United           National Risk Management   EPA/600/R-97/128a
          Environmental Protection     Research Laboratory     February 1998
          Agency           Ada, OK 74820
V>EPA     Estimation of Infiltration
          Rate in the Vadose Zone:
          Compilation of Simple
          Mathematical Models

          Volume I

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                                                    EPA/600/R-97/128a
                                                        February 1998
ESTIMATION OF INFILTRATION RATE IN THE VADOSE ZONE:
    COMPILATION OF SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL MODELS


                            Volume I
                               by
                          Varadhan Ravi
                       Dynamac Corporation
                              and
                         Joseph R. Williams
                            U.S. EPA
                      Contract No. 68-C4-0031
                          Project Officer
                          David S. Burden
             Subsurface Protection and Remediation Division
             National Risk Management Research Laboratory
                          Ada, OK  74820
                        In cooperation with:
       CENTER FOR REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY AND TOOLS
              OFFICE OF RADIATION AND INDOOR AIR
                  OFFICE OF AIR AND RADIATION
                     WASHINGTON, DC  20460

      NATIONAL RISK MANAGEMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY
             OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
            U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                      CINCINNATI, OH 45268

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                                       NOTICE

       The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through its Office of Research and
Development partially funded and collaborated in the research described here as indicated
through the authors' affiliations. Additional support for this project was provided by the Office
of Radiation and Indoor Air (ORIA) of the Office of Air and Radiation in collaboration with the
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (OERR) of the Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response and the U.S. Department of Energy (EM-40).  Dynamac is an off-site
support contractor to NRMRL/SPRD under 68-C4-0031 (Dr. David S. Burden, Project Officer).
Ron Wilhelm and Robin Anderson (ORIA) provided valuable technical review and
administrative support to this project. The assistance of Sierra Howry, a student in the
Environmental Research Apprenticeship Program through East Central University in Ada,
Oklahoma, in the completion of this project is greatly appreciated.  This report has been
subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative review and has been approved for publication
as an EPA document.

       Mention of trade names  or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.

       All research projects making conclusions or recommendations based on environmentally
related measurements and funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency  are required to
participate in the Agency Quality Assurance Program. This project did not involve
environmental related measurements and did not require a Quality Assurance Plan.

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                                     FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with protecting the Nation's
land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national environmental laws, the Agency
strives to formulate and implement actions leading to a compatible balance between human
activities and the ability of natural systems to support and nurture life. To meet these mandates,
EPA's research program is providing data and technical support for solving environmental
problems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage our ecological
resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and prevent or reduce
environmental risks in the future.

The National Risk Management Research Laboratory is the Agency's center for investigation of
technological and management approaches for reducing risks from threats to human health and
the environment. The focus of the laboratory's research  program is on methods for the prevention
and control of pollution to air, land, water, and subsurface resources;  protection of water quality
in public water systems; remediation of contaminated sites and ground water, and prevention and
control of indoor air pollution. The goal of this research effort is to catalyze development and
implementation of innovative, cost-effective environmental technologies; develop scientific and
engineering information needed by EPA to support regulatory and policy decisions; and provide
technical support and information transfer to ensure effective implementation of environmental
regulations and strategies.

Infiltration estimation methods  are an integral part of the assessment of contaminant transport
and fate. This document provides an extensive compilation of methods, in addition to a
categorization of those methods. Appendices are included for methods based on the Green-Ampt
model and the Richards Equation, and for the estimation of soil hydraulic properties.
                                        Clinton W. Hall, Director
                                        Subsurface Protection and Remediation Division
                                        National Risk Management Research Laboratory
                                           in

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                                      ABSTRACT

The unsaturated or vadose zone provides a complex system for the simulation of water movement
and contaminant transport and fate. Numerous models are available for performing simulations
related to the movement of water. There exists extensive documentation of these models. However,
the practical application  of these infiltration models has not been adequately addressed in the
literature. In recent years, the use of vadose zone models has increased for the purpose of estimating
contaminant levels in soils related to different types of remedial decision-making.  The rate of
infiltration of water is generally the most important parameter required in such models. Often these
models use an over-simplified estimate of the infiltration rate, which has little basis in reality and
actual  field conditions. This  document presents a compilation of simple infiltration models for
quantifying the rate of water movement. A great majority of the compiled models  are based on
widely-accepted concepts of soil physics. These models, represented  by  simple mathematical
expressions, can be readily implemented in a spreadsheet environment. Proper use of these models
should provide a rational and scientific  basis for remedial  decision-making related to  soil
contaminant levels.
                                           IV

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                                    CONTENTS
                                                                                 age
NOTICE	 ii
FOREWORD	iii
ABSTRACT	iv

       1.0 Introduction	1
       2.0 Estimation Methods for Infiltration Rate 	2
       3.0.  Empirical Models 	4
             3.1  Kostiakov's Equation  	4
             3.2  Norton's Equation	5
             3.3  Mezencev's Equation	5
             3.4  SCS Equation  	5
             3.5  Holtan's Equation	6
             3.6  Boughton's Equation	6
       4.0. Green-Ampt Models	6
             4.1  Basic Concepts	6
             4.2  Compilation of Green-Ampt Models	7
             4.3  Parameter Estimation for the Green-Ampt Models 	9
       5.0.  Richards Equation Models	10
             5.7  Basic Concepts	10
             5.2  Simplistic Models of Infiltration	13
             5.3  More Realistic Models of Infiltration	14
             5.4  Parameter Estimation for the Richards Equation Models	18
       6.0 Summary and Recommendations	19

REFERENCES  	20

APPENDICES (Annotated Bibliography)
       A. Green-Ampt Models  	  A-l
       B. Richards Equation Models	B-l
       C. Soil Hydraulic Property Estimation	C-l

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                                  LIST OF FIGURES

                                                                                  Page
Figure 1. Conceptualization of water content profiles during
infiltration, redistribution, and drainage	3
Figure 2. Illustration of the impact of hysteresis on wetting
and drying curves for water content	4
Figure 3. Illustration of Green-Ampt parameters and the conceptualized
water content profile, which demonstrates the sharp wetting front	7
                                  LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Models of Soil Water Movement Based on the Green-Ampt Concept 	8
Table 2. Analytical Solutions of the Richards Equation	15
                                          VI

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1.0  Introduction

The vadose zone is an integral component of the hydrological cycle, directly influencing
infiltration, storm runoff, evapotranspiration, interflow, and aquifer recharge.  Understanding the
nature of water movement in the vadose zone and its quantification is essential to solving a
variety of problems. Examples of such problems are: prediction of runoff from given
precipitation events for the purposes of erosion control; sediment transport and flood control;
estimation of water availability for plant growth; estimation of water recharge to the underlying
aquifer; and assessment of the potential for aquifer contamination due to migration of water-
soluble chemicals present in the vadose zone. Consequently, the study  of soil-water movement
has interested scientists from diverse disciplines such as soil science, hydrology, agriculture, civil
engineering, and the environmental sciences for several years.

The use of vadose zone models for the determination of contaminant cleanup levels, preliminary
remediation goals (PRG), soil screening levels (SSL), and other related terms has proliferated in
recent years. In providing technical support to various consultants, EPA Regional Offices, and
the state agencies, it has become apparent that there exists a lack of guidance in the estimation of
model parameters.  In  an attempt to address this problem, an EPA Issue Paper was prepared by
Breckenridge et al. (1991), which was later published as a journal article  (Breckenridge et al.,
1994). This paper discussed the techniques for characterizing soils for  their chemical, physical,
and hydraulic properties.  It also provided a list of available field and laboratory measurement
techniques and look-up methods for these parameters.  In addition to the identification of the
parameters, the document provided a table of common unsaturated zone models and their
parameter requirements. An extensive survey of unsaturated  zone models was provided by van
derHiejde(1994).

A related effort is the release of the Soil Screening Guidance  (U.S.EPA, 1996). This Guidance
provides the public with a tool for determining risk-based, site-specific, soil screening levels
(SSLs) for the evaluation of the need for further investigation at NPL (National Priority List)
sites. The release of this document with an accompanying technical background document has
resulted in a growth in emphasis by several states on the development of  state soil screening
levels, and remediation goals and thus, a renewed interest in the prediction of contaminant
movement in the unsaturated zone, in most cases with simple analytical models for the
estimation of water movement. Often these models utilize an over-simplified estimate of the
infiltration rate, which may have very little basis in physics and actual site characteristics.

This document presents a compilation of simple mathematical models for quantifying the rate of
soil-water movement due to infiltration. The rate of infiltration is usually a required input
parameter for simpler  screening level models which describe  contaminant migration in the
vadose zone.  There are numerous methods available for the measurement/estimation of
infiltration rate. In an activity and report supported by the American Petroleum Institute, Daniel
B. Stephens & Associates provided a good review of various  field and laboratory methods,  as
well  as numerical models (API, 1996). The distinguishing feature and primary motivation for the

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present study is the compilation of relatively simple mathematical expressions (models),
implementable in a spreadsheet or symbolic math software environment.  A great majority of the
compiled models are based on widely-accepted concepts of soil physics. Proper use of these
models should provide a rational and scientific basis for the determination of site-specific PRGs
and SSLs. The primary intended audience for this document would be applied hydrologists, soil
scientists, and modelers working on field problems.  Soil physicists and hydrologists in the
research community with a need to locate infiltration models and mathematical solutions may
also find this document useful.

The mathematical models compiled here have several advantages over other estimation
techniques:
(a)     They are relatively easy to use.
(b)     They are based on widely-accepted concepts of soil physics (except for the empirical
       models).
(c)     Required hydraulic parameters can be easily obtained from the published literature as
       well  as electronic databases.
(d)     Site-specific measurement of all the parameters, although recommended, is not necessary
       for obtaining preliminary estimates of water flux to be used in screening level
       contaminant transport models.
(e)     The models presented here are ideal for simulating the infiltration component in the
       watershed models since they incorporate all the essential physics of the soil-water flow
       phenomena without being complicated.
(f)     Spatial variability of the soil parameters can be more easily incorporated into the
       analytical models either deterministically or statistically (e.g., a Monte-Carlo type
       approach).
(g)     The mathematical solutions compiled here may also be useful as benchmarks for
       establishing the validity and accuracy of the finite-difference  or finite-element
       discretization schemes.

2.0  Estimation Methods for Infiltration Rate
There are numerous techniques available for the estimation of water infiltration rate through the
vadose zone. API (1996) provides a good review of such techniques identified as: 1) soil-water
balance, 2) lysimeter measurements, 3) Darcy flux method, 4) plane of zero flux method, 5) soil
temperature methods, 6) electromagnetic methods, 7) ground-water basin outflow method, 8)
water-level fluctuations, 9) stream gauging, 10) chemical tracers and isotopes, 11) chloride mass
balance, 12) water balance models, and  13) numerical models based on the Richards equation.
However, none of these methods offers a quick and easy way to obtain an estimate of infiltration
rate for the purposes of preliminary analysis and decision-making.  Therefore, the objective of
this study is to compile estimation methods which are easy-to-use and yield scientifically-based
estimates using soil-hydraulic and climatic parameters representative of the prevailing site
conditions.  The compiled methods can be divided into three broad categories of: a) empirical
models, b) Green-Ampt models, and c) Richards equation models.  Numerous formulations of
these models have then been developed for utilization with specific site conceptualizations, or

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 boundary conditions. Before discussing these models, a brief introduction to the processes
 involved in soil-water movement will be presented. For more detailed discussion of these
 processes the reader is referred to several excellent soil physics and hydrology textbooks such as
 Hillel (1980), Hanks and Ashcroft (1980), Guymon (1994), Stephens (1996), Dragun (1988), and
 Fetter (1988).

 Water movement in the vadose zone is generally conceptualized as occurring in the three stages
 of infiltration, redistribution, and drainage or deep percolation as illustrated in Figure  1. For this
 conceptualization, infiltration is defined as the initial process of water entering the soil resulting
 from application at the soil surface.  Capillary forces, or matric potentials, are dominant during
 this phase.  Redistribution occurs  as the next stage where the infiltrated water is redistributed
 within the soil profile after the cessation of water application to the soil surface.  During
 redistribution, both capillary and gravitational effects are important.  Simultaneous drainage and
 wetting takes place during this stage, and the impact of hysteresis may be important. Hysteresis
 is the phenomenon illustrated in Figure 2, which implies that the wetting and drying curves of a
 specific soil will not be identical.  Evapotranspiration takes place concurrently during the
 redistribution stage, and will impact the amount of water available for deeper penetration within
 the soil profile.  The final stage of water movement is termed deep percolation or recharge, which
 occurs when the wetting front reaches the water table.  For the purposes of this report, the term
 "infiltration" will lump all the three stages of water movement through vadose zone. Also the
 terms, "water flux," "infiltration rate," and "rate of water movement" will be used
 interchangeably.
 Surface
              Water Content
      Water Content
      Water Content
    I
    Q
         Infiltration
Redistribution
Drainage
Figure 1.     Conceptualization of water content profiles during infiltration, redistribution, and
              drainage (deep percolation).

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                                    Water Content
                    03
                    O
                    1
                               Wetting
  Saturation
\  ....*i-;
                   Figure 2.     Illustration of the impact of hysteresis on
                                wetting and  drying curves for water
                                content (Hillel, 1980).
3.0.  Empirical Models
Empirical methods are usually in the form of simple equations, the parameters of which are
derived by means of curve-fitting the equation to actual measurements of cumulative water
infiltration. These equations only provide estimates of cumulative infiltration and infiltration
rates, and do not provide information regarding water content distribution. Most are derived on
the basis of a constant water content being available at the surface. A few of the commonly used
infiltration equations, which have no apparent physical basis, are presented below. Detailed
discussions of these empirical models are provided by Philip (1957),  Swartzendruber and Hillel
(1973), Dunin (1976), and Parlange and Haverkamp (1989).
3.1 Kostiakov 's Equation
Kostiakov (1932) proposed the following equation for estimating infiltration,
                                     /(O  =  0) and (3 (0
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The constants arand /?can be determined by curve-fitting Eq. 2 to experimental data for
cumulative infiltration, I(t).  Since infiltration rate, /', becomes zero as t -> °°, rather than approach
a constant non-zero value, Kostiakov proposed that the Eqs. 1  and 2 be used only for t <  tmax,
where tmax is equal to (cc/K^11®, andKs is the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
Kostiakov's equation describes the infiltration quite well at smaller times, but becomes less
accurate at larger times (Philip, 1957; Parlange and Haverkamp, 1989).

3.2 Morton's Equation
Horton (1940) proposed to estimate infiltration in the following manner,
                                 i(f) = if+(iQ-if)e-v                                 (3)
and
                             7(0 =ift + -(i0-if)(l-e-^                             (4)
where i0 and /yare the presumed initial and final infiltration rates, and /is an empirical constant.
It is readily seen that i(t) is non-zero as t approaches infinity, unlike Kostiakov's equation. It does
not, however, adequately represent the rapid decrease of/' from very high values at small t
(Philip, 1957). It also requires an additional parameter over the Kostiakov equation. Parlange
and Haverkamp (1989), in their comparison study of various empirical infiltration equations,
found the performance of Horton' s equation to be inferior to that of Kostiakov's equation.

3. 3 Mezencev 's Equation
In order to overcome the limitations of Kostiakov's equation for large times, Mezencev (Philip,
1957) proposed the following as modifications to Eqs. 1 and 2. Mezencev proposed infiltration
estimated by
                                    7(0  = if+at-V                                    (5)

and
where /yis the final infiltration rate at steady state.

3.4 SCS Equation
The USDA Soil Conservation Service (1957) developed an equation for rainfall-runoff
relationship based on daily rainfall data as input:
                                        (P-0.2F )2
                                  R =
                                         P+Q.8F
                                                w
where P is the daily rainfall, R is the runoff, and Fw is a statistically derived parameter bearing
some resemblance to the initial soil moisture deficit. Infiltration is calculated as the excess of

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rainfall over runoff:
                                      / = P-R                                     (8)


3.5 Holt an's Equation
The empirical infiltration equation devised by Holtan (1961) is explicitly dependent on soil water
conditions in the form of available pore space for moisture storage:
                                /(O =  if + ab(u-I)lA                                (9)

where a is a constant related to the surface conditions varying between 0.25 and 0.8, bis a
scaling factor,  a> is the initial moisture deficit or the pore space per unit area of cross section
initially available for water storage (cm),  and / is the cumulative infiltration (cm) at t.  This
equation has been found to be suitable for inclusion in catchment models because of soil water
dependence, and satisfactory progress has been reported for runoff predictions (Dunin, 1976).

3.6 Bough ton's Equation
Boughton (1966) modified the rainfall-runoff relationship of USDA-SCS (1957) given by Eq.(7)
as follows:
where Fr is an empirical parameter; however, some success has been reported when interpreted
as the initial soil moisture deficit (Dunin, 1976). Infiltration is calculated using Eq. (8).

4.0. Green-Ampt Models

4.1 Basic Concepts
Green and Ampt (1911) derived the first physically based equation describing the infiltration of
water into a soil. The Green-Ampt model has been the subject of considerable developments in
applied soil physics and hydrology owing to its simplicity and satisfactory performance for a
great variety of hydrological problems. For many hydrological problems the use of more
sophisticated approaches (e.g., the models based on the nonlinear Richards equation,) is both
impractical and inefficient due to more information on soil hydraulic parameters (e.g. water
retention and hydraulic conductivity functions) being required. In these methods, the entire soil
moisture-pressure profile is generally evaluated, even though the main quantity of interest is the
flux at one or both of the boundaries. Therefore, not surprisingly, the Green-Ampt equation has
been the choice model of infiltration estimation in many physically-based hydrologic models
(Freyberg et al., 1980). Also,  the USDA's Agricultural Research Service (ARS) has done
extensive work to develop empirical relations for obtaining the Green-Ampt model parameters
(Brakensiek and Onstad, 1977; McCuen et al., 1981; Rawls and Brakensiek,  1982; Springer and
Cundy, 1987), thus providing additional impetus for inclusion in many watershed models
(Goldman, 1989).

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Green and Ampt assumed a piston-type water content profile (Figure 3) with a well-defined
wetting front.  The piston-type profile assumes the soil is saturated at a volumetric water content
of 6S (except for entrapped air) down to the wetting front. At the wetting front, the water content
drops abruptly to an antecedent value of 60, which is the initial water content.  The soil-water
pressure head at the wetting front is assumed to be /^(negative). Soil-water pressure at the
surface, /z,, is assumed to be equal to the depth of the ponded water.
            •W/WAWVW
                                                          e
                                                           o
                                                                           e<
                               Soil
                               Surface
                                     Depth Z  -
               Wetting Front
               Pressure Head
                                                               Actual.
                                                                          *
                                                           '    Green-Ampt
                                                                Model
   a) Green-Ampt Parameters
                                                  b) Water Content Profile
   Figure 3.     Illustration of Green-Ampt parameters and the conceptualized water content
                profile, which demonstrates the sharp wetting front.
At any time, t, the penetration of the infiltrating wetting front will be Z. Darcy's law can be
stated as follows:

                           q . 4L .-K\OdW*
                           ^    dt            Z
                                                                               (11)
where Ks is the hydraulic conductivity corresponding to the surface water content, andlft) is the
cumulative infiltration at time t, and is equal to 2(6-6^. Using this relation forl(t) to eliminate
Z from Eq. 11, and performing the integration yields,
                                             I --
                                                (V/0(0-GO)
                                                                               (12)
Equation 12 is precisely the statement of the Green-Ampt model. Philip (1957) demonstrated
that the Green-Ampt equation can also be obtained as an exact solution of the Richards equation
when the diffusivity function is assumed to be a Dirac Delta-type function with a non-zero value

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only at the saturated water content. Philip called the Green-Ampt model the "delta-function"
model.
4.2 Compilation of Green-Ampt Models
Even though originally developed for idealized conditions (i.e., homogeneous soil and constant
surface ponding depth), the Green-Ampt model has been extended to take into account more-
realistic features. Refer to Table 1 for a list of methods to estimate water flux based on the
Green-Ampt model.  Also, Appendix A is provided as an annotated bibliography pertaining to
the Green-Ampt approach.  The primary utility of the Green-Ampt approach lies in the
estimation of the water flux, and it must be emphasized that the actual water content distribution
with depth, 6(z), cannot be simulated, since the model formulation assumes a sharp wetting front.

Table 1. Models of Soil Water Movement Based on the Green-Ampt Concept1
Model Author(s)
Green and Ampt (1911)
Bouwer(1969)
Childs and Bybordi (1969)
Mein and Larson (1973)
Swartzendruber (1974)
Morel-Seytoux and Khanji
(1974)
James and Larson (1976)
Important Features / Limitations
Equation 9 for cumulative infiltration, implicit in time, is the Green-Ampt
model; sharp wetting front; constant ponding depth; homogeneous soil;
uniform antecedent water content.
Layered soils; non-uniform antecedent water content; constant ponding
depth.
Implicit equation (Eq. 5) for cumulative infiltration in layered soils; constant
ponding depth; uniform antecedent water content.
Pre-ponding (Eq. 6) and ponded infiltration (Eq. 8); Eq. 8 has to be
integrated after replacing^, with dF/dt and the lower limits of integration
(tyFJ; constant rainfall rate greater than Ksat; homogeneous soil; uniform
antecedent water content.
Constant surface water flux greater than saturated hydraulic conductivity;
pre-ponding and ponding infiltration; Eqs. 4 and 5 yield time to ponding and
cumulative infiltration prior to ponding, respectively; Eq. 8 or 12 gives
cumulative infiltration, implicitly in time, after ponding; two approximate
explicit equations (Eqs. 23 and 30) for cumulative infiltration as a function
of time; homogeneous soil; uniform antecedent water content.
Infiltration under the two-phase flow of air and water (Eq. 17 for total
velocity); a rigorous derivation of expressions (Eqs. 18 and 26) for the
wetting front suction, hf, and a viscous correction factor, /?, in terms of
initial water content; homogeneous soil; uniform antecedent water content.
Intermittent (piecewise-constant) rainfall; infiltration (Eqs. 2 and 3) and
redistribution (Eq. 1); homogeneous soil; uniform antecedent water content.
1  Equation numbers referenced in this table correspond to those in the cited article.  They do not
correspond to the equation numbers in this report.

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Model Author(s)
Lietal. (1976)
Smith and Parlange (1978)
Chu (1978)
Flerchinger et al. (1988)
Philip (1992)
Philip (1993)
Salvucci and Entekhabi
(1994)
Important Features / Limitations
Explicit approximations for calculating the Green- Ampt model cumulative
infiltration and infiltration rate as functions of time (Eqs. 11, 25, and 6);
homogeneous soil; constant head ponding at the surface; uniform antecedent
water content.
Two 2-parameter models for ponding time (Eqs. 6 and 9) and infiltration
rate (Eqs. 20 and 26); arbitrary transient rainfall; homogeneous soil; uniform
antecedent water content.
Transient rainfall; pre-ponding (Eqs. 18, 19, and 23-26) and ponded
infiltration (Eqs. 18, 19 and 27); homogeneous soil; uniform antecedent
water content.
An explicit equation for cumulative infiltration for layered soils; extension
of Li et al. (1976) approach for layered soils; constant head at the surface.
A solution for falling head ponded infiltration (Eq. 4). Solution form is the
same as that for constant head infiltration; only the values of the constants
change.
Variable-head ponded infiltration (Eq. 1 1) due to constant or arbitrarily
transient rainfall; Eq. 26 for constant rainfall, and Eq. 35 for piecewise
constant rainfall; homogeneous soil; uniform antecedent water content.
Four-term expression explicit approximations for Green-Ampt infiltration
rate and cumulative infiltration (Eqs. 9 and 10) as a function oft;
homogeneous soil; uniform antecedent water content.
4.3 Parameter Estimation for the Green-Ampt Models
The popularity of the Green-Ampt models is primarily due to simplicity, adaptability to varying
scenarios, and the availability of characteristic parameter values for various soil textures and
conditions.  Extensive studies conducted by the USDA's Agricultural Research Service (ARS)
have resulted in the development of empirical relations for the model parameters in terms of
easily-measurable variables. This has provided an additional impetus for the inclusion of Green-
Ampt models in many watershed models (Goldman, 1989).

Bouwer (1966) demonstrated that^ in Eq. 12 is not equal to the saturated hydraulic conductivity
of the soil (Ksat), but can be approximated as 0.5*Ksat. He also suggested that hfcan be treated as
air-exit suction head. Neuman (1976) derived expressions for hfi valid for small, intermediate,
and large times. Useful empirical expressions and various statistical correlations are available
for K, and /^(Brakensiek and Onstad, 1977; McCuen et al., 1981; Rawls and Brakensiek, 1982).
Appendix C is provided to include additional references pertaining to the estimation of soil
hydraulic parameters.

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5.0. Richards Equation Models

5.7 Basic Concepts
The Darcy -Buckingham law (Eq. 13), which is the vadose zone analog of Darcy's law, for soil
water flux is given as follows:
                                 q  =  -*(0)Vi|r(0)                                  (13)

where q is the water flux (cm/s), $is the volumetric water content as a function of location and
time t, K is the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of soil (cm/s) as a function of volumetric water
content, and ^is the total soil-water head (cm) as a function of the volumetric water content, and
z is the vertical coordinate. For this formulation, z is positive in the direction of gravity with z=0
being the top surface. The primary difference between the Darcy -Buckingham law and its
counterpart in the  saturated flow is the dependence of hydraulic conductivity and total head on
the volumetric water content. The total head ^is the sum of capillary head, h(which is
dependent on moisture content 0), and the elevation head, z. The Darcy-Buckingham law can be
combined with the continuity (i.e., the differential water balance) equation to obtain a general
form of the Richards equation:

                            f=v (^(0)^(0))-^                            04)

Sometimes, specifically when solving multi-dimensional problems, it is helpful to make a change
of dependent variable known as the Kirchoff transformation:
                                        h
                                   U  = fK(a)da                                    n$\
                                        ^

where the lower limit can be chosen as arbitrarily as is convenient.  C/is known as the matric flux
potential. With this transformation Eq. 14 reduces to:
where D = Kdh/d0is the diffusivity of the soil.  This is the f/-based formulation of the Richards
equation.

A vast majority of the analyses of Richards equation has considered only the vertical soil water
movement, treating the problem as essentially one-dimensional. In which case, Eq. 14 can be
rewritten as
                               =  _
                           dt    dz(      dz  )     dz                            ^  '
Eq. 17 involves the two dependent variables h and 0, and can be rewritten either in terms of dor
with h as the dependent variable.  The $-based formulation of the one-dimensional Richards
model is:
                                           10

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                             dt    dz(      dz)   dQ dz

Similarly, an //-based formulation can be written as follows:
                              dt    dz\     dz)   dh dz

where C(h) = dd(h)/dh.

