-------
usually predator-based systems (H. Howard, personal communication,
U.S. EPA Region 4, Athens, GA). Although no current protocol
exists for evaluating the viability of a macroinvertebrate
community of a wetland, comparisons of functional group composition
between reference wetlands and the wetland in question are
sometimes made to identify differences in community structure. In
contrasting a reference wetland to another wetland, biologists in
Region IV have observed the elimination in impacted wetlands of
certain taxonomic groups such as amphipods and odonates (H. Howard,
personal communication, U.S. EPA Region IV, Athens, GA). This kind
of comparison might be considered for functional groups in future
studies if reference sites are sampled simultaneously.
Genera richness of invertebrates varied from 25 to 41 in four
non-WTS palustrine wetlands in North Carolina (MacPherson 1988).
In addition, genera richness for invertebrates in Lower Mississippi
River abandoned channel and oxbow palustrine wetlands in 1984
ranged from 8 to 28 (Lowery et al. 1987). Genera richness for
benthic invertebrates in Lower Mississippi River borrow pit
palustrine wetlands ranged from 7 to 29 in 1981. The taxon level
to which invertebrates are identified, as well as the collection
techniques and group of invertebrates collected (e.g., nektonic,
benthic) vary, so comparison is difficult. Nevertheless, it
appears that genera richness of 30 and 50 for the Collins and Ocean
Springs sites, respectively, are within the range of richness in
non-WTS wetlands. Data on invertebrate abundance as determined
with the Timed Qualitative Sampling Technique were not found for
comparisons, so invertebrate abundance in the two WTS studied in
relation to that in non-WTS could not be assessed.
Macroinvertebrates are important to habitat quality and system
function because they serve as a major food source for waterbirds,
fish, reptiles, and amphibians, and they are a critical link
between primary production/detrital resources of systems and higher
order consumers (Murkin and Batt 1987, Murkin and Wrubleski 1987).
Because of their relatively low position on the food chain,
invertebrates can serve as indicators of food chain function and
its implications for higher organisms. Invertebrates are less
likely than birds or mammals to migrate from one wetland to
another, they can be sampled in a relatively short time period, and
they serve as an indicator of secondary productivity.
Macroinvertebrates have been suggested as monitoring indicators by
various scientists (Brooks et al. 1989, Brooks and Hughes 1988,
Brown et al. 1989, Schwartz 1987, US EPA 1983). Continued
development of this indicator for habitat evaluation in WTS is
recommended and should include standardization of collection
methods, expansion of collection techniques (e.g., sediment
sampling for benthic invertebrates), looking for relationships
between invertebrate abundance and bird use, adherence to a
rigorous experimental design, and simultaneous sampling at
reference sites. Functional group data might be useful for
comparisons with reference wetlands and for future development of
protocols for assessment of invertebrate community viability in
wetlands, but their usefulness as an effective indicator at this
time is uncertain.
39
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Table 12. Relative abundances of invertebrate functional groups,
Collins and Ocean Springs sites, Mississippi, 1991.
Terrestrial, immature, and non-insect invertebrates
were not assigned functional groups.
Collins Site
Functional Group Relative Abundance
Not assigned 48.2%
Predator 34.2
Collector/scraper 6.5
Collector 4.1
Piercer/collector 4.1
Piercer 2.5
Collector/shredder 0.3
Shredder 0.1
Ocean Springs Site
Functional Group Relative Abundance
Predator 56.0
Predator/collector 19.5
Not assigned 8.7
Co Hector/shredder 6.4
Scraper 5.6
Collector 1.5
Piercer 1.1
Collector/scraper 0.7
Piercer/collector 0.6
Shredder 0.1
40
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Whole Effluent Toxicity Tests
There was no statistically significant toxicity effect at
either site for the fathead minnow acute tests. Survival was 95%
or more for all samples. Toxic effects on reproduction of
Ceriodaphnia dubia were not observed or were not significant in
the Ocean Springs samples or the Collins effluent sample. In the
Collins influent sample, however, 100% mortality occurred within
96 hours in all replicates (Table 13). Measurements of each
water sample performed by the Duluth Laboratory upon arrival of
water samples are shown in Table 14, and initial and final
chemistries for water samples and the controls are shown in
Appendix D.
Table 13. Reproduction and survival of Ceriodaphnia dubia.
Sample
Mean young/original female
(confidence interval)
Mean Survival
Collins
Influent
Effluent
Control
Ocean Springs
Influent
Effluent
Control
0 (n/a)
31.1 (29.5-32.7)
29.6 (27.4-31.8)
22.7 (16.7-28.7)
24.3 (21.3-27.3)
19.6 (17.5-21.7)
0
100
100
90
100
100
Table 14. Measurements on water samples performed by ERL-Duluth
immediately upon arrival of samples at the laboratory.
Sample
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCCM
Alkalinity
(mg/L as
CaCOoi
Ammonia
N:NH3
(mcr/L)
TRC*
fmcr/L)
Collins
Influent
Effluent
30
35
Ocean Springs
Influent 43
Effluent 51
170
150
167
182
5.5
6.4
<0.02
<0.02
0.02
<0.02
TRC=total residue chlorine
41
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The precise cause of mortality of Ceriodaphnia dubia in the
Collins site influent samples and its implications for wildlife
should be further investigated. Wastewater entering the Collins
WTS is pre-treated only with a lagoon, so its potential to
contain- substances harmful to some aquatic organisms could be
greater than that for WTS that receive water that has gone
through secondary treatment at a wastewater treatment plant prior
to entering the wetland.
Toxic heavy metals, primarily from industrial sources, and
organic contaminants are sometimes present in municipal
wastewater (US EPA 1984, Hicks and Stober 1989, Richardson and
Nichols 1985). Their concentrations are typically reduced by
approximately 30-95% in secondary treatment before entering a
wetland (Richardson and Nichols 1985). In addition, most
constructed wetlands do not receive water from industries.
Although concentrations of toxic substances are likely to be
absent or low in WTS, probably the greatest risk to wildlife from
substances entering in wastewater, even in low concentrations, is
through bioaccumulation. Benthic organisms inhabiting and
feeding in contaminated sediments can uptake toxic substances
bound in the sediments. Short-term whole-effluent tests of water
will not indicate whether bioaccumulation is occurring, and,
unless the harmful substance is entering the wetland at the time
of sample collection, the test will not detect it. Furthermore,
tissue analyses conducted to determine whether bioaccumulation is
occurring will not be sufficient unless a connection between
tissue levels of contaminants and adverse effects can be
established. Nevertheless, it seems wise to monitor contaminant
levels in sediments or tissues of invertebrates or fish in
wetlands that are suspect (e.g., those that have past histories
of user violations) or where the potential for contamination is
greater (e.g., wetlands receiving industrial inputs).
Determining whether the levels of specific substances found pose
risks to higher forms of wildlife through ingestion, exposure, or
bioaccumulation is then necessary. Early detection and
correction is preferable to remedying a problem once it has
occurred.
