United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Washington, DC 20460
EPA/600/R-98/123
September 1998
www.epa.gov
&EPA
Pollution Prevention
Research Strategy
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On the cover: Two dimensional graphic of sustainable development emerging from the
pollution prevention (P2) egg. The graphic demonstrates the critical role that P2 plays in
advancing the concept of sustainable development. It builds upon the important message
delivered in Choosing a Sustainable Future: The Report of the National Commission on the
Environment (NCE, 1993) that "[technology for sustainable development must focus on
pollution prevention." The NCE message goes on to emphasize a total systems approach that
stresses prevention and minimization using materials and processes which are non-polluting,
and ultimately results in products that are recyclable. The graphic was conceived of by Ivars
Licis and refined by Teresa Marten and Jonathan Herrmann, all of the National Risk
Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL). It was drafted for the cover of the Pollution
Prevention Research Strategy by John McCready, also of NRMRL.
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EPA/600/R-98/123
September 1998
Pollution Prevention
Research Strategy
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
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Notice
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
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Foreword
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with
protecting the Nation's land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national
environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions
leading to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural
systems to support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA's Office of
Research and Development is providing data and technical support for solving
environmental problems today and building a science knowledge base necessary
to manage our ecological resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our
health, and prevent or reduce environmental risks in the future.
The 1996 Strategic Plan for the Office of Research and Development (ORD)
sets forth ORD's vision, mission, and long-term research goals. As part of this
strategic process, ORD used the risk paradigm to identify EPA's top research
priorities for the next several years. The ORD Strategic Plan thus serves as the
foundation for the research strategies and research plans that ORD has devel-
oped, or is in the process of developing, to identify and describe individual high-
priority research topics. One of these high priority research topics is pollution
prevention and new technologies for environmental protection.
This publication describes ORD's strategy for conducting a research and
development program in pollution prevention. The research strategy describes the
goals and strategic objectives that will be addressed over the coming five years.
The strategy is an important accountability tool because it makes clear the
rationale for, and the intended products of, EPA's pollution prevention research.
This research strategy is also an important budget tool, enabling EPA to clearly
track progress toward achieving its pollution prevention research goals, as re-
quired by the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act.
Lawrence W. Reiter, Ph.D.
Acting Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Science, ORD
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Peer Review
Peer review is an important component of research strategy development. The peer review history for this research
strategy is as follows:
Initial Internal Agency Review:
ORD Science Council:
Lead Reviewers:
Submitted for Comments
to the Committee on
Environment and Natural
Resources - Agency
Principals and Subcommittee
Chairs
External Peer Review:
Reviewers:
Calvin Chien, Chair
Edgar Berkey
Lois Epstein
Terry Foecke
Nina Bergan French
James Johnson, Jr.
Wayne Kachel
Richard Kimerle
Michael McFarland
Robert Pojasek
Rita Schenck
Coordinated by:
Kathleen Conway
Final Acceptance by ORD:
ORD Executive Lead:
January, 1997
Final clearance, February, 1997
Judy Graham, NERL
Hal Zenick, NHEERL
June,1997
June 30 - July 3, 1997: Cincinnati, OH
DUPONT Company
Concurrent Technologies Corporation
Environmental Defense Fund
Waste Reduction Institute
SKY+
Howard University
MELE Associates
Independent Consultant
Utah State University
Cambridge Environmental, Inc.
Eco Sense
EPA's Science Advisory Board,
Designated Federal Official
September, 1998
E. Timothy Oppelt, NRMRL
IV
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Table of Contents
Foreword iii
Peer Review iv
List of Figures/List of Tables vi
Acknowledgments vii
Acronyms viii
Executive Summary xi
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
Chapter 2. Strategic Rationale for the ORD Pollution Prevention
Research and Development Program 5
Chapter 3. ORD's Pollution Prevention Research and
Development Program 17
Chapter 4. Moving Forward to Implementation 25
References 29
Appendix I
EPA's Definition of Pollution Prevention (Habicht, 1992) 31
Appendix II
Pertinent Data on TRI Chemicals Extracted from the
Toxics Release Inventory (EPA, 1996b) 32
Appendix III
Potential Adverse Human Health and
Environmental Effects of the Top 25 TRI
Chemicals with the Largest Air/Water/Land
Releases, 1994 (EPA, 1996b) 33
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List of Figures
Figure 1. High Priority Human Health and Environmental Risks Identified
by the SAB (EPA, 1990a)
List of Tables
Table 1. The Economic Sectors that Contribute to the SAB's High-Priority
Human Health and Environmental Risks
Table 2. Summary of Pollution Prevention Research by Sector and Opportunities
forORD 10
Table 3. Pollution Prevention Resource Trends for the Next Five Years
(FY 1998-2002) 26
VI
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Acknowledgments
This research strategy was prepared with the help and assistance of a number
of ORD staff. Major contributors included:
James Bridges
Mary Ann Curran
Emma Lou George
Penelope Hansen
Jonathan Herrmann
Kelly Leovic
Steve Lingle
Charles Mann
Carlos Nunez
Glenn Shaul
Kenneth Stone
Heriberto Cabezas
Cynthia Gage
Teresa Marten
Deborah Hanlon
Michael Kosusko
Rose Lew
Ivars Licis
Douglas McKinney
Gregory Ondich
Subhas Sikdar
Roger Wilmoth
Valuable insights were garnered in conversations with Robert Pojasek of
Cambridge Environmental, Inc., Charles Ris of ORD's National Center for Environ-
mental Assessment, Kenneth Gigliello of EPA's Office of Enforcement and Com-
pliance Assurance, and Barbara Bush of the American Institute of Pollution
Prevention. Robert Lipnick of EPA's Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic
Substances provided numerous perspectives and thoughtful suggestions through-
out the course of research strategy preparation. Finally, many thanks are extended
to all those individuals in the Program Offices and Regions who graciously
provided input to guide the authors in preparation of the several generations of this
document.
VII
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Acronyms
ACS American Chemical Society
AMD Acid Mine Drainage
APPD Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Division
BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs
BMPs Best Management Practices
CEA Council of Economic Advisors
CENR Committee on Environment and Natural Resources
CFCs chlorofluorocarbons
CMAQ Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program
CPSC Consumer Product Safety Commission
CRDA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement
CSI Common Sense Initiative
DfE Design for the Environment
DOA Department of Agriculture
DOC-NIST Department of Commerce - National Institute of Science and Technology
DOD Department of Defense
DOE Department of Energy
DOI Department of the Interior
DOT Department of Transportation
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
ETV Environmental Technology Verification
FDA Food and Drug Administration
GHGs greenhouse gases
GPRA Government Performance and Results Act
GWP Global Warming Potential
HAPs hazardous air pollutants
MFCs hydrofluorocarbons
HFEs hydrofluoroethers
HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
1C integrated controls
ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act
LCA life cycle assessment
MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology
VIM
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MEPs Manufacturing Extension Partnerships
MAS National Academy of Sciences
NCE National Commission on the Environment
NEXTEA National Economic Crossroads Transportation Efficiency Act
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NRC National Research Council
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
NRMRL National Risk Management Research Laboratory
NSTC National Science and Technology Council
OAR Office of Air and Radiation
OECA Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
OPPTS Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
ORD Office of Research and Development
OSM Office of Surface Mining
OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy
OSWER Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OW Office of Water
P2 pollution prevention
PBTs persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals
PCSD President's Council on Sustainable Development
PERC perchloroethylene
PESP Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program
PPNT Pollution Prevention and New Technology
PPOAs Pollution Prevention Opportunity Assessments
SAB Science Advisory Board
SAN Sustainable Agriculture Network
SARE Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education
SBIR Small Business Innovative Research
SRRP Source Reduction Review Project
TEWI Total Equivalent Warming Impact
TRI Toxics Release Inventory
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USGS United States Geological Survey
USPS United States Postal Service
UV ultraviolet light
UV/TiO2 ultraviolet light/titanium dioxide
VOCs volatile organic compounds
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WRITE Waste Reduction Innovative Technology Evaluation
XL Environmental Excellence and Leadership
IX
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Executive Summary
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's)
Office of Research and Development (ORD) prepared a
strategic plan which includes two priority long-term goals
addressing prevention: to provide common sense and
cost-effective approaches for preventing and managing
risks, and to provide leadership and encourage others to
participate in identifying emerging environmental issues,
characterizing the risks associated with these issues,
and developing ways of preventing or reducing these
risks.
Based on these goals, ORD developed a Pollution Pre-
vention Research Strategy that elaborates on the direc-
tions in the strategic plan and provides a framework to
guide investments in pollution prevention research and
development over the next five years. The strategy
contains four chapters: Chapter 1 sets the context;
Chapter 2 outlines a strategic pollution prevention ratio-
nale; Chapter 3 describes four long-term goals and
accompanying strategic objectives to be addressed and
includes activities to be pursued as part of the research
strategy; and Chapter 4 describes the implementation
approach for the goals and objectives presented in
Chapter 3. This executive summary is a capsule of the
full document.
Context
Historically and currently, ORD has used EPA's defini-
tion of pollution prevention as "source reduction." In a
broader sense, the National Commission on the Envi-
ronment (NCE) offers a description of environmental
sustainability that includes pollution prevention. The EPA
definition and the NCE description were both central to
the development of this research strategy. They pro-
vided the context from which ORD developed its strate-
gic rationale for the research and development program
that is outlined below.
ORD's pollution prevention activities in the early years
focused on developing and evaluating technologies pri-
marily through extramural funding of contracts, Coop-
erative Agreements, and Interagency Agreements. Once
pollution prevention was established as an ORD pro-
gram in 1988, this extramural focus began slowly shift-
ing toward an in-house program devoted to research on
tools, methodologies, and technologies. This shift has
accelerated in the 1990s with ORD's strategic move to
an expanded in-house research program to transform
the labs into research institutions. The push to in-house
research has enabled ORD to focus on a smaller set of
high priority activities where ORD scientists and engi-
neers can make a significant contribution based on their
unique knowledge, expertise, and capabilities. This has
been complemented with a competitive extramural grant
program to address cutting edge process and synthesis
research as well as research on socio-economic issues.