Equations 18 and 19 are not completely equivalent (Philip, 1969).  As an example, Eq. 19 may
still apply when h exceeds the air-entry value (i.e., the value at which air enters an initially
saturated soil), hb, or when positive, as may be the case when a depth of free water is ponded
over the soil. Eq. 18 cannot be applied to these scenarios. This results from the water
diffusivity, D(6), being infinite due to dh/ddbecoming infinite for all h > hb.  Under such
saturated conditions Eq. 19 reduces to the Laplace equation, since C(h) = 0 andK(h) = constant.
Also, Eq.  18 cannot apply to layered soils due to the existence of discontinuities in water content
at the layer interfaces.

In the formulation of Eqs. 18 and 19 the assumption is tacitly made that 6(h) andK(h)  are single-
valued functions such that the inverse functions of h(6) and K(6) exist, and are single-valued.
For soils exhibiting hysteresis these functions are two-valued, and  special care should be
exercised  in the solution of the Richards equation. Soil hysteresis is usually understood  in terms
of the curve depicting the equilibrium relationship between water content and capillary pressure.
This equilibrium relationship can be obtained in two ways: (1) in drying, by taking  an initially
saturated soil sample and applying increasing capillary pressure to dry the soil while recording
equilibrium water content at each applied suction; and (2) in wetting, by gradually wetting up an
initially dry  soil sample while reducing capillary pressure. Each of these methods yields a
continuous curve, but the two curves generally will not be identical (refer to Figure 2). The
equilibrium soil water content at an applied suction is greater in drying than in wetting.  This
dependence  of the equilibrium water content upon the direction of the process is referred to as
hysteresis (Hillel, 1980).

Several limitations exist to the general applicability of the Richards model as represented by Eqs.
18 and 19. Important limitations are (refer to Philip (1969) for a detailed discussion of these) as
follows:
    •  The specification of a representative elementary volume or a Darcy scale may not
       be possible (e.g., preferential pathways or macropores may be present).
    •  Colloidal swelling and shrinking of soils may demand that the water movement be
       considered relative to the movement of the soil particles; this phenomenon may
       also cause significant changes in soil  permeability.
    •  Two-phase flow involving air movement may be important when air pressures
       differ significantly from atmospheric  pressure.
    •  Thermal effects may be important, especially for evaporation during the
       redistribution of infiltrated water, in which case the simultaneous transfer of both

                                            11

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       heat and moisture needs to be considered.
    •  Soil hysteresis may be very significant after infiltration ceases and redistribution
       begins; wetting and drying occur simultaneously; different points in the soil
       follow different scanning (h versus 6) curves; and there is no definite relationship
       between gradients of h and gradients of 6.
    •  Sources and sinks (e.g., root extraction) are neglected, but may be readily
       included.
    •  Flow is  one-dimensional; this is reasonable for rainfall or irrigation infiltration
       over a large area.

The following system inputs are needed to obtain soil water flux by solving the Richards
equation, Eqs. 18 or 19:
    •  A boundary condition (BC) at the water-supply surface, z = 0; either a
       concentration-type, 6= 0s(t) or h = H(t), or a flux-type, K-D d6/dz = R(t) or K(l -
       dh/dz) =R(t).
    •  An initial condition for all z, 6(z,t=0) = 60(z) or h(z,t=0) = h0(z), and R(t) is the
       rate of water entry at the surface as a function of time.
    •  Soil hydraulic parameters, K(6) and h(6).

The boundary and initial conditions are formulated according to the nature of the problem to be
solved.  Different conditions are required for infiltration, redistribution, evaporation, and
drainage problems (Refer to page 83 of Hanks and Ashcroft, 1980). Except for drainage
problems where the soil water profile drains to the ground water, a second boundary condition is
not explicitly formulated because the soil domain is generally assumed to be semi-infinite.
Where the water depth over the supply surface (or the hydrostatic head under which water is
supplied) is not negligibly small, and also where the air-entry value of the soil is (arithmetically)
large, the //-based formulation of the Richards equation,  Eq. 19, along with appropriate boundary
conditions in terms of h, is the correct model. In all other cases, the $-based formulation is more
convenient to solve.

The mathematical analysis of the Richards equation has  almost exclusively dealt with the
absorption (moisture movement without gravity) and infiltration problems. Relatively little, if
any, attention has been paid to the redistribution and drainage problems. Philip (1991) gives
three reasons for this relative paucity of mathematical-physical studies of redistribution. First,
the initial  conditions for the redistribution process tend to be complicated. Second, various
mathematical techniques useful in the infiltration context do not, generally, carry over to
redistribution problems. Third, redistribution processes  involve the very considerable
complication of capillary hysteresis.  Therefore, the analyses of redistribution and drainage
processes  using the Richards model have almost totally relied upon numerical techniques.

Depending on the simplicity (or complexity) of these input parameters, the Richards equation can
be solved  exactly or numerically.  Therefore, the models presented here will be separated
according to such a classification  as simple infiltration equations, analytical or quasi-analytical
models and numerical models. The infiltration equations only relate the cumulative infiltration

                                            12

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to the time; they do not provide information on the moisture profile or water flux distribution.
There are numerous analytical/quasi-analytical and numerical solutions to Richards equation.
These provide estimation of moisture and flux distribution as well as infiltration rates. Only
some of the more significant approaches will be presented here; however, all are subject to the
limitations previously discussed, unless stated otherwise.

5.2 Simplistic Models of Infiltration
There are numerous simple infiltration equations which are solutions to the Richards  equation
under highly ideal conditions. They are quite restrictive since they only describe infiltration  from
a water-ponded surface into a semi-infinite, homogeneous soil with a uniform antecedent water
content.  Swartzendruber and Clague (1989) list several such infiltration equations, some of
which are presented here. Each of these equations are given in terms of the dimensionless time
(T), and dimensionless cumulative infiltration (Y), which are defined as follows:
                                     T = K2t/S2                                    (20)

and
                                     Y = KsI/S2                                    (21)

where Ks is the saturated hydraulic conductivity and S is the sorptivity defined by Philip (1957).

Philip (1957)
                                    Y = T1'2  + XT                                   (22)

where A is a constant between 0 and 1.

Philip (1969)

                  Y = I[2r1/2exp(-777i) + (2r + 7i)er/[(777i)1/2] + 27J


Knight (1973)
                                                                                    (23)
                            Y = - In [l  + erf(4T/nf2] + T                           (24)

Parlange (1975)
                             27-[l  -exp(-2r1/2)] = IT                            (25)
Brutsaert (1977)
                                             Tl/2
                                7 = T + '
                                                                                    (26)

where a is either 2/3 or 7.

Collis-George (1977)

                                           13

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                               7 =  r + l[tanh(7V27)]1/2                               (27)

where TV is a dimensionless constant that varies between 1 and 4.

Swartzendruber and Clague (1989)

                             Y  = r + l[l-exp(-ar1/2)]                             (28)
                                      1/C

where 
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Table 2. Analytical Solutions of the Richards Equation2
     Model Author(s)
                 Important Features / Limitations
  Philip (1969)
Boltzmann similarity transformation used to obtain a power-series solution in t1'2
(Eqs. 83,87,88,91 and 92); the coefficients, which are functions of 6, are
obtained (numerically) as the solutions of a set of linear, ordinary integro-
differential equations; homogeneous soil; constant water content at the supply
surface ; uniform initial water content; there is a practical time limit beyond
which the series may not converge; an asymptotic solution valid for large times
is also provided;  a computer code, INFIL, based on this solution is available  (El
Kadi, 1983); it can accept various K(6) and h(6) functions as input.	
  Philip (1969)
A steady-state (large t) solution (Eq. 117) to Kirchoff-transformed infiltration
equation (a "quasilinear" equat-ion); solution (Eq. 122) is also provided for
infiltration from a point source into a three-dimensionally infinite region;
homogeneous soil; K(h) is equal to Ks exp(ah).	
  Philip (1969)
Solutions (Eqs. 146,132 and 145) to a linearized form of the Richards equation;
homogeneous soil; constant water content at the supply surface ; uniform initial
water content; D(6)=Df and dK/dd=k are constants; D* is obtained as a function
of sorptivity, S, by matching the linear and nonlinear one-dimensional absorption
solutions; k is the velocity of the "profile at infinity."	
  Philip (1969)
Solutions to linearized Richards equation describing multi-dimensional
infiltration from the surfaces of cylindrical (Eqs. 156 and 155), and spherical
(Eqs. 160 and 155) cavities; source radius is small; homogeneous soil; constant
water content at the supply surface; uniform initial water content; linearized
solutions are accurate at large t when applied to multi-dimensional problems.
  Philip (1972)
Solutions for quasilinear, steady infiltration in heterogeneous soils; Eq. 2
describes K(h,z); solutions for buried, surface, and perched point sources, Eqs.
29, 34, and 38, respectively; solutions for buried, surface, and perched line
sources, Eqs. 41, 43, and 46, respectively; source strengths are known.	
  Raats (1972)
A solution (Eq. 8 or 9) for matric flux potential, U(h), for steady infiltration from
a single point source (of known strength) at arbitrary depth; exponentialK(h);
homogeneous soil; also, Eq. 6 (Philip, 1971) relates the solution for surface
source (point, line, or areal) to that for a source buried in an infinite soil mass
which is easily obtainable; Philip's (1971) superposition theorem for surface
sources (Eq. 6) is generalized to an arbitrary distribution of sources at arbitrary
depths (Eq. 12); Eq. 14 provides the inverse transformation for obtaining the
pressure head h(U).	
2 Equation numbers referenced in this table correspond to those in the cited article.  They do not
correspond to the equation numbers of this report.
                                                   15

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   Model Author(s)
                 Important Features / Limitations
Philip (1974)
Exact solutions to the Burger's equation which is a minimally nonlinear form of
Richards equation; these were developed by Knight (1973); a constant ZY$ and
quadratic K(6) are assumed; Eqs. 24 and 25 provide the moisture profile and
infiltration rate for constant moisture content BC; Eq. 29 provides the moisture
profile for constant flux BC for pre-ponding when the flux is greater thanKsat.
Warrick(1974a)
An analytical solution (Eq. 11) for steady, quasilinear, one-dimensional
infiltration for an arbitrary plant-water uptake function; K(h) is exponential;
semi-infinite and finite soil domains; constant surface flux; homogeneous soil.
Lomen and Warrick
(1974)
Analytical solutions (Eqs. 12 and 17) for linearized, unsteady, two-dimensional
infiltration from buried and surface line sources; D(6) is constant and K(h) is
exponential; uniform initial water content; zero-flux at the surface except at the
source; homogeneous soil.	
Warrick (1974b)
Analytical solutions (Eqs. 13 and 16) for linearized, unsteady, three-dimensional
infiltration from buried and surface point sources; D(6) is constant and K(h) is
exponential; uniform initial water content; zero-flux at the surface except at the
source; homogeneous soil.	
Warrick (1975)
An analytical solution (Eqs. 13-15) for one-dimensional, linearized Richards
equation; time-varying surface flux or water content and arbitrary initial
conditions; D(0) is constant and K(h) is exponential.	
Warrick and Lomen
(1976)
Analytical solutions for linearized, unsteady, infiltration from strip and disc
sources; Eqs. 10 and 14 for buried and surface strip sources, respectively; Eqs.
20 and 25 for buried and surface disc sources, respectively; D(6) is constant and
K(h) is exponential; uniform initial water content; zero-flux at the surface except
at the source; homogeneous soil.	
Eagleson(1978)
Equations for soil-water flux during dry and wet periods; Eq. 59 for flux due to
capillary rise from the water table during dry periods; Eq. 60 for infiltration
during a storm; Eq. 61 for exfiltration or upward movement due to
evapotranspiration and capillary rise from the water table; Eq. 62 for deep
percolation to water table; Eqs. 60 and 61 are based on Philip's (1969) series
solution; moisture profile is assumed to be uniform before storm and during
interstorm periods at an appropriate average value; homogeneous  soil.	
Lomen and Warrick
(1978)
An analytical solution (Eqs. 21, 17 and 19) for the linearized one-dimensional
Richards equation with plant-water uptake; D(6) = constant and K(h) is
exponential; the sink (water uptake) function is a sequence (for successive time
intervals) of depth-dependent functions; surface flux can be time-dependent;
homogeneous soil.	
            /. (1980)
Equations for redistribution and drainage based on kinematic wave theory; only
gravity effects (unit total potential gradient) are considered; a first-order,
hyperbolic PDE results;  solution is based on the method of characteristics;
Table 1 provides the procedure and actual examples for obtaining moisture
profiles, 6(z,t), for realistic K(0> functions; uniform initial moisture profile
before redistribution; homogeneous soil.	
                                                 16

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   Model Author(s)
                 Important Features / Limitations
Parlange et al. (1982)
A three-parameter equation (Eq. 13) for estimating cumulative infiltration;
constant surface water content (non-ponding); uniform initial water content;
homogeneous soil.	
Dagan and Bresler
(1983)
A sharp front or a rectangular profile model for one-dimensional infiltration and
redistribution; Eq. 36 for constant water content BC; Eqs. (47) or (49), and (53)
for time-varying or constant flux infiltration; for redistri-bution Eqs. (68) and
(53) are valid; ponding time is given by Eq. (55); uniform initial water content.
Smith (1983)
Similar to Sisson's (1980) approach, but a little more general; does not neglect
capillary gradients; assumes q = K(6) - D(6) dd/dz to be only a function of 6, z/t
= dq/dd; either moisture content or flux specified at the surface; homogeneous
soil.
Philip (1984a)
A solution (Eq. 28) for quasilinear (Kirchoff-transformed), steady infiltration
from circular cylindrical cavities; non-zero source radius; water content or
suction specified at the source boundary; K(h) is exponential; homogeneous soil.
Philip (1984b)
A solution (Eq. 20) for quasilinear, steady infiltration from spherical cavities;
finite source radius; water content or suction specified at the source boundary;
K(h) is exponential; homogeneous soil.	
Morel-Seytoux (1984)
A rectangular profile model for redistribution based on Brooks-Corey functions
for h(6) and K(6); soil is at residual saturation prior to a wetting event; water
content within the actual profile is equal to that within the rectangular profile;
cumulative infiltration prior to redistribution is known; Eqs. 16, 17 and 18
provide the moisture profile, front velocity (in the Darcy sense) and front
location, respectively, during redistribution; evaporation is neglected;
homogeneous soil.	
Charbeneau(1984)
Eq. 7 yields the moisture profile based on kinematic wave theory; surface
moisture content is specified asgft); capillary gradients are neglected; an
inconsistency in Smith's (1983) formulation relating to the non-neglect of
capillary gradients is shown; homogeneous soil.	
Parlange etal. (1985)
An equation, Eq. 23, along with Eqs. 1 and 19b, for estimating cumulative
infiltration, based on Parlange et al. (1982); ponded conditions at the surface;
uniform initial water content; homogeneous soil.	
Sander etal. (1988)
An exact, parametric solution (Eqs. lOa-lOd), with parameter £ for unsteady,
one-dimensional, constant flux infiltration; both D(6) and K(6) are nonlinear,
but of special forms (Eqs. 4 and 6); Eq. 8 provides the h(6) relation; uniform
initial water content; homogeneous soil.	
Broadbridge and
White (1988)
An exact, parametric solution (Eqs.41-44) with parameter (, for unsteady, one-
dimensional, constant flux infiltration; almost identical to that of Sander et al.
(1988); D(6) andK(0) are of the form given by Eqs. 4 and 5, respectively,
enabling the Richards equation to be reduced to the minimally nonlinear Fokker-
Planck equation (Philip, 1974); the actual expressions ofD(0) andK(0) are,
respectively, Eqs. 21 and 11; Eq. 22 provides the h(6) relation; uniform initial
water content; homogeneous soil.	
                                                 17

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     Model Author(s)
                Important Features / Limitations
  Broadbridge et al.
  (1988)
The results of Broadbridge and White (1988) for semi-infinite domain are
extended to a finite soil column with zero-flux BC at the bottom; Eqs. (A27-
A30) provide the parametric solutions; there appears to be a slight discrepancy
between Eqs. 16 & 17 and Eqs. A28 & A30.	
  Swartzendruber and
  Clague (1989)
A listing of various, simple infiltration equations (Eqs. 5-24) in terms of two
dimensionless variables which are defined by Eqs. 3 and 4; constant water
content at the surface; uniform initial water content; homogeneous soil.
  Warrick(1990)
An analytical solution (Eqs. 26-28) for one-dimensional soil-water movement
based on Broadbridge and White (1988); arbitrary initial water content; constant
surface flux, R, but it can be positive, zero, or negative; when,R is negative, Eqs.
36 and 39 may have to be used instead of Eq. 27; homogeneous, semi-infinite
soil.
  Barry and Sander
  (1991)
A parametric, analytical solution (Eqs. 13a, 13b, 1 la, and 1 Ib), with parameter
for one-dimensional soil-water movement; arbitrarily time-varying flux at the
surface; arbitrary initial water content; D(0) and K(6) given by Eqs. 2b and 2c;
homogeneous, semi-infinite soil.
  Warrick etal. (1991)
An analytical solution (Eqs. 26-30) for one-dimensional, time-varying
infiltration; based on Broadbridge and White (1988); K(6) and D(6) functions
are the same as in Broadbridge and White (1988); arbitrary initial water content;
surface flux is treated as a series of constant rates stepped over arbitrary time
intervals; homogeneous, semi-infinite soil.
  Sander etal. (1988)
An exact solution to nonlinear, nonhysteretic redistribution of water in a vertical
soil column of finite depth; both D(6) and K(0) are nonlinear, but of special
forms (Eqs. 3 and 4); no flow at the surface; arbitrary initial water content
distribution; homogeneous soil.	
  Protopapas and Bras
  (1991)
Solutions to the linearized, one- (Eq. 8) and two- (Eq. 15) dimensional, unsteady
unsaturated water flow in terms of matric flux potential; K(h) is exponential and
D(6) is constant; Ksat is assumed to vary exponentially in space; uniform initial
water content; constant matric flux potential BC at the surface; soil is infinite
laterally and semi-infinite vertically.	
  Hills and Warrick
  (1993)
An exact solution to Burger's equation for soil water flow in a finite length
domain (Eqs. 37, 32, and 21); D is constant and K(0> is a quadratic function (Eq.
7); constant flux at the top surface; constant water content at the bottom;
homogeneous soil.	
5.4  Parameter Estimation for the Richards Equation Models
The solution of Richards equation requires, among other things, the specification of soil
characteristic functions, K(6) and h(6).  Based on  experiments, these functions can be estimated
in a tabulated form; however, algebraic forms are  preferred in order to facilitate analytical or
numerical solutions of the Richards equation.  There are several empirical functional forms of the
water retention function, h(0), and the hydraulic conductivity function, K(6) (El-Kadi,  1985).
                                                18

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The coefficients of water retention function can be determined from experimental data of h
versus 6, using nonlinear regression techniques (van Genuchten et al., 1991). Even though K(6)
can be estimated in a similar manner, the measurement of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity for
a fixed water content is very difficult.  Therefore, h(6) is customarily used in conjunction with
theoretical models such as those of Burdine (1953) and Mualem (1976) to obtain K(6).  For each
of these models an additional parameter, the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksal) is required.

The most widely used h(6) functions are those developed by Brooks and Corey (1964) and van
Genuchten (1980). Numerous sources in the soil science literature provide estimates of the
model parameters to calculate h(6) and K(6).  The three most comprehensive sources for these
model parameters are Brakensiek etal. (1981), Panian (1987), and Carsel and Parrish (1988).
These papers provide estimates of saturated hydraulic conductivity and water retention
parameters for soils of various textures.  Johnson and Ravi (1993) evaluated the basis of these
databases and discussed their potential limitations and possible uncertainties with respect to use
in simulating water movement in the vadose zone, van Genuchten et al. (1992) presented
various indirect methods for estimating the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils. An
electronic database called IMSODA (Leij  et al., 1996) is another good source for soil hydraulic
parameters.  Also refer to Appendix C for an annotated bibliography on soil hydraulic parameter
estimation.
6.0  Summary and Recommendations
A compilation of simple mathematical models has been presented for quantifying the rate of soil-
water movement due to infiltration. The rate of infiltration is usually required as an input
parameter by the simpler,  screening level models which describe contaminant migration in the
vadose zone. Even though numerous techniques are available for estimating infiltration rate
(API, 1996), none offers a quick and easy way to obtain an estimate for the purposes of
preliminary analysis and decision-making. The estimation methods presented here are easy-to-
use, and yield scientifically-based estimates using soil-hydraulic and climatic parameters
representative of the prevailing site conditions. The compiled methods were divided into three
types:  a) empirical models, b) Green-Ampt models, and c) Richards equation models.  These
methods (except the empirical models) are based  on widely-accepted concepts of soil physics.
Proper use of them should provide a rational and scientific basis for the determination of site-
specific PRGs and SSLs.

Evaluation of selected models is presented in an accompanying document (Ouyang et al., 1998).
These models should be adequate for quantifying infiltration rates under conditions which are
commonly-encountered at many hazardous waste sites. The document includes examples
illustrating the proper application of these models under different scenarios. Also, sources of
information for the model parameters are identified.
                                           19

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Barry, D.A. and G.C. Sander. 1991. Exact Solutions for Water Infiltration with an Arbitrary
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Burdine, N.T. 1953. Relative Permeability Calculations from Pore-Size Distribution Data.
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Knight, J.H. and J.R. Philip.  1974.  On Solving the Unsaturated Flow Equation:  2. Critique of
       Parlange's Method. Soil Science 116(6): 407-415.

Kostiakov, A.N. 1932. On the Dynamics of the Coefficient of Water Percolation in Soils and on
       the Necessity of Studying it from a Dynamic Point of View for the Purposes of
       Amelioration. Trans. Com. Int. Soc. Soil Sci. 6th Moscow A: 17-21.

                                          22

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Leij, F.J., WJ. Alves, M.Th. van Genuchten, and J.R. Williams. 1996. The UNSODA
       Unsaturated Soil Hydraulic Database. User's Manual Version 1.0.  National Risk
       Management Research Laboratory, U.S. EPA, Ada, OK. EPA/600/R-96/095.

Li, R.M., M.A. Stevens, and D.B. Simons. 1976. Solutions to Green-Ampt Infiltration Equation.
       Journal of Irrigation and Drainage. Division of ASCE 102(IR2): 239-248.

Lomen, D.O. and A.W. Warrick. 1974.  Time-Dependent Linearized Infiltration:  II. Line
       Sources. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 38: 568-572.

Lomen, D.O. and A.W. Warrick. 1978.  Time-Dependent Solutions to the One-Dimensional
       Linearized Moisture Flow Equation with Water Extraction. Journal of Hydrology 39: 59-
       67.

McCuen, R.H., W.J. Rawls, and D.L. Brakensiek. 1981.  Statistical Analysis of the Brooks-Corey
       and the Green-Ampt Parameters Across Soil Textures. Water Resources Research 17(4):
       1005-1013.

Mein, R.G. and C.L. Larson. 1973. Modeling Infiltration during a Steady Rain. Water Resources
       Research 9(2): 384-394.

Morel-Seytoux, H.J. 1984) From Excess Infiltration to Aquifer Recharge: A Derivation Based
       on the Theory of Flow of Water in Unsaturated Soils. Water Resources Research 20 (9):
       1230-1240.

Morel-Seytoux, H.J. and J. Khanji. 1974.  Derivation of an Equation of Infiltration.  Water
       Resources Research 10(4): 795-800.

Mualem, Y. 1976. A New Model for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated
       Porous Media. Water Resources Research 12: 513-522.

Neuman, S.P. 1976.  Wetting Front Pressure Head in the Infiltration Model of Green and Ampt.
       Water Resources Research 12(3): 564-566.

Ouyang, Y., J. R. Williams, J-S. Chen, and V. Ravi, 1998. Estimation of Infiltration Rate in the
       Vadose Zone: Application of selected Mathematical Models, Volume II. National Risk
       Management Research Laboratory, U.S. EPA, Ada, OK. EPA/600/R-97/128b.

Panian, T.F. 1987. Unsaturated Flow Properties Data Catalog. Volume II. Publ. #45061. Water
       Resource Center, Desert Research Institute. DOE/NV/10384-20.

Parlange, J.-Y. 1975. A Note on the Green and Ampt Equation. Soil Science 119(6): 466-467.

Parlange, J.-Y., I. Lisle, R.D. Braddock, and R.E. Smith. 1982. The Three-Parameter Infiltration

                                          23

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       Equation.  Soil Science 1(6): 337-341.

Parlange, J.-Y., R. Haverkamp, and J. Touma. 1985. Infiltration Under Ponded Conditions:  1.
       Optimal Analytical Solution and Comparison with Experimental Observations. Soil
       Science 139(4): 305-311.

Parlange, J.-Y. and R. Haverkamp. 1989. Infiltration and Ponding Time.  In Unsaturated Flow in
       Hydrologic Modeling,  Theory and Practice, ed. HJ. Morel-Seytoux. 95-126.  Kluwer
       Academic Publishers.  Boston, MA.

Philip, J.R. 1957.  The Theory of Infiltration:  4.  Sorptivity and Algebraic Infiltration Equations.
       Soil Science 84: 257-264.

Philip, J.R. 1969.  Theory of Infiltration.  Advances in Hydroscience 5: 215-296. Academic
       Press, New York, NY.

Philip, J.R. 1971.  General Theorem on Steady Infiltration from Surface Sources, with
       Application to Point and Line Sources.  Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 34:
       709-714.

Philip, J.R. 1972.  Steady Infiltration from Buried, Surface, and Perched Point and Line Sources
       in Heterogeneous Soils: I. Analysis.  Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 36:
       268-273.

Philip, J.R. 1974.  Recent Progress in the Solution of Nonlinear Diffusion Equations.  Soil
       Science 117(5): 257-264.

Philip, J.R. 1984a.  Steady Infiltration from Circular Cylindrical Cavities.  Soil Science Society
       of America Journal 48:270-278.

Philip, J.R. 1984b.  Steady Infiltration from Spherical Cavities.  Soil Science Society of America
       Journal 48:  724-729.

Philip, J.R. 1991.  Horizontal Redistribution with Capillary Hysteresis. Water Resources
       Research 27(7): 1459-1469.

Philip, J.R. 1992.  Falling Head Ponded Infiltration.  Water Resources Research. 28(8): 2147-
       2148.