Although toxicity is a very important issue, it is not one
that is related exclusively to wildlife habitat. Depending upon
public use of the WTS, toxicity can become a human health issue
as well. Whole-effluent toxicity tests are not recommended for
future studies of wildlife habitat quality because they do not
provide enough information for assessing risk of toxicity or
effects of bioaccumulation in a system. The proper procedure for
documenting the effects of harmful substances in WTS is a much
more lengthy and expensive process than a general assessment of
wildlife habitat quality and thus should be a separate activity
in selected wetlands suspected as higher risks for the presence
of contaminants. Suspect wetlands might be those where toxic
substances or metals have been found in the past, where
wastewater treatment plant user violations have occurred in the
past, or where routine sampling suggests possible problems (e.g.,
42
-------
a sharp reduction in invertebrates present, signs of stress or
disease in birds that use the WTS, or a combination of indicator
measurements that suggests a marked decrease in wetland integrity
from one year to the next) . >^ , ',**•*"
Bird Use
A total of 35 species were detected at both the Collins and
Ocean Springs sites during the survey period. Species richness
was greater in fall at both sites. Wood ducks were the most
abundant bird at the Collins site in both the summer and fall
surveys, accounting for 27.5% and 31.1%, respectively, of the
average total birds counted per survey (Table 15). At the Ocean
Springs site, red-winged blackbirds had the highest relative
abundance in the summer, while American coots had the highest in
the fall (Table 16). The mean number of red-winged blackbirds
per survey stayed about the same from summer to fall, but the
mean number of coots almost quadrupled. Although some species
were detected on both the summer and fall surveys, the bird
communities were quite different for the two survey periods.
Only 8 species at the Collins site and 7 species at the Ocean
Springs site were detected on both the summer and fall surveys
(Tables 15 and 16).
The total number of birds surveyed at Collins and Ocean
Springs was 189 and 296, respectively, in the summer and 123 and
674, respectively, in the fall. This resulted in means of 37.8
and 26.4 birds per survey for the summer and fall periods,
respectively, at the Collins site (Table 15) and 59.2 and 134.8
birds per survey for the summer and fall periods, respectively,
at the Ocean Springs site (Table 16). The high counts at the
Ocean Springs site in the fall were due to a large extent to a
large number of American coots. The average density at the
Collins site was 8.5 birds/ha in the summer and 5.9 birds/ha in
the fall. At the Ocean Springs site, bird density was 6.4 per ha
in summer and 14.5 per ha in fall.
Several bird species were detected at each site during the
field work in mid-summer that were not detected during surveys.
The probability of detecting less common birds or migrants was
greater during field work because researchers spent four
continuous 10-hour days on the site. In addition, more forest
birds were detected during the field work, particularly at the
Collins site, probably because the distance within which birds
were considered was not limited as it was with the more
systematic surveys. Additional birds seen or heard while
conducting work at the Collins site were: northern cardinal,
rufous-sided towhee, white-eyed vireo, yellow warbler, yellow-
billed cuckoo, tufted titmouse, and indigo bunting. Additional
birds seen or heard while conducting work at the Ocean Springs
site were: cliff swallow, great egret, white ibis, turkey
43
-------
Table 15. Mean number of birds of each species per survey (n=5)
and their relative abundances in the summer and fall
periods-Collins site. Total of relative abundance is
not exactly 100 due to rounding error.
Summer 1991
mean per rel.
survey abund .
Species (n=5) (%)
wood duck 10.4
red-winged blackbird
•chimney swift
barn swallow
purple martin
common grackle
eastern kingbird
rough-winged swallow
eastern bluebird
common yellowthroat
semipalmated sandpiper
great egret
great crested flycatcher
green-backed heron
ruby-throated hummingbird
American crow
sharp-shinned hawk
northern mockingbird
blue jay
great blue heron
eastern phoebe
killdeer
ring-necked duck
blue-winged teal
American coot
yellow-rumped warbler
American widgeon
gadwall
marsh wren
belted kingfisher
Carolina wren
yellow-bellied sapsucker
common snipe
hooded merganser
field sparrow
7.8
5.6
3.0
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27.5
20.6
14.8
7.9
4.2
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.2
2.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Fall 1991
mean per rel.
survey abund
(n=5) r%>
8.2
2.8
0
0
0
1.4
0
0
0
0.4
0
0.6
0
0
0
1.8
0
0.2
0
0.6
1.8
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
31.1
10.6
0
0
0
5.3
0
0
0
1.5
0
2.3
0
0
0
6.8
0
0.8
0
2.3
6.8
5.3
4.5
3.8
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.3
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
Totals
37.8
100.0
26.4
100.1
44
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Table 16. Mean number of birds of each species per survey and
their relative abundances in the summer and fall
periods - Ocean Springs site. Total of relative
abundance is not exactly 100 due to rounding error.
Species
red-winged blackbird
American coot
common gallinule
pied-billed grebe
mallard
common grackle
eastern kingbird
barn swallow
green-backed heron
rough -winged swallow
chimney swift
great blue heron
wood duck
killdeer
mourning dove
bobwhite quail
brown-headed cowbird
common nighthawk
orchard oriole
common snipe
blue-winged teal
swamp sparrow
sander ling
savannah sparrow
black-necked stilt
marsh wren
shove ler
sora
eastern meadowlark
lesser yellowlegs
snowy egret
northern harrier
kestrel
ring-necked duck
American widaeon
Summer 1991
mean per rel.
survey abund.
m
18.6
17.0
7.8
4.0
2.4
1.8
1.6
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
31.4
28.7
13.2
6.8
4.1
3.0
2.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Fall
mean per
survey
15.8
62.4
1.6
0.8
0.6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 '
2.0
0
2.6
0
0
0
12.2
10.0
8.6
5.0
4.2
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
1991
rel.
abund
(%)
11.7
46.3
1.2
0.6
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.5
0
1.9
0
0
0
9.1
7.4
6.4
3.7
3.1
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
Totals
59.2
100.1
134.8
100.0
45
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vulture/ mottled duck, Canada goose, great crested flycatcher,
Mississippi kite, purple martin, little blue heron, and
Mississippi sandhill crane (flying over the site).
The benefits of both WTS are probably increased because the
wetlands occur in a landscape setting where wildlife can make use
of a complex of habitats in a larger area. Although the Collins
site lies at the edge of a residential area in a small town, it
is surrounded by mature forest and is bordered on one side by a
wooded stream, which provides habitat for forest passerines and
wood ducks, which also use the wetland. The density of wood
ducks at the site is also enhanced by nest boxes, which have been
placed at several points throughout the wetland and are used
heavily during nesting season. The Ocean Springs site is part of
the Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge, so ample wildlife
habitat of various forms borders that site as well. The two WTS
attract and provide resources for birds that are not wetland
dependent. For example, the WTS produce insects which can serve
as food for songbirds such as swallows, flycatchers, warblers,
and nighthawks. Sixty-six percent of bird species at the Collins
site and 51% at the Ocean Springs site were not wetland
dependent.