As pollution prevention implementation has advanced in
the past ten years, many of the problems most easily
addressed by using a preventative approach have been
solved. The practice of pollution prevention is now at a
crossroads. Although progress in pollution prevention
over the next ten years may not proceed as rapidly as in
the past ten, the results can be even more significant,
both in terms of research and development, and imple-
mentation.
Since these next advances will represent more funda-
mental changes in individual lifestyle, industrial process
design, consumer products, and land use, future re-
search and development must focus on quantum leaps
instead of incremental improvements. These advances
will not be achieved without a commitment by the public
and private sectors to support long-term research that
can, if carefully planned, produce the needed technolo-
gies and tools that take pollution prevention to the next
level.
Strategic Rationale
ORD's pollution prevention research strategy has been
guided by a number of influential "voices" among
them, the National Academy of Sciences, the Commit-
tee on Environment and Natural Resources, the Na-
tional Research Council, the President's Council on
Sustainable Development, and the American Chemical
Society. ORD also used the Science Advisory Board's
past contributions to the pollution prevention dialogue
with the Agency to further focus its research strategy.
After considering guidance from the above organiza-
tions and narrowing the scope of the potential program
to a subset of environmental problems and types of
research and development where the Agency can play a
meaningful role, ORD investigated which issues were
considered a high priority by EPA's Program Offices and
Regions. The following themes emerged:
Life cycle assessment and costing research to pro-
vide the scientific basis for comparing alternative
risk management approaches
Techniques to measure pollution prevention effec-
tiveness and verify the performance of pollution
prevention technologies
Pollution prevention approaches for the agricultural
sector
Pollution prevention approaches to reduce green-
house gases, including alternative energy (renew-
able) sources
Pollution prevention approaches for targeted indus-
tries (In most cases, these were aligned with spe-
cific regulatory programs or Agency initiatives.)
XI
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Many of these themes are reflected in the final research
strategy. In addition to the outcome of consultations with
EPA Programs, ORD determined that five priority setting
criteria will drive choices in research emphasis. Re-
search priorities need to: 1) address high risk human
health or environmental problems; 2) respond to the
needs of stakeholders; 3) fill important research and
development gaps not being addressed by others; 4)
leverage resources with other organizations; and 5)
provide potentially effective research. The cumulative
process led to the choice of the four goals and the
associated strategic directions and priorities.
Goals and Program Emphases
Goal I: Deliver tools and methodologies that can be
applied across all economic sectors: agriculture, manu-
facturing, transportation, energy, consumer products,
mining, construction, and municipal.
ORD will develop, test, and provide tools and method-
ologies which improve individual and organizational de-
cision making, to reduce or eliminate emissions, efflu-
ents, and wastes from products, processes, and activi-
ties.
Objective: Develop and test user-friendly tools and
methodologies for improved decision making.
Research and Development Activities
New Activity Integrate risk assessment and risk man-
agement tools and methodologies:
Linking risk assessment and pollution prevention
tools
Increased Emphasis Improve and develop generic
tools and methodologies:
Improving environmental engineering economics and
cost tools
Improving the utility of life cycle assessments (LCAs),
including development of P2 measurement methods
Developing process simulation tools
Developing impact assessment tools
Continued Emphasis Improve and develop targeted
tools and methodologies:
Providing decision support tools for municipal solid
waste
Developing improved selection tools for surface treat-
ment
Goal II: Develop and transfer technologies and ap-
proaches that can be applied across economic sectors,
but are primarily focused on the manufacturing and
consumer products sectors.
ORD will develop, test and transfer pollution prevention
technologies and approaches that are applicable across
economic sectors, and evaluate products, technologies
and approaches that are targeted at preventing high-
priority human health and environmental problems in
support of the Agency's regulatory and compliance pro-
grams.
Objective A: Research, design, and assess novel and
advanced environmentally benign approaches for indus-
trial processing and manufacturing.
Research and Development Activities
Continued emphasis Investigate chemistry for pollu-
tion prevention:
Supporting fundamental engineering research in
addressing green chemistry
Developing and testing improved synthesis path-
ways
Continued emphasis Investigate engineering for pol-
lution prevention:
Supporting pre-competitive engineering research
Developing separations for metals recycling/recov-
ery
Developing membranes for organic recycling/recov-
ery
Continued emphasis Develop process feedback tech-
niques for pollution prevention:
Developing intelligent controls for process opera-
tions
Objective B: Develop and test technologies and ap-
proaches targeted at specific environmental problems.
Research and Development Activities
Continued Emphasis Address problems associated
with global warming to reduce Total Equivalent Warming
Impact (TEWI):
Investigating TEWI alternatives
Continued Emphasis Address problems associated
with VOCs and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) by
improving coating and cleaning operations:
Developing new and innovative coating and clean-
ing chemistries and equipment
Adapting environmentally friendly coating and clean-
ing chemistries and equipment
XII
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Increased Emphasis Address problems associated
with products used indoors:
Developing test methodologies and models
Supporting research on low-emitting materials and
technologies
Objective C: Demonstrate and evaluate pollution pre-
vention in support of Agency and Program Office priori-
ties.
Research and Development Activities
Continued Emphasis Address problems associated
with medium- and small-sized industries that pose high
risks:
Working in the metal finishing sector
Working in the printing sector
Working in the computer and electronics sector
Working in the auto refinishing sector
Working in the dry-cleaning sector
Continued Emphasis Support Agency rule makings
and initiatives that encourage pollution prevention:
Partnering with Program Offices
Goal III: Verify the performance of selected cleaner
products, technologies, and approaches, focusing ini-
tially on the manufacturing, consumer products and
municipal sectors.
As part of its Environmental Technology Verification
(ETV) Program, ORD will serve as a catalyzing organi-
zation to propel into the marketplace the most promising
commercial-ready pollution prevention products and tech-
nologies from both the public and private sectors.
Objective: Build a high-quality and efficient program to
verify the performance characteristics of pollution pre-
vention products and technologies.
Research and Development Activities
Continued Emphasis Verify commercial-ready prod-
ucts and technologies which substantially reduce or
eliminate air, water, and waste streams:
Hazardous Waste Pollution Prevention and Treat-
ment ETV Pilot
Industrial Coatings ETV Pilot
Metal Finishing ETV Pilot
Indoor Air ETV Pilot
Climate Change ETV Pilot
Air Pollution Prevention and Control ETV Pilot
Source Water Protection ETV Pilot
Goal IV: Conduct research which addresses the eco-
nomic, social, and behavioral aspects of pollution pre-
vention.
Through its extramural grants program, ORD will con-
tinue to sponsor economic, social, and behavioral re-
search to improve decision making and foster the adop-
tion of pollution prevention by the public and private
sectors at all levels.
Objective: Develop and integrate social science and
socioeconomic information and research products into
environmental decision making.
Research and Development Activities
Increased Emphasis Develop economic, social, and
behavioral tools to improve environmental policies and
programs:
Understanding organizational decisions related to
human health and environmental protection
Understanding the economic benefits of pollution
prevention policies and programs
Understanding the economic costs of pollution pre-
vention policies and programs
Developing relationships between economic growth
and environmental quality
Implementation
This research strategy provides the framework for imple-
menting a program for systematic research and devel-
opment activities to carry pollution prevention into the
21st Century and toward the realization of sustainable
development. The success of the program will be de-
pendent on a number of variables, not the least of which
is engagement and partnership with key stakeholders. It
is essential that ORD work more closely with those who
are directly involved in the implementation of pollution
prevention approaches or influential in advancing the
concept and routine consideration and use of preventive
risk management. This includes EPA's Program Offices
and the following stakeholders:
The industrial community. ORD will provide tools
and technologies for employing pollution prevention
in various economic sectors as an option for cost-
effectively improving compliance and going "beyond
compliance" where it makes sense economically
and environmentally.
XIII
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States, communities, and tribes. ORD will better
understand those situations at the community level
where pollution prevention might best be employed;
thereby raising the profile of pollution prevention as
a routine part of the Agency's approach to commu-
nity-based environmental decision making.
Federal organizations. ORD will identify what re-
search and development is needed to enhance the
use of pollution prevention at federal facilities. ORD
will also stress testing pollution prevention tools,
methodologies, technologies, and approaches at
government sites where they can be evaluated in
real-world settings.
The international community. ORD will exchange
information with the international community on pol-
lution prevention research and development and its
implementation, and will also provide perspectives
on what other countries are doing to advance pollu-
tion prevention in the broader context of sustainable
development.
ORD will use electronic technology (e.g., Internet home
pages, distance learning) to the maximum extent pos-
sible as a means of engagement with stakeholders. The
research products developed by ORD will be designed
to be available electronically, and ORD intends to be a
major provider of pollution prevention research and de-
velopment products via the Internet.
XIV
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Chapter 1. Introduction
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's)
Office of Research and Development (ORD) has pre-
pared a strategic plan which includes prevention as an
important theme (1996a; 1997a). Two of the strategic
plan's long-term goals specifically mention prevention
as a priority:
To provide common sense and cost-effective ap-
proaches for preventing and managing risks.
To provide leadership and encourage others to par-
ticipate in identifying emerging environmental is-
sues, characterizing the risks associated with these
issues, and developing ways of preventing or reduc-
ing these risks.
Based on the prominence of prevention in these two
goals, it will be an integral part of ORD's future research
program. The purpose of this document is to elaborate
on the pollution prevention strategic directions outlined
in the ORD strategic plan and to provide a framework
within which to guide investments in pollution prevention
research and development over the next five years.
What is Pollution Prevention?
The first step taken in developing this research strategy
was to determine the types of activities which should be
included in it. Generally, pollution prevention requires
changes in raw materials and processes which result in
reduced pollution (EPA, 1991). In this strategic plan,
ORD has made judgements on the scope of activities to
include based on its interpretation of EPA's working
definition of pollution prevention (Habicht, 1992) (See
Appendix I for the full definition):
Pollution prevention means "source reduction"
as defined under the Pollution Prevention Act,
and other practices that reduce or eliminate the
creation of pollutants through: (1) increased effi-
ciency in the use of raw materials, energy, water
or other resources, or (2) protection of natural
resources by conservation.