Philip, J.R. 1993.  Variable-Head Ponded Infiltration Under Constant or Variable Rainfall. Water
       Resources Research 29(7):  2155-2165.

Protopapas, A.L. and R.L. Bras. 1991.  The One-Dimensional Approximation for Infiltration in
       Heterogeneous Soils. Water Resources Research 27 (6): 1019-1027.

                                           24

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Raats, P.A.C. 1972.  Steady Infiltration from Sources at Arbitrary Depth. Soil Science Society of
       America Proceedings 36: 399-401.

Rawls, WJ. and D.L. Brakensiek. 1982. Estimating Soil Water Retention from Soil Properties.
       Journal of Irrigation and Drainage, Division Proceedings of ASCE 108: 166-171.

Salvucci, G.D., and D. Entekhabi. 1994. Explicit Expressions for Green-Ampt (Delta Function
       Diffusivity) Infiltration Rate and Cumulative Storage.  Water Resources Research 30(9):
       2661-2663.

Sander, G.C, J.-Y. Parlange, V. Kuhnel, W.L. Hogarth, D. Lockington, and J.P.J. O'Kane.  1988.
       Exact Nonlinear Solution for Constant Flux Infiltration. Journal of Hydrology 97:  341-
       346.

Sisson, J.B., A.H. Ferguson, and M. Th. van Genuchten. 1980. Simple Method for Predicting
       Drainage from Field Plots.  Soil Science Society of America Journal 44: 1147-1152.

Smith, R.E. 1983. Approximate Soil Water Movement by Kinematic Characteristics. Soil
       Science Society of America Journal 47: 3-8.

Smith, R.E. and J.-Y Parlange. 1978. A Parameter-Efficient Hydrologic Infiltration Model.
       Water Resources Research  14(3): 5-538.

Springer, E.P. and T.W. Cundy. 1987.  Field-Scale Evaluation of Infiltration Parameters from
       Soil Texture for Hydrologic Analysis. Water Resources Research 23(2): 325-334.

Stephens, D.B. 1996.  Vadose Zone Hydrology. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL.

Swartzendruber, D. 1974. Infiltration of Constant-Flux Rainfall into Soil as Analyzed by the
       Approach of Green and Ampt.  Soil Science.  117:272-281.

Swartzendruber, D. and D. Hillel. 1973. The Physics of Infiltration,  in Physical Aspects of Soil
       Water and Salts in Ecosystems,  (ed.) A. Hadas. Springer-Verlag.

Swartzendruber, D. and E.G. Youngs. 1974. A Comparison of Physically-Based Infiltration
       Equations (Note) Soil Science.  117 (3):  165-167.

Swartzendruber, D. and F.R. Clague. 1989.  An Inclusive Infiltration Equation for Downward
       Water Entry into Soil. Water Resources Research 25 (4): 619-626.

USDA Soil Conservation Service. 1957. Hydrology.  National Engineering Handbook. Sect. 4.
       Supplement A.
                                          25

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U.S.EPA. 1996. Soil Screening Guidance: User's Guide. U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,
       Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. OSWER Directive 9355.4-23.
       EPA/540/R-96/018, April 1996 (PB96-963505).

van der Heijde, P.K.M. 1994. Identification and Compilation of Unsaturated/Vadose Zone
       Models. EPA/600/R-94/028, March 1994 (PB94-157773).

van Genuchten, M. Th. 1980. A Closed-Form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic
       Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils.  Soil Science Society of America Journal 44: 892-898.

van Genuchten, M. Th., FJ. Leij, and S.R.  Yates. 1991.  The RETC Code for Quantifying the
       Hydraulic Functions of Unsaturated Soils. U.S. EPA, Robert S. Kerr Environmental
       Research Laboratory. EPA/600/2-91/065.

van Genuchten, M. Th., FJ. Leij, and LJ. Lund. 1992.  Indirect Methods for Estimating the
       Hydraulic Properties of Unsaturated Soils. University of California, Riverside, CA.

Warrick, A.W. 1974a. Solution to the One-Dimensional Linear Moisture Flow Equation with
       Water Extraction.  Soil Science Society America Proceedings 38: 573-576.

Warrick, A.W. 1974b. Time-Dependent Linearized Infiltration. I. Point Sources. Soil Science
       Society of America Proceedings 38: 383-386.

Warrick, A.W. 1975.  Analytical Solutions to the One-Dimensional Linearized Moisture Flow
       Equation for Arbitrary Input.  Soil Science 120(2): 79-84.

Warrick, A.W., and D.O. Lomen. 1976. Time-dependent Linearized Infiltration: III. Strip and
       Disc Sources.  Soil Science Society of America Journal 40: 639-643.

Warrick, A.W. 1990.  An Analytical Solution to Richards Equation for a Draining Soil Profile.
       Water Resources Research 26(2): 253-258.

Warrick, A.W., A. Islas, and D.O. Lomen.  1991. An Analytical Solution to Richards Equation
       for Time-Varying Infiltration. Water Resources Research 27(5): 763-766.
                                          26

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   APPENDIX A




 Green-Ampt Models






Annotated Bibliography
       A- 1

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                                                                               Green-Ampt Based Models
GREEN-AMPT BASED METHODS
1.     Aggelides, S., E.G. Youngs. The Dependence of the Parameters in the Green and Ampt Infiltration
      Equation on the Initial Water Content in Draining and Wetting States. Water Resources Research, 14:857-
      862 (1978).

            The parameters in the Green and Ampt infiltration equation were determined from infiltration
            experiments in a sand column at various uniform initial water contents in both draining and wetting
            states and were compared with various estimates obtained from the soil water properties measured on
            the same experimental column. The estimates of the soil water pressure head at the wetting front
            were generally more negative than the values obtained from the directly measured parameters. It was
            found that the calculated cumulative infiltration as a function of time was fitted better by using
            Bouwer's crude 'water entry' estimate than values deduced by approximating Richards' flow equation.

2.     Ahuja, L.R. Applicability of the Green-Ampt Approach to Water Infiltration through Surface Crust. Soil
      Science, 118:283-288 (1974).

            Applicability of the Green-Ampt approach to describe water infiltration through surface crust after
            the rapid initial stage is evaluated by testing the equations of Hillel and Gardner (1970) and two
            modifications of these against numerical-solution data for Yolo soil.  The modifications were
            designed to approximately account for the transient nature of soil-water content at the crust-soil
            boundary. One of the modifications involved piece-wise application of Hillel and Gardner's (1970)
            equations, and the other treated the boundary water content as a continuous variable.  The results of
            tests showed that the unmodified equations of Hillel and Gardner (1970) were fairly good for a
            smaller crust resistance but involved considerable error for a larger resistance.  Piecewise application
            of these equations with as small as four subranges gave results in close agreement with the numerical
            solution for both resistances. The other modifications involving continuously variable boundary
            water content showed very good agreement for both resistances in early stages. In the intermediate
            stages, it showed errors of large relative magnitude, which decreased with increase in resistance.

3.     Barry, D.A., J.-Y.  Parlange, and R. Haverkamp. Short Communication. Falling-Head Ponded Infiltration
      with Evaporation—Comment. Journal of Hydrology,  162:211-213 (1994).

4.     Bouwer, H. Rapid Field Measurement of Air Entry Value and Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil as Significant
      Parameters in Flow System Analysis. Water Resources Research, 2:729-738 (1966).

            Field measurements of air entry value and hydraulic conductivity of soil are obtained with a covered
            cylinder infiltrometer equipped with standpipe and vacuum gage. Tests are normally completed in
            approximately 30 minutes. The resulting data are used to construct step functions relating hydraulic
            conductivity to (negative) soil water pressure for sorption and desorption. These functions may be
            used as simplified hydraulic  conductivity characteristics to include negative pressure flow in the
            analysis of subsurface water movement.  Several field and laboratory studies demonstrate the validity
            of the concepts and the technique.

5.     Brakensiek, D.L.,  C.A. Onstad.  Parameter Estimation of the Green and Ampt Infiltration Equation. Water
      Resources Research , 13:1009-1012 (1977).

            Infiltrometer data are utilized to test a fitting procedure for the Green and Ampt infiltration equation
            parameters.  The spatial variation of the estimated parameters is averaged to give lumped parameter
            values for watershed modeling. An appropriate scale for parameter averaging is discussed, which
            transforms parameter values to normal deviates. A sensitivity analysis for the equation parameters is
            performed for both infiltration estimates  and runoff hydrograph volume and peak rates.  The capillary
            pressure parameter shows least sensitivity; however, variation in the finable porosity and effective
            conductivity parameters has a major influence on infiltration and runoff amounts and rates.
                                                 A-2

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                                                                                 Green-Ampt Based Models
6.     Brakensiek, D.L.  Estimating the Effective Capillary Pressure in the Green and Ampt Infiltration Equation.
      Water Resources Research, 13:680-682 (1977).

            A considerable amount of research indicates that the Green and Ampt infiltration equation can be
            used in hydrologic modeling with confidence. The parameters, however still require considerable
            field and or laboratory effort to determine estimated values. Reported here are alternatives for
            determining the average wetting front capillary pressure parameter.  Only a moisture characteristic
            would be required.

7.     Charbeneau, RJ. andR.G. Asgian. Simulation of the Transient Soil Water Content Profile for a
      Homogeneous Bare Soil.  Water Resources Research, 27(6): 1271-1279 (1991).

            Characterization of the fate  and transport of solutes through the vadose zone requires estimation of
            average water contents and  travel times through the unsaturated profiles. This paper reviews a model
            for long-term simulation of  the soil water content profile for a homogeneous bare soil using physically
            based parameters.  For an arbitrary rainfall record, the model calculates the cumulative infiltration,
            runoff, evaporation, and recharge components, as well as the time average reduced saturation and its
            variance as a function of depth. The model is computationally efficient and easily allows long-term
            simulation for parameter sensitivity investigations.

8.     Childs, E.G., M. Bybordi.  The Vertical Movement of Water in Stratified Porous Material  1. Infiltration.
      Water Resources Research, 5:446-459 (1969).

            The infiltration law of Green and Ampt has long been established as an adequate approximation in
            uniform soil profiles.  It is here extended to include heterogeneous profiles. Formulas are developed
            to express three relationships. Firstly, the infiltration law is derived for a profile consisting of a
            succession of n different layers with conductivity decreasing from the surface.  Secondly, an
            expression is derived for the conductivity profile that will give a specified infiltration law, and in
            particular a linear infiltration law with specified parameters. Thirdly, this expression serves to
            determine the conductivity when the infiltration law is observed.  Experiments are described to
            measure the infiltration rates into layered columns or porous material, the results of which confirm
            the theory.

9.     Chu, S.T.  Infiltration During an Unsteady Rain.  Water Resources Research, 14(3):461-466 (1978).

            Infiltration during a rainfall event can be divided into two distinct stages:  a stage with surface
            ponding and a stage without surface ponding. Few of the infiltration models in current use are
            suitable to describe infiltration for both  stages.  In this paper the Green and Ampt equation was
            applied to determine the time that separates these  two stages so that infiltration for the different
            stages can be treated separately.  To obtain an integrated form of the Green and Ampt equation, it is
            traditionally assumed that the cumulative infiltration is zero at the time when surface ponding starts.
            But in a rainfall event the cumulative infiltration equals the water infiltrated into the soil profile prior
            to the ponding time, which  is usually not zero.  Therefore, a modification in the  traditional  Green and
            Ampt equation is needed to describe infiltration during a rainfall event. It is shown in this paper that
            this modification is equivalent to  a shift of the time scale by an amount which is referred to as the
            pseudotime by the author. The modified version of the Green and Ampt equation was applied to
            determine rainfall excess and to predict  total runoff for three major storms recorded by the
            Agricultural Research Service from 1957 to 1959  on a watershed near Oxford, Mississippi.  A
            comparison of the prediction and the measured  total runoff appeared to be promising.

10.   Freyberg, D.L., J.W. Reeder, J.B. Franzini, I. Remson. Application of the Green-Ampt Model to Infiltration
      Under Time-Dependent Surface Water Depths. Water Resources Research, 16:517-528 (1980).

            The performance of the Green-Ampt model for infiltration problems where the depth of water above
            the ground surface is varying with time is investigated.  In order to yield infiltration rates that agree
            with those predicted by the Richards equation for flow in a homogeneous, nondeforming, and
            nonhysteretic soil the effective suction head parameter in the Green-Ampt model must be considered


                                                 A-3

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                                                                                 Green-Ampt Based Models
            a function of time, surface water depth, initial moisture content, and soil type. However, when a
            constant value of the effective suction head is assumed, the response of the Green-Ampt model to
            variations in surface water depth is qualitatively equivalent to the response of the Richards model.
            The effectiveness of a number of definitions of the suction head parameter that have been proposed in
            the literature is investigated. While the differences In predicted infiltration rates and cumulative
            infiltration obtained by using the different definitions are, in general, of marginal significance, the
            best choice of the value of the effective suction head depends upon the particular problem to which
            the model is being applied.

11.    Green, W.H. and C.A. Ampt. Studies on Soil Physics I. The Flow of Air and Water through Soils.  J.Agr.
      ScL, IV (Part I): 1-24 (1911).

12.    Hillel, D., W.R. Gardner. Transient Infiltration into Crust-Topped Profiles. Soil Science, 109:69-76 (1970).

13.    Mein, R.G. and C.L. Larson. Modeling Infiltration during a Steady Rain.   Water Resources Research,
      9(2):384-394 (1973).

            Few  of the infiltration models in current use are suitable for the situation in which the rainfall
            intensity is initially less than the infiltration capacity of the soil. In this paper a  simple two-stage
            model is developed for infiltration under a constant intensity rainfall into a homogeneous soil with
            uniform initial moisture content.  The first stage predicts  the volume of infiltration to the moment at
            which surface ponding begins.   The second stage, which is the Green-Ampt model modified for the
            infiltration prior to surface saturation, describes the subsequent infiltration behavior. A method for
            estimating the mean suction of the wetting front is given.  Comparison of the model predictions with
            experimental data and numerical solutions of the Richards equation for several soil types shows
            excellent agreement.

14.    Morel-Seytoux, HJ. and J. Khanji. Derivation of an Equation of Infiltration. Water Resources Research,
      10(4):795-800 (1974).

            Since the publication of the article of Green and Ampt (1911) the two constants appearing in their
            'equation of infiltration' have been considered to be empirical constants. In fact, they can be deduced
            simply from the soil characteristics, and they have a very  precise physical meaning. However, the
            assumption of an abrupt front separating a saturated zone from the zone at the initial water content
            can lead to prediction errors of the order of 10-70%.  Derived formulas display explicitly the
            functional dependence of the effective  (or flowing) capillary head and of the viscous correction factor
            as a function of the initial water content. These formulas are both simple  and accurate and of
            practical value to the hydrologist.

15.    Neuman, S.P. Wetting Front Pressure Head in the Infiltration Model of Green and Ampt. Water Resources
      Research, 12:564-566 (1976).

            A theoretical expression relating the wetting front pressure head in the infiltration model of Green
            and Ampt (1911) to soil characteristics is derived. This expression is identical to that previously
            suggested by Bouwer (1964) on the basis of an analogy with horizontal flow.  It  differs from a more
            complete expression recently proposed by Morel-Seytoux and Khanji (1974) in that the effect of air
            mobility is neglected, the  need for determining the functional relationship between the relatively
            permeability of air and water saturation thus being avoided.

16.    Philip, J.R.  Variable-Head Ponded Infiltration Under Constant or Variable Rainfall.   Water Resources-
      Research, 29(7):2155-2165 (1993).

            This study of the effect of excess rainfall, ponded without runoff, on the dynamics of infiltration into a
            deep homogeneous soil uses the Green-Ampt, or delta function, approximation.  Exact solutions are
            given for constant and for piecewise constant rainfall. An inverse method yields solutions for
            arbitrary hyetographs. Ponding can increase markedly both the total duration of the infiltration event
            and the total amount infiltrated.  The analysis suggests that capillary hysteresis emerges during the


                                                 A-4

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                                                                                 Green-Ampt Based Models
            ponding recession phase toward the end of a storm.  In long-duration heavy rainstorms infiltration
            rate may increase with time, contrary to the classical picture. The asymptotic large time infiltration
            rate under continuous constant rainfall at rate R, with R > K (the conductivity parameter in the
            Green-Ampt formulation) is an increasing function of both K and R. (With ponding neglected, it is
            simply K).  An appendix gives some exact results on the influence of hyetograph shape on time to
            ponding.

17.   Philip, J.R.  Short Communication. Falling-Head Ponded Infiltration with Evaporation-Reply.  Journal of
      Hydrology, 162:215-221 (1994).

18.   Salvucci, G.D. andD. Entekhabi. Explicit Expressions for Green-Ampt (Delta Function Diffusivitv)
      Infiltration Rate and Cumulative Storage.  Water Resources Research, 30(9):2661-2663 (1994).

            The sharp wetting front model of infiltration (Green and Ampt, 1911; Philip,  1954) yields through
            simple integration an exact solution relating the infiltration rate (i), cumulative infiltration (I), and
            time (/).  The relation, however, is implicit for /' or/; i.e., it is of the form t = A[l - B In (1 + I/B)].
            Numerical iteration is required to find the  infiltration rate, and furthermore, analytic manipulations
            are limited using this traditional formulation of the Green-Ampt infiltration. In this note we present
            an accurate expression for the infiltration rate in the form of a rapidly converging series in the
            variable T= t/(t + %). Truncating the series at four terms yields a useful expression for i(t). The
            proposed four-term expression gives less than 2% error at all times and is readily integrated to yield
            the cumulative infiltration I ft).  In conjunction with the exact expression for time ft) given /' or /, the
            proposed expression is useful in infiltration/runoff calculations that necessitate the time compression
            approximation (TCA).

19.   Smith, R.E.  and J.-Y. Parlange.  A Parameter-Efficient Hydrologic Infiltration Model.  Water Resources
      Research, 14(3):533-538 (1978).

            By adopting two extreme assumptions concerning the behavior of unsaturated soil hydraulic
            conductivity K near saturation, we derived a two-branched model for ponding time and infiltration
            rate decay for arbitrary rainfall rates. One assumption was that Ovaries slowly near saturation and
            leads  to an expression for ponding time and infiltration decay. For initially ponded conditions,
            ponding time is zero, and with rainfall rate r 6  4, the familiar Green and Ampt (1911) expression
            results.  The other, rather opposite assumption was that Ovaries rapidly, e.g., exponentially, near
            saturation.  This model also holds for both rainfall and ponded surface conditions, and for ponded
            conditions the expression is identical to that of Parlange (1971).  Each model uses only two
            parameters, saturated soil conductivity Ks and a parameter that is roughly  related to sorptivity and
            responds nearly linearly to variations in initial saturation.  Both parameters are physically related to
            measurable soil properties. Methods are presented to estimate parameters  of either model from
            infiltrometer tests.  The two models are compared with a precise numerical solution of the
            unsaturated soil water diffusion equations for three soils that represent a range of soil behaviors near
            saturation.  Our results show that either assumption would be an excellent model for most hydrologic
            purposes, and the relative goodness of fit of each model is generally consistent with the appropriate
            behavior of K(Q 6 Qs).

20.   Swartzendruber, D. Infiltration of Constant-Flux Rainfall into Soil as Analyzed by the Approach of Green
      and Ampt.   Soil Science, 117:272-281 (1974).

            Infiltration of water into soil from an application of constant water flux r is analyzed theoretically by
            treating the resulting soil-water profiles as step functions, as assumed in the approach of Green and
            Ampt (1911).  Important features of the infiltration process then follow in fairly straightforward
            mathematical form.  As r decreases toward the  near-saturated soil hydraulic conductivity Kb, the time
            to of onset of surface-water excess is sufficiently increased  so that the curves of infiltration flux /'
            versus cumulative time t are shifted toward larger times, progressively away from the curve of /' versus
                                                  A-5

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                                                                    Green-Ampt Based Models
t for continuous ponding. But / is not a simple function of /, primarily because the cumulative water
infiltration / is an implicit function of t.  Two explicit-form equations are then proposed for / versus /,
both equations being integrable into explicit forms of / versus /. The one explicit equation is matched
with the implicit function within ±11 percent, over the whole range from r = Kb to r .
                                     A-6

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    APPENDIX B




Richards Equation Models






 Annotated Bibliography
         B- 1

-------
                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
RICHARDS' EQUATION (ANALYTICAL / QUASI-ANALYTICAL)
1.     Babu, D.K.  Infiltration Analysis and Perturbation Methods   1. Absorption with Exponential Diffusivitv.
      Water Resources Research, 12(l):89-93 (1976).

            Simple perturbation methods are employed to analyze the horizontal absorption of moisture in
            unsaturated soils. The special case treated assumes the diffusivity to be an exponential function of the
            concentration and the concentration at the boundaries to be constant.  The solution emerges as an
            explicitly determined power series in the Boltzmann variable.

            The resulting profiles are compared with some others found in the existing literature.  A discussion
            about the relevance and advantages of this type of analysis forms the concluding part of the paper.

2.     Babu, D.K.  Infiltration Analysis and Perturbation Methods   2. Horizontal Absorption.  Water Resources
      Research, 12(5): 1013-1018 (1976).

            Perturbation methods are employed to analyze the horizontal absorption of moisture in unsaturated
            soils.  The present study applies to absorption under the general diffusivity function, subject to
            constant boundary concentration. The concept of the wetting front moving with a finite velocity plays
            a fundamental role in this set of papers. The solution emerges as a series of terms that can be
            explicitly calculated in terms of the integrals involving diffusivity functions. The examples of
            exponential and constant diffusivity functions, as well  as the case of Yolo  light clay, are computed to
            one or two terms to exhibit the advantages over, and the good agreement with, other published data of
            Parlange, Philip, etc. The method possesses great potential, and in a subsequent paper the study of
            vertical infiltration will be presented by utilizing the perturbation mechanism.

3.     Babu, D.K.  Infiltration Analysis and Perturbation Methods   3.  Vertical Infiltration.  Water Resources
      Research, 12(5): 1019-1024 (1976).

            Simple perturbation methods continue to yield good results in the solution of the problem of vertical
            infiltration of water into unsaturated soils.  The initial approximation is valid for all times and gives
            useful information about important flow characteristics. The require computation are always direct
            and simple.  Some numerical work pertaining to Yolo light clay is presented to exhibit the
            advantages, relevance, and simplicity of the present analysis compared to  other exiting works on this
            topic.

4.     Barry, D.A., et al.  A Class of Exact Solutions for Richards' Equation.  Journal  of Hydrology, 142:29-46
      (1993).

            A new solution satisfying Richards' equation is derived. The solution, which may be applied for
            infiltration or capillary rise, is valid for the condition of an arbitrary moisture tension imposed at the
            soil surface. When written in terms of the moisture tension, the new result is very simple, being
            derived m terms  of a similarity variable.  The solution applies when the form of the soil moisture
            characteristic curve is a particular weighted integral of the gradient of the unsaturated hydraulic
            conductivity. Thus, if the soil moisture characteristic curve is selected a priori, then this condition
            determines the hydraulic conductivity. The converse of this statement also applies.  The cumulative
            infiltration derived from the solution is of the form of the Green-Ampt infiltration equation; however,
            there is  no need to  assume a steep wetting front as Green and Ampt did. Finally, using the
            correspondence between Richards' equation and the convection-dispersion equation with a non-linear
            solute adsorption isotherm, a new exact solution for adsorptive solute transport is derived.
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5.     Barry, D.A., and G.C. Sander. Exact Solutions for Water Infiltration with an Arbitrary Surface Flux or
      Nonlinear Solute Adsorption. Water Resources Research, 27:2667-2680 (1991).

            Several authors have now used the Backlund transformation to linearize Richards' equation and so
            obtain analytical solutions for infiltration and redistribution processes for the linearizable class of
            diffusivities and hydraulic conductivities.  After transformation a convection-diffusion equation is
            obtained.  To date, all the analytical results making use of the Backlund transform have been based on
            a specified, constant flux that is assumed to exist at the surface boundary. We generalize the previous
            work by removing this restriction and obtain a general solution for an arbitrary temporal variation in
            the surface flux. The solution contains a function that is specified by a Volterra integral equation.  In
            practice, the Volterra equation must be evaluated numerically. This task is accomplished using a
            relatively straightforward algorithm.  The analytical results for infiltration can be applied to the
            process of solute transport subject to a nonlinear adsorption isotherm since these two phenomena are
            equivalent under another mapping. Our new analytical results, therefore, also apply to this class of
            solute transport processes. The general form of the adsorption isotherm for which exact results can be
            obtained is derived. This isotherm appears capable of representing a relatively large family of
            physically relevant cases, although this topic remains  open for future investigation.

6.     Batu, V.  Time-Dependent. Linearized Two-Dimensional Infiltration and Evaporation from Nonuniform
      and Nonperiodic Strip Sources. Water Resources Research, 18:1725-1733 (1982).

            Using a linearized equation describing unsaturated homogeneous and isotropic porous media flow, a
            general, two-dimensional, time-dependent mathematical model is presented for infiltration and/or
            infiltration-evaporation from nonuniform and nonperiodic strip sources located at the soil surface.
            The analysis is based on an exponential relationship between the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
            and the soil water pressure head and also assumes  a constant value for the derivative of unsaturated
            hydraulic conductivity with respect to water content.  In the mathematical analysis, Laplace transform
            and Fourier analysis techniques are used simultaneously, and a general equation in an integral form
            for the distribution of matric flux potential has been obtained. The result of Warrick and Lomen
            (1976) for a single strip source is shown to be a special case of this general model.  The solution for
            infiltration from two strip sources is presented as another special case. Also, a third special case is
            presented for infiltration from two strip sources and evaporation from another strip located in the
            middle part. The horizontal and vertical flux components for these cases are presented. All results
            are expressed in integral forms and calculated with a computer using a numerical integration method.
            The solutions predict the matric flux potential and  flux components as functions of space and time.
            Examples that illustrate the applicability of some of the solutions are presented.  These solutions are
            of interest in the design of both sprinkler and furrow irrigation systems.  The results may also be used
            for different purposes in civil and agricultural engineering applications.

7.     Ben-Asher, I, D.O. Lomen, and A.W. Warrick.  Linear and Nonlinear Models of Infiltration from a Point
      Source.   Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 42:3-6 (1978).

            Numerical and analytical solutions for water flow from a point source are compared.  The numerical
            solution was for the nonlinear moisture flow equation and the analytical  solution for the
            corresponding linearized form.  For cyclic conditions, results were approximately the  same with
            regard to range in values between the wettest and driest values.  However, the numerical results  show
            a faster response both for wetting and drying.  Computational times required of the analytical solution
            were of the order of 1/20 to l/200th of that required for the finite difference solutions.