At several southeastern palustrine non-WTS comparison
wetlands, species richness ranged from 5 to 98 (values in the
lower range were reported in studies that surveyed only waterfowl
and wading birds) (Tables 17-19). Bird density ranged from 0.04
to 0.35 (Tables 17 and 19). Species richness at the WTS (35 at
both sites) was within the range found in other types of
wetlands. Densities at the WTS (5.9-14.5 birds per ha.) were
much higher than those reported for comparison wetlands. This
can probably be attributed in part to the observed high
biological productivity in the WTS. Increased organic loading
increases production of aquatic invertebrates and thus the
abundance and diversity of songbirds (Hanowski and Niemi 1987)
and waterfowl (Belanger and Couture 1988, Piest and Sowls 1985).
Benefits to waterfowl and other species of wildlife from use of
wastewater for habitat enhancement in California marshes were
also reported by Cedarquist and Roche (1979) and Cedarquist
(1980a, 198Ob) for wastewater discharge to natural wetlands and
by Demgen (1979) and Demgen and Mute (1979) for artificial
wetlands.
Although the benefits are great, concerns exist about
wildlife use of WTS. Some- mortality of water birds from
microbial diseases (Steiniger 1962, Dodge and Low 1972, Clegg and
Hunt 1975) and from contaminants (Nero 1964) has been attributed
to their use of WTS. Current concern about a nematode parasite
(Eustrongylldes ignotus) associated with eutrophic waters
primarily in the southeastern United States, poses one reason for
conservative evaluation of WTS as wildlife habitats. The
parasite spends parts of its life cycle in aquatic worms
(Oligochaeta) and fish and can cause mortality in fish-eating
wading birds, particularly nestlings (Spalding, M. personal
communication, University of Florida, Gainesville). Presently,
46
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Table 17. Bird species richness and density in Florida non-WTS palustrine wetlands.
Species Density
Site richness Year (birds/ha) Source
West of K-6 (FL) 40
Lake Hancock (FL) 13
Lake Hancock (FL) 15
- - data not available
1990 -- Henigar& Ray 1990
1988 0.26 Edelson and Collopy 1990
1989 0.28 Edelson and Collopy 1990
Table 18. Waterfowl and wading bird species richness at non-WTS palustrine wetlands in
Guntersville Reservoir, Alabama, 1988 (James et al., 1989).
Site
Town Creek Embayment
Compartment 1
Compartment 2
Compartment 3
Species
richness
5
5
6
Site
Mud Creek Embayment
Compartment 1
Comparment 2
Comparment 3
Species
richness
11
8
8
47 .
-------
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the overall impact of these parasites on wading bird populations
is uncertain.
Habitat requirements, life histories, and species
assemblages of wetland birds are relatively well-known, although
information on community-level response to particular stressors
has been difficult to collect (Adamus and Brandt 1990). Birds
are more visible and audible than other faunal components and are
easily identified by trained biologists, which makes bird use a
relatively reliable measurement in many cases. Information on
birds is sometimes useful for assessing other system components,
such as the types of food resources that might be present in the
wetland or the presence of habitat features required by certain
species.
Birds, however, are very mobile, and their use of a wetland
may be erratic, necessitating multiple surveys over a period of
time. Because of their mobility, effects of contamination in
birds, if detected, usually cannot be linked with certainty to
the wetland in question. In addition, one cannot assume that the
presence of birds means good habitat quality, particularly in
regions where suitable habitats are diminishing and birds are
forced to use available habitat regardless of its condition.
Most bird species might be better as indicators of overall
landscape conditions than of single wetland conditions (Adamus
and Brandt 1990). The food resource (e.g., invertebrates,
zooplankton, or fish) might be a more reliable indicator for
assessing the faunal component of individual wetlands and is not
as mobile. However, laboratory time and expense are required for
identification of invertebrates or zooplankton.
Migratory seasons are the best time to assess optimal
foraging and resting use by birds but not necessarily the best
time to sample other indicators at the wetland, such as
vegetation. If the goal of future monitoring is to assess a
wetland in a short time period (1 day or less), estimation of
bird use may be grossly biased. Depending upon the information
desired, consideration might be given to conducting surveys in
only one season instead of two to save expense and field effort.
The results of this study showed that species richness changed
very little between the summer and fall survey periods, but the
species compositions changed considerably. Thus, species
richness for only one season of surveys would be substantially
lower than for two seasons of effort and would not represent bird
use as accurately. In addition, the average number of birds per
survey varied between, the summer and fall periods and the
direction of the change was different at the two WTS. If bird
use is an indicator in future studies, research planners should
consider:
o The amount of sampling effort that can be devoted
versus that required to obtain an accurate
representation of bird use, density, and diversity
o Establishment of a yearly sampling schedule that
49
-------
minimizes survey effort (i.e. repeat visits) while
assuring that bird use is accurately characterized
o Data integration and reduction if multiple surveys are
conducted
o Logistics and quality assurance issues involved in
coordinating bird surveys with other agencies,
universities, or organizations and conflicts that might
arise due to diverging interests in the kinds of data
collected
o Quantification of the relationship between bird
abundance/density and other wildlife habitat indicator
values
o Comparison of bird density and richness at a WTS with
that found at surrounding reference wetlands
o Quantification of bird activity (breeding, feeding,
resting) and the relative abundance of threatened,
endangered, or keystone species.
Evaluation of Ancillary Values
Probability ratings of high, medium, and low assigned by the
WET analysis to the various wetland functions are given in Table
20. The WET analysis provides ratings for functions other than
wildlife habitat, which are also included in the table. Of
greatest concern with regard to wildlife habitat are the ratings
for effectiveness and opportunity that characterize the wetland
and surrounding area in terms of physical, chemical and
biological attributes. The four ratings for wildlife and aquatic
diversity/abundance under effectiveness were high for the Collins
site. At the Ocean Springs site, ratings were high for wildlife
migration and wintering and low for wildlife breeding and aquatic
diversity/abundance. The Collins site was also rated high under
effectiveness for sediment/toxicant retention and nutrient
removal/transformation; The Ocean Springs site was high for
groundwater discharge, floodflow alteration, sediment
stabilization, sediment/toxicant retention, and nutrient
removal/transformation. Both sites were rated low for
groundwater recharge. The majority of values under social
significance were rated low at the Collins site and moderate at
the Ocean Springs site, with the exception of wildlife
diversity/abundance, which was moderate at the Collins site and
high at the Ocean Springs site.