The Pollution Prevention Act defines "source
reduction" as any practice which: (1) reduces
the amount of any hazardous substance, pollut-
ant, or contaminant entering any waste stream
or otherwise released into the environment (in-
cluding fugitive emissions) prior to recycling,
treatment, or disposal; and (2) reduces the haz-
ards to public health and the environment with
the release of such substances, pollutants, or
contaminants.
Pollution prevention is national policy, embodied as
"source reduction," in the Pollution Prevention Act of
1990 (West Publishing Co., 1992), and EPA's Adminis-
trator has declared pollution prevention to be the "guid-
ing principle" of all EPA programs (EPA, 1993).
In a broader context, the National Commission on the
Environment (NCE) (1993) described the role of pollu-
tion prevention in sustainable development (i.e., meet-
ing the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs
[WCED, 1987]):
Technology for sustainable development must
focus on pollution prevention. This requires a
total systems approach that prevents pollutants
from being created in the first place or minimizes
undesirable wastes and obviates the need for
many controls. A preventive approach involves
using fewer or non-polluting materials, designing
processes that minimize pollutants or that direct
them to other useful purposes, and creating
recyclable products. The preventive/systems
approach requires examining the full life-cycle
of products and practices.
The NCE description integrates pollution prevention with
environmental sustainability and offers the greatest op-
portunity for pollution prevention research and develop-
ment in the future. A systems approach, where pollution
prevention plays a critical role, is especially helpful in
solving many of the remaining human health and envi-
ronmental problems resulting from dispersed sources
and individual activities. Both the EPA definition and the
NCE description are central to the development of this
research strategy.
The Evolution of ORD's Pollution
Prevention Program
ORD has conducted a variety of research and develop-
ment projects and programs over the last ten years that
are consistent with the EPA definition of pollution pre-
vention and the broader concept of sustainable develop-
ment described above. The following are examples of
research that have been conducted or are currently
sponsored that further the goals embodied in the EPA
definition and the NCE description:
CFC Alternatives: Following the Montreal
Protocol, under which the US agreed to reduce
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) use, ORD undertook
a research program to identify and evaluate
substitute chemicals. New chemicals were
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synthesized (e.g., hydrofluorocarbons [MFCs],
hydrofluoroethers [HFEs]) and measurements
were taken to establish thermodynamic and
thermophysical properties and to determine
flammability, toxicity, and material compatibility.
Performance in refrigeration and air conditioning
applications and as foam blowing and fire
extinguishing agents were also evaluated.
Similar activities were performed by industry for
other chemicals. This collaborative effort resulted
in a number of EPA and industry MFCs being
successfully used in new equipment.
Waste Reduction Innovative Technology
Evaluation (WRITE) Program: Over seven
years in the late 80s and early 90s, ORD, in
collaboration with six states and a county in
New York, evaluated a number of waste
minimization technologies to measure their
pollution prevention effectiveness and costs. The
targets were technologies for use by medium-
and small-sized companies (electronics, printing,
metal plating and finishing) and the evaluations
addressed a number of processes (e.g., coating,
painting, surface cleaning). Many of the
technologies reduced or eliminated waste
streams and resulted in cost savings. It was
also found that technology benefits (waste
minimization and cost) were largely application-
specific and that broad generalizations about
technology application could not be made.
LCA Advancement: Life cycle assessment
(LCA) principles provide an important conceptual
framework within which to evaluate pollution
prevention alternatives. ORD has been working
to improve LCA tools and methodologies over
the past five years and has undertaken a number
of specific assessments to advance the
understanding and application of life cycle
thinking. As just one example, ORD worked
with the lithographic printing industry to evaluate
solvent substitutes to reduce volatile emissions.
The findings of that effort revealed that a switch
to low-VOC solvents can increase energy use
and increase loading to air and water. The
switch, in effect, resulted in shifting environmental
burdens from the printers to elsewhere within
the production system. ORD has developed
LCA-oriented tools (e.g., P2 Factors
Methodology, P2 Progress Methodology) as a
means of advancing the cause of pollution
prevention more broadly within an LCA
framework.
Pollution Prevention Opportunity
Assessments (PPOAs): ORD pioneered the
development and application of PPOAs. PPOAs
are a comprehensive examination of the
operations at a facility with the goal of minimizing
all types of waste products. Options are identified
for the use of materials, processes, or practices
that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollution
or wastes at the source. Once a prevention
option is identified, it is evaluated for technical,
economic, and environmental feasibility. This
analysis is not directly related to compliance
standards, but by eliminating or reducing the
sources of pollutants, the standards are
automatically met or at least the compliance
burden is reduced. Numerous PPOAs have
been developed over the past ten years (e.g.,
Fort Riley, Kansas; photo finishing facility; truck
assembly plant) and these assessments have
been widely adopted by the federal sector (e.g.,
DOE, DOD, USPS) for use at government
facilities.
Source Reduction Review Project (SRRP)
Support: Over the past five years, ORD has
supported the Agency's efforts at multimedia
rule making under SRRP. SRRP is an effort to
review Agency regulations during their earliest
stages of development so that source reduction
measures and multimedia issues are considered.
SRRP encourages source reduction over add-
on control technologies as the preferred
approach to achieving environmental
compliance. ORD has worked with the Office of
Water (OW) to evaluate alternatives to chlorine
bleaching in the pulp and paper industry and
with the Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) to
evaluate alternatives in reinforced plastics
composite manufacturing, printing and publishing
and wood furniture manufacturing.
Reducing Solvent and Propellant Emissions
from Consumer Products: In some cases, an
appropriate risk management strategy for
reducing exposure to indoor air pollutants may
be to develop a generic technology that will
facilitate private sector development of low-
emitting materials. A successful example of this
is the development and evaluation of a new
spray dispenser at Purdue University that was
supported under an EPA Cooperative
Agreement. The new design allows
manufacturers to reformulate certain aerosol
consumer products using air and water in
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place of solvents and hydrocarbon propellants
while still maintaining acceptable product
characteristics. Dispenser design guidelines
will be available for use by small and large
manufacturers worldwide.
In the early years, many of ORD's research and devel-
opment activities focused on creating guidance docu-
ments and tools that other government agencies and the
private sector could use to identify pollution prevention
opportunities (e.g., PPOAs, LCA Advancement), and on
conducting evaluations of pollution prevention technolo-
gies through agreements with outside contractors or
cooperators (e.g., WRITE Program, SRRP). A small
percentage of the pollution prevention research program
in the 1980s was focused on in-house research (e.g.,
CFC Alternatives). During this time, funding for pollution
prevention research and development was provided
from many dispersed sources and had to compete against
all other important ORD research within a specific pro-
gram area. Pollution prevention was formally estab-
lished as a program within ORD in 1988 and received
increased attention across the Agency (EPA, 1990b,
EPA, 1992b). In the early to middle 1990s, ORD's
pollution prevention research and development program
primarily supported numerous EPA initiatives (e.g., 33/
50 Program, SRRP, Common Sense Initiative) estab-
lished to promote pollution prevention as the preferred
approach for human health and environmental protec-
tion.
For the past several years, the ORD pollution prevention
program has undergone a transition from an extramural
program that promoted pollution prevention using broad-
based technical assistance and information transfer to a
more targeted in-house program complemented by a
closely related extramural program. The new program
is devoted to scientific and technical research on pollu-
tion prevention tools, methodologies, technologies, and
approaches. While this reorientation has not been seam-
less, it is well underway and will continue into the
foreseeable future.
Concomitant with a shift to an in-house research and
development program, resource allocations have been
strategically targeted to support post-doctoral research-
ers, master's-degree assistants, technicians, and ana-
lytical services to build the in-house capabilities of ORD
scientists and engineers. ORD has used this shift as an
opportunity to reevaluate its pollution prevention re-
search and development priorities and to focus on a
smaller set of high-priority activities where it can make a
significant contribution based on its unique expertise
and capabilities. At the same time, ORD has initiated a
competitive extramural grants program that looks to
expertise outside of ORD's laboratories, particularly in
academia, for capabilities not resident within ORD. ORD
also provides funding to support development of pollu-
tion prevention technologies through the Congression-
ally-mandated Small Business Innovative Research
(SBIR) Program.
Where is ORD's Pollution Prevention
Research and Development Program
Going?
Pollution prevention continues to offer great opportunity
for gains in human health and environmental quality,
both in terms of research and development and in its
application throughout all economic sectors. ORD be-
lieves that pollution prevention progress in the next ten
years must proceed more rapidly than in the past ten
and that this progress must be even more powerful in
moving the global economy towards sustainability. The
next wave of pollution prevention can provide economic
and environmental benefits in a host of situations. Since
these advances will represent nothing less than funda-
mental changes in individual lifestyle, industrial process
design (e.g., clean technologies), consumer products
(e.g., benign chemicals), and land use, future research
and development must focus on quantum leaps instead
of incremental improvements. ORD will only be able to
contribute meaningfully to this future direction if it con-
centrates on longer-term research which will produce a
new generation of tools and technologies to move pollu-
tion prevention beyond the "low hanging fruit." These
advances will not be achieved without a commitment by
both the public and private sectors to support long-term
research programs which can, if carefully planned, pro-
duce the technologies and tools that are needed.
Structure of this Research Strategy
This research strategy, while oriented toward the classic
Agency definition of pollution prevention, recognizes
that over the longer term, pollution prevention should be
viewed in the context of sustainable development, and
must move in the direction of addressing the highest
priority human health and environmental problems. It is
divided into four chapters with Chapter 1 (this chapter)
setting the scene and arguing for a broad view of
pollution prevention research and development. Chap-
ter 2 presents an analysis of the pollution prevention
research and development situation and provides sum-
mary results of an ORD review of what pollution preven-
tion research activities are being carried out by various
organizations, primarily those activities that are govern-
ment supported. Criteria for judging which programs to
undertake are also provided. Chapter 3 describes four
goals and accompanying objectives that will be ad-
dressed by ORD; this chapter includes the research and
development activities and project areas that will be
pursued as part of this research strategy. Finally, Chap-
ter 4 describes, in general terms, the allocation of re-
sources and emphases over the coming five years for
the four goals and associated objectives presented in
Chapter 3.
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Chapter 2. Strategic Rationale for the ORD Pollution
Prevention Research and Development Program
One of the great strengths of pollution prevention is that
it has a place in addressing most all pollution problems.