8.     Bolt, G.H. Discussion on "Absorption and Infiltration in Two- and Three Dimensional Systems."  In:
      Water in the Unsaturated Zone, IASH/AIHS - Unesco (1969).
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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
9.     Boulier, J.F., J. Touma, and M. Vauclin. Flux-Concentration Relation-Based Solutions of Constant-Flux
      Infiltration Equation:  I. Infiltration into Nonuniform Initial Moisture Profiles.  Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.,
      48:245-251 (1984).

            The quasi-analytical solution of the infiltration equation based on the flux-concentration relation for
            constant flux condition and initially uniform water content profile is extended here to nonuniform
            moisture profiles for fluxes either smaller or greater than the saturated hydraulic conductivity. In the
            latter case, the solution is developed for the postponding stage.  It is shown that the measured flux-
            concentration relation is well-approximated by F(6*) = 6* and that no significant time dependence
            can be observed. The quasi-analytical solution is then successfully compared with both laboratory
            experiments performed on a sandy soil column and numerical solution of the Richards equation for
            the nonponding, preponding, and postponding stages of infiltration.

10.   Broadbridge, P.,  J.H. Knight, and C. Rogers.  Constant Rate Rainfall Infiltration in a Bounded Profile:
      Solutions of a Nonlinear Model.  Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 52:1526-1533 (1988).

            We present new exact solutions to a versatile analytic nonlinear model of single phase vertical
            unsaturated flow during constant rate rainfall infiltration in a bounded soil profile with an
            impermeable base. The nonlinear flow equation in a fixed finite region is transformed to a linear
            diffusion problem with boundary conditions on a shrinking domain. The linear problem is treated by
            King's method of Laplace-transform boosts.  The analytic solutions illustrate the theoretical
            differences in the basement moisture build-up when the water content dependence of the soil
            hydraulic properties varies from strong to weak.  When the rainfall  rate exceeds a critical value which
            is estimated here, surface ponding precedes basement saturation.  In this case, time to ponding is
            approximated well by the expression for the infinite column. When the rainfall rate is less than the
            critical value (which is greater than the conductivity at saturation), basement saturation precedes
            surface ponding. In this case, the time to basement saturation is close to the time taken for the
            rainfall to  fill the available pore space.

11.   Broadbridge, P. and I. White.   Constant Rate Rainfall Infiltration: A Versatile Nonlinear Model  1.
      Analytic Solution.  Water Resources Research, 24(1): 145-154 (1988).

            Analytic solutions are presented for a nonlinear diffusion-convection model describing constant rate
            rainfall infiltration in uniform soils and other porous materials. The model is based on the Darcy-
            Buckingham approach to unsaturated water flow and assumes simple functional forms for the soil
            water diffusivity D(8) and hydraulic conductivity K(8) which depend on a single free parameter C
            and readily measured soil hydraulic properties. These D(8) and K(8) yield physically reasonable
            analytic moisture characteristics.  The relation between this model and other models which give
            analytic solutions is explored. As C -> ,  the model reduces to the weakly nonlinear Burgers'
            equation, which has been applied in certain field situations. At the  other end of the range as C  -> 1,
            the model approaches a Green-Ampt-like model. A wide range of realistic soil hydraulic properties is
            encompassed by varying the C parameter. The general features of the analytic solutions are
            illustrated for selected C values. Gradual and steep wetting profiles develop during rainfall, aspects
            seen in the laboratory and field.  In addition, the time-dependent surface water content and surface
            water pressure potential are presented explicitly.  A simple traveling wave approximation is given
            which agrees closely with the exact solution at comparatively early  infiltration times.

12.   Broadbridge, P. and I. White.  Time to Ponding: Comparison of Analytic. Quasi-Analytic, and
      Approximate Predictions.  Water Resources Research, 23(12):2302-2310 (1987).

            An analytic expression for time to ponding is introduced using the nonlinear model of Broadbridge
            and White (1987).  The hydraulic properties of this model can encompass properties ranging from
            those of a highly nonlinear Green-Ampt-like soil to those  satisfying the weakly nonlinear Burgers'


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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
            equation. Because of its versatility, this analytic solution is used as a benchmark against which extant
            analytic, quasi-analytic, and approximate expressions are compared.  Time to ponding is
            parameterized here in terms of the readily measured field properties, sorptivity and hydraulic
            conductivity.  In the limit of Green-Ampt-like properties the analytic solution reduces exactly to the
            Parlange and  Smith (1976) approximation.  A similar functional dependence of time to ponding on
            rainfall rate is found from quasi-analytic approximations. Based on this, a modified approximation is
            suggested which should give time to ponding for most soils to within ±10%.  Some existing
            approximations are found to have unacceptable deviations from the analytic solution, and their
            continued use appears unwarranted. Finally, we address the field problem of predicting time to
            ponding at any antecedent water content, given sorptivity measured at only one initial water content.

13.    Brutsaert, W. More on an Approximate Solution for Nonlinear Diffusion. Water Resources Research,
      10:1251-1252(1974).

            A method of solution developed earlier (1970) for a diffusivity, that is, a power function of
            concentration, is shown to be more generally applicable. One of the conditions of its applicability is
            the existence  of a sharp diffusing front.  As an illustration the solution is worked out herein for a
            diffusivity that has been useful in the analysis of soil water problems.

14.    Brutsaert, W., and R.N. Weisman. Comparison of Solutions of a Nonlinear Diffusion Equation. Water
      Resources Research, 6:642-644 (1970).

            Four solutions of a general nonlinear diffusion equation are given.  A numerical analysis serves as
            reference for one series solution and for two more  simple approximate solutions.  The accuracy of the
            methods is discussed and presented graphically; the results of the numerical analysis are given in
            tabular form.  It was found that the usefulness of the two approximate solutions lies in their
            mathematical simplicity and the accuracy with which they  describe infiltration.

15.    Charbeneau, R.J. Kinematic Models for Soil Moisture and Solute Transport.  Water Resources Research,
      20(6):699-706 (1984).

            The kinematic theory of soil moisture and solute transport in the vertical direction for unsaturated
            groundwater recharge is considered. The general theory of kinematic models is reviewed and  applied
            for an isolated wetting event wherein the soil starts at and eventually drains to field capacity.
            Analytical expressions are developed for the water content and moisture flux as a function of depth
            and time. The approach is  extended for an arbitrary  sequence of surface flux or water content
            boundary conditions. The transport of a solute with a general nonlinear sorption isotherm is also
            considered.  It is shown that for the general isotherm the vertical displacement of a solute isochore
            during an arbitrary wetting sequence depends only on the total depth of water infiltrated and not on
            how the infiltration rate varies with time.

16.    Cisler, J.  Note on the Parlange Method for the Numerical Solution of Horizontal Infiltration of Water into
      Soil.  Soil Science,  117:70-73 (1974).

            Parlange's approximate analytical solution for the  horizontal infiltration of water into soil is
            numerically tested for the case of two-step diffusivity function and also for the Yolo Light Clay
            diffusivity of Philip (1957). It is shown that Parlange's second approximation for the Boltzman
            variable (|> = x«t"1/2 as a function of moisture content gives in both cases too high values, as compared
            to the analytical solution for two-step diffusivity, or Philip's solution for the soil-water case. The error
            decreases as the diffusivity  function approaches more closely to the delta-function type of diffusivity.
            The improved second approximation of Parlange is, however, very precise, even for the diffusivities,
            which are not of delta-function type. The increase of labor for this improved approximation is very
            small. A recurrence formula for the successive (|>'s is also examined, but it is found, however, that
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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
            this formula does not give convergent values and the computational effort is larger than the improved
            second approximation.

17.    Clothier, B.E., J.H. Knight, and I. White. Burgers' Equation:  Application to Field Constant-Flux
      Infiltration.  Soil Science, 132(4) (1981).

            We present the analytical constant-flux solution to Burgers' equation.  Burgers' equation is a
            minimally nonlinear Fokker-Planck diffusion equation, applicable to infiltration into soils with a
            constant diffusivity and quadratic conductivity-water content relationship. Field Bungendore fine
            sand has a near-constant diffusivity-water content relationship, and analytical solutions of Burgers'
            equation are in good agreement with field profiles of water content obtained in situ with a rainfall
            simulator.  The solutions and experimental data all relate to nonponding infiltration with fluxes less
            than the saturated hydraulic conductivity; however, a wide range of elapsed times and flux rates are
            covered. Predicted wet-front penetration is in good agreement with the field experimental data. The
            complete analytical solution can be evaluated using a programmable hand calculator.  The simpler
            "profile-at-infinity" solution is shown to be surprisingly accurate over a wide range of times, giving
            useful results easily.  An expression for the time to  ponding is also presented.

18.    Corradini, C., F. Melone, and R.E. Smith. Modeling Infiltration During Complex Rainfall Sequences.
      Water Resources Research, 30(10):2777-2784  (1994).

            An extension of the conceptual model earlier developed by Smith et al. (1993) is presented.  Their
            basic  model considered the problem of point infiltration during a storm consisting of two parts
            separated by a rainfall hiatus, with surface saturation and runoff occurring in each part.  The model is
            here extended toward further generality, including the representation of a sequence of infiltration-
            redistribution cycles with situations not leading to soil surface saturation, and rainfall periods of
            intensity less than the soil infiltration capacity.  The model employs at most a two-part profile for
            simulating the actual one.  When the surface flux is not at capacity, it  uses a slightly modified version
            of the Parlange et al. (1985) model for description of increases in the surface water content and the
            Smith et al. (1993) redistribution equation for decreases. Criteria for the development of compound
            profiles and for their reduction to  single  profiles are also incorporated. The extended model is tested
            by comparison with numerical solutions of Richards' equation, carried out for a variety of experiments
            upon  two contrasting soils.  The model applications yield very accurate results and support its use as
            part of a watershed hydrologic model.

19.    Drake, R.L., et al.  Similarity Approximation for the Radial Subsurface Flow Problem.  Water Resources
      Research, 5(3):673-684  (1969).

            A useful mathematical technique in the study of radial flow of underground water is the application of
            similarity transformations,  such as Boltzmann's transformation. The transformations lead to
            approximations that are shown to be valid if certain physical parameters satisfy given limiting
            conditions.

            A nonlinear partial differential equation is formulated describing the radial flow, of soil moisture.  A
            similarity approximation is used to transform the partial differential equation into a nonlinear
            ordinary differential equation. Criteria by which to judge the applicability of the similarity
            approximation are derived.

            Several monotonicity properties of the transformed moisture as a function of the similarity variable
            are derived. The properties are used to develop a numeric procedure for the solution of the
            transformed equation. The procedure is  used to study the radial flow of soil moisture to a cylindric
            sink for diffusivities which vary linearly, quadratically, and exponentially with soil moisture. The
            solutions show that the moisture front steepens with increasing nonlinearity.
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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
20.   Drake, R.L. and C.P. Peterson. Application of a Local Similarity Concept in Solving the Vertical
      Subsurface Flow.  Water Resources Research, 7(5): 1241-1255 (1971).

            A technique is described for solving various problems in continuum mechanics through the
            application of similarity transformations when all the requirements for the application of such
            transformations are not satisfied.  The transformed equations usually involve a stray time variable
            that is interpreted as a system parameter. When this parameter is properly interpreted, the solutions
            of the transformed systems are very good numerical approximations for the solutions of the original
            systems.  The advantages of considering the transformed systems are usually two-fold:  numerical
            solutions can be obtained with less computer time, and qualitative analysis of the transformed systems
            is usually easier than that of the original systems. The problems discussed in this paper include
            certain previously published results and some new results obtained for the nonlinear Fokker-Planck
            equation in which the vertical movement of soil moisture under the influence of gravity is described.

21.   Gardner, W.R.  Some  Steady-State Solutions of the Unsaturated Moisture Flow Equation with Application
      to Evaporation from a  Water Table.  Soil Science, 4(85):228-232 (1957).

22.   Ghosh. R.K. Modeling Infiltration.  Soil Science, 130(6):297-302 (1980).

            The equation I = at + Kst is proposed as a model of infiltration.  This is a combination of the Lewis-
            Kostiakov equation and Philip's two-term infiltration equation, but it has the advantage of eliminating
            the  lapses of both those equations. The formulas by which a and b can be predicted in advance are
            also presented.

23.   Ghosh. R.K. A Note on the Infiltration Equation.   Soil Science, 136(6):333-338 (1983).

            Philip's two-term infiltration equation / = St"2 + At, sometimes fails to describe field results precisely.
            Though physically less appropriate, /= mf, the Lewis-Kostiakov equation, is advantageous in that it
            can accommodate varieties of field results.  For the  case where n is greater than 1/2, the term f can be
            expanded suitably, and if only two terms of this expanded time series are considered, the  equation / =
            m0t'/2 + m,t3/2 is formed. This equation describes the field results more precisely than Philip's two-
            term equation. Two sets of published data (Lewis 1937) and six  sets of experimentally observed data
            for various time ranges are examined here.  The agreement between the observed and generated data
            (using the present model) is found to be very good.

24.   Gilding, B.H. Qualitative Mathematical Analysis  of the Richards Equation.  Transport in Porous Media,
      (5):651-666(1991).

            The Richards equation is widely used as a model for the flow of water in unsaturated soils.  For
            modelling one-dimensional flow in a homogeneous soil, this equation can be cast in the form  of a
            specific nonlinear partial differential equation with a time derivative and one spatial derivative. This
            paper is a survey of recent progress in the pure mathematical analysis of this last equation.  The
            emphasis is on the interpretation of the results of the analysis.  These are explained in terms of the
            qualitative behavior of the flow of water in an unsaturated soil which is described by the Richards
            equation.

25.   Haverkamp, R., et al.  Infiltration Under Ponded Conditions:  3. A Predictive Equation Based on Physical
      Parameters.  Soil Science, 149(5):292-300 (1990).

            We derived a new infiltration equation that takes into account the possibility of an infinite diffusivity
            near saturation.  Using the example of two soils (clay and coarse sand), we showed that this new
            infiltration equation has a sound physical basis. In particular, all parameters used are true soil
            properties that are constant with time and independent of the water depth imposed as a surface
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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
            boundary condition.  Compared with analytical, numerical, and experimental results, the equation
            shows a great precision (a2 < 5.10"3 cm2) at all times.

            The present law introduces a significant improvement over the law obtained in part 1 of this series
            dealing with ponded infiltration by introducing the physical effect of an infinite diffusivity at
            saturation.

26.   Haverkamp, R., et al.  Three-Dimensional Analysis of Infiltration from the Disc Infiltrometer 2.
      Physically Based Infiltration Equation.   Water Resources Research, 30(11):2931-2935 (1994).

            In situ measurement of soil hydraulic properties may be achieved by analyzing the unconfined efflux
            from disc tension infiltrometers, once consistent infiltration equations can be derived. In this paper
            an analytical, three-dimensional infiltration equation is developed, based on the use of parameters
            with sound physical meaning and adjustable for varying initial and boundary conditions.  The
            equation is valid over the entire time range.  For practical purposes, a simplified solution is also
            derived.  The full and simplified equations give excellent agreement with published experimental
            results and are particularly useful for determining soil hydraulic properties through application of
            inverse procedures.

27.   Irmay, S.  A Linearization Technique for the Study of Infiltration.  In: Water in the Unsaturated Zone,
      IASH/AIHS - Unesco (1969).

            The partial differential equation (PDE) of unsaturated flow of liquids in porous media, especially of
            water in stable soils, is discussed: steady and unsteady flows, with or without gravity, in one-, two-,
            and three-dimensional cases, in cartesian and cylindrical coordinates.  The initial and boundary
            conditions are described, and the hodograph sphere (circle) method of saturated flow is extended to
            unsaturated media. The inverse PDE are also developed.

            Various auxiliary functions are used: effective concentration C, hydraulic conductivity K, capillary
            potential i|r, and diffusivity D, but the equations become much simplified when expressed in terms of
            the diffusivity potential F, when they often become linear in steady flow. It is shown that K1/3 is linear
            in C, and i|r is linear in log C in a wide range.

            A number of steady flow solutions is studied analytically and graphically, either transforming the
            PDE into an ordinary differential equation (ODE), finding a first integral or the general solution.
            The cases treated include:  horizontal parallel, radial and two-dimensional flows; vertical flows and
            flows in a vertical plane and axi-symmetric.  In downflow two cases are possible: from higher to
            lower C, and conversely.

            In unsteady flows the PDE are transformed into an ODE by the Boltzmann transformation, by a linear
            wave-like transformation, by similarity transformations, by separation of variables and by other
            methods. Among the new solutions the effect of a rising or falling aquifer is described, and unsteady
            linear inclined flow, evaporation and infiltration effects.

            The method outlined above can be used in solving similar diffusion equations in other fields.

28.   Knight, J.H. and J.R. Philip.  On Solving the Unsaturated Flow Equation:  2. Critique of Parlange's
      Method. Soil Science, 116(6):407-415 (1974).

            The physical content of Parlange's method of solving the flow equation is explored. His first
            approximation, which was developed by Macey (1969), satisfies continuity in the integral sense, but
            the second and higher approximations do not.  Approximations beyond the first lack any constraining
            link between the separate steps of 'satisfying continuity' and 'satisfying Darcy's law', which make up
            each iteration.  There is, consequently, nothing in the procedure to ensure convergence.

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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
            A detailed investigation establishes the nonconvergence of the method when applied to one-
            dimensional sorption.  It is found that the first approximation is best, and that the higher
            approximations make oscillations of increasing magnitude about the exact solution. Two illustrative
            examples are given. There is no reason to expect the procedure to be any more useful in other cases.

            The utility of Parlange's method is thus simply the utility of the first approximation: the dependence
            of this on the shape of the diffusivity function and on the flux-concentration relation is discussed.

            Contrary to Parlange's claim, the method cannot be applied to two- and three-dimensional systems
            other than radially symmetrical ones.

29.   Kobayashi, H.  The Mathematics of Unsaturated Flow. A Theoretical Analysis and Numerical Solutions of
      Unsaturated Flow in Soil.  In: Water in the Unsaturated Zone, Chapter 7, IASH/AIHS - Unesco (1969).

            Vertical flow is investigated by Forward type difference equation, using S-function, because the error
            of numerical calculation can be reduced in this way.

            In the case where the fundamental equation can be transformed to an ordinary differential equation,
            the author shows the necessary conditions that the auxiliary function has to satisfy and indicates that
            there are two kinds of auxiliary functions, i.e., the product from and the linear form. Furthermore a
            generalized Boltzmann's transformation of the product form has been shown in three dimensional
            form
                                          = {(ax + by + cz)2'
                                                                '
            By using the generalized Boltzmann's transformation, the author solved the problem for one
            dimensional horizontal flow by the iterative method and compared the solution with the solution of
            the fundamental solution by the difference method by Hanks et al. Next, the author derived the
            Forward difference equation of vertical flow, investigated the variation of computed results by the
            mesh size Ax of the difference method and compared the solution with the solution by the above
            iterative method.

            These results were computed at relatively small values of /, but they seem to be reasonable with the
            influence of the gravity term.

30.   Koussis. A.D.  Nonlinear Sorption of Water in Soil.  Soil Science, 132(4):262-266 (1981).

            We derive analytical solutions, based on integral approximations of the governing equation, for
            sorption of water in power law soil.  The parameters of the solution are functions of the soil-
            characterizing exponent and are determined by considering the extreme medium behavior of "linear"
            and "delta" type. A particular parameter choice reproduces an earlier solution due to Brutsaert.  We
            compare several solution configurations, including that of Brutsaert, to other approximate methods
            and to exact numerical integration.

31.   Lomen, D.O. and A.W. Warrick.  Time-Dependent Linearized Infiltration: II.  Line  Sources.  Soil Sci. Soc.
      Amer. Proc., 38:568-572 (1974).

            Water flow from line sources is analyzed using a linearized form of the moisture flow equation. Both
            single and parallel line sources are considered. Results are particularly relevant for high-frequency
            irrigation, such as by trickle sources, for which the soil moisture at any particular point varies over a
            relatively small range. Numerical calculations include lines of constant matric flux potential (or
            equal moisture content ) as a function of time and the time-dependent response to a cyclic input.
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                                                                                  Richards Equation Models
            Although the results are developed for surface sources, the analysis may easily be extended to buried
            sources.

32.   Lomen, D.O. and A.W. Warrick.  Time-Dependent Solutions to the One-Dimensional Linearized Moisture
      Flow Equation with Water Extraction.  Journal of Hydrology, 39:59-67 (1978).

            An exact, analytical solution is developed for one-dimensional soil water flow.  Assumptions are that
            the unsaturated conductivity is exponential with pressure head and that the soil-moisture diffusivity is
            constant. The surface boundary condition is taken as a time-dependent specified-intake velocity. A
            sink function for plant-water uptake is described by a sequence of depth-dependent functions which
            change at specified times. Numerical examples include drainage, infiltration, steady uptake and
            cyclic surface flux and uptake patterns.  The linearizing assumptions are the most realistic for short
            cycles, but in any case the exact nature of the answers make them ideal for checking numerical
            approximations, such as finite differencing.
33.   Molz, F.J., et al.  Soil Moisture Availability for Transpiration.  Water Resources Research, 4(6): 1161-1169
      (1968).

            Potential transpiration is a measure of the rate at which water can be transmitted from evaporation
            sites in plant leaves to the atmosphere.  Potential soil-moisture availability is defined as a measure of
            the capacity of a soil to  transmit water to a root site. A differential equation is presented describing
            radial flow of soil moisture to a single vertical sink (root) in an infinite soil mass  which is initially  at
            a uniform moisture content. The relationship between moisture content and diffusivity for the soils
            studied may be represented by an exponential function.  A numerical solution of the differential
            equation is used to determine the soil-moisture flux. The results show that for scientific soils the
            decrease in soil moisture with time occurs mainly  in the immediate vicinity of the sink. Moisture flux
            increases with initial moisture content but is essentially time independent.  In natural systems the flux
            would probably  decrease with time because of multiple root interference. At large soil moisture
            contents, actual  transpiration is limited by and equivalent to potential transpiration.  At small soil-
            moisture contents, actual transpiration is limited by and equivalent to potential soil-moisture
            availability.

34.   Morel-Seytoux, HJ.  Analytical Results for Prediction of Variable Rainfall Infiltration.  Journal of
      Hydrology, 59:209-230 (1982).

            The basic equations that govern water movement in unsaturated soils are presented for a boundary
            condition of variable rainfall  rate at the soil surface. In particular, a differential equation for the
            water content at the soil surface is derived.  Solutions are then obtained for the time evolution of
            water content at the soil surface assuming a power law form for the relative permeability to water as a
            function of normalized water content. Ponding time formulae are obtained and compared with other
            previously  published relations. Water content profiles are also obtained and their shapes are
            displayed graphically for the case of an exponent of 2 in the power law form of the relative
            permeability to water for a constant rainfall rate.  Formulae are also derived for the situation of a
            variable rainfall pattern.  A methodology for the coupling of the analytical procedures with an
            implicit numerical solution of the water content at the soil surface is suggested as  a cost-effective
            alternative  to the strict numerical solution of the partial differential equation that  governs the water
            content profile evolution. Postponding infiltration formulae and water content profile equations are
            also provided.

35.   Morel-Seytoux, HJ.  Drainage Rates from a Vertical Column.  Hydrological Sciences  Bulletin, 20(2):249-
      255 (1975).

            When both water and air movements are included in the formulation of infiltration or drainage
            problems, the problems of infiltration and drainage exhibit a natural symmetry. Methods of solution


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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
            for one problem are applicable to the other type of problem, an equation of drainage was derived and
            it had precisely the same functional form as the equation derived for infiltration in a previous paper.

36.   Morel-Seytoux, HJ.  From Effective Infiltration to Aquifer Recharge:  A Derivation Based on the Fluid
      Mechanics of Unsaturated Porous Media Flow.  Colorado State University, Interim Report for FY 83-84,
      CER83-84HJM6 (1983).

            An approximate unit hydrograph of aquifer recharge due to effective percolation is derived from the
            fluid mechanics of unsaturated flow. The parameters appearing in the expression of the unit
            hydrograph have clear physical meaning. Comparison of theory with field observations indicates that
            the theory works well. A new tool for estimation of the temporal variation of aquifer recharge from
            that of effective infiltration is now available. The tool is practical (simple), physical and apparently
            works well as evidenced by comparison with field observations.

37.   Morel-Seytoux, HJ. From Excess Infiltration to Aquifer Recharge:   A Derivation Based on the Theory of
      Flow of Water in Unsaturated Soils.  Water Resources Research, 20(9): 1230-1240 (1984).

            An approximate unit of hydrograph of aquifer recharge due to effective percolation is derived from a
            theory describing flow of water in unsaturated soils.  The parameters appearing in the expression of
            the unit hydrograph have physical meaning.  Comparison of the theory with field observations
            indicates that the theory works well.  A new tool for estimation of the temporal variation of aquifer
            recharge from that of excess infiltration is now available.  The tool is practical (simple) and physical
            and apparently works well, as evidenced by comparisons with field observations.

38.   Morel-Seytoux, HJ. Two-Phase Flows in Porous Media.  In: Advances in Hydroscience, V.T. Chow, Ed.,
      Academic Press,  New York, NY. pp. 119-202 (1973).

            With the proliferation of scientific and technological journals it is becoming more and more difficult
            to read the complete literature in one's own field. Treatises that synthesize the current state of the art
            are welcome additions since they extract the essential information from hundreds of articles, permit
            the reader to bypass the task of actually reading most of these articles, and direct him to the really
            fundamental papers in his field of interest. Two more such treatises in the field of flow through
            porous media (Bear, 1972) and soil and water (Hillel, 1971) have recently appeared.

            When the  books cover a broad field they run two risks: one of being at times rather shallow and the
            other of being partly obsolete by the time of publication. It is hoped that the present article will avoid
            these two  hurdles because it is both narrow in scope and limited in length.

            This article was conceived with three purposes in mind. The  first purpose was to present a review of
            what had already been done in the field of two-phase flow of interest to the soil scientist and the
            hydrologist.  The second purpose was to review the "petroleum industry know-how" in the area of
            two-phase flow in porous media in a form which would appeal to the hydrologist or soil scientist.
            Finally, the third purpose was to show how these particular techniques and their extensions can be
            used fruitfully for a better understanding and description of the movement of water and air in soils.

