing concrete foundations throughout the site were to be excavated and
removed by the GLC. Areas to be used ::or private houses with gardens were
recommended to be covered to a depth of 0.6 meters (2 feet) with clean
the heavy metal contamination.
imported fill and clean topsoil. This
105
recommendation did not apply, however,.
-------
to the TAVR area; only 0.15 meter (6 inches) of clean fill/topsoil was to be
required to cover this area. Areas designated for amenity open spaces
required 0.3 meter (1 foot) of fill including topsoil. After removal of the
existing substructures, the GLC would provide for the necessary cover except
for the 0.3 meter (1 foot) of topsoil. Provision of the topsoil which forms
the cap for the contaminated areas would be the responsibility of the
contractor for the site development.
For conservation areas, the Assessment Panel recommended the addition of
0.3 meter (1 foot) of clean fill and topsoil, with special care given to
preserve existing trees on the site. Not less than 0.15 meter (6 inches) of
soil should be removed by hand tools from above and between the roots of trees
before the fill is added. This technique allows the necessary thickness of
clean cover while maintaining the final level around tree trunks at only 0.15
meter (6 inches) above the original ground level (GLC, 1983c).
The site preparation required removal of extensive concrete foundations
and floor slabs from the buildings which once covered the site. A concrete
lined drainage channel also had to be removed after a new culvert was
completed. Surface water drainage from the site was allowed to be discharged
into the Birchmere Lake, but an oil interceptor was required to be provided
(GLC, 1983d, paragraph 4.6.2).
Site 4A: Site Reuse—
The first phase of residential development for the Area 4A is a 2.27
hectare (5.6 acre site) to be called Birchdene 1 (Site 4A1). This site has
ready access to major roads and partial frontage on Birchmere Lake 2. In
October, the GLC Housing Department distributed the Development Brief for the
Birchdene 1 site. The GLC provided detailed guidelines to assure high quality
plans and structures as well as an appropriate relationship of the development
with the Lake. Substantial effort was devoted to planning amenity spaces
including pedestrian and bicycle paths and landscaped areas. The development
should achieve an overall density of 173 to 210 habitable rooms per hectare
(70 to 85 habitable rooms per acre) (guidelines set forth in the Greater
London Development Plan). The GLC (1983d) further required the dwelling sizes
in Birchdene 1,to conform to the following guidelines:
• not more than 30 percent bedsits/1 bed flats, and
• not less than 40 percent 3/4 bedroom houses.
Besides the Birchdene 1 Site, other sections of Site 4A were scheduled
for marketing in July 1984 (Site 4A2) and November 1984 (Site 4A3).
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Area 5B
in an east to west direction, roughly
The 2--hectare (5 acres) site is slight
It is only about 40 meters wide along
Area 5B of Thamesmead (shown in Figure 11} is a long narrow site running
following the line of the Thames River.
ly-greater than 1.5 kilometer in length.
most of its length. The site is bounded
on the north by the'River and on the east by a canal. A belt of trees forms
the southern boundary, and a chainlink fence denotes the western boundary.
The site was originally proposed for development as a housing area.
Part of the site includes a former river wall. Bank raising as part of
the London flood prevention scheme wasj later carried out to protect the site.
The area behind the old river wall was used to dispose of rubble from bomb-
damaged buildings during and after World War II. Pulverized fuel ash,
probably from a local power station, industrial waste from the Arsenal, and
some organic waste were also disposed
in this area. Between 1981 and 1983,
land behind the bank of the River Thames.was raised by sandfilling. Surcharge
material was left in place over the dumping area for some time. This action
served to consolidate the ground and mkde possible a conventional sewage
system-for the site.
The remains of three, moated magazines have been found on the site. These
structures were probably constructed op waste material from the gas works and
foundry associated with the Royal Arsenal.
5B: Nature and Extent of the Contamination—
An extensive investigation of the
site was undertaken in 1981 (Chapman,
1980). Five surface samples and 114 samples from 27 trial pits were obtained.
Calorific value (to indicate combustibility) was determined for 74 of the'
samples. In addition, 19 boreholes were drilled to depths of 9 to 13 meters
(29 to 43 feet) to test for the presence of methane.
Contaminants found in the samples
from different depths included lead.
arsenic, antimony, cadmium, zinc, coppor, magnesium, sulfur and coal tar. In
two pits, very high levels of lead, sulfate, elemental sulfur, and antimony
were found. The very alkaline pH found in some pits was attributed to the
presence of lime.
Caloric value results varied with
soil depth. At 0.15 meters little
combustible material was found. At 0.5 meters, increased combustibility was
noted, and coal-like substances were found. Some samples at greater depth
showed 20 percent coal or coke. It was concluded that overall combustibility
was low, but with isolated pockets of highly combustible material.
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Methane was found to be present'in several areas. Samples taken from
boreholes close to the Thames River slowed methane in percentage levels.
Based on the findings of the investigation, the site was divided into
three areas. Area I, the western-mostT part of the site, showed lower levels .
of contamination, in general, although two surface samples contained high
levels of heavy metals. This contamination'was believed to be confined to the
ash-like material comprising the surface layers. Area II, which lies to the
east of Area I, includes some areas od very high contamination. The samples
showing higher calorific values and high methane levels were taken from this
area. Area III, east of Area Ii; comprises the remainder of the site.
area showed no substantial contamination.
This
5B: Remediation Activities—
Remediation requirements vary for
the three areas due to the different
levels of contamination. For Area I, clearance of the ash-like surface
material was required, followed by covlring with at least 0.3 meters (1 foot)
of clean imported fill and topsoil. The high levels of contamination and
methane in Area II led to the conclusin that the area was unsuitable for
housing development. it was recommended
least 0.5 meters (1.6 feet) of clean fill and top soil to make it suitable for
It was recommendd that the area be covered with at
open space. Deep tree pits would also
Recommendations for Area III were
be required.
similar to those for Area I. Due to
the presence of potentially corrosive substances in the soil, the use of
sulfate-resistant cement is recommended by the GLC. A subsequent report (GLC,
1983e) stated that all areas used for Aousing should be capped with 1.0 meter
(3.3 feet) of soil, and houses should be constructed with means of excluding
methane gas.
5B: Site Reuse—
Thamesmead Area SB is scheduled for residential development. It is the
first riverside area in Thamesmead to be developed. Due to the poor bearing
capacity of the ground, piled.foundations will be required for all structures
built on the site. Neighboring sites are also scheduled for development as
housing. The development brief for Site 5B was distributed to potential
deve'lopers in July 1984.
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Thamesmead Area 8K: Broadwater South
Thamesmead Area 8K, named Broadwater South, located in the western part
of Thamesmead covers approximately 0.8 hectare (2 acres). The larger
Broadwater Area which includes several other sites for development was the
location of the gas works for the Royal Arsenal and a main center of
industrial activity for the Arsenal. Like much of the Thamesmead site, the
Broadwater South Area was reclaimed from river marsh. Among the industries
that have occupied the site are the foundry, metal plating, the production of
paint, metal treatment, metal shop,. testing of firearms, and explosives
storage.
Area 8K: Nature and Extent of Contamination—
The Broadwater South site was first investigated in 1978 as part of the
larger Area 8 West and 8 South. At that time, the area which 'had been the
site of the gas works was
found to be so grossly contaminated that it was
considered too dangerous for housing development.
The 8K
site was retested separately in 1982 after in-ground structures
and foundations were
removed. It was suggested that the excavation of the
foundations resulted in mixing surface soils with cleaner soil beneath the
foundations, thus lowering the pollutant levels.
During the 1982 investigation, a total of 16 pits were dug, and 80 soil
samples were obtained from various depths
levels of copper, zinc, mercury, lead, and
down
cadmium
to 3.0 meters (10 feet). High
were found. The
contaminants were found at all depths. Combustibility was not indicated to
pose a hazard at the site.
Area 8K: Remediation Activities—
Following the 1978 investigation, the Areas Broadwater South and West
were overlaid with an interim capping of 0.2 meter (0.6 foot) of silty sand.
Following the 1982 testing, it was determined that for a residential develop-
ment, an additional 0.5 meter (1.6 feet) of clean fill and 0.15 meter (0.5-
foot) of clean topsoil should be added to this sandy layer.
110
-------
Area 8K: Site Reuse—
Based on the findings of extensive contamination at the former gas works
site, it was decided to leave this arek undeveloped for use as open space. A
nearby area which had initially been scheduled for open .space was instead
developed as housing, thus allowing ths originally intended density of
development over the combined sites.
Thamesmead Site 4J/4K
Thamesmead Area 4J/4K is an area of land formed by the construction of a
new river wall and used as a landfill for the contaminated soil and other
excavated material from other areas of the Thamesmead development. It is the
first site at Thamesmead "established as a licensed disposal facility with the
deliberate intention of finally rec.laijiing the land for housing purposes"
(GLC, 1982, p.. 1) . The area was filled over a 3-year period with about
350,000 cubic meters (475,765 cubic yards) of material—some clean, and some
contaminated.
Area 4J/4K: Nature and Extent of Contamination—
The conditions of the disposal license developed special operational
control of the facility. Material for
that had been subject to full investige.tion.
subject to contaminant limits specified in the license.
disposal was only accepted from sites
All materials received were
Table 7 shows the
contaminant limits determined from samples taken after the facility was
filled.
The testing procedures used at the
(GLC, 1982}. A total of 25 trial pits
surface to a depth of 6 meters (20 feet
0.15 meter to contain copper, arsenic,
(1.6 feet), eight samples showed copper
site are summarized in a 1982 report
were dug. Samples were' taken from the
). Analyses showed five samples from
cyanide, and coal tar. At 0.5 meters
and antimony contamination.
Another condition imposed by the disposal license addressed consolidation
during filling. Material was required
to be spread, levelled, and compacted
in layers of 225 to 300 mm (9 to 12 indhes). This meant that a' typical
vehicle load of 20 cubic meters would te spread over an area of at least 80
square meters (Lowe, 1987).
Methane testing was judged to be o
silt at the bottom of the fill. This material was known to contain organic
substances which could produce methane.
depth of 8 to 12 meters (26 to 39 feet)
11
: potential concern because of river
Eight boreholes were drilled to a
Concentrations of methane were found
-------
TABLE 7. LICENSE LIMITS AND MEAN CONTAMINANT LEVELS FOUND
AFTER DISPOSAL FACILITY WAS FILLED*
Contaminant
License Limit
mg/Kg dry soil
(except toluene extract)
Mean Concentration
mg/Kg dry soil
(except toluene extract)
Cadmium
Copper
Mercury
Nickel
Lead
Zinc
Cyanide
Toluene Extract
Sulphide
Thiocyanate
Ferri-Ferro Cyanide
Arsenic
20
1500
10
1000
2000
2000
100
1%
250
200
2000
150
1.1
532.2
1.5
85.7
877.8
870.7
3.0
0.24%
2.6
50.0
100.0
20.3
* Source: Lowe, 1987, p. 481
112
-------
not to exceed 6 percent, and concentre.tions generally increased with depth.
Some of the borehole test results indicated the methane was produced in the
strata of peat below the landfill. Itj other locations, the maximum methane
concentrations were found in the upper layer of the landfill, indicating the
presence of decaying organic material
Area 4J/4K: 'Remediation Activities—
within the fill material.
During the construction of the laidfill, special designs were used to
control the spread of the contaminants from the waste fill. The disposal
facility design is shown in Figure 12. A metal curtain of sheet piling was
installed between the site and the rivUr which prevents lateral migration of
the waste material. The steel sheet piling plus reinforced concrete structure
of the river wall extended down to the natural hand chalk base.
Due to the levels of contamination, several remedial measures were pro-
posed for the 4J/4K Site. After consolidation and removal of the surcharge
materials, the site should be covered vith 0.5 meters (1.6 feet) of clean
imported fill and topsoil. Surplus exbavated material from construction on
the site will be removed to an approved disposal site within the Thamesmead
development area. Drainage and servics trenches will also be filled with
clean material.
Due to the presence of methane at
the site, special precautions will be
taken in construction of housing. Serjrice entries for gas, electricity,
phone, and other utilities will be indirect; separate ventilated service cup-
boards will be built. In addition, ground floor slab concrete should be of a
mixture that-will not crack readily.
After the site was completely filled, it was covered with soil and seeded
to provide a temporary surface. The site was later surcharged (i.e.,
temporarily covered with a large amount of soil and rock to accelerate
consolidation).
Area 4J/4K: Site Reuse —
The site will eventually be redeveloped
layout of housing is decided, the site
There will be regular monitoring over a
completed (Lowe, 1987).
for housing. When the final
will be subject to reinvestigation.
period of five years after building is
113
-------
uJO
s,
O
W
CO
C/3
iS
4J
id
g.
•H
CO
•S 5
C.
•O
en
O)
Q
Dl
114
-------
Atkins, W. S., 1984. Redevelopment of
—, M J T»T_ -~ L Xt1_ •___•! -~ . * .. __ _ —
for Corby District Council prepared by
1984). ^
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Chapman, T., 1980. "Laboratory Report: Investigation into Potential
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England.
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Their Definition," Waste Management Paper No 23., Department of the
Environment (DOE). HMSO, London (220 pages).
DOE/WO, 1987. "Development of Contaminated Land". Joint Circular from the
Department of the Environment, 2 Marsham Street, London SW1P 3EB, and Welsh
Office, Cathays Park, Cardiff CF1 3NQ. Circular 21/87 (DOE); Circular 22/87
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the Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel on Land at: Thamesmead Site 5B, Site
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Report of the Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel on Land at: Thamesmead Area
8F, Broadwater south (TM/8S). June 30, 1982.
GLC, 1982b. Greater London Council Investigation of Derelict Industrial Land.
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4J/4K, Site Code 157/TM4. November 16, 1982.
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the Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel on Land at Wandsworth Gas Works, Site
Code 109/WAN. February 16, 1983.
GLC, 1983b. "Development Brief, Housing 8K." Prepared by Greater London
Council Housing Department to assist developers in preparing schemes for a
residential development on Site 8K. August, 1983.
GLC, 1983c. Greater London Council Investigation of Derelict Land. Report of
the Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel on Land at Thamesmead Site 4A, Site
Code 138/TM4. October 18, 1983.
GLC, 1983d. "Development Brief, Birchdene No. 1." Prepared by Greater London
Council Housing Department to assist developers in preparing schemes for a
residential development en site 4A1 (Birchdene), October 1983.
GLC, 1983e. Greater London Council Investigation of Derelict Land. Report of
the Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel on Land at Thamesmead Site 5B, Site
Code 144/TM5. December 1983.
116
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GLC, 1984a. Greater London Council Investigation of Derelict Land. Report of
the Inter-Departmental Assessment Panel on Land at Thamesmead Site 5B, Site
Code 144/TM5. May 18, 1984.
GLC, 1984b. "Contaminated {Land: Evidence to Royal Commission on
Environmental Pollution." GLC Scientific Services Branch, Land Pollution
Group, June 8, 1984.
GLC, 1984c. "Development Brief, Housing 5B." Prepared by Greater London
Council Housing Department to assist developers in.preparing schemes for a
residential development on Site 5B. July 1984.
GLC, 1984d. "Derelict, Damaged and Vacant Land." Chapter 7D in The Greater
London Development Plan (As Proposed to be altered by the Greater London
Council). Approved by the Planning committee 9 July 1984 and amended by the
Council 25 September 1984. pp., 115- 118.
Goaman, H. P., 1983a. "Laboratory Report: Investigation into Potential
Contamination at Wandsworth Gas Works-[-1982 Survey." Greater London Council -
Scientific Branch, Health and Safety Sciences Division - Land Pollution Group,
February 1983.
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30, 1983.
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Towns, Willow Brook Central and West,
eport for the Commission for the New
Detail Study, Appendix IV: Chemical
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"The Hazards of Contaminated Land," Ccnference, London, May 15, 1981.
Published by the Geological Society.
Keeps, K. D., 1982. "The Reclamation
of a Disused Sewage Works," Public
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SW1P SPY.
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1979. Available from Central Directorate on Environmental Pollution, Room
Romney House, 43 Marsham Street, London
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Contaminated Land," ICRCL 59/83, 1st Edition, May 1983. (Replaces ICRCL 3/78,
16/78, 38/80, and 47/81.) Available fjrom Central Directorate on Environmental
"Pollution, Room A3.24, Department of the Environment, Romney House, 43 Marsham
Street, London SW1P SPY. • ' "
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Contaminated Land (ICRCL), "Notes on strap Yards and Similar Sites," ICRCL
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:tee on the Redevelopment of
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Contaminated Land (ICRCL), "Notes on Sewage Works and Farms," ICRCL 23/79, 2nd
Edition, November 1983. Available from Central Directorate on Environmental
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Street, London SW1P SPY.
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38/80, and 47/81.) CDEP/EPTS, Department of the Environment, Romney House, 43
Marsham Street, London SW1P SPY.
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at "Reclamation of Contaminated Land," Conference at Eastbourne, October 22-
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Disposal Sites." In: Proceedings HMCRI, 1980.
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"Reclamation of Contaminated Land," Conference at Eastbourne, October 22-25,
1979. Proceedings published by Society of Chemical Industry, London, 1980,
pp. B2/1-14.
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Remedial Measures to Bring Contaminated sites Into Beneficial Use." In:
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September 27-30, 1987, pp. 477-484.
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Adjacent Areas," Public Health Engineer, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 202-211.
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(p.
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Experience and Prospects," Tenth Report. HMSO, London.
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Presented at "Reclamation of Contaminated Land," Conference at Eastbourne,
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British Association for the Advancemenjt of Science, Annual Meeting, Salford,
September 1-5, 1980.
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the Annual Congress Environmental Health Officers Association (EHOA),
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Wilson, D. C. and C. Stevens, 1981. "Problems Arising From the Redevelopment
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120
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WALES,
united with England, and the two coun
SECTION 4
ITED KINGDOM
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
The Principality of Wales, in southwest Great Britain, is politically
:ries have shared common systems of law]
Wales (shown in Figure 13) is surrounded
II
and government for nearly 450 years.
on three sides by sea; the western border it shares with England. The
legislative Acts of Parliament in effect in England also apply to Wales.
The eight counties of Wales comprise some 8,018 square miles (somewhat
larger than the state of New Jersey) with a population just under 3 million
people. Large areas of central Wales are sparsely populated, while the sout
is densely populated by comparison. Though part of the United Kingdom—
together with England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland—Wales (Cymru, in the
Welsh) has its own rich history and unique culture and language.
Wales has long been recognized for its abundant natural resources. The
great coal fields, especially the South Wales Coalfield, have brought
notoriety to the area. For,many years industrialization in Europe was fed
coal and metals .from Wales, and there
consequences .
during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th
was little regard for the environmental
I
Mining of coal and ores and production of metals and chemical's
I
centuries were carried out on a
tremendous scale in some areas and accompanied by indiscriminant dumping of
Authors' Note: Much of the information in thid section was obtained during the Authors' visit_co
Wales in March 1985. We are grateful to the Wejlsh Office in Cardiff and especially to Mr. Ron"
Page,who spent considerable time and effort to make our visit to Wales both educational and t
enjoyable. We appreciate the welcome by Mr. L. E. Taylor, who heads the Waste and EnvironmentalL
Protection Division of the Welsh Office, and his comments on the Division's research program.
Mr. Gwyn Griffiths and Mr_. Victor Skyrme of the Welsh Development Agency, Pontypridd, also
provided valuable insights and accompanied us cjn several site visits in Mid Glamorgan.
Accompanying us on • site visits in the Lower Swansea Valley were Dr. Michael Bridges of the
University College of Swansea; Mr. Haden Jones,
City Engineer's Office, Swansea; and Mr. Page of
the Welsh Office. Each of our hosts had been involved with different aspects of the reclamations
and redevelopment of the Valley since the initial project investigations in 1961. Their :
perspectives into the progress, the problems, and the issues relating to the revitalization of
the Valley were extremely helpful. •
In addition to seeing several contaminated sites and the reclaimed and redeveloped areas that a :e
most pertinent to this document, we saw some ofl the beautiful valleys and coastal areas for whlbh
Wales is famous. To witness the contrast between the natural landscape and the extensive damag'l
brought about by irresponsible environmental practices of earlier years made the reclamation
efforts now underway in Wales and all the more
impressive.
121
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/fofrfe/MrfTSjgjgfe
AberifrltsV^
Ctynnog-fawj/
w^rar^iSKE
*l%o^4>^
o
ISTOL CHANNEL
Figure 13. Map of Wales (courtesy of the National Geographic Society)
122
-------
spoils. Much of Wales consists of upland areas formed by ancient igneous and
metamorphic rocks. The granite and slate deposits have been quarried
extensively in Northwest Wales, leaving vast heaps of waste and water-filled
craters.
Along with some of the finest natural scenery in the world—superb
countryside, beautiful mountains and
Wales has large areas of derelict and
pressure to develop any unused sites.
valleys, glorious beaches and coastline—
contaminated land. Because so little
land in Wales is suitable for development (due to the steep slopes), there is
particularly near or in towns, and to
reclaim derelict land. The narrow mining valleys characteristic of many parts
of Wales present unusual difficulties, for the level ground is primarily
occupied by surface works and the mining wastes are tipped on the valley
sides. The accumulated wastes from mining, smelting, and other industrial
activities have left a sad legacy of scarred valley hillsides and country
moorlands. Polluted waterways also remain as a result of the old mining
practices that continued over many centuries and into modern times.
In Wales the potential danger of spoiling land was brought to everyone's
attention in October 1966 when a mountainside tip of colliery waste was made
unstable by heavy rains. Millions of
tons of coal waste avalanched down the
mountain to the village of Aberfan, engulfing a school and several homes. One
hundred forty four people were killedt including 116 children. Since the
Aberfan disaster, there has been a determined and ambitious drive in Wales to
alleviate, dangerous dereliction and to restore contaminated land to productive
and beneficial use.
Industrialization in Wales
Industrialization in Wales has
seen strongly influenced by the country's
natural resources, in particular its :oal fields, ore deposits, rivers and
ports. -The presence today of large dferelict and contaminated areas represent
the final stage in the exploitation of these resources.
Because of the high quality of ;he coal and its proximity to tidal
waters, the South Wales Coalfield was
the chief coal-exporting region of the
world from about 1881. After World War II, the demand for Welsh coal
decreased greatly, both at home and abroad. South Wales continued, however,
for several years to be the premier coal exporting area in the United Kingdom.
The South Wales Coalfield is marked by many north-south orientated rivers
which have cut deep valleys through the region. Ironstone and limestone occur
123
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along with the coal at the heads of these river valleys. Coal mining and
ironmaking activity have dominated these valleys for many years. Important
industrial centers developed around the major ports from which the coal was
shipped.
The North Wales Coalfield influenced industrial development in the
northeast. The occurrence of coal, ironstone, and limestone in Northeast
Wales, gave rise to an important ironmaking industry. Coal was also processed
to recover oils, tar, ammonia, and various other chemical products.
Major deposits of lead, zinc, and copper in central and northeast Wales
have been mined extensively. The large quantities of fuel necessary, for
smelting usually required transporting the ores to the coal fields. In the
northeast the smelting was done locally as coal supplies were readily
available. Ores from central Wales were generally shipped to the South Wales
smelters which used coal from the South Wales Coalfield.
Government Response to Dereliction
Before 1966, Government involvement in land'reclamation in Wales was
very limited. Between 1960 and 1966, the.area reclaimed with government aid
was only 40 hectares (99 acres). Since the Aberfan disaster, Government
assistance has aided local authorities in hundreds of reclamation projects.
Today, two Central Government bodies, the Welsh Office and the Welsh
Development Agency, are responsible for programs to facilitate reclamation and
redevelopment of derelict land. Within a month of the Aberfan disaster the
government set up a special unit within the Welsh Office to lead, encourage,
and coordinate a program of land reclamation. By 1976, government assistance
for the rehabilitation of derelict land totaled more than £20 million (about
$48 million U.S.), and more than 3,100 hectares (7,657 acres) of derelict land
had been rehabilitated. Beginning in 1976, the programs involving reclamation
to upgrade and promote land reuse were transferred to a separate body, the
Welsh Development Agency.
Role of the Welsh Office—
The Welsh Office, headquartered in Cardiff is responsible for the
administration of programs in agriculture, education, and environmental
control. The Welsh Office reviews project proposals submitted by Local
Authorities and makes recommendations for loans or grants from Central
Government. The Water and Environmental Protection Division, comprising about
60 people, advises on various environmental matters including hazardous waste
sites. This Division functions much like the Department of the Environment in
124
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England, but on a more limited scale.
aimed at scoping, understanding, and
of contaminated land (Page, 1984, pp.
The Division also sponsors research
alleviating waste-related problems. The
annual research budget for 1985 was approximately £120,000 (about $143,000).
Some of these research efforts that are particularly relevant to redevelopment
594-7), are described below.
Blood Lead Levels in Halkyn Mountain Area—A study initiated in 1975
examined blood lead levels in women and children living in the Halkyn Mountain
area, a former metals mining region in East Wales. The study revealed blood
lead levels 30 to 50 percent higher than levels in women and children living
in other parts of Wales. As expected^, heavy metals levels, especially lead,
in Halkyn Mountain soils were found to be significantly higher than levels in
soils from West Wales. Important lead intake routes were found to be through
eating locally-grown vegetables and through ingestion of lead-contaminated
dust from kitchen surfaces and, parti
cularly for children, from soiled hands.
Background Levels of Heavy Metals--In an effort to establish baseline
metals concentrations (i.e., levels that would be considered normal) in
environmental media throughout the Principality, the Welsh Office has asked
the University college of Aberystwyth
grass, cereals, and vegetables for arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, lead,
and zinc. It is intended that this,effort, initiated in 1983, will show the
the 19th century. Thousands of tons
to analyze samples of soils, dusts.
distribution of these metals in soils
New Uses for Slate Debris--Ther
heaps from the slate quarrying and cutting operations that were active during
throughout Wales.
e are in some parts of Wales vast spoil
of slate were quarried out of the
mountainsides, and today the spoil heaps tower over the slate villages.
Because of the enormous volumes, this
potential danger should it become unstable. A productive use for the material
is sought as this might encourage its
Land Reclamation Schemes—A sti
waste is unsightly and also poses a
removal. The objective of the effort
sponsored by the Welsh Office is to investigate slate as a raw material to
produce fiberglass.
dy sponsored in 1984 involves examining
the'cost-effectiveness and life expectancy of various reclamation systems. In
this effort Liverpool University was asked to identify or develop models to
predict the optimum reclamation systep for contaminated sites.
Survey of Contaminated Land--
In 1983 the Welsh Office and the Welsh Development Agency cosponsored a
project to design and develop a data
base to provide a comprehensive record of
sites in Wales that are believed to be contaminated. The Environmental
Advisory Unit, Liverpool University, was contracted to develop the methodology
125
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and to carry out the initial survey (a one man-year effort). This survey of
contaminated land is the first Regional Study of its kind in the United
Kingdom (Page, 1984; Page et al., 1984).
For the purposes of the survey, contaminated land is defined as "land
which contains material presenting a potential hazard to site users at present
or in the future, site developers, the environment, and building structures"
(WO/WDA 1984, p. 3). A list of hazardous materials was adopted to use as a
basis for designating contaminated land. This generalized checklist, given in
Table 8, is derived from the Special Waste Regulations, Control of Pollution
Act, 1980. The list was applied as a qualitative tool; that is, if there is a
high probability that one or more listed materials are present at a subject
site as a result of previous land use, then the site is designated as
contaminated and included in the survey. Threshold concentrations that might
cause effects were not used since determining levels of pollutants at specific
sites was outside the scope of the project.
Information for the survey was culled from available reference material
on industries in Wales (e.g., the iron and steel industry, the tinplate
industry, the gas production industry, metals mining), from maps, aerial
photographs, and local knowledge. The Welsh Water authority and Health and
Safety Executive records of contaminating sites as well as government surveys
of industry in Wales were also utilized. Emphasis in the survey was placed on
those sites of 0.5 hectares (1.2 acres) and larger. Some smaller sites such
as former gas works sites and tar lagoons are also included because of their
potential for serious contamination. Sites currently in beneficial use (i.e.,
active industry, housing districts) are excluded from the survey.
The data base is designed to store information compiled for each site in
26 fields. The first six fields include a code number (a unique identifier),
specific location data, the site name or owner, and current site use. The
next 14 fields contain site specific information on topography, the most
likely contaminants, the period of use that potentially caused contamination,
an estimate of the amount of contaminated material, potential contaminant
toxicity, the proximity of the site to local housing, and the current status
of the site. Fields 21 through 24 provide an evaluation of the severity of
the contamination—a scale of the potential hazard, priority for attention,
the probability of contamination, and additional relevant information. The
last two fields indicate the latest data update for the site and the primary
source for the site identification. The data base is accessed through an IBM
compatible computer. It may be querried using any field or combination of
fields.
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TABLE 8. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS THAT MAY CAUSE SITE CONTAMINATION
Category
Metals and Compounds
Other Inorganics
Organic compounds
Special Chemicals
Material
Antimony and .compounds
Arsenicl and compounds
Beryllium and compounds
Barium compounds
Cadmium and compounds
Copper compounds
Hexavalent chromium compounds
Lead ana compounds
Mercury and compounds
Nickel and compounds
Selenium and compounds
Silver compounds
Tellurium and compounds
Thallium and compounds
Vanadium compounds
Zinc anjd compounds
Metal hydrides and carbides
Acids and alkalis
Asbestos (all types)
Barium compounds
Boron compounds
Cyanides
Halogen-containing compounds
Sulfur-containing compounds
Metasilicates
Nitrates and nitrites
Phosphorus and compounds
Heterocyclic organic compounds with oxygen,
nitrogen, or sulfur Hydrocarbons and oxygen,
nitrogen, and sulfur derivatives
Organic halogen compounds, excluding inert
polymers Peroxides, chlorates, perchlorates
and azides.Tarry materials from refining and
tar residues from distilling
Biocides and phytopharmaceuticals
Laboratory chemicals Pharmaceutical and
veterinary compounds
Source: Information from "Survey of
Office/Welsh Development Agency, 1984
Pollution Act, 1980.
Contaminated Land in Wales." Welsh
List is modified from Control of
127
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More than 700 sites covering an area of 3,787 hectares (9,354 acres) were
cataloged during the initial survey, and it is hoped that the survey- can be
updated annually. The distribution (based on initial survey results) of con-
taminated land in Wales by county is shown in Figure 14. The total number of
sites in each county is given along with the percentage of the total area of
the county that is categorized as contaminated. The records of this survey
comprise a national register with many potential applications. A potential
developer, for example, might consult the register to learn if a given
property is likely to contain hazardous materials that would drastically
affect the cost of redevelopment of the site. Another potential user of the
survey is an individual considering purchase of a home or a lot for building;
the survey could be querried to determine if there are contaminated sites in
close proximity to the property under consideration.
The survey data for each listed site include rankings of toxicity of con-
taminants present (high, medium, or low hazard to humans); a hazard factor
scored on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 denoting the most hazardous sites; and a
development factor (scored on a scale of 0 to 5, with 5 denoting the highest
priority) to indicate the relative priority for site remediation. These rank-
ings, although subjective in nature, are very useful in gaging the relative
importance of sites throughout the Principality or within a district.
Table 9 indicates the number and types of sites in each County. Some of
the trends observed in the initial survey data are noted below. These conclu-
sions are excerpted from the final report from the survey dated March, 1984.
"West Glamorgan has the largest area of (potentially contaminated) sites;
this is largely composed of land in the Lower Swansea Valley. Over half
of the contaminated land in Mid Glamorgan occurs in the district of
Merthyr Tydfil.... (In) South Glamorgan... the large areas of unused
dockland present only slight hazards. The areas and numbers of sites in
Dyfed, Gwynedd and Powys are largely due to metalliferous mine
workings.... Clwyd has a mixture of contaminated land, derived largely
from mine sites... and a steel works.... Gwent has...sites in Newport
and on the coalfield....
"Clwyd has a disproportionately high number of... sites (with hazard and.
development factors of 4 and 5) including disused chemical works, a
steelworks, lead mine tailings dams and gasworks.... Mid Glamorgan has a
number of coke ovens and hazardous waste tips....
"The large numbers of hazardous gasworks and coke ovens cover a
relatively small area; most do not merit reclamation on environmental
grounds since, when disused, they do not create pollution and only
present problems during redevelopment. By contrast, many mine sites are
significant hazards due to their potential for exporting contaminants and
justify high priorities for treatment to prevent environmental damage.
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Coalfield
Orefield
Port
Clwyd
127 sites
(0.21 percent]
Gwynedd
45 sites
(0.04 percent)
Powys
38 sites
(0.03 percent)
Dyfed
117 sites
(0.09
Gwent
124 sites
(0.38 percent)
ENGLAND
West Glamorgan
89 sites
(1.27 percent)
125 sit
(0.62 percent)
South Glamorgan
39 sites
(0.50 percent)
Figure 14.
.Map showing counties
and the percentage of
contaminated.
(Source: Data
of Wales, the number of contaminated sites,
total area in each county that is
from WO/WA, 1984, p. 69)
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TABLE 9. TYPES OF POTENTIALLY CONTAMINATED SITES BY COUNTY
Types of Sites
Number of potentially contaminated sites
South Mid West Dyfed
Gasworks/coke ovens
Metal mines
Waste tips
Iron/steel/tinplate
Chemical works
Transit areas
Smelters
Others
Total No. of sites
Total area (ha)
1
0
14
3
0
15
1
5
39
208
31
3
; se
21
2
2
1
9
125
636
4
0
48
14
5
5-
9
4
89
1032
6
6
35
19
4
3
1
3
117
526
Types of Sites
Number of potentially contaminated sites
Gwynedd Clwyd Powys Gwent
Gasworks/coke ovens
Metal mines
Waste tips
Iron/steel/tinplate
Chemical works
Transit areas
Smelters
Others
Total No. of sites
Total area (ha)
9
22
13
0
0
0
0
1
45
177
21
26
40
10
11
3
9
7
127
532
1
23
7
4
0
1
0
2
38
166
21
0
49
29
6
16
0
3
124
520
Source: Data from "Survey of Contaminated Sites in Wales." Welsh Office/Welsh
Development Agency, 1984.
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Industrial waste tips and chemical works can be very hazardous but only
justify a high priority for treatment when there is a risk of air
pollution or toxic leachates being generated. Industrial sites related
to engineering, smelting and transport are often contaminated by metals
but do not pose acute hazards and can often be redeveloped for industrial
usage without specific remedial measures." (WO/WDA, 1984, pp. 66-68).
The Welsh Development Agency—
The Welsh Development Agency (WDA) was created by the Welsh Development
Agency Act 1975 and began operation on January 1, 1976. The WDA is empowered
to make grants to County and District
Councils for the purpose of reclaiming
derelict land. For grant purposes the term "derelict, neglected, or unsightly
land" is defined as "land so damaged by past industrial or other activity that
it is incapable of beneficial use without treatment" (WDA, 1984a). The WDA is
also empowered to acquire and reclaim
as its agent. The WDA is responsible
restore derelict land to beneficial use
bodies (e.g., the National Coal Board, the Forestry Commission, and the
Countryside Commission) the WDA has pDwer to meet the whole cost of
reclamation schemes promoted by local
land or to appoint other bodies to act
for organizing and financing the work to
;e. In cooperation with other public
authorities (i.e., the County and
District Councils). Subject to WDA approval, expenditures eligible for grants
include the following:
1. the cost to the local authority of acquisition of land required for
the project;
2. salaries and overheads of the authority's staff or consultants
engaged in the project design;
3 . the salary 'and expenses of a
works supervision;
resident engineer and staff employed in
4. administrative costs incurred in the preparation and execution of
projects; and
5. the cost of the works including site survey, demolition and removal
of derelict structures, earthmoving, drainage, treatment required for
safety, landscaping, fencing! and maintenance (WDA, 1984a).
To be eligible for total cost reimbursement the WDA requires that local
authorities acquire the freehold interest in the relevant land where the works
will materially increase the value of
initially reimbursed the total eligible costs of acquiring the subject land
and for carrying out the rehabilitati
the land. Local Authorities are
works. In some cases the Agency
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recovers grant monies based on the value of the restored land. "Where the
relevant land is to be sold or leased by the Council or appropriated by them
for any revenue producing use, the capital value of the land for the intended
use after reclamation but before development will be deducted from the
expenditure eligible for grant" (WDA, 1984a).