With very few exceptions, notably remediation actions,
environmental problems have a pollution prevention so-
lution, even if it is as simple as stopping the activity that
creates the waste. This wide-ranging quality is what
makes the prevention ethic and its implementation so
important, creating an imperative for ORD prevention
research. Ironically though, this strength becomes prob-
lematic when a research strategy must be developed.
The breadth of pollution prevention and the possibilities
for the research and development needed pose a signifi-
cant challenge. The question is: Which problems should
ORD focus on? ORD, as is true with any research
organization, can conduct only a limited number of
research and development activities; financial and re-
source limitations require this. Chapter 2 of the research
strategy explains the rationale used by ORD to select
priority areas for the next five years.
Why is Pollution Prevention An Important
Future Research Priority?
While significant advances have been made, many gaps
in knowledge still impede the widespread adoption of
preventive risk management. Pollution prevention re-
search and development is a relatively new field of
endeavor when compared to other areas such as re-
search and development of end-of-the-pipe control tech-
nologies. Pollution prevention research and develop-
ment has largely focused on the industrial sector of the
economy. Numerous authors (Freeman, et. al., 1992;
Freeman, 1995; INFORM, 1995; Pelley, 1997) stress
the important role that pollution prevention plays in
reducing toxic releases and exposure to chemicals in
wastes. According to the 1995 Toxics Release Inventory
(TRI) (EPA, 1996b) billions of pounds of chemicals were
released, transferred, or disposed of in wastes from
industrial facilities that year (Appendix II). Because TRI
reporting requirements are expanding, reported releases
will grow in the coming years (Federal Register, 1996).
The TRI has been effective in the past in alerting compa-
nies and communities about toxic chemical releases
and has also provided a strong impetus for companies
to reduce releases. With the expansion of TRI reporting
there is an increased opportunity for pollution prevention
to play a role in reducing newly reported releases.
Protecting human health and the environment into the
21st century must stress the prevention of pollution
before it occurs, and should realistically look beyond the
TRI-listed chemicals for ways to contribute to reducing
human health and environmental risks. Ehrenfeld and
Howard (1996) make the point that a number of Ameri-
can industries have already recognized the need to
address environmental protection in a more holistic and
systematic manner by emphasizing design for the envi-
ronment (DfE) and industrial ecology. Hart (1997) identi-
fies pollution prevention as the first step (Stage One)
that most companies take when moving away from
pollution control. Stage Two is product stewardship (e.g.,
DfE, life cycle assessment). Stage Three is clean tech-
nology where fundamental shifts in both products and
processes are designed and implemented a stage
that may require several decades before being broadly
accepted and practiced. In addition, EPA has promoted
the use of approaches which go "beyond compliance"
and end-of-pipe treatment to achieve environmental im-
provement. These approaches include implementation
of creative voluntary initiatives such as the Common
Sense Initiative and Project XL (Environmental Excel-
lence in Leadership). The Agency has recognized that
the command and control approach will most likely be
inadequate to achieve necessary environmental gains
and improvements in risk management. Pollution pre-
vention approaches will be critical to achieving sustain-
able development.
Guidance on Pollution Prevention
Research Priorities from External
Organizations
An important consideration in designing this research
strategy was the determination of where ORD could
make the most significant contributions to the field. The
first factor considered was the role of federal research
and development in addressing issues of national con-
cern. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS, et.al.
1995) provided its perspective on this issue when it
stressed that resources invested by the federal govern-
ment in science and technology help build the base of
scientific and technical knowledge and expertise used
by both government and industry. This knowledge and
expertise is then used to address important national
goals (e.g., national defense, space exploration, eco-
nomic growth, and protection of public health and the
environment). The National Science and Technology
Council (1994) supported a similar perspective when it
identified the important role the federal government
plays in funding basic and applied research and devel-
opment keyed to future generations of environmental
technologies. This latter report also stressed the role
that the federal government can play in facilitating pri-
vate sector investment by reducing the uncertainties
caused by regulatory, verification, and permitting pro-
cesses.
Based on these broad national level perspectives, ORD
has concluded that there is a need for federal research
to facilitate the development and acceptance of new
products, processes, or management practices which
pose less of a hazard to human health and the environ-
-------
ment. The ultimate goal is to ensure that adequate
research and development has been conducted which
will provide the information and data required to design
new products and processes that are inherently less
polluting. ORD is in a unique position to focus federal
pollution prevention investments because: (1) it is the
only federal research organization with the broad mis-
sion to ensure that the pollution prevention adopted
provides maximum human health and environmental
protection, and (2) it has direct links to the regulatory
and compliance offices of EPA to ensure that pollution
prevention research and development activities are fo-
cused on the nation's highest priority human health and
environmental problems.
Pollution Prevention in Strategic Plans and
National Strategies
In the past three years, a number of committees, coun-
cils, academies, and EPA have offered their opinions on
strategic directions for environmental protection (EPA,
1994; CENR, 1995; PCSD, 1996; ACS, 1996; NRC,
1996). There is a mix of pollution prevention priorities in
these directions. Clearly, EPA's five-year strategic plan
views pollution prevention as an overarching means of
accomplishing a number of environmental goals, from
improving air quality to promoting worker safety. Strate-
gies of the Committee on Environment and Natural
Resources (CENR), the American Chemical Society
(ACS), and the National Research Council (NRC) stress
technological solutions via cleaner chemicals, clean tech-
nology, environmentally preferable products, prevention
technologies and practices, industrial ecology, chemi-
cal-specific separations, and catalytic systems. The
President's Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD)
and the NRC strategies also support the development of
improved analytical tools including cost/benefit analysis
associated with risk assessment. Both of these strate-
gies address the need for economic, social, and behav-
ioral research that advances the concept of sustainable
development.
review of a draft of the Pollution Prevention Research
Plan: Report to Congress (EPA, 1990b). The second
commentary (EPA, 1992a) was prepared as part of the
SAB's review of a draft of the Pollution Prevention
Research Program (EPA, 1992b). The SAB stressed the
need for social science research (non-technological) in
both of its commentaries, as well as the need for a
means of measuring the progress of pollution preven-
tion. The need to address non-industrial pollution pre-
vention was raised with respect to mining and agricul-
tural practices, with a particular concern regarding pesti-
cides. There was also a call for increased coordination
with other organizations to advance pollution prevention
and to facilitate communication and technology transfer.
Finally, there were calls for product research, environ-
mental professional training, anticipatory research on
future environmental problems, and consistency in pri-
oritizing research activities. These commentaries and
the relative ranking of environmental problems influ-
enced the priorities detailed later in this document.
A third report from the SAB commented on a May,1997
draft of this pollution prevention research strategy. The
SAB's report of June 24, 1998 (EPA, 1998a) on the draft
strategy recommended making the process of develop-
ing the strategy more transparent. The SAB also recom-
mended more involvement of external organizations in
the process. Generally, the SAB did not take issue with
the proposed topical areas of research and the goals
identified in the original draft of this strategy. In this final
version of the strategy, ORD has attempted to revise the
document in accordance with the SAB's recommenda-
tions.
The draft version was also circulated to the interagency
Committee on Environment and Natural Resources
(CENR) and the White House Office of Science and
Technology Policy (OSTP) for review and comment.
Reviewers were asked to comment on the significance
of the environmental problems discussed, the merit of
the approach, the complementarity to research pro-
grams and priorities in other agencies, and opportunities
Pollution Prevention and the Science Advisory
Board
Over the years, the EPA's Science Advisory Board
(SAB) has provided guidance on the relative risks of
environmental problems. ORD has reviewed its most
recent report on this topic (EPA, 1990a) to further focus
its proposed strategy on the most important environ-
mental problems. Figure 1 lists these high-priority prob-
lem areas. In addition to studies which rank the relative
importance of environmental problems, the SAB has
also provided commentaries on past Agency pollution
prevention reports and strategies and on a draft version
of the present strategy. These commentaries provided
insights on what the SAB considered to be important
pollution prevention research and development activi-
ties, and identified the highest priority environmental
problems that EPA should emphasize. The first com-
mentary (EPA, 1989) was prepared as part of the SAB's
High-Priority Human Health Risks
Ambient Air Pollutants
Worker Exposure to Chemicals in Industry
and Agriculture
Indoor Air Pollution
Pollutants in Drinking Water
High-Priority Risks to Natural Ecology and
Human Welfare
Habitat Alteration and Destruction
Species Extinction and Overall Loss of
Biological Diversity
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Global Climate Change
Figure 1. High Priority Human Health and Environmental
Risks Identified by the SAB (EPA, 1990a).
-------
for collaboration with other agencies. Comments re-
ceived were similar to the SAB's in that technical areas
identified as priorities by ORD were generally supported.
Several agencies, particularly the United States Geo-
logical Survey, were helpful in identifying collaborative
projects. Comments resulting from the review process
have been addressed in this final strategy document.
Guidance on Pollution Prevention
Research Priorities from Internal
Organizations
After carefully considering the guidance from outside
organizations, the scope of the potential pollution pre-
vention program which ORD plans to conduct was nar-
rowed to a subset of environmental problems and types
of research and development where the federal govern-
ment can play the most effective and significant role (i.e.
broadly applicable tools and methodologies, generic
and enabling technologies and approaches). The next
step was to investigate which of these problem areas or
types of research were considered a high priority by
other organizations within EPA. ORD conducted a sur-
vey of selected staff in the Office of Prevention, Pesti-
cides and Toxic Substances (OPPTS), Office of Air and
Radiation (OAR), Office of Enforcement and Compli-
ance Assurance (OECA), Office of Policy, Planning and
Evaluation (OPPE), Office of Water (OW), Office of
Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER) and
the Regions. By engaging Program Offices and Re-
gions, ORD was able to sharpen its focus. The following
themes emerged from the survey:
ORD research should emphasize life cycle assess-
ment and costing research in order to provide the
scientific basis for comparing alternative risk man-
agement approaches.
Techniques to measure pollution prevention effec-
tiveness and verify the performance of pollution
prevention technologies are needed to assess the
environmental reductions which are being achieved.
Pollution prevention approaches are needed for the
agricultural sector to reduce releases into several
media.