The use of WET in WTS presented some interpretation
problems, which arose because questions did not pertain to the
unique circumstances present in WTS. For instance, WET was
designed primarily for wetlands, either natural or artificial,
that function within a watershed. WTS, however, do not receive
water from a typical watershed. Their artificial nature and the
50
-------
service they provide are unique circumstances that are not
accommodated by some of the^WET questions. Answering these
questions requires assumptions and/or guesses that might affect
the final outcome in unknown ways. The technique also requires a
large amount of information on surrounding wetlands and a
knowledge of the locality (e.g., geography, geology, land use,
watershed characteristics). Information about the wetland in
question in other times of the year is also necessary. Local
people familiar with the area must be depended upon to answer
questions regarding other wetlands and seasons.
The answers to many of the WET questions were uncertain or
speculative, so the results are questionable. Unless field
personnel are experienced with using the technique, it can be
cumbersome and confusing. There is also the possibility that the
answers given by the WET analysis may be taken at face value
without consideration of other data collected or use of
professional judgement. Continued use of WET for assessing WTS
is therefore not recommended.
Other comprehensive evaluation methods exist and could be
considered for testing in future research if a rapid assessment
method is deemed necessary to complement indicator data. Some
were designed for national use while others were designed for
regional use. All methods have limitations and are based on
assumptions and none have been validated extensively. An
overview of the most commonly used methods is given by Adamus
(1992).
Site Morphology
Physical features of artificial ponds, such as surface area
and shoreline irregularity (or edge), influence waterfowl brood
use (Belanger and Couture 1988, Lokemoen 1973, Mack and Flake
1980, and Hudson 1983). Belanger and Couture (1988) recommend
that for good waterfowl habitat, artificial ponds should have
>30% cover of emergent vegetation. Both of the Mississippi sites
have more than 30% emergent vegetation cover. Emergent
vegetation covered 32% (not including floating Alternanthera
philoxeroides) of the wetland area at the Collins site and 71% at
the Ocean Springs site. •
Diversity, abundance, and density of wetland-dependent
animals is usually higher when vegetation and water are well-
interspersed. Weller and Frederickson (1973) noted a possible
correlation between marsh-restricted bird species and percent
open water or the number of open pools in emergent cover. Steel
et al. (1956) reported larger duck nesting populations in broken
than in solid emergent vegetation. Marshes with 50-70 percent
open water that is well interspersed with emergent vegetation (or
a ratio of water to cover of 1.00-2.33) produce the greatest bird
diversities and numbers (Weller and Frederickson 1973). Weller
and Spatcher (1965) noted that maximum bird species richness and
abundance occurred when a well-interspersed water:cover ratio of
50:50 (or 1.00) existed. The Collins site ratio of water to
51
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Table 20. WET ratings for the Collins and Ocean Springs sites.
H=high;' M=moderate; L=low; *=not evaluated by WET;
Effect.=Effectiveness; Opport.=Opportunity;
d/a=diversity/abundance.
COLLINS
Social
Wetland Function Significance Effect. Opport.
Groundwater recharge L L *
Groundwater discharge L M *
Ploodflow alteration L M H
Sediment stabilization M M *
Sediment/toxicant retention L H H
Nutrient removal/transformation L H H
Production export * M *
Wildlife diversity/abundance M * *
Wildlife d/a - breeding * H *
Wildlife d/a - migration * H *
Wildlife d/a - wintering * H *
Aquatic diversity/abundance M H *
Uniqueness/heritage H * *
Recreation L * *
OCEAN SPRINGS
Groundwater recharge M L *
Groundwater discharge M H *
Floodflow alteration M H M
Sediment stabilization M H *
Sediment/toxicant retention M H H
Nutrient removal/transformation M H H
Production export * M *
Wildlife diversity/abundance H * *
Wildlife d/a - breeding * L *
Wildlife d/a - migration * H *
Wildlife d/a - wintering * H *
Aquatic diversity/abundance M L *
Uniqueness/heritage H * *'
Recreation L * *
52
-------
cover was slightly low (0.77) (Table 21), and open water pools
were not interspersed with cover. Cell 1 contained more open
water/ making the ratio of water to cover more optimal, while
cell 2 was densely vegetated'with Scirpus spp. and Leiana spp.,
producing a ratio of zero (Table 21). The ratio of water to
cover at the Ocean Springs site was only 0.09. The deepwater
areas covered by duckweed at that site, however, might be better
included as water, which would make the ratio slightly higher
(0.10-0.15). The Ocean Springs site was planted as solid dense
vegetation with deepwater areas between strips of Typha spp. and
Scirpus spp. After a year of operation, however, some areas in
the vegetated sections (particularly the Scirpus spp. are opening
up, creating larger areas of shallow water for waterbird feeding
and a better interspersion of water and cover.
The open water category primarily describes large expanses
of open water with no vegetation (i.e. those that are visible on
photos); it is not the total amount of water present. Waterbirds
can use areas covered by small floating-leaved plants and areas
under the canopies of large emergent plants such as Typha and
Scirpus. At both of the WTS, surface water area covered by
duckweed underneath emergent plants was sufficient to allow use
by waterbirds for protection and feeding.
Land/water interface per hectare is a measure of edge. It
is also another measure of the degree of interspersion of water
and cover. Mack and Flake (1980) found that edge length was
positively correlated with dabbling duck production in the
prairie pothole region. Harris and others (1983) concluded that
edge habitat is important to bird species diversity. Neither
wetland has sinuous shoreline or islands. Land/water
interface/ha was almost twice as great at the Collins site as at
the Ocean Springs site (Table 21), probably due to the small
dikes that extend into the Collins WTS (see Appendix A). The
dikes at this site, however, cannot be used for nesting or
protection most of the time because they are mowed regularly for
maintenance purposes and are sometimes flooded in wetter years.
At the Ocean Springs site, the only land/water interface is the
rectangular border of the two cells.
The interface between different cover types is another
measure of interspersion and edge. Wetlands with moderate to
high vegetation richness and interspersion can support a greater
density and species richness of aquatic animals than those with
low interspersion (Weinstein and Brooks 1983, Rozas and Odum
1987). Weller and Spatcher (1965) noted that many marsh bird
species nested near water-cover interfaces or the interface of
two cover types. Based on field observations, plant species were
not well-interspersed overall at either of the Mississippi sites,
partly because the number of dominant species (those that were
discernable on aerial photos - Table 21) was low and partly
because these sites, like many constructed wetland sites, were
artificially planted. Planting is often done by placing
different species next to each other in rectangular sections or
long strips with straight sides, thus minimizing distance of edge
53
-------
Table 21. Landscape data acquired from aerial photographs.