Grant aid is also considered for reclamation of publicly owned land not
purchased by the County or District Council. Such grants are normally condi-
tional upon the land-owning Authority making a contribution to the reclamation
costs equivalent to the anticipated enhancement in the land's value (WDA,
1984a). The Agency also considers grants for reclamation projects on land in
private ownership where it is unlikely that any significant after-value will
be created.
Individuals, companies, corporations, or bodies other than local
authorities may apply for grants from the WDA. To be eligible for grants, a
site must have had some previous type of development which has ceased, but the
site must need clearing or reclaiming before any further use can take place.
In general only the costs required for reclamation to bring the site to a
"greenfield state" are eligible for grant. Guidelines for the extent of these
types of grants (WDA,1984b) are as follows:
"Grant may be paid on any net loss incurred by the freeholder or
leaseholder of derelict land carrying out reclamation work approved by
the Agency. The net loss will be determined by offsetting the approved
total expenditure by the increased value of the land attributable to
reclamation (see example below), the increased value to be determined by
the Agency's Valuer. Grant is normally payable at 80 percent of the net
loss."
EXAMPLE: a. Cost of reclamation works, £100,000; b. Value of site
before reclamation, £20,000; c. Value of site after reclamation but
before development, £50,000; d. Increased value of site £30,000;
e. Eligibility for grant (a-d) £70,000; f. 80% Grant payable, £56,000."
The WDA has supported the reclamation and redevelopment of several types
of derelict land. The largest category of derelict sites involves coal
wastes. In some instances coal wastes can contribute to land contamination.
More commonly, however, contamination arises at former industrial sites (e.g.,
steel works) or at sites where coal gas has been produced. At a former gas.
works site at Newport in County Dyfed, for example, ferricyanide wastes were
encountered. Before redevelopment of the site, the material considered to be
highly contaminated was excavated and removed to a lined tip. The site was
then sealed with two meters of clay and is now ready for development.
In the largest single investment so far, the WDA is building a production
complex, to be occupied by Hoover, the American washing machine manufacturer,
at Merthy Tydfil in Mid Glamorgan (WDA, 1984c). The new plant is being built
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on land once covered by coal waste anc
mineworkings. The coal, waste was removed by conveyor belt to another
reclamation site a mile away where it
honeycombed with abandoned
will be used as fill material. To
stabilize the site for the new structures, thousands of tons of a concrete-
like mix were pumped int^ihejaiderg.rc und cavities. Four thousand boreholes
were sunk as part of the grouting operation. This work was further
complicated when huge slabs of slag from ancient ironworkings were encountered
during the drilling. When completed,
this complex will occupy nearly 38,000
square meters (409,017 square feet) and provide some 3,000 jobs when fully
operational.
In another type of project, large
slate quarry holes near Deiniolen in
the Llanberis Valley of Gwynedd are being filled with waste from the tips they
created, enabling the road to be realigned and improving access to the neigh-
boring village (WDA,1984c). Some of the other land reclamation projects
supported by the WDA JWD,A? 1984c) include the following:
• A comprehensive school at Treiegar built on the site of a colliery
which closed in 1959.
• Pentre Hafod Senior Comprehensive School at Swansea built on a site
once covered by a copper wast
A new comprehensive school in
village of Penygraig on the
closed collieries.
5 tip.
the Rhondda Fawr built above the
reclaimed site of tips from the now-
More than 100 houses and old people's bungalows built by the Gwent
Borough Council on land previously used for tipping colliery waste.
A new factory complex in Cwmfelinfach in Gwent, built on the site of
a colliery that closed in 1964 leaving derelict buildings, rusting
railway tracks, and a massive waste tip.
The Tafarnaubach Industrial Estate at Ebbw Vale developed on land
which was once a "moonscape" t>f shale tips.
A country park at a site at Pembrey in Dyfed following clearance of
remains of an old ordnance factory.
The WDA works in close coordination with
approving grants for land reclamation
contaminated and derelict land rehabilitation
the Welsh Office in reviewing arid
and in carrying out research involving
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SELECTED CONTAMINATED SITES AND REDEVELOPMENT ISSUES
In 1985 it was estimated that between 0.5 and 1 percent of the land area
of Wales is contaminated. This does not include areas despoiled by coal
mining or quarrying. Contamination resulting from improper disposal of
industrial chemical waste is recognized to pose a potential hazard to human
health and the environment at some sites. Prior to 1972, uncontrolled tipping
of industrial wastes at refuse tips or at old quarry sites was not uncommon.
Such sites present very complex pollution problems and have not yet been dealt
with extensively. Some assessment work has been carried out, and plans are
being developed for remedial action at some sites contaminated by industrial
wastes. Other contaminated sites that may pose potential hazards are
underground burning tips. An approach for dealing with such sites is still
being developed. To date, reclamation of this type of site has not been
accomplished. Some specific examples are given below of contaminated sites
that are receiving attention in Wales.
Lieners Gelatin, Ltd, Pontvpridd, Mid Glamorgan
A site that is now part of the Treforest Industrial Estate was formerly
occupied by Lieners Gelatin, Ltd., a facility that produced gelatin from
animal hides and bones. The property is owned by the Welsh Development Agency
(WDA), and Lieners was a former tenant.
The Lieners operation used animal materials (mainly pig) brought from
various locations. While the gelatin plant was in operation, twelve plant
employees had contracted anthrax, and although none of these men died from the
infection, one individual who ignored his condition became seriously ill.
There were also reported cattle losses from anthrax linked to the plant. When
the WDA began planning the site reclamation and redevelopment work, Lieners
warned the Agency of the possibility of anthrax spores which could pose a risk
to workers engaged in the site excavation and possibly to future tenants at
the site.
Anthrax is an acute, specific, infectious, virulent disease caused by the
spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. It occurs in animals, chiefly
cattle, sheep, and horses, and sometimes pigs.' The disease can be contracted
by workers handling the hides or carcasses of infected animals. Human
infection may occur as a result of breathing air containing the bacilli or
spores (internal anthrax), or through accidental inoculation via a cut on
134
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exposed skin (external anthrax). Either form can be life-threatening.
Inoculation by attenuated bacilli is
ased as a preventive measure in persons
1'ikely to be exposed to the infectious disease.
Gelatin is manufactured from substances in the supporting structures of
;er or dilute acid. The bones are first
chloric acid to remove mineral matter.
with water. Skins are limed to remove
vertebrate animals by boiling with wa
degreased and steeped in dilute hydro<
This is followed by repeated washings
albumin and mucus and, after washing with water,.treated with dilute hydro-
chloric acid to swell the collagen. The treated bones and skin are then
cooked for several hours in water or dilute hydrochloric acid at about .60 °C.
The first "boiling" may be drawn off and the cooking repeated with a fresh
volume of water at 70 degrees C. The
concentrated in vacuum, and finally c
liquids produced are clarified,.
lilled and cut into,slices.
anthrax spores can remain dormant for
Although no anthrax spores were found at the .site, it is known that
a very long period of time, and the
precautions to be taken during reclamation.
reclamation work at the site were inoculated against anthrax.
medical opinion was that there remained a potential hazard, warranting
Workers involved with the
In order to
learn the location of the most contaminated areas of the site, an effort was
made to locate and interview persons who had worked at the plant. The site
cleanup included demolition of the buildings and excavation and removal of
foundations. During the plant's operation, process spills were apparently
directed to the sewers which were found to be badly eaten away by acids.
Excavation at the site uncovered the damaged sewer system. The contaminated
materials were excavated and removed to a licensed disposal facility where
they were buried. All surfaces were washed down with a 3:1 acid solution;
the sewer system beneath the site was
covered with 0.5 m of clean fill.
All reclamation work at the Lieners site was overseen by the WDA.
site will probably be redeveloped for
rebuilt; and the entire site was finally
The
light industrial or commercial use. A
paved car park will occupy the part of the site believed to be most highly
:contaminated.
It should be noted that the precautions taken in the reclamation at the
Lieners site to insure against anthrax exposure have not been taken at other
sites with potential anthrax contamination. A case in point is an old chrome
leather processing site that was reclaimed for use as a factory. At the time
of the reclamation work at the site, the potential problem of anthrax was not
considered, and no precautions were taken. Fortunately, no cases of infection
developed during the removal work at the site.
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Penrhose Tip, Rhymney Valley, Caerphillv, Mid Glamorgan
This 25 hectare (~60 acres) site, located on the side of a narrow valley,
was formerly used as a tip (dump) for industrial chemical wastes. Prior to
1940, the site was designated a Planning Consent Tip. In spite of the history
of receiving industrial wastes at the site, a Planning Application was filed
with the Local Authority (i.e., the Rhymney Valley Council) for a housing
development plus hotel and garage there. This Application prompted a review
of the site history. The site is actually a portion of a larger tract of some
32 ha (80 acres) owned by Duffryn Ffrwd Estate/ Ltd.; most of the site is
covered with colliery shale. In 1981, the Rhymney Valley Council turned down
an application to develop houses,-a sports complex, and a petrol station, at
*
Penrhose; however, some of the lands around the tip were allocated for housing
and recreation (SW Echo, 1984).
When the Planning Application was submitted for tipping colliery waste,
the site was examined by trial pits to determine the suitability of the site
for further tipping. Chemical analyses of samples from the trial pits were
performed, although the test results were of limited value, as the trial pits
missed the earlier waste deposits at the site.
A review of sequential air photographs taken earlier of the site revealed
a history of .industrial chemical disposal. Lagoons of liquid waste, evident
in a 1947 photograph, are located beneath the proposed housing area. Later
photographs showed the lagoons covered over by industrial waste and fuel ash.
Large quantities of drummed wastes (chromates, PCBs, phenols, oils, etc.) were
also deposited later at Penrhos (WO/WDA, 1984, p. 37). The wastes probably
originated in metal plating works and electrical and plastics industries in
the south Rhymney Valley.
The site was abandoned as a chemical disposal site after passage of the
Deposit of Poisonous Wastes Act of 1972 which restricted disposal of toxic
wastes. However, the chemicals already buried at Penrhos continue to contami-
nate runoff and leachate from the site, particularly during heavy rains.
Leachate can be seen streaming from the sides of the tip and draining into a
brook. A greenish oily sheen is seen on the surface of the leachate and the
odor confirms the presence of organic chemicals. The contaminated brook
(narrow enough to jump across) separates the Penrhos site from a private
housing development. Earth moving and dumping of inert wastes at the tip site
continue. Some scrubby vegetation, grows on parts of the site that have not
been recently disturbed.
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The location of the former chemical tip adjacent to the residential
development is of some concern. In December 1984, a dog was blinded after
coming into contact with a chemical leaking from a rusted drum at the site (SW
Echo, 1984). This prompted the Local
Authority to post warning signs around
the site which said, "Beware. Dangerous Tip." The signs were subsequently
removed, however, by the home owners in the immediate vicinity who feared the
warning signs would negatively impact
In the Welsh Office computer data
their property values.
bank of contaminated sites, the
Penrhose tip is assigned a Hazard Factor of 5, denoting a very hazardous site
presenting serious health risks to the local population, and a Development
Factor of 4, indicating a high prioritjy site for remedial treatment.
Confidence in the contamination ratings for the site is greater than 90
percent. Harwell has performed an assessment of the site and has recommended
measures to reduce the likelihood of water pollution (WO/WDA, 1984,p. 37).
Castle Works Burning Tip, Delyn, Clwvo
This site contains chemical waste
production of rayon textiles. The buried chemicals are smouldering
s generated by the Castle Works in the
underground, releasing vapors that con
air pollution problem (WO/WDA, 1984, p
burned-out area is also a possibility,
treacherous endeavor. The site is des
early 1985, the Welsh Office received
stitute a small but potentially serious
. 57). Subsidence throughout the
making assessment of the site a
cribed as a "very nasty problem." In
proposals to perform a 6-month effort to
define the extent of the problem at the burning tip and to evaluate possible
solutions. The effort, which includes sampling and analyses is estimated to
cost about £55,000 ($46,300) is to be jointly funded by the WDA and the Local
Council. (The monies provided by the Local Council are supplied from the
European Development Fund.)
The•assessment and evaluation work will be performed by D. L. Barry of
Atkins Research, Ltd. This investigation is important in that it sets a
precedent. The feasibility of reclamation at a burning tip has not yet been
demonstrated in Wales.
Llwyneinion Brick Pits, Wrexham Maeloa, Clwyd
several
At Llwyneinion, near Wrexham,
brickmaking) have been used as industrial
site used for tipping acid tars from
other chemicals (WO/WDA, 1984, p. 56).
abandoned clay pits (from
chemical waste tips. One 5-acre
refineries on Merseyside and probably
There was also fly tipping
137
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(uncontrolled tipping) of drummed wastes until 1972. The semi-solid tar
wastes are covered by a layer of volatile hydrocarbons and rainwater. The
site poses a potential hazard because of air pollution and possibly water
pollution. An assessment of the site concluded that there was no fire hazard
at the site, but this proved to be wrong, as a terrible fire occurred later.
The site has since been tidied up a bit and fenced. Consulting engineers have
been hired to look into the problems at the site, but so far have been unable
to find a viable solution to stabilize the site for future use. A proposal
to cover the site with a synthetic membrane to make a boating and fishing lake
was withdrawn because feasibility was unlikely.
I.T.T./Hants Capacitors/Erie El, Wrexham Maelor, Clwyd
This site to the east of Wrexham was formerly occupied by a large wartime
ordnance factory and store (WO/WDA, 1984,, p. 56). Old aerial photographs have
identified a section of the complex as a chemical plant which was used after
the war by an electronics components firm. The area is currently being
developed as the Wrexham Industrial Estate.
An investigation has turned up capacitors, buried drums, and high
concentrations of PCB's on the site. A contract was let in 1985 to perform an
assessment of the site and to demonstrate the effectiveness of in-place
treatment of PCB's using a microbial degradation process. If this appears
successful, a second contract will be let for trials on the site to
demonstrate effectiveness of the treatment.
In the Welsh Office Contaminated Land Computer Data Bank, this site is
assigned a Hazard Factor of 4, indicating that potential health risks are
associated with chemical releases from the site. Because the site is a high
priority for development, it is assigned a Development Factor of 5, indicating
that remedial action is highly desirable.
Cement Asbestos Waste Site, Cardiff, South Glamorgan
The site of the Cardiff Airport Industrial Estate, located near the
Cardiff Airport was formerly occupied by a cement asbestos plant. Waste from
the old plant remains buried just beneath the surface. The area is being
redeveloped privately .as an industrial estate. Heavy truck traffic across the
area containing buried asbestos has exposed the material. Both sheet asbestos
and bags containing asbestos waste can be seen protruding from the worn down
surface. The asbestos waste is dispersed about the area by the wind and by
138
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passing vehicles servicing the adjacert firm which makes wooden pallets. The
heavy vehicular traffic in turn exposes still more material that is released.
as dust. There is concern about the potential health hazard posed by asbestos
particles in the air in the vicinity.
Asbestos particles have been measured
in air samples taken .near the site.
The solution to this problem may be to simply move the road so that
traffic across the buried asbestos is eliminated or to stabilize the buried
material by paving the traffic area with asphalt. The area is virtually flat,
and in an early stage of development so that either of these solutions could
be implemented without major impacts on the Industrial Estate.
The Local Authority would like to acquire the property for" use as a
municipal refuse tip. However, because there is a tendency for refuse tips to
attract large numbers of birds, this may not be a viable use of the site due
to the proximity to the Cardiff Airport.
CASE STUDY: THE LOWER SWANSEA VALLEY,
Site Location and Special Characterist
tfEST GLAMORGAN, WALES
.cs
The City of Swansea, the second largest city in Wales, is located near
the mouth of the River Tawe on the south coast of Wales in the County of West
Glamorgan. The region to the north and east of the city, along the tidal
reach of the River Tawe is known as thk Lower Swansea Valley. For most of the
250 years after industrialization began in Great Britain, the Lower Swansea
Valley was a dominant focus of economic life,in South Wales; more people were
employed here than in any, other comparable area of the region (Humphrys et
al., 1979,,p. 220). The major industries were coal mining, brick clay
extraction, and primary metals production. This region, often called the
metallurgical capital of Wales, was for many years a,center for copper, zinc,
tin plate, steel, and patent fuel industries. As these industries declined,
much of the valley was left in a state
whole civilian center of Swansea was destroyed by air raids.
In 1961, the Lower Swansea Valley
existing problems in the valley and to
Two rivers flow through the Lower
of dereliction. In February 1941, the
Project was initiated to address the
begin the planning for future
development. The focus area of The Lower Swansea Valley Project indicated in
Figure 15, encompassed some 480 ha (1,:.86 acres) of industrial dereliction.
Swansea Valley Project Area—the River
Tawe, with a catchment area of about 260 square kilometers, and the Nant-y-
Fendrod, which discharges into the River Tawe at Landore and has a catchment
area of about 14 square kilometers (Davies, 1979, p. 79) . Major floods have
139
-------
Lower Swansea
Valley Project
t'Bi Area
• jf
""335?fay*.
Figure 15. Location of the Lower Swansea Valley Project,
(Source: Bridges, 1984a, p. 2)
140
-------
occurred in the past through the overflow of the,rivers, and in 1971 levees
were constructed and other measures taken to provide flood relief. The water
level in the Nant-y-Pendrod remains affected by the discharge of the River
Tawe, the discharge from its own catchment area, and the tidal influences at
the confluence of both rivers.
Land Use History
At the beginning of the 18th century, Swansea was already an important
shipping outlet for the export of coal
from the South Wales Coalfield. The
in the Lower Swansea Valley. Later
iljied farther up the valley. For many
availability and abundance of the Welsh coal and ores brought by the returning
coal ships made the region ideal for siielting and metals processing. At
different times during the 18th and 19th centuries, copper as well as lead,
zinc, silver, and arsenic were smelted
steel and tinplate works were establis
years, the Lower Swansea Valley had one of the heaviest concentrations of
metals processing industries in Britain. By 1961, almost all of this activity
in the valley had ceased, but the legacy of the many years of metals
processing remained.
To be economical, copper production was highly dependent on the
availability of coal as well as copperjrich ores. To produce one ton of
copper required about 18 tons of coal And 13 tons of copper ore (Bridges,
1984a, p. 3). The valley cut by the Tciwe River north of the Swansea district
transects the South Wales Coalfield providing easy access to enormous coal
deposits. The coal consumed in the Va]
vicinity by mules and wagons and later
ley was brought from mines in the
by canal and tramways. The early
Authors' Note: In April 1984 in conjunction with a meeting held in Cardiff, the NATO-CCMS
Committee for the Study of Contaminated Land visited the Lower Swansea Valley. For the benefit
of the Committee's site visit. Dr. E. M. Bridges] of the University College of Swansea compiled
information on the history of metallurgical working in the Valley and the investigations and
progress since 1967. Dr. Bridges has been involved with the reclamation program in Swansea since
the Project began in 1961. Much of the historical information in this case study is derived from
Dr. Bridges' report for the NATO Committee.
Two very valuable information sources used for this case study are the 1979 volume Dealing With
Dereliction, the Redevelopment of the Lower Swansea Valley, edited by Dr. Rosemary D. F. Bromley
and Dr. Graham Humphrys, and the 1983 report, "Change and Industrial Redevelopment in the Lower
Swansea Valley" by Dr. Bromley and Dr. Richard Hi Morgan with a section on Water Quality by
Stephen C. Bird. The Volume edited by Bromley arid Humphrys presents papers and comments from a
conference funded by the Nuffield Foundation and held at the University of Swansea in April,
1979. The second document presents the results df research sponsored by the Nuffield Foundation
and carried out during 1981 and 1982.
Our own impressions of the Lower Swansea Valley derive from a site visit in March 1985 The
successes of the planning and reclamation programs here over the last two decades are encouraging
to reclamation efforts elsewhere. We applaud the]'vision and determination of the many
individuals who have contributed to the revitalization of the Lower Swansea Valley
-------
copper works processed ore from Cornwall, Devon, and North Wales. British
ores were later replaced by ores brought from other parts of the world.
Partly refined ores were also imported for finishing in the Swansea works.
The first copper smelter was established in the Valley at Landore in 1717
and continued production of copper, as well as lead and zinc1 until 1748.
Other early copper works included the Cambrian (1720-1745), the White Rock
(1737-1920), the Middle Bank (1755-1924), and the Upper Bank (1757-1928).
Larger works, employing up to 300 men were built early in the 19th century—
The Hafod (1810-1924) and the Morfa (1835-1924). At least eight other works
were engaged in smelting or processing copper ores in the Valley during the
19th century.
Copper ores, usually chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) or calcocite (Cu2S) were first
calcined (roasted) to remove impurities. The roasted ore was then smelted to
a mixture of copper and iron sulfides known as copper matte. The matte was
then smelted with coke and silaceous fluxes to slag away the iron. The
product was resmelted to form "coarse" copper which was then refined. The
sulfur gases and metal fumes driven off during these processes were released
to the atmosphere.
Until 1880, copper was the most important smelting industry in the
valley. In the period up to 1880, Swansea had over 90 percent of Britain's
copper smelting capacity (Bridges, 1984a, p. 3). From about 1840, however,
the Swansea Valley copper smelting industry began to decline, and zinc
production increased in importance. This change came about because the
smelting process used in the valley to produce metallic copper became
outdated, -replaced by" the more economical Bessemer process at other locations.
By 1920, only one copper smelter remained.
Six zinc (or spelter) works were established in ,the Swansea Valley
beginning in 1836. Two of these were converted copper smelters. Production
of zinc began with the mineral sphalerite (ZnS) which was roasted to drive off
the sulfur. Zinc smelting took place in an enclosed furnace in which the zinc
vapor was recondensed into metallic zinc. As with copper, zinc production was
highly dependent on abundant local coal supplies; between 6 and 25 tons of
coal were consumed per ton of zinc product. The zinc was used to make brass
and other alloys and to make galvanized iron. By 1914, Swansea was producing
20 percent of Britain's zinc. However, all but one of the zinc works closed
between 1924 and 1928. The market for zinc was lost to the more economical
electrolytic plants elsewhere. The Swansea Vale works, modernized with
government aid in 1916, continued to produce zinc with a blast furnace process
and sulfuric acid and lead as by-products until 1974 (Bridges, 1984a, p. 7).
142
-------
In addition to copper and zinc, o;:her metals were also processed in the
valley. Silver and lead were produced in association with the copper. A com-
bined copper and arsenic works operated on the eastern side of the valley
between 1866 and 1905. Another works produced cobalt and nickel. By-products
of the various metals processing works
were copper sulfate, sulfuric acid.
zinc chloride and zinc sulfate.
Prom the mid-19th century, the availability of coal in the Valley and
fast-flowing streams to provide sources of power and necessary process water
led to the growth of steel and tinplate industries. The steel industry in the
Swansea Valley was based on the open hearth furnace developed by Siemans who
Five years later, a
established the first steel works in the Valley in 1868.
larger works was built, capable of producing 1,000 tons of steel per week.
This plant, which produced steel bar, Employed some 2,000 men and was one of
the largest in the world at that time Bridges, 1984a, p. 10). The steel bars
were rolled and plated with tin in the smaller "packmills." Tinplate is a
sheet of steel which has been coated with tin by being, dipped in a molten bath
of tin. By the early 20th century, at
least seven tinplate works were in
operation in the valley, and three-fourths of the tinplate manufactured in
Great Britain was made in the Swansea Region.
Steel production was changed from
bars to tubes in 1888. By 1919, 35,000
tons of steel tubes were produced annually in the Swansea works. The later
decline of steel production in the valley has been attributed to inadequate-
road access and a trend toward large-scale integrated plants.
early steel works in the Swansea Valley
several remaining tinplate works in the
as production was shifted to larger, mojre efficient plants outside the Swansea
region.
The metals production industries t.
Valley are indicated in Figure 16. The
The last of the
the Duffryn, closed in 1961. The
valley also closed after World War II,
lat were active in the Lower Swansea
chronology of the operations is shown
in Figure 17. The extent of the industrial activity made the Valley the focus
of attention for the work force of the region and for the suppliers of goods
and services catering to the industrial
undertakings. Most of the workers
lived in settlements built for them aloig the valley sides high enough-to be-
above the majpr air pollution that tendU to stagnate in the Valley.
'Along with cheap and accessible coal, the'good location along a navigable
river and in close proximity to Swansea
Bay and the Bristol Channel
facilitated industrialization of the Valley. The development of the Swansea
Docks paralleled the growth of the Valley industries. In 1852, a meander of
the Tawe River near its entrance to the
new channel called the New Cut, and its
143
Harbor was diverted eastward into a
old channel was locked and floated,
-------
144
-------
1700 1750
(J-?u.J?u...Pb.Ag
Cu
1800
1850
1900
1950
Cu
«Cu, Fe
Cu
crushing slags
stal
Zn
Tin plate
Q5)
®"
(l
Spelter
Zn
Cu, As
^»<«»»»»J!JLE!!!fL
Tin plate
Tin plate
Tin plate
(28)
Tmjolate
«Zn
MOOWKOCWMOOOOM
Steel works
and tin plate
Tin plate
oc o«««»w«. s
Figure 17. Chronology of metals production in the Lower Swansea Valley from
1717 to 1980. '
141
-------
thereby forming the North Dock. A patent fuel factory (which processed coal
fines into briquettes), copper ore yards and other mineral sheds were inland
between the North Dock and the New Cut. The South Dock on the western side of
the river opened in 1859, mainly for shipping coal and discharging timber.
The next developments were on the east side of the river. The Prince of Wales
Dock, opened in 1881, connected with the Tennant Canal. The Kings Dock opened
in 1909 farther east with an entrance direct from the bay. Both of these
docks were used to meet the demands for the shipping of anthracite coal.
Almost 162 ha (400 acres) of land were reclaimed from the sea by the
embankment built in connection with the Kings Dock. The Queens Dock, built in
association with the Llandarey Oil Refinery, was established in this
reclaimed area in 1920. The old North Dock was closed in 1928 and filled in
during the 1930's. The development of the Swansea Docks is illustrated in
Figure 18. At its maximum, the Swansea Docks included some 114 ha (281 acres)
of deep water and over 9.6 kilometers (6-miles) of quay. The docks on the
eastern bank are still operational, but at a relatively low level of activity
(Bridges, 1984, p. 12).
Redevelopment Objectives
A fitting description of the physical environment created by the
succession of industries in.the Lower Swansea Valley is taken from a paper by
M. J. Ward, County Engineer and Surveyor for the West Glamorgan County Council
in 1979--
"By the end of the nineteenth century, the Project Area, of some 445 ha,
was wholly taken up with use for industries of varying sizes and in
various stages of development and decay. New industries had been founded
on the sites of old ones, but the important aspect, common to virtually
all, was the need to dispose of their industrial wastes. All open areas
were gradually used up; the tips encroached into the river Tawe and
obstructed flow; open land on the periphery of the Project Area, such as
at Pentre-Hafod on the west and White Rock on the east, became manor slag
tips, mostly of copper slag. Similarly, to the north of the A48 steel
slag tipping occupied a large area near the Upper Forest and Worcester
Works. Without tipping space for waste, the works could not have
prospered and the tips became, therefore, an integral part of the
existing landscape.
"The transfer of the ferrous industry to large scale plants, particularly
after 1945, together with the earlier decline of the non-ferrous
industry, resulted in complete deterioration and physical decay of the
Valley floor. Thus by 1960, over 60 percent of the Valley floor was in a
substantially derelict condition, with a mass of slag heaps, ruined
buildings, underground structures, abandoned railways and canals, and
with much of the soil on the eastern downwind slopes so polluted by fumes
that little or nothing grew. It was probably then the most extensive
contiguous area of industrial dereliction to be found anywhere in the
United Kingdom." (Ward, 1979, pp. 244-245)
146
-------
Pre 1800
Built-up area
River Deposits
1800-1850
Built-up area
Coal Wharvas
Built-up area
Railway Lines
Coal Wharves
1860
Built-up area
Railway Lines
Coal Wharves
1882
Built-up area {%%)
Dry Docks m
Railway Lines +++
1908
Built -up area
Dry Docks
Railway Lines
Coal Wharves
P.WD Prince of Wales Dock
Built-up area
Dry Docks
Railway Lines
Coal Wharves
1982
Built-up area
Dry Docks
Oil Storage
Dry Cargo Berths
Dock Roads
Railway Lines
P.W.D Prince of Wales Dock
Figure 18. Development of the Swansea
(Source: Bridges
docks.
, 1984a,' p. 11)
147
-------
Prior to 1960, planning legislation and Central Government finance were
not directed towards reclamation and environmental improvements. From 1960 to
1968, with momentum from the Lower Swansea Valley Project, there was a major
impetus towards reclamation, and people began rethinking the future
development of the area.
The Lower Swansea Valley Project—
In 1961, the Lower Swansea Valley Project was initiated, "...to
investigate the physical, social, and economic situation in the Lower Swansea
Valley, to understand the reasons which had inhibited its development in the
past, and to provide the information necessary for its future development"
(Hilton, 1967). Mr. Robin Huws Jones is credited with inspiring the whole
Project and, financial assistance was provided by the Nuffield Trust, the
Swansea County Borough Council, the Welsh Office, and the University College
of Swansea, investigations. - The Project was the first stage of information
gathering and interpretation, leading to the renewal of the devastated land
and development of new forms of land use in the Valley (Bridges 1984a, p. 12).
The work of the Lower Swansea Valley Project is contained in twelve study
reports addressing various factors relating to the reclamation and
redevelopment of the area. The study topics include the following:
Human ecology
Transportation and Physical Planning
Hydrology
Geology
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Survey
Prospects for Industrial Use
Housing
Open Space
Plant Ecology (Soils and Revegetation Trials)
Soil Biology
Afforestation
Tips and Tip Working.
In addition an estimate was made of quantities of materials in the Northern
Part of the area, and an investigation was carried out to determine the
feasibility of creating an artificial lake in the Project area (Bridges,
1984a, pp. 13, 14). The results of these studies are summarized in a final
document edited by the Project Director, Mr. K.J. Hilton (1967).
The Lower Swansea Valley Project was the first thorough investigation in
Britain of the reasons for dereliction and its persistence (Bridges, 1984a, p.
17). Time has proven the significance of this Project, and the initiatives
and foresight of the Project Investigators deserve much credit. The most
significant and far-reaching guidance pertained to the following
contributions:
148
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An Accurate and Detailed Base Mao—To obtain an accurate and detailed
base map of the area, aerial photography of the Valley was flown in June 1962.
This, combined with existing Ordnance Survey plans, enabled exact locations of
former smelting works to be determined along with the areas and volumes of the
many waste tips. The Project Area wak sub-divided into plots where common
problems occurred or where similar types of wastes were deposited (Bridges,
1984a, p!4).
Visual Improvements Through Planting Trees and Grasses—Experimental work
was carried out to learn what species and conditions were most favorable to
plant growth in the barren, eroded and contaminated soils. Efforts were begun
in 1963 to bring back the green to th* Valley and to hide the ugliness that
could not be removed. In 1966, when t:
its work, over 100,000 trees had been
of 20 ha (49.4 acres) (Lavender, 1979
Statement of the Need for a Sing
le Lower Swansea Valley Project concluded
established on 16 sites covering a total
p. 154) ..
e Body, to Acquire All the Land to Be
Redeveloped--The Project summary repoJrt (Hilton, 1967) identified large tracts
of land which it recommended should be acquired by one body (preferably a
public body) in order to carry out the overall plan for reclamation in the
Project Area.
Planning that Included Housing and Recreation As Well As Industry—When
1 ~
the Project began, the proposed Development Plan showed mainly industrial use
The Project summary
in the Valley, reflecting the existing use pattern.
report (Hilton, 1967) included recommendations that the Valley should be used
for housing and recreation, as well as for the traditional industrial uses.
In particular, the need for open space in the Valley was stressed.
Planning After 1965—
The formal work of the Lower Swansea Valley Project was essentially
complete in 1965, and financial backiijg for further research work in the
Valley was unavailable until several years later. However, planning for the
future was set in a new direction thati eventually would lead to revitalization
of the Project Area.
In 1968, the Swansea County Borough Council prepared a Draft Development
Plan "incorporating many of the recommendations from the Project Report (Ward,
1979, p. 248). In addition to allocations for an industrial zone, areas were
shown for recreation, open space, and
woodlands. A small area for new housing
was indicated on the eastern slopes (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 9). The
Plan also included a new highway network for the'area and "improvement of the
river Tawe to form a pleasant landscaped corridor through the Valley...."
(Ward, 1979, p. 249).
149
-------
The Council recognized the need for a more detailed development plan and
engaged a consultant, W. S. Atkins and Partners, to further develop the 1968
Draft Plan. This resulted in the planning document that was turned over to
the successor authorities following Local Government reorganization in 1974.
(Ward, 1979, p. 250; Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 9). This plan'maintained
the primary use allocations in the 1968 Plan, but provided more detail
including layouts of industrial estates, alternative sites for sports
facilities, overall landscape considerations, costings, and a phased program
of implementation (Ward, 1979, p. 250).
The Local Government Act of 1972 imposed a two-tier system of government
on the County Borough areas like Swansea. On April 1, 1974, the new Swansea
District (City) Council and the West Glamorgan County Council came into being,
thus ending the autonomy of the Swansea County Borough Council. Water and
Health functions were dispersed to ad hoc bodies under separate statutory
provisions, while the remaining functions of the old County Borough were
allocated between the new City and County Councils. The new Swansea City
Council continued the land acquisition (see section 4.2.5), planning,
reclamation, and redevelopment initiatives begun by the County Borough
Council.
In June 1975, the Swansea City Council adopted and published the Interim
Planning Statement prepared by the City Planning Department. The 1975 Plan
divided the Valley into three main sections: an Industrial Park North of A48;
a second Industrial Park, between the A48 and the main Swansea-London railway
line; and an urban recreational park, south of the main railway line. The
1975 Interim Planning Statement emphasized the potential for the river Tawe as
an important amenity feature, unifying the east and west sides of the Valley
and linking the Valley with the South Dock area (Howell, 1979, p. 254).
Several modifications to the Interim Planning Statement were made during
the next two years. One major new proposal called for a lake (to be located
within the central Industrial Park on low-lying marshland) which would serve
for flood control of the Nant-y-Fendrod as well as for amenity functions.
This proposal was incorporated in the Lower Swansea Valley "Action Area Plan:
Industrial Park" of December 1976 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 11) .
In April 1980 the Government announced the Enterprise Zone Policy, a
government-funded program that could serve to promote the growth of commercial
enterprise in Swansea. For an area designated as an Enterprise Zone, the
government offers special incentives to encourage firms to locate within the
150
-------
Zone. Emphasis is placed on capital subsidies and exemption from rates
(taxes) (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p.
imposed to retain a consistent qualitj
Zone.
by the City Council of the Industrial
Action Area Plan was superseded by a ].arge-scale working plan that defined
boundaries for a proposed Enterprise Zone. The boundaries and general
concepts of the 1976 Plan for the two
control lake and the basic road plan)
152). Strict planning controls are
' of development within an Enterprise
Consideration of the Enterprise 2one designation prompted a reappraisal
Zone plans adopted in 1976. The 1976
Industrial Zones (i.e., the flood-
were reflected in the Enterprise Zone
Plan. .Following ratification by the Secretary of State for Wales, the
Enterprise Zone became official in Jurie 1981. Soon after, the terminology was
changed from "Zone" to "Park, reflecting the concept of commercial sites set.
in wide landscaped belts (analogous tcj the planned industrial park concept).
The Enterprise Park is now viewed as one of five interrelated parks
comprising the master plan for the Lover Swansea Valley and its extension into
the City of Swansea. The Five Park Planning Scheme (shown in Figure 19)
reflects the essence of the Planning Statement of 1975. Areas are designated
for the Enterprise Park, a Leisure Park, a Riverside Park, a City Park, and a
Maritime Park. These five parks together constitute the Urban Renaissance
national demonstration site designated
(Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 16).
by the Council of Europe in 1980
Conditions in the Valley and Its Relationship to the Region—
To comprehend the problems to be .Dvercome to accomplish the reclamation
and revitalization of the Lower Swansea Valley envisioned in the planning
documents, one must recognize the conditions of people living in the Valley
and the relationship of the Valley to
closure of the coal mines and most of
its surrounding communities. After the
the metals works in the 1960's, the
employment shifted to other areas, the
Valley was no longer the focus of activity that it had been for many years.