Pollution prevention approaches to reduce green-
house gases, including alternative energy (renew-
able) sources are needed.
Pollution prevention approaches are needed for tar-
geted industries in the industrial sector. (In most
cases these were aligned with specific regulatory
programs or Agency initiatives.)
The Program Offices were very consistent in identifying
needs in several areas. First, there was a need to
develop and test tools and methods to measure the
performance of various pollution prevention approaches
and to verify pollution prevention technology perfor-
mance. Second, there was a clear desire for ORD to
work closely with the Program Offices in advancing
pollution prevention either voluntarily, or as part of a rule
making or compliance activity. In addition to targeting
industries, there was a call to address greenhouse gas
emissions and agriculture via pollution prevention re-
search, and to conduct research in partnership with
industry and other stakeholders.
Sector-Based Approach to Identifying
Environmental Problems
As a next step, a sector-based approach was used to
organize and evaluate recent research and develop-
ment activities already occurring for pollution preven-
tion. An economic sector can be defined as a grouping
of enterprises that produce similar goods and services.
Table 1 presents the EPA Science Advisory Board's
(EPA, 1990a) view of which economic sectors contribute
to each of the high-priority human health and environ-
mental risks. The sectors identified by the SAB were:
industrial, agricultural, consumer, energy, and transpor-
tation.
Criteria for Setting Pollution Prevention
Research and Development Priorities
Given that the SAB's assessment of high priority human
health and environmental risks still presents too large a
universe for an effective and feasible ORD pollution
prevention research program, ORD convened a group
of pollution prevention practitioners from within ORD
and selected EPA offices. This group represented two
divisions of ORD's National Risk Management Research
Laboratory.
One of the key outputs of this group was a list of criteria
by which ORD should judge potential areas of pollution
prevention research. After many iterations, and input
from others, including ORD management, the Office of
Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA), the
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (OPPTS) and
input provided by the SAB during review of the May,
1997 draft strategy, the following list of five criteria was
developed to select topical areas for the pollution pre-
vention research program. Each area chosen would
have to meet the three essential criteria in order to
become a priority. Meeting the remaining two criteria is
seen as added incentive.
Criteria for Choosing Topical Areas
Essential Criteria
1. Addresses High-Risk Human Health or Environ-
mental Problems - To develop research programs and
conduct projects targeted at high-risk human health and
environmental problems. This does not exclude a prob-
lem based solely on the lack of available data indicating
high risk.
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Table 1. The Economic Sectors that Contribute to the SAB's High-Priority Human Health and Environmental Risks.
The SAB's High
Priority Human Health
and Environmental
Risks (EPA, 1990a)
Contributing Economic Sectors
Industrial
Sector
Agricultural
Sector
Consumer
Sector
Energy
Sector
Transportation
Sector
Human Health Risks
Ambient Air
Pollutants
Worker Exposure to
Chemicals in
Industry and
Agriculture
Pollution Indoors
Pollutants in
Drinking Water
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
Environmental Risks
Habitat Alteration and
Destruction
Species Extinction and
Overall Loss of
Biological Diversity
Stratospheric Ozone
Depletion
Global Climate Change
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
Pollution
Prevention
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
2. Responds to the Needs of Stakeholders - To
conduct research and development activities that are
relevant to those with a stake in the pollution prevention
arena. For stakeholders within EPA, there are often very
specific research needs and short-term deadlines asso-
ciated with laws, regulations, policies and initiatives. In
addition, non-EPA stakeholders will increasingly help
set the pollution prevention agenda as the Agency moves
to a community-based approach for environmental pro-
tection.
3. Fills Important Research and Development Gaps
not being Addressed by Others - To avoid duplication
of pollution prevention research and development activi-
ties being conducted by others. This recognizes that
either for regulatory reasons, or because there are no
other champions, ORD will be the organization that
conducts a variety of pollution prevention research and
development activities.
Desirable Criteria
4. Leverages Resources with Other Organizations -
To extend resources and capabilities with others. This
recognizes that not all pollution prevention research and
development activities can, or will, be supported by the
various stakeholders.
5. Provides Potentially Effective Research - To re-
duce pollution and protect human health and the envi-
ronment. In many cases, effectiveness will be enhanced
by development of precompetitive technologies which
-------
have wide applicability that others can build upon or
tailor to meet specific technological problems.
of pollution prevention; rather it's just doing things bet-
ter.
Survey of Pollution Prevention Research
by Economic Sector and Opportunities for
ORD Contributions
While pollution prevention solutions are needed for all
problems identified by the SAB, ORD must understand
what pollution prevention research is already ongoing to
identify where ORD can play a value-added role re-
searching solutions. In response to Science Advisory
Board comments on the draft of this strategy (EPA,
1998a) ORD surveyed recent and current programs in
pollution prevention research for the major economic
sectors identified by the SAB as contributing to high-risk
human health and environmental problems. The pur-
pose of the survey was to identify recent and current
work for each sector and determine where ORD could
contribute. Research opportunities are identified in this
strategy based on survey results and the above criteria
for developing programmatic priorities: high-risk prob-
lem, stakeholder needs, research gaps, leveraging re-
sources, and providing potentially effective research.
The sectors surveyed paralleled the sectors identified by
the SAB as presenting high environmental risk. They
were: 1) industrial, the manufacturing and mining
subsectors, 2) agricultural, 3) consumer, 4) energy and
5) transportation. Although not discussed here, other
sectors were surveyed for their potential relevance to
EPA's pollution prevention strategy. These included the
municipal and construction sectors. The municipal sec-
tor is not discussed in detail below because the high-risk
problems from this sector will be ameliorated by imple-
menting pollution prevention in the other sectors. For
example, source water protection for public drinking
water supplies requires pollution prevention action for
pollution emanating from the manufacturing, agricultural
and transportation sectors. The construction sector was
also addressed in the full survey, but is not discussed
below. The primary problem from that sector is indoor air
and this topic is covered under the consumer products
sector.
The full reporting of the survey results of pollution pre-
vention research activities for all sectors is contained in
an internal ORD report "Pollution Prevention Research
Survey and Opportunity Assessment" (EPA-NRMRL,
1998). The findings of the full survey report are summa-
rized below and opportunities for ORD are presented in
Table 2. The survey results are heavily weighted to
research supported by the Federal government because
outputs from this research are usually in the public
domain and available on pollution prevention databases.
In contrast, private sector research is often kept confi-
dential and is not published. Clearly, companies, espe-
cially larger ones, are researching ways to improve
process and product efficiency and effectiveness that
have corollary reductions in waste generation. However,
the research is not necessarily being done in the name
The survey showed that pollution prevention research is
being supported by several Federal agencies and de-
partments, including Department of Energy (DOE), De-
partment of Defense (DOD), Department of Commerce-
National Institute of Standards and Technology (DOC-
NIST), Department of Transportation (DOT) and Depart-
ment of Agriculture (DOA). Generally, EPA's unique
mission compared to other agencies is that environmen-
tal protection, both human health and ecological, is the
primary motivator. For other agencies, other motivators
have primacy, leaving environmental protection as im-
portant, but secondary. An example is the DOE Indus-
tries of the Future Program in which industries are
selected because of their high energy use. The focus of
the research initiated under this program is energy
efficiency and since energy efficiency and material use
efficiency often go hand in hand, waste reduction and
pollution prevention research are included as goals for
the overall research programs developed for the tar-
geted industries. The following discussion summarizes
the important points made in the survey for each sector.
Industry Sector
Manufacturing Subsector
Survey Results. The major federal funders of pollution
prevention research for the manufacturing sector are
DOE, DOD, DOC-NIST, the National Science Founda-
tion (NSF), the EPA, and DOA. To summarize:
DOE's Office of Industrial Technology under the Indus-
tries of the Future program conducts pollution preven-
tion research related to the following industries: forest
products, steel, metalcasting, glass, chemicals, petro-
leum refining, aluminum, and agriculture. DOE's analy-
sis had shown that these industries are the most energy
intensive and the most polluting. Many of the research
objectives identified within industry-generated vision
statements and "roadmaps" can be classified as pollu-
tion prevention objectives. Databases for pollution pre-
vention projects also indicate that DOE has been active
in funding projects in other industries as well; these
include food, textiles, lumber and wood products, furni-
ture and fixtures, paper and allied products, printing,
rubber and plastics, primary metals, fabricated metals
and electrical and electronic equipment. Projects in cross-
cutting or "generic" technologies have also been funded:
separations, coatings, cleaning, recycle/recovery, pro-
cess engineering software tools and life cycle analysis
tools.
DOD's Strategic Environmental Research and Develop-
ment Program (SERDP) has supported the bulk of DOD's
pollution prevention research, and it has been dedicated
to avoiding environmental problems resulting from manu-
facture, deployment, and decommissioning of weapons
and military transportation equipment. The industry sec-
tors receiving attention and support from SERDP in-
9
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Table 2. Summary of Pollution Prevention (P2) Research by Sector and Opportunities for ORD.
Industrial-
Manufacturing
Subsector
Current Research: The major entities supporting P2 research in the manufacturing sector are DOE,
DOD, DOC-NIST and NSF. DOE has selected industries of interest in its Industries of the Future
Program. DOC-NIST budget amounts to some $135 million for Advanced Technology partnerships
which support work in developing advanced (usually incorporating P2 concepts) technologies of
immediate commercial interest. Much of DOD's P2 research is conducted through SERDP to support
P2 for weapon systems manufacturing and maintenance.
Potential ORD Role: EPA's P2 research should address high-risk problems, the solutions for which
have wide applicability. EPA's role is to partner with other established funded programs, both
governmental and non-governmental, and conduct P2 research for risk management and generic
tools and technologies that support manufacturing decision makers.
Industrial-
Mining
Subsector
Current Research: The major entity supporting P2 research in the mining sector is the Dept. of
Interior (DOI). Best Management Practices (BMP) for the industry stress more P2 activities.
Potential ORD Role: Possible role for ORD in research to support development of new effluent
guidelines if they are developed by Office of Water. Pollution Prevention Act requires that P2 be
considered in development of regulations.
Agriculture
Current Research: The most prominent entities supporting P2 research in the agriculture sector are
within the federal government with USDA taking the lead. Primary areas of interest covered by
USDA and other agencies are: reduction in pesticide and fertilizer use; conservation and soil
management; nutrient and non-point source P2; and others.