Indicators are marked with an asterisk. Numbers in
parentheses are percentages of total wetland area of
the site or cell. Percent coverage of plants listed
under the vegetated category can sum to more than the
total vegetated percentage due to overlap of species.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
COLLINS SITE
Whole site
Wetland area (ha)* 4.473
Cover areas (ha)
(percent of wetland area) *
a . Vegetated
Scirpus californicus
Typha latifolia
Polygonum punctatum
Al ternanthera
philoxeroides
Small floating-leaved
Mixed emergents
b. Open Water
Land/water interface (m)
cover/cover interface (m)
Open water area: vegetated
area*
Land/water interface:
Wetland area (m/ha)*
Cover /cover interface:
2.530
(57)
0.973
(22)
0.071
(1)
0.043
(1)
0.453
(10)
2.036
(46)
0.375
(8)
1.943
(43)
1835
1680
0.77
410
376
Cell 1
2.849
0.906
(32)
0
(0)
0.071
(2)
0.043
(2)
0.444
(16)
0.404
(14)
0.327
(11)
1.943
(68)
1195
190
2.14
419
67
Cell 2
1.624
1.624
(100)
0.973
(60)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0.009
(1)
1.624
(100)
0.048
(3)
0
(0)
640
1490
0
394
917
Wetland area (m/ha)*
54
-------
(Table 21, continued)
OCEAN SPRINGS SITE
Whole site
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wetland area (ha) *
Cover areas (ha)
(percent of wetland area)*
a. Vegetated
Typha latifolia
Scirpus validus
Small floating-leaved
Sagittaria lancifolia
Pontederia cordata
b. Open Water
Land/water interface (m)
Cover /cover interface (m)
Open water area : vegetated
9.281
8.530
(92)
5.177
(56)
1.217
(13)
1.994
(21)
0.091
(1)
0.051
(1)
0.751
(8)
2134
2681
.09
Cell 1
5.088
4.677
(92)
2.650
(52)
0.897
(18)
1.014
(20)
0.070
(1)
'0.046
(1)
0.411
(8)
1120
1392
.09
Cell 2
4.193
3.853
(92)
2.527
(60)
0.320
(7)
0.980
(23)
' 0.021
(1)
0.005
(1)
0.340
(8)
1013
1289
.09
area*
Land/water interface:
Wetland area (m/ha)*
Cover/cover interface:
Wetland area (m/ha)*
230
289
220
274
242
307
55
-------
(and thus inter spers ion) between spec less. Although this is often
a practical design for treating wastewater, it may not be best
for wildlife habitat. The whole-site ratio of cover/cover
interface per ha was higher at the Collins site than at the Ocean
Springs site, but the ratios of the two cells were more similar
at the Ocean Springs site (Table 21). The low ratio at the
Collins site cell 1 (67) was due to the sparse vegetation in that
cell (only 32%) and the presence of only one major cover type.
The distinction between Alternanthera philoxeroides and Le'mna
spp. was not made when measuring interface because both were
floating-leaved species and not well-separable as two different
cover types. The high ratio in cell 2 was due to the
interspersion of dense Scirpus spp. and Lemna spp., which were
two distinctly different cover types.
The size of a wetland .is vital to maintaining a marsh fauna.
To produce good waterfowl habitat, Belanger and Couture (1988)
recommend that artificial ponds be > 0.5 hectare. Both WTS
studied meet this criterion. Because wetlands are numerous in
the southeastern United States, however, it is not essential that
the WTS provide all the habitat requirements of wildlife. Large
wetlands or complexes of wetlands types and upland areas may be
necessary for fulfilling all wildlife needs or for attracting
birds (Weller 1978). Birds, in particular, can move between
different wetlands (i.e., within a wetland complex), -using some
for nesting, others for feeding, and others for roosting and
cover. The habitat value of the Collins wetland is very likely
increased because of its setting adjacent to a forested stream,
which provides necessary resources, including habitat, for
songbirds and wood ducks that might not be present in the wetland
alone. For assessing the value of a single wetland, the wetland
area indicator, therefore, might be better expressed as the area
of wetlands in a watershed or within a chosen distance from the
wetland in question so that single wetlands can be assessed in
the landscape context and not as isolated entities.
The presence of other habitat types might also be important
for evaluating wetland value in a landscape context, particularly
for wildlife which is not wetland-dependent but which
periodically makes use of wetlands. For instance, the Ocean
Springs site lies within the Mississippi Sandhill Crane National
Wildlife Refuge, and its value is enhanced because birds
attracted to the refuge can use it.
Physical habitat features such as shoreline length, amount
of edge, ratio of open water to vegetated area, and vegetation
interspersion are good indicators of habitat quality because ,
their relationships to wildlife production and/or use have been
shown repeatedly. They can be obtained from maps or aerial
photographs in a relatively short period of time and with less
effort than field work. Some field ground truthing of vegetation
types, however, is necessary for air photo interpretation. The
indicators can be collected in every wetland of interest, and
replicate samples and assessment of variability are not
necessary. Comparisons with reference wetlands can be done to
56
-------
assess potential differences between natural and WTS. Aerial
photos and maps can also be used to evaluate the larger landscape
setting, which is of great importance in evaluating wildlife
habitat, particularly when the wetland in question is small.
There is some overlap between the kinds of information on cover
types that can be obtained from photos and from vegetation
sampling in the field. Cover estimation of the dominant cover
types can be obtained from photos while field work might focus on
determination of species richness. A wide variety of information
can be obtained from photos and maps, and their use in the future
is highly recommended. Cost of aerial photography, however, may
be a limitation.
Water Quality
Water quality summary data are presented for the influent
and effluent of each WTS in Table 22. Comparison data for non-
WTS in the southeastern region are presented in Tables 23-27.
Means for water quality indicators from the influent and effluent
of the WTS were within the range of non-WTS for pH, TSS, DO, TKN,
and TP.
Wetlands that receive water with low levels of TSS (less
than 80 and never exceeding 200 mg/L) are more likely to support
a greater diversity and/or abundance of fish and invertebrates
(P. Adamus, personal communication, Mantech Environmental
Technology, Inc., Corvallis, OR). Both WTS met these criteria.
The TSS concentrations at both sites are periodically above 80
mg/L, but were never as high as 200 mg/L. In addition, both
wetlands are very efficient at reducing TSS. Average effluent
concentrations (12.8 mg/L at the Collins site and 10.9 mg/L at
the Ocean Springs site) are much lower than influent
concentrations.
Turbidity can affect fish and invertebrate populations
indirectly by raising water temperature, leading to lower DO
concentrations (Reed et al. 1983). Dissolved oxygen
concentrations greater than 4 mg/L and 60% saturation are more
likely to support a greater diversity and/or abundance of fish
and invertebrates than wetlands with lower concentrations
(Adamus, personal communication, Mantech Environmental
Technology, Inc. Corvallis, OR). Concentrations of 2 and 4 mg/L,
however, are not uncommon in many Florida streams and swamps
(Dierberg and Brezonik, 1984, Friedemann and Hand 1989, Hampson,
1989). Consequently, low DO often naturally limits the richness
of invertebrates (Ziser 1978) and fish (Tonn and Magnuson 1982)
in wetlands. Average dissolved oxygen at both WTS sites studied
is 4.0 mg/L or above. Average effluent concentrations were lower
than influent concentrations, with minimum concentrations of 3.6
mg/L at the Collins site and 1.2 mg/L at the Ocean Springs site
(Table 22).