Though some new manufacturing was developed in the Valley, many of the reasons
for people to live in or near the Vail
ay were gone. As opportunities for
Valley became a divisive influence
separating the populations living on the east and west sides; there was no
easy access across the Valley floor (Humphrys, et al., 1979, p. 221). The
closed industries, the slag tips, and derelict properties left in the Valley
were unpleasant, and the people who continued to reside there were
stigmatized.
51
-------
Enterprise Park
Leisure Park
Riverside Park
City Park
Maritime Park
Figure 19. The Five Park planning scheme.
(Source: Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 15)
152
-------
Most of the houses in the Valley
are in terraces built before 1919, and
at the time of the Lower Swansea Project Study this was recognized to be a
major part of the city's urban improvement problem (Fagg, 1979, p. 127). In
1960 much of the existing housing in the Valley was substandard—structurally
unsound or lacking basic amenities such as hot or cold water, fixed bath, or
inside water closet. Occupants were increasingly unable or unwilling to
improve the conditions (Fagg, 1979, p.
were inadequate; education beyond the
in the Valley east of the river (Hutsc
127). Schools and community facilities
primary stage was not available anywhere
m and Stacey, 1979, p. 117).
Humphreys, Bromley, and Clark (1979, p. 219- 227) examined industrial
activity and employment within the Swansea region, and the changes that have
taken place since the 1960's. They nested that by the early 1970's urban
spread had filled in most of the open areas which had existed between the
earlier separated settlements around the southern part of Western Industrial
South Wales.
I
Eventually these settlements merged into a single built up area,
the conurbation of Swansea Bay City (Humphrys 1972, p. 181) . Production
industry, transport functions, and working class housing dominate the north
and east of the conurbation; public and private services and commercial and
retail activities are concentrated south of Townhill and west of the River
Tawe, the southwest area of the conurbation is essentially a high class,
status address, residential, resort, alnd retirement area (Humphrys et al.,
1979, p. 221). Within this context, the Lower Swansea Valley was, in 1979,
only a part of the northern and eastern industrial zone. Changes in the
Valley continue to alter its relationship to the surrounding communities in
the region.
The planning concepts inherent in
foster industrial development in a planned environment and to bring new jobs
to the Lower Swansea Valley. Just as
designed to enhance the natural amenities and bring people into the Valley.
The program of land assembly by the Lt
reclamation were the essential first :
Valley.
Nature of the Contamination
Over the many years of metals pro
the Five Park Scheme are intended to
important, however, are the concepts
cal Authority and the progress in site
teps to begin this revitalization of the
tions. Enormous volumes of metallurgi
were tipped alongside the various work
oessing in the valley, there was little
concern for the long-term environmental consequences of the industries' opera-
cal slags as well as coal ash and slag
In the 1964 Project report, "Tips
|
and Tip Working in the Lower Swansea Valley," G. Holt estimated that
approximately 162 hectares (400 acres)
of the Lower Swansea Valley Project
53
-------
Area was covered by waste tips containing some 5 million tons of industrial
waste (Davies, R.L., 1979, p. 77). In addition, wastes from the White Rock
Works and the Hafod Works had been carried up onto the adjacent valley sides.
Miscellaneous manufacturing wastes and urban domestic wastes were also
deposited at various sites in the Valley. Air pollution from the heavy
industrial activity spread sulfur and heavy metals over very large areas,
eventually affecting vegetation throughout the Valley. Bridges (1984a, p. 18)
described three types of derelict ground that could be distinguished in the
Valley—
Badly eroded, infertile and largely non-toxic clay loams;
(i)
(ill)
Tips of relatively innocuous waste materials (e.g.', shale,
foundry sand, furnace slag, domestic refuse);
Tips of waste poisonous to plant growth derived from the smelting
of copper and zinc ores.
Pollutants of Concern—
Several elements present in the accumulated wastes and contaminated
surfaces in the Valley pose a potential hazard to aquatic organisms if these
materials are released into streams, lakes, or rivers. Undisturbed wastes
that have weathered for many years may appear to be stabilized, with respect
to leaching of heavy metals. However, when sites containing such wastes are
disturbed (e.g., leveled or excavated for development), large amounts of
unweathered material may be exposed, and heavy metals will again be released
to surface waters by leaching and runoff. Copper and zinc are present in very
high concentrations in tipped wastes from smelting. These elements have also
been dispersed throughout the Valley by airborne particulate from the smelters
and from wind-blown dust from tipped wastes. Other elements of potential
hazard that are likely to be present in contaminated wastes and soils include
antimony, arsenic, cadmium, and lead.
Antimony and arsenic are invariably present as trace elements in copper
sulfide ores and are eliminated during calcining. These elements may also be
present in zinc ores. Of the trace elements present in the ores, arsenic has
the greatest tendency to volatilize. Arsenic was produced as a product in at
least one smelter at Llansamlet (Bridges, 1984a, p. 6). Cadmium occurs as a
sulfide salt in association with zinc and lead ores. Thus it is likely to be
widely dispersed by air pollution from the smelters and as a trace metal in
154
-------
tipped zinc wastes. Lead ores were snelted in several of the early works in
the Valley. It is also a common component of copper and zinc ores and is
eliminated during the refining processes. Accumulations of all these elements
in soils in the vicinity of smelters
nay result in high local concentrations
much as 30 percent of the dry weight
in nearby waters.
Coal and coke are also present in the tipped slag wastes, comprising as
some materials. Though probably not
of concern from the risk of fire or tDxic effects, the presence of these
materials in waterways can increase chemical oxygen demand. Coal and coke
also tend to bind volatile metals released during ore roasting and may contain
significant levels of the elements mentioned above. Wastes from coking
operations and from coal gas production are also considered to be potentially
hazardous to human health and to aqua
tars, phenolic wastes, and spent iron
cyanides.
:ic ecosystems. Such wastes include coal
oxides containing sulfides and complexed
Slag Wastes From Metals Works—
As part of the Lower Swansea Valley Project investigations, calculations
were made of the areas and volumes of the many tip complexes. The estimates
were based on aerial photography flown in June 1962 and existing Ordnance
Survey plans (Bridges, 1984a, p. 14).
It was possible to distinguish the
different types of metalliferous slagis by their color and texture. The copper
wastes were reddish brown and contained large fused lumps of slag. The iron
and steel wastes were light grey and of a gravelly texture. The zinc wastes
were dark grey and sandy. The metalliferous slags, particularly the zinc .
slags, were often rich in the metal that was being extracted since the
processing techniques were not highly
controlled. Some of the tipped zinc
slags contained up to 10 or 11 percent zinc (Bridges, -1984a, p. 7). Some tips
on the site of the 'Swansea Vale Works were estimated to contain between 11 and
30 percent lead making it economical to remove some of the richest material
for metals extraction (Davies, R.L., 1979, p. 77). Some of the slag heaps had
been worked for hardcore to be used in road construction. In these cases, the
large fused masses could not be dealt with easily, so they were left isolated
on the worked over sites (Bridges, 1984a, p!2). The approximate locations of
the various types of metals works wastes are shown in Figure 20. The areas of
severe erosion are also indicated.
The various wastes were classified (from visual examination and
historical data) according to their origin (e.g., from copper smelting, zinc
smelting, or ferrous metals works). Over 160 solid samples were taken at
various depths from tips in the Project Area and analyzed for selected metals.
155
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£!•Pent re Chwyth
V%!t$m Areas where soil
has been eroded
Gullies
Active Industry
Active Tipping
Tips
Railways and Railway Land
Other neglected areas and
derelict sites
Recreation
Commercial
Predominantly residential
Figure 20. Waste materials and erosion in the Lower. Swansea Valley before
reclamation.
(Adapted from Bridges, 1984a, pp. 13, 32)
156
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The highest levels determined in these analyses (Davies, R.L., 1979, p. 77)
were as follows:
Total copper (Cu) 8,510 ppm;
Total iron (Fe) 226,500 ppm;
Total lead (Pb) 49,000 ppm;
Total zinc (Zn) 111,000 ppm.
The solubility of these elements varied considerably in different tips.
The wastes deposited in a given tip mky have been generated from processing
ores of different origin, or process changes may have been made that altered
the chemical composition of the wastek. Natural weathering processes also
tend to stratify soluble trace elements. As a result, even seemingly
homogeneous tips were found to be quite variable in their chemical
composition.
Assessment and Research Efforts to Characterize Contamination—
The nature of the contamination for selected sites has been reported as
part of later assessment and research
efforts. Three such efforts are
discussed below.
Vertical Distribution of Trace Elements in Copper Tips—Chase, and
Wainwright (1983) measured the vertical distribution of'EDTA-extractable
copper, zinc, and lead in two copper smelter waste tips in the Valley. One of
the tips (Plot 35) had remained undisturbed for more than,100 years. The
second tip (Plot 49) had been leveled
29 years prior to the study. The
material in the tips had been produced by different companies, probably from
ores of different origin. In addition to the heavy metals present in the
material at the time that it was tippjsd, additional contamination accumulated
at these sites from airborne particulate which contained heavy metals.
Because the tips were located in ah area scheduled for regrading and
revegetation, the study was undertaken >to evaluate the effects of leaching on
the concentrations of phytotoxic metals in the rooting zone. The pH within the
tip profiles was measured and also the effect of pH on the extractable metals.
The mobility of metals in the tip profiles was assessed by measuring the
water-extractable fraction of the EDTA-extracted metals. The data from this
study suggest that the weathering process and natural leaching produce zones
of enrichment of copper and zinc at depths within the root zone for'surface
vegetation (Chase and Wainwright, 1983, p. 144).
The undisturbed site was covered
by patchy vegetation and, to a depth of
about 15 cm, contained living and partly decayed plant material. Samples were
taken from two holes excavated 100 meters" apart in the fop of the tip to a
depth of 2 meters. The second site we.s almost bare of vegetation and, samples
157
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were taken from a freshly exposed face. The investigators noted, "The bedding
planes produced by tipping in both tips were at a steep angle about 45 degrees
to the vertical, so there was no horizontal stratification of the tipped
material" (Chase and Wainwright, 1983, p. 135). It was also noted that the
tips contain appreciable quantities (about 30 percent of dry weight) of coal
and coke.
Surface accumulations of metals, particularly lead, found at both tips
were attributed to aerial fallout and possibly, at the undisturbed site, to
surface deposition of metal-contaminated plant litter. For the undisturbed
tip the analyses showed low mobility of metals at the surface (probably due to
binding to organic matter). A region of high mobility was present just below
the surface followed by a rapid decline with depth. At the Plot 49 tip, the
mobility of copper and zinc decreased rapidly with depth.
Similar profiles of copper, zinc and lead were found for both tips. Also
a marked pH gradient was present at both tips, the pH increasing with depth.
Reducing the pH of suspensions of tip material was found to increase the
amounts of metals in solution. At pH levels above about 4.0, the lead •
remained in suspension (i.e., insoluble). Copper and zinc remained in
suspension above pH values of 4.5 and 6.0, respectively. This suggests that
metals mobilized by leaching water in the more acidic regions near the surface
could be redeposited farther down the profile where the pH was higher. This
pH-dependent solubility (and mobility) explains the similar pattern of
extractable metals found in all the tip profiles. For the Plot 35 tip, copper
levels in all six profiles tended to peak at a depth of about 40 cm where the
pH was about 4.6; zinc levels peaked at a depth of about 80 cm where the pH
was about 5.4. It should be noted that below a depth of about 1.2 meters,
there was no similarity among the profiles indicating high variability in the
tipped wastes. For the Plot 49 tip, the pH profile was found to be compressed
compared to Plot 35 (i.e, the pH decreased faster with depth). For Plot 49
copper levels peaked at about 7 cm, and zinc at about 30 cm.
Site Assessments at Upper Bank—Bridges, (1984c) evaluated the potential
for remote sensing techniques to detect material variations useful in the
assessment of contaminated land. One aspect of the study focused on the Upper
Bank Tip site (12 hectares (29.6 acres) and an adjacent site. A conventional
soil survey and site assessment as well as remote sensing analyses were
carried out. Both sites were known to contain copper wastes, but from
different smelters (Bridges, 1984c, p. 31). The data from this investigation
indicate the levels of heavy metals present in certain waste materials and the
complexity of site assessments due to the mixing of waste materials from
several locations on a single site.
158
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At the time of the investigation
the subject site was inactive, but it
had been regraded and was bare of vegetation. One sample per hectare was taken
for chemical analyses. Bridges (1984c, pp. 31-32) noted that the point sample
approach enables one to make an overall estimate of the actual nature of the
i:
contaminants on a site, and the probable level of certain elements.
Concentrations (ppm) were determined for total copper (Cu), lead (Pb), cadmium
(Cd), zinc (Zn), and manganese (Mn). Seven of the 12 samples taken from the
site were found to contain potentially hazardous elements at levels exceeding
the guidelines used in the United Kingdom to describe contaminated land; the
remaining samples showed lower concentrations of the elements measured, but
still are considered to be poor quality materials (Bridges, 1984c, p. 29).
Remote sensing data were obtained from an aircraft-mounted, 11-channel
multispectral scanner (MSS) at a height of 305 meters (1,000 feet);
simultaneous black and white photography was obtained (Bridges, 1984c, p. 23) .
The MSS measures surface reflectance/emission characteristics (e.g., color,
particle size, moisture content, and emissive qualities) and can be used to
map material differences. The remote
sensing data were interpreted in
conjunction with, the chemical analyses of point samples taken from the site..
Color and texture variations were apparent at the soil surface, and two
types of materials could be distinguished: material present on the site for
some time and fresh material brought to the site from elsewhere in the Valley
(Bridges, 1984c, p. 28). It is expected that within some months the two types
of materials would probably be indistinguishable as the surfaces weather and
vegetation starts to appear. Six types of surface material were classified
based on the MSS data. Some 10 percent of the site remained unclassified.
Assessment of the Eendrod Marsh—rThe Fendrod marsh area is the site of
the proposed Industrial Park Lake. The 'nine hectare (22 acres) lake is to
provide flood control and will serve'an amenity function.
The Nanty-Fendrod river transects the marsh area, .and a zinc waste tip
lies adjacent to the marsh. Drainage from this tip and leachate carried by
flood waters from other waste sites have polluted'the marsh (Davies, R.L.,
1979, pp. 77,78). Metal concentrations have accumulated in the marsh over a'
period of many years.
To assess the extent of the contcmination, samples were taken from the
main zinc waste tip adjacent to the marsh and from twelve boreholes in the
marsh material at depths down to three meters.
Chemical analyses of samples taken from the Marsh revealed high zinc
levels in all samples taken from the southeast portion of the site, and high
cadmium levels were found in samples taken at or near the surface. On the
basis of the data from the chemical analyses, it was concluded that there must
159
-------
be a strong leaching process from the main tip. Subsequent field studies
revealed a more complex pattern of contamination entering the .marsh (Bridges,
1984c, pp. 33-35). The patterns of vegetation and soil differences in the
south area of the marsh indicated " a tongue of material some 200 m long and
50 m wide running out from the zinc tip in to the marsh" (Bridges, 1984c, p.
34). After the area was drained in 1983, a profile of the marsh material
showed that the area was experiencing washing of the zinc waste from dumping
by the former Glamorgan Spelter Works which closed in 1907 (Bridges, 1984c, p.
34). It is now believed that the marsh had functioned as a settlement lagoon
in which coarse, gritty material was laid down in horizontal layers. It is
clear from the marsh sediment profile that contaminating material was
introduced during two separate time periods as a layer of natural sediment
separates the two zones of industrial waste.
Erosion—
The natural soils of the Lower Swansea Valley are classified as sandy
clay loams characterized by strong acidity, low natural fertility, and low
organic content in other than the surface layers. Before industrialization of
the Valley, the natural vegetation was the mixed oak-birch woodland seen
elsewhere in the Tawe and Neath Valleys. But with industrial development came
severe air pollution that eventually took its toll on the vegetation in the
Valley.
Most of the sulfur in the ores processed in the Valley was eventually
released as sulfur dioxide (SO2). The sulfur gases and the metals fumes given
off during the roasting and smelting of copper and zinc ores were, in most
cases, discharged to the atmosphere. (Sulfuric acid plants in later works
consumed substantial amounts of the SO2.) The frequent inversions in the
valley left this air pollution stagnated for extended periods, eventually
killing off all vegetation in the vicinity. The lack of a vegetative cover
and a rainfall of 1,250 mm (49 inches) per annum ultimately resulted in
extensive erosion over considerable areas. The soil erosion did not end when
the industries in the Valley ceased to operate. Natural revegetation was
hindered by the lack of organic matter in the exposed subsoil, and surface
layers were contaminated with heavy metals from fallout from the smelters or
from leaching waste piles. It is known that revegetation is hindered by
copper, lead, zinc, and probably other phytotoxic elements. Some of the areas
where serious erosion had taken place are shown in Figure 20.
At the time of the initial Project investigations, severe soil loss had
occurred for all of the eastern side of the Valley and from a morainic mound
on the Valley floor (Bridges, 1984c, p. 23). Vegetation within the Valley was
160
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surface layer of stones left behind a
constituents. Bridges and Harding (1
in a small gully catchment (120 m nor
Based on soil losses measured for the
limited to the few species able to survive in the polluted environment., A few
grasses and weeds grew on some open areas and on the less toxic inactive waste
tips; trees were almost completely abpent in the Lower Swansea Valley
(Lavender, 1979, p. 151).
As a result of the erosion, considerable areas were covered with a
:ter removal of the, finer soil
'71) studied the extent of soil erosion
;h to south,, and 15 m east to west).
gently sloping interfluves, the gully
sides, and the gully floor, the researchers determined that about 60 g of soil
per square m were washed out of the gully in one year (Bridges et al., 1979,
p. 25).
Water Pollution—
Stephen Bird (1983, pp. 27-68) <
Lower Swansea Valley since 1965 based
liscussed trends in water quality in the
on data from the South West Wales River
Authority and the Welsh Water Authority. Bird concluded that'a marked
improvement in the water quality has occurred since the early 1970's and
attributed the improvement to more effective treatment of effluents discharged
.to the rivers. Bird's report offers valuable insights into the pollutants of
concern and the factors that influence water quality. Quantitative data'
regarding water quality in the Valley
prior to 1965 were not available.
The water quality of the river Tawe at Morriston Road Bridge is
influenced by pollution sources upstream of the Lower Swansea Valley region.
Water quality at this point suffers most during the summer low flows.
Dissolved oxygen levels are lowered as a result of sewage pollution
(attributed to inadequate treatment at two sewage treatment works which
discharge into the Tawe). When the dilution ratio of effluent to clean water
is too low, odor problems and damage to the freshwater fauna may occur
downstream (Bird, 1983, p. 57).
The water quality characteristics of the river Tawe at Landore are in-
fluenced by the conditions in the Nant-y-Fendrod as this point lies downstream
of the confluence of the two rivers. In 1964, the reported dissolved oxygen
level was only 0.3 ppm in the river Tawe at Landore (Ledger, 1964). This
level is "inimical to any form of fish, life" (Davies, R.L. 1979, p. 79).
The Nant-y-Pendrod, a relatively small river compared to the river Tawe,
flows through the Enterprise Zone within the Lower Swansea Valley Project
Area. The water quality of the Fendrod has long been affected by the past
mining and manufacturing activity within its catchment. The West Wales Water
Authority have reported high levels of metals in the Fendrod—cadmium at 11
L61
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ppm, lead at 37 ppm, and zinc at 38 ppm (Davies, R.L., 1979, p. 81). Until
1971 the Pendrod served a sewage disposal function for the Rio Tinto Zinc
(RTZ) plant until 1974. Bird (1983, p. 61 noted that levels of lead, zinc,
and cadmium were at unacceptably high levels in the Fendrod prior to 1974,
"due to the production of poor effluent at RTZ and erosion of nearby tips."
Before 1973, mean annual pH levels in the Fendrod were acidic. Reported
minimum pH levels, recorded during low flows, were 3.0 in 1971/1972 and 3.2 in
1965/1966 (Bird, 1983, ipp. 43, 44). These acidic pH conditions were
accompanied by high ammonia and low dissolved oxygen. Such conditions can be
highly detrimental to the aquatic ecosystems. In 8 of the first 10 years of
record, minimum values of dissolved oxygen in the Fendrod reached zero,
indicating "septic conditions with a completely anaerobic river, producing an
odor nuisance, putrefaction and mass destruction of any healthy aquatic
organisms" (Bird, 1983, p. 43). Since 1976 conditions have improved although
minimum values of dissolved oxygen tend to lie below 60 percent. The mean
levels of dissolved oxygen in 1983 were about 20 percent lower than those in
the upper Tawe catchment (Bird, 1983, p. 43).
Other Problems—
Bridges (1983-1984, p. 22) noted that, "Virtually all the metallurgical .
activity (in the Lower Swansea Valley) had ceased before air photography was
developed to the point where it could be considered useful. It was not
possible to follow the development and disuse of buildings as has been done on
sites with a more recent occupation by the polluting industry." The lack of
knowledge concerning the exact locations of past industry-related operations
can complicate site assessments and remedial action planning. Contingency
procedures and precautions are necessary to avoid hazards to workers during
site clearance and remediation. One conclusion from the 1960's studies on
geology, soil mechanics, and foundation engineering pertained to the extensive
underground workings in the area that could give rise to problems during site
remediation and construction (Bridges, 1984, p. 17). It was recommended that
the exact location of old adits, shafts, and air vents should be mapped prior
to construction work at a site. Another concern was the possibility of
subsidence if old flooded workings were to be pumped dry.
Revegetation
In the early 1960's it was thought too expensive to remove the many slag
heaps. Thus efforts were directed to improving the appearance of the Valley
by planting trees and grasses that would provide a visually pleasing ground
162
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cover. Such planting would also help
planting with volunteer labor has tak
eroded soils within the Project Area
Larch (a deciduous evergreen), Lodgej
with erosion control. Since 1962, tree
en place annually on the contaminated,
(Bridges et al., 1979, p. 25).
In the tree planting program implemented in 1962 to 1964, it was decided
to plant mainly conifers because of tieir rapid growth and tolerance of poor
environmental conditions. The most siccessful plantings proved to be Japanese
>le Pine, and birch. Three large plots
were planted (after liming and fertilizing to encourage rooting) by the
Forestry Commission. Smaller plots scattered throughout the Valley were
planted by the Forest Officer. The young trees had to contend with many
problems to survive—poor soils contaminated with heavy metals, weeds, damage
by small animals, air pollution—but
:he 'most serious threats were vandalism
and fire.
After the work of the Lower Swansea Valley Project was concluded, the
appointment in 1968 of a Conservator for the Valley helped to insure
continuity "in the planting and nurturing of trees. The Conservator's task was
"to care for and promote interest in the flora and fauna of the Valley and to
stimulate local participation in any improvements of the environment that were
undertaken" (Lavender, 1979, p. 153).
involving local people, especially sc!
Involvement of the local young people
The Conservator was instrumental in
100! children, in planting trees.
in the nurturing of the trees proved to
be the most effective counter to vandalism (Lavender, 1979, p. 154). The
Conservator reported that in 1978, "there were almost 450,000 trees in the
Lower Swansea Valley, including more than 200,000 trees planted on 71 ha (175
acres) of land leased to the Forestry Commission (Lavender, 1979, p. 155).
The many trees growing on land owned by the Swansea City Council are insured
against fire risk (Meller, 1979, p. 174).
Certain eroded areas in the Valley were sown with grass, but this effort
was less successful than the tree planting scheme (Bridges, 1984a, pp. 19-20).
The use of amendments such as sewage sludge, domestic refuse, pulverized fuel
ash and inorganic fertilizers was investigated to evaluate different schemes
for revegetation (Bridges, 1984a, p. 29).
Work accomplished under the initial Lower Swansea Valley Project proved
possible the successful establishment
of certain trees and grass leys on
eroded clay loams and on some types of steel wastes (e.g., coal shale, furnace
slag, foundry sand, and domestic wastes). It was recognized that the
revegetation of the copper and, more particularly, the zinc slag tips presents
a more difficult problem.
163
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In 1979, large quantities of a metal tolerant grass seed called "merlin"
became available from the National Seed Development Organization. A variety
of Festuca rubra, merlin was reported to show acceptable growth on zinc waste
if lime and nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium (N.P.K.) were given (Bridges et
al., 1979, p. 35-39). •
Little was known at the time the plantings were begun of the physico-
chemical factors that control uptake of heavy metals by plants, so
experimental, work was needed to discover the most appropriate species and
soil-conditioning techniques to facilitate revegetation. An investigation of
biogeochemical cycling of metals taken up by trees was undertaken in 1974
(Bridges, 1984, p. 29}.
Local Authority Land Acquisition
At the time of the Lower Swansea Valley Project, land in the Valley was
held by many private landowners. It was recognized that unification of
ownership by the local authority was essential for the reclamation and
redevelopment of the Valley. Ironically, the first opportunity for land
purchases by the Swansea County Borough Council arose out of the need for
sites for disposal of municipal refuse. Five derelict sites within the
Project Area were identified as suitable sites for controlled tipping, and
negotiations to buy the land were begun (Morris, 1979, p. 185). In 1964, the
City Estate Agent advised the Town Clerk that owners of three contiguous
properties, over 24 hectares (59.3 acres), were prepared to negotiate to sell.
Aware of the Project research then in progress, the Estate Agent noted in a
memorandum to the Council dated June 19, 1964 that—
"It is the Council which will have to take the lead in the
rehabilitation of the (Project) area. The Council would be in a far
better position to require rehabilitation if it were a major landowner.
On this basis now is the time for the Council to acquire lands in the
area."
In fact, no new refuse tips were created in the Project Area, but the
properties were acquired. Thus began the deliberate acquisition of derelict
land in the Lower Swansea Valley by the Swansea County Borough Council.
Following the local government reorganization in 1974, the Swansea City
Council continued the policy of land assembly initiated by the Borough Council
(Meller, 1979, p. 165). The acquisition of the various parcels was achieved
with a minimal use of compulsory powers. Rather, the purchases were
implemented through quiet but determined negotiations.
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In the period 1966-1969, several
major purchases were completed bringing
the Council's land, holdings to 270 hectares (almost 670 acres). Council land
acquisitions in and adjacent to the Project Area totaled 390.3 hectares (964.5
acres) by the end of 1978 (Morris, 1979, p. 183) . By 1983', the only
substantial land area in the Valley ndt acquired by the 'Council was the
British Steel Corporation property located within the Enterprise Zone.
Negotiations were in progress in 1983 for some of this land and for parcels
owned by Cohen and Bird just outside the Enterprise Zone (Bromley and Morgan,
1983, pp. 17, 23). Figure 21 shows the extent of the Council's land
acquisitions and the properties sold following site reclamation. Table 10
lists the lands purchased by the Local Authority 1965-1982 and the costs. The
property codes in Figure 21 are keyed
Table 10.
Almost all finance for the land
to the specific properties listed in
purchases shown in Figure 21 was raised
several instances, the necessary Loan
that a commitment was needed to conclude the property transfer. In such
cases, the City Treasurer made special
a temporary basis. The important poii
by loan from Central Government, repayable over a period of 60 years (Morris,
1979, p. 183). These loans required the consent of the Welsh Office. In
Consent was not yet granted at the time
arrangements to fund the transaction on
is that the transaction was not
jeopardized or stalled because of approval delays during a period of general
financial constraints.
After establishment of the Welsn Development Agency (WDA) in 1976, 100
percent grant-aid was awarded toward several approved reclamation schemes,
including the cost of land purchase and administrative costs. The WDA grant-
aid was particularly important in securing and reclaiming the former Swansea
Vale Works site, now known as the RTZ site.
Site Remediation and Redevelopment
Prior to 1966, some cleanup efforts were undertaken by the University
College, and some ruined buildings were demolished by the Territorial Army as
training exercises (Bridges, 1984a, p.
initiatives, however, no significant r
Valley until financial assistance became available from Central Government in
1966 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 75). '
In 1966, Swansea was designated a Development Area under the Industrial
Development Act. This qualified the Valley for financial assistance from
Central Government to reclaim derelict
contributed in some way to industrial
12). . Except for the tree planting
eclamation was accomplished in the
land, providing that the reclamation
development. (The real motive behind
165
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Land purchased by
Swansea Council
i i i i i Railways
Before 1966
1966-1969
1970-1973
1974-1977
1978 onwards
Land held by LAW and SCC under
1981 Deed of Partnership
Land sold by Swansea Councit
Figure 21. Land acquisition by the local authority 1965-1982.
(Source: Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 18)
166
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TABLE 10. LAND ACQUISITION BY THE LOCAL AUTHORITY 1965-1982
Site
Code
Property Name,
Area, Cost
Date of Purchase, Vendor, and Disposal
B
C
D
K
Land at Middle
and Upper Bank
(16.2 ha)
£14,000 ($39,074)
White Rock Works
(3.7 ha) £3,800 ($10,606)
Land at Upper
Bank (8.6 ha)
£1,500 ($4,184)
Upper Forest
and Worcester
Works (30.4 ha)
£100,000 ($240,670)
Duffryn Steel Works
and Tinplate Works
and Rose Works Tip
and Land at Plasmarl
(61.5 ha)
£102,500 ($246,687)
White Rock Tip and '
Land at Kilvey
Hill (49.1 .ha)
£5,500 ($13,164)
Land at Winsh Wen,
Bonymaen, and Upper
Bank (99.6 ha)
£72,500 ($173,529) .
Morfa Works,
Landore (6.3 ha)
£8,000 ($19,554)
Land at Upper Bank
and Pentrechwyth
Road (4.9 ha)
Land at Morfa
(14.7 ha),
plus land exchange
Land at Aber Works
(3.7 ha)
£19,250 ($47,050)
Fe'b. 1965 from Yorkshire Imperial
Metals Ltd.; 2.2 ha sold Nov. 1965
to Addis Ltd., £8,000 ($22,328).
May 1965 from Vivians White Rock Ltd.
Mar. 1966 from Principality Property Co.
(Swansea) Ltd.
Mar. 1967 from Richard Thomas and
Baldwins Ltd.; 16.2 ha sold Jul.
1968 to Morgan Crucible Co. Ltd.,
£97,500 ($233,366).
Apr. 1967 from The Somerset Trust;
some land under lease; 7.2. ha
sold Aug 1972 to Board of Trade,
'£85,000 ($212,568).
Jul. 1968 from Vivians White Rock Ltd.
Nov. 1968 from Principality Property
Co. (Swansea) Ltd.; four small sites
later sold.
Mar. 1971 from the Marquess of
Cambridge and others; some land
transferred to Yorkshire Imperial
Metals in exchange for land at Morfa (see
J); small site later sold.
Dec. 1969 from Aeron Thomas and Son
Ltd; some land later sold.
£5,000 ($11,968)
Oct. 1970 from Yorkshire Imperial
Metals. £8,000 ($19,167) >
Mar. 1971 from S.A. Lowe & Davies
Middleton & Davies Ltd.
(continued)
167
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TABLE 10 (continued)
Site
Code
Property Name,
Area, Cost
Date of Purchase, Vendor, and Disppsal
M
N
P
Q
Glandwr Works
(2.3 ha)
£75,000 ($183,315)
Land at Plasmarl
and Mannesman
(includes Rose and
Spelter Works and
Cohen's Land) (19.9 ha)
£22,500 ($54,995)
Land at Nantyffin
Road (1.0 ha)
400 ($978)
Land at Upper Bank
(8.1 ha)
Exchange for license at
£6,250 ($15,276)
British Rail Land
(Part of large land deal)
Swansea Vale Works,
Llansamlet (52.5 ha)
(known as RTZ)
Cost cannot be published.
Glamorgan Works
(2.5 ha)
Cost cannot be published.
Land at Samlet Road,
Llansamlet (4.2 ha)
Cost cannot be published.
Land at Samlet Road,
Llansamlet (1.1 ha)
Cost cannot be published.
Mar. 1971 from McThomas Esq. and others
Mar. 1971 from Western Metalurgical
Industries Ltd (George Cohen Ltd);
4 ha sold Aug. 1978 to Gregor Bros.
Ltd.
Mar. 1971 from Estateways Builders
Ltd.
Oct. 1971 from R. Parkhouse and Sons.
Mar. 1972 from British Rail.
Oct. 1974 from RTZ Estates, Ltd. and
Imperial Smelting Corp Ltd.
Jul. 1975 from M. Davies and H Davies.
(Acquired by Compulsory Purchase
Order.)
Sept. 1975 from William Tomkins.
1979-1982 Compulsory Purchase Orders
on six properties.
Source: Information from Bromley and Morgan, 1983, pp.17-23; Meller, 1979, p. 172;
and Morris, 1979, pp. 185-9.
168
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this program was the development of industries to provide jobs in economically
depressed areas.) Grant aid amounting to 85 percent of the net cost was
available for qualifying sites, net cost being defined as the cost of land
purchase and reclamation less the after value of the site (Bromley and Morgan,
1983, p. 23). I .
Most of the capital expenditure in the Lower Swansea Valley has derived
from Central Government grants, and the availability of these grants has, to a
large extent, determined the progress
I
of redevelopment in the Valley (Bromley
all the reclamation efforts have been
and Morgan, 1983, p. 23). Since 1966
administered and supervised by the Local Authority (i.e., the Swansea County
Borough Council [which became the Swansea City Council in 1969] until 1974,
and the Swansea City Council, thereafter. Most of the reclamation work has
been performed by outside contractors
Bromley and Morgan (1983, p. 82)
determined the particular sequence of
noted three principal factors that have
reclamation schemes in the Lower Swansea
Valley. These are: 1) land ownership, 2) site accessibility, and 3) the
interest of prospective developers. Of these factors, site ownership was
clearly the most significant. In order to obtain grant aid for reclamation
from the Welsh Office Derelict Land Unit, it was necessary for the Local
Authority to 'own the subject propertyL Thus, the progress of reclamation in
the Valley was dependent upon securing financial assistance to enable the
Local Authority to purchase specific properties. Successful negotiation with
the owners of the derelict or contaminated Valley properties was a crucial
step in this process for, although the Council had authority to seek
compulsory purchase orders if necessary, this involved a lengthy legal process
and was best avoided if possible.
The problem of site accessibility
arose due to the large number of tips
which stood "cheek-to-jowl" on the Vai.ley floor and the lack of adequate roads
to allow heavy equipment access to sites in the central areas of the Valley
(Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 82). The earliest reclamation schemes were
implemented on the periphery of the Project Area. Access to the central areas
gradually improved as reclamation and
infrastructure projects proceeded.
Clearance and improvement schemes undertaken by the Local Authority are listed
in Table 11. The locations of these various reclamation sites are shown in
Figure 22. The site codes in Figure 22 are keyed to sites named in Table 11.
Most of the reclamation efforts were initiated without the interest of a
specific prospective developer. One fortunate exception to this was the
reclamation and site improvements which were completed at the Upper Forest and
Worcester Works' site specifically for the Morgan Crucible Company for the
planned Morganite Complex. The White
Rock Tip was acquired by the Council for
169
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TABLE 1,1. RECLAMATION AND CLEARANCE SCHEMES IN THE LOWER SWANSEA VALLEY
Map
Site
Area
(hectares)
Dates of Work.