Potential ORD Role: ORD's role is to partner with USDA for technology transfer, developing and
demonstrating P2 decision-making tools and methods for determining environmental impacts, costs
and risks. In addition, the EPA's regulatory role in establishing upcoming nutrient loading (i.e.
nitrogen and phosphorus) numeric criteria for waterbody types suggests ORD involvement in
research for nutrient management and reduction; this research would be accomplished most
effectively in partnership with USDA.
Consumer
Current Research: The consumer sector is extensive and includes the entire distribution system of
goods and services. Government and industry are involved in P2 research which support decision
making at all levels for the design, production, consumption and disposition of goods and services.
Potential ORD Role: ORD's contribution for this sector should be to support the producers and
consumers of goods and services by developing and demonstrating test methods to evaluate
products for indoor air pollution potential. In addition, ORD can develop and test LCA tools and
methods, including streamlined tools and methods, in the design and manufacture of products.
Energy
Current Research: The DOE is the preeminent organization for research in the energy sector, and
some of its research activities are directed at P2. A variety of energy efficiency and conservation
research, as well as alternative energy research, is being performed at the National Laboratories.
Potential ORD Role: ORD activities are supporting overall DOE activities where ORD has the
environmental expertise, facilities and experience. Some examples of these areas include intelligent
controls for improving efficiency of motors, biomass conversion to fuel, and photovoltaics. ORD's
role should be to continue this support and offer P2 tools and technologies to systematically
approach energy issues which often overlap P2 issues.
Transportation
Current Research: Transportation P2 research is part of established programs with DOT, DOE, and
DOD.
Potential ORD Role: EPA's role in transportation P2 is the development and application of P2
decision-making tools and methods. ORD tools and methods could also be used to guide the P2
research direction of the lead agencies and departments.
10
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elude primary metals, fabricated metals, machinery, elec-
trical and electronic equipment, and transportation. Ge-
neric areas supported by DOD have been separations,
coatings, stripping, cleaning, and life cycle analysis.
DOC-NIST has offered the Advanced Technology Pro-
gram as its major avenue of pollution prevention-type
research. The stated purpose of this program is to invest
in technologies which show strong commercial potential
and which would enhance the nation's economic growth
through products for the world market. Projects are
chosen based on their potential economic impact and
the likelihood of commercialization. While pollution pre-
vention and clean technology is not a stated objective,
many of the technologies under development, being
more efficient than existing technologies, have collateral
environmental benefits that can be classified as pollu-
tion prevention. Focus areas are typically crosscutting
and apply to a number of industry sectors, with an
emphasis on high technology, information-intensive ar-
eas of interest. Focus program areas with implications
for manufacturing are: catalysis and biocatalysis, com-
ponent based software, digital data storage, manufac-
turing composite structures, materials processing for
heavy manufacturing, motor vehicle manufacturing, va-
por compression refrigeration technology, and selective
membrane platforms. In addition, new programs are
being established in the following areas: intelligent con-
trols, microelectronics, and photonics. NIST is also in-
volved in funding projects for the following industries:
chemical, primary metals, fabricated metals, electric and
electronic, and transportation equipment. Generic or
crosscutting areas of interest to NIST are separations,
process monitoring and control, and new materials.
NIST also has an increasing role in pollution prevention
technology transfer activities through its network of Manu-
facturing Extension Partnerships (MEP) centers.
USEPA's program in pollution prevention research for
the manufacturing sector has been broad and has in-
cluded projects for all the manufacturing industries. The
strongest emphasis by industry has been on fabricated
metals, chemical, electrical and electronics, and furni-
ture. In addition there has been a focus on generic
technologies for pollution prevention and recycling such
as cleaning, stripping, coatings, separations, and tools
for process simulation, pollution prevention measure-
ment, and LCA.
The USDA through the Forest Service's, Forest Prod-
ucts Laboratory has conducted a large amount of re-
search related to the pulp and paper industry. State
pollution prevention programs have typically centered
on providing technical assistance to small- and medium-
size businesses in implementing pollution prevention.
Compliance and reduction of wastes to improve bottom
line profitability have been of primary importance in
these programs. A few states have established pollution
prevention research centers, usually associated with a
state university. In these cases, industrial categories of
interest are those that are of most significant economic
import to the state.
Private sector efforts in pollution prevention research for
the manufacturing sector are not captured in available
data bases as yet. In mid-1997, the American Institute of
Pollution Prevention (AIPP) began an effort to establish
a database of work supported by trade associations and
this will be available to incorporate into future research
strategies. Clearly, much work is being done by the
private sector to make environmentally-relevant improve-
ments to products and processes. However, since it is
not often described as pollution prevention research by
the companies, it is not captured in databases of pollu-
tion prevention projects.
ORD Opportunities. According to the manufacturing
facilities required to report for the 1996 TRI report (EPA,
1998b) 2.43 billion pounds of toxic chemicals were
released to the environment in that year. This figure
underestimates the actual amount of toxics released to
the environment because only those manufacturers us-
ing above-threshold amounts of these chemicals are
required to report, and all toxics are not on the list to be
reported. While more needs to be done to quantify and
prioritize risk resulting from these releases, ORD be-
lieves that these releases do represent a high risk to
human health and the environment. The Agency and its
Program Offices, as ORD's stakeholders, have shown
interest in reducing these releases through pollution
prevention approaches. Examples of several programs
are the Common Sense Initiative, the 33/50 program
and the Source Reduction Review Project. These of-
fices and programs also identify specific industry sectors
to ORD which then carries out pollution prevention
research on them.
Although many other federal agencies and departments
are devoting resources to pollution prevention research
for the manufacturing sector, interest in environmental
benefits is a secondary consideration with other factors
such as agricultural productivity (DOA), business com-
petitiveness (DOC-NIST), energy efficiency (DOE), hav-
ing primary importance in supported research. ORD
holds a unique role in researching pollution prevention
for the manufacturing sector because ORD's work el-
evates environment as the most important consider-
ation. In addition, research in the private sector is usu-
ally focused for the benefit of the sponsoring company.
Results are kept confidential and only the sponsoring
company benefits immediately. However, results of gov-
ernment research usually are in the public domain un-
less prior agreement under the Cooperative Research
and Development Act (CRADA) prevents the public
release of results.
Because of the wide range of high risk problems in the
manufacturing sector amenable to pollution prevention
research, ORD will use the above criterion "provide
potentially effective research" to narrow its program to
generic tools and technologies. These, by definition, will
be widely applicable and therefore likely to be effective
technological solutions to many environmental problems
having their origins in the manufacturing sector. Ex-
amples of these tools and technologies are life cycle
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inventorying and impact assessment, separations for
recycle/recovery technologies, and green chemistry and
engineering.
Mining Subsector
Survey Results. The principal federal department in-
volved in mining activities is the Department of the
Interior (DOI) with a variety of suboffices including the
Office of Surface Mining (OSM) and the Bureau of
Indian Affairs (BIA). In pollution prevention research
efforts for the industry, the EPA and OSM tend to place
emphasis on best management practices (BMPs) and
only recently have stressed more rigorous pollution pre-
vention technologies. BMPs applicable to mine dis-
charges can be divided into two general areas: con-
struction/reclamation and management/housekeeping.
The two areas of principal concern to all levels of
government and industry are acid mine drainage (AMD)
with its intrinsic load of toxic metals, and nonpoint source
pollution prevention and control. Prevention of AMD
requires control of oxygen, water, bacteria, and sulfide
minerals. Within a mine, oxygen levels cannot be con-
trolled, so AMD prevention measures focus on control of
the other three parameters, particularly on water flows.
One promising technique for controlling AMD is the use
of constructed wetlands. There are currently approxi-
mately 400 such systems in operation, mostly as a result
of Bureau of Mines (BOM) research programs. Con-
structed wetlands systems have been particularly effec-
tive at removing iron from acid mine water. For the
problem of nonpoint source runoff (abandoned mines),
the new remedies include water diversion, dewatering,
capping, grouting, or other techniques to reduce inflow,
and remining or reprocessing to recover metal values.
ORD Opportunities. EPA's Office of Water may elect to
develop new effluent guidelines, practices and stan-
dards for either or both hard rock and soft rock mining. If
this does occur, the Pollution Prevention Act mandates
that pollution prevention alternatives be developed along-
side more traditional treatment solutions. ORD could
play an active role in the research needs for these
promulgations. A Congressionally-directed program ex-
ists, is funded at $6 million/year, and is technically
directed by ORD. Since this program addresses aban-
doned mines, there is little opportunity to apply pollution
prevention approaches. Pollution prevention opportuni-
ties exist largely in modifying current mining practices
and processing to use less-polluting chemicals (e.g.
substituting alternative chemicals for sodium cyanide to
leach mountain size piles of low-grade gold ore).
Agriculture Sector
Survey Results. The most prominent entities support-
ing pollution prevention research in agriculture are within
the federal government with the DOA taking the lead
and to a lesser extent the FDA, USGS and EPA. The
DOA's "Sustainable Agriculture Research and Educa-
tion (SARE)" program and the Forest Products Labora-
tory program include a number of research areas: source
reduction of pesticides, fertilizers and other agricultural
chemicals; pesticide alternatives; biological alternatives
for insect and disease control; conservation and soil
management; non-point source pollution prevention;
ecological management for crops and dairy production;
cultivation technology and photo-control of weeds; nutri-
ent management; integrated crop management; water
management; livestock grazing; and timber manage-
ment. In addition to the federal program, the University
of California supports the Sustainable Agriculture Net-
work (SAN), a computer-based technology transfer ac-
tivity. Other universities are notable contributors to this
network.
EPA-ORD, EPA-OPPTS, and EPA-Region VII are in-
volved in some of the research areas above. ORD-
NRMRL supported agriculture pollution prevention re-
search in varied capacities such as conducting joint
DOA/EPA pollution prevention opportunity assessments,
conducting national workshops on pesticides manage-
ment, producing pollution prevention guidance docu-
ments on pesticides formulation, and conducting re-
search to reduce wastes in agriculture production and
processing. OPPTS represents the Agency in partner-
ship with DOA and FDA for the Pesticide Environmental
Stewardship Program (PESP) to reduce pesticide use
and risk in agriculture and non-agriculture settings. The
Ag Center at Region VII is an EPA compliance-oriented
site that provides environmental and pollution preven-
tion information on agriculture.