Total mean phosphorus values for the WTS (3.8-5.0 mg/L)
(Table 22) were high compared to most non-WTS (0.02-2.10 mg/L)
57
-------
(Tables 23, 24, 26, and 27), but were still lower than two of the
natural wetlands studied by Brown (1991) in Florida, which had TP
concentrations of 6.1 and 8.7 mg/L (Table 27).
Fecal coliform bacteria at the Collins site (58.8 influent;
56.4 effluent) (Table 22) was within the range of values reported
for non-WTS. Fecal coliforms at the Ocean Springs site (249.3
influent; 112.7 effluent) were higher than those reported for
non-WTS (<10-100) (Table 24), although few data were found for
comparison. The effluent count at the Ocean Springs site is very
close to the comparison range and is more than a 50% reduction of
the influent count.
BOD and Ammonia-N concentrations in influent and effluent of
the two WTS (1.1-4.7 mg/L for ammonia-N and 9.1-68.2 mg/L for
BOD) (Table 22) were high in comparison with non-WTS (0.01-0.26
mg/L for ammonia-N and 2.3-7.4 mg/L for BOD) (Tables 23 and 24),
although few data were found for comparison. Influent means at
the WTS sites were about an order of magnitude greater than the
highest comparison values for both parameters. It is likely,
although not confirmed, that the results reported for ammonia-
nitrogen at the WTS were actually for ammonium. Both WTS,
however, were very efficient in removing BOD. Effluent BOD
concentrations were 9.3 mg/L and 9.1 mg/L at the Collins and
Ocean Springs sites, respectively; compared to 68.2 and 21.2 mg/L
in the influent (Table 22). Ammonia-nitrogen was also removed
within the WTS (from 4.1 to 1.1 mg/L at the Collins site and from
4.7 to 1.3 at the Ocean Springs site) (Table 22).
Variability is high for some water quality indicators (e.g.,
fecal coliform counts) and low for others (e.g. Ph, TP) as shown
by the standard deviation (Table 22). For some indicators the
magnitude of variability is not consistent between sites.
Variability of TSS and NH3-N is lower at the Collins than at the
Ocean Springs site (Table 22).
Interpreting precisely what some water quality indicators
mean for assessing wildlife habitat quality is difficult because
the relationship to most important habitat components is
indirect. The effects of water nutrient concentrations are
reflected by community composition of plants, invertebrates,
fish, etc., which are more directly related to wildlife habitat
and are time-integrated measures. For instance, poor water
quality (e.g., low water clarity, low oxygen concentrations)
typically causes growth of competitive plant species over time,
which often crowd out species most valuable to wildlife and
produce little or no food (Atlantic Flyway Council 1972).
Another problem with using water quality parameters as
indicators is that, because some of them are quite variable and
the information obtained is not time-integrated, measurements
need to be taken over time to have significant meaning. The
measurements are usually available from site operators because
discharge permits require monitoring of certain constituents in
wastewater. However, evaluating the quality of these data
58
-------
Table 22. Summaries of water quality data at the Collins and
Ocean Springs sites. I-influent; E=effluent; N=number
of samples; substandard units; TSS=total suspended
solids; DO=dissolved oxygen; BOD=biochemical oxygen
demand (5-day); NH3-N=ammonia nitrogen; TKN=total
Kjeldahl nitrogen; TP=total phosphorus; Fec.Col.=fecal
coliform bacteria.
Variable I/E
pH (SU)
Ph
TSS (mg/L)
TSS
DO (mg/L)
DO
BOD (mg/L)
BOD
NH3-N (mg/L)
NH3-N
TKN (mg/L)
TKN
TP (mg/L)
TP
Fee . Col .
(no./lOO Ml)
Fee. Col.
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I '
E
N
14
16
16
15
7
7
16
15
7
7
Not
Not
7
7
8
14
COLLINS
Range
6.6-8.4
6.2-7.5
16.4-123.0
8.4-16.4
7.7-10.4
3.6-6.9
27.5-121.3
7.3-11.7
3.2-4.8
0.8-1.3
Measured
Measured
3.3-5.3
2.6-4.9
35-140
10-170
Mean
7.4
7.0
75.1
12.8
9.3
4.9
68.2
9.3
4.0
1.1
4.7
3.8
58.8
56.4
Std Dev
0.6
0.4
31.2
2.9
1.0
1.1
37.1
1.4
0.5
0.2
0.7
0.8
34.1
51.2
59
-------
—Jf
(Table 22, continued)
Variable
Ph (S.U.)
Ph
TSS (mg/L)
TSS
DO (mg/L)
DO
BOD (mg/L)
BOD
NH3-N (mg/L)
NH3-N
TKN (mg/L)
TKN
TP (mg/L)
TP
Fee . Col .
(no./lOO Ml)
Fee. Col.
I/E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
I
E
N
44
67
48
67
24
68
47
67
11
68
11
24
11
Not
47
14
OCEAN SPRINGS
Range
7.3-10.8
6.3-9.9
2.0-128.0
1.0-90.0
2.8-12.6
1.2-9.3
4.8-61.8
3.0-51.0
0.1-13.2
0.1-4.4
4.4-20.2
1.3-8.3
3.8-6.3
Measured
13.0-1200.0
18.0-600.0
Mean
8.7
7.3
37.8
10.9
6.8
4.0
21.2
9.1
4.7
1.3
11.4
3.8
5.0
249.3
112.7
Std Dev
0.9
0.6
28.5
13.9
2.4
2.6
12 . 1
6.2
4.8
1.1
5.4
1.5
1.0
253.5
149.3
60
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—4
requires extensive and time-consuming review and evaluation of
standard operating and quality assurance procedures used by
laboratories that conduct analyses oh each wetland's water
samples. If comparisons among wetlands are to be done in future
studies, laboratory procedures and quality control measures
should be the same for all laboratories. Also, the particular
water quality parameters measured differ from one site to another
and are not necessarily collected at the same frequency. Data
management and record-:keeping by site operators varies, and it is
sometimes difficult to acquire specific data. Also, there is
some discrepancy among laboratories about exactly which metric is
measured and what it is called (e.g., ammonia vs. ammonium, total
phosphorus vs. total phosphorous as phosphate). The continued
use of existing data sets for acquiring indicator information is
therefore not recommended. Sampling of some water quality
indicators, such as dissolved oxygen, ammonia, or suspended
solids, during field sampling might be useful for interpreting
other field data collected at the same time (e.g., abundance and
diversity of invertebrate and plant species).
65
-------
4
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The use of partially treated wastewater for creation of
wetlands has great potential. It is an efficient reuse of water,
eliminates chemical treatment, can be very cost-effective, and
can be beneficial to wildlife. For these reasons, assessment of
the wildlife habitat quality and sustainability of these systems
and development of methods for assessing and monitoring them is
of interest to the EPA.