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
R
White Rock Tip
Clearance, Borrow for
Morganite Site (See B) •
Upper Forest and
Worcester Works
Clearance and filling
(Borrow from White Rock Tip)
Cwm, Winsh Wen, and
Llansamlet
Dyffryn Steel Works
Swansea Canal drainage
and filling
(Borrow from Morfa I)
Morfa I (see E)
Plasmarl: Cohen Land and
Graig Brickworks
Rose and Spelter Works
Morfa II
RTZ I
Glamorgan Works
RTZ II
(Including construction
of culvert)
RTZ III & IV, Phase I
Morriston Lower Gas Works
Upper Bank, Phase I
Reclamation and laying
sewer
RTZ III & IV
Reclamation of site 6
and Culvert on Site 4;
Borrow from Q and R
Glandwr/Morfa
Borrow for Site 6
(See P)
Upper Bank, Phase II
Some borrow for
Site 6 (See P)
Enterprise Zone, Site 8c
and Site 14
33
16
104
8
4
16
2
3.5
0.5
5.5
24.5
13
8.5
8.3
10.4
15
1967 - Nov. 68
Apr 67- - Dec 68
Jan. 69 - Jan. 70
Oct. 69 - Jul. 70
Aug. 70 - Dec. 71
Nov. 70 - Dec. 71
Feb. 72 - Feb. 74:
Feb. 74 - Mar. 75
Jun. 74 - Jan. 75
Oct. 74 - Jun. 75
Apr. 75 - Jun. 75
Nov. 76 - Sept. 77
Apr. 78 - Dec. 79
Oct. 78 - Mar. 80
Feb. 80 - May 80
Oct. 80 - Apr. 82
Oct. 80 - Apr. 82
Nov. 81 - Apr. 82
Jan. 82 - Mar. 82
170
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Reclamation Schemes
Figure 22. Reclamation sites in the Lower Swansea Valley.
(Source: Bronley and Morgan, 1983, p. 81)
171
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the purpose of providing the borrow material needed for site improvements at
the future Morganite site. Another instance where reclamation was undertaken
for a specific intended reuse was the Pentre Hafod Tip; after clearance of the
tip, the Pentrehafod School was constructed on the site.
One goal of the reclamation program has been to provide "attractive
sites and/or premises for incoming industrialists". By 1979, the Council had
conveyed land to three companies—Addis, Morganite, and Siliconix—for
development and had also created new industrial estates at Morfa, Plasmarl,
Nantyffin North and Nantyffin South. Addis Ltd. was the first major new
manufacturer attracted to the Valley; in 1965 the .company purchased from the
Council the 8,500 square meter (91,500 square foot) former Government
munitions factory on the east bank of the river Tawe and 5.5 hectares (13.6
acres) of adjacent land at the Middle Bank site at Pentrechwyth. Addis
improved the existing building and began manufacturing plastic brushes and
household plastic goods, providing more than 100 new manufacturing jobs in the
Valley.
Reclamation and Site Improvement Efforts 1966 to 1974—
When reclamation efforts were initiated by the County Borough, the
policy was "not only to clear derelict land, but also to return -the land to
active use and encourage new and modern industry to the area" (Ward, 1979, p.
249). The Council began to implement this policy as soon as the Welsh Office
grants became available in 1966. By 1974, the Council had acquired some 330
hectares (815 acres) of land in and adjacent to the Project Area; the
reclamation programs were substantially complete for 172 hectares (425 acres);
the Morganite factory, a major new industry, had begun operation on one
reclaimed site; and the Pentrehafod School was built on the site formerly
covered by the Pentre-Hafod copper waste tip. Several infrastructure schemes
(road building, culverts, sewers, water supplies, utilities) were completed
during this period providing the basis for redevelopment at other sites. The
projects carried out during the.period 1966-1974 involved an expenditure of
more than £1.5 million ($3.67 million U.S.) including grant-aid totalling
£793,282 ($1.9 million) from the Welsh Office and other sources (Meller, 1979,
p. 166). These projects are described below.
White Rock Tip—The first formal award of grant-aid from the Welsh Office
was for the reclamation of the White Rock Tip (Elias, 1979, p. 209) . This
barren 33 hectare (81.5 acre) site on the eastern slope at Pentrechwyth had
been worked for hard core. It was described by Morris (1979, p. 187) as "one
of the principal eyesores in the Valley." Though actually outside the Valley
floor, the huge tip dominated the principal north-south highway to the east
172
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side of the Valley. In July 1968, the
acres)of open mountain land on Kilvey
tip plus nearly 41 hectares (101
Hill were purchased by the Council.
Clearance of the White Rock Tip was linked to improvements at the Upper
Forest and Worcester Works' site located north of the A48 highway, so removal
of the copper tip began even before thk land purchase was complete. Some
183,000 cubic meters (239,346 cubic yards) of copper slag waste (Jones, 1979,
p. 194), were excavated from the White
Morganite site to raise the level of tie land there (see discussion below).
The clearance was completed in November 1968 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p.
77).
purchase)
Cost (reclamation plus land
Welsh Office grant-aid: £109,829
(Reference: Elias, 1979, p. 210)
Rock Tip and moved to the future
£129,210 ($309,264)
($262,876)
Following removal of the White Rock Tip, the area was landscaped, and
most of the land, together with the Kilvey Hill land was leased to the
Forestry Commission in 1969 for afforestation. Some 120,000 trees have been
planted on this land which is treated as a working forest; in due course it is
expected to yield a crop of timber.
Clearance of the White Rock Tip drastically improved the appearance of
the area although the revegetation scheme at'the site was not entirely
successful. In 1979, the site was described as, "now vastly better than it
was when a copper slag wasteland, but sparseness of grass, yellow for most of
the year, the gullying of the soil cover and the stone covered surface, is
less than perfect in appearance." (Humplprys, 1979, p. 282) .
Upper Forest and Worcester Works-JThis 30.41 hectare (75 acre) site on
the north side of A48 near Wychtree Bridge was purchased by the Council in
March 1967. Even before the purchase v
the sale of more than-half the land to
ras completed, the Council arranged for
the Morgan Crucible Company, Ltd. The
land transfer was to take place following completion of the site improvements
that-included demolition and clearance
a new road alongside the site, raising
the risk of flooding, and installation
station (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, pp.
of borrow material for the site work w«
of existing structures, construction of
the level of the whole area to remove
of sewers and a surface water pumping
77, 84). More than 300,000 metric tons
re brought from the White Rock copper
waste tip (Ward, 1979, p. 249). The cri>st of the reclamation plus land
purchase totalled: £295,391 ($708,997). Welsh Office grant-aid £166,082
($398,630). The after value of the laiid was estimated to be £100,000
($240,020). (Elias, 1979, p. 210.)
173
-------
Infrastructure: roads, sewers, pumping station
Cost (infrastructure): £141,615 ($339,900)
Welsh Office grant-aid: £141,615 ($339,900)
Reference: Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 84.
The Morganite factory and office complex were established in 1976 on the
site. The site is conveniently near to Morriston Town Center and bus services
and is the largest single firm in the Valley (Humphrys et al., 1979, p. 239).
The Morganite factory produces carbon brushes for electrical motors and trans-
formers (Humphrys et al., 1979, p. 230).
Cwm, Winsh Wen, and Llansamlet—In 1969 and 1970, 104 hectares (257
acres) of spoil heaps and quarries were reclaimed on the eastern slopes of the
Project Area at Cwm, Winsh Wen, and Llansamlet; 65,000 cubic meters (85,014
cubic yards) of material were excavated at these sites at a cost of £30,447
($73,016) (Ward, 1979, p. 249; Jones, 1979, p. 194; Bromley and Morgan, 1983,
p. 77). The properties were scheduled for amenity and industrial use
following clearance (Jones, 1979, p. 194). Some housing was also present in,
the area, and additional housing was planned.
Cost (reclamation plus land purchase): £109,289 ($262,091),
After value of land: not considered
Welsh Office grant-aid: £92,896 ($222,779)
Reference: Elias, 1979, p. 210.
More than 13,000 trees had been planted at Cwm during 1964 and 1965, even
before the Council acquired the land (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 95).
Additional trees were planted, some 27,000 at Cwm and more than 37,000 at
Winsh Wen, between 1971 and 1974 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 95). These
trees form an amenity screen between the existing and new industrial land, and
the adjoining residential areas (Ward, 1979, p. 249).
Dyffryn Steel Works—The Dyffryn Steel Works site along with other land
was acquired by the Council in 1967. The steel works site lies immediately
south of the A48 in Morriston. Clearance of the 8 hectare (19.8 acre) site,
begun in October 1969 and completed in July 1970, involved the excavation of
approximately 50,000 cubic meters (65,400 cubic yards) of material (Bromley
and Morgan, 1983, p. 77; Jones, 1979, p. 194). The former steel works site is
scheduled for industrial development and has been acquired by the Welsh
Development Agency (Ward, 1979, p. 249).
Cost (reclamation plus land purchase): £154,732 ($371,357)
After value of land: £85,000 ($204,000)
Welsh Office grant-aid: £9,272 ($142,253)
Reference: Elias, 1979, p. 210.
174
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Swansea Canal--Tn 1970-1971, the
Swansea Canal,-which ran for seven kilo-
meters (4.3 miles) along the western boundary of the Project Area, was drained
and filled in 1970-1971 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 77). Borrow material
for filling the canal was brought from the Morfa Tip (Bromley and Morgan,
1983, p. 77). Excavations involved 183,000 cubic meters (239,345 cubic yards)
of, material (Jones, 1979, p. 194). SJ>me 11 hectares (27 acres) of land were
reclaimed (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 77). Grant aid for this work was pro-
vided by the Welsh Office and the British Waterways Board. In 1979 the canal
route was used for a new highway constructed by the West Glamorgan County
Council (Ward, 1979, p. 249).
£162,569 ($397,806)
Cost (reclamation plus land purchase):
After ,value of land: £100 ($245)|
Welsh Office grant-aid: (£118,099,) ($288,988)
British Waterways Board grant-aid: (£20,000) ($48,940)
O«f AV*^S«1 >••< A *•« . T3n J.«.~_ -1 f\1 f\ _ A .4 A _ _ * *
References: Elias, 1979, p. 210;
Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 77.
Morfa Tip—In 1970-1971 the clearance of the copper waste tip at the
Morfa Works site (located on the west
Landore Viaduct) was begun, providing
Canal (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 77
1975.
Industrial Estate.
bank of the river Tawe, south of the
borrow material for filling the Swansea
). A sizable Welsh Office Grant (See
discussion under Swansea Canal) was provided for this operation. Additional
reclamation work at the Morfa site was carried out by the new Council in 1974-
The reclaimed Morfa site was ultimately redeveloped as the Morfa
Infrastructure.schemes' including roads, sewers, and
utilities were completed between 1971 and 1973 at a cost of £53,497 ($132,270)
(Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 84). Thks work was accomplished without grant-
aid. (See discussion of later efforts
(12.4 acres) at the Graig Brickworks s
under Morfa II.)
Graig Brickworks and Cohen Land at Plasmarl—Reclamation of 3 hectares
Ite was undertaken in early 1972 and
involved excavation of some-42,000 cubic meters (almost 55,000 cubic yards)
(Jones, 1979, p. 194).
Borrow material from the adjacent
Rose and Spelter site was used to raise
the level of the Cohen's Land. Following reclamation, the sites were
scheduled for use as amenity and housing (Jones, 1979, p. 194)
£32,562 ($81,000)
T
Cost (reclamation plus land purchase):
After value ofland: £22,000 ($55JOOO)
Welsh Office grant-aid: £8,978 ($'22,450)
Reference: Elias, 1979, p. 210.
Rose
Rose Works Tip at Plasmarl—The
was acquired by the Council along with
Arrangements were made later to acquire
Works Tip (copper smelting waste)
the Dyffryn Steel Works in 1967.
several hectares of land at Upper Bank
175
-------
from a hardcore contractor in exchange for the right to remove hardcore from
the Rose Tip. This removal work ended in 1973 (Morris, 1979, p. 188).
Clearance of the tip site, which is located adjacent to the southern boundary
of the Rose and Spelter Works, was accomplished before 1974.
Redevelopment of the Rose Tip proceeded along with that of the Rose and
Spelter Works site which was cleared in 1974 and 1975. The Plasmarl
Industrial Estate was developed on these sites. See discussion under Rose and
Spelter Works.
Pentre-Hafod Tip--The 5 hectare (12.5 acre) Pentre-Hafod Tip (copper
smelter waste) was located on open land adjoining Neath Road on the western
periphery of the Project Area. In 1972 the reclamation scheme for the site
was approved (Elias, 1973, p. 209). The excavation of 112,000 cubic meters
(146,485 cubic yards) of copper waste was completed in 1973 (Jones, 1979, p.
194). The construction of the Pentrehafod Secondary Comprehensive School was
begun in 1973. At the 1979 conference on the Lower Swansea Valley, Dr
Humphrys noted, "Perhaps the greatest success in the western area has been
achieved in the clearance of the Pentre Hafod Tip and its replacement by the
Pentrehafod Comprehensive School complex" (Humphrys, 1979, p. 282).
Cost (reclamation plus land purchase): £403,616 ($989,000).
After value of land: £185,000 ($453,500)
Welsh Office grant-aid: £185,824 ($455,455)
Reference: Elias, 1979, p. 210.
Reclamation and Redevelopment 1974-1985—
With local government reorganization in 1974, the responsibilities of the
Swansea City Council passed to the Swansea District Authority (which was
permitted to use the designation Swansea City Council) and the West Glamorgan
County Council (Morris, 1979, p. 190). Under the new organization, derelict
land clearance can be undertaken by either government body. In practice, the
City Council has continued the program of reclamation begun by the former
Borough Council. By 1974 most of the derelict sites were already in the
ownership of the Council.
The City Council has committed to further promotion of the area by
appointing an Industrial Development Officer and has budgeted funding for
industrial promotion (Mailer, 1979, p. 178). The Council also provided for
construction of unit factories at the Morfa Industrial Estate and at four
sites within the Enterprise Zone. By June 1982, the Council had completed 61
factory units providing a total of 6,474 square meters (69,684 square feet) of
floor space (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 93). The emphasis of the County
investment in the Valley has been on, "developing and strengthening the social
infrastructure of -the Valley communities" (Rush, 1979, p. 201).
176
-------
In 1976, the Welsh Development Agency (WDA) was made a separate office
and assumed the functions previously sjerved by the Derelict Land Office within
the Welsh Office. The WDA was authorijzed to offer 100 percent grant-aid on '
approved reclamation schemes (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 23). The WDA
grants have funded a large portion of
the reclamation projects since 1976.
Since 1974 a. great deal has been accomplished in revitalizing the Lower
Swansea Valley; the efforts encompass clearance and reclamation,
infrastructure, landscaping and amenity planting, and, as mentioned above,
industrial promotion. The planning schemes described previously have, for the
most part, guided the redevelopment prbgram. Some of the projects carried out
between 1974 and 1983 are described below.
Rose and Spelter Works—Clearance
the Valley floor at Plasmarl was begun
of this 16 hectare (39.5 acres) site on
in February 1974 (Bromley and Morgan,
1983, p. 78). The 350,000 cubic meters (457,765 cubic yards) of material
(Jones, 1979, p. 194) excavated from the site were used to raise the level of
the adjacent Cohen's land site (Bromleir and Morgan, 1983, p. 76) and in the
construction of the Morriston bypass (M4) (Morris, 1979, p. 188). The
clearance of the Rose and Spelter Works was.accomplished without grant-aid
(Meller, 1979, p. 166). Following clearance of the site, roads, sewers, and
utilities were completed in early 1978 Grant-aid for roads and sewer
construction was provided by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and
the Local Employment Act (LEA) (Bromlel and Morgan, 1983, p. 85).
The site of the former Rose and Spelter Works was redeveloped, together
with the smaller Rose Tip site to the south, as the Plasmarl Industrial Estate
with the first industrial establishments beginning operation there in 1978.
The industrial sites on offer at the Plasmarl Estate are intended for concerns
that require a fairly large site area
landscaping at the Plasmarl Industrial
between 1978 and 1981. A summary of the costs incurred in reclamation and
redevelopment of the site follows:
Cost (clearance) £105/445 ($246,515)
Grant-aid: none
Cost (infrastructure): .£139,081 ($254,773)
ERDF and LEA Grant-aid: £54,439 ($109,597)
Cost (landscaping):
Grant-aid: none
Total expenditures:
£65,142 ($135
,547)
£309,668 ($636,835)
References: Meller, 1979, p. 166;
Bromley and Morgan, 1983, pp. 85, 97.
Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 129) . The
Estate was carried out in two stages
-------
The Plasmarl Industrial Estate lies within the Enterprise Zone which came
into operation in 1981. In 1981, twelve establishments employing a total of
almost 200 workers were located in the Plasmarl Estate (Bromley and Morgan,
1983, pp. 130,131).
Morfa II—Clearance of the Morfa Tip was begun in 1970 to provide fill
material for the Swansea Canal. A second phase of the reclamation of Morfa
land was carried out in 1974-1975 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 78). The
reclamation at Morfa involved a total excavation of 63,000 cubic meters
(82,400 cubic yards) of material (Jones, 1979, p. 194). Roads and sewers were
constructed between July 1974 and March 1980, and services (electricity and
water) were provided in 1979-1980 as part of the Morfa Industrial Estate
redevelopment (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, pp. 85-7). A summary of costs and
grant-aid follows—
Cost (reclamation): £110,204 ($251,370)
Welsh Office grant-aid: £13,044 ($29,753)
Reference: Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 78.
Cost (infrastructure): £42,640 ($88,394)
ERDF grant-aid: £11,268 ($22,685)
LEA grant-aid: £5,607 ($11,288)
Reference: Bromley and Morgan, 1983, pp. 85-7.
The Morfa Industrial Estate was the site of the first industrial
landscaping scheme in the Lower Swansea Valley (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p.
94), and it was more limited than some of the later schemes. The landscaping
at Morfa involved provision of a broad grassed area between the industrial
plots and the river Tawe, and a narrow landscaped belt by the roads. This
landscaping work was completed in 1977 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 97).
In 1978 the City Council provided for construction of eight small factory
units at the Morfa Industrial Estate at a cost of nearly €76,000 ($145,000)
(Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 94). The construction of the Morfa Bridge in
1980 at a cost of £47,500 ($111,815) also contributed to redevelopment of the
Morfa area. The WDA provided grant-aid (50 percent) for the bridge
construction (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 87).
Glamorgan Works—The 2.3 hectares (5.7 acres) Glamorgan Works site was
acquired by the Council in July 1975 by Compulsory Purchase Order. At the
time, the very ugly building known as the Glamorgan Works was used for a scrap
metal business (Morris, 1979, p. 189). Clearance of the site involving about
0.5 hectare (1.2 acres) was completed in 1975 without grant-aid. The cost of
the site clearance was £5,201 ($10,470) (Meller, 1979, p. 166). The site is
located in what is now the southwest sector of the Enterprise Zone.
178
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RTZ—The 52.5 hectare (130 acres)
tract which occupies the north eastern
sector of the Project Area has been the site of zinc (or spelter) works since
1876 (Bridges, 1984a, p. 8). The earlier works, was known as Swansea Vale;
later the Rio Tinto Zinc (RTZ) Company1 produced zinc, lead, and sulfuric acid
on the site. RTZ closed the smelting operations in 1971; the adjacent
sulfuric acid works continued operatioli until 1974. Acquisition of this land
by the Council in October 1974 was the
Valley (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 17). The RTZ smelter and acid plant
remained a major active source of poll
pollution, and generating toxic wastes
last of the major purchases in the
.ition, creating air emissions, water
until its closure.
The RTZ site lies within the Enterprise Zone established in 1981. The
planned redevelopment of the RTZ site includes.industrial parks and a flood-
control lake. (The Industrial Park La
sequence of reclamation schemes at RTZ
ce is discussed in Section 4.3.8.) The
began on the accessible land adjacent
to Nantyffin Road, and proceeded toward the interior of the Valley after the
construction of access roads (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 82). With the
exception of the initial clearance work (RTZ I), the reclamation efforts at
RTZ have been funded by 100 percent greints from the WDA.
The first reclamation work, RTZ I, involving 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres),
was carried out in 1974-1975. Excavations involved 75,000 cubic meters
(98,093 cubic yards) of material (Jones, 1979, p. 194). This initial
clearance effort -was carried out by thej City Council without grant-aid
(Meller, 1979, p. 166).
The second reclamation effort, RTZ II, involved 5.5 hectares (13.6 acres)
and included the construction of a culjert on sites 3 and 6. The work was
completed in September 1977 (Bromley arid Morgan, 1983, pp. 78, 85). The site
work involved excavation of 80,000 cubic meters (104,632 cubic yards) of
material (Jones, 1979, p. 194). The first phase of RTZ III and IV reclamation
was carried out in 1978-1979. This effort involved 24.5 hectares (60.5 acres)
and excavation of 620,000 cubic meters
(Jones, 1979, p. 194). In 1980-1982 the second phase of this reclamation
effort was completed; this involved reclamation of 8.3 hectares (20.5 acres)
at Site 6 and installation of a culvert
(810,900 cubic yards) of material
on site 4 (Bromley and Morgan., 1983,
p. 79). Borrow material from the Glandwr/Morfa site and Frederick Place were
used to raise the level of RTZ Site 6 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 76).
Infrastructure including roads, sewers,
with the reclamation efforts carried ou
costs and grant- aid follows—
Cost (RTZ I, clearance):
Grant-aid: none
£58,084
and utilities were provided in concert
b between 1979 and 1983. A summary of
;$123,268)
179
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Cost (reclamation plus land purchase)
RTZ II: £248,888 ($448,770)
RTZ III & IV: Phase 1—£368,466 ($743,920)
Phase 2—£502,000 ($1,028,606)
WDA grant-aid (RTZ II,'III, & IV): £1,119,354 ($2,221,296)
Reference: Elias, 1979, p. 210.
Cost (infrastructure): £900,008 ($1,847,808)
ERDF grant-aid: £259,957 ($535,108)
LEA grant-aid: £138,235 ($280,778)
Reference: (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, pp. 78,8b,»»).
Costs (landscaping): £75,900 ($165,086)
Grant-aid: none
Reference: (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, pp. 97).
Total expenditures (listed above): £2,153,346 ($4,357,458).
The final costs of the reclamation work at RTZ far exceeded the initial
estimates for clearance of the site due to unforeseen problems. Some of the
problems encountered at the site were highlighted in 1979 by City Engineer and
Surveyor, Mr. Haydn Jones—
"Prior to the sale of the (RTZ) site ..., the Company dismantled the
plant and some of the structures on the site, making the engineering
problems more difficult to assess. This is because the size of the
superstructures and the physical dimensions of structural members are
invaluable in assessing probable foundation sizes as well as tracing
other underground structures. On handover two large structures remained
on the site, a fairly substantial three-storey office block and a
treatment works. It was intended that the office block be incorporated
in the site development, but a detailed investigation of the structure^
revealed the presence of High Alumina Cement which had produced serious
deterioration of the reinforced concrete frame. The office block
therefore needed to be demolished ....
"The treatment plant was used by the Company primarily to treat their
industrial effluent prior to discharge into the adjoining river It was
expected that demolition of the works would therefore allow the plant to
be dispensed with. Unfortunately tests carried out on discharges into
the adjoining river indicated (unacceptable) PH readings, and further
investigations revealed a culvert beneath the site, constructed to
transport groundwater from an unpolluted source outside the eastern
boundary of the site. This culvert was in a state of near collapse,
allowing polluted water beneath the site to enter the culvert and pollute
its contents. It was therefore necessary to continue operating the
treatment plant until 1978 when the old culvert was replaced with one
specially designed to high load bearing capacity and chemically
rllistant, at a cost of £70,000 ($134,288).'' (Jones, 1979, pp. 193-5)
Meller (1979, p. 166) noted that the cost to the Council of operating the
treatment works for two-ctnd-a-half years was £66,952 ($122,033). Further
expense was also incurred in 1977 when a change in policy regarding the use of
the reclaimed land resulted in regrading at the site costing an additional
£30,000 ($52,347) (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 76).
180
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later the Morfa Industrial Estate) stood
the site. At the time the- City acquired
a number of small enterprises (e.g., motor
Glandwr/Morfa—The Glandwr /Mo trf a site is located on the west bank of the
river Tawe, immediately south of the Landore Viaduct. 'The Council purchased
14.7 hectares (36.7 acres) of Morfk land adjacent to the Glandwr Works in
October 1970 and the Glandwr Works site (2.3 hectares. [5.7 acres] in 1971.
The site known as Glandwr/Morfa comprises these two sites. In 1971, the land
included two large tips and areas covered by redundant buildings (Morris,
1979, p. 188). The Morfa Tip (and
. adjacent to the southern boundary
the Glandwr Works site, there were
repairers, TV aerial firms) in operation there. In late 1978 nine tenants
were still on the Glandwr site. Removal of these tenants delayed the '
clearance effort. The work also suffered due to a moratorium imposed by
Central Government in 1979/1980 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983 p.' ). *
Clearance work at the 10.4 hectare (25.4 acres) site,was carried out
during the period October 1980 to April 1982 (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p.
79). Borrow material from this site was used in 'the reclamation of RTZ Site
6. The reclamation work at Glandwir/Morfa was planned from 1976 to be a
combined venture with the RTZ reclamation. WDA grants covered the total cost
of the effort (included in the total for the RTZ site). The Glandwr/Morfa
site was eventually reclaimed for sports use (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p,
122) .
Morriston Lower Gas Works—The
acquired in 1967 from the Somerset
Morriston Lower Gas Works site was
Trust along with the Dyffryn Steel Works.
cubic meters (247,193 cubic yards)
reclamation effort as well as land
approved for 100 percent grant-aid
The 13 hectares (32.1 acres) site is located within the Enterprise Zone. The
site reclamation work was carried cut in 1978-79; excavations involved 189,000
of material (Jones, 1979, p. 194). The
acquisition costs of £18000 ($32,809) were
from the WDA. Construction work to provide
roads and sewers was carried out between 1979 and 1983.
Industrial Estate has been developed on this site.
£191,266 ($395,977)
The Gas Works
Cost (reclamation plus land purchase):
WDA grant-aid: 100 percent I
Reference: Elias, 1979, p. 211; Bromley and Morgan , 1983, p.
Cost (infrastructure): £435,1173 ($779,992)
79.
Grant-aid: pending
Reference: Bromley and Morgan
Centre Tip (Cwm Level)—This 3
1978-79, the final clearance involving
yards) of material (Jones, 1979, p.
£22,000 ($44,376) and site works,
£115
1983, pp. 88, 86.
hectare (7.4 acre) site was reclaimed in
86,000 cubic meters (112,479 cubic
194). The cost of land acquisition,
,000 ($231,967) were covered by a 100
181
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percent grant-aid from the WDA (Meller, 1979, p. 172). Additional landscaping
completed in 1979 brought the total costs to £48,000 ($101,875) (Meller, 1979,
p. 174). The end use of the site is classified as amenity (Jones, ,1979, p.
194).
Pentre Pit—The reclamation scheme at Pentre Pit was carried out by the
Swansea City Council without grant-aid; costs totalled £12,909 ($29,445)
(Meller, 1979, p. 166).
Upper Bank Tip—The lands at Middle and Upper Bank were the first of the
derelict properties acquired by the Council. A portion of this land and a
usable building were sold the same year to Addis Ltd for the establishment of
a factory (Morris, 1979, p. 185). An additional 8.6 hectares (21.2 acres) at
Upper Bank were acquired in 1966. A portion of the purchase price of these
two lands, was covered by the WDA grant as part of the reclamation costs
(Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 19).
The reclamation at Upper Bank involved removal of three large tips. The
work was carried out in two phases in 1980 and 1981-1982. The first phase
involved reclamation of 8.5 hectares (21 acres) and laying of sewer lines
prior to construction of an athletics track at a cost of £70,000 ($132,030).
The second reclamation effort addressed 15 hectares (37 acres), with the
excavations supplying borrow material for Site 6 in the Enterprise Zone.
Costs associated with this work totalled £237,811 ($448,547). The reclamation
costs were covered by WDA grant-aid (100 percent) Bromley and Morgan, 1983,
pp. 79-80).
Pluck Lake Tip—In 1978-79 15 hectares (37 acres) were reclaimed for
amenity use, the excavations involving 32,000 cubic meters (41,853 cubic
yards) of material (Jones, 1979, p. 194). The costs of land acquisition,
£7,7000 ($15,532) and works, £30,000 ($60,513) were covered by 100 percent
grant-aid from the WDA (Meller, 1979, p. 172).
Winsh Wen Site Preparations—In 1979, 12 hectares (29.6 acres) were
immediately available at Winsh Wen for industrial sites (Meller, 1979, pp.
177). Preparations at the site (plateauing and installation of roads and
sewers) continued during late 1980 and early 1981 in order to make some 45
hectares (111 acres) of industrial land south of the A48 ready for letting by
the date of declaration of the Enterprise Zone (Meller, 1979, p. 178; Bromley
and Morgan, 1983, p. 82). ERDF grants for 30 percent of the approved cost
were awarded for site preparation and for development of roads and services on
the Winsh Wen site between 1974 and 1983 (Meller, 1979, p. 173). This land
was developed by the Council without a specific developer in mind.
182
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Cost (Site preparation, infrastructure): £474,528 ($986,736)
ERDF grant-aid: £146,242 ($307,027)
LEA grant-aid: £31,191 ($58,830^
Reference: Bromley and Morgan, 1983, pp. 79,85,87.
In 1971, there were 1392 households in the planning zone of Winsh
Wen/Llansamlet, with 62 percent being Council Housing (Fagg, 1979, p. 133).
Between 1971 and 1978 there were 281 house completions, divided equally
between private and Council houses (Fkgg, 1979, p. 135). Planning approval
has been granted for 968 additional dwellings, and it is expected that about
600 units will actually be built by 1990 (Fagg, 1979, p. 136) .
Site 8C and Site 14—These sites
reclamation cost was £7,031 ($12,290)
are located in the central area of the
Enterprise Zone, just north of the Lower Gas Works site. The reclamation was
carried out in 1982 with grant-aid (100 percent) provided by the WDA. The
(Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 80).
White Rock Works—The site of the historic White Rock Works and
associated land (3.73 hectare [9.2 acres] ) was purchased by the County
Borough Council in 1965. The site is
Tawe, immediately to the south of the
located on the west bank of the river
Middle Bank land.which was acquired
earlier in 1965. These two properties were the first acquired by the Council.
The site was rough, uneven, and encumbered with ruins. Most of the ruins of
the original White Rock Works were cleared by the Royal Engineers in 1965 as a
training exercise (Morris, 1979, p. 186.
.At the time of purchase, there remained an active scrapyard within a
dilapidated building. Clearance of this building was later carried out with
grant-aid from WDA. Costs of £4,500
($127,589) for works at the site were
the WDA 1976- 1978 plan (Meller, 1979
($8,202) for land acquisition and £70,000
approved for 100 percent grant-aid in
p. 172).
In 1985, the site stood vacant except for some of the more substantial
structures from the historic Works. The last two chimneys in the Valley
remain standing at White Rock, almost
as a monument to its industrial past.
There has been some consideration given to retaining the remaining ruins as
the basis for an archaeology park. Wxth this in mind, the City incorporated
the area as a "cluster" in its planning scheme for the Riverside Park and
prepared a report outlining the park development (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p.
16). There remains uncertainty about this development plan as the site lies
in one possible route of the important Hafod bypass. Thus, "the proposed
recreational and landscaping improvements cannot be finalized until final
agreement is reached on the road" (Bromley and Morgan, 1983, p. 16). '
183
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Other Sites—Three sites of significance to the Lower Swansea Valley that
were purchased and improved are listed below. WDA grants totalling 100
percent of the costs of acquisition and works were awarded for these sites in
the period 1976-1978.
Land Cost Cost of Works
Site
Arches at Landore
St. Thomas Station Site
Strand/Quay Parade
£2,000 ($3,645)
£14,000 ($25,518)
£162,500 ($296,189)
£19,000 ($34,631)
£230,000 ($419,221)
£289,000 ($526,760)
Arches Reference: Meller, 1979 p. 172.
Flood Control
At the 1979 Conference on the Lower Swansea Valley, Mr. Haydn Jones, City
Engineer and Surveyer, presented a paper, "Engineering Problems and Their
Solutions." One section of this paper dealt with the issues of drainage and
flooding; excerpts from Mr. Jones presentation follow.
"The northern area of the Lower Swansea Valley Project Area is a natural
flood plain and the marsh area both north and south of the A48 has been
flooded on a number of occasions over recent years. The flooding of the
Nant-y-Fendrod (a tributary of the river Tawe) would prove to be a
serious drawback to development unless controlled. To raise the land
level adjacent to the Nant-y Fendrod would not provide a satisfactory
solution, as the removal from the 'reservoir' would merely transfer the
problem elsewhere. "Within the flood plain, south of the A48, the City
Council has planned the creation of a lake in the proposed industrial
park. This lake, in addition to providing an important amenity area,
will act as a flood prevention lagoon. "In preparing the details for the
formation of the lake there are specific problems to be overcome; the
eastern boundary of the proposed lake is formed by a tip containing toxic
material and the existing marsh surface has become impregnated with toxic
material.... The examination of the tip material showed conclusively
that its effect on the water quality in the lake would be
catastrophic . As a result it is proposed to remove an average of 1.5
m, from the existing marsh surface which contains polluted material.
Further excavations will then create a lake of a depth of three meters
and produce suitable uncontaminated clay material from this lower depth
of marsh. This can be used to provide an impermeable layer along the
lake bank, in those parts which have a close proximity to tips on the
eastern edge of the lake. By this means a lake of satisfactory depth and
sufficiently separated from contaminated materials can be created."
(Jones, 1979, pp. 195-6).
The WDA has approved 100 percent grant aid for the Industrial Park Lake—
£54,000 ($98,426) for land acquisition plus £675,000 ($1,184,755) for the cost
of works (Meller, 1979, p. 172). Drainage of the Fendrod Marsh began in 1983
for the proposed Industrial-Park Lake (Bridges 1983-1984, p. 33-4).
184
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Criteria for Cleanup
At the 1979 Conference on the
Council Environmental Health Officer
"Environmental Monitoring and Control
pollution follow:
Lower Swansea Valley, the Swansea City
(Davies, R.L., 1979 pp. 73-87) spoke on
Some of his statements regarding land
"From surveys and analyses, areas have been identified where levels of
trace metals are in sufficient concentrations to constitute a potential
danger to workmen exposed to dust during contracting operations, and
where leachate of toxic metals fipm waste materials could possibly affect
water courses. It was also concluded that some sites, by their very
nature, are best left in situ and capped with an impermeable layer of
material over which vegetation should be encouraged to grow." (Davies,
R.L., 1979, p. 77)
The criteria used to make these judgerients were not stated, but human health
considerations are implied. In some cases (Bridges, 1984c, p. 29) levels of
metals in soils and tipped wastes were compared against guidelines used in the
United Kingdom to identify contaminated land (ICRCL, 1983). These guidelines,
established by the Department of Environment, are discussed in Section 3 of
this report.
The Area Medical Officer also conmented on environment and health in the
Valley. He noted that, "almost no data have been analyzed or presented
concerning positive health, ill health or morbidity, or mortality,
specifically related to the population1 of the Lower Swansea Valley" (Phillips-
Miles, 1979, p. 92). The Medical Officer contended that sufficient clues
exist to promote an epidemiological study in the Swansea Valley. He cited
available statistics indicating that deaths from coronary heart disease are
higher in males age 35-44 years from West Glamorgan than from England and
Wales and also that ,the perinatal mortality rate is higher in West Glamorgan
than in Wales. Motor neurone disease
which is linked to lead in the cerebro-
spinal fluid may also be more common in West Glamorgan. To date human health
effects attributable to exposure to the contamination in the Lower Swansea
Valley have not been established. •
The criteria for cleanup for remediation efforts in the Valley most often
relate to improvement in site appearance and to adequate bearing capacity for
building sites. Reclamation activitieb often involved removal of tipped waste
and regrading to level a site. Site reclamation in some instances was based
on achieving conditions that would support amenity planting. The extent of
the cleanup action (excavation, treatment, isolation) was not based on levels
of specific chemicals determined by testing. Some distinctions were made
between certain waste types based on t
leir perceived potential hazard to human
185
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health or ecology. For the most part visual inspection was sufficient to
separate certain material categorized as hazardous from that of less concern.
Wastes considered hazardous were in some cases removed to a prepared site for
burial. At the prepared site the hazardous material would be covered with
significant thicknesses of less hazardous and "clean" fill so that human
exposure to the hazardous material is precluded. No material has been removed
from the Valley, although in some cases tipped wastes from a particular site
were transferred several miles to-provide needed fill for another site
undergoing reclamation.