ORD Opportunities. It is clear that environmental risk
from the agricultural sector is great. Control of nutrient
runoff from agricultural feed operations and from agricul-
tural lands generally, has been elevated to high priority
in EPA's Clean Water Action Plan (EPA, 1998c). Nutri-
ent loadings to watersheds have posed special risk to
environmental aquatic habitats. A potentially unique area
for ORD involvement with DOA and others such as DOE
or DOD is in developing and demonstrating pollution
prevention tools and methods, especially in life cycle
inventorying and impact assessment to determine rela-
tive environmental impacts, costs and risks posed by
employing varying alternatives. An example is pest and
fertilizer management for farming operations that gener-
ate pollutants. This activity would meet the criteria de-
scribed above by targeting a research gap for high risk,
stakeholder driven problems; in addition, opportunity to
leverage resources through efforts of other agencies
would be assured.
Consumer Sector
Survey results. Because of the magnitude of this sec-
tor, an in-depth, comprehensive survey of all pollution
prevention research activities was not conducted. Rather,
examples of the types of pollution prevention activities
supported by the federal government, often in partner-
ship with states and industry, are provided. The U.S.
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) is the
federal organization whose mission includes oversight
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of consumer products. Over 15,000 consumer products
fall under CPSC's jurisdiction. As an example, this orga-
nization was instrumental in removing lead from paint.
Other agencies of the federal government, especially
EPA, play an active role in pollution prevention in the
consumer sector. For example, the EPA's Office of Air
and Radiation's (OAR) Atmospheric Pollution Preven-
tion Division (APPD) has a number of voluntary pro-
grams designed to prevent air pollution caused by con-
sumer products. Two relevant APPD programs are 1)
the Energy Star Residential Heating and Cooling Pro-
gram in which manufacturers agree to manufacture and
market high-efficiency heating, cooling, and control prod-
ucts; and 2) the Green Lights Program which is aimed at
promoting energy efficiency through investment in
energysaving lighting. APPD has also teamed up with
the DOE in an effort to label various groups of energy
efficient products under the Energy Star program. In
related work, EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and
Toxic Substances (OPPTS) is working with the General
Services Administration on identifying "environmentally
preferable products." OPPTS and OAR are also work-
ing on an Indoor Air Source Ranking Database which
uses available data to conduct a screening level risk
assessment to identify potentially high-risk sources. La-
tex and alkyd paints as well as carpeting have been
consumer products of note in OPPTS efforts.
There have been numerous industry efforts to study
products they produce and attempt to reduce or elimi-
nate adverse environmental and health impacts. Reduc-
tion in air emissions from products has been a particular
focus of manufacturers whose products have received a
lot of media attention for their potential to pollute indoor
air. These include products such as photocopiers, car-
pet, and engineered wood. Formaldehyde levels in floor
underlayment have been reduced in compliance with a
new US Department of Housing and Urban Develop-
ment (HUD) emission standard for floor underlayment.
In another example, Canon, a major manufacturer of
printers and copiers, redesigned one of its printer en-
gines to substantially reduce ozone emissions.
In an effort toward energy efficiency, the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) has developed and evaluated
technologies to improve lighting and refrigeration sys-
tems. EPRI has evaluated alternatives to CFCs devel-
oped by the chemical industry. These alternatives can
also be ozone-depleting and methods are needed to
evaluate impact.
ORD Opportunities. The consumer products area of-
fers opportunities to ORD for pollution prevention re-
search which is stakeholder driven and would fill gaps in
methods and research on cleaner consumer products.
ORD can continue developing essential test methods for
evaluating various consumer products of interest to
EPA's program offices. In addition, the work being done
in ORD in life cycle inventorying and impact assessment
and in pollution prevention measurement can be applied
to consumer products to evaluate relative environmental
impacts of products. These methods can also be used in
clean product design by identifying ways of making
improvements to products so that they have less impact.
An example is in the testing and evaluation of low total
equivalent warming impact (TEWI) technologies.
Energy Sector
Survey Results. The DOE is the preeminent organiza-
tion for research in pollution prevention for the energy
sector. Much of the work is performed in association
with states and industry and is directed at alternative
energy sources: nuclear, geothermal, wind, solar, biom-
ass and clean coal. Under all of these areas, there are a
variety of activities being performed at various labs
including the Federal Energy Technology Center,
Argonne National Laboratory, the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL), and others.
In nuclear energy, emphasis has been on development
of fusion energy. In geothermal, work has been to
reduce costs and improve efficiencies of these technolo-
gies to make them more competitive with fossil fuels. In
wind research, DOE's efforts have been focused on the
design and testing of new wind turbines. In solar energy,
DOE works in both the photovoltaic and solar thermal
arenas. In photovoltaics, which directly generate elec-
tricity, DOE is active in crystal growth research, materi-
als research to improve efficiency, and performance
evaluations of cells. In solar thermal, DOE is also ad-
vancing technology for solar power towers, parabolic
collectors, and other advanced processes.
In biomass, DOE has been evaluating and developing
technologies for gasification (to produce biogas) with
some lesser efforts for pyrolysis (to produce liquid fuels).
DOE is also working to develop formulations for biom-
ass conversion to ethanol for use in fuel cells. Argonne
National Labs provides a site for evaluating the perfor-
mance of alternative fuel vehicles (methanol, ethanol,
electric, and hybrid electric) that are built by industry. In
direct combustion of biomass, DOE works to increase
efficiency and reduce emissions from these systems
and works on advanced turbine systems for high effi-
ciency gas-powered turbines. With the DOA, DOE is
working to develop energy crops to provide renewable
fuel for power generation. NREL is also a major actor in
renewable energy research.
In clean coal, DOE develops and evaluates technolo-
gies such as gasification and liquifaction. They also
work on low-emission coal boiler systems, high-effi-
ciency gas turbines, and the sequestering and recycling
of greenhouse gases from coal combustion. Some of
these clean coal efforts are in cooperation with private
sector companies such as Eastman Chemical and
Westinghouse.
ORD Opportunities. Clearly, DOE is active in pursuing
pollution prevention options for the energy sector via its
alternative fuels program. There are still a few research
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gaps for high risk problems which can be addressed by
ORD. The primary pollutants of concern from the energy
sector are greenhouse gases and ozone depleters. An
opportunity for ORD research is investigating alterna-
tive, acceptable fluids for heat pumps used in waste
heat collection. ORD has expertise and facilities which
can be used for this work.
Another opportunity is in the application of intelligent
controls for increasing motor efficiencies in a variety of
applications, including wind turbines, combustion opera-
tions and industrial motors. ORD has some of the first
patents in the area of intelligent controls and could use
the existing expertise and facilities to pursue this work.
In solar energy, work is required in improving the effi-
ciencies of solar cells to make them cost- competitive
with existing power generating technologies. ORD has
expertise in photovoltaic system demonstration and
evaluation for the purpose of quantifying pollution pre-
vention capabilities of these systems. In biomass, sev-
eral opportunities exist in waste biomass utilization, in
development of biomass-derived methanol, and in small-
scale demonstrations (<5 megawatts). ORD has in-
house expertise and facilities which can be used to meet
both of these needs.
ORD also has the opportunity to use its expertise in
developing and testing pollution prevention measure-
ment tools, as well as life cycle analysis and impact
assessment tools, to weigh and compare the various
energy alternatives. Cost, technical performance and
efficiency, and environmental consequences can be
compared using these methods.
Transportation Sector
Survey Results. Reduction of emissions from the trans-
portation sector is being researched by many organiza-
tions, both within and outside the federal government.
Mention should first be made of the large research
programs being conducted by private industry, mostly
automotive companies. Research efforts have been un-
dertaken to meet regulatory air quality goals that include
pollution prevention approaches. Examples of automo-
tive industry research are development of the catalytic
converter, low-emission vehicles, zero-emission vehicles,
hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles, and fuel cell power
systems.
Within the federal government, many programs sup-
ported by the Departments of Transportation, Energy,
and Defense promote the achievement of pollution pre-
vention objectives. Some EPA mobile source emission
regulations implemented by EPA, state and local agen-
cies involve pollution prevention approaches. A limited
discussion of federal agency and other programs is
given below to provide examples of the largest pro-
grams.
The U.S. Department of Transportation is involved in
many transportation, energy, and environmental activi-
ties through the Federal Highway Administration, the
Federal Transit Administration, and the Federal Aviation
Administration. The Intermodal Surface Transportation
Efficiency Act of 1990 (ISTEA) started many programs
related to reducing pollution from automobiles, improv-
ing community involvement in transportation planning,
implementing effective travel demand management mea-
sures, and encouraging public transit. The newer six-
year, $175 billion National Economic Crossroads Trans-
portation Efficiency Act (NEXTEA) program is funded to
continue building and operating a safe, efficient and
environmentally-sound surface transportation system into
the next century. To help protect the environment,
NEXTEA increases funding for the Congestion Mitiga-
tion and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program to
$1.3 billion annually, increases transportation enhance-
ments funding by more than 25 percent and continues
funding for bicycle transportation and pedestrian walk-
ways. In contrast to these large programs, DOT is also
involved in smaller projects; in one project the DOE
helped the US Postal Service prepare employee trip
reduction plans for 110 postal facilities in metropolitan
New York.
The DOE Office of Transportation Technologies works
with the transportation industry, energy supply industry,
and other research and development organizations to
develop and promote advanced transportation vehicles
and alternative fuel technologies that will reduce oil
import requirements, and minimize criteria pollutant emis-
sions and greenhouse gases. The Office of Advanced
Automotive Technologies conducts research programs
aimed at the personal transportation systems of the
futurehybrid vehicles using multiple energy/power
sources, alternative fuel vehicles operating on non-pe-
troleum fuels, and electric vehicles powered by ad-
vanced batteries or fuel cells. The Office of Heavy
Vehicle Technologies focuses its research activities on
improving the energy efficiency and reducing the emis-
sions from advanced diesel engines and on developing
non-petroleum fueled diesel engines. The Office of Al-
ternative Fuels Development sponsors research, devel-
opment, and demonstration activities focused on culti-
vating agricultural and forestry feedstocks and on con-
version systems for producing ethanol as a biofuel or
fuel additive.