Table 28 contains a summary of the comparisons made between
the two WTS studied and non-WTS in the Southeast. Overall, most
of the indicator values from the two Mississippi WTS (for which
comparison values were available) were within the range of values
for non-WTS. Two of the water quality indicators - BOD and
ammonia-N concentrations - had higher values in the two WTS than
in the non-WTS used for comparison. The majority of water
quality indicators, however, were within the range. Bird
densities were generally higher in WTS than in non-WTS. The data
suggest that the habitat condition of the two WTS studied is not
grossly different than that of the general population of wetlands
in the same region. The preliminary results, however, do not
indicate actual habitat value because little is known about the
habitat quality of comparison wetlands or the WTS as measured by
the indicators used. Habitat quality was assessed only relevant
to comparison wetlands. Guidelines for selecting comparison
(i.e., reference) wetlands with good wildlife habitat are needed.
Table 28. General relationship of data from the WTS studied to
the range of values reported for non-WTS in the
southeast United States.
Plant Species
Richness
Invertebrate
Genera Richness
Water Nutrient
Concentrations
Bird Species
Richness
Bird Density
Below
Range
Low
X
Within
Range
Middle
-
X
Hiah
X
X
u
Above
Range
X
66
-------
A summary of the indicators used in this study, including
sampling effort, expense, reliability of information collected,
direct relevance to wildlife^habitat:quality, and recommendation
for development in future studies, is given in Table 29.
Vegetation, invertebrate, and site morphology indicators are
recommended for development for evaluating wildlife habitat
quality in WTS. The use of birds as indicators is questionable,
primarily because of their mobility.
Use of existing water nutrient data, whole-effluent tests,
and the WET analysis are not recommended. Nutrient data can be
variable, and problems exist with consistency of laboratory
techniques, and quality assurance and control procedures.
Acquisition and evaluation of QA/QC information is difficult and
time consuming. Other indicators exist which are reliable and
more directly related to wildlife habitat quality. The cost of
toxicity testing is a limiting factor. Whole-effluent tests on
water do not provide enough information about contamination
because they do not provide time-integrated information. The
discharge of harmful substances to WTS is likely a short-term or
intermittent event, and toxicity in water could be missed by
taking only one sample. Potential effects are better detected by
testing for contamination in sediments or plant and animal
tissues. Making the connection between levels found and actual
effects on wildlife would then be necessary. Due to the length
and expense of a rigorous testing program, toxicity testing
should be done on selected wetlands suspected to be at risk from
contamination or toxic inputs (e.g., wetlands that receive
industrial discharges, where user violations have occurred in the
past, or where other data collected indicate a potential problem
requiring further investigation). The WET analysis proved
difficult to use in constructed wetlands because of their
artificial nature and designated purpose. Many of the questions
were not designed with these systems in mind, and thus were
ambiguous and difficult to answer with certainty.
This study provided evidence that WTS provide wildlife
habitat and that the two sites are used by a variety of bird
species. Some topics regarding wildlife habitat quality (e.g.,
how to measure it, how to evaluate it) require further study.
The following are suggestions for future studies:
o For making comparisons of WTS to non-WTS, it would be
extremely beneficial if future studies include simultaneous
sampling on nearby reference (non-WTS) wetlands so that
results from both types of wetlands are more directly
comparable and confounding factors are minimized. It is not
possible to assess collected data if comparison values are
unavailable or unreliable. Comparison with literature
values might be sufficient for preliminary studies, but to
put in context the indicator values from WTS and to make
valid conclusions about the quality of wildlife habitat, the
best data for comparison are those that are collected at the
same time, in close proximity, on similar classes of
67
-------
wetlands, and with the same sampling techniques.
Reference wetlands should be natural, enhanced, or restored
wetlands that are not used for wastewater treatment.
Created wetlands should not be used for comparisons because
there is not enough information to show that they duplicate
wetland functions on a long-term basis (Kusler and Kentula
1990). Establishing appropriate criteria for selection of
reference wetlands will require further thought. One
approach would be to establish guidelines for selection of
reference sites that represent "good" habitat quality. Data
collected can be used as a gauge against which measurements
or an aggregation of measurements taken at WTS can be rated.
Reference wetlands should also be as similar as possible to
the WTS in question with respect to size, wetland
classification, location, type of surrounding land use, and
degree of human disturbance. Comparisons should be
quantitative.
In some landscapes, potential reference sites might in
reality all be in marginal or poor condition. For assessing
actual habitat quality, an alternative to reference site
comparisons would be to develop guidelines for rating
habitat quality. Guidelines should be performance standards
that are applied on the basis of best professional judgment
and provide for flexibility for dealing with environmental
uncertainty (Chapman 1991).
Future work should also focus on developing means for
assessing and reducing data. Developing assessment methods
can identify potential stressors, or causes of condition,
which can then be used to establish a gauge for rating
habitat value. Data reduction involves combining
information from a group of indicators or from data on
multiple species to form a single indicator, or index, for
each ecological component (e.g., vegetation, invertebrates,
landscape). For instance, species diversity incorporates
richness and abundance of all species into a single value.
A similar index might be developed for vegetation structural
diversity based on the number of vegetation layers and their
relative coverages. Multivariate analyses are also useful
for analyzing combined data and forming indices. Species-
specific data, however, are valuable for monitoring long
term changes at a wetland and should not be abandoned in
favor of indices.
The suite of indicators for this study was limited by level
of funding, labor, and logistical constraints. Future
studies could assess the usefulness of indicators that were
not examined in this study, particularly new metrics for
evaluating habitat in terms of vegetation, invertebrates,
and site morphology. For example, invertebrate sampling
should include specific techniques for collecting benthic
invertebrates. It is recommended that new indicators be
directly related to wildlife habitat rather than those that
68
-------
might only infer wildlife use through an indirect relation
(e.g., nutrients, sediment type, hydrology). Indirectly
related indicators might, however, be useful for supporting
other data (e.g., hydrologic rigime and sediment types can
influence the species composition of plants).
If bird use is retained as an indicator, a greater focus
should be placed on bird activity (breeding, feeding,
roosting, resting) in the WTS and the presence of
threatened, endangered, or keystone species.
The elimination of some indicators, if different indicators
provide essentially the same information, would save money
and time in sampling and analysis. For instance, some
vegetation indicators measured in the field can easily be
obtained from air photos (e.g., structural diversity,
relative coverage of each structural type). Air photo
analysis might be more accurate, particularly for large
wetlands where time restricts thorough ground sampling of
the whole wetland. Thus, more effort could be spent in the
field sampling indicators that cannot be obtained from
photos such as species composition, abundance, and richness.
69
-------
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Simpson (Eds.), Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes and
Management Potential. Academic Press, New York, NY.
Weller, M.W. and L.H. Frederickson. 1973. Avian ecology of a
managed glacial marsh. Living Bird 12:269-91.
Weller, M.W. and C.E. Spatcher. 1965. Role of habitat in the
distribution and abundance of marsh birds. Special Report No.
43. Iowa Agricultural Home Economics Experiment Station, Ames,
IA.