The River Tawe—
Pertinent water quality data are published by the South West Wales River
Authority (prior to 1974) and by the Welsh Water Authority. Water quality.
trends based on 13 water quality parameters were examined by Bird (1983) for
an unpolluted site in the upper Tawe catchment and at three sites within the
Lower Swansea Valley for the period April 1, 1965 to March 31, 1982. Table 12
lists the water quality parameters used in the analysis and recommended
acceptable limits.
Through the majority of its course, the river Tawe is used principally
for industrial water supply, for sewage disposal, and as an amenity. Since
the water quality criteria applicable to a given stream are linked to the
actual or potential uses of the water, the most stringent criteria set (i.e.,
the criteria for the most sensitive use) must be used. Thus the aesthetic
qualities of the river Tawe and the ecosystem it supports assume a greater
significance in light of the amenity function envisioned for the river in the
Lower Swansea Valley. Plans for a Riverside Park will "require an improvement
in the river's aesthetic qualities, including the cessation of any odor
nuisance, as well as improvement in its aquatic flora and fauna" (Bird, 19,83,
p. 66).
One way to assess water quality is by comparison to natural
characteristics of water of the same region. Thus water quality in the Lower
Swansea Valley may be judged by comparison to water quality at a site that
drains the upper part of the Tawe catchment where the surrounding land use
consists mainly of rough pasture and forest with little human interference
with water quality. Water quality may also be assessed by determining certain
water quality parameters in water samples taken from strategic locations at
various times and comparing the results to specified criteria that relate to
safe acceptable levels which will not result in undesirable effects.
186
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TABLE 12. WATER QUALITY CRITERIA*
i
Parameter Measured
Criteria
PH
Temperature
Total Hardness
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO), % of saturation
5-Day Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Ammoniacal
nitrogen (as N)
Suspended solids
(at 105 °C)
Total Cadmium
Total Chromium
Total Copper
Total Lead
Total Nickel
Total Zinc
Levels of 5 to
(Train, 1979).
Higher than 22
abstraction of
Classification
Concentration
as CaCO,
0-75 mg/L
75 - 15 0" mg/L
•150 - 300 mg/L
>300 mg/L
9 recommended for domestic water supplies
5 C is considered undesirable for the
drinking water (EEC, 1975) .
of water hardness (Sawyer, 1960)
Classification
soft
moderate
hard
very hard
Natural waters are normally expected to exhibit near 100%
saturation levels of DO; river stretches regularly
exhibiting levels < 60% saturation are considered
substandard in
classification
the National Water Council (NWC) river
system (NWC, 1978).
BOD levels > 5 mg/L indicate polluted rivers in the NWC
river classification system (NWC, 1978) .
River stretches exhibiting ionized ammonia (NH4) levels
> 0.9 mg/L are|regarded as polluted (NWC, 1978). Adverse
effects on fish may occur from prolonged exposure at >0.025
mg/L NH3. " •
Levels < 25 mg/L are considered desirable for good fisheries
(EEC, 1975); use of water for boating and fishing are
adequately protected by the criteria for the protection of
aquatic life. • „
Levels < 0.012 mg/L are desireable for the protection of
aquatic life and for water supply purposes; most natural
freshwaters contain < 0.001 mg/L (Train, 1979).
Levels > 0.1 me
aquatic life
/L are considered undesirable for freshwater
(Tj-rain, 1979).
Levels < 0.05
abstraction of
4g/L are necessary for water intended for the
drinking water (EEC, 1975).
Mean natural levels in a river lie between 0.001 and
0.01 mg/L (Livingstone, 1983); levels of < 0.05 mg/L are
necessary for water intended for the abstraction•of drinking
water (EEC, 197^5) .
Levels as low ds 0.095 mg/L can adversely affect certain
freshwater crudtaceans (Train, 1979).
Levels should be < 3 mg/L in domestic supplies (EEC, 1975).
*Source: Bird, 1983.
187
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REFERENCES
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Lower Swansea Valley, R.D.F. Bromley and R.H. Morgan, Editors, pp. 27-68. Published
by the University College of Swansea, Department of Geography, ISBN 0 950738417.
Bridges, E. M., 1984a. NATO-CCMS, Study of Contaminated Land, Visit to the Lower
Swansea Valley. Contribution to the Cardiff Meeting 9th-10th April, 1984. University
College of Swansea, Department of Geography.
Bridges, E.M., 1984b. "Desecration and Restoration of the Lower Swansea Valley." In
Proceedings: The 5th National Conference on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Sites, November 7-9, Washington, DC, pp. 553-559.
Bridges, E. M., 1984c. "The Use of Remote Sensing in the Identification, Mapping and
Monitoring of Contaminated Land." Report upon the tenure of a NATO-CCMS Fellowship,
1983-1984. Available from E.M. Bridges, University College of Swansea.
Bridges, E. M., D. S. Chase, and S.J. Wainwright, 1979. "Soil and Plant
Investigations since 1967." In: Dealing With Dereliction, The Redevelopment of the
Lower Swansea Valley, Bromley, R. D. F., and G. Humphrys, Editors, pp. 23-42.
Published by the University College of Swansea, ISBN 0 860760154.
Bridges, E. M., and D. M. Harding, 1971. "Micro-Erosion Processes and Factors
Affecting Slope Development in the Lower Swansea Valley." Transactions of the
Institute of British Geographers, Special Publication No. 3, pp. 149-163) .
Bromley, R. D. F., and G. Humphrys, Editors, 1979. Dealing With Dereliction, The
Redevelopment of the Lower Swansea Valley, Published by the University College of
Swansea, ISBN 0 860760154.
Bromley, R. D. F., and R. H. Morgan, 1983. Change and Industrial Redevelopment in the
Lower Swansea Valley, Published by the University College of Swansea, Department of
Geography, ISBN 0 9507384 17.
Chase, D. S., and S. J. Wainwright, 1983. "Vertical Distribution of Copper, .Zinc, and
Lead Ions in Weathered Tips of Copper Smelter Waste in the Lower Swansea Valley."
Environmental Pollution (Series B), pp. 133-46.
Chase, D.:S., S. J. Wainwright, and E. M. Bridges, 1981. "Distribution of Copper,
Lead, Zinc, Cadmium and Nickel in Plants Superficial Organic Layers and Mineral Soils
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Decade Educational Council, 9 Queen Anne's Gate, London.
Davies, R. L., 1979. "Environmental Monitoring and Control." In: Dealing With
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Humphrys, Editors, pp. 73-87. Published by the University College of Swansea, ISBN 0
8.60760154. V
Davies, B. et al., 1983. "Halkyn Mountain Project Report: A Summary of Research Work
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EEC (European Economic Community), 1975. Council Directive of 16 June 1975, on the
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Ellas, J., 1979. "The Role of the Welsh Development Agency." In: Dealing With
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Howell, M., 1979. "Planning of the Valley Since 1974: Physical Plans With a Social
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Bromley, R. D. P., and G. Humphryls, Editors, pp. 251-260.
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Newton Abbott.
Industrial Britain:
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R. D. F., and G. Humphryis, Editors, pp. 219-242. Published by the
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190
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SECTION 5
SWEDEN
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Situated on the Scandanavian peninsula, Sweden is the fourth largest
nation in Europe. Sweden's land area is 449,750 square kilometers (173,649
square miles), somewhat larger than the State of California. The population
numbers approximately 8 million, which is quite small in relation to the land
area. Nearly 90 percent of the inhabitants live in the southern half of.the
country, and about 85 percent live in densely populated metropolitan areas or
towns. The three largest cities are
one household in three is located in
Stockholm, Goteborg, and Malmo. About
one of these cities or their metropolitan
areas. Incomes and standards of living in Sweden are generally viewed as the
highest in Europe.
Sweden is governed by a constitutional monarchy, with the seat of
government located in Stockholm. The Swedish parliament, or Riksdag, has 349
members elected by direct universal suffrage. All laws in Sweden are made at
the national level, although ordinances and regulations are enacted'at the
local level. The government has authority to change ordinances and
regulations. Twenty-four county administrations are responsible for
implementing administrative decisions. The head of each of these county-state
administrations is appointed by the government. Local administration is
provided by 23 county councils and 284 municipal councils that are locally
Authors' Note: Much of the information provided in this Section was obtained during the authors'
visit to Stockholm in March 1985. Mr. Olov v<|n Heidenstam of the National Swedish Environmental
Protection Board, Technical Department, gracicjusly hosted our visit. Information on the • .
Augustendal site was obtained during a site visit to the Environmental and Health Office of the
Nacka Community where we met with several individuals involved with the site including Ms.
Charlotte Eriksson, Health Inspector. Dr. Peter Solyom of the Swedish Environmental Research
Institute, IVL, met with us to discuss the cleanup in progress at the BT-Kemi dumpsite.
L91
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elected and operate in parallel with the county-state administrations. (The
County of Gotland comprises a single municipality and thus has a municipal
council but no county council.) Health and medical care are the
responsibility of the county councils while local school systems and almost
all other social services'are the responsibility of the municipal councils.
There is, in spite of large scale construction programs, a shortage of
housing in the larger cities. About one half of Sweden's housing is privately
owned, one quarter is owned by housing cooperatives, and most of the remainder
is owned by semipublic bodies. The HSB housing cooperative, set up in 1923,
has been particularly active in providing housing; one home in ten in Sweden
has been built by the HSB. State loans are available to cooperative and
semipublic bodies and (to a lesser extent) to private builders for financing
housing development.
Sweden's important raw materials are iron ore and lumber. The forest
industry supplies lumber, pulp, paper, and board as well as rayon, plastics,
dyes, resins, and turpentine. Corporations and private owners control at
least three quarters of the forest land and timber value.
Environmental Legislation and Implementation
The responsibility for environmental programs in Sweden is vested in the
Ministry of Environment and Energy. An Environmental Advisory Committee also
plays a role in this field. The central administrative authority for environ-
mental affairs is the National Swedish Environmental Protection Board. This
board executes the decisions of the Riksdag and the government, keeps track of
new developments, and proposes necessary measures to the Government. The
budget for environmental protection is provided through the Ministry of
Environment and Energy. The emphasis in environmental policy is on
administrative means of control, mainly through the issuance of permits and
physical planning. The responsibility for national physical planning resides
with the Ministry of Housing. The regional authority for environmental
protection is the county administration. Considerable responsibility also
falls on the municipalities, in particular on the Housing Committees and the
Public Health Committees. Public opinion has exerted considerable influence
192
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on environmental protection work in
the highest rated priorities of the
Sweden. Environmental issues are among
Swedish general public, and this has had a
strong impact on the political decis ions behind the national environmental
policy (National Swedish Environmental Protection Board, Technical Department,
1982, p. 37).
Direct environmental legislatior
(concerned with the management of n
includes the Nature Conservancy Act
tural assets); the Environment Protection
Act and the Environment Protection Ordinance (concerned with polluting
activity such as air and water pollution, and noise); the Ordinance Relating
Chemical Products (regulates the handling
ons) .
to Hazardous Wastes; and the Act on
of chemical substances and preparati
The Environment Protection Act (1969J:387) applies to the following:
o discharge of wastewater, solid matter, or gas from land, buildings, or
installations into a watercourse, lake, or other water area;
« use of land, buildings, or installations in a manner that otherwise may
lead to pollution of a watercourse, lake, or other water area, if the
use does not constitute a construction in water;
« use of land, buildings, or installations in a manner that may lead to
interference with the environment by air pollution, noise, vibration,
light, or other such means, unless the interference is wholly
temporary."
Under the Act, the government or
has the right to issue special regulati
water by solid waste. The governmen
• certain kinds of factories or
an authority nominated by the government
ions for the prevention of pollution of
; may order that:
wastewater of a certain
discharged;
solid waste or other solid ma
such a way that a watercourse
polluted;
other establishments may not be erected;
quantity, type, or composition may not be
ter may not be discharged or stored in
lake, or other water area can be
certain kinds of establishments or their use may not be changed in a
way that can lead to an increased or new nuisance or that otherwise
cause substantial interference with the environment unless the
Franchise Board has granted permission under this Act or notification
has been made to the authoritjf appointed by the government.
193
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The Ordinance Relating to Hazardous Wastes (1985:841) lists the following
solid or fluid wastes that are designated as hazardous wastes:
• oil waste;
• solvent agent waste;
• paint or lacquer waste;
• glue wastes;
• concentrated acid or alkaline waste;
• waste containing cadmium;
• waste containing mercury;
• waste containing antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium', lead, cobalt,
copper, chrome, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium, tin, vanadium, and
zinc;
• waste containing cyanide;
• waste containing PCB;
• waste from means of control;
• laboratory waste.
The National Environment Protection Board may also define other wastes as
hazardous. Any person engaged in operations which generate hazardous wastes
is obliged to provide information to the authority stipulated by the National
Environmental Protection Board as to the nature, composition, quantity, and
manner of handling of wastes. Hazardous waste may be finally disposed of com-
mercially only by Svensk Avfallskonventering Aktiebolag - SAKAB (the Swedish
Waste Conversion Company) or those who have been granted special permits.
General binding standards occur very rarely in Swedish legislation on the
environment. It is assumed that authorities will take into account- the
developments in technical and scientific fields and the circumstances in
individual cases. There is reluctance on the part of the government to develop
threshold levels to guide site decontamination because such levels must be
considered on a. site specific basis. Preliminary guidelines have been
developed by the Nature Conservation Agency for permissible amounts of arsenic
in the soil and water (Eriksson and Ingelstrom, 1984).
Guidelines have been established to limit concentrations of certain metals
in drinking water (Swedish Drinking Water Standards). Although surface water
provides the major source of drinking water, there is concern for the
protection of ground water as a natural asset.
194
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to
Contaminated Land
Because of the low population
not been a major issue in Sweden. S
areas where the demand is high for
some concern over what steps should
operation. Communities have an i
not uncommon for local authorities
closure.
A project entitled "Recycling of
financed in 1982 by the National
report from this effort, prepared by
architect Ann-Christine Ingelstrom (
at 20 land reuse sites in Sweden and
include gravel pits, stone quarries,
with industrial waste, and old indus
illustrate some of the planning prin
to the recycling of land in urban ar
as reducing costs of land reuse (Err
density, the reuse of contaminated land has
Sjome exceptions are sites in metropolitan
land for new industry or housing. There is
be taken when an industrial plant ceases
important role in land use planning, and it is
acquire sites following industry
Land in Heavily Populated Areas" was
Council for Construction Research. The final
civil engineer Inga-May Eriksson and
1984), includes descriptions of experience
two in Great Britain. These examples
municipal waste disposal sites, sites
;rial areas. The examples serve to
=iples, problems, and solutions relevant
sas. The following measures are mentioned
csson and Ingelstrom, 1984, p. 8) :
* "Appropriate shaping, dividing into stages, etc., in an early phase of
the pit activity or waste disposal. Later costs for adjustments and
extra measures can be avoided! or reduced. . . ,
• Successive subsequent treatment that suits the pit, quarry, or site for
future utilization by using available machine equipment and surplus
materials. • .
• Joint planning with other construction projects that provide access to
large areas of land at low costs.
• Residual products from industry are used as replacements for soil or as
soil enrichment.
• Subsequent treatment is made permanent so that a minimum of
supplementary measures and protection are required."
195
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A number of national committees have addressed issues related to contami-
nated land. The Environment Protection Committee prepared a report on
problems of treatment of waste disposal sites (SOU 1983:20). The Industrial
Reclamation Committee presented recommendations on reclamation after
industrial shutdowns (Bostadepartementet, 1982) .
The Committee on a Fund for Environmental Damage has produced its final
report (SOU 1987:15) Miljoskadefond. The suggested law would regulate two
areas, (1) damage to persons and property, and (2) a substantial portion of
remedial measures needed on problem sites. The proposed .fund would be
financed by fees on emissions of listed substances for certain groups of
plants performing activities dangerous to the environment. The fund would be
used for cases when no other means of financing is available.
Contaminated land problems in Sweden stem from acid mine drainage from
mining of sulfide ores, from wood treatment operations, from the disposal of
municipal and industrial waste, and from the paper industry. Environmental
problems arising from the paper industry (which includes the forest and cellu-
lose industries) involves fibrous sediments called "banks" which have been
deposited in rivers. These banks may comprise several hundred thousand cubic
meters of fibrous deposits, and tend to deplete the oxygen in the water
courses (increases the biological and chemical oxygen demand — BOD/COD),
Mercury used as a fungicide in the paper production is often present in these
deposits at varying concentrations ranging up to several thousand ppb.
Although legislation has been passed to prevent further deposits of wood fiber
waste in rivers, measures to remedy the existing banks have not yet been
undertaken. There are at least 29 paper industry sites in Sweden that hcive
substantial problems with "banks" downstream.
There are approximately 300 sites in Sweden that have been used for wood
treatment. Originally this process was accomplished using creosote, but the
method iii more common use today involves chemical treatment with arsenic,
chromium, and copper. At least one former wood treatment site has received
attention as a result of plans for reuse.
196
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Inventory of Hazardous Waste Sites
The Central Organization of Swedish Communities has undertaken a
nationwide inventory of old dump sites that received wastes between 1940 and
1970; (The law restricting the placement of waste went into effect in 1969,
so sites used after this time are monitored.) An information request was sent
out in March 1983 to each of the 280
received either municipal or industr Lai wastes. The data requested on each
site includes the location, responsible party, years of operation, types of
waste received, geological and hydro
Logical conditions, health or
communities has been compiled by the
local communities with sites that
environmental effects, and current land use at the site. Sites are rated
according to whether there are any problems or potential problems associated
with the waste disposal sites. The information provided by the local
County Administrations and submitted to
the Central Board.
The national inventory of old duihps and landfills has now-been
accomplished. The aim was to establish where such sites are situated and
which are known or suspected to contain substantial amounts of hazardous
wastes. It is now possible to take this information into consideration in the
context of planning and land use.
In many cases, it has not been possible to give a clear answer to the
question on presence of hazardous wastes. Investigations will have to be
performed to elucidate which sites need to be tackled on the grounds of
content of hazardous wastes, ground conditions, or neighborhood factors.
In all, 3,800 sites have been registered, most of then estimated to be of
rather limited interest apart from the planning aspect. About 500 sites are
thought to contain marked amounts of
represent a (latent) threat to man ai
hazardous wastes or, in other aspects,
d the environment.
The National Environmental Protection Board has issued recommendations to
the communities and the county administrations as to the follow-up of the
initial inventory. Around 20 dumps and similar sites should be tackled with
priority, and the 500 possible candidates should be measured and evaluated
within a period of 5 years. (Personal communication, Olpv von Heidenstam,
1988, summarized from a report in Swedish.)
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CASE STUDY: AUGUSTENDAL DUMPSITE, NACKA
Nacka is a community of about 60,000 people located in the southeast
sector of the Stockholm archipelago, about 10 kilometers from Central
Stockholm. Within Nacka, an area called Jarlaberg is being developed for
housing. The Jarlaberg area includes the Augustendal municipal dumpsite,
portions of which will require remedial actions prior to site development.
Land Use History and Redevelopment Objectives
The Augustendal dumpsite which was active from about 1940 until 1965, was
used mainly for the disposal of municipal waste and for demolition waste.
Some industrial waste was also disposed at Augustendal. The volume of Wciste
deposited at the dump site' is estimated to be about 80,000 cubic meters
(104,800 cubic yards). The dumpsite which covers about 2 hectares (5 acres),
is located in a valley with the waste deposited to a depth of 3 to 8 meters
(9.8 to 26 feet). The surrounding area is hilly with a large amount of
surface rock and swampy valleys.
The Nacka municipality decided in the late 1960's to develop new housing
in the Jarlaberg area. Over a 4-year period, the 26 ha (65-acre) area weis
acquired by the municipality from private owners. The city plan (Stadsplan)
for development of the area was established in 1983 and involves about 1100
residences in buildings with two to five floors. These buildings will be
sited around court yards. A lower and middle school will be built in the
central area of the site on the former Augustendal dumpsite. Development of
the school on this central location is essential to the overall plan. The HSB
housing cooperative is overseeing the development of the land. The community
planning board is responsible for land use zoning. The proposed use plan for
the Jarlaberg area is shown in Figure 23.
198
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c
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JJ
14
3
Dl
3
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•C
4J
a
0
0)
4J
CO
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0
.8
o
CO
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s
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10
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Nature and Extent of Contamination
The municipality of Nacka has initiated several investigations to charac-
terize the waste at the Augustendal dumpsite and the seepage water issuing
from the site. Information concerning the types of materials deposited at the
Augustendal site was obtained by interviewing firms that had used the
dumpsite. Based on these interviews, investigators expected to find
contamination from paints, varnishes, and solvents, mercury (from a company
that produced fungicide for seeds), and other metals (e.g. from galvanizing
operations).
Samples were collected from different depths from nine trial pits. The
samples were analyzed for a variety of substances including organics,
chlorides, sulfides, cyanide, phenols, metals (cadmium, chromium, copper,
iron, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc), pH and methane. The battery of testing
was carried out because of civil engineering concerns and also due to the
pressure of public opinion concerning the potential hazards associated with
contamination at the site.
Analysis of the soil samples showed a neutral to alkaline pH. Levels of
most parameters analyzed were not remarkable, although mercury was found in
one pit at a level of 71 ppm. The range of contaminant levels found in soils
from the test pits are given in Table 13. Levels found in normal soils and in
municipal waste sludge are listed for comparison. A risk of methane
generation was determined to be present as a result of the decomposing
municipal waste. One barrel containing contaminated oil was found on the
site.
Seepage water from boreholes at the site was also sampled and analyzed.
Contaminant levels found in the seepage water are shown in Table 14. The
Swedish Drinking Water Standards and levels of metals considered acceptable
for protection of fish are listed for comparison. The levels of metals and
other water quality parameters did not indicate any serious problems of
polluted water from the site. Ground water contamination is not a major
concern at the site because the ground water in the area is already brackish
and likely contaminated as a result of leakage from a nearby petroleum
transfer station.
200
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TABLE
13. LEVELS OF CONTAMINANTS IN SOIL
FROM THE AUGu|sTENDAL DUMPS ITEa
SAMPLES
Soil Parameter
(mg/kg dry soil)
PH
Chloride
Sulfate
Sulfide
Cyanide
Phenol
Mercury (Hg)
Cadmium (Cd)
Iron (Fe)
Zinc (Zn)
(Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Chromium (Cr)
Nickel (Ni)
Extractable organics
Range found
in samples
(mg/kg)
6.7 - 8.8
1,500 - 3,800
1,900 - 3,800
1-91
0.3 - 26
0.1 - 1.5
0.39 - 71
0.3 - 8.1
18 - 84
0.14 - 2.6
0.07 - 1.9
0.08 - 5.9
0.01 - 0.09
0.02 - 0.14
300 - 9,400
Levels in
normal soils
<10
< 5
< 1
0.06
0.22
63
15
16
16
9
Levels in
municipal
waste sludge
4-8
5-15
1,000 - 3,000 Copper
500 - 1,500
. 100 - 300
50 - 200
25 - 100
Based on trial pit samples reported in 1980.
Health Office during site visit, March 1985.
Report provided by the Nacka Environmental and
TABLE 14. LEVELS OF CONTAMINANTS IN SEEPAGE WATER
FROM THE AUGUSTENDAL DUMPS ITEa
Water Parameter
pH
Chloride
Sulfate
Sulfide
Bicarbonate
Calcium
Cyanide
Phenol
Mercury (Hg)
Cadmium (Cd)
Iron (Fe)
Zinc (Zn)
Copper (Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Chromium (Cr)
Nickel (Ni)
organics
Conductivity
(20 °C, us/cm)
Suspended solids
Range found
in samples
(mg/L)
6.9 - 7.2
455 - 1,300
415 - 918
<0.01 - 0.01
582 - 770
314 - 680
0.02
0.005 - 0.012
0.002 - 0.028
0.001 - 0.006
69 - 208
1.1 - 1.2
0.21 - 0.25
0.10 - 0.33
0.02 - 0.04
0.03 - 0.07
2.3 - 15
2,500 - 5,680
605 - 1,620
Swedish Drinking Level for ,
Water Standard protection
(mg/L) of fish (mg/L)
0.005 0.010
0.4
.1.0 0.1-0.5
0.05 0.02-0.1
0.10 0.01
0.05 0.02-0.1
0.1-0.5 Extractable
a Based on levels measured in 1980. Report provided by the Nacka Environmental and Health Office
during site visit, March 1985.
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Remediation Activities
All waste material present on the intended school site was excavated down
to firm bottom (as deep as 8 meters). This excavation was carried out in
order to avoid the need for piles and to alleviate concern over problems with
methane generation. The edges of the site excavation were sealed, and the
excavated cavity was filled with good engineering material. The excavated
municipal and industrial waste were separated from demolition waste. The
materials were also screened and sorted by size.
The contaminated soil excavated from the school site was transported in
containers similar to dumpsters to a licensed disposal facility. During the
soil excavation, water downstream from the site was monitored for
contamination. Waste and soils determined to be nontoxic were trucked to the
opposite end of the valley and deposited as fill. These materials amounted to
about 18,200 metric tonnes (20,000 tons) or 25 to 30 percent of the total
amount of soil excavated. Some wastes containing mercury were placed at the
bottom of the fill area and covered with lime followed by 40 centimeters of
clay. The area receiving the fill material from the dumpsite is to be covered
with topsoil and grassed. No major buildings are intended for this area.
The HSB housing cooperative is responsible for the cleanup of the
dumpsite. The contractor is Skanska. The cost of the remediation effort at
the site is estimated to be about 1,500,000 Swedish Kroner ($140,000 U.S.)
(Eriksson and Ingelstrom, 1984).
Site Reuse
The Jarlaberg development plan calls for the construction of 1100
residences along with school buildings to be constructed on the former
dumpsite (Eriksson and Ingelstrom, 1984). The school construction is to be
overseen by the community, while the residential development will be carried
out by the HSB housing cooperative. A design competition was held for the,
housing development of the southern section of the Augustendal site. Models
of the proposed housing design schemes were displayed in the offices of the
HSB. Construction was scheduled to begin in 1985. Development of the homes
202
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and school is scheduled for completicn in 1987. The estimated cost of the
development is 500,000,000 Kroner (about $45,400,000 U.S.). The cost of the
waste removal and site cleanup is expected to increase the price of homes
built on the site by about 1 percent.
Criteria for Cleanup
Levels of contaminants in solid vaste and soils from the Augustendal site
were compared to normal (uncontaminaned) soil levels and to levels permissible
in municipal waste sludge. These levels are shown in Table 13.. Some 41
percent of the municipal sludge produced in Sweden is spread on agricultural
land. Thus comparison of the contaminant levels in soils with permissible
concentrations in municipal sludge provides an indication of the acceptability
of these wastes and soils for use as
do not pertain to engineering propert
Contaminant levels in seepage water were compared to the Swedish Drinking
Water Standards and to levels determined safe for aquatic life. These levels
are shown in Table 14.
CASE STUDY: BT-KEMI PLANT, MALMO
. The BT-Kemi facility located nort|h
produced pesticides and herbicides
was closed by the Swedish Environmental
noncompliance with environmental
river, the Braan River, and covers
downriver from the plant is
BT-Kemi site was the first remedial
legislation.
about
predominantly
fill material. ' These comparison criteria
ies of the excavated materials.
of the city of Malmo in southern Sweden
approximately 11 years before the plant
Protection Board in 1977 for
The plant site borders a small
10 hectares (24.7 acres). The area
agricultural land. Cleanup of the
action project in Sweden.
203
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Land Use History and Redevelopment Objectives
From 1966 through 1977, the BT-Kemi plant produced large quantities of
phenoxy acid herbicides through the chlorination and condensation of phenol
and cresol. (Phenoxy acids include 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T; it is suspected that
V <>*
2,3,7,8-TCDD may also be formed as a contaminant in the process.) The plant
operations were carried out in a former sugar refinery which had operated from
about 1907. Signs of pollution at the plant site were observed soon after the
plant began production. Throughout the plant's operation, there was almost
continuous involvement with various environmental protection authorities
because of mishandling of wastes at the site. Wastewater from the production
of phenoxy acids was collected in holding ponds on the site. Solid wastes
were treated and buried on site as well.
Cleanup of the site was initiated in order to protect the river and ground
water in the area from further contamination. Some redevelopment of the site
for light, nonpolluting industry was also intended.
Nature and Extent of the Contamination
In 1975, some,200 chemical drums containing high concentrations of .cfaloro-
phenols and phenoxy acids were found on the site (Solyom, 1983, p. 342) .
Further investigation in 1977 revealed additional drums (approximately 600
total) on the site, many of which were corroded and leaking into the ground.
In addition, highly polluted water from two holding lagoons as well as
discarded drums and other sources was found to be leaking into the Braan
River.
The responsibility for the site investigation and cleanup of the BT-Kemi
site was taken over by the County Administration who in turn commissioned
detailed investigations by the Swedish Environmental Research Institute (IVL).
These studies focused on assessment of the contamination of ground water and
the river, wastewater in the holding lagoons, contaminated soil, highly
contaminated wastes stored in drums and tanks, residual chemicals in the
factory, and contamination of the factory building and processing equipment
(Solyom, 1983, p. 343) . Multiple drain lines beneath the site further
complicated the site investigation.
204
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Some 250 samples from 140 boreholes were taken to assess the extent of the
soil contamination. Results of this survey indicated that the area contained
about 150,000 cubic meters of contaminated soil containing phenoxy acids,
chlorinated acids, cresols, chlorophenols, and dinitro-sec-butyl phenol
(DNBP), and dioxihs at levels up to 500 ppm. The contamination extended from
the surface to a depth of 2 to 6 meters, (Solyom, 1983, p. 343),
Three groups of soils were distinguished based on the level of contamina-
tion; the quantities of contaminated materials were as follows:
Low concentration (< 50 ppm): 130
,000 cubic meters;
,000 cubic meters.
Medium concentration (50 to 500 ppm): 15,000 cubic meters;
High concentration (> 500 ppm): 2
(Solyom, 1983, p. 344).
It was found that both the dumpsi
:e and the piping beneath the site .were
leaking chemical contaminants into ths river. It was determined that the
maximum seepage rate from the area was 7.5 cubic meters per hour (Solyom,
1983, p. 343). Heavy contamination was found in both ground water at the.site
and in river water. Chemical analyses of samples of river water showed
phenoxy acids to be increased by factors of 5 to 25 depending on the rainfall
in the area. .Pollutants leaking into the river began to cause serious damage
to crops irrigated with the water in the area downstream of the plant. -
Ten of 107 private wells tested ii the vicinity of the plant were found to
be contaminated (although it is not certain that all of the contamination
originated with the BT-Kemi plant. Chlorinated phenols, phenoxy acids/ and
DNBP were found at levels of 0.2 to 3
were believed to be directly affected
ug/L. Four of the contaminated wells
by the contamination in the Braan River.
Pour aquifers were found to be present in the area of the plant. It was
determined through chemical analyses that the two uppermost aquifers were con-
taminated, the first (uppermost) through plant activity, and the second
through cross contamination with the first via a borehole used in the site
investigation. The lower aquifers were not contaminated.
-------
Remediation Activities
Cleanup of the site was begun in the summer of 1978. The main production
building located on the south side of the BT-Kemi site was demolished. Some
of the demolition material was moved to the opposite side of the railway. The
site was covered with clean topsoil and grassed. Some light industrial
buildings were later erected on the site.
Immediate action was needed in order to protect the river from further
contamination. A drainage system enclosed by a bentonite shield was installed
around the area to prevent infiltration of water. A 15 percent bentonite
slurry was injected through a series of perforated pipes to form a curtain
wall. To seal off the area from the river, a slurry cutoff wall (bentonite)
extending down to the underlying clay strata was installed. By the following
summer, the leakage of contaminants from the site had abated.
The drainage water in the holding pond was collected and treated using an
activated charcoal treatment system which had been installed by BT-Kemi while
the plant was in operation. This method of treatment was found to be more
efficient than alternative methods such as chemical flocculation, solvent
extraction, and biological treatment. The level of phenoxy acids in the
drainage water was reduced from 190 ppm to less than 0.1 ppm while the level
of chlorophenols was reduced from 12 ppm to less than 0.01 ppm (Solyom, 1983,
p. 343) . After treatment, the water was discharged to the municipal sewage
treatment plant. Temporary problems occurred in the system when pollutant
concentrations were lowered sufficiently to permit bacteria to grow on the
carbon filters, clogging the system. Spent charcoal from the process was sent
to England for regeneration.
In 1982, the activated charcoal filtering was discontinued when the
organic chemical level in the drainage water reached about 0.9 ppm. The water
was then piped directly to a municipal treatment plant about 20 kilometers
from the site. Water from the BT Kemi site significantly increased the load
on the municipal treatment plant, comprising about 1 to 8 percent of the total
volume of water handled.
Liquid wastes from the site containing low concentrations of organic
chemicals were pumped to a holding tank or directly to the activated charcoal
filtration system. More concentrated liquid wastes were incinerated in a
cement kiln at a cost of about $100 U.S. per ton (Solyom, 1983, p. 344).
206
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The technique of forced leaching
through an infiltration ditch was
selected for cleanup of the contaminated soil at the BT Kemi site. Leaching '
was found to be effective for.removiig 80 to 90 percent of the chemicals from
the low and medium contaminated soils, although it does not remove 2,4,5-
trichlorophenol. IVL estimated that
years to complete, at a cost of $2.5
the leaching process would take 5 to 6
million. After 6 years, the
concentrations of chemicals had reached acceptable industrial effluent levels.
Recent readings, however, have indicated that contamination levels are up,
possibly due to an unusually cold wi iter in Sweden during 1984-85 in which the
ground was frozen down to 1.2 meters
and thawing action could release con
It is suggested that extreme freezing
:aminants bound in the soil and create new
countries for incineration since, at
pathways through which contaminants could travel. (Solyom, 1985, Personal
Communication).
High contamination waste was sto::ed and eventually transported to other
the time, incineration was not allowed in
Sweden. Some 90 drums containing low-level dioxin-contaminated waste still
remain at the site since no acceptable means of disposal of this waste have
been found.
Site Reuse
The state came into possession of this property because the chemical
company went bankrupt. As a result,
leases out some new buildings on the
the period from 1977 through September 1985 amounted to 36 million Swedish
Kroner (about $6 million U.S.).
Cleanup of the south ,side of the
BT-Kemi site was undertaken to allow the
development of the site for new nonpclluting light industry. Following the
demolition and removal of the main production building, very little contamina-
tion remained on the site of the old
erected to house small workshops and
the community took over the site and now
site. Total expenditure on the site over
buildings. Some small buildings were
a. stone company.
207
-------
Criteria for Cleanup
The public concern over the contamination problems at the BT Kami site was
an important factor in the site cleanup. Information on the project was made
available to the public throughout the investigation and cleanup. A, risk.
assessment of health and environmental effects was performed to allay public
concerns regarding residual contamination at the site. It was determined that
the degree of contamination found in well water samples in the vicinity did
not pose any risk to public health. A health investigation of people-living
near the site also did not detect symptoms attributable to the activities of
the BT-Kemi plant (Solyorn, 1983, p. 343).
In 1972, a target cleanup level of 0.5 mg/L was set by the authorities for
aqueous discharges to the Braan River. At the time, this level was considered
to be quite stringent and was established partly in response to the actions of
environmental groups. Since that time, however, the quality of the River has
been vastly improved, and no discharges to the River are now permitted
(Solyom, 1985, Personal Communication). -All drainage from the site must be
routed to the municipal sewer. Criteria have not been set to determine when
to discontinue the forced leaching at the site.
Biological tests on the wastewater performed in 1982 and in 1984 show the
need to further reduce the levels of phenoxy acids and chlorophenols to less
than 0.01 Ug/L to fully eliminate the risk for damage to higher forms of
flora. (Personal communication, Olov von Heidenstam, January 1988.)
Follow-Up; The Site Conditions in 1988
(The information below was provided by Mr. Olov von Heidenstam, January
1988.)
The present level of phenoxy acids and chlorophenols in the Braan River
is, as a yearly mean, 0.05 |4.g/L. There are considerable season variations,
and sometimes, the measurements are of the level of several micrograms per
liter. Further reduction is a slow process (hyperbolic function) and for the
foreseeable future, say at least to the year 2000, there is a need for con-
tinued treatment. The costs for pumping, treatment, and analysis, etc., is
around 300,000 Swedish Kronor per year ($50,000). The treated volume is
around 30,000 m3 per year.