            In summary, the basic philosophy of this article gravitates around the following central themes: (1)
            water movement in the soil is (at least) a two-phase phenomenon and may not be  at times adequately
            described  or understood by the prevailing current unsaturated (one-phase) approach, and (2) much of
            the petroleum literature know-how can be used effectively to solve two-phase flow problems.

39.   Morel-Seytoux, H J. and C. Miracapillo.  Groundwater Flow in Unsaturated/Saturated Zones.  In:
      Appropriate Methodologies for Development and Management of Groundwater Resources in Developing
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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
      Countries.  Volume III. Proceedings of an International Workshop held February 23-March 4; 1989,
      Rotterdam (1989).

            The unsaturated zone plays a crucial role in the hydrologic cycle as the link between surface and
            groundwater.  Though there are many aspects to  this interaction, examination of a single aspect, that
            of aquifer recharge, will illustrate nevertheless most essential elements in the linkage.  Typically
            intermittent streams (wadis) and (artificial) infiltration basins are not in permanent hydraulic
            connection with the underlying water table aquifer.  As water becomes available in the wadi or in the
            basin, infiltration proceeds. Due to the frequent presence of a clogged layer the water flow below the
            wadi (or basin) bed is unsaturated.  Recharge occurs only after the unsaturated wetting front reaches
            the water table.  On the other hand, long after infiltration has ceased at the soil surface, recharge
            continues from the unsaturated storage in excess of field capacity, which has accumulated above the
            water table during the infiltration phase. The three-dimensional character of the flow is rendered by a
            technique that consists of matching a flow solution in a vertical cross-section with a flow pattern in a
            horizontal plane. Practical examples illustrate the influence of the parameters on the water table level
            below the infiltrating area and on the lateral recharge rate into the part of the aquifer which is not
            overlain by the river or basin bed. Comparison with field observations shows the technique to be
            accurate, inexpensive, and easy to apply.

40.   Morel-Seytoux, HJ. and C. Miracapillo. Prediction of Water Table Mound Development and Aquifer
      Recharge from an Infiltrating Area.  In: Unsaturated Flow in Hydrologic Modeling, Theory and Practice,
      HJ. Morel-Seytoux, Ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers,  Boston, MA. pp. 241-272 (1989).

            Typically intermittent streams (wadis) and zones of infiltration during and shortly after a rain or a
            flood are not in permanent hydraulic connection with the underlying water-table aquifer. Due to the
            frequent presence of a clogged layer the water flow below the infiltration zone is often unsaturated.
            Recharge occurs only after the unsaturated wetting front reaches the water-table.  On the other hand,
            long after infiltration has ceased at the soil surface, recharge continues from the unsaturated storage
            which has accumulated above the water table during the infiltration phase. This distinct phase of
            recharge after infiltration has stopped is called the drainage phase. The problem is two or three-
            dimensional in nature.  To simplify the predictive tool and make it very practical, the multi-
            dimensional character of the flow problem is rendered, approximately but effectively, by a special
            technique that consists of matching two unidimensional flows, a vertical and a horizontal one.
            Practical examples illustrate the influence of the parameters on the water table level below the
            infiltrating area and on the lateral recharge rate into the part of the aquifer which is not overlain by
            the river or infiltration basin bed. Comparison with field observations shows the technique to be
            accurate, inexpensive and easy to apply.

41.   Novak, M.D. Quasi-Analytical Solutions of the Soil Water Flow Equation for Problems of Evaporation.
      SoilSci. Soc. Am. J., 52:916-924 (1988).

            Quasi-analytical solutions of the  one-dimensional soil water flow equations applied to  problems of
            evaporation are derived and compared with exact numerical solutions available in the literature.
            Constant-concentration and constant-flux surface boundary conditions and semi-infinite and finite
            soil columns are considered.  For the semi-infinite soils the quasi-analytical technique of Philip and
            Knight (1974) is very successful in predicting the water content profiles for the constant-
            concentration condition, and only moderately so for the constant-flux condition. Their iterative
            procedure for the flux concentration function converges rapidly in the constant-concentration case but
            an analogous procedure diverges in the constant-flux case.

            For finite soils the simple assumption that the rate of drying of the column is independent of depth in
            the flow equation leads to accurate predictions of the water content profiles for the constant-
            concentration cases and for the constant-flux case if the potential evaporation is low, the soil is


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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
            shallow, and/or the initial hydraulic diffusivity is high. For conditions other than these roughly
            accounting for the higher rate of drying that occurs near the surface in this case greatly improves the
            agreement.

42.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Convergence and Validity of Time Expansion Solutions:  A Comparison to Exact and
      Approximate Solutions. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 39:3-6 (1975).

            The convergence of series solutions for the diffusion equation by time expansion is discussed
            quantitatively, on the basis of the linear and delta function solutions for a spherical cavity.  It is
            shown that convergence alone is a poor criterion to justify the validity of the series solutions. A
            counter example, diffusion in the presence of an impervious wall, shows that the series may converge
            for all times but be entirely erroneous.  By comparison an approximate integral technique yields a
            solution which agrees very well with the exact result.

43.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  1.  One-Dimensional Absorption.   Soil Science,
      111(2):134-137(1971).

44.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  2.  One-Dimensional Infiltration.   Soil Science,
45.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  3.  Two and Three-Dimensional Absorption.  Soil
      Science, 112(5):313-317 (1971).

46.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  4.  Two and Three-Dimensional Steady Infiltration.
      Soil Science, 113(2):96-101 (1972).

47 .   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  5.  Unsteady Infiltration from Spherical Cavities .
      Soil Science, 113(3):156-161 (1972).

48.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  6.  Effect of Water Depth Over Soil.  Soil Science,
      113(5):308-312(1972).

49.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  7.  Multidimensional Cavities Under Pressure .  Soil
      Science, 113(6):379-382 (1972).

50.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  8.  Multidimensional Cavities Under Pressure .  Soil
      Science, 114(l):l-4 (1972).

51.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water-Movement in Soils:  9.  The Dynamics of Capillary Rise.  Soil Science,
      114(2):79-81(1972).

52.   Parlange, J.-Y.  Theory of Water Movement in Soils: 10.  Cavities with Constant Flux.  Soil Science, 116:1-
      7 (1973).

            Analytical expressions are derived for the absorption of water from cylindrical and spherical cavities,
            when the flux of water at the cavity is imposed.  The solution reduces to the one-dimensional case in
            the short time limit. After a certain time the soil around the cavity may become saturated and the
            growth of the saturated region with time is investigated. Correction terms due to gravity  are also
            derived in the case of a spherical cavity.

53.   Parlange, J.-Y., R.D. Braddock, and B. T. Chu.  First Integrals of the Diffusion Equation: An Extension of
      the Fuiita Solutions. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44:908-91 1 (1980).
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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
            In general, solutions of the nonlinear diffusion equation have to be obtained by numerical or
            analytical iterative integration. It is shown here that if the diffusivity has a dependence on the water
            content which obeys a power law, then iterations can be avoided, and the solution obtained at once.
            This unique case results from the existence of a first integral of the diffusion equation. Previously
            known analytical results, i.e., the constant diffusivity solution, the delta-function solution, and the
            Fujita solutions belong to that general class.

            For this general class of solutions it is also possible to show that the sorptivity has a dependence on
            the surface water content which obeys a power law.  This represents the only known case when such
            an analytical relationship exists.  This relationship is used to discuss the representation of the square
            of the sorptivity as an integral of the diffusivity, when the latter has an arbitrary dependence on the
            water content.

54.   Parlange, J.-Y., R. Haverkamp, and J. Touma.  Infiltration Under Ponded Conditions:  1. Optimal
      Analytical Solution and Comparison with Experimental Observations.  Soil Science, 139:305-311 (1985).

            Under ponded infiltration the cumulative infiltration is a function of soil properties, initial conditions,
            and water layer thickness above the soil surface. For arbitrary soil properties and arbitrary
            dependence of water layer thickness on time but uniform initial water content, an optimization
            technique predicts the cumulative infiltration from the integration of an ordinary differential
            equation.  If the thickness of the water layer is constant with time, a fully analytical result is obtained.
            Careful experimental observations carried out in the laboratory illustrate the validity and accuracy of
            the result.

55.   Parlange, J.-Y., I. Lisle, R.D. Braddock, and R.E. Smith.  The Three-Parameter Infiltration Equation.  Soil
      Science, 133:337-341 (1982).

            A new infiltration equation is obtained by introducing a new parameter in addition to the usual
            sorptivity and conductivity at saturation. This third parameter can be related to the conductivity of the
            soil. In particular, if this parameter is equal to zero, then the infiltration equation reduces to the well-
            known Green and Ampt equation.  Comparison with accurate simulations carried out earlier for a
            sand and clay indicates that sorptivity, conductivity  at saturation, and this additional parameter are
            sufficient to describe cumulative infiltration accurately.  Finally, the two examples discussed in detail
            suggest that this parameter is not very sensitive to soil structure, i.e., it has about the same value for
            the clay and the sand.  Hence, in practice, use of the new law may require a sorptivity and
            conductivity determination only, i.e., two rather than three parameters. Finally, this new law has
            about the same precision as existing laws that require knowledge of up to six parameters.

56.   Parlange, M.B., et al.  Optimal Solutions of the Bruce and Klute Equation.  Soil Science, 155(l):l-7
      (1993).

            A simple analytical expression is derived to describe soil water profiles satisfying the Bruce and Klute
            equation. Two parameters have to be determined from integral conditions. The simplicity and
            accuracy of the technique is checked when the soil-water diffusivity obeys an exponential or a power
            law function. For those two examples  no numerical work is necessary as the results are expressed in
            terms of tabulated functions  only. The method extends to the profile determination the optimal
            technique used earlier for the determination of the sorptivity, with the same precision.

57.   Perroux, K.M., D.E. Smiles, and I. White. Water Movement in Uniform Soils During Constant-Flux
      Infiltration.  Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 45:237-240 (1981).

            An analysis is presented for constant-flux infiltration of water in soil based on the flux-concentration
            relation.  The analysis is compared with laboratory  experiments  on constant-flux infiltration into
            columns of fine sand and silty clay loam.  It is shown that the effect of gravity is small for the early

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            stage and that during this stage sufficiently accurate predictions of moisture profile development can
            be made by using the simpler absorption analysis of I. White, D. E. Smiles, and K. M. Perroux.

58.   Philip, J.R. Absorption and Infiltration in Two- and Three-Dimensional Systems.  In: Water in the
      UnsaturatedZone, IASH/AIHS - Unesco (1969).

            The theory of the dynamics of one-dimensional infiltration is well developed, but many practical
            problems involve two- and three-dimensional systems.  This study is directed towards the two-
            dimensional problem of infiltration from a semi-circular furrow and the three-dimensional problem of
            infiltration from a hemispherical cavity.  The latter problem conserves the principal elements of the
            problem of infiltration from a shallow ring infiltrometer.

            The paper begins by examining the problems of absorption in two- and three dimensional radial
            systems from furrows or cavities of finite radius.  'Exact' series solutions of these non-linear problems
            are found which are appropriate for small times. For the three-dimensional case a steady large-time
            solution exists, and is evaluated. The corresponding linear and 'delta function' solutions are also
            found; they agree well with the exact solutions.  These various results support the author's argument
            that previous attempts to apply the 'Boltzmann transformation' to this group of problems have been
            erroneous.

            The corresponding infiltration problems are formulated and the linear solutions developed. The
            results are of considerable practical interest.  It is shown that: 1) the wetting region for both two- and
            three-dimensions is finite no matter how great the time (unlike for one dimension); and 2) the final
            steady state infiltration rate depends not only on the hydraulic conductivity, but also on the capillary
            properties of the soil. The influence of gravity in distorting the pattern of wetting decreases as the
            radius of the cavity or furrow decreases; and it is very much less in three dimensions than in two.

59.   Philip, J.R. Comments on the Paper by R. Singh and J.B. Franzini. 'Unsteady Flow in Unsaturated Soil-
      Water Movement from a Cylindrical Source.' Journal of Geophysical Research, 73:3968-3970 (1968).

60.   Philip, J.R. The Dynamics of Capillary Rise.  In: Water in the UnsaturatedZone, IASH/AIHS - Unesco
      (1969).

            The problem of the dynamics of capillary rise associated with the sudden immersion the bottom of a
            soil column in free water (and of the corresponding sub-irrigation problem) examined. An 'exact'
            method developed for analysing the dynamics of one-dimensional infiltration is appropriate at small
            times, but problems of convergence set limits to its applicability.  The equilibrium situation
            approached at large times is, of course, readily found; but the 'exact bridging of the gap between the
            'small-time' solution and the final equilibrium appears to require the use of high-speed computers.

61.   Philip. J.R. The Function Inverfc 8.  Australian Journal of Physics, 3:13-20 (1960).

            The function inverfc 6 arises in certain diffusion problems when concentration is taken as an
            independent variable. It enters into a general method of exact solution of the concentration-
            dependent diffusion equation. An account is given of the properties of this function, and  of its
            derivatives and integrals. The function

                                     B(9)=(2/7t1/2) exp [—(inverfc 8)2]

            is intimately connected with the first integral of inverfc 8 and with its derivatives.  Tables of inverfc  8
            and B(8) are given.

62.   Philip, J.R. General Method of Exact Solution of the Concentration-Dependent Diffusion Equation.
      Australian Journal of Physics, 13:1-12 (1960).


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                                                                                  Richards Equation Models
            Only three forms of D(6) have previously been known to yield exact solutions of the equation

                                        ae/at =  a/ax (D(6) as/at),

            subject to the conditions 6 = 0, x > 0, t = 0; 6 = 1, x = 0, t > 0. The present paper reports a general
            method of establishing a very large class of D(6) functions which yield exact solutions. A similar
            method enables exact solutions of the same equation subject to the conditions  6 = 0, x > 0, and 6=1,
            x<0,t = 0; I1,, xd6 = 0, t > 0. In this case also a very large class of D(6) functions yield exact
            solutions. Examples are given for both cases.

            Many of the exact solutions which are most readily found tend to lead to zero  or infinite values of D
            at one or two points of the 6-range. Means of avoiding this difficulty are devised. Practical use of the
            method is discussed.

63.   Philip, J.R. Horizontal Redistribution with Capillary Hysteresis.   Water Resources Research, 27(7): 1459-
      1469 (1991).

            Exact and relatively simple analysis is possible for one hysteretic redistribution process that in long
            horizontal columns with the two parts, x < 0 and x > 0, at  different uniform moisture contents B! and
            62 (0! > 62) at time t = 0. We formulate and solve this problem. The key to its simplicity is its
            similarity character, with moisture profile x(6) proportional to t"2.  At the interface x = 0 there is, for t
            > 0, a permanent and constant moisture content jump 63 to 64 (63 > 64). The operative moisture
            potential is the primary drying potential for x < 0, 6; > 6>63 and the primary wetting potential for x
            > 0, 64 > 6 > 62. The operative moisture diffusivity is the  primary drying diffusivity for x < 0 and the
            primary wetting diffusivity for x > 0. The drying diffusivity is greater than the wetting diffusivity near
            6 = 0! and less  near 8 = 82 Solutions are found for illustrative examples corresponding to four values
            of H, the relative magnitude of the hysteresis loop. The resorptivity R, the total wet-to-dry exchange
            of water across x = 0 in reduced form, is analogous to the  sorptivity S in absorption and infiltration.
            For the calculated examples, R is about one third of S for the corresponding absorption process and
            varies only mildly with H. Nonhysteretic calculations may  thus give reasonable estimates of R for
            horizontal hysteretic redistribution, though they cannot give details such as the moisture jump at x =
            0. Desorption moisture profiles for x < 0 are very gradual, with a large depth of penetration.
            Absorption profiles for x > 0 are relatively steep, and the penetration depth small. It follows that in
            experiments the initially wet section of the column should  be made some 5-10 times longer than the
            initially dry sector.

64.   Philip, J.R. A Linearization Technique for the Study of Infiltration. In:  Water in the Unsaturated Zone,
      IASH/AIHS - Unesco (1969).

            The paper introduces a linearization technique for the solution of non-linear problems in infiltration
            and other problems of water movement in unsaturated soils. The method consists, essentially, in
            matching exactly linear and non-linear solutions at small times, and in matching the solutions in
            some integral sense at large times. The method is worked out for one-dimensional infiltration. It is
            shown to yield results agreeing closely with the "exact" non-linear solution and to provide algebraic
            infiltration equations equally valid for small and large times.

            The parallel use of similarity (or better, "delta function") solutions provides a good method of
            approximate analysis, since the linear and the "delta function" solutions represent extremes of soil
            characteristics and, by implication, of hydrological behaviour.  We may, therefore, obtain insight into
            the general character of the phenomenon and the extent to  which it may vary, and we may obtain, at
            the same time,  an indication of the accuracy of the results.  For one-dimensional infiltration, the
            similarity (or "delta function") solution agrees well with the linear solution.
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65.   Philip, J.R. On Solving the Unsaturated Flow Equation:  1.  The Flux-Concentration Relation.  Soil
      Science, 116(5):328-335 (1973).

            The flux-concentration relation [F((-))J expresses in reduced form the dependence of flux density on
            moisture content during unsteady flow phenomena in unsaturated soils. In this first paper of a series,
            the general properties of F((-)) are established for various phenomena: one-dimensional sorption and
            infiltration with constant concentration conditions and one-dimensional sorption and infiltration with
            constant concentration conditions and one-dimensional sorption (for the 'linear' soil only) with
            constant and variable flux and variable concentration conditions. These studies provide a guide to the
            properties of F((-)) in more complicated phenomena in one-, two-, and three-dimensional systems.

            F((-)) is independent of time for some phenomena and it varies only mildly with time for some others;
            and for some phenomena, the  dependence of F((-)) on the 'shape' of the moisture diffusivity function
            lies within fairly narrow bounds, which are fixed by reference to the extreme cases of the 'delta
            function' and the 'linear' soil.  This relative stability of F((-)) makes it a useful aid to the study of
            methods of solving the unsaturated flow equation.  It is employed in later papers in a critique of
            Parlange's method and in the development of a new quasi-analytical technique.

            An appendix demonstrates that the approximation of step function moisture profiles implies a delta
            function moisture diffusivity function.

66.   Philip, J.R. Recent Progress in the Solution of Nonlinear Diffusion Equations. Soil Science,  117:257 '-264
      (1974).

            Important contributions of the late Dr. E. C. Childs included early recognition of the nonlinear
            diffusion form of the nonhysteretic flow equation for unsaturated nonswelling soils, and of the
            importance of a predictive system based on the flow equation.  The full equation is a nonlinear
            Fokker-Planck equation, and reduces to a diffusion equation when gravity  may be neglected.
            Equations of the same form describe water movement and volume change in swelling soils. This
            paper reviews recent work on quasianalytical and analytical methods of solving these equations.

            Quasilinear solutions of the steady equation in two and three dimensions have received much
            attention.  The extension to  heterogeneous soils can be taken further to include sloping stratification.
            Theorems enable solutions for surface sources, and sources at arbitrary finite depth, to be deduced
            from mathematically simpler solutions in a region extending infinitely in all directions. A
            generalization to the case of sloping soil surface is given.

            In many real-world problems where similarity methods do not apply, integral methods offer the same
            possibility of effectively reducing the number of independent variables.  Green and Ampt introduced a
            simple integral method; and more sophisticated methods have entered soil-water studies through the
            work of Parlange. Recent studies reveal the importance of preserving integral continuity in integral
            methods involving iteration.

            For diffusivity D = a(b — 8)"2, all problems of one-dimensional nonlinear diffusion subject to arbitrary
            initial conditions plus a flux boundary condition can be linearized.  Exact  solutions are therefore
            available for various problems, some of them in explicit form.

            Burgers' equation

                                     ae/at = D  a2q/az2 - (Aq + B> aq/az
            is of interest as an especially simple nonlinear Fokker-Planck equation. The nonlinearity of the term
            in 3q/3z suffices to give a 'profile at infinity' solution for one-dimensional infiltration. The linear
            Fokker-Planck equation, on the other hand, has no such feature. Knight has found the exact Burgers
            solutions corresponding to constant-concentration infiltration and to constant-flux infiltration.  Both


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                                                                                  Richards Equation Models
            solutions yield the same 'profile at infinity' behavior at large times, as one expects on physical
            grounds. The Burgers model is more informative and more accurate than simple linearization.

67.   Philip, J.R.  Steady Infiltration from Buried. Surface, and Perched Point and Line Sources in Heterogeneous
      Soils: I. Analysis. Soil Sci. Soc.Amer. Proc., 36:268-273 (1972).

            The quasilinearized steady infiltration equation is generalized to apply to heterogeneous soils with
            conductivity depending exponentially on both moisture potential and depth. Mathematical
            developments, including a theorem connecting surface and buried  source solutions, follow closely
            those established previously for homogeneous soils. Solutions are found for buried, surface, and
            perched point and line sources. Physically relevant solutions are limited to the following ranges of p,
            the dimensionless coefficient of dependence of conductivity on depth: for buried and surface sources,
            P > 0; for perched point sources, p < -1; for perched line sources,  p < -1. It is of interest that the
            homogeneous medium (p  = 0) is an extreme case for existence of buried and surface source solutions;
            and that perched source solutions (relevant to subirrigation) exist only  for soils with conductivity
            increasing rapidly enough with height above the  impermeable base.  Detailed mapping of flows and
            general discussion is left to Part 2.

68.   Philip, J.R.  Steady Infiltration from Circular Cylindrical  Cavities.  Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 48:270-278 (1984).

            The problem of quasilinearized steady infiltration from circular cylindrical- cavities, with the
            moisture potential fixed at the  cavity surface,  is solved exactly. Solutions are presented numerically
            and graphically for values of the dimensionless cavity radius, R0, ranging from 0.01 to 10.  The
            dependence onR0 of the average infiltration rate  around the cavity surface, and of the distributions of
            moisture content and potential, are examined. As R0 increases, the effects of gravity on the
            phenomenon increasingly dominate those of capillarity.  Gravity very strongly distorts the moisture
            distribution from the symmetry produced by capillarity alone: for  R0 as small as 0.01, the depth of the
            effectively wetted region exceeds 250 times its horizontal width on the cavity center line; and the ratio
            increases rapidly with R0, exceeding 50 000 for R0  = 5. An earlier small R0 approximation proves
            useful only for R0 < 0.2. The cavity flow, evaluated by the present  analysis, may be combined with the
            line source solution to give approximate results useful for the region deeper than 50 radii below the
            cavity.

69.   Philip, J.R.  Steady Infiltration from Spherical Cavities. Soil Sci. Soc. Am J., 48:724-729 (1984).

            The problem of quasilinearized steady infiltration from spherical cavities, with the moisture potential
            fixed at the cavity surface, is solved exactly.  Solutions are presented numerically and graphically for
            values of the dimensionless cavity radius R0 in the  range 0 to 10. The  dependence on R0 of total
            cavity flow, of the variation of infiltration rate around the cavity surface, and of the distributions of
            moisture content and potential, are examined. As  R0 increases, gravity increasingly distorts the
            moisture distribution from the symmetry produced by capillarity alone. This distortion, although
            marked, is less than one-hundredth that for infiltration from circular cylindrical cavities: a vivid
            illustration of the stronger dominance of gravity  over capillarity in two-dimensional systems than in
            three-dimensional ones. An earlier approximate solution of this problem proves accurate only for R0 <
            0.27.  The cavity flow, evaluated by the present analysis, may be combined with the point source
            solution to give  approximate results useful for the region deeper than 20 radii below the cavity.

70.   Philip, J.R.  Theory of Infiltration.  Academic Press, New York, NY, Vol. 9,  pp. 215-295 (1969)

            Introduction~A very large fraction of the water falling as rain on the land surfaces of the earth moves
            through unsaturated soil during the subsequent processes of infiltration, drainage, evaporation, and
            the absorption of soil-water by plant roots.  Hydrologists, and their textbooks and handbooks, have
            tended, nevertheless, to pay relatively little attention to the phenomenon of water movement in
            unsaturated soils. Most research on this topic has been done by soil physicists, concerned ultimately

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            with agronomic or ecological aspects of hydrology; but their colleagues in engineering hydrology
            have exhibited an increasing interest in this field in recent years.

            The present article deals with the theory of infiltration which is one important outcome of the
            mathematical-physical approach to the study of water movement in unsaturated soils which has been
            developed over the past 15 years or so, principally in the U.S., England, and Australia.  We shall
            consider briefly the physical basis for the general formalism of this approach and the limits of its
            applicability; but we shall be concerned principally with developing the general flow equation (a
            nonlinear Fokker-Planck equation), with describing methods for its solution, and with presenting the
            solutions and discussing their physical significance

            We define infiltration as the process of the entry into the soil of water made available (under
            appropriately defined conditions at its surface.  This "surface" may be the natural, more or less
            horizontal upper surface of the soil; or it may be the bed of a natural or artificial furrow or stream, or
            the walls of a natural or artificial tunnel or cavity.  As we shall see, a fundamental point of departure
            for the study of infiltration is the study of absorption, the particular case of infiltration when the effect
            of gravity may be neglected, as in horizontal systems, in the early stages of infiltration, and in fine-
            textured soils in which the influence of moisture gradients dominates that of gravity.

71.   Philip, J.R. The Theory of Infiltration: 1. The Infiltration Equation and Its Solution.  Soil Science,
      83:345-357(1957).

72.   Philip. J.R. The Theory of Infiltration: 2. The Profile of Infinity.   Soil Science, 83:435-448  (1957).

73.   Philip, J.R. The Theory of Infiltration: 3. Moisture Profiles and Relation to Experiment.  Soil Science,
      84:163-178(1957).

74.   Philip, J.R. The Theory of Infiltration: 4. Sorptivitv and Algebraic Infiltration Equations. Soil Science,
      84:257-264 (1957).

            Many situations in applied hydrology require that the dynamics of infiltration be characterized by a
            small number of parameters.  These parameters are most appropriately the coefficients of an algebraic
            equation representing the variation of i or v0 with t.

            Parts 1 and 2 of this  series provided a detailed analysis of infiltration and part 3 a general discussion
            of the physical significance of the analytical results. In the present paper we use the preceding work
            as the basis for a study of the available (generally empirical)  algebraic infiltration equations.

            This study is facilitated if we first give some attention to a new physical property of porous media
            which enters the subsequent developments here and which we shall have occasion to use also in later
            papers of this series.

75.   Philip, J.R. The Theory of Infiltration: 5. The Influence of the Initial Moisture Content.  Soil Science,
      84:329-339 (1957).

76.   Philip. J.R. The Theory of Infiltration: 6. Effect of Water Depth Over Soil.  Soil Science, 85:278-286
      (1957).