Yocum, T.G., R.A. Leidy, and C.A. Morris. 1989. Wetlands
protection through impact avoidance: A discussion of the
404(b)(l) alternatives analysis. Wetlands 9(2):283-297.
Ziser S.W. 1978. Seasonal variations in water chemistry and
diversity of the phytophilic macroinvertebrates of three swamp
communities in southeastern Louisiana. Southwestern Naturalist
23(4):545-562.
80
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APPENDIX A. Site maps and sampling points
81
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Maps provided by site operators of the Collins and Ocean
Springs (Phase I) sites are included in this appendix. The
following features are designated on each map: vegetation
transect locations, invertebrate sample points, and bird survey
points. Water sampling points (for whole effluent toxicity
tests) are shown on the Collins map, but were off the boundaries
of the map of Ocean Springs. The inflow sample at Ocean Springs
was collected in a small maintenance building to the west of the
wetland complex near the pre-treatment lagoon. The effluent
sample was collected on the north end of the Phase II wetland to
the northwest where water is routed after leaving Phase I. Some
of the invertebrate samples were collected at a single spot in
the wetland, designated by an X on the maps. When invertebrate
densities were low, however, several net samples had to be
collected to obtain 1/2 hour of collection time. Therefore, Xs
connected by a dotted line represent places where samples
consisting of several nettings were taken along a shoreline or
the edge of vegetation from a single habitat type.
The key below describes the symbols and features found on
maps in this appendix:
Dikes
Deepwater areas
O Influent sample collection point
o Effluent sample collection point
Vegetation transects
X or X X Invertebrate sample points
o (1) - (7) Bird survey points
82
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COLLINS WASTE TREATMENT WETLAND
(5)
65.4
Scale: meters
83
N
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3
H
w
H
CO
O.
0)
r-i
a
o
CO
84
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APPENDIX B. Site contacts and local experts consulted
85
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COLLINS
Contacts ;
Bob Hamill
Soil Conservation Service
601 7th Street
P.O. Box 487
Collins, MS 39428
V.O. Smith, Mayor
Collins, MS 39428
Botanists consulted;
Dr. Jean Wooten
University of Southern MS
Walker Science Bldg. Rm. 114
Hattiesburg, MS
Aerial Photography Company:
Harris Aerial Surveys
Lynn Harris
P.O. Box 246
Midway, AR 72651
Bird Surveyors;
Frank Moore; Jeffrey Clark
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Southern Mississippi
Southern Station, Box 5018
Hattiesburg, MS 39406-5018
Water Analysis Laboratories;
Culpepper Testing Laboratories, Jackson, MS
Contact is V.O. Smith, Mayor of Collins
86
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OCEAN SPRINGS
Contact:;
MS Gulf Coast Regional
Wastewater Authority
3103 Frederic Street
Pascagoula, MS 39567
Botanists consulted;
Dr. Bill Dunn \
CH2M Hill
7201 NW llth Place
P.O. Box 1647
Gainesville, FL 32602
Aerial Photography Company;
Harris Aerial Surveys
Lynn Harris
P.O. Box 246
Midway, AR 72651
Bird Surveyors;
>
Frank Moore; Wan Ycmg (Ocean Springs)
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Southern Mississippi
Southern Station, Box 5018
Hattiesburg, MS 39406-5018
Water Analysis Laboratories;
MS Gulf Coast Regional Wastewater Authority Laboratory,
Pascagoula, MS; Contact is Donald Scharr
87
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APPENDIX C. Invertebrate Biologists and Identification Keys
Used
88
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Biologists:
Nan Allen; Ann Hershey
221 Life Sciences Bldg. - Biology office
10 University Drive
University of Minnesota-Duluth
Duluth, MN 55812
Invertebrate taxonomic keys used:
Borror, D.J., C.A. Triplehorn, and N.F. Johnson. 1989. An
Introduction to the Study of Insects. Sixth Edition. Sanders
College Publishing. Philadelphia, PA.
Klemm, D.J. 1982. Leeches (Annelida:Hirudinea) of North
America. EPA-600/3-82/025. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Monitoring and Support Lab. Office of Research and
Development, Cincinnati, OH.
Merritt, R.W. and K.W. Cummins. 1984. An Introduction to the
Aquatic Insects of North America. Second Edition. Kendall Hunt
Publishing Co., Dubuque, IA.
Pennak, R.W. 1978. Freshwater Invertebrates of the United
States. Second Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY
Pennak, R.W. 1989. Freshwater Invertebrates of the United
States. Third Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
Usinger, R.L. (Ed.). 1968. Aquatic Insects of California, with
North American Genera and California Species. University of
California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Ward, H.B. and G.C. Whipple (Eds.). 1959. Fresh Water Biology.
Second Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
Wiederholm, T. (Ed.). 1983. Chironomidae of the Holarctic
Region. Part 1 Larvae. Entomologica Scandinavica Supplement No.
19. Borgstroms Tyckeri AB, Motala.
89
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APPENDIX D. Water chemistry of replicates used for whole
effluent toxicity tests.
90
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Ceriodaphnia dubia chronic test
Sample
Mean
PH
PH
Range
Mean
Temp
Mean
DO
Mean
Conduct iv.
(limbos/cm)
Collins site
Influent 7.58
Effluent 7.18
Control 8.23
Influent 8.40
Effluent 8.37
Control 8.14
Initial Chemistries
7.43-7.73
7.13-7.23
8.20-8.25
25.3
25.2
26.0
Final Chemistries
8.40
8.35-8.40
8.11-8.17
25.1
24.7
24.8
6.4
8.2
8.5
8.1
8.3
8.4
433
410
123
Ocean Springs site
Influent
Effluent
Control
Influent
Effluent
Control
9.06
7.54
8.09
8.46
8.51
8.14
Initial Chemistries
8.99-9.13
7.37-7.65
7.96-8.16
25.2
25.1
25.7
Final Chemistries
8.43-8.48
8.48-8.53
7.97-8.25
25.2
25.1
25.4
8.6
8.2
8.6
8.3
8.1
8.0
449
480
120
91
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(Appendix D, continued)
Fathead minnow acutet tests
Sample
Mean
PH
PH
Range
Mean
Temp
Mean
DO
fma/Ll
Mean
Conductiv.
fumhos/cml
Collins site
Influent
Effluent
Control
7.58
7.18
8.22
Initial Chemistries
7.43-7.73
7.13-7.23
8.20-8.25
25.3
25.0
26.1
Final Chemistries
6.4
7.9
8.6
433
417
118
Influent
Effluent
Control
8.44
8.29
8.04
Ocean Springs site
Influent
Effluent
Control
Influent
Effluent
Control
9.09
7.49
8.05
8.30
8.33
8.10
25.0
25.0
25.0
8.6
7.8
7.9
Initial Chemistries
9.05-9.13
7.37-7.61
7.98-8.13
25.3
25.2
26.0
Final Chemistries
25.0
25.1
25.3
8.5
7.9
8.7
7.9
8.2
7.4
451
479
117
92
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