208
-------
The county administration in Malnio
Protection Board have investigated the
that would do better than the one now
To complete the picture, it should
herbicides are used on the surrounding
is a measurable level of phenoxy acids
Nevertheless, the decisions taken are
from BT Kemi premises.
209
and the National Environmental
matter.and do not see any other method
applied.
be remembered that, as long as
fields and the fields upstreams, there
and chorophenols in the Braan River.
for continued treatment of the waste
-------
REFERENCES
Bostadepartementet, 1982. Sanering after industrinedlaggningar (Restoration
After Industrial Closings). SOU:1982:-10 Department of Housing. Stockholm,
March 1982.
Eriksson, I. and A. Ingelstrom, 1984. Ateranvandning av mark it
atortsomraden, 22 exempel, Byggforskningsradet (Reuse of Land in Populated
Areas.) Swedish Council for Construction Research, Stockholm, Liber Printing,
Stockholm. ISBN 91- 540-4264-X. Translated from Swedish for the EPA by:
SCITRAN, Santa Barbara, CA, TR 85-0092, 126 pp.
National Swedish Environment Protection Board, Technical Department, 1982.
"Control of Water and Solid Waste Pollution in Sweden." Presented at the
Fourth Joint Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions, Copenhagen, June 1982.
Report snv pm 1691, June 1983, 37 pp. Available from Statens Naturvardsverk
Biblioteket, Box 1302, S-171 25, Solna, Sweden.
Solyom, P., 1983. "The Case Story of the BT-Kemi Dumpsite." In: Proceedings
Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites. October 31 - November 2,
1983, Washington, D.C., pp. 342 - 345.
210
-------
INTRODUCTION
The Kingdom of The Netherlands is
Europe. Smaller than the State of N<
41,160 square kilometers (15,892 squc
13 million. The land is essentially
SECTION 6
THE NETHERLANDS
the most densely populated country in
w York, The Netherlands encloses some
re miles) with a population of more than
flat throughout most of the country. The
Netherlands (Figure 24) is bordered ty the Federal Republic of Germany to the
east and Belgium to the south. The North Sea encloses the north and west.
The western part of The Netherlands lies below sea level, in some places by as
much as 6.7 meters (22 feet). Much of the land is reclaimed from the North
Sea. About half of the land area is polderland, artificially drained and
surrounded by dykes.
The Netherlands is a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional
monarch. The parliament, known as Staten-Generaal (States-General), consists
of a First Chamber comprising 75 members elected by the councils of the
provinces and a Second Chamber of 150 directly elected members. Parliament
shares legislative power with the crown. The country is divided into 11
provinces with directly elected administrative councils and a government-
appointed chairman. The provinces control the municipalities within their
borders and also the district water-control boards. There are 865
municipalities, and these are the most important local government
institutions.
Authors' Note: The information provided in this Section was obtained during a visit to The
Netherlands in March 1985. Dr. Dick Hoogendoorn of the National Institute for Public Health and
Environmental Hygiene hosted our visit and accompanied us on several site visits. We met with
Mr. Martin Koen and Mr. Lidth*de-Jeude of the.Ministry Of Housing, Physical Planning, and the
Environment to discuss the Dutch policy and legislation on contaminated land. We also visited
the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TOO) escorted by Dr. Wim Rulkens.
Site visits included the Tilburg Gas Works site
Merwedepolder housing site in Dordrecht.
the Rotterdam Harbor sites, and the
211
-------
Figure 24. Map of The Netherlands (courtesy of the National Geographic
Society).
212
-------
In spite of a scarcity of natural mineral resources (except for natural
gas). The Netherlands is a highly industrialized nation. Metal manufacturing
(iron and steel and aluminum) is the
most important industry. The chemical
industry has increased 10-fold between the late 1940's and the early 1970's.
Natural gas, discovered during the 1950's, has had a major influence on the
Dutch economy. Shipping is of special .importance; the deep water ports on the
North Sea and the Rhine and Maas Rivers provide access to central and eastern
Europe. Rotterdam Harbour handles more tonnage than any other harbour in the
world. Some 5630 kilometers (3,500 ikiles) of inland waterways link The
Netherlands with German, Belgian, and French systems.
The contaminated land problem in
attention in 1978 with the discovery
the Netherlands first came to public
of serious soil contamination under homes
in the town of Lekkerkerk. Subsequent investigations led to the discovery of
contaminated sites throughout the country.
Extent of the Contaminated Land Problem
Contaminated land in The Netherlands is viewed as a. very serious problems
because of the high population density, the relative scarcity of land, the
high water table in many parts of the country, and the reliance on ground
water for drinking supplies. Ground
water is of special concern in the
Netherlands as approximately 65 percent of the potable water is abstracted
from ground water (Lewis et al., 1987). Because of the scarcity of land in
the Netherlands, every site is needed. Many sites," particularly in the
municipalities, have been used multiple times. Every site is reused rather
than abandoned. In some cases, land
to be contaminated.
A survey of contaminated sites, undertaken in 1980 on initiative of the
Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Protection, identified more than
4,000 potentially contaminated sites.
some 350 sites. The major types of Contaminated sites in the 1980-81
inventory are as follows:
• waste dumps (76.9 percent);
» former factories and manufacturing plants (13.8 percent);
• former gas works (5.8 percent);
» other sources (3.5 percent).
213
is already in reuse when it is recognized
and remedial action was deemed urgent at
-------
Two main criteria (van Lidth de Jeude, 1982) were applied in assigning the
order of urgency to these sites—
1. immediate danger for public health (e.g., housing estates, drinking
water areas, building sites, recreation areas); and
2. immediate danger for environmental pollution (e.g., nature reserves).
The inventory indicated the need for a legal framework,and a major
financial commitment to begin to remedy the contaminated land problem. It is
now known that there are, in fact, many more than 4,000 potentially
contaminated sites. It is estimated that urgent cleanup measures are needed
at 1,170 sites. In 1981, about 350 investigations and 30 cleanup operations
were started. Expenditures for this effort amounted to about f50 million
Dutch guilders ($20 million U.S.).
The Legal Framework for Dealing With Contaminated Land
The Soil Protection Bill was submitted to Parliament in December 1980.
This Bill provides for a 5-year "program of measures aimed at protecting the
soil." The program is to be overseen by the Ministry of Housing, Physical
Planning, and the Environment. The policy regarding soil protection is that
the soil must retain its ability to perform a wide variety of functions
adequately. Soil is considered to be the solid part of the environment with
the enclosed water, ground water, air, and organisms. A short-term policy
objective is the creation of ground water protection areas.
The soil protection program emphasizes prevention of soil quality
deterioration (by preventing the occurrence of new sources of contamination)
and encourages remedial actions where necessary (Ministry of Housing, Physical
Planning, and the Environment, 1984b). Remedial actions undertaken under the
soil cleanup program are aimed at removing the contaminants from the soil
rather than simply excavating the soil and moving it to a new location
(Hoogendoorne, 1984, p. 569). The Provincial and Local authorities are
responsible for implementing the soil protection policies. [Note: The Soil
Protection Bill became law on January 1, 1984.]
21.4
-------
Recognizing that the Soil Protection Bill would require several years to
pass through both the Upper and Lowir Houses of Parliament, a separate bill
was introduced to deal with remedial action in a more immediate fashion. The
Soil Clean-Up (Interim) Act of 29 December 1982 (which came into force in
January 1983) contains temporary regulations concerning remedial action in
cases of soil contamination (Ministjy of Housing, Physical Planning, and the
Environment, 1984a). Under this AcJ the Provincial Authorities are required
to submit to the Ministry of Housinc, Physical Planning, and the Environment
each year a cleanup program to deal with soil contamination. The Soil Clean-
Up Act was incorporated in the Soil
is responsible for implementing the
cleanup programs from the Provincial
failing to take adequate measures to
Protection Bill that became law in 1984.
A cleanup program runs for a period of 5 years and covers all the
instances of severe soil contamination within each province. The program
should indicate the cases that are teing considered for investigation or
cleanup for the first year, the measures to be taken, and an estimate of the
costs. Each province, in consultation with the Municipal Authorities
concerned, develops its own prioritiss for site cleanups. A general summary
of activity is projected for the remaining 4 years. The provincial executive
cleanup program. After receiving the
Authorities, the Ministry determines
which cases will be considered for remedial measures or investigations with
Central Government assistance.
The cost of cleanup operations is normally shared by Central Government,
the provinces, the municipalities, and certain industries. It is assumed that
the Central Government and the provinces have a collective responsibility for
prevent chemical substances from being
deposited in or on the ground (Dresden, 1984, p. 6). In the past, provinces
together with the municipalities grailted licences for waste dumping. The
municipalities bear responsibility for failing to apply (adequately) existing
legislation (e.g., the Nuisance Act).
cleanup costs is a basic amount (based on population) plus 10 percent of the
remaining, costs (Dresden, 1984, p. 6)
Environmental Protection contributes
percent) of the cleanup operations.
The Ministry of Health and
the remaining costs (approximately 90
The Ministry in consultation with the
The municipal contribution to site
Provincial Authority, may order the person with rights to a property on which
the source of contamination is situated to take appropriate measures to
215
-------
eliminate the source or to restrict the contamination and its effects as far
as possible. In some instances, an industry is responsible for paying the
cost of cleanup. In such cases, the government will collect the payment from
the responsible party after the cleanup is completed. This policy avoids
delays that might occur if negotiations regarding payment preceded the cleanup
operations.
The Central Government has budgeted f2 billion Dutch guilders (about $700
million U.S.) for the program over a 15 year period to provide for site clean-
ups and also for the Central Government's program in research, standards
development, analysis, and coordination to ensure consistency among provinces
in the cleanup efforts. In order to reach decisions regarding allocation of
funds, the relative needs and priorities of the various provinces are examined
and compared.
The Interim Indicative Multi-Year Soil Protection Program 1984-1988 (V-
IMP) is a forerunner of the 5-year programs, although it has no statutory
basis since the Soil Protection Bill was not 'yet law at the time the program
was drawn up. The Ministry's projections show completion of all initial
investigations by 1989 with all final cleanups completed by 1997. The steps
involved for each site for which cleanup action is indicated and the mean
costs are given below:
• Initial investigation f!2,276 ($3,432 U.S., based on
1985 Foreign Exchange Rates);
• Evaluation of nature and extent flOO,000 ($279,600 U.S.);
• Evaluation of technical options fl!5,196 ($322,090 U.S);
• Cleanup action '• f989,223 ($2,766,000 U.S.);
• Continuing control measures f!63,827 ($458,060 U.S.).
Assessment Guidelines
Factors involved in assessing whether contamination at a site poses a
serious threat to public health or the environment are the nature and
concentrations of the contaminating substances present. Under the Soil Clean-
up (Interim) Act of 1983, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and the
Environment (1983a) developed guidelines to be used in site investigations to
216
-------
TABLE 15. GUIDELINES FOR SITE .ASSESSMENT '
DEVELOPED BY THE MINISTRY OF HOUSING, PHYSICAL
PLANNING AND THE ENVIRONMENT UNDER THE SOIL CLEANUP
. *
(INTERIM)
ACT OF 1983
Component
I
II
Metals
Chromium
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Arsenic
Molybdenum
Cadmium
Tin
Barium
Mercury
Lead
Soil
A
100
20
50
50
200
20
10
1
20
200
0
50
(mg/kg)
B C
250
:
800
50 BOO
100 BOO
100 500
500 3000
30 50
40 BOO
.5 20
50 BOO
'400 2]000
.5 2 10
150
Inorganic Constitutes (Nonmet<
NH4 (as N)
F (total)
CN (free)
CN
200
1
5
500
ils)
400 2000
10 100
so koo
Groundwater (|ig/l)
A
20
20
20
20
50
10
5
1
10
50 '
0.2
20
200
300
5
10
B
50
50
50
50
200
30
20
2.5
30
100
0.5
50
1000
1200
30
50
C
200
200
200
200
800
100
100
10
150
500
2
200
3000
4000
100
200
F (total)
CN (free)
CN
(complexed)
S (total)
Br (total)
P04 (as P)
III Aromatics
i
Benzene
Etylbenzene
Toluene
Xylene
Phenol
Aromatics
(total)
200
1
5
2
20
—
0.01
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.1
400 2000
10 100
so koo
20
50
_
0.5
5
3
5
1
7
200
300
—
5
50
30
50
10
70
300
5
10
10
100
50
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1
1200
30
50
100
500
200
1
20
15
20
15
30
4000
100
200
300
2000
700
5
60
50
60
50
100
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 15. (Continued)
Soil (mg/kg)
Component A B
IV Polvcyclic Hydrocarbons
Naphthylene 0.1 5
Anthracene 0.1 10
Phenanthrene 0.1 10
Pluoranthene 0.1 10
Pyrene 0.1 10
3,4 - Benz- 0.05 1
pyrene
Polycylclic 1 20
Hydrocarbons
(total)
V Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Chlorinated 0.1 5
aliphatics
(individual)
Chlorinated 0.1 7
aliphatics
(total)
Chlorobenzene 0.05 1
( individual )
Chlorobenzenes 0.05 2
(total)
Chlorophenol 0.01 0.5
( individual )
Chlorophenol 0.01 1
(total)
Polychlor- 0.05 1
inated
Compounds
(total)
PCB's 0.05 1
(total)
EOCL (total) 0.1 8
C
50
100
100
100
100
10
200
50
70
10
20
5
10
10
10
80
Groundwater
A
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.2
1
'
1
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
1
(W/D
B
7
2
2
1
1
0.2
10
10
15
0.5
1
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.2
15
C
30
10
10
5
5
1
40
50
70
2
5
1.5
2
1
1
70
(Continued)
218
-------
TABLE 15.
(Continued)
Soil
Component A
.VI Toxic Pesticide
Chlorinated 0
Organics
(individual)
Chlorinated 0
Organics
(total)
Pesticide 0
(total)
(mg/kg)
B
Products
.1 0.5
.1 1
.1 2
VII Other Contaminants
Tetrahydro- 0
furan
Pyridine 0
Tetrahydro- 0
thiophene
Cyclohex- 0
anone
Styrene 0
Gasoline 20
Mineral 100
Oil
.1 4
.1 2
.1 5
.1 6 '
.1 5
100
C
5
10
20
40
20
50
60
50
800
1000 5000
Groundwater (|ig/l)
A B C
0.05 0.2 1
0.1 0.5 2
0.1 15
0.5 20 60
0.5 10 30
0.5 20 60
0.5 15 50
0.5 20 60
10 40 150
20 200 600
* Source: Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment, 1983
219
-------
assess the degree of contamination. These guidelines, made public in 1983,
are given in Table 15. The values are intended to be used for site assessment
and are not to be interpreted as standards for site cleanup.
For each chemical constituent, the guidelines specify three different con-
centration levels, A, B, and C, applicable to soil and three levels applicable
to ground or surface waters. Level A is the reference value; level B is the
comparison value to determine if further investigation is needed; level C, if
exceeded, suggests the need for .cleanup. If the concentration is below level
C, there is probably no urgent requirement for cleanup measures. The need for
cleanup action must consider the local situation regarding the extent to which
the contamination might spread or affect local residents and the use and
function of the soil (Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and the
Environment, 1983a, p. 2).
Soil contamination means there is a chemical in the ground exceeding the
level normally expected to occur. The reference level A may be regarded as an
indicative value above which there is positive contamination. For naturally
occurring constituents, the Level A reference values for soil correspond to
the "mean" background concentration found in the Netherlands. The actual
background level at a specific site may differ from this "mean" level, and it
may be advantageous to use the actual measured background level as the
reference value. For substances that do not occur naturally, the reference
values correspond to detection limits that can be achieved by current
analytical methods.
The reference values for ground water' reflect the quality norms for deep
ground water and for surface water intended for the production of drinking
water. These levels reflect the standards of the European Community (EC) for
drinking water (EC, 1980) .
The constituents addressed by the guidelines are recognized as indicators
of contamination. Cases are known where these constituents are important.
The government does not intend to extend the list of contaminants addressed by
the guidelines, although a new chemical may be added as the need arises. For
example, in March 1985, a particular site was found to be contaminated with
aniline dyes; this necessitated development of a guideline for aniline. To
220
-------
develop the guideline, a literature
search was performed to compile data on
toxicity, solubility, and bioaccumulation. These properties were then related
to other chemicals for which guidelines were already set, and values for the
A, B, and C levels were established.
With regard to soil contamination, a distinction is made between those
substances that are so harmful that
they must be prevented from coming into
contact with the soil wherever possible (black list substances) and those that
may be deposited on or in the soil providing that strict requirements are met
(grey list compounds). The Soil Protection Act calls for a "black" and a
"grey" list of contaminants to be drawn up. "Black" list substances will
include for example, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, perchlorethylene, and
trichloroethane (Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and the Environment,
1984b).
Approach to Site Cleanup
It is the policy of the Dutch government to support efforts to develop new
techniques for soil reconstruction and to test these techniques. Soil recon-
struction techniques include all technical measures taken to rectify or limit
the harmful consequences of soil pollution for man, the environment, and the
use of the soil. The National Institute for the Provision of Drinking Water
was requested by the Ministry of Put lie Health and the Environment to produce
a "Handbook for Soil Reconstruction Techniques." The Handbook compilation is
intended to make available the actual, up-to-date, knowledge and experience in
the development and application of soil reconstruction techniques. The
Handbook is contained in a loose-leaf system designed for frequent update.
The first volume was scheduled to be
Housing, Physical Planning, and the
published in 1984 by the Ministry of
Environment (1983b).s Reconstruction
techniques may be classified as techniques whereby the pollution is removed
(removal of the source) or techniques whereby the spread of the pollution is
obstructed (cutting of the path).
Possibilities for cleanup include eradication, isolation, or change in the
use of the area. In 1985, the criteria for cleanup of contaminated sites were
221
-------
very flexible because of the financial constraints. The Dutch government made
available annually up to f!92 million Dutch guilders ($60 million U.S.) for
the period 1984 - 1986 for site cleanup -activities (Hoogendoorne, 1984, p..
569) and funded research into cost-effective means of dealing with
contaminated soil, including thermal treatment, extraction of contaminants
using solvents, and treatment of soil with microbial agents.
The capacity of cleanup installations in The Netherlands is insufficient
to treat all the excavated contaminated soil from site cleanups. As a result,
storage of a considerable amount of material is necessary while awaiting proc-
essing. It is estimated that The Netherlands has 1.5 million tons of contami-
nated soil from old gas works and an even greater quantity of soil polluted
with oil (Groundwater Newsletter, 1986).
The most appropriate engineering solution to a contaminated site problem
is not always acceptable to inhabitants in the area. For example, a
particular site investigation may indicate a technically appropriate solution
to be removal of 1 meter of soil, fill with clean sand, and pump off leachate
and surface water. However, people living in the vicinity of the site may not
be satisfied with this solution because of fear of exposure to toxic
chemicals. The only acceptable solution to the inhabitants may be relocation,
requiring the government to buy the properties affected by the contamination.
CASE STUDY: LEKKERKERK
In 1978, severe soil contamination was discovered under a new housing
development at Lekkerkerk, a small village some 16 kilometers (10 miles)
northeast of Rotterdam on the River Lek. The village is situated in a
reclaimed coastal swamp area. A dense network of ditches for drainage of the
area was later filled with household refuse as well as industrial waste.
Dumping to fill in the ditches continued through 1970. Houses were then
constructed on the filled area. The Lekkerkerk West District, the site of the
contamination, covers an area of 8.9 hectares (22 acres) on the Schuwacht
polder. The experience at Lekkerkerk has been compiled in a document entitled
"Operation Lekkerkerk West" (Hoomans and Stellingwerff, 1982), and much of the
information supplied here is taken from this report.
222
-------
bungalows on a foundation of wooden
Site History
A total of 268 houses—193 on concrete foundations, 64 in rows, and 11
piles with concrete cross members--were
affected by the contaminated soil and waste (Stellingwerff, 1982, p. 15). A
school and gymnasium were also located in the area. The ground in the area is
very soft, so that piles up to 17 meters (56 feet) high are normally used
beneath the houses.
Nature and Extent of the Contamination
Excavations uncovered a significant amount of chemical waste, as well as
rubble, wood, and household waste. Chemical waste was both loose and in con-
tainers and sacks. Few of the labelk on the containers were readable. In
some cases the original 'ditches had been deepened and broadened to accommodate
the refuse. Soils adjacent to the f
Llled-in trenches were polluted. "Also
pits filled with waste were found bezween the trenches in some places.
Pollutants were found beneath houses
protection provided by plastic sheet
(Brinkmann and Kruijdenberg, 1982, p
just below the floor, with the only
Lng covered by a thin layer of sand
. 91). Air samples from the creep (crawl)
spaces of selected homes showed the presence of aromatic compounds, toluene
and xylene. Vapors released during the excavations showed aromatic compounds
(toluene, xylene) in concentrations as high as 1,000 ppm (Brinkmann and
Kruijdenberg, 1982, p. 90).
A total of 1651 containers were found, some of which contained residual
chemicals (Borst and Ferns, 1982, p.
deposited at Lekkerkerk have been estimated as follows (Brinkmann and
Kruijdenberg, 1982, p. 98):
building industry
paints and varnish
paint spraying
manufacture
103). The origins of the refuse
30 percent;
25 percent;
1.0 percent;
223
-------
plastics manufacture and processing
chemical industry
printing ink manufacture and application
other
10 percent;
10 percent;
10 percent; and
5 percent.
Ground water released from shallow depths during the excavation work and
surface water percolating through the polluted soils were highly polluted with
heavy metals and organics including aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones,
and esters. The waters sometimes had a penetrating odor and an oil-like
appearance. Treatment was required prior to discharge to the aqueous
environment. Water in the mains was found to contain high concentrations of
toluene and xylene after standing for 12 hours. Apparently the aromatic
hydrocarbons entered the low density polyethylene (LDPE) pipes through
diffusion. Levels of pollutants found in soil and water samples from the site
are listed in Tables 16 and 17, respectively. Groundwater at deep levels
(down to 30 meters) was not polluted.
Remediation Activities
In April 1980, government bodies, the Province of Zuid-Holland, and the
Lekkerkerk Local Authorities decided that all waste material dumped in the
Lekkerkerk-West region should be removed within the shortest possible time.
The Provincial Water Board of Zuid-Holland was responsible for technical
coordination of the excavation and filling operations. The work involved
three phases—excavation, filling, and reconstruction. During the cleanup,
environmentalists provided continuous supervision, evaluation of pollutants,
sample taking, and environmental hygiene. A basic requirement set forth by
the Minister for Public Health and Environmental Hygiene was that all waste
materials and polluted soil from Lekkerkerk had to be processed in The
Netherlands. Complete evacuation of the inhabitants was ordered so that
reconstruction could begin on June 1, 1980.
The area was divided into five sections, and only one phase of the
remediation work was carried out at a time in each section. The sequence of
tasks is described below (Stellingwerff, 1982, p. 18):
224
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TABLE 16. POLLUTANTS DETERMINED I.
SOIL SAMPLES FROM THE LEKKERKERK SITE
Pollutant
Concentration (mg/kg of soil)
ORGANICS+
Benzene
Toluene
Ethylbenzene
m-, p-Xylene
o-Xylene
Cg-Alkane
CgH^2 '(5 isomers)
C^g-Alkane
C-J^Q-Alkane
C-J^Q-Alkane
CIQ-Alkane
C-^Q-Alkane
*"10H14 (7 isomers)
Cyclohexene
C-j^ -Alkane :
INORGANICS
Ant imony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Mercury
Lead
Zinc
0.3
1000
30
300
100
100
300
100
30
30
30
300
300
30
30
0.2 - 230
0.2 - 9
1.1 - 97
0.5 - 140
3.6 - 490
0.05-8.2
8-740
37 - 1670
Source: data from Brinkman and Kjiuijdenberg, 1982, pp. 97-98
+ Organics determined by mass spectroscopy
225
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TABLE' 17. POLLUTANTS DETERMINED IN WATER SAMPLES FROM THE LEKKERKERK SITE
Pollutant
Benzene head (vapor)
Toluene vapor space
Xylene vapor space
Concentration (mg/L)
Month ( from
1/10
space 10
450
215
Ethylbenzene vapor space 45
Cadmium
Chromium
Mercury
Lead
Copper
Arsenic
1,800
2,000
5
800
Before and
initiation of remedial
1/10 25/9
10
485
1,890
638
3,200
1,600
5
1,800
10
105
30
10
180
200
-
1,200
150
After Cleanup
works) and day
24/9
10
95
126
27
100
0.6
1
660
20
1.1 1
Source: data from Brinkman and Kruijdenberg, 1982, p. 97
226
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"Phase 1 — Division of the area into compartments by means of box dams
and dykes;
Clearing the trenches filled with refuse and waste and
removal of polluted soil around the trench profile;
Digging away of the"remaining ground to a depth of about
0.700 meters under the mowing field and cultivated areas as
well as underneath foundation beams in order (to attain a
satisfactory working height)."
"Phase 2 — Filling up the trenches, the,ground under roads and
underneath houses with drift sand and the remaining
portions with soil;
Installing a drainage system in the cleaned up trenches;
Removing the box
"Phase 3 —
screens."
Installing public utilities;
Laying sewers, pavements, and plantings.
The remediation activities involved the excavation and removal of 93,800
cubic meters of contaminated soil from the ditches and other dumping areas
(Borst and Ferns, 1982, p. 103). The area between the ditches was excavated
to a depth of about 0.7 meters to the original level of the surface (Borst and
Ferns, 1982, p. 104). This soil was determined to be essentially clean and
was temporarily stored as the excavation work proceeded. Ultimately this soil
was used as fill. Excavations under some houses were made to a depth of 3
meters. The houses built on concrete piles were excavated first.
A field laboratory was set up oil the site to provide quick turn-around
chemical analyses. The more complicated analyses were performed at offsite
laboratories. . •
. During the excavation phase, some 1,000 tonnes were excavated and removed
from the Lekkerkerk site daily (Borst and Ferns, 1982, p. 107). Some 153,000
tonnes of polluted soil, labeled as
ship to the Rijnmond Waste Processir
incinerator in the Botlek region.
special industrial waste, were taken by
g Works (AVR), a domestic refuse
Since the waste processing capacity at AVR
was only 1500 tonnes per week (Borstj and Ferns, 1982, p. 107), the Lekkerkerk
waste was temporarily stored in a specially designed and dedicated area and
gradually incinerated along with domestic waste in the stack kilns. The 3-
227
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hectare (7.5-acre) storage area was designed with a chemically resistant,
impermeable flooring and provided for the collection and processing of the
waste leachate.
Containers that were encountered during the excavations were dealt with
separately from the polluted soil. Containers with residual chemicals were
emptied (by pumping) into 60-liter containers for transport. Containers with
innocuous contents were emptied and cleaned by spraying. Depending on the
chemicals present and the levels, the contents of the containers were either
shipped and processed with the polluted Lekkerkerk soil at AYR, or marked as
special industrial waste and processed in the AYR chemical furnace.
A school and a gymnasium were demolished as part of the remediation work.
The school had been built over four filled-in trenches and, due to the size of
the structure and the limited reach of the diggers, excavation was technically
impossible.
Steps were taken to avoid the transport of polluted water through cleaned
up areas. Polluted ground water and surface water were treated in a physico-
chemical purification plant to remove both organics and heavy metals prior to
discharge to the River Lek. The physico-chemical treatment included
sedimentation, oil skimming; flocculation with polymer-aluminum chloride
(complex), flotation, and removal; and filtration through activated charcoal.
About 10 percent of the water from the purification plant was passed through a
trough containing trout. By monitoring the condition of the fish, the
biological quality of the treated effluent could be assured.
Four water storage basins with a combined capacity of 4,000 cubic meters
were constructed to handle untreated water, rejected purified water, sludge,
and water released during process shut-downs. These basins were lined with
high density polyethylene (HDPE) to prevent seepage of pollutants into the
ground.
The total cost of the remediation work at Lekkerkerk amounted to about
f!50 million Dutch guilders ($65 million U.S.). If Lekkerkerk were discovered
today, the remedial action for the site would likely be very different as the
cost of such a program cannot be justified (von Lidth de Jeude, 1982;
Hoogendoorne, 1984, p. 569).
228
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Site Reuse
intended to make the homes safe for
No change in land use was intended. Rather, the site remediation was
the inhabitants. The appearance of the
Both the school and the gymnasium
site in 1985 is completely normal with no evidence of the drastic cleanup
measures that had been carried out there.
have now been rebuilt.
Criteria for Cleanup
One of the basic requirements for the cleanup of Lekkerkerk was that no
polluting materials would be allowed to remain in the area (Borst and Ferris,
1982, p. 102). An experienced environmentalist (affiliated with the
Adviesbureau Arnhem) was responsible for determining what portion of the soil
to ensure that excavations did not go
This was done on the basis of visual and
confirmed by chemical analyses (Brinkmann
had to be excavated and removed and
beyond what was strictly necessary.
sensory evaluation and subsequently
and Kruijdenberg, 1982, p. 88).
The Inspection Institute for Waterworks Installations was involved in the
site activities. The contribution of this Institute was the determination of
extractable organically bound chlorine in clean soil in order to confirm
whether excavations had gone sufficiently far (Brinkmann and Kruijdenberg,
1982, p. 87). Treated water released from the purification plant was required
to meet the conditions set forth in
the site permit issued under the Law
governing the Pollution of Surface Water (WVO).
The guidelines for site assessment (Table 15) were not applied at
Lekkerkerk since they were not yet developed.
CASE STUDY: TILBURG GAS WORKS
The cleanup of the Tilburg Gas
remediation effort to protect human
contaminated land into beneficial
Works site is one example of a major
health and the environment and to bring
This site is scheduled to be
reuse.
229
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redeveloped as multi-family housing. The site investigation and remediation
efforts were subsidized by the Central Government, with the Municipality of
Tilburg funding 10 percent.
Site History
The Tilburg Gas Works produced gas from coal for more than 100 years on a
5.5 hectare (13 acre) site that is now in central Tilburg, a major industrial
city in the Dutch Province of North-Brabant. In addition to coal gas, the
plant produced coke as well as byproduct tars, benzene, toluene, naphthalene,
and ammonia. Watergas was produced from the coke. During the many years of
the gas works operation, there were spills and leaks from the various
processing equipment and storage vessels, and production wastes were often
dumped at the site or used for leveling the surface. These wastes included
spent iron sand used for removing sulfur and cyanide compounds from the
product gas. Tars from onsite pits and process water seeped through the
underlying sandy soil to pollute groundwater. When the gas works was closed
in 1960, the above-ground structures were demolished, and the highly
contaminated soil was uncovered.
Nature and Extent of the Contamination
The extent of the contamination was not fully recognized, however, until
site investigations was undertaken in 1982 when the City of Tilburg engaged
the consulting firm Ingenieursbureau "Oranjewould" b.v. to assess the kind and
degree of the pollution in the soil and in the ground water at the site
(Kidding, 1985; de Vries, 1985). The site, history was investigated, and
available maps were studied to identify areas of the site where contamination
was likely to be most concentrated. This information was used to guide
further site characterization. A 10 x 10 meter grid was laid out and samples
were taken both at the surface and at depth. In the initial site
investigation a total of 126 soil borings were made to a depth of 3 meters.
230
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and 236 soil samples were taken. Ths water table at the site is normally
found at about 2 meters below the surface. Ground water samples were taken
from observation wells (4-meter depth).
Chemical analyses were performed
based on historical information pertinent
to each sampling location and on colsr, texture, and odor of samples. The
analyses revealed very heavy local pollution of soils and ground water.
Contaminants of concern included volktile aromatics, PNA's, and cyanides. The
cyanides, at concentrations up to 77
iron sand waste. Tar and oil produc
meters. The pH of water at the site
)0 ppm, were associated with the buried
;s polluted large areas to a depth of 4
measured 2.5 due to the presence of
hydrogen sulfide. Coal and sinters covered several acres of the site.
When the site investigation began, the mobility of the tar and tar com-
ponents at the site was underestimated. The extent of withdrawal of ground
water from the vicinity was found to
revealed high levels of aromatics in
be far more extensive than was first
thought, (large wells for cooling wa;er for a nearby power plant and for dairy
industry) and the ground water extractions apparently enhanced the downward
migration of the site contaminants (Jlidding, 1985). Expanded investigations
soils taken six to nine, meters below the
surface. High concentrations of benzene and mineral oil were found in ground
water from 20 meters below the surface. Some odors (e.g. hydrogen sulfide,,
naphthalene) were detectable.
Remediation Activities
In 1984, the Tilburg Department of Public Works contracted for the remedi-
ation work that was to be carried out during the winter period of 1984-1985
and in October and November of 1985 (Heida, 1985). The decision was made to
perform the, excavations during the winter period in order to minimize odors
and volatile emissions from the site This reduced the hazard to the site
workers as well as exposure to area residents. G. van Hees and Zonen, B.V.,, a
Tilburg contractor experienced in site remediation work, submitted the lowest F
231
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232
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bid and was awarded the contract foi the gas works project. The remediation
work was overseen by the Ingenieursbureau "Oranjewould". The surface work at
the site was initiated at the end ofi August.
The site was divided into five areas (shown in Figure 25) based on pre-
excavation conditions. Most buildirjgs on the site had already been demolished
except for paved floors and foundations. Section I was contaminated mainly
from iron sand, while Sections II, 311, and IV were mainly polluted with tar
and oil products. Section V was covered with coal and sinters. The first
phase of the remediation work addres
sed Sections I, II, III, and V.
In determining the extent of excavation necessary to prepare the site for
use as housing, it was concluded that future inhabitants of the site should
not be confronted with any perceptible pollution from the former gas works
(guidelines from the Ministry suggested that contamination should be cleaned
up to background levels). Thus all
sensory detectable pollution to a depth of
2 meters was removed. Excavations were also carried out to lower depths to
reduce contaminant concentrations and to minimize further contamination of the
aquifer. Contaminants below 6 meters were to be controlled through ground
water withdrawal. The extent of the
25.
to lower the water table from around
site excavations is indicated in Figure
Because of the depth of the excavations in several areas it was necessary
2.5 meters to about 5 meters below ground
.level. This was accomplished by means of 11 deep wells equipped with
underwater pumps. During the excavations up to six wells were operated,
withdrawing ground water at a rate of 150 to 300 'cubic meters per hour. The
wells were located in "clean" areas
minimize further downward migration
of the excavation site in an effort to
°
f pollutants in the ground water. The
water withdrawn from the deep wells was discharged to the sewer system
following aeration to remove volatiles.
During the winter 1984-1985, a tDtal of 28,186 cubic meters of chemically
polluted soil were excavated and transported to a site at Moerdijk, some 50
kilometers from Tilburg, for temporary storage and thermal treatment. This
material included 2,650 cubic meters
of polluted soil from deeper than 4
233
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meters. In addition, more than 27,000 cubic meters of polluted soil and 2,846
cubic meters of demolition debris were removed to a dumping ground at Tilburg.
Trucks and trailers were used to transport the polluted soils and demolition
debris to their ultimate destination.
A soil scientist stationed near the excavation pit on a daily basis was
responsible for deciding whether soils were to be transported to the treatment
facility or to the Tilburg dump. These decisions were made on the basis of
visual observations and sampling.
The polluted soil removed from the site was replaced with clean sand. A
total of 55,000 cubic meters of sand were trucked in, and the site was
regraded. This operation was ongoing in March 1985 when the Authors visited
the site. Pumping of contaminated ground water also continued. The hauling
away of the excavated soil and the clean sand fill involved 8,000 truck loads
of material. All was accomplished without incident.
The second phase of the cleanup (addressing Section IV) was scheduled to
begin in the fall of 1985. Work in this section was delayed because of the
need to relocate underground gas mains that intersect the area.
During the soil excavations, a labor hygienist measured the level of
hydrocarbons in vapors released from the excavation areas. If hydrocarbon
levels exceeded 10 ppm, benzene was analyzed to ensure that allowable
occupational hygiene levels in air were not exceeded. Independent breathing
devices were used if excessive benzene levels were detected. In fact, this
occurred only in a few instances. Hydrogen cyanide was also monitored, but
was never detected, possibly due to the very cold temperatures. All workers
were prohibited from eating, drinking, or smoking on the site, and special
protective clothing was required.