77.   Philip, J.R. The Theory of Infiltration: 7.  Soil Science, 85:333-337 (1958).

78.   Philip, J.R. and J.H. Knight.  On Solving the Unsaturated Flow Equation: 3.  New Quasi-Analytical
      Technique.  Soil Science, 117(1): 1-13  (1974).
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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
            We present a new quasi-analytical technique for solving the flow equation. It has affinities with
            Parlange's method, but offers the following advantages: freedom to choose an initial assumed flux-
            concentration relation, Fb greatly improves the possible accuracy of the first approximation, and the
            higher approximations preserve integral continuity and therefore behave more stably.  The first of
            these advantages is of practical importance, but the second is more basic.  This paper treats only
            solutions subject to concentration conditions; the related technique for solutions subject to flux
            conditions will be developed in a later paper.

            The technique is studied analytically and numerically for one-dimensional sorption subject to constant
            concentration conditions. It is found to be convergent for a wide range of shapes of the diffusivity
            function. For the unfavorable  ease of the 'linear' soil, the mean error is 3 percent after two iterations
            and 1 percent after three. For absorption in Yolo light clay the corresponding figures are 0.57 percent
            and 0.07 percent.

            The general iterative scheme for one-dimensional infiltration subject to constant concentration
            conditions is presented. Three choices of F{ should yield useful first approximations: (A) F^ - limt_>0
            F (t is time) = Fabs, the F for the analogous absorption process; (B) F1B = limt-> F = 6;  and  (C) F1C, an
            interpolation function which is exact in the limits as t->0 and t-> .  F1A should lead to a good lower
            bound for the infiltration rate function q(t), F1B an upper bound, and F1C close upper bound for all
            except very large t, and the quality of the estimates of moisture profiles should be comparable.
            Detailed calculations for Yolo  light clay bear out these expectations; the three estimates are wholly
            consistent with the power series solution of Philip (1957b).  The error of the approximation based on
            F1C increases from 0 percent at t = 0 to about 1 percent at t =106 sec. This first approximation is
            accurate enough to render iteration unnecessary for most purposes.  Parallel calculations confirm the
            nonconvergence of Parlange's method when applied to infiltration.

            General iterative schemes are given also for two- and three-dimensional  sorption subject to constant
            concentration conditions.

79.   Poulovassilis, A., et al. An Investigation of the Relationship Between Ponded and Constant Flux Rainfall
      Infiltration.   Water Resources Research, 27(7): 1403-1409 (1991).

            The physics of the rainfall infiltration under a constant rainfall flux greater than the hydraulic
            conductivity at saturation are investigated and compared with those pertaining to the infiltration
            process under flooding. From the arguments developed theoretically the following conclusions are
            reached:  The moisture profile prevailing at the time the soil surface becomes saturated during the
            rainfall process (t = T) is identical with the profile which has been developed during flooding at an
            earlier time at which the infiltration rate is equal to the rainfall flux (t-tc
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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
            front advance, and soil water profile.  Infiltration rates beyond ponding include the effect of time
            dependent ponding height and saturation depth.

81.   Protopapas, A.L. and R.L. Bras.  Analytical Solutions for Unsteady Multidimensional Infiltration in
      Heterogeneous Soils.  Water Resources Research, 27(6): 1029-1034 (1991).

            The problem of unsteady multidimensional infiltration in heterogeneous soils is approached
            analytically.  By assuming that the hydraulic conductivity is an exponential function of the soil matric
            potential and a linear function of the soil moisture, the governing flow equation is linearized for a
            special variation of the saturated hydraulic conductivity in space.  By using integral transform
            methods, analytical solutions to the one- and two-dimensional flow problem are derived and shown to
            be generalized versions of known results for homogeneous soils. The development aims at obtaining
            quantitative criteria for the validity of the one-dimensional approximation, which is commonly used
            in hydrologic applications.

82.   Protopapas, A.L. and R.L. Bras.  The One-Dimensional Approximation for Infiltration in Heterogeneous
      Soils. Water Resources Research, 27(6): 1019-1027 (1991).

            By using analytical solutions to the problem of one- and two-dimensional linearized unsteady
            infiltration from a strip source in a soil with saturated hydraulic conductivity varying exponentially in
            space, explicit criteria for the validity of the one-dimensional approximation are derived, in terms of
            parameters describing the soil type, the uniformity of the infiltrating source at the surface, and the
            soil heterogeneity.  Numerical solutions for the linearized infiltration problem are  developed for any
            variation of hydraulic conductivity in space. Extensive simulations suggest that for a sizable strip
            source and moderate variation of hydraulic conductivity, a set of independent neighboring soil
            columns represents well the multidimensional infiltration problem. The possibility of defining
            sufficient parameters controlling the accuracy of the  one-dimensional approximation is discussed.

83.   Pullan, AJ. The Quasilinear Approximation for Unsaturated Porous Media Flow.  Water Resources
      Research, 26:1219-1234 (1990).

            This paper gives a  review of the quasilinear approximation, an exponential relationship between
            hydraulic conductivity and moisture potential, and the uses this  has been put to since the time of its
            creation. One of the major attractions of this approximation is that under steady regimes the highly
            nonlinear Richards equation governing unsaturated flow can be linearized. This  simplification has
            enabled analytic and semianalytic solutions to be found for many unsaturated flow problems.  These
            are reviewed, and the current research areas, in which the quasilinear approximation is being used,
            are discussed.

84.   Raats, P.A.C.  Steady Infiltration from Sources at Arbitrary Depth. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 36:399-401
      (1972).

            This discussion of  steady infiltration is based on the assumption that the hydraulic conductivity is an
            exponential function of the pressure head.  The solution for infiltration from  a single point source at
            arbitrary depth is presented.  On the basis of this solution, J. R. Philip's superposition theorem for
            surface sources is generalized to an arbitrary distribution of sources at arbitrary depths. General
            expressions for the pressure head, the total head, and the components of the flux are also given.

85.   Remson, I., et al.  Vertical Drainage of an Unsaturated Soil.  Journal of the Hydraulics Division,
      Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers,  91(HYl):55-74 (1965).

            The general equation describing vertical unsaturated  flow of soil water is solved by numerical
            approximation for several cases. The computer programs are described. The results show: (1) The


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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
            intermediate belt of a well-drained unsaturated soil approximates field capacity during times of small
            evapotranspiration and intermittent penetrating rainfall; (2) infiltrated rainfall moves as a pulse with
            a steep wetting front; (3) the belt of soil water drains from saturation to approximately field capacity
            within two days for zero evapotranspiration.

86.   Salvucci, G.D.  An Approximate Solution for Steady Vertical Flux of Moisture Through an Unsaturated
      Homogeneous Soil.   Water Resources Research, 29(11):3749-3753  (1993).

            An approximate solution is found to the differential equation governing the steady state vertical flux
            of moisture through an unsaturated homogeneous soil for which the dependence of hydraulic
            conductivity on tension head is given in the form K(t|/) = A(B + t|/n)'.  The solution expresses the
            depth from the water table as a function of the capillary tension for a given rate of percolation or
            capillary rise.  It is easily inverted to obtain explicit expressions both for the capillary tension as a
            function of depth and flow rate, and for the steady flow rate in terms of the capillary tension at a
            given depth.  The latter is shown to compare favorably both to existing limiting case solutions of
            percolation to a water table at infinite depth, and to capillary rise from a shallow water table to  an
            infinitely dry surface. More importantly, this solution applies to the intermediate condition where the
            magnitude and direction of flow are sensitive to  both the near-surface capillary tension and the  water
            table depth.

87.   Sander, G.C., et al.   Exact Nonlinear Solution for Constant Flux Infiltration.  Journal of Hydrology,
      97:341-346 (1988).

            Recently, an analytical nonlinear solution to the  problem of two phase oil and water infiltration under
            a constant flux boundary condition was derived.  We show that this solution also applies to the
            problem of constant infiltration of water by introducing a very simple change in the independent
            variables of space and time.

88.   Sander, G.C., J.-Y. Parlange,  V. Kuhnel, W.L. Hogarth, and J.P.J. O'Kane. Comment on "Constant Rate
      Rainfall Infiltration:  A Versatile Nonlinear Model 1.  Analytic Solution" by P. Broadbridge and I. White.
      Water Resources Research, 24:2107-2108 (1988).

89.   Sisson, IB., A.H. Ferguson, and M.T. van Genuchten.   Simple Method for Predicting Drainage from Field
      Plots.  SoilSci. Soc. Am. J., 44:1147-1152 (1980).

            When the one-dimensional moisture flow equation is simplified by applying the unit gradient
            approximation, a first-order partial differential equation results.  The first-order equation is
            hyperbolic and easily solved by the method of P. D. Lax.  Three published K(8) relationships were
            used to generate three analytical solutions for the drainage phase following infiltration.  All three
            solutions produced straight lines or nearly straight lines when log of total water above a depth was
            plotted versus log of time. Several suggestions for obtaining the required parameters are presented
            and two example problems are included to demonstrate the accuracy and applicability of the method.

90.   Smettem, K.R.J., et al.  Three-Dimensional Analysis of Infiltration from the Disc Infiltrometer  1. A
      Capillary-Based Theory.  Water Resources Research, 30(11):2925-2929 (1994).

            The hydraulic properties of an unsaturated homogenous and isotropic soil can be obtained from the
            unconfined flux out of a disc infiltrometer into the soil over the  depth of wetting.  The disc
            infiltrometer is becoming increasingly popular, but methods of analysis have generally relied  on the
            restrictive assumptions of one-dimensional flow  at early times or quasi-steady state flow at large
            times.  We provide an approximate analytical expression for three-dimensional unsteady, unconfined
            flow out of a disc infiltrometer, and this includes the geometric effect of the circular  source but
            ignores gravity. This physically based solution is tested against data obtained from laboratory


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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
            experiments on repacked material. The results illustrate that the difference between three-
            dimensional and one-dimensional flow is linear with time.

91.   Smith, R.E.  Approximate Soil Water Movement by Kinematic Characteristics.  Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 47:3-
      8 (1983).

            Using the Richard's equation in the Fokker-Planck nonlinear diffusion form, unsaturated soil water
            flow may be treated as a diffusion-convection wave process. If a6/az is assumed a function of 6
            alone, the unsaturated flow equation may be solved by the method of characteristics, and when aQ/az
            becomes sufficiently small, the Peclet number is assumed large enough to treat unsaturated flow
            kinematically. Changes in 6 with depth in the soil profile are treated as waves, moving downward.
            Advancing and receding "waves" are treated differently in the approximate analytical technique
            described here, with advancing wetting fronts described by kinematic "shocks." The method is
            compared to the complete solution to Richard's equation for a complex rain pattern and found to
            predict well the location of deeper moving fronts and also general 6 patterns. The kinematic method
            is also shown to apply to root water extraction zones and to layered soil situations.

92.   Smith, R.E., C. Corradini, and F. Melone.  Modeling Infiltration for Multistorm Runoff Events.  Water
      Resources Research, 29(1): 133-144 (1993).

            We present a relatively simple analytical/conceptual model for rainfall infiltration during complex
            storms.  It is an approximate but physically based model which can treat intervals of either no rain,
            low rain, or evaporation. The infiltration model is based on the very general three-parameter analytic
            model of Parlange et al. (1982), extended to treat soils with very high initial water content. The
            redistribution model is based on profile extension with shape similarity. A wide range of soil types
            can be simulated. The model is tested by comparison with numerical solutions of Richards's equation
            carried out for a variety of events upon four selected soils.  The model simulates the solution to
            Richards's equation quite accurately, provided basic soil retention relations are parametrically
            represented. It simulates redistribution particularly well for redistribution intervals up to 20 hours.
            The model usefulness in comparison with the common and simple approach which disregards soil
            water redistribution is also shown.

93.   Sposito, G. and J.V. Giraldez.  On the Theory of Infiltration in Swelling Soils, pp. 107-118.

            The generalization of the one-dimensional Richards Equation to the case of swelling soil is presented.
            Although the generalized infiltration equation has the same mathematical  form as the classical
            Richards Equation, it differs physically from the latter in containing material coordinates and in
            having an additional component in the total soil water potential that is due to applied pressure (e.g.,
            overburden pressure).  A new material coordinate transformation is introduced to cast the solution of
            the generalized infiltration equation into a coordinate frame that is fixed with respect of the
            experimenter.  This transformation can be determined  empirically through dual-energy gamma-ray
            measurements of the bulk density of the swelling soil.  Lastly,  a model expression for the shrinkage
            curve is presented that may be employed, for a wide variety of swelling soils, to describe
            mathematically the contribution of overburden pressure to the  gradient of the total soil water
            potential.

94.   Swartzendruber, D.  A Quasi-Solution of Richards' Equation for the Downward Infiltration of Water into
      Soil.  Water Resources Research, 23:809-817 (1987).

            A new equation is presented that expresses depth Z of  soil water content 8 at time t as  an explicit
            function of 8 and t and holds for all t > 0.  The new Z(8, t) includes the classical J. R. Philip (1957b,
            c) solution for asymptotically large times.  At moderate times,  the new Z(8, t) is matched to the
            classical Philip solution expressed as (^t"2 + x' + t|rt3'2 + S>t2 + . . ., where (|>, %, i|r, B>,.  . . are different


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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
            functions of 6 alone. The matching process enables the characterizing functions (or parameters)
            within Z(6, t) to be evaluated in straightforward fashion from the moderate-time Philip functions (((>,
            X, t|/, S>,. . .). When evaluated for either Philip's data or the Green and Ampt step-function solution,
            the new Z(6,  t) in each case describes the water content profiles with excellent accuracy for all times.
            Also, for all t > 0, the new Z(6, t) can be directly integrated to provide a new equation for cumulative
            quantity of water infiltrated or flux, both as explicit functions of time.

95.   Swartzendruber, D., andF.R. Clague.  An Inclusive Infiltration Equation for Downward Water Entry into
      Soil.  Water Resources Research, 25:619-626 (1989).

            A new infiltration equation, derived exactly from a recent quasi-solution of the governing differential
            flow equation, is capable of expressing eleven previously published infiltration equations.  On the
            basis of least  squares fitting, the new equation in three-parameter dimensionless form expressed each
            of the eleven  previous equations within ±0.31% over all times.  If only one parameter was  retained
            and fitted in the dimensionless form, nine of the eleven equations were still expressed within ±2.5%.
            This one-parameter dimensionless form implies the dimensional infiltration equation I = (S/A0)[1 -
            exp (-A0t1/2)] + Kt, which is therefore proposed as a realistic blend of rigor and utility for the complete
            range of time t (0  < t < x), where I is the cumulative quantity of water infiltrated, S is the sorptivity,
            A0 is a constant arising from the quasi-solution, and K is the sated (satiated, near-saturated) hydraulic
            conductivity.  Because of its broad matching capability, this equation is deemed to hold considerable
            promise for describing and fitting experimental infiltration data, whether from the laboratory or the
            field.

96.   Swartzendruber, D.  and W.L. Hogarth.  Water Infiltration into Soil in Response to  Ponded-Water Head.
      SoilSci. Soc. of Am. J., 55(6):1511-1515 (1991).

            The pressure  head of water ponded on the soil surface can increase the infiltration of water into soil,
            but the effect  has often been complicated to describe mathematically.  This study was conducted to
            devise a simpler mathematical description without undue sacrifice of accuracy.  A new three-
            parameter infiltration equation was examined for its capability in describing the effect of soil-surface-
            ponded water head, h, on the cumulative quantity  of water infiltrated into  the soil with time.  The
            infiltration equation, as reduced to two-parameter dimensionless form, was fitted by nonlinear least
            squares to dimensionless data generated from mathematical descriptions of infiltration that included
            the effect of h in somewhat complicated parametric form. The  fitted two-parameter equation gave an
            excellent description of all the generated data, in terms of both goodness of fit and in recovery of the
            dimensionless ponded head p used as an input into the generated data. From an overall perspective,
            recovery of h was achieved within a relative error of ±1.4% across the complete range of the
            generated data, thus validating the new and relatively  simple equation in its  description of the general
            effect of ponded head on the cumulative infiltration process.

97.   Swartzendruber, D., and E.G. Youngs.  A Comparison of Physically-Based Infiltration Equations (Note).
      Soil Science, 117:165-167 (1974).

            Three infiltration equations, each derived in some manner from a consideration of the physics of flow
            through porous media, are compared quantitatively over the whole time range from zero to infinity.
            Compared with the Green and Ampt equation, the two-term Philip equation is never more than 15.1
            percent higher, while the equation arising out of Philip's linearization analysis is never less than 9.2
            percent lower. For practical purposes, these discrepancies may frequently  be ignored.  Because of its
            mathematical simplicity  and adaptability, the two-term Philip equation, however, would be the
            preferred choice.

98.   Wallach, R.  Soilwater Distribution in a Nonuniformly Irrigated Field with Root Extraction.  Journal of
      Hydrology, 119:137-150 (1990).
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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
            A steady-state solution is developed for two-dimensional distributions of irrigation water flux at the
            soil surface and water extraction by plant roots.  The solution of the linear equation is based on the
            small perturbations method, in which a small parameter is introduced into the governing differential
            equation.  For the sprinkler irrigation method, this parameter is determined by scaling the soil
            characteristic length, a, by the distance between the sprinklers. Linearization is attained by assuming
            that the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is exponentially related to the pressure head. Vertical
            distribution of the two-dimensional plant-root uptake is based on the one-dimensional model, which
            meets the approximation that the extraction pattern of plant roots is 40, 30, 20, and 10% of the total
            transpiration requirements in each successively deeper quarter of the root zone. Water extraction by
            plant roots increases lateral unsaturated flow beyond that which occurs as a result of irrigation
            nonuniformity. However, for a homogeneous soil profile, this lateral flow component increases water
            availability to those parts of the field where water shortages occur because of irrigation
            nonuniformity. Indeed, actual irrigation uniformity increases as measured by the decrease in the
            amplitude of the vertical flux around the mean. Younger plants suffer more from spatial fluctuations
            of irrigation water than do older plants, which have deeper roots. Actual irrigation uniformity, as
            measured by water availability to roots, is also affected by the distance between sprinklers and by soil
            type.

99.   Warrick, A.W.  Additional Solutions for Steady-State Evaporation from a Shallow Water Table.  Soil
      Science, 146:63-66 (1988).

            In this paper, I consider evaporation from a shallow water table and present analytical solutions.  An
            unsaturated conductivity function K of the form K = a/(Sn + b) is used, with S the matric suction and
            a, b, and n constants.  The results of Gardner and Fireman (1958) are generalized to all  n > 1,
            including fractional values and b = O, for which K reduces to the form commonly referred to as that
            of Brooks and Corey.  A table is presented from which evaporation rates follow for a wide range of
            depths and hydraulic conductivity functions of the above form.

100.  Warrick, A.W.   An Analytical Solution to Richards' Equation for a Draining Soil Profile.  Water Resources
      Research, 26(2):253-258 (1990).

            Analytical solutions are developed for the Richards' equation following the analysis of Broadbridge
            and White. Included here is the solution for drainage and redistribution of a partially or deeply
            wetted profile. Additionally, infiltration for various initial conditions is examined as well as
            evaporation at the upper boundary. In all cases the surface flux is constant, whether it be zero for
            drainage, positive for infiltration, or negative for evaporation. The  solutions assume specific forms
            for the soil water diffusivity and hydraulic conductivity functions:  a(b -B)2 and /? + y(b - 6) + A/[2(b
            - 6)], respectively. Here 8 is the water content and a, b, ft y, and A are constants.

101.  Warrick, A.W.  Analytical Solutions to the One-Dimensional Linearized Moisture Flow Equation for
      Arbitrary Input.  Soil Science, 120:79-84(1975).

            Analytical solutions to the one-dimensional linearized moisture flow equation are presented. The
            surface boundary condition is taken either as a time-varying  flux, time-varying water content, or with
            the flux as a linear function of the water content.  A semi-infinite vertical flow medium is considered
            with arbitrary initial conditions. Calculations for a cyclic flux input are compared to the associated
            nonlinear finite difference solution for five simulations using data from two soils. The results are
            encouraging in that the same general profiles are obtained.  The solution is believed to have particular
            merit to describe moisture regimes resulting from a high frequency irrigation schedule.

102.  Warrick, A.W.   Inverse Estimations of Soil Hydraulic Properties with Scaling: One-Dimensional
      Infiltration.   Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 57(3):631-636 (1993).
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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
            Inverse estimations of hydraulic properties are of immense importance to effectively provide input for
            water flow modeling and descriptions of soil systems. Here inverse estimations were made using
            scaled forms of Richards' equation and infiltration measurements in two steps. In Step 1, transient
            experimental data of cumulative infiltration rate, or wetting front position were "best-fit" using
            Philip's quasi-analytical, algebraic forms.  This was demonstrated with linear regression although a
            maximum likelihood method could have been used.  The first step does not depend on the form of the
            hydraulic functions and is valid for all uniform soils with constant initial and boundary conditions.
            Step 2 related the algebraic coefficients to the soil properties and was dependent on the model
            assumed for the hydraulic functions.  Computations were generally algebraic and extremely easy
            relative to alternative methods that require a numerical simulation for each combination of properties
            considered. Clearly, the number of estimated parameters cannot exceed the significant number of
            terms fit to the algebraic forms. For small times or "noisy" data, perhaps only one parameter can be
            estimated that, for the examples presented, leads to an estimate of the ratio of saturated conductivity
            to an inverse characteristic length. For this situation, further measurements are needed to provide
            additional information if more parameters are to be found.  Three commonly used forms of hydraulic
            functions were used, but the methodology is not limited to these specific forms. Scaling could also he
            used for more complex geometries and moisture regimes; however, the convenience of the algebraic
            forms will not generally be available in those cases.

103.   Warrick, A.W.  Solution to the One-Dimensional Linear Moisture Flow Equation with Water Extraction.
      SoilSci. Soc.Amer. Proc., 38:573-576 (1974).

            The one-dimensional, steady-state moisture flow equation is solved for arbitrary plant water
            withdrawal functions using the matric flux potential of earlier investigators to obtain a linearized
            form.  A semi-infinite flow medium and a finite-depth medium overlying a shallow water table are
            considered with the  surface boundary condition taken as a flux. Tables are presented giving the
            matric flux potential (from which the pressure head is easily determined) for several withdrawal
            functions. Numerical examples show the effects of different surface fluxes and rooting depths on the
            matric flux potential and pressure-head profiles.  The results are particularly relevant for high-
            frequency irrigation.

104.   Warrick, A.W. Time-Dependent Linearized Infiltration.  I. Point Sources.  Soil Sci. Soc.Amer. Proc.,
      38:383-386 (1974).

            Water flow from a point source is analyzed using a linearized form of the moisture flow equation.
            Time-dependence  is assumed with the results simplifying to those of previous investigators for steady-
            state conditions. Discrete time-distributed inputs such as might occur for trickle or high frequency
            irrigation is amenable to the solution.  Numerical simulations include (i) the  advance of a wetting
            front during infiltration, (ii) moisture variation resulting from a cyclic input  as during irrigation, and
            (iii) the matric flux potential field for a two-source problem.

105.   Warrick, A.W.  Traveling Front Approximations for Infiltration into Stratified Soils.  Journal of
      Hydrology, 128:213-222 (1991).

            Two approximations are developed for infiltration into a stratified soil profile. Both satisfy the initial
            conditions, give the  correct water content at a given depth for large time, obey mass conservation and
            give the correct rate of advance for large time.  The first is referred to as the "square front" solution
            and is analogous to Green-Ampt theory in that the profile is either wet or dry without a transition
            zone.  The second solution is based on a homogeneous analog for which Philip's solution for a profile
            at large time is invoked.  Examples are given for surface boundary conditions both as a specified head
            and as a flux density.
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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
106.   Warrick, A.W. and A.A. Hussen.  Scaling of Richards' Equation for Infiltration and Drainage.  Soil Sci.
      Soc.Am.J., 57:15-18 (1993).

            Scaling techniques allow a single solution to Richards' equation to suffice for numerous specific cases
            of water flow in unsaturated soils. Here, such solutions are presented for the well-known hydraulic
            functions of Brooks and Corey.  Infiltration for a constant water content or a constant flux at the soil
            surface is considered as well as drainage for a semi-infinite profile.  Although limited to a single form
            of hydraulic properties, the results are otherwise more general than those previously available. Of
            particular interest is that the hydraulic conductivity and air-entry values are embedded within the
            reduced variables. This is an advantage for computational efficiency, such as when using parameter
            optimization techniques.  Three examples are presented. In the first, a single solution is
            presented,valid for four combinations of saturated hydraulic conductivity and surface water content.
            A second example relates to drainage, also with one solution to describe four combinations of
            physical parameters. The final example is for constant flux infiltration.

107.   Warrick, A.W., A. Mas, and D.O. Lomen.  An Analytical Solution to Richards' Equation for Time-Varying
      Infiltration. Water Resources Research, 27:763-766 (1991).

            An analytical solution is developed for Richards equation for time-varying infiltration.  The
            infiltration rates must be specified as piecewise constants with time.  The answer is expressed as a
            sum of two terms, the first is a function of the instantaneous infiltration and the second an integral
            which accounts for the water distribution within the profile for the previous infiltration history. The
            solutions assume specific forms for the soil water diffusivity and hydraulic functions used earlier by
            Broadbridge and White (1988).

108.   Warrick, A.W., D.O. Lomen, and A. Ammozegar-Fard.  Linearized Moisture Flow with Root Extraction for
      Three-Dimensional Steady Conditions.  Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44:911-914 (1980).

            A mathematical model is presented to simulate plant water uptake assuming steady state conditions
            and an unsaturated hydraulic conductivity as an exponential function of pressure head. By choosing
            the conductivity to be of this form, the moisture flow  equation is linear, allowing analytical solutions
            to be developed in a closed form. Geometries considered possess radial symmetry and are appropriate
            to describe  trickle irrigation.  These include matrix potentials for points, discs,  and cylinders which
            can be taken either as sources or sinks. These provide the basic building blocks to simulate varied
            steady-state withdrawal patterns. The solution for the cylinder is newly derived; the other solutions
            were already available.  Nonsymmetric cases can result from superpositions. Examples include
            pressure head distributions for four sink-source combinations.

109.   Warrick, A.W., and D.O. Lomen.  Time-Dependent Linearized Infiltration:  III. Strip and Disc Sources.
      5-0/7 Sci. Soc. Amer. J., 40:639-643 (1976).

            Water flow from strip and disc surface sources is analyzed using an approach similar to previous
            investigations with line and point sources. A line of closely spaced trickle irrigation emitters often
            wets a surface strip of finite width; similarly, for a single emitter the surface wetted pattern is a disc.
            Lines of equal matric flux potential are wider and more shallow for these sources than wetting
            patterns for the line and point.  The moisture regime is independent of the source shape and depends
            only on the total flow rate for regions beyond approximately two times the strip width or disc radius.

110.   Warrick, A.W., D.O. Lomen, and S.R. Yates. A Generalized Solution to Infiltration.  Soil Science Society
      of America Journal, 49:34-38 (1985).

            A generalized solution the moisture flow (Richards') equation is developed for infiltration.  The
            equation is  expressed in terms of dimensionless time, depth, and water content. The reduced form


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                                                                                 Richards Equation Models
            applies for the hydraulic functions of van Genuchten or of Brooks and Corey as well as to other scaled
            forms and the solution utilizes the procedure of Philip. Answers are presented in concise tables
            which, in principle, allow for finding moisture profiles, wetting front, intake rate and cumulative
            intake for a variety of soils and for varying initial water contents. For application, specifically
            measured hydraulic conductivities can be best-fitted to the forms used here or generalized empirical
            values can be used from the literature. Thus, either specific or generic parameters may be used,
            depending on availability for a given problem.

111.  White, I. and P. Broadbridge.  Constant Rate Rainfall Infiltration:   A Versatile Nonlinear Model   2.
      Applications of Solutions. Water Resources Research, 24(1): 155-162 (1988).

            In paper 1 (Broadbridge and White, this issue) an analytical nonlinear model for constant rate rainfall
            infiltration was proposed which promised considerable versatility.  In it a wide range of soil hydraulic
            properties are generated through the variation of a single free parameter C.  Here three techniques are
            advanced for determining this parameter. The first, a one-dimensional technique, involves
            simultaneous determination of sorptivity and wetting front position. The second uses measured
            values of surface water content at long infiltration times for rainfall rates less than the saturated
            conductivity. In the third, three- and one-dimensional flow rates are measured on the same  soil
            sample.  All are suitable for field applications. The practical range of the C parameter, for a variety
            of repacked and in situ soils, is found to be restricted to between 1 and 2. The hydraulic
            conductivities and diffusivities of the model are in general agreement with independent
            measurements.  Its moisture characteristics t|/(B), which are not matched in any way to measured
            characteristics, follow closely those observed.  Also, the model permits predictions of the dependence
            of sorptivity on antecedent water content given a single measurement of sorptivity. The analytic
            solutions for constant flux infiltration given in paper 1 (Broadbridge and White, this issue) describe
            satisfactorily the evolution of water content profiles and surface water pressure potential  in the
            laboratory and field without a posteriori adjustments.  The mathematically simple, traveling wave
            approximation agrees well with observations at comparatively short infiltration times. Finally, field
            and laboratory measured times to ponding are predicted satisfactorily by the model's analytic
            expression.

112.  White, I., D.E. Smiles, and K.M. Perroux.  Absorption of Water by Soil:  The Constant Flux Boundary
      Condition.  Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 43:659-664 (1979).

            Absorption of water into soil as  the result of a constant flux condition at the soil surface is examined.

            Experiments for a fine sand show that the surface water content, movement of the wetting front, and
            the water content profiles may be predicted from the soil water diffusivity function using the notion of
            the flux-concentration relation of Philip (1973).

            Reduced space and time variables X = V0x and T = V02t are introduced. Use of these variables greatly
            simplifies treatment of the system and reveals that the surface water content and the reduced position
            of the wetting front are uniquely defined by T while the water content profiles at any value of T are
            unique in terms of X.

113.  Whisler, F.D. and A. Klute.  Numerical Analysis of Ponded Rainfall Infiltration.  In:  Water in the
      UnsaturatedZone, IASH/AIHS - Unesco (1969).

            A numerical solution of the flow equation for water in soil was obtained for a flow system consisting
            of a vertical column of stratified soil materials which had been drained from saturation to equilibrium
            with a water table. Water was assumed to be applied at the top of the column as either rainfall or
            ponded water. Infiltration into such a system involves hysteresis; i e., the soil at each point wets
            along a different wetting scanning curve. This part of the hysteresis phenomena was taken into
            account in the solution of the problem.  The solution of the equation depicts the time and depth


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                                                                                Richards Equation Models
            distributions of water content and pressure head during the resulting infiltration as well as infiltration
            rate and accumulated water content.

            The properties of the soil that influence the flow are the water capacity and hydraulic conductivity.
            Tables of x, a dimensionless conductivity, and y, a dimensionless water capacity, were calculated
            from tables of 0, a dimensionless water content, and (p, a dimensionless pressure head, for a set of
            moisture characteristic curves. These tables were fed into a digital computer which solved the
            problem.

            Several hypothetical cases were examined. These were coarse-textured soils overlying fine-textured
            soils, fine-textured lenses in coarse-textured soils, and coarse-textured lenses in fine-textured soils.

            Comparisons were made between these cases and also nonstratified cases on the basis of pressure
            head-time profiles, moisture content-time profiles, infiltration rate changes, and accumulated water
            content changes The numerical solution predicts a hold up effect on the wetting front as it goes from
            a fine-textured layer into a coarse-textured one.  As one would expect, the rate of advance of the fonts
            is faster for ponded infiltration than for rainfall infiltration.

114.   Youngs, E.G. and A. Poulovassilis.  The Different Forms of Moisture Profile Development During the
      Redistribution of Soil Water After Infiltration. Water Resources Research, 12(5):1007-1012 (1976).

            Two different forms of moisture profile development may occur during the redistribution of soil water
            after infiltration. In one of the profile shape continues to be similar to that during the infiltration
            process, with a fairly uniform water content region near the soil surface above a steep wetting front,
            and the rate of redistribution is inversely related to the infiltration depth.  In the other, water drains
            from near the surface to appear as a step in the moisture profile below the wetting front at the
            cessation of infiltration, and the rate of redistribution is directly related to infiltration depth.
            Classical theory of soil water movement is shown to account for both forms  of moisture profile
            development, which depend on the moisture profile shape at the cessation of infiltration and on the
            soil water properties of the porous material. Experimental results of moisture profile development in
            a sand column illustrate how different profile forms develop as the depth of infiltration is increased
            and, by inclining the experimental column, how they depend on the  relative importance of the soil
            water pressure head gradients compared with that of gravity.

115.   Zimmerman, R.W., G.S.  Bodvarsson, and E.M. Kwicklis.  Absorption of Water into Porous Blocks of
      Various Shapes and Sizes.  Water Resources Research, 26(11):2797-2806  (1990).

            Approximate solutions are presented for absorption of water into porous spherical, cylindrical, and
            slablike blocks whose characteristic curves are of the van Genuchten-Mualem type.  The solutions are
            compared to numerical simulations of absorption into blocks of the Topopah Spring member
            (Paintbrush tuff) from the site of the proposed nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada.
            Guided by these results, a scaling law, based on the ratio of surface area to volume, is then proposed
            for predicting the rate of absorption into irregularly shaped blocks.  This scaling law is tested against
            a numerical simulation of absorption into an irregularly shaped, 2-dimensional polygonal block and is
            shown to be a good approximation.
                                                 B-29

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       APPENDIX C




Soil Hydraulic Property Estimation






    Annotated Bibliography
            C-l

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                                                                      5*o/7 Hydraulic Parameter Estimation
ESTIMATION OF SOIL HYDRAULIC PARAMETERS
1.       Block, L.O., M.J. Hendry, and G.W. Chan. MRCON: Computer Program for Estimating Soil Moisture
        Retention and Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity.  Ground Water, 26(2):218-221 (1988).

                MRCON is an interactive computer program designed to approximate soil moisture retention (6-
                i|0 and/or unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (KB) for soils. MRCON, which is written in
                BASIC, uses empirical methods obtained from the literature to calculate K-6 and a modified
                method to calculate 6-t|/.  Input data for the program consists of a saturated moisture content and
                a minimum of three values of 6-t|/.  A measured value of saturated hydraulic conductivity can be
                used as input to better approximate the K-6 curves to field conditions.

2.       Bohne, K., et al. Rapid Method for Estimating the Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity from Infiltration
        Measurements.  Soil Science, 155(4):237-244 (1993).

                A method is proposed for estimating the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity from observed
                infiltration data. Infiltration measurements are generally easier to obtain than experimental data
                required for in situ determination of the hydraulic conductivity. The problem was formulated in
                terms of a nonlinear least-squares parameter optimization method which combines Philip's two-
                term infiltration equation with an analytical description of the unsaturated soil hydraulic
                properties according to Mualem and van Genuchten.  Reliable estimates for the hydraulic
                parameters could be obtained with an inverse procedure when independently  measured water
                retention data were included. The results indicate that soil water content measurements at very
                low values of the soil water pressure head are especially important to ensure parameter
                uniqueness.  The method provides rapid and cost-effective estimates of the hydraulic properties of
                field soils.

3.       Brutsaert, W. Some Methods of Calculating Unsaturated Permeability. In: Winter Meeting of the
        American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Chicago, IL (1965).

4.       Clapp, R.B. and G.M. Hornberger.  Empirical Equations for Some Soil Hydraulic Properties.  Water
        Resources Research, 14(4):601-604 (1978).

                The soil moisture characteristic may be modeled as a power curve combined with a short
                parabolic section near saturation to represent gradual air entry. This two-part function—together
                with a power function relating soil moisture and hydraulic conductivity—is used to derive a
                formula for the wetting front suction required by the Green-Ampt equation. Representative
                parameters for the moisture characteristic, the wetting front suction, and the sorptivity, a
                parameter in the infiltration equation derived by Philip (1957), are computed by using the
                desorption data of Holtan et al. (1968). Average values of the parameters, and associated
                standard deviations, are calculated for 11 soil textural classes. The results of this study indicate
                that the exponent of the moisture characteristic power curve can be predicted reasonably well
                from soil texture and that gradual air entry may have a considerable effect on a soil's wetting
                front suction.

5.       Clothier, B.E. and I. White. Measurement of Sorptivity and Soil Water Diffusivity in the Field.  Soil Sci.
        Soc. Am. J., 45:241-245  (1981).

                An analysis for scaling the exponential soil water diffusivity function, D(8), from concurrent
                measurements of sorptivity and wet front advance is presented. This analysis provides a field


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                                                                       5*o/7 Hydraulic Parameter Estimation
                method for measuring p, the slope of the exponential D(6).  For Bungendore fine sand in the
                field it was found that p = 3. This is contrary to absorption experiments on a variety of repacked
                soils that have consistently found p = 8 and led to the suggestion that p = 8 may be the
                "universal" value applicable to all soils.  Although the exponential function with p = 3 provided a
                usable approximation over the entire range, D(6) data from undisturbed cores showed that at
                high water contents D was effectively constant, and for lower water contents the undisturbed data
                were well described by an exponential function with p = 8. Measurements of sorptivity, wet front
                advance, and hydraulic conductivity were made in the field using a device that supplied water to
                the soil surface at the small tension of 4 cm.  This gives the physical properties of the soil matrix,
                since larger channels and voids (>0.75 mm in diam) do not affect the measurements made at a
                small tension. Field heterogeneity due to such macropores is consequently eliminated. This
                sorptivity of Bungendore fine  sand is about 0.4 that from ponded infiltration affected by the
                macropores.

6.       Cook, FJ. and A. Broeren.  Six Methods for Determining Sorptivitv and Hydraulic Conductivity with
        Disc Permeameters. Soil Science, 157(1):2-11 (1994).

                The disc permeameter has become a popular apparatus for measuring in situ the sorptivity, S,
                and hydraulic conductivity, K, of the soil at some prescribed potential. A number of different
                methods have been proposed for calculating S and K using the flow rate, Q(t), from the disc.
                Measurements of Q(t) on a Kokotau silt loam soil were made using discs with radii of 60 and 102
                mm. Measurements were made at potentials of -20,  -40, and -100 mm with the 102-mm disc
                and at potentials of -20 and -40 mm with the 60 mm disc.

                S and K were calculated using six different methods. Three of the  methods use Wooding's
                equation of flow from a disc:

                                        Q4  /7tr2 = AK[l+4A.c/7tr]

                where Q4 is the steady-state flow  rate; r is the radius of the disc source; AK = K(t|/0) - K(t|/n)
                (where +t|/0 and t|/n are, respectively, the potential of the source and the initial potential of the
                soil); and A.c is the macroscopic capillary length scale. These three methods and a method based
                on a linear diffusion model gave similar values of S and/or K.  The method of Youngs, which
                uses the early- to medium-time infiltration data to calculate K, gave very low and inconsistent
                values  of K.

                Calculations of K were also made from values of S at two different potentials.  Here S as  S0 was
                first calculated by using the early-time values of Q(t1/2).  These values of K were similar to those
                calculated using the methods based on Wooding's equation.  This suggests that measuring S at
                two or more different potentials, using the disc permeameter, would provide a very rapid method
                for characterizing the hydraulic properties of soils, provided the soil is fine textured and S can be
                measured either from the early-time behavior or using the method of Warrick.

7.       El-Kadi, A.I.  On Estimating the Hydraulics Properties of Soil. Part 1. Comparison Between Forms to
        Estimate the Soil-Water Characteristic  Function. Advances in Water Resources, May 1985 (1985).

                The hydraulic properties of soil include the soil-water characteristic function [h(8) in which 8 is
                water content and h is pressure head (suction)] and the hydraulic conductivity function [K(8) or
                K(h)].  These functions are essential to the solution of unsaturated groundwater flow problems.
                A number of empirical and semi-empirical forms have been proposed in the literature to estimate
                these functions.  The present paper employs a nonlinear least-square analysis for comparison


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                                                                      5*o/7 Hydraulic Parameter Estimation
                between some of the available forms, using a large number of experimental measurements of h(6)
                for different classes of soil.  Suitability of the forms for predicting the hydraulic conductivity
                function is examined.  In the absence of accurate measurements, the paper facilitates modeling
                providing estimates for the parameters of the soil-water characteristic function.

8.       Ghosh, R.K. Estimation of Soil-Moisture Characteristics from Mechanical Properties of Soils.  Soil
        Science, 130(2):60-63  (1980).

                Soil-moisture characteristics can be established directly from the physical properties of soils and
                a single measurement of water potential, i|r, in bars, at some moisture content, 6, on a volume
                basis. The method is applicable for those soils for which the i|r - 6 relations can be expressed as
                i|r = t|/e (6/60)-p, where t|/e is the air-entry water potential in bars, 60 is the saturated water content
                in volume per volume, and p is an empirically determined constant. The procedure is useful
                when a reliable  soil moisture characteristic curve is not available. We noted considerable
                agreement between estimated values using this procedure and those experimentally determined
                and published for eight soils.

9.       Gupta, S.C. and W.E. Larson. Estimating Soil Water Retention Characteristics from Particle Size
        Distribution. Organic Matter Percent and Bulk Density.  Water Resources Research, 15(6): 1633-1635
        (1979).

                Regression models are presented for estimating soil-water-retention curves from particle-size
                distribution, percentage of organic matter, and bulk density. Models were  developed from the
                measured soil-water-retention curves of artificially packed cores (7.6 X 7.6 cm) of 43 soil
                materials. These soil materials included 13 agricultural soils. Curves predicted with these
                models approximated reasonably well the measured water retention of 61 Missouri soils.
                Because conventional methods of obtaining retention curves are expensive and time consuming,
                these equations  will be valuable for modeling salt and water flow in soils and for estimating
                available water  capacities.

10.     Hills, R.G., et al.  Modeling One-Dimensional Infiltration into Very Dry Soils  2.  Estimation of the Soil
        Water Parameters and  Model Predictions. Water Resources Research, 25(6): 1271-1282 (1989).

                Using a water content based one-dimensional finite difference algorithm, we model infiltration
                into a 6-m-lysimeter column containing  alternating layers of air dried clay loam and sand.  We
                use van Genuchten's equation to model the h-8 relationship and both Campbell's and Mualem's
                equations to model the K-8 relationship.  Several sets of model parameters are estimated using
                data generated from various combinations of laboratory drainage experiments, laboratory
                measurements of saturated hydraulic conductivity, lysimeter observations of initial conditions,
                and lysimeter observations of water redistribution. We find that predictions of infiltration based
                on field redistribution data give the best agreement with the observed infiltration into the
                lysimeter. We also find that the use of Campbell's K-8 relationship results in closer agreement
                between the infiltration model predictions and the lysimeter observations than does the use of
                Mualem's K-8 equation.  The results of this study show that infiltration model predictions for a
                carefully controlled field scale lysimeter are very sensitive to the field and  laboratory techniques
                used to estimate the soil water parameters.

11.     Hussen, A. A. and A.W. Warrick.  Alternative Analyses of Hydraulic Data From Disc Tension
        Infiltrometers.  Water Resources Research, 29(12):4103-4108 (1993).
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                                                                       5*o/7 Hydraulic Parameter Estimation
                Hydraulic conductivity values were compared based on alternative analyses of data from disc
                tension infiltrometers. The first method was based on a single disc and tension and depends on
                the estimate of sorptivity and steady state flow. A second method used steady state flow
                measurements for two different disc radii, 52 and 118 mm.  A third method used a single disc
                with multiple tensions from which steady state flow was obtained at three or more tensions which
                could be at the same location. A fourth method used a single disc with two tensions from which
                steady state flow was obtained at two tensions. Finally, values based on soil cores were
                compared.  The results show  reasonable agreement between methods for the hydraulic
                conductivity with the largest  differences for data  collected for zero tension. For the most part,
                there were no significant differences in hydraulic conductivity due to the disc infiltrometer
                radius. A single-disc method with multiple tensions (more than 3 points) and large disc radius
                gave results which were the most stable, accurate, and repeatable.

12.      Klute, A. The Determination of the Hydraulic Conductivity and Diffusivitv of Unsaturated Soils. Soil
        Science, 113(4):264-276 (1972).

                Quantitative application of the theory of unsaturated flow to field or laboratory flow systems
                requires knowledge of the hydraulic conductivity and water retention characteristics of the soils
                involved. The purpose of this paper is to survey  the various methods available for the
                measurement of hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity and to identify the principles, advantages,
                and disadvantages of each. Space will not permit a complete description of each method.  The
                reader is advised to consult the original references for more information on any given method of
                interest.

13.      Kool, J.B., J.C. Parker, and M.T. van  Genuchten. Parameter Estimation for Unsaturated Flow and
        Transport Models—A Review. Journal of Hydrology, 91:255-293 (1987).

                This paper reviews the current status of parameter estimation techniques and their utility for
                determining key parameters affecting water flow and solute transport in the unsaturated (vadose)
                zone. Historically, hydraulic and transport properties of the unsaturated zone have been
                determined by imposing rather restrictive initial and boundary conditions so that the governing
                flow and transport equations  can be inverted by analytical or semi-analytical methods.  Contrary
                to these direct methods, parameter estimation techniques do not impose any constraints on the
                model, on the stipulation of initial and boundary  conditions, on the constitutive relationships, or
                on the treatment of inhomogeneities via deterministic or stochastic representations. While
                parameter estimation analyses of subsurface saturated flow are increasingly common, their
                application to unsaturated flow and transport processes is a relatively new endeavor.
                Nevertheless, a number of laboratory and field applications currently exist that show  the great
                potential of parameter estimation techniques for improved designs and analyses of vadose zone
                flow and transport experiments. Several practical examples for determining unsaturated soil
                hydraulic functions and various transport parameters are presented, and advantages and
                limitations of the estimation process are discussed. Specific research areas in need of future
                investigation are outlined.

14.      Malik, R.S., C. Laroussi, and L.W. De Backer.  Physical Components of the Diffusivitv Coefficient.  Soil
        Sci. Soc. Am.  J., 43(4):633-637 (1979).

                Isothermal horizontal infiltration experiments were conducted in 53-63 um, 74-88 um, or 105-
                125 um glass bead fractions with water, 6% ethyl alcohol water solution, 20% ethyl alcohol water
                solution, ethyl alcohol, and methyl alcohol. From these experiments, the diffusivity coefficient


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                                                                       5*o/7 Hydraulic Parameter Estimation
                was determined using the Bruce and Klute (1956) procedure and D(6) was established for the
                fluid content, 6, from 0% to saturation.

                The D(6) variation in the fluid content range between 3 and 30% was investigated. The
                functional relationships between D(6) and the properties of the fluid, the geometry and the solid
                matrix were investigated. The physical components of D(6) were determined using:

                           D(6) = ( r*2 /R*2 •  a cos a l\a  - 4.10'4  AHV + 5) • 10'2 6

                where r* and R* are the mean radius of pores and beads, respectively, a, \i and AHV. are the
                surface tension, viscosity and molar heat of vaporization of the fluid, respectively, and a is the
                fluid-solid contact angle.

                The physical significance of the diffusivity coefficient given by Laroussi and De Backer (1975)
                defining this coefficient as  the ease with which the fluid particles spread from a wetting front, is
                clarified and confirmed.

15.      Marion, J.M., et  al.  Evaluation of Methods for Determining Soil-Water Retentivitv and Unsaturated
        Hydraulic Conductivity.  Soil Science, 158(1): 1-13  (1994).

                The transport of dissolved contaminants through the vadose zone is a major source of soil and
                groundwater contamination.  Soil hydraulic properties must be determined to accurately describe
                water and contaminant transport and potential environmental impacts. Comparisons were made
                of three  field and three laboratory methods for estimating soil-water retention, 8(t|/) and
                unsaturated hydraulic conductivity functions K(8).  Instrumentation was installed in 36 field
                plots and two redistribution cycles were conducted.  Field data obtained from each cycle were
                utilized  in three outflow-based field methods: (i) instantaneous profile method (ii) Libardi's
                method  and (iii) a nonlinear least  squares approach. Undisturbed soil cores were extracted from
                24 field  plots at six depths and used in laboratory tests.  Techniques consisted of (i) a multi-step
                outflow  approach (a) coupled with (a) "inverse methodology" for transient conditions and (b) a
                least-squares approach for equilibrium conditions and (ii) a particle size distribution model.
                Parametric models were coupled with the modeling efforts. The results obtained by the in situ
                instantaneous profile method for both soil hydraulic functions were considered to hold the
                greatest  validity.  However the multi-step outflow methods  produced feasible 8(t|/) curves and the
                inverse methodology was time efficient. Libardi's method for determining K(8) relationships was
                accurate at deep profile depths but failed at shallow ones.

16.      McCuen, R.H., WJ. Rawls, and D.L. Brakensiek.  Statistical Analysis of the Brooks-Corey and the
        Green-Ampt Parameters Across Soil Textures.  Water Resources Research, 17(4): 1005-1013 (1981).

                Infiltration is a major component of the hydrologic cycle for most watersheds. Therefore, it is
                important to have a method that can provide infiltration estimates for soils within ungaged
                watersheds.  Both the analysis of variance and the multivariate analysis were used to examine
                whether estimated Brooks-Corey and Green-Ampt parameters differ singularly or collectively
                across soil texture classes. The analysis indicated that the parameters for the two models
                examined varied collectively across soil texture classes. Mean parameter values and standard
                errors for soil textures are presented for possible use on ungaged watersheds.

17.      Mishra, S. and J.C. Parker.  Methods of Estimating Hydraulic and Transport Parameters for the
        Unsaturated Zone.  In: Conference on New Field Techniques for Quantifying the Physical and Chemical
        Properties of Heterogeneous Aquifers, Dallas,  TX, National Water Well Association (1989).


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                                                                       5*o/7 Hydraulic Parameter Estimation
                Methods of estimating hydraulic and transport parameters for the unsaturated zone are presented.
                Two approaches to parameter estimation are discussed. The first approach is based on inversion
                of the governing initial-boundary value problem for unsaturated flow and/or transport using data
                from transient experiments.  The second approach utilizes particle size distribution data to
                obtain estimates of soil hydraulic properties. Example applications of the two different
                approaches are presented and their advantages and limitations are discussed. Procedures for
                identifying and quantifying sources of uncertainty in parameter estimates are examined.
                Ongoing research on the scale-up of parameters for applications in large-scale numerical
                simulations is reviewed.

18.     Mishra, S. and J.C. Parker.  Effects of Parameter Uncertainty on Predictions of Unsaturated Flow.
        Journal of Hydrology, 108:19-33 (1989).

                This study uses first-order first and second moment analysis to evaluate the error in predictions of
                unsaturated flow models caused by parameter uncertainty, expressed in terms of a mean value for
                each parameter and an error covariance matrix. These are related to the mean and variance in
                the model predictions by a first-order Taylor expansion. Two applications of the methodology
                are presented.  The first involves the estimation of parameters and their error covariance matrix
                from particle size distribution data for a layered field soil. These are used to predict water
                contents and associated errors for a static retention test and a dynamic drainage experiment.  The
                second case involves parameter estimation using a numerical inversion method from a transient
                flow experiment for a hypothetical homogeneous soil.  Predictions of water contents and their
                errors for a rainfall-redistribution event using the estimated parameters compare well with
                predictions corresponding to actual parameters. Uncertainty predictions with the first-order error
                analysis procedure also agree well with results of a Monte Carlo simulation study.

19.     Mishra, S., J.C. Parker, andN. Singhal.  Estimation of Soil Hydraulic Properties and Their Uncertainty
        from Particle Size Distribution Data.  Journal of Hydrology, 108:1-18(1989).

                A unified approach to the estimation of soil hydraulic properties and their uncertainty from
                particle size distribution data is presented.  Soil hydraulic properties are represented by the
                parametric models of Van Genuchten and/or Brooks and Corey Particle size distribution data are
                used to generate theoretical soil-water retention data using a modified form of the model
                proposed by Arya and Paris, which was calibrated in this study using a data set of 250 soil
                samples. Parameters in the van Genuchten model are fitted to the predicted water
                content—capillary pressure data by nonlinear regression methods and may be optionally
                converted to equivalent Brooks-Worey retention parameters using an empirical procedure.
                Saturated conductivity is estimated from particle size data using a modified Kozeny-Carman
                equation which was developed from the data set of 250 soil samples. Uncertainty in parameter
                estimates is evaluated using first-order error analysis methods. Application of the proposed
                methodology to three soils which were not in the calibration set indicated water content-capillary
                pressure relations can be predicted with reasonable accuracy and precision. Uncertainty in
                predicted saturated hydraulic conductivity will be rather large making direct measurement of this
                variable highly desirable.

20.     Mishra, S. and J.C. Parker.  On the Relation Between Saturated Conductivity and Capillary Retention
        Characteristics.  Ground Water, 28(5):775-777 (1990).