A physician responsible for health aspects management of public works was
involved with worker health during the site cleanup. The particular concerns
were toxicity hazards from exposure to polycyclic organics, benzene and other
volatile aromatic hydrocarbons, and cyanide. Physical examinations pf almost
70 workers were performed including disease and exposure history, skin, blood,
and liver profiles. As a result of these examinations, two workers were
234
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restricted from working at the more highly contaminated areas. During the
course of the excavation work, blood cyanide levels were monitored in workers
with potential exposures. Careful rpcords were maintained of environmental
conditions and of worker function.
Site Reuse
Future use of the site will be mainly residential. Housing for the
elderly (132 apartments) will be developed on the north east area as well as
about 60 private homes. About 100 private homes are planned for the west
area. Private homes and a parking a::ea will be constructed on Area I. . The
south east area will be a parking area and a green space.
Criteria for Cleanup
The National guidelines for soils were used to determine the extent of the
excavations required to reach uncontiiminated soils.
It was determined that onsite pu:rification of ground water to achieve the
National guidelines was prohibitively expensive. The water was therefore dis-
charged to the sewer system to be cleaned up by the municipal treatment plant.
CASE STUDY: DELFSHAVEN, ROTTERDAM HARBOUR, ROTTERDAM
Rotterdam is a densely populated
industrial development. The natural
region and has a long history of
harbor at Rotterdam has been used for
centuries, and the City became a major port when the "New Waterway,"
consisting of a canal, river, and harbor system, was constructed between 1863
and 1872. Today the Port of Rotterdam is the largest bulk cargo port in the
world and'also one of the world's lai
moved some 250 million tons of goods
Department, Rotterdam, 1983, p. 2).
•gest container ports. In 1982, sea-ships
through Rotterdam (Public Works
The rivers Nieuwe Maas and Oude Maas,
235
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which are branches of the Rhine and the Meuse Rivers, respectively, carry some
1,500 cubic meters of water per second through Rotterdam. This water deposits
approximately two million tons of silt, mainly in the eastern harbor area. In
addition, sand and silt are carried inward by the sea; deposition of the sea
silt is mainly in the western harbors.
The Port of Rotterdam is maintained by dredging approximately 20 million
cubic meters of silt and sand annually from the floor of the harbor and river
areas. As ships using the port have increased in size over the past century,
the waterways have been made deeper and wider to accommodate them. Some of
the older harbor areas, however, can no longer be used by the larger ships,
and an extensive effort is underway to reclaim these areas for housing. The
harbor areas are known to be contaminated, and questions regarding safety and
the cost of redevelopment have arisen in connection with the redevelopment
efforts.
Land Use History and Redevelopment Objectives
The Delfshaven District of Rotterdam is located in the western harbour
area. The harbour and industrial sites within this District have been used
for many centuries, but no longer meet present day requirements for storage
and shipping activities (Veltman, 1984, p. 2). As a result, industrial
premises are being demolished and parts of the harbour are being filled in to
to meet the need for new land for housing. Industries formerly located in the
Delfshaven District include galvanizing, petrol, pesticide manufacturing, and
shipbuilding.
Nature and Extent of the Contamination
The silt in the eastern harbor area that is being filled is contaminated
with oil and other substances carried by the river sediments and is about 1
meter (3.3 feet) thick (Veltman, 1984). Cadmium is reported to be present in
236
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polluted silt in the eastern area of
rag per kilogram dry material (Public
The composition of harbor silt given
Department, Rotterdam (1983, p. 5):
water
pesticides
dry material
heavy metals
oil
The extent of the contamination area is shown in Figure 26.
The water above the polluted silt
complications if the silt is dredged,
:he harbor at a level of approximately 18
forks Department, Rotterdam, 1983, p. 7) .
Delow is reported by the Public Works
82.8 percent
0.0006 percent
7.6 percent
0.01 percent
0.2 percent.
is approximately 4 meters (13 meters)
deep. The presence of the oil and other pollutants in the harbor silt causes
since during dredging, the silt (along
with pollutants present) is stirred up and dispersed, causing pollution of the
surface water. Disposal of the contaminated dredged silt also presents a
problem, since it cannot be discharged at the disposal sites normally used for
dredge spoils (Veltman, 1984, p. 3).
The subsoil of the area to be filled is made up of peat and clay, up to 14
meters thick (46 feet) which tends to
subside under load. This peat and clay
is underlain by water-bearing sand layers. The underlying grouhdwater is
brackish and therefore unusable as drinking water.
Remediation Activities
Prior to filling the harbour area,
dredging in order to prevent slip plar
it is customary to remove the silt by
es (sliding surfaces) in the subsoil. A
second reason for removing the weak silt layer is that it has a tendency
toward irregular settlement and is thei
where buildings are planned. However,
refore undesirable as a subsurface layer
recognizing the complications involved
with dredging the polluted silt, another engineering approach was developed
that would allow areas to be filled with the silt retained in the harbor basin
and also shield the environment from the pollutants present in the silt.
237
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238
-------
The method of filling is applied
doors in the floor for releasing the
sand is gradually built up in 20 cen
feet). The geotextile filter serves
layers and also prevents mixing of t!
Vertical plastic drains are then
the clay/peat layer to about 1 meter
to an area measuring 30 by 50 meters. A
geotextile filter is first placed over the silt layer to stabilize the layer
to reduce the risk of heave. The filter fabric is cut to size and then sunken
as one unit. Sand is then added evenly across the geotextile filter. This is
accomplished using a specially designed pontoon type boat with independent
sand uniformly over a sizable area. The
timeter lifts to a depth of 2 meters (6.5
to distribute the weight of the sand
e polluted silt with the clean sand.
installed through the sand and the
geotextile filter cloth and extending beneath the harbor silt and deep into
(3.3 feet) above the aquifer. The
geotextile filter is permeable to wa ;er, allowing water from the subsoil
(which is under excess pressure) to penetrate upward. The vertical drains
allow dewatering of the underlying c..ay/peat layer with the water being
carried away through the sand layer.
The sand filling is continued until the surface level of the water is
reached. A protective layer of clay
sand. This clay layer must be added
is then placed and compressed over the
when the sand level is above the water or
the clay will simply disperse. FinaMy, a new sand layer is added over the
clay to prepare for a new building site'. The clay layer is sandwiched
approximately halfway between the top and bottom of the covering sand layer.
The covering is designed to prevent direct contact with the contaminated silt.
The infilling results in a considerable top load on the compressible clay/
peat subsurface and on the silt layei. As a consequence of this load, water
will be forced out of these layers, dither to the underlying aquifer or to the
sand layer. This water will not seed to the surface, however, because of the
clay layer. Rather, the water will njove laterally through the sand layers and
eventually into the open harbor where, tidal flow will effect further dilution.
Several processes will affect the
present in the water seeping from the
hydrodynamic dispersion, retardation
movement and concentration 'of pollutants
polluted subsoils. These include
(adsorption), and degradation. The
39
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concentration of the organic pollutants is expected to decrease exponentially
with time as a result of microbial degradation. The effect of the polluted
ground water on the environs of the harbor is expected to be minimal because
of the gradual release.
The additional cost of the fill method described above is about fSO.OOO
Dutch guilders (about $22,000 U.S.) higher than the cost of traditional
dredging and filling at the site. This comparison does not include costs of
treating and disposing of the polluted dredged material.
Funding for the harbor infill is provided by the Municipality of
Rotterdam. Central Government assistance was not sought for this project
because; 1) The city wished to expedite the work without waiting for a lengthy
review and selection process by the Central Government; and 2) the intended
approach for filling the harbor area, although believed to be environmentally
sound, does not meet the Central Government's guidelines. Even though the
approach is designed to be protective of human health, it does not constitute
complete removal or isolation of the polluted material with no release into
the environment.
Site Reuse
The purpose of the harbor infill is to provide additional land for
buildings for new housing. The Delfshaven District in the older part of the
city of Rotterdam is considered to be very desirable for expanded residential
development.
Criteria for Cleanup
One objective of the harbor infill project was elimination of direct
health hazards. The main concern addressed pollutants present in the harbor
silt that might be brought to the surface. Protection of ground water was not
a major concern since the water is brackish and therefore unusable for
drinking supplies.
The National guidelines for soil and water were not applied in designing
this remedial action. •
240
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CASE STUDY: MERWEDEPOLDER, DORDRECHT
Merwedepolder
were
contamination
remedial
housing site is located in
developed on this site without
from chemical waste which was
actions at the site have been
owners.
The 25-hectare (62 acre)
Dordrecht in South Holland. Houses
adequate consideration for soil
previously dumped there. Drastic
necessary to satisfy Merewedepolder
Site History
The site was used as a chemical waste dump prior to 1970. The landfill
was operated by the town of Dordrecht. After the landfill was closed^ the
town began to develop the site for housing. There was no real closure of the
landfill (as is practiced today) although some effort was made to isolate the
wastes by capping the deposits with clay.
Some 800 houses were built at Merwedepolder between 1973 and 1976. These
homes are typically three story, threte-bedroom, single family residences.
Some are constructed as row houses, while others are free standing. A large
structure to provide housing for the slderly was also constructed on the site.
The site is owned by the town of Dord
have been demolished, and many of the
remaining homeowners and tenants have
recht. Some houses at Merewedepolder
remaining houses are vacant. The
played an active role in deciding
whether proposed solutions to the contamination problem are acceptable.
Nature and Extent of the Contaminatiom
The presence of contamination at the site first became apparent in 1982
when foundations of the homes began to crack from differential settlement.
•This settlement occurred due to unconsolidated material beneath the homes.
The problem was not immediately attributed to unusual ground conditions.
since, in this part of Holland, there
because of the soft underlying strata
this area is typically about 60 centin
necessitates reconstruction of buried
is continuous settlement of the land
and the high water table. Settlement in
teters in 10 years and normally
gas and water pipes every 5 to 10 years.
-------
Workers repairing infrastructure at the site suffered some acute affects
as a result of exposure to volatile chemicals buried in the ground beneath the
houses. Testing revealed high levels of volatile organics in indoor spaces of
some of the homes. There was some panic among the residents at the site when
the chemical contamination was discovered. An investigation followed, arid
chemical industry wastes including chemical drums were found.
A historical investigation showed that chemical wastes had been deposited
at Merwedepolder by Du Pont and by other chemical companies in Rotterdam.
People who had worked at the landfill were interviewed regarding what
materials had been placed at the site and in what areas. It was learned that
some specific areas of the dump were used more extensively for the problematic
wastes.
Remediation Activities
It was determined that the cost of excavation and removal of all the con-
taminated material would cost on the order of f856 million Dutch guilders
(about $300 million U.S. based on 1983 exchange rates). This option was
judged to be too costly to consider further. Therefore, the initial plan for
remediation was to isolate all the contaminated material on site. However,
the residents of Merwedepolder were unwilling to accept this approach because
of concerns regarding the potential health effects arising from the buried
contamination. There was also considerable concern over property values. As
a result, a more comprehensive remediation plan was devised.
For purposes of the remedial action, the site was divided into four areas
as shown in Figure 27. Most of the contamination was confined to Areas 1 and
3. The southernmost area. Area 1, is bounded on the south by a waterway; in
1982, this area contained 106 private homes as well as the housing for the
elderly (bejaardencentrum). After the remediation work began, Area 4 also was
contaminated when excavated soil from Area 1 was deposited there.
242
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Situatie afgeschermce gebieden
__^ stalen damwani
-—— hydrologische a'scherming
Figure 27. Schematic of Merwedepolder showing Areas 1 through 4, designated
for purposes of the remedial action.
(Source: OnderbouwLng en Uitwerking, 1985)
243
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A political decision was made to remove all 106 homes (except the
bejaardencentrum) located in Area 1. All of these homes were purchased by the
town from the individual owners, and the homes were removed or demolished in
1983. Area 1 was' isolated from the other areas through a drainage system and
a vertical barrier 7 meters (23 feet) deep, consisting of a bentonite slurry
trench wall and a steel wall. The top meter of soil was excavated arid removed
and clean soil was brought in to fill the area back to the original level.
As a result of public fear regarding the contamination, real estate values
at Merwedepolder fell by 50 percent. In spite of the fact that there was no
indication of increased risk from the contamination, the government also
agreed to buy all owner occupied houses in Areas 2 and 3 at their fair market
value. This offer did not extend, however, to owners of houses that had been
purchased as rental property for investment purposes. Several owners
continued to insist on total removal of the contaminants on the site.
The plan for the site remediation'was finally accepted in early 1985.
Contracts were scheduled to be let in 1985 to perform the site work. The
problems in designing the site cleanup were more political than technical, as
all the various owners had to be satisfied with the solution.
Although the houses in Area 3 were bought out by the government, they were
not removed. All drainage from Area 3 was controlled in order to isolate the
area. Groundwater was pumped to the surface and treated prior to discharge.
One concern is for protection of the water collection basin located near
the site, just beyond a narrow basin which lies adjacent to the site. A sandy
layer underlies the buried waste. There is concern that polluted groundwater
will move through this layer, carrying the leached pollutants off-site. Three
pumping wells were installed. These wells pumped 30 cubic meters per hour in
order to create an artificial gradient in the underlying aquifer to prevent
migration of pollutants off-site.
Funding for the site remediation was provided by the Central Government
(90 percent) and by the local municipality (10 percent).
244
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Site Reuse
In 1985, the remaining houses at
Merwedepolder were located,in Areas 2 and
3, and most had been purchased by the government. Although many of the houses
were empty, some were rented at about 10 to 15 percent below the market value.
Criteria for Cleanup
The cleanup scheme finally adopted
decisions rather than on health-basec
was based largely on political
criteria.
245
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REFERENCES
Borst, R. J., and E. F. Ferns, 1982. "Processing of Waste Materials." Ins
Operation Lekkerkerk West, Hoomans, J. P. and J. W. Stellingwerff, Editors,
pp. 102-118. From PT/Civiele Techniek, 1982.
Brinkmann, F. J. J., and H. J. M. Kruijdenberg, 1982. "Chemical Supervision."
In: Operation Lekkerkerk West, Hoomans, J. P. and J. W. Stellingwerff,
Editors, pp. 85-101. From PT/Civiele Techniek, 1982.
de Fries, F. H., 1985. Purging the Site of the Gasworks in Tilburg."
Presented March 21, 1985.
De Walle, F. B., 1987. "Soil Standards for Hazardous Waste Disposal and
Cleanup in the Netherlands.". In: Proceedings, The Second International
Conference on New Frontiers for Hazardous Waste Management. September 27-30,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, pp. 461-468.
Dresden, M. J., 1984. Soil Contamination (Interim Measures) Act*
EC, 1980. ''Water Quality Standards for Drinking Water, EC Directive."
European Community, EC Publications Journal, L229-11, 1980.
Groundwater Newsletter, 1986. Groundwater News, Netherlands. Published by
Water Information Center, Inc. Geraghty and Miller, Inc., Groundwater
Consultants. February 28, 1986.
Heida, S. A., Ing., 1985. "Reconstruction Site of Gasworks at Tilburg."
Prepared by Ingenieursbureau "Oranjewould" B.V., Heerenveen, The Netherlands,
for presentation March 21, 1985.
Kidding, H., 1985. "Investigation of Soil and Groundwater Contamination, at the
Site of the Former Gas-Works at Tilburg" Prepared by Ingenieursbureau
"Oranjewould" B.V., Heerenveen, The Netherlands, for presentation March 21,
1985.
Hoogendoorn, D., 1984. "Review of the Development of Remedial Action
Techniques for Soil Contamination in the Netherlands." In: Proceedings The
5th National Conference on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites.
November 7-9, Washington, D. C. pp 569-575.
Hoomans, J. P. and J. W. Stellingwerff, 1982. Operation Lekkerkerk West.
Reprint from Pt/Civiele Techniek, 1982, No. 1, 3 -44.
Lewis, W. K., W. M. Thomas, and R. J. C. B. Barren, 1987. "Contamination of
Groundwater Resources and Impact on Potable Supplies." Bostock Hill & Rigby
Limited, Southhampton, England. April 1987.
246
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bodensanesing" (Guidelines for Soil
Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and the Environment, 1983a. "Leidraad
Clean Up: Implementation of the Soil
Cleanup (Interim) Act: Assessing the Severity of a Case of Soil Contamination
in The Netherlands), April 1983, The Hague.
Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and the Environment, 1983b. Handbook
of Soil Reconstruction Techniques. Staatsuitgeverij, The Hague. July 1983.
Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and the Environment, 1984a. Soil
Clean-Up (Interim) Act of 29 December 1982. Central Department for
Information and International Relations, April 1984, VROM 8459419-84, 4027191,
10 pp.
Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and the Environment, 1984b. Interim
Indicative Multi-Year Programme, Soil Protection 1984 - 1988. Central
Department for Information and International Relations, August 1984, VROM
8459119-84, 4026191, 7 pp. Municipal Port Management, Port Promotion Council,
1984. Port of Rotterdam, Map.
Onderbouwing en Uitwerking,
DOK: 1668E/1623E. O.N.: 84/3583,
Saneringsplan
Merwedepolder, Dordrecht, 1985.
January 1985.
Public Works Department Rotterdam, 1983.
and Public Relations in cooperation
Commercial Affairs, Rotterdam,
Rotterdam Harbour Silt. Information
with Port of Rotterdam External and
1983, 19 pp.
September
Stellingwerff, J. W., 1982. "Preparation and Execution." In: Operation
Lekkerkerk West, Hoomans, J. P., and' J. W. Stellingwerff, Editors, pp. 14-41.
From PT/Civiele Techniek, 1982.
van Lidth de Jeude, J. W., 19.82.
Remedial Actions." Ministry of Publlic
Leidschendam, February 1982.
Hazardous Waste Sites in The Netherlands:
Health and Environmental Protection,
Veltman, M., 1984.
Contaminated Silt."
August 1984.
"The Filling In
Municipality of
f Harbour Basins Which Contain
Rotterdam, Public Works Department,
247
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SECTION 7
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY
INTRODUCTION
The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) located in northwest central Europe
is commonly referred to as West Germany. The FRG occupies an area of 248,882
square kilometers (96,094 square miles), somewhat smaller than the state of
Oregon in the U.S. The population of the FRG is over 61 million. Almost half
the population lives in ten metropolitan regions. The Rhine-Ruhr area
includes the greatest aggregate of industry.
The FRG comprises ten states (Lander) plus the territory of West Berlin.
The Lander enjoy considerable political autonomy, each having its own
equivalent of a prime minister, parliament, and provincial ministries,.
The FRG shares borders with nine other European countries-- France,
Denmark, The Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and East Germany. The FRG is shown in Figure 28.
The unit of currency in FRG is the Deutsche Mark (DM).
THE FEDERAL PROGRAM
The Federal Waste Disposal Act for general environmental protection in
the FRG was issued in 1972. Under this law, waste disposal facilities are
subject to prior licensing. The basic principle of the Waste Disposal Act is
that wastes have to be disposed of in a way that avoids environmental damage.
Thus any possible damages have to be assessed and evaluated, and appr'opricite
counter measures planned as conditions in the license. The provision
requiring the plan establishment procedure applies to new facilities and also
to those facilities already in operation before the Waste Disposal Act came
into force (Szelinski, 1983).
Authors' Note: We are very grateful to Mr. Klaus Stief, Umweltbundesampt, Berlin, who arranged
most of our itinerary during our visit to the Federal Republic of Germany. We met with Mr. Stief
in November 1984, in the U.S., to discuss the purpose of our information gathering and to learn
of sites in the FRG relevant to our research. Prior to our arrival in Europe, Mr. Stief
248
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O ««tal«IC«ptol
Bom* CNy :
MHiulaulBcumtey
AdmMiMlw DWrtotaoumhiy
Bay em
Schieawig
Holstein
NETHERLANDS
Nordrhein-Westfalen
(North Rhine-Westphalia)
WEST
GERMANY
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Rhineland-Pfalz
(Rhineland-Palatinate)
Baden-Wurttemberg
Figure 28. Map of the Federal Republic of Germany.
249
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The Federal Environmental Agency for the FRG is the Umweltbundesampt,
headquartered in Berlin. The Umweltbundesampt is responsible for establishing
basic environmental policies for the republic, although the individual Lander
implement their own programs. The Umweltbundesampt sponsors research and
development efforts relating to remedial action on contaminated land. Since
about 75 percent of the drinking water in the FRG comes from groundwa'ter, one
area of foremost concern at the Federal level is protection of groundwater.
There are federal regulations for. potable water.
In dealing with contaminated land in the FRG, the Umweltbundesampt
recognizes two types of contaminated sites: abandoned waste disposal sites and
contaminated industrial estates. Sites that definitely or most probably
produce negative environmental impacts are termed "problem" sites. The German
word "Altlasten" (meaning old burdens) is used to refer to environmentally
hazardous old waste deposits or abandoned waste disposal "problem" sites. The
diagram in Figure 29 (Stief and Franzius, 1983) indicates the various •
distinctions made in discussing contaminated sites and the actions appropriate
to each type of site.
In 1983, the number of abandoned waste disposal "problem" sites in the
FRG was estimated at less than 1,000 (Stief and Franzius, 1983).
"Investigations into, and, if necessary, remedial action on abandoned
waste disposal sites are particularly necessary if: ;
— the type of use of a landscaped disposal site or the area
of a closed waste disposal site is to be changed,
— houses are to be built on it, or it is to be 'used for a
road or long-distance line,
— there are indications that unrecorded hazardous waste has
been dumped on them,
— environment-related changes are determined by official
checks,
— other unexpected negative impacts occur.
Franzius, 1983)
(Stief and
Authors' Note (Continued): distributed copies of our draft report on reclamation and
redevelopment in the U.S. to the various offices we were to visit. As a result of Mr. Stief's
assistance, our time in the FRG was carefully planned to enable us to meet and discuss issues
with many different individuals. All of the visits and interviews took place in March 1985.
250
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Abandoned Waste
Disposal Sites
Contaminated
Industrial
Estates
CONTAMINATED SITES
Identification
Investigation
Risic Assessment
Non-Problem
Abandoned Waste
Disposal Sites
Abandoned
Waste Disposal
" Problemr
Sites
Contaminated
Industrial
"Problem"
Estates
Contaminated "
Problem" Sites
Non-Problem
Contaminated
Industrial
Estate
CONTAMINATED SITES
Remedial Actions
Monit
;oring
Controlled
Non- Problem
Abandoned
Waste
Disposal Sites
Controlled
Abandoned
Waste Disposal
. "Problem"
Sites
CONTROLLED ABANDONED WASTE
DISPOSAL SITES
Monit<
aring
Monil
coring
Controlled
' Contaminated
Industrial
"Problem"
Estates
Controlled
Non-Problem
Contaminated
Industrial
Estate
CONTROLLED CONTAMINATED
INDUSTRIAL ESTATES
•CONTROLLED CONTAMINATED SITES
Figure 29. Diagram to define
(Source
In case ofi change of use of land or
newly identified environmental
impacts, again
identification
investigation
risM assessment
abandoned
waste disposal sites.
Stief, 1984)
251
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In any of the above cases, it is recommended that the suitability of the
former waste disposal site for the intended purpose be checked and a risk
assessment carried out.
Further recommendations by Stief and Franzius (1983, pp. 15-17); include
the following:
"Authorities which are responsible for approving new uses at former
waste disposal sites ... should know where these sites are, who is
responsible for carrying out the risk assessment in conjunction with the
new intended use, and where information can be obtained for these
sites."
"The new use of an abandoned waste disposal site must not cause lasting
worsening of the environmental nuisance caused by the site. Remedial
measures already taken must not be nullified. If necessary, the new
user must pay for measures to be taken to restore conditions to a
comparable level."
"Remedial action can only be seen as effective if a) environmental
impacts are tangibly reduced and b) effectiveness remains long-term."
"The success of remedial action taken on each abandoned waste disposal
site must - if the waste has not been excavated - be monitored.
Monitoring will be centered on the groundwater quality. Local
regulations for drinking water can be used as standard values for
assessing groundwater analyses. It is, however, more realistic to take
the quality of the groundwater upstream from the waste disposal site as
the standard value, whereby higher values must be accepted."
"The monitoring costs must be included in the costs for carrying out the
remedial action, and it must be ensured that monitoring is carried out.
Remedial action includes providing the necessary suitable design
measures and the measuring equipment required for monitoring."
THE CITY-STATE OF HAMBURG
The northern city-state of Hamburg, situated on the River Elbe Hamburg is
a major center of shipping, trade, maritime industries, and manufacturing.
With a population of almost 1.8 million people, attention to planning and
environmental issues is essential to this metropolitan center. Hamburg
enacted its waste disposal law in 1971.
252
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program to address problems at sites
In 1981, the Hamburg City Council approved a special remedial action
where hazardous materials had been
produced, treated, sold, stored or deposited in the past. One objective for
the early phase of the program is the development of a prioritized listing of
sites where investigation and remedial action may be needed (Shuldt, 1984).
The district authorities are responsible for providing site information (on
standard forms) for all suspicious sites. The level of detail provided, varies
for different sites depending on the
the sites are depicted on six maps which are made available to local
authorities involved in buying and s
activities, or urban planning. Owne
extent of available information. All of
ailing properties, permitting building
rs of suspicious properties are also
informed if a property is included in the registry. A systematic approach has
been adopted (tentatively) to establish priority sites on the basis of the
types of materials present, possibilities for their release, and sensitive
targets in the vicinity (Shuldt, 1984).
A survey of Hamburg indicates that there are some 2400 sites with
potential contamination. There are 120 areas in Hamburg that have received
contaminated wastes and that have to
1985, 32 sites were cleaned up; some
be cleaned up. Between 1976 and January
of these sites are now being reused.
Costs for the cleanups ranged from about 2,000 to 26,000,000 DM (about $8.2
million U.S.). The largest removal involved 72,000 cubic meters of waste
polluted with cyanide from an old gas works site. The gas works company paid
for this excavation and removal. In
can be established, the polluter can
Among the 120 known contaminated
Authors' Note: In Hamburg, we visited several
contaminated land assessment and remediation.
cases where the source of the pollution
be made to pay the cleanup costs.
sites that need to be addressed, there
are 36 high priority sites in Hamburg. These sites have been categorized as
follows:
city departments engaged in some aspect of
Our hosts included Mr. Hern Bouchon, Chief, Amt
fur Umweltshutz (Department of Environmental Protection); Dr. Friege, Anstalt fur Hygiene; Ms.
Jane Sorensen, Amt fur Landschaftsplanung (Department of Landscape Planning); and Mr. Klaus Wolf
(Department of Town Planning). Within each office, we met with several individuals and learned
of various aspects of the programs, in the City-state Hamburg to identify and manage hazardous
sites. Mr. Wolf and several members of his stlaff accompanied us on the visit to Georgsverde.
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aerial contamination (3 large sites previously belonging to,
industrial firms);
factory grounds (17 sites including old gas works);
dumping sites with known chemical wastes (11 sites);
other (5 sites where the source of the contamination is unknown).
Department Of Environmental Protection for Hamburg
This Department (Fauchamt Fur Uberwachung Umweltbehorde) consists of about
360 people. About 40 people are involved in environmental planning, about, 100
in permitting, about 100 in inspection and enforcement, and about 120 in
measurements (Anstalt fur Hygiene)._ Concerns of the department range from
environmental exposure to toxic chemicals to problems from methane buildup in
homes.
Methane problems from municipal waste landfills are the focus of; one
current study. Homes or other buildings are built on several of the 39
landfill sites in Hamburg. Preparations are being made to measure levels of
methane in these buildings beginning in the summer of 1985. Hydrogen sulfide
will also be measured in those locations where the odor is apparent. No real
problems have yet occurred (i.e., no explosions caused by accumulation of
methane generated by disposed waste), but it is recognized that this could
happen.
Among the responsibilities of the Anstalt fur Hygiene (Institute for
Hygiene) are the development of recommendations for action levels to guide the
cleanup of contaminated land, sampling and analysis that is performed as part
of site assessments, and assessment of soil contamination. Specific groups
within the Institute are responsible for recommending action levels of
polluting materials in groundwater, drinking water, wastewater, soil, and air.
Although there is no official policy regarding the relationship between
acceptable pollutant thresholds and different types of land use, there is some
support for this concept
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The Institute develops and eval'
chemical contamination of soils and
major pollutants of interest are di
lates methods to characterize and quantify
the associated risks. Thus, there is
interest in methods and approaches ;hat have been developed by others that
might be suitable for determining specific pollutants in soils. Among the
>xin, arsenic, phenols, cresols, and
volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons.
There is considerable interest in levels"of arsenic and lead, since these
elements are commonly found in soils and in vegetation in Hamburg. The
background levels in surface soils are abnormally high due to smelting in the
area. (The largest copper smelter in Europe is located in southeast Hamburg.)
The city of Hamburg is a very densely populated area, and, consequently,
contaminated sites and surrounding properties are likely to be used by people.
Some people depend on vegetables grown in allottments (gardens) very close to
the fence of the smelter. Soil in :hese vegetable gardens may be contaminated
with heavy metals that have accumulated as a result of fallout from the
smelter and through buildup from composting. There is less concern about
heavy metal contamination of ground-water from the fallout from smelting since
drinking water for the city of Hamburg is taken from very deep aquifers (200-
3 00 meters).
Although there are no official guidelines to assess soil contamination,
threshold levels for certain heavy metals, based on average background levels,
are recognized. These levels are intended to indicate what is normal in
T
uncontaminated soils. The background levels are based on data obtained though
a literature research and published
Federal Biological Research Office,
in 1977 by Prof. Dr. Kloke, Head of
Berlin. The uncontaminated soil levels
also serve as the basis for acceptable levels of heavy metals in sewage sludge
that is spread for agricultural purposes. These soil levels are based .on Dr.
Kloke's summary listed in Table 18. .
Dioxin (Tetracholorodibenzodioxin), also referred to as TCDD, is a major
concern in Hamburg and throughout Germany. The highly toxic 2,3,7,8-isomer,
as well as other TCDD isomers and homologs and chlorinated furans, are all of
T
interest. Several waste disposal sites that received wastes from the
255
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TABLE 18. NORMAL AND ACCEPTABLE LEVELS OF ELEMENTS IN SOILS
Element
Level in Air-Dried
normal
Antimony
Arsenic
Beryllium
Lead
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Chromium
Fluorine
Cobalt
Copper
Molybdenum
Nickel
Mercury
Selenium
Vanadium
Zinc
Tin
0.1 -
2
1 -
0.1 -
5
1 —
0.1 -
10
50
•i _
5 —
1
10
0.1 -
0.1 -
10
10
1
0.5
20
5
20
30
10
1
50
200
10
20
5
50
1
5
100
50
20
Soil (in mg/kg_}_
acceptable
5 (?)
20 ;
10
100
25
10
3 +
100
200
50
100
5
50
2 +
10
50
300
50 :,
Source: Kloke, 1977
Level was originally listed as 5.
Revision by Dr. Kloke in 1979.
256
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production of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol
now contain a mixture of chlorinated
(2,4,5-T) are known, and these sites all
organics, including dioxins and furans.
The guidelines developed by Dr. Renazta Kimbrow of the U.S. Centers for
Disease Control are widely recognized and used as guidance in assessing risks
from such sites. Also used is the approach by Dr. Rappe, a Swedish scientist
who has proposed factors to take into account the presence of various dioxins
and furans other than the 2,3,7,8-ison
omer.
Landscape Planning and Town Planning
There are two levels of planning
planning. These are represented in
Department of Landscape Planning —
for Hamburg
in Hamburg — landscape planning and town
two separate ministries.
The Department of Landscape Planning for Hamburg was formed in 1978, and,
in 1985, consisted of about 20 people. The Department is responsible for
general planning and for coordination with building and town planning.
The City-State of Hamburg has se4-en different counties, each with its own
planning authority. The central planning is coordinated through the Landscape
Planning Department which considers the entire State as landscape. The
philosophy of the department is that
the same in both natural and built-uj
The green areas are the specific
Landscape Planning. Their policy is
the quality of the environment should be
areas.
responsibility of the Department of
to keep green areas green. In areas
where there is contamination, the objective is to change the specific land use
to be compatible with unavoidable contamination while retaining the
traditional green use. An example of this is a case where land is found to be
unsuitable for allottments but can still be retained for recreational use.
The Landscape Planning Office maintains information about existing levels of
contamination so that this knowledge
Department is responsible for water quality criteria for the whole Hamburg
State.
is available for land use planning. The
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The Department of Landscape Planning is also responsible for identifying
areas where dumping should be allowed. Since there is a continuing need for
such areas, this is an important aspect of planning. The approach is to
assemble information'on the ecology of candidate areas and to project the
impact of dumping at each site.
The Department is currently developing a system for biomonitoririg to
assess old dump sites that received household and chemical wastes. Two
Biomonitoring approaches, using insects or mice trapped on contaminated sites,
are being considered. Although no results have been obtained using the
insects, the approach involving mice appears to have merit. Data obtained so
far indicate that low levels of chemical contaminants can be found in the
livers of certain species of mice taken from contaminated sites.
Mice tend to range about 100 square meters and burrow to a depth of about
50 cm. Therefore the level of a chemical in the liver of a mouse should be an
indicator of the level of contamination over this area. There is a potential
advantage in the biomonitoring (as compared to the traditional method of
analyzing multiple soil samples from different sectors and depths at a site)
since fewer samples need to be taken in order to survey an area. Because
chlorinated hydrocarbons are known to concentrate in the livers, this organ is
expected to be a-particularly sensitive indicator of contamination. < Typically
ten mouse livers are combined for one analysis at a cost of about 5,000 DM
($1,580 U.S.).
The biomonitoring approach has been tested at Mulldeponie Georgsverde, a
hazardous waste landfill southeast of the center of Hamburg. It is known that
the leachate from this landfill contains dioxins and other chlorinated
hydrocarbons. Because of the suspected presence of dioxin, this site has been
studied intensively. The objective of the study conducted by the Department
of Landscape Planning was to compare levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons in
livers of mice taken from Georgsverde with levels in mice taken from an area
that was presumed to be uncontaminated.
Three different types of mice were taken and tested. A type of mouse that
feeds almost entirely on other animals was found to be the most sensitive
indicator of contaminated soil. A second type of mouse that eats a mixed diet
258
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(both meat and vegetables) showed some contamination. A third type of mouse
that is totally vegetarian was determined not to be useful since no
chlorinated hydrocarbons were detected in the livers. An unexpected finding
from the expe'riment was the presence of chlorinated hydrocarbons in mice from
the area presumed to be clean. Analytical data from the livers tested showed
levels of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins up to 120 times the background
concentration in soils. Identifying the source of the contaminants is the
responsibility of another department
The results to date do not sugge
concentration and the soil concentre
Department of Town Planning —
The Department of Town Planning
st an exact correlation between the liver
tion at a particular site. This is
because the contaminants bioaccumulc te. It has been noted that the tetra- and
penta-chloro isomers tend to bioaccvmulate to a greater extent than the hexa-
and octa-isomers. Further investigation of the biomohitoring approach is
planned. The indicator chemical will probably be pentachlorophenol or
hexachlorocyclohexane. It is believed that this is the only investigation in
Germany involving biomonitoring usirg mice.
is much larger than the Department of
Landscape Planning. Building, as well as energy and wastewater are the
responsibility of the town planning office.
The department has recently completed a survey of heavy metals
concentrations at 1,000 sampling points throughout Hamburg. Samples were
taken from a depth of 5 cm and analyzed for copper, chromium, nickel, zinc,
cadmium, lead, arsenic, and mercury.
based on professional judgement rather than random samples from a strict grid
system. The results of the analyses
The highest levels detected for the
are stored in a computerized data base.
pollutants of most concern are as follows:
arsenic
lead
copper
cadmium
918 ppm
3074 ppm
3156 ppm
278 ppm
Based on this work, arsenic appears
concern in soil.
The location of the sampling points was
;o be the most probable pollutant of
259
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Contaminated Sites in Hamburg
Several interesting sites were discussed during our interviews with the
various Hamburg Departments. Two of these sites are the landfill known as
Georgsverde and a site referred to as Goldbekhaus.