                A simple closed-form expression relating saturated hydraulic conductivity to the van Genuchten
                capillary retention model parameters is derived. Application of this equation to an experimental
                data set shows reasonable agreement between measured and predicted saturated conductivity


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                values.  The proposed equation provides a consistent theoretical basis for estimating both
                saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity from statistical pore structure models.

21.     Moldrup, P., et al.  Estimation of the Soil-Water Sorptivitv from Infiltration in Vertical Soil Columns.
        Soil Science, 157(1): 12-18 (1994).

                This paper presents a simple method for estimating the soil-water sorptivity (S) from vertical
                infiltration experiments at ponding conditions. The proposed estimation method is based on the
                Haverkamp et al. (R. Haverkamp, J.-Y. Parlange, J. L. Starr, G. Schmitz, and C.  Fuentes. 1990.
                Infiltration under ponded conditions.  3. A predictive equation based on physical parameters.
                Soil Sci. 149:292-300) predictive infiltration equation. This equation is simplified, so that a
                simple analytical solution is obtained for the sorptivity. The new S estimation method requires
                measurement of cumulative infiltration versus time and independent measurement of the
                saturated hydraulic conductivity on the same soil cores as used for the infiltration experiment.
                Criteria for avoiding numerical instability when using the new estimation method are given. Use
                of the proposed method is illustrated on infiltration data measured on undisturbed sand cores.
                The method gave good and robust estimates of the soil-water sorptivity (coefficient of variation
                <25% for all S estimates). Horizontal and vertical infiltration tests for homogeneous packed soil
                columns showed good agreement between the new S estimation method and the classical Philip
                method for horizontal infiltration at nonponding conditions.

22.     Mous, S.L.J. Identification of the Movement of Water in Unsaturated Soils: The Problem of
        Identifiabilitv of the Model. Journal of Hydrology,  143:153-167(1993).

                The estimation of model parameters using non-linear regression techniques is one of the aspects
                of inverse modelling and is known as the identification problem. The solution of which may be
                non-unique. The main causes of this non-uniqueness are the structure of the model and the
                design of the input signal.  It will be shown that the parameters can be estimated  only if a model
                with different parameter values yields different output signals.  A model that has this feature is
                called identifiable. As an example, the identification of a model for the movement of water in
                unsaturated soils is used.  This model appears to be non-identifiable, which results in non-
                unique solutions.

23.     Paige, G.B. and D. Hillel.  Comparison of Three Methods for Assessing Soil Hydraulic Properties. Soil
        Science, 155(3):175-189 (1993).

                Three methods for assessing soil hydraulic  properties were conducted and their results compared
                for two soils in Western Massachusetts. The methods compared are: the Instantaneous Profile
                Method, the Guelph Permeameter, and laboratory determination using intact soil cores. The
                saturated hydraulic conductivity and unsaturated conductivity function, as well as the moisture
                retention relationship when possible, were determined and the results compared with respect to
                their ranges of applicability and the respective limitations of each method. We found close
                agreement for the moisture retention relationships determined by the instantaneous profile
                method and the soil cores for the ranges of pressures and moisture contents they have in
                common.  In addition, there was also close  agreement between the K(t|/) relationship measured
                using the instantaneous profile method and that predicted using the van Genuchten and Mualem
                models. The field saturated conductivity results determined using the Guelph Permeameter were
                one to three orders of magnitude less than the saturated conductivity results determined from soil
                cores and those determined by the instantaneous profile method. The unsaturated K(t|/)
                relationship using Gardner's definition of matric potential and the results from the Guelph

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                permeameter predicted hydraulic conductivity values three to four orders of magnitude less then
                the other two methods at 200 cm of pressure.

24.     Ragab, R., J. Feyen, and D. Hillel. Comparative Study of Numerical and Laboratory Methods for
        Determining the Hydraulic Conductivity Function of a Sand.  Soil Science, 131(6):375-388 (1981).

                We compared experimentally measured hydraulic conductivity-water content relationships with
                those predicted by three models. Sand was the medium used for this comparative study. The
                laboratory methods used included: instantaneous profile-internal drainage; infiltration through
                crust; hot air drying; pressure plate outflow; and unit gradient drainage.  For the numerical
                approach we used the Irmay, the Jackson and the Mualem models.  The moisture desorption
                curve and the saturated hydraulic conductivity were used as inputs. Additional parameters were
                estimated from the literature. We found close agreement between the K(6 ) relationship
                measured according to the instantaneous profile  method and estimates based on Irmay's equation;
                Jackson's prediction method with a pore interaction exponent of 0.5; and Mualem' s model, with
                an effective saturation term exponent of 0.5.  In  addition, the predicted K(6 ) relationship with
                the Mualem model using 0.75 as exponent of the effective saturation term,  and the predicted
                values with the Millington Jackson's equation (being Jackson's model with p = 4/3)
                corresponded with the experimental relationship obtained by the gypsum-sand crust technique.
                The predicted K(6 ) relationships obtained by the above models also matched the K(8 ) values
                obtained by the hot air method in the wet range.

25.     Ragab, R. and J.D. Cooper.  Variability of Unsaturated Zone Water Transport Parameters: Implications
        for Hydrological Modelling. 2. Predicted vs. In Situ Methods and Evaluation of Methods.  Journal of
        Hydrology, 148:133-147 (1993).

                Two methods to estimate the saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of soil were
                compared in a  catchment in south-west England. The catchment consists of three land use
                domains-arable, permanent grass and woodland. The methods used were in situ measurements
                using a Guelph permeameter and the predictive model of Rawls and Brakensiek, which uses
                percentage  of sand, percentage of clay and porosity as input. In grassland and woodland no
                significant differences were found between the mean saturated and unsaturated hydraulic
                conductivity estimated by the two methods.  It is suggested that a significant difference found for
                the arable land is due to the effect of farming operations on soil permeability.  On a catchment
                scale there were no significant differences between the methods the results  obtained using the
                predictive model are encouraging and worth further investigation. The advantages and
                disadvantages of the two methods are evaluated.

26.     Ragab, R. and J.D. Cooper.  Variability of Unsaturated Zone Water Transport Parameters:  Implications
        for Hydro logical Modelling.  1. In Situ Measurements. Journal of Hydrology, 148:109-131 (1993).

                Physically based hydrological models require values of saturated and unsaturated hydraulic
                conductivity to solve the equations used to describe subsurface flow. Variability of these
                parameters within and between various land uses and soil types is an important consideration.  If
                hydrological behaviour is to be described realistically.

                A catchment in south-west England has been chosen to validate the European Hydrological
                System Systeme Hydrologique Europeen SHE).  The catchment includes three land use domains--
                arable including temporary grass), permanent grassland and  woodland.  For the unsaturated
                zone component of the SHE both saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ks, and  unsaturated hydraulic
                conductivity as a function of matric suction, K(i|r), are required. The aim of this investigation


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                was to measure the parameters for input to the model to assess the variability of these parameters
                and to determine whether or not parameters should be used for each domain independently.  A
                Guelph permeameter was used to  obtain Ks and a, which describes the slope of the logarithmic
                unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function (K(t|/) = Ks exp (at|/)).  Measurements at four depths
                were carried out. Domains were chosen according to land use arable land (including temporary
                grass), permanent grassland and woodland.  Both Ks and a were found to be lognormally
                distributed. The Ks values were highest in the grassland and lowest in arable land. The
                difference between means was significant for Ks but not for a in the three domains. High values
                of Ks were attributed to preferential flow along slate faces and root-induced channels in the
                grassland and woodland, respectively, as indicated by dye tests.  Finally it was concluded that, as
                Ks and K(t|/) differ  significantly between domains, different hydrological behaviour would be
                expected. It is therefore recommended that different parameter sets be used for modelling the
                individual domains.

27.     Rawls, W.J., D.L. Brakensiek, and K.L.  Saxton. Soil Water Characteristics. In: 1981  Winter Meeting of
        American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Paper No.  81-2510, Chicago, IL, ASAE (1981).

                Relationships of soil vater tension and conductivity with soil water content are needed to quantify
                plant available water and to model the movement of water and solutes in and through soils. Field
                and laboratory measurement of these hydraulic soil properties ia very difficult, laborious, and
                costly. To provide  the best estimates possible from previous analyses, a comprehensive search of
                the literature and data sources for hydraulic conductivity and related soil-water data was made in
                1978. From this search, data for 1,323 soils with about 5,350 horizons from 32 states were
                summarized.  Reported here are summaries of the soil profile descriptions, soil textures, particle
                size distributions, organic carbon  contents, bulk densities, selected chemical data, hydraulic
                conductivities, soil  water retention data, sample location, and the specific reference or data
                source.  The Brooks and Corey equation parameters, soil water retention volumes at 0.33 bar and
                15 bar, and saturated conductivities for the major soil textures classes are reported. Relationships
                for predicting water retention volumes for particular tensions and saturated hydraulic
                conductivities based on soil properties are also presented.

28.     Rawls, WJ. and D.L. Brakensiek.  Estimating Soil Water Retention from Soil Properties.  Journal of
        Irrigation and Drainage,  Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 108(IR2):166-171
        (1982).

29.     Rawls, WJ. and D.L. Brakensiek.  Prediction of Soil Water Properties for Hydrologic Modeling. In:
        Symposium on Watershed Management, ASCE (1985).

                Water flow in soils can be characterized for many boundary and initial conditions by  solving
                governing differential equations. Thus, a physically consistent means of quantifying water flow
                in soils in terms of  the soil properties governing the movement of water and air exists. There are
                several reasons why this state-of-the-art technology is not yet fully utilized. One reason may be
                complexity and expense of computer-based numerical solutions.  However, a more important
                reason is the difficulty of obtaining the required inputs which are the relationships between
                matric potential and hydraulic conductivity as a function of soil water content.  Approximate
                water flow models based on physical principles or empirical results may simplify the
                computational requirements, however, inputs are still required. Therefore, it is the objective of
                this paper to present procedures to (1) estimate input parameters for the Brooks-Corey, Campbell
                and Van Genuchten soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity functions based on readily
                available soil properties, and (2) estimate infiltration parameters.


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30.     Reynolds, W.D. and D.E. Elrick. A Method for Simultaneous In Situ Measurement in the Vadose Zone
        of Field-Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity. Sorptivitv  and the Conductivity-Pressure Head Relationship.
        Ground Water Monitoring Review GWMRDU, 6(l):84-95 (1986).

                The Guelph Permeameter (GP) method for simultaneous, in situ measurement in the vadose zone
                of field-saturated hydraulic conductivity (K sub fs), sorptivity (S) and the conductivity-pressure
                head relationship (K(theta)) is described and discussed.  The method involves measuring the
                steady-state liquid recharge, Q, necessary to maintain a constant depth of water, H, in an
                uncased, cylindrical well of radius, a, finished above the water table.  An 'in-hole' Mariotte bottle
                device is used to maintain H and to measure Q. Step-by-step procedures with example
                calculations are given for obtaining K sub fs, S and K(theta).  Techniques for assessing the
                results are also given. The GP method will (theoretically) yield simultaneous, in situ
                measurements of K sub fs and K(theta) for infiltration of any wet liquid, and yields a 'point'
                measurement requiring replication. The GP apparatus is inexpensive, simple and easily operated
                by one person.  The method can be used to obtain vertical profiles of K sub fs, S and alpha,
                requiring less time per measurement than most other methods.

31.     Ross, P.J.  and K. Smettem RJ.  Describing Soil Hydraulic Properties with Sums of Simple Functions.
        Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 57:26-29 (1993).

                Simple functions do not adequately describe the hydraulic properties of many field soils,
                particularly those with substantial macroporosity. By considering the soil pore-size distribution
                f(ft) = ^,=1 & fi( ft) corresponding to the effective saturation S (ip) =2fr,=i fiSJ ft) , where ft
                is matric pressure head, the (f>t are fractions of effective porosity, the St( ip)  are simple water
                retention functions in common use, and // ft)  =St( ft) , we show that the relative hydraulic
                conductivity according  to the Mualem model is Kr(ip) = SP[2?VJ=1 $g/$) /2Fl=l (f>t g,(O)]2, where
                gi(ft) = f-x ft' fi( ft) dft and/) is a pore interaction index. If the pores of the distributions do
                not interact, the appropriate relation is K(ip) =2Fl=l KsiKri (ip) where Ksi is the saturated
                conductivity of distribution /' and Kri = Sf fgi(ft)/gi(0)J2. We note that the van Genuchten function
                S(ft) = [1 + (-aft)"]'m with the restriction m = 1 - lln leads to an infinite slope K'(ft) at ft =  O
                unless n > 2, which is unrealistic for field soils if a wide range of matric pressure heads is
                considered. Hydraulic conductivity near saturation is often expressed asK'(ft) = Ks exp(aft). We
                introduce the function S(ft) = (1 - aft) exp(aft), which gives, according to Mualem's model, a
                conductivity K(ip) = Ks(l - aip)p  exp[(/? + 2)aft\ that approximates Ks exp(aft) near saturation if
                a = la and is exactly equal if p = O. As an example, a function using this model for one pore-
                size distribution and the van Genuchten model for the other was compared with a function using
                two van Genuchten distributions.  The latter gave a slightly improved fit to water content and
                conductivity data for an aggregated soil.

32.     Ross, P.J.  and J.-Y.  Parlange. Comparing Exact and Numerical Solutions of Richards' Equation for  One-
        Dimensional Infiltration and Drainage.  Soil Science,  157(6):341-344 (1994).

                Analytical  solutions to Richards' equation are valuable in testing numerical models of water
                movement  in soils, but few such solutions are available, especially for general soil hydraulic
                properties.  We present such a solution, valid for restricted boundary conditions during
                infiltration and drainage, and illustrate its use by comparing numerical and analytic solutions.  In
                the  case of infiltration the solution is based on an earlier result which is extended here to describe
                drainage from soil with a uniform initial water content.  Accurate numerical solutions could be
                obtained with a coarse spatial grid of eleven points.

33.     Ross, P.J.  and J.-Y.  Parlange. Investigation of a Method for Deriving Unsaturated Soil Hydraulic
        Properties from Water Content Profiles.  Soil Science, 157(6):335-340 (1994).


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                Hydraulic properties of unsaturated soil profiles are needed for quantitative analysis of water
                movement. A recently proposed method of estimating some of these properties from water
                content profiles after drainage was examined for a uniform soil satisfying certain constraints that
                allowed a new exact analytical solution to be obtained. A new analytical and numerical
                examination of the method, assuming correct property functional forms and boundary conditions,
                established that it can give good estimates of unsaturated hydraulic conductivities.  If a matric
                potential value is available at one depth in the profile, matric potentials at other depths can also
                be estimated accurately. The method seemed to work reasonably well even when assumed
                property functions and boundary conditions had an incorrect form, although hydraulic
                conductivities were then in error up to 25 percent. This seemingly large error reflects the
                difficulty in measuring a highly variable dynamic property, like conductivity, in soils.

34.     Satterwhite, M.B. Evaluating Soil Moisture and Textural Relationships Using Regression Analysis. U.S.
        Army Corps of Engineers, ETL-0226 (1980).

                Soil moisture and textural conditions are described for 179  soil samples from an arid to semiarid
                climate. Stepwise multiple regression analysis of these data produced four regression equations
                that related (1) the percent sand and clay and (2) the percent fines, with the percent soil water
                held at 0.33 bar (FC) and the 15 bar (WP) potentials.  Evaluation of these  equations showed no
                differences between the estimates at the 0.33 bar potential using either the percent sand and clay
                or the percent fines.  Better estimates for the WP were obtained when the percent sand and clay
                were used instead of the percent fines. The differences between the estimated soil moisture at FC
                or WP varied less than 30 percent from the measured soil moisture values for 161 (90 percent) of
                the 179 soil samples. The differences between the estimated and the measured soil moisture
                values were not significant at the 95 percent level of confidence.

                The regression equations provide a method by which the potential percent soil water held at the
                FC or WP can be estimated from soil textural data.  The accuracy and precision of the results of
                applying these equations to soils of other areas has not been determined. It would seem,
                however, that they would be applicable in those instances where only general working estimates
                are needed.

35.     Shamsai, A. andN. Sitar. Method for Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity in Unsaturated Porous
        Media. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 117(l):64-78 (1991).

                A new procedure for in situ determination of saturated hydraulic conductivity of an initially
                unsaturated soil is proposed.  The procedure is based on the measurement of the rise of a ground-
                water mound in an initially unsaturated zone above an impervious layer receiving uniform
                recharge from an infiltrometer. In this paper analytical solutions of equations describing the
                growth of a groundwater mound above an impervious layer are compared  with laboratory and
                field experiments to  demonstrate the applicability of the method to the determination of saturated
                hydraulic conductivity of soils in shallow subsurface.

36.     Springer, E.P. and T.W.  Cundy. Field-Scale Evaluation of Infiltration Parameters from Soil Texture for
        Hydrologic Analysis.   Water Resources Research, 23(2):325-334 (1987).

                Recent interest in predicting soil hydraulic properties from  simple physical properties such as
                texture has major implications in the parameterization of physically based models of surface
                runoff. This study was undertaken to (1) compare, on a field scale, soil hydraulic parameters
                predicted from texture to those derived from field measurements and (2) compare simulated


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                overland flow response using these two parameter sets. The parameters for the Green-Ampt
                infiltration equation were obtained from field measurements and using texture-based predictors
                for two agricultural fields, which were mapped as single soil units. Results of the analyses were
                that (1) the mean and variance of the field-based parameters were not preserved by the texture-
                based estimates, (2) spatial and cross correlations between parameters were induced by the
                texture-based estimation procedures, (3) the overland flow simulations using texture-based
                parameters were significantly different than those from field-based parameters, and (4)
                simulations using field-measured hydraulic conductivities and texture-based storage parameters
                were very close to simulations using only field-based parameters.

37.      Stolte, J., et al.  Comparison of Six Methods to Determine Unsaturated Soil Hydraulic Conductivity. Soil
        Sci. Soc. Am. J., 58:1596-1603 (1995).

                Knowledge of soil hydraulic properties is required for soil-water flow models. Although many
                studies of individual methods exist, comparisons of methods are uncommon. Therefore, we
                compared application ranges and results for six laboratory methods for determining hydraulic
                conductivity or diffusivity on eolian sand, eolian silt loam, marine sandy loam, and fluviatile silt
                loam. The methods, hot air, sorptivity, crust, drip infiltrometer, Wind's evaporation, and one-
                step outflow, fall into three groups: (i) those that only yield a conductivity curve; (ii) those that
                yield a simultaneous estimate of conductivity, diffusivity, water content, and pressure head; and
                (iii) those that yield a diffusivity curve. Diffusivities were converted to conductivities with a water
                retention curve. One main difference between the methods was the pressure head-water content
                range.  Despite the large differences between the methods, the results for the first two groups
                tended to be similar.  The results of the third group did not match well with those of the first two.
                It proved difficult to compare these methods correctly due to hysteresis.

38.      Tseng, P.-H. and W.A. Jury.  Simulation of Field Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity in Unsaturated
        Heterogeneous Soil.  Water Resources Research, 29(7):2087-2099  (1993).

                In this study the procedures used in common methods for field measurement of unsaturated
                hydraulic conductivity in heterogeneous soil were simulated through numerical experiments. It
                was assumed that the heterogeneity of the field soil can be described by a scaling factor 8 which
                is treated as  a lognormally distributed second-order stationary random variable in space. After
                the hypothetical random field was generated using  property variability and correlation length
                scales typical of those observed in field measurements it was used to test various field
                measurement methods currently in practice. One detailed and three simplified unsteady drainage
                flux methods were used to estimate the hydraulic conductivity under plausible field measurement
                conditions. In addition the soil water retention data were used to predict hydraulic  conductivity
                from a pore-size distribution model.  It was found that even under the assumption that there were
                no reading or instrument errors other sources of errors can still be created due to the limitations
                of the observation techniques. These error sources include limited number of readings in space
                and time separation distances between the readings of water content and pressure head and
                volume-averaged readings rather than point estimates with common instrumentation. Under the
                conditions studied in the simulations the detailed method of estimation produced reasonable
                estimates of hydraulic conductivity, but only when very dense measurements of water content and
                matric potential were used in the estimation. None of the approximate methods yielded accurate
                measurements of the true hydraulic conductivity  of the field region measured.

39.      Valiantzas, J.D.  Analysis of Outflow Experiments Subject to Significant Plate Impedance.  Water
        Resources Research,  26(12):2921-2929 (1990).
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                A new method is developed for the determination of the diffusivity-water content relationship
                from pressure-outflow experiments when the impedance of the supporting porous plate has to be
                taken into account. The classic one-step outflow procedure for the determination of soil water
                diffusivity does not use the early linear part of the outflow versus the square root of time, t, curve,
                where the effect of plate impedance is not negligible.  The present method can be applied also to
                the linear part of the outflow curve which is considerably extended when the effect of the plate
                impedance is significant. The suggested procedure requires additional information, namely, the
                retention curve and the plate impedance value.  The method was tested by simulating outflow
                experiments with significant plate impedance and using data obtained to calculate diffusivities, as
                well as by analyzing experimental outflow data for a real soil.

40.     van Genuchten, M.T., F.J. Leij, and S.R. Yates. The RETC Code for Quantifying the Hydraulic Functions
        of Unsaturated Soils.  U.S.  EPA, Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, EPA/600/S2-91/065
        (1991).

                This summary describes the RETC computer code for analyzing the soil water retention and
                hydraulic conductivity functions of unsaturated soils.  These hydraulic properties are key
                parameters in any quantitative description of water flow into and through the unsaturated zone of
                soils.  The program uses the parametric models of Brooks-Corey  and van Genuchten to represent
                the soil water retention curve, and the theoretical pore-size distribution models of Mualem and
                Burdine to predict the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function from observed soil water
                retention data.  Some of the analytical expressions used for quantifying the soil water retention
                and hydraulic conductivity  functions  are presented. A brief review is also given of the nonlinear
                least-squares parameter optimization method used for estimating the unknown coefficients in the
                hydraulic models.  The program may be  used to predict the hydraulic conductivity from observed
                soil water retention data assuming that an estimate of the saturated hydraulic conductivity is
                available. The program also permits  one to fit analytical functions simultaneously to observed
                water retention and hydraulic conductivity  data, or to predict the hydraulic curves from specified
                model parameters if no retention and conductivity data are available. The actual report,
                summarized here,  serves as both a user manual and reference document.

                This Project Summary was developed by EPA's Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research
                Laboratory, Ada, OK, to announce key findings of the research project that is fully  documented
                in a separate report of the same title.

41.     Vereecken, H., J. Maes, and J. Feyen. Estimating Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity from Easily
        Measured Soil Properties. Soil Science, 149(1): 1-12 (1990).

                We measured hydraulic conductivity  (saturated and unsaturated) on 127 soil cores, which were
                taken in different horizons of a wide variety of Belgian soil series. The hot air method (Arya et
                al. 1975) and the crust method (Bouma et al. 1983) were combined to obtain the complete range
                of hydraulic conductivity from saturation to air-dry.

                The textural composition in nine fractions, the organic carbon content, and the dry bulk density
                were determined for each of the sample horizons as well. Four different empirical models were
                evaluated on their performance in describing the measured hydraulic conductivity curves.  The
                model parameters were estimated by  linear and nonlinear regression techniques. It is concluded
                that the Gardner equation (1958) with three parameters best described the hydraulic conductivity
                for the given soils.
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                Regression equations for estimating the Gardner parameters were established from simple soil
                properties, such as soil texture, carbon content, bulk density, and saturated hydraulic
                conductivity.  We found that the three parameters can reasonably well be estimated from the
                textural composition and the saturated hydraulic conductivity.  A one-dimensional sensitivity
                analysis indicates that the n parameter, representing the slope of the hydraulic conductivity
                pressure head relation in log-log scale, is most sensitive.

42.     Warrick, A.W.  Soil Water Diffusivitv Estimates from One-Dimensional Absorption Experiments.  Soil
        Sci. Soc. Am. J., 58:72-77 (1992).

                A method to estimate soil water diffusivity from experimental absorption data was explored.  The
                purpose was to directly match measured sorption curves (water content vs. distance or the
                Boltzmann transform variable) to scaled forms of the solutions and thus provide consistent
                hydraulic properties.  Evaluation of such parameters is critical to prediction of water and solute
                transport within the vadose zone.  The method is relevant to several, if not most, of the
                commonly used hydraulic functional relationships.  Generally,  the results gave two independent
                relationships of the parameters.  An example was considered and calculations performed for
                three alternative models. The best choice of each model was easily found and the  evaluated
                parameters were shown to be consistent. The soil water diffusivities were compared for the
                estimated parametric  relationships. Individual models provide alternative shapes for the
                diffusivity function, but tend to converge for the wetter range of water contents.

43.     Weaver, J.W., et al.  Evaluating Parameter Estimation Techniques Applied in Vadose Zone Modeling. In:
        First International Ground Water Modeling Conference, Golden, CO (1993).

                The paper discusses vadose zone parameter estimation techniques that may be used in lieu of
                measured parameter values. In particular, two different data bases that provide generic
                parameter estimates are  reviewed. The effects of parameter variability on vadose zone NAPL
                flow are illustrated through usage of the Kinematic Oily Pollutant Transport (KOPT) model.  The
                model simulated a laboratory experiment where gasoline was released into a one-meter long
                chromatography column. The model input parameters were measured, and the position of the
                leading edge of the gasoline was recorded as a function of time from the experiment. Simulations
                that use measured or tabulated parameter sets were compared with the experimental data, which
                represents the correct response of the system to the gasoline input. To assess the impact of using
                tabulated parameters Monte Carlo simulations were performed using correlated parameter sets
                generated from the tabulations.  These results show that wide distributions of the parameters are
                required to capture likely variability in input parameter values.

44.     Zhang, R. and M.T. van Genuchten. New Models for Unsaturated Soil Hydraulic Properties.  Soil
        Science, 158(2):77-85 (1994).

                Two relatively simple models are proposed for describing the soil water retention curve. The
                expressions define sigmoidal or bimodal type retention functions with four or five parameters,
                respectively.  The sigmoidal retention model may be combined with predictive pore-size
                distribution theories to yield closed-form equations for the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity.
                Parameters in the proposed hydraulic functions were estimated from observed retention data
                using a nonlinear least-squares optimization process. The models were  tested on hydraulic data
                for  more than 20 soils. Good agreement between predicted values and measured retention and
                conductivity  data was found for most of the soils. The soil hydraulic models can be effectively
                utilized as inputs for numerical models of water flow and solute transport.
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