Muldeponie Georgsverde, Hamburg —
The Georgsverde site is located about five kilometers south of the Hamburg
City Hall in an area that has been used for many years for nonferrous
smelting. Both municipal and chemical wastes were dumped in an area called
Mueggenburger until about 1967. In 1967, the property was purchased,, and
housing was built on land adjacent to the disposal area. Part of the area was
also used for wire storage. Chemical wastes were brought to a new area, now
known as Georgsverde, which comprises some 44 hectares (110 acres) with a
perimeter of 2.6 kilometers. Among the wastes placed in Georgsverde were
large volumes of residues from a chemical firm that produced 2,4,5-T. These
wastes are now known to contain dioxin which was produced as an unwanted by-
product in the production of 2,4,5-T.
The whole area was filled with household wastes. About 1967, a series of
ten ponds was built to receive liquid industrial wastes. The first ponds were
unlined. Those constructed later had liners. Industrial waste from
throughout Hamburg was brought to this site. Actually only nine ponds were
used. Household waste was deposited on top of the liquid waste to absorb the
liquid. The original idea was that by codisposing the wastes in this manner
there would be sufficient biological activity to degrade the industrial waste
as well as the municipal waste. It has been estimated that about 30 percent
of the wastes placed in Georgesverde were chlorinated solvents, about 30
percent were mineral wastes, and about 40 percent were other types.
The situation is now recognized as a significant environmental problem.
Leachate (oil and water) seeping from the east side of the hill flows into a
ditch that feeds into an oil/water separator. After separation of the oil.
260
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which comprises about 10 to 15 perc«nt of the total liquid, the water drains
into a ditch which discharges to a public treatment works. The oil recovered
in the separator contains ECB's, chlorophenols, chlorobenzenes,
hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), and didxins.
Wells have been installed throughout the entire area to evaluate the
problem. There are 25 wells around the perimeter. Only very low
concentrations of toxics have been found in groundwater samples. The toxics
appear to be strongly adsorbed to the soil, particularly in the clay layer
just below the natural surface soil. There is a sand layer beneath this clay
layer, so there is concern for the future when the toxics eventually migrate
through the clay.
Methane gas is generated in the
landfill due to biodegradation of the
municipal waste. Although grasses and scrubby plants with shallow root
systems grow on the site, the plants
die when the root systems reach the depth
where the gas-fills the void space rather than water. A gas recovery system
is in place with 39 wells. One problem with the gas recovered at the site is
that it contains up to 10 ppm of vinyl chloride, and this has become a
potential.
1th Georgesverde are believed to be
political issue because of the toxic
The principal risks associated w
potential groundwater contamination knd the exposure of people living in a
low-lying area adjacent to the site. These people do not actually own the
land, and they pay no rent. The dwellings are minimal and crowded, and the
many vegetable gardens suggest that :he people consume food grown in soils
that are most likely contaminated by
runoff from Georgsverde.
The government of Hamburg recognizes that Georgsverde requires long-term
management. Remedial action at the site is planned to minimize infiltration.
Construction will- include a berm of earth and plastic, a slurry wall 30 to 50
meters deep (down to the deep clay layer), and a new cap of clay and plastic.
The cap will be covered with 1.5 meters of topsoil. Construction of the cap
is scheduled to begin in the spring of 1988. Leachate from the site will
require treatment with oil separation as a first step. The water will then be
biologically treated and passed through activated carbon. An alternative that
is being considered is vacuum distil]
ation.
261
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The thorniest problem is what to do about the dioxin-contaminated oil from
Georgsverde. Presently it is being collected in drums and stored in metal
sheds at the site. The storage area is fenced and guarded. (We observed
about 75 of these drums which we were told .contained the dioxin-contaminated
oil.) The ultimate fate of these drums is still to be decided. Currently
there is no incinerator or landfill in Europe that will accept the oil because
of the high level of dioxin. Herr Bouchon, head of the Environmental
Authority for Hamburg expressed concern because the various alternatives for
disposal of the dioxin-contaminated waste are all prohibited by government
regulations. He believes that incineration at sea is the best alternative.
What to do about Georgsverde has been a highly debated topic and a very
political one. In spring 1984, several toxicology experts were invited to
Hamburg to participate in a workshop on Georgsverde and to advise on possible
solutions to the contamination problems.
An extensive four volume report on Georgsverde has been compiled by the
Hamburg Department of Town Planning. Volume'1 gives the site history. Volume
2 is the planning program. Volume 3 is the record of the first hearing.
Volume 4 is the analytical data. Volume 5 is record of the second hearing.
An interesting note is that in 1977 there was a proposal for extensive use
of the site for recreational purposes including a swimming pool with a slide
area and bath house. These plans were halted when toxic compounds were found
in the oils leaching from the site.
Goldbekhaus, Hamburg—
The Goldbekhaus site includes about 6400 square meters and several build-
ings. The site contamination first came to the attention of the authorities
through calls from citizens complaining of odors at the site. The Public
Health Authority notified the Hamburg Amt fur Umweltschutz of the problem in
April 1984. .
Author's Note: Information on Goldbekhaus was provided to us by Ms. Doris Menke and Mr. Klans
Hochreiter of the Hamburg Department of Environmental Protection.
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This site was an old factory that operated until 1960 producing
disinfectants and detergents. The oJ
d buildings are now being used for public
meetings, and there is a desire to keep the buildings for a community center
or similar purpose. The site is. knodn by three different names—Moorfurtweg
(maybe the name of the street); Goldbekhaus (maybe the name for its current
use); and Schulke & Mayr (the name off the former factory that operated there).
The site assessment involved borings and analyses of soil samples taken at
ite was found to be heavily contaminated
with phenols and cresols. Water samples showed phenols, cresols, and
.
chlorophenols. Samples were analyzed
individual species. Total phenols i
for total phenols as well as for
soil samples were determined at levels
as high as 26 to 27 g/kg. Phenols and cresols were found at very high levels
in water samples taken from wells drilled down to 30 to 40 meters deep.
There has been some discussion of
tearing down the buildings, but this is
an unpopular approach. Nothing has keen done yet because the authorities do
not know what to do. The site is used by young people for a variety of
activities. The former owner of the
site has left the area, and the land
now
belongs to the City of Hamburg.
It remains to be decided what concentration of contaminants will be deemed
acceptable and allowed to remain on the site. The basis will probably be the
recognized guidelines for ground-wateb—(i.e., 0.05 mg/L total phenols.) This
is the guideline used in the Netherlands, currently. The main concern is the
protection of ground-water. Biological treatment of soil and surface water
are being considered as possible optibns for cleanup. The question is how
:s should be used as the indicator of
long it will take and which component
treatment effectiveness. Funding to
been requested.
Another concern is the risk associated-with inhalation of the contaminants
present. There are many houses in th
participate in activities held on the
proceed with the treatment scheme has
2 vicinity of the site, and many people
site. Some parts of the buildings are
closed off to minimize exposure to vapors from soil contamination.
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THE RUHR DISTRICT
The Ruhr district (Ruhrgebiet) in the state of Nordrhein-Westfalen is
perhaps the largest industrial area in Europe. Located between the Ruhr and
Lippe rivers, the area is well known for its coal industry, iron and steel
working and manufacturing of chemicals, textiles, and glass. Important cities
in the region include Essen, Dortmund, Duisberg, and Bochum. Environmental
problems associated with the residue from more than 100 years of heavy
industrial activities are prevalent throughout the Ruhrgebiet.
The WBK
The WBK is a non-profit making joint organization of the coal industry.
In the Ruhr District, the WBK maintains vocational mining schools, Testing
Institutes for Mine Safety, and Technical-Scientific Institutes. The work is
funded by the member organizations, fees, and the State. The abbreviation WBK
stands for Westfalische Berggewerkschaftskasse which was founded some 120
years ago.
The WBK since 1961 has been systematically mapping the subsurface of the
Ruhr Valley. By 1985, mapping was complete, going down more than 1000 m, for
approximately 65 percent of the area. These maps show the geological
formations, permeabilities and hydraulic gradients, and the quality and
quantity of groundwater.
Contaminated Sites in the Ruhr District
Recovery Schemes by the WBK —
During the last 30 years, the Institute of Applied Geology, WBK, has
carried out numerous recovery schemes for contaminated land. Examples of
these efforts were described by Dr. W. G. Coldewey in his presentation to the
Authors' Note: Our host in the Ruhr region was Dr. W. G. Coldewey of the WBK Institute for
Applied Geology in Bochum.
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NATO/CCMS Meeting in Hamburg in 1984. Highlights of three of these examples
are given below:
Capping of a salt slag tip; Investigations at a salt slag tip in the
Central Ruhr district revealed a cor siderable increase in the chloride and
sulphate contents in groundwater neer the tip. The mineral content of the
water was sufficient to be aggressive to concrete. As the' tip was open to the
elements, harmful substances could be leached from the body of the tip. To
prevent such leaching processes, capping the tip with low-permeability
material was recommended.
The capping material used was a
underground railway construction sites. Loess loam was also used as a capping
material. The capping to a thickness of 0.8 mg and appropriate slope
contouring were designed to prevent
and thus eliminate leaching from the
Capping of an aluminum slag tip:
is intended for the disposal of the
building rubble.
The aluminum slag disintegrates
low permeability marlstone obtained from
the tip from being affected by the weather
waste material (Coldeway, 1984).
Some 1700 tonnes of aluminum slag were
deposited in a waste tip in the south of the Central Ruhr district. The tip
waste produced by coal washeries and
rapidly when contacted by water.
Hydrolysis of the aluminates, nitrides and phosphides gives rise to exothermic
reations and generation of ammonia and phosphine. The slag material is found
to contain 25 percent water-soluble
constituents, principally sodium and
potassium chloride.
Because of the exothermic reactibns, the part of the tip containing
combustible coal material was separa
deposited aluminum slag. ' Next, the
thickness of 1 m. The slopes were r
ted by bulldozer from the part with -the
slag,tip was capped with loam to a
scontoured, and the whole site was planted
with shallow-rooting plants. These measures were designed to prevent leaching
and gas generation (Coldeway, 1984).
Remedial action of a site contaminated with cyanide-containing hardening
salts; Approximately 500 tonnes of
other residues were deposited withou
L
yanide-containing hardening salts and
: permission on a building .rubble tip in
rfas situated in a sewage sludge settling
the Central Ruhr district. The tip •
pond at an old chemical works. Abou: the same quantity was deposited without
adequate safety measures on an adjoining industrial site.
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The remedial action program consisted, first, in pumping the cyanide water
from the sludge settling pond, partly detoxifying the sludge in tanks by means
of hypochloride oxidation in an alkaline medium, and finally pumping it by
pipeline into the main Ruhr district sewer. Considerable quantities of
ferrous sulphate and lime hydrate were added to the contaminated rubb,le for
the purpose of complexing the cyanides. The salt barrels were sealed by
encasement in concrete and later sunk in the Atlantic. (Coldeway, 1984; Birk,
et al, 1973) .
Coking Industry Sites —
Coking plants and their auxiliary operations previously occupied several
tracts of land in an industrial area, Bochum-Werne. The Robert Muser Kokerei,
a cokery and gas works, was owned and operated by a mining company until it
was closed about 1974. The local authority subsequently purchased the site
for redevelopment.
To prepare such sites for redevelopment, existing buildings were removed
and clean fill, up to a meter in depth was brought in to cover the site.
Buildings to suit the new tenant are then erected with assistance from the
State development company (the LEG). These minimal measures sometimes proved
to be insufficient. :
A bread company entered into an agreement to locate on the former Robert
Muser Kokerei site. During excavation for the new building, however, old
foundations and coal tar residue from the old gas works were encountered. The
local authorities assumed responsibility for the cleanup. Plans of the old
gas works and information provided by former employer were used in an effort
to locate the areas of the site that were contaminated. Bore hole samples
were also taken and examined. Appropriate measures were taken to eliminate
future exposure to the contaminated material.
Another coking plant site in the area, Kokerei Alma, contained a ;lagoon
that had been used for several years to receive acid resin from a benzene
plant (located at a different site). The lagoon area was lined with chalk
sludge from ammonia production and a layer of coal fines. These lining
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materials provided a fairly effective sorbent system for water soluble
components in the resin. To neutralize the contents of the lagoon, chalk
rubble was added. Ultimately the resin hardened. When the site was closed,
it was capped with a low permeability material, followed by clean soil to
minimize infiltration from surface water.
Groundwater contamination in the area was discovered when observation
wells were drilled during a site investigation. Initially the problem was
attributed to the lagoon. It was later determined, however, that a more
likely source of the groundwater contamination was the wastewater from the old
coking and gas plants in the vicinity.
The cleanup of this area began about 1975 and continued into 1985.
Redevelopment at several sites, inc:.uding the bread company, was complete or
nearly complete in 1985.
THE CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN REGIONS
Waste Control in the State of Hessei
The Environmental Protection Office located in Wiesbaden is responsible
for all solid waste problems in the
an advisory function to the Ministry
State of Hessen. In addition to serving
, they establish -regulations and controls
for solid waste.
A survey of landfill sites in the State of Hessen began in 1979. Letters
were sent to all industrial firms iii the state requesting information on the
kinds of waste their processes generate and where their past and current
wastes were placed. The voluntary response to the survey was good, although
the quality of the responses was vai
iable. This survey was almost complete in
1985. Of about 35,000 waste locations identified, probably 5 percent or less
are problematic. No instances of health effects attributable to disposal
sites have been reported from any of the sites identified.
Authors' Note: our host in the Central Regie n of Germany'was Dr. Manfred Stammler of Battelle
Institute, Frankfort. The information provided in this section was provided to us by Dr.
Stammler and by representatives of the Envircnmental Protection Office, State of Hessen.
267
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The State of Hessen began in January 1985 looking at about 50 locations
where waste is buried near wells that supply community drinking water. Water
samples will be taken and analyzed for chemical oxygen demand, chlorinated
organics, and heavy metals.
Site of Chemical Plant Firma Merck ;
This plant produced Lindane from about 1946 until 1965. Some 100,000
tonnes of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) residue from this production remained
piled at the site after the production ceased. Sludge and wastewater from the
plant were also spread on the ground. Leachate from the mountains of residue
drained into the sandy areas around the site, and wind also distributed the
solid residue. This resulted in the presence of HCH in grass, animals, and
milk from cows grazed in the area. The contamination was found in 1979. The
area of contamination was determined based on soil samples from the top 30
centimeters. The HCH at levels above 10 ppm affected a very large area.
Remedial action to alleviate the problem began in 1982 or 1983 and
continued into 1985. The areas of highest levels of contamination were
excavated and then filled using soil from a sugar-beet processing plant. In
other areas, the contaminated soil was mixed down to about one meter with
residue from the sugar beet processing. Restrictions on the land use (e.g.,
area cannot be used to grow crops for animal feed) remain in place due to the
possible presence of dioxin. An acceptable reuse of the land has not yet been
established.
Schwabisch-Gmund Gas Works
When the city began excavation in the early 1980's for an underground
parking garage, they encountered contaminated materials associated with coal
gas production. An archives search revealed that the city had previously
operated a gas works at the site. (Such works were shut down prior to 1960,
and apparently this former use of the city property had been virtually
forgotten.) A site investigation was undertaken to determine the extent of
the contamination. Some groundwater contamination was discovered, although
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this did not cause major concern since the nearest drinking water recovery
area was very far away. An effort was made to remove all of the contaminated
material from the site. Excavation
and removal of the material was the only
solution that was considered acceptsble. Because of the extensive excavation
required, the city decided to add a [lower level to the garage than what was
originally planned. Construction of the garage was completed by 1985.
j
I
i . • '
! ' • " • •
CASE STUDY: HAVIGHORSTER MOOR DUMP 3lTE, HAMBURG
i
I
Land Use History !
I • ' ,....-'•.• ' '
i
i
This 30,000 square meter Hamburg site is owned by the State. It was used
as a dumping area after World War II (probably illegally).
Nature and Extent of the Contamination
i
In the early 1970's, very high levels of arsenic were found in a small
stream near the old disposal site, At first the arsenic contamination was
assumed to have originated from burijed slag from an old copper plant. An
investigation, however, revealed that the water contamination resulted from a
water soluble form of arsenic used s(ome 40 years ago in paint manufacture.
Remediation Activities
An extensive cleanup operation was undertaken by the State to remedy the
arsenic contamination and to prevent
further surface and groundwater
contamination. Highly contaminated 'soil (i.e., soil containing arsenic at a
level of greater than 300 ppm) was removed from the site to a permitted
disposal facility. About 600 cubic meters of soil containing between 50 and
300 ppm of arsenic were buried on site in a pit lined with plastic and 0.5
I ' , . -, • ;.. ,.'.', .. ' , '
Authors'. Note: Information on Havighorstar was provided by Ms. Doris Menke, Hamburg Department
of Environmental Protection and Dr. Sievers off the Institute for Hygiene.
!269
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meter of clay. The disposal pit was also capped with clay to prevent
infiltration of rainwater. The remediation scheme was designed to isolate the
contaminated material buried on site in order to protect groundwater beneath
the site. The cleanup of arsenic at the site was completed in 1975 at a cost
of 2,000,000 DM ($814,600 U.S.). The cost of the cleanup was paid by the
I
State of Hamburg.
Guidelines for Cleanup
A level of 50 ppm, based on average background levels, was used to guide
i
the cleanup of arsenic. A threshold level of 50 ppm is, in general,
considered to be very low as a cleanup guide, since up to 200 ppm is found in
many urban areas, particularly in Southeast Hamburg where there has been
copper smelting for many years. The unusually low level (50 ppm) was used in
this case because the chemical form of the arsenic found at Havighorst was
very soluble compared to the inorganic arsenic normally associated with copper
smelting.
Later Remediation Activities
After the cleanup to remedy the arsenic contamination was completed,
attention was again focused on the Havighorster site when odors became
apparent in seepage water issuing from the south side of the landfill. A
drainage system was installed to control runoff and to collect the seepage
water. Samples showed very low levels (less than 5 ppm) of
hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), chlorinated benzenes, and phenols.
There are plans to build a collection pond with treatment of the conteimi-
nated water based on a system that uses an aquatic plant, common reed, to
remove organics from municipal wastewater. Treatment in this manner was first
proposed by Professor Kickuth of the University of Kassel; it is called
"Kickuth'sches Wurzelraumverfahren" (R. Kikuth, 1983; 1971). The purpose of
the reed (Phragmites communis) is to lower the levels of organic carbon. The
roots of the plants take up the organics. The Kikuth System is claimed to
have been used effectively in secondary treatment of sewage sludge.
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i
The Havighorster Moor removal pond is the first time the scheme has been
used to treat water containing industrial chemicals such as HCH, chlorinated
benzene, and phenols. The pond will be lined with bentonite and also with
I
plastic. The drainage system is lined with chalk.
The total cost of the project is estimated at around 300/000 DM ($94,770
U.S.), and maintenance costs shouldibe low. The pond was scheduled to be
completed in fall 1985, and the system should be fully operational by late
I '
1986. A windmill will pump water from the pond to a river where it will be
discharged at an estimated rate of 25 cubic meters per day. The pond will be
fenced in order to limit access. (The area was not fenced at the time of our
visit to Hamburg.) j
There is some controversy over the proposed treatment scheme. Some
!
researchers dismiss the reports of this system's success with municipal
wastewaters, claiming that the reported purification capacity data for the
Kikuth System neglected the effectsjof dilution by run-off (Braunschweig,
1985). Other researchers believe that the system will work initially, but
that the plants will soon die because of the particular contaminants present
in the seepage water. It will be necessary to monitor both the influent and
effluent in order to evaluate the performance of the system.
i
i
Site Reuse j
i
i
The site is not being used nor are there any plans for its reuse. Nearby
property is used for recreation.
i
CASE STUDY: BRAKE DUMPSITE, BIELEFELD
The City of Bielefeld is located near the Teutoburg Forest area of the
Ruhr Valley in West Germany. Bielefeld has a population in excess of 315,000
Authors' Note: Information on the Brake site was provided by Mr. W. Weber, City of Bielefeld;
Dr. H. J. Collins, Technical University Braunschweig; Mr. Bouteilles, Attorney; and Dr. Dienian,
University of Bielefeld. I
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people and is an industrial center which initially based its growth on the
textile industry. Important industries in the city now include machine
building, food and sweets, clothing, street vehicles, and electronics.
Land Use History
Brake is a suburb northeast of Bielefeld that was annexed into the city in
1973. The former Brake dumpsite occupies about 2 hectares (5 acres). Before
1960 the site was used as a clay borrow pit by a brick factory. The brick
company later sold the site to a farmer, who hired it for waste disposal.
Although the site was an official dumpsite, unoffical (and unrecorded) dumping
also took place. Records exist of the materials that were disposed legally.
Eventually the land was purchased by a developer. After 1976, when dumping
was stopped, plans for the development of a housing area were submitted by the
developer and approved by the city. Building started in 1978.
Nature and Extent of Contamination
Prior to beginning the development of the area, the developer covered the
area with 2 m of clean soil. Shortly after the first houses were built in
Brake, however, evidence of contamination was seen. Galvanic sludge was
uncovered by inhabitants digging in the area. However, examination of garden
vegetables, especially spinach, which is sensitive to contamination, showed no
difference in contamination when compared to market samples. Methane buildup,
possibly due to the 2 m of low permeability cover soil on the site, was also
noted. The concentrations of methane varied from area to area, decreasing as
the location of the samples approached the houses. No methane was found in
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the basements of the houses. It was believed that methane was released
through the drainage systems around
the houses. Other contaminants including
heavy metals, mercury, selenium, sulfuric acid, and cyanides were found at
very low levels. Because they could not guarantee the homeqwners that there
I . •
would be no adverse effects, the local government felt compelled to become
involved. i .
Remediation Activities
The methane buildup underground
was vented, but gas formation continued.
Ventilators and pumps have been installed in basements, along with methane
detectors. Six months after installation in August 1984, none of these
detectors had alarmed. Consideration is being given regarding the cap on the
site and whether or not to pump the!water out and treat it. Further, there is
a need to be able to monitor groundwater quality.
Although the levels of contaminants found are quite low and
epidemiological studies have shown no significant difference between the
groups living on the site and those| iri other areas, cleanup will be in excess
i
of MIK levels. The epidemiological|studies examined blood and urine samples
from 400 people on the site, nearby
were found, although elevated liver
groups.
and some distance away. No differences
enzyme levels were found in all the
Site Reuse
A number of unanswered questions have been raised by the problems at the
Brake site. The City of Bielefeld is responsible for land use planning at
i
Brake and for issuing building permits for the existing and future structures.
Legal responsibility has not yet been assigned, and some people have
questioned why the permits to buildjwere ever granted. A variety of
arrangements are being considered for the owners of the homes in the
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contaminated area. The city offered to buy the home of any Brake resident who
wished to relocate. Twenty to thirty owners plan to move to a new site and
will receive the market value for their houses. The value of the houses has
fallen by 2/3 since the contamination has been made public. If the city can
satisfactorily monitor the site and the houses, they plan to sell the houses
sometime in the future.
As a result of the problems at Brake, the city has attempted to identify
similar sites throughout Bielefeld. Through newspaper appeals, 500 sites in
the area have been identified as potentially contaminated. ,
CASE STUDY: INDUSTRIAL WASTE SITE, DORTMUND
The City of Dortmund is located in the highly industrialized and densely
populated Ruhr Valley Region. In 1985, remediation activities were underway
at this former industrial site near Dortmund when the Authors visited the
site.
Site History and Redevelopment Objectives
The site had been used for many years as a dumping area for a variety of
industrial wastes including coal gasification and refinery wastes. Following
the remedial action, the 5.3 hectare (13 acre) site will be redeveloped as an
industrial property.
Nature and Extent of the Contamination
Excavations at the site revealed extensive contamination. Liquid coal tar
was clearly visible to a depth of 10 meters along with volatile hydrocarbons
and sulfur compounds. Large quantities of spent iron oxide (containing sulfur
and complexed cyanides) from gas purification were also present.
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Remediation Activities
Remediation at this site involved excavation and treatment of the waste
and contaminated soil and water by mixing (on site) with brown lignite fly ash
using a patented process (Heide and
Werner, 1984). The treated material was
finally disposed in a specially designed concrete pit with a flexible membrane
liner located on the site. The linipd disposal site is shown in Figure 30.
This site cleanup was the first application of the technology on such a large
scale. The remediation work is being performed by H. Becker, b.v., the
contracting firm who holds the process license. This cleanup approach is
expected to result in considerable cost savings over an alternative plan
involving removal of the contaminated material to an off-site licensed
disposal facility.
I
The treatment/solidification process relies on the pozzolanic properties
of the brown lignite fly ash. The ash used at this site was obtained from
local'power plants burning brown lignite coal. The contaminated soil, tars,
i
and water are mixed with the ash in| a three-stage reactor along with
additional water. The exothermic reaction must be controlled carefully in
i
order to maintain a continuous flowithrough the mixers. During the reaction,
the temperature may reach 120°C. The product exiting the final mixing stage
is a freely flowable slurry and is conveyed directly to the lined pit. Within
approximately 30 minutes, the slurry hardens to a solid material which is
I •
claimed to be virtually impermeable to water. Data from laboratory tests
indicate that metals, sulfates, cyanides, and organics are bound tightly in
the treated material and are not leached even under rigorous conditions.
!
Solid wastes, fluid suspensions, and sludges can all be treated by this
process, being combined with the fly ash in amounts up to 50 percent by
weight. Between 20 and 40 percent water is required in the process.
Authors' Note: Our visit to the Dortmund sipe was led by Mr. H. Becker, owner of the company
carrying out the site cleanup; Dr. Werner, who patented the process being used; and Dr. H. J.
Karpe and Mr. L. Kotter of the University of I Dortmund.
275
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276
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One limiting factor in the process is the availability of sufficient
quantities of the lignite fly^asfe which^rad^t*be trucked in from local power
plants. The fly ash is stored in two large silos on the site. The fly ash is
fed from the silos to the first stage reactor. Handling of the fly ash, a
very fine fluffy powder, also presents some problems.
Site Reuse
After the remediation is completed the site will be used again for heavy
industry. The site reclamation effort is expected to take at least one year.
Criteria for Cleanup
I
The State authorities granted approval for the site cleanup plan after two
years of reviewing the data to support the proposed process and considering
other alternatives. Protection of groundwater was the major concern. The pit
containing the solidified waste will be monitored to insure that there is no
leaching of contaminants.
I
CASE STUDY: RAILWAY CAR REPAIR STATION, CENTRAL GERMANY
j . ..• •
Land Use History and Redevelopment Objectives
A site in Central Germany was used for about 50 years as a repair station
for the government-owned railway. After the depot was closed, the property
was transferred within the Federal government and was slated for
redevelopment. A new high-rise building was planned for the site.
| 1 . , • . - - , | - ,., ' - , - ,HU1 :' f
Nature and Extent of the Contamination
Contamination at the site stemmed from spilled diesel fuel and from waste
oil dumped at the site. The many years of service had left the soil soaked
with diesel fuel and waste oil.. Although an extensive site investigation was
277
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not performed, contamination resulting from the former land use was recognized
before excavation began for the new building.
Remediation Activities
To avoid exposure of people to the organic vapors and to eliminate the
potential for contamination of groundwater, it was decided that excavation and
removal of the contaminated material was the best approach. It was estimated
that some 6,000 cubic meters of soil would have to be excavated for the new
building, and that some 400 cubic meters of that material would be
contaminated. Based on these estimates, removal and disposal of the
contaminated soil would not entail extensive extra cost, since major
excavation was necessary for construction of the new building. There was no
indication that the contamination would pose a major hazard to workers at the
site, so no unusual precautions were planned.
As the excavation proceeded, a decision had to be made regarding how each
truckload of soil should be managed. The State required that an independent
laboratory supervise the movement of material from the site. Decisions
regarding the management of excavated material were based on visual
examination and backed up by chemical analysis. The soil was assigned to one
of three categories, depending on the extent of contamination. The obviously
contaminated soil was hauled to a hazardous waste disposal facility. Soil in
which the extent of contamination was questionable was stored on site until
the results of chemical analyses were available. Soil showing no evidence of
contamination could be dumped or retained for use as fill.
After the planned excavation was nearly complete, there was a period of
heavy rain. Water collected at the excavated site showed evidence of oil
contamination, indicating the presence of additional contamination deeper than
initially expected. As a result, excavation was continued down to hard
bottom. This required lowering the water table by continuous pumping. Water
from the pumping wells had to be contained and managed, even though most of
this water was not contaminated.
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Approximately 60,000 cubic meter's of soil were actually excavated. About
100 cubic meters of soil containing fail at 1 percent or higher were
transported to a treatment facility jand incinerated in a rotary Kiln at a cost
of about 300 to 400 DM (about $100 to $130 U.S.) per cubic meter. Soils at
0.1 to 1 percent were land disposed jat a cost of about 30 DM (about $10) per
cubic meter. Soil containing less than 0.1 percent oil were sold or disposed
off-site at an average cost of about! 5DM ($1.7) per cubic meter.
The cost to alleviate the contamination ultimately involved the extensive
excavation, water management on-site, sampling and analysis (to assess
contamination), haulage of the contaminated soil, and the disposal and dumping
fees. These costs were paid by the government.
Site Reuse
A high-rise building has been constructed at the site.
CASE STUDY: GENDORF, ALTOTTING RURAL DISTRICT, BAVARIA
This site in Gendorf, near Munich, came to the attention of the Bavarian
Ministry for Land Development and Environmental Questions in 1979.
Information from a chemical company indicated that hazardous residues from
Lindane production were deposited oni-site.
r
i
Land Use History
Hazardous residues from the production of Lindane (manufactured from 1949-
1954) were deposited on a concrete slab (part of an old foundation) in the
area of the chemical factory. The deposit had been covered with 0.5 meters of
soil. A factory road was built in the area in the early 1960s.
79
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Nature and Extent of the Contamination
The pesticide known as Lindane is the gamma isomer of hexachloro-
cydohexane (HCH) . In manufacturing Lindane (99% purity), other HCH isomers
as well as other compounds are formed. Residues from the process are referred
to as "HCH" residues, and are expected to contain a mixture of highly toxic
chlorinated organics.
To determine the amount of waste deposited at the site and the extent of
the contaminated area, the Bavarian Environmental Protection Agency began an
investigation of the site including exploratory drilling. Based on data from
37 exploratory holes as well as a review of production documents and
statistics, it was estimated that the site contained about 400 metric tons of
HCH residues at a depth of 2.0 to 2.5 meters. The area of the deposits was
about 360 square meters. The material of concern was present as a dry powder
and also as a pasty sludge.
The cause for concern stemmed from the toxic properties of the materials
at the site. Different isomers of HCH exhibit different toxicities. Certain
isomers are central nervous system stimulants while others are depressants.
Lindane is reported to cause liver damage in experimental animals. HCH has
been reported to cause cancer in mice when administered orally in large doses.
HCH is highly toxic to aquatic populations.
Remediation Activities
Two alternatives were considered for disposal of the HCH residues:
1) Excavation and subsequent disposal in a special landfill or
underground salt mine or incineration; and
2) Encapsulation to secure the waste on-site.
The second alternative was selected based on results of a risk assessment.
280
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Excavation and removal of the material from the site would have required
substantial safety precautions such
as covering the entire waste site with a
tent with dust-free entrances and exits and limiting worker exposure to 4
hours per day (even with safety apparel). Additional problems were
anticipated in final disposal of the material. It was estimated that at least
one year would be required to remove 1300 tons of HCH residues and
contaminated soil from the site. I-
Projections of potential emissions of HCH were made based on leaving the
material on site in its current state. Theoretical annual'emissions were 1.25
Kg HCH leached from the deposit through precipitation and 18 g HCH transferred
through the soil to the atmosphere (based on a deposit area of 250 square
meters). These emissions could be Deduced by encapsulating the problem site.-
A diagram of the Gendorf encapsulation design is shown in Figure 31. The
following measures were taken (Defrejgger, 1980) to prevent migration of the
HCH residues:
1) installation of a water tigjht steel sheet piling system around the
site (426 meters) (sheet piling: LARSEN Profil Nr. 20, depth 3 m);
2)
1
installation of an impermeable synthetic membrane over the site;
3) additional protection of thje lining by layers of sand and gravel; and
4) fixation with bituminous material and paving asphalt concrete.
The final cover has a slope of 3 perjcent. The encapsulation was completed at
the end of July 1980. The effort rejquired about 3 weeks. Three monitoring
wells were installed to allow for long-term monitoring of groundwater beneath
i '
the encapsulated area.
Approximately 250,000 DM ($137,7j25 U.S.) were expended for the contaminant
work and setting up the observation wells (Defregger, 1980). These costs were
paid by the chemical plant.
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281
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Site Reuse
The site is located on the chemical plant premises in an industrial area.
Because of the encapsulated waste remaining on site, the site has been
designated in the register of land property to prevent any damage to the .
encapsulation in the future (Stief, 1984).
Guidelines for Cleanup
As guidance in the site assessment, the limits for pesticides (according
to section 26 of the German Water Resources Law) were used. These limits are
as follows:
single substance. ...... 1,000 X 10~6 mg/L (0.001 ppm)
Total 2,000 'X 10~6 mg/L (0.002 ppm)
(Defregger, 1980).
283
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REFERENCES
Birk, F., R. Geiersbach, and R. Muller, 1973. "The effects of Deposition and
Storage of Cyanide-Containing Hardening Salts in Bochum-Gerthe on the Surface
and Groundwater'.-Z. Dtsch. Geol. Ges., 124, 461-473. Hannover, 1973.
Braunschweig, W. E., "Experiences Gained With the Root-Zone Sewage Works at
Othfresen, (Erfahrungen mit der Wurzelraumklaranlage Othfresen)." Presented at
Symposium ,,Grundlagen und Praxis naturnaher Klaverfahren." Korrespondenz
Abwasser, 32. Jahrgang, 5/85, pp. 372-375.
Coldeway, W.G., 1984. "Experience With the Covering of Contaminated Land in
the Ruhr Region." Prepared for NATO/CCMS Meeting, Hamburg, May 20 - June 6,
1984.
Defregger, B. P., 1980. "Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites in
Bavaria Illustrated By Closing an Industrial Waste Chemical Dump." OECD
Seminar on Hazardous Waste "Problem" Sites, Paris, Nov. 1980,
ENV/WMP/80.Sem.8.
Heide, G. and H. Werner, 1984. "Process of Safely Disposing of Waste
Materials." U. S. Patent No. 4,456,400. June 26, 1984. Foreign Application
Priority Data: October 21, 1980, Fed. Rep. of Germany, 3039660; November 1,
1980, Fed. Rep. of Germany, 3044436.
Kikuth, R., 1971. Gutachten zur Einleitung von abwassern der Gemeinde
Othfresen in den ehemaligen Klarteich der Grube Ida." Universitat Gottingen,
1971.
Kikuth, R. 1983. "Jahresberichte zum ModelIprojekt Othfresen", Gottingen 1974
- 1977; Kassel 1978 - 1983.
Kloke, A., 1977. "Orientierungsdaten fur tolerierbare Gesamtgehalte einiger
Elemente in Kulturboden." Des Verbandes Deutscher Landwirtschaftlicher
Untersuchungs-und Forschungsanstalten (VDLUFA), HEFT 2/1977.
Shuldt, M., 1984. "Remedial Action Programme of Hamburg."
CCMS Meeting, Hamburg, May 30-June 2, 1984.
Presented at NATO
Stief, K., and V. Franzius, 1983. "Abandoned Waste Disposal Sites Problems in
the Federal Republic of Germany, Status Report." Submitted to the OECD Waste
Management Policy Group, Paris, April 1983, and to the NATO/CCMS Pilot Study
Group on Contaminated Land, Hamburg, May 1983, 18 pp. with 4 appendices.
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Stief, K., 1984. "Remedial Action for Groundwater Protection Case Studies
Within the Federal Republic of Germany" In: Proceedings 5th National
Conference on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, Washington,
D.C., November 7-9, 1984, pp. 565-568.
Szelinski, A., 1983'. "Legal Provisions of the Federal Republic of Germany
Concerning the Reclamation of Used Land." In: Conference Proceedings,
Reclamation 83, International Land Reclamation Conference and Exhibition,
Grays, Essex, U.D., April 26-29, 1983, pp. 221-229.
285
* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1992-648-003/40796
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