DOD's Air Force bases have studied pollution preven-
tion opportunities for shops performing all types of ve-
hicles maintenance and has researched ways of reduc-
ing reliance of Air Force weapon systems on ozone
depleting chemicals and hazardous materials. Within
EPA, OPPTS and ORD have supported research efforts
relevant to the transportation sector. OPPTS's Design
for the Environment (DfE) Program is stimulating private
sector efforts to design products and services that re-
duce potential risk from chemicals; one industry sector
of importance to the DfE program is the aerospace
industry. ORD has past research efforts in conducting
waste reduction technology evaluations that are appli-
cable to vehicle manufacture in private and defense
industries and has a current life cycle design project with
the Saturn Corporation.
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Local government efforts for the sector are significant
and growing at a fast pace due to concerns about Clean
Air Act requirements and traffic congestion generally. To
meet the requirements of Clean Air Act Amendments,
and potentially tougher diesel regulations in the future,
metropolitan transit authorities have begun to consider
the use of alternate fuels for their mass transit vehicles.
More than 30 transit authorities have participated in a
program to evaluate biodiesel as an alternative fuel.
Biodiesel (methyl esters) is a cleaner burning fuel made
from natural, renewable resources such as vegetable
oils. Air transportation systems have also received at-
tention. At the new Denver International Airport, the
solution to airport waste generation was for a collabora-
tion of EPA's Region VIII, the City of Denver, and airport
designers to develop pollution prevention and waste
management techniques before the airport opened.
An example of an academic program performing pollu-
tion prevention research for the sector is the University
of Wisconsin Engine Research Center. The goal of this
center is to better understand engine combustion phe-
nomena in order to improve power density and fuel
economy while meeting emission standards.
ORD Opportunities. Given the resources devoted to
researching pollution prevention opportunities for this
sector within other federal agencies, especially the De-
partment of Transportation and the DOE, there are few
gaps in the overall research being conducted for the
sector. Since most of the work is federally funded, the
research results are in the public domain and can be
used by all. One opportunity for ORD, in which we have
unique capability to meet a gap in existing research, is to
support the development of design tools to allow for
better environmental assessment of transportation
choices and improved design of transportation products.
The example offered above for life cycle design of
automobiles for the Saturn Corporation provides a pro-
totype for this kind of effort.
Development of Research Goals
The above summary helps ORD focus on particular
research problems it should be addressing. To carry out
a pollution prevention research program and to plan for
new problems that may arise, the following four re-
search goals, representing competency to do work in all
the above areas and the flexibility to meet new research
needs, are proposed as a way of structuring the pollu-
tion prevention research program. Specific sector re-
search is identified with each goal.
Goal I Deliver tools and methods. For all sectors the
program will develop tools and methods which can be
used to promote pollution prevention across the prob-
lems listed above. ORD will invest in this area because it
has substantial experience developing such tools and
methods, and in several areas (e.g., life cycle analysis,
process simulation) ORD staff are recognized for their
expertise and capabilities. The unique Agency mission
to advance the use of prevention and ensure that the
tools and methods effectively consider multiple environ-
mental impacts makes this an inherently EPA research
and development responsibility.
Goal II Develop and transfer technologies and ap-
proaches. For the manufacturing and consumer sectors
the program will develop, evaluate, and transfer pollu-
tion prevention technologies and approaches. Within the
manufacturing sector, there is a particular need for
research to support medium- and small-sized businesses
that are geographically dispersed (e.g., dry cleaners,
metal finishing, printing). This is also true for larger
companies that have difficulty in meeting compliance
requirements. ORD has resident expertise which can be
applied to the environmental problems associated with
the manufacturing and consumer sectors and intends to
maintain that expertise in the coming years. In many of
these areas, ORD has internationally recognized scien-
tific and technical staff who can make contributions in
the science and technical arenas leading to resolution of
regulatory and compliance issues.
Increasing emphasis will be on generic technologies
and approaches which have the potential to cut across a
number of sectors, and ORD is the logical champion for
such developmental work. Industry and other govern-
ment agencies are focused more on developing pollu-
tion prevention options for specific processes which are
of the greatest concern to them. ORD can be very
influential in catalyzing the development of technologies
and approaches through leveraging resources and
partnering with stakeholder organizations.
Goal III Verify selected pollution prevention technol-
ogy. For the manufacturing, consumer products and
municipal sectors, the program will verify the perfor-
mance of pollution prevention alternatives in order to
fully demonstrate their efficacy, particularly as noted by
the Program Offices. This is a critical research need
because one of the most significant factors limiting the
use of pollution prevention approaches is the lack of
confidence by both industry and regulators that they can
achieve required reductions through pollution preven-
tion. Over the past five years, ORD has developed a
capability to verify commercial-ready technologies and
products. ORD will maintain this capability over the
coming five years, and if needed, grow in areas where
verification can make a contribution to human health
and environmental protection. Under the Environmental
Technology Verification (ETV) Program, pilot verification
entities have been funded to support technology verifi-
cation targeted at high-priority human health and envi-
ronmental risks.
Goal IV Conduct economic, social and behavioral
research. For all sectors the program will investigate the
economic, social, and behavioral (i.e., non-technical)
aspects of pollution prevention to better understand, and
then ameliorate, the barriers to the adoption of pollution
prevention technologies and approaches in the future.
Such has been called for by several of the national
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strategies and the SAB. There is very limited capability
within ORD to address these issues (e.g., economics),
but because there is such a strong need for this re-
search the extramural grants program, at least initially,
will be used to address this important area. ORD resi-
dent capabilities will be expanded in economics, while
other social science capabilities will be garnered through
the competitive grants program. ORD expects to con-
tinue its partnership with the NSF to leverage resources
in the social science arena.
Each of these major areas is developed in greaterdetail
in Chapter 3 in the context of a research goal with
associated objectives. Each objective includes a set of
research and development activities that will be under-
taken along with brief descriptions of project areas that
will be pursued.
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Chapter 3. ORD'S Pollution Prevention
Research and Development Program
Vision
This research strategy is designed around the following
vision of where ORD's Pollution Prevention Research
and Development Program should be going in the fu-
ture:
Scientifically based pollution prevention research
and development products will be used routinely
by communities, industries, governments, and
other stakeholders for improved environmental
decision making on high-risk human health and
environmental problems, and as part of a move
toward sustainable development in the 21st
Century.
Mission
In moving toward this vision, ORD's Pollution Prevention
Research and Development Program mission is:
To advance scientific research and develop cost-
effective tools, methods, technologies, and ap-
proaches which expand the availability and use of
pollution prevention by both the public and private
sectors.
Goals
In support of our vision and mission, and in concert with
the strategic approach identified in Chapter 2, the follow-
ing will be pursued in this research strategy:
/. ORD will deliver broadly applicable tools and
methodologies for pollution prevention and
sustainability.
II. ORD will develop and transfer pollution preven-
tion technologies and approaches.
III. ORD will verify selected pollution prevention
technologies.
IV. ORD will conduct research to address eco-
nomic, social, and behavioral research for pollution
prevention.
Additional details on each of the four goals are provided
in this section including specific objectives that ORD will
pursue over the next five years. For each objective,
details are provided on: (1) why the research is impor-
tant (Rationale), (2) what the current situation is with
respect to the goal and objective (Current Situation),
and (3) what research and development activities are
planned. Each goal description concludes with a discus-
sion on projected resource allocations (Resource Allo-
cation and Emphasis).
Goal I: Deliver Tools and Methodologies
ORD will develop, test, and deliver tools and methodolo-
gies which improve individual and organizational deci-
sion making to reduce or eliminate emissions, effluents,
and wastes from products, processes, and activities.
These tools will be applied across all economic sectors
generating pollution: manufacturing, mining, consumer
products, energy and transportation.
Objective: Develop and test user friendly tools and
methodologies for improved decision making.
Rationale
As many of the human health and environmental prob-
lems most amenable to pollution prevention are ad-
dressed, the need for scientifically sound, user friendly
tools and methodologies to assist in making decisions
on complex risk management problems becomes in-
creasingly important. These tools and methodologies
can be of invaluable assistance for identifying and evalu-
ating technologies and approaches that are less pollut-
ing when compared to each other, or to more traditional
end-of-the-pipe treatment. For pollution prevention to
play a key role both now and in the future, tools and
methodologies must be developed that are more quanti-
tative in nature. Developing and testing pollution preven-
tion tools and methodologies that are easy to use and
meaningful to stakeholders allows for improved decision
making at all levels. These tools and methodologies can
often be applied across economic sectors and, there-
fore, have wide applicability to many environmental
problems resulting from agricultural, industrial, mining,
transportation, and energy related activities.
Current Situation
All too often, environmental impacts are not considered
beyond a very narrow realm, and risk management
options are not thoroughly characterized using such
tools as life cycle assessment, process simulation, and
cost/benefit analysis. What on the surface appears to be
the best option, may not consider either the complete life
cycle of a product or process, or the risks of trading one
pollution problem for another.
Research and Development Activities
1. New Activity Integrate risk assessment and risk
management tools and methodologies
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Increasingly, EPA is being asked by Congress, the
Administration, and the public to consider risk when
promulgating regulations and developing rules. Past
research and development efforts have improved the
ability of the Agency to use quantitative risk assessment
in making decisions on highrisk human health and envi-
ronmental problems. The ability to link risk assessment
and risk management tools that permit the analysis of
possible options, both environmentally and economi-
cally, is now being called for by the National Research
Council (1996). Such an approach is a logical next step
in using scientific and technical information to make
more informed decisions on risks and risk management.
ORD's National Center for Environmental Assessment
and National Risk Management Research Laboratory
will develop and pursue a joint program to link, and if
appropriate, integrate risk assessment methodologies
and pollution prevention tools (e.g., LCA, cost/benefit
analysis) to improve decision making on important hu-
man health and environmental problems.
2. Increased Emphasis Improve and develop generic
tools and methodologies
Technologies and approaches for preventing or reduc-
ing human health and environmental risks should be
reliable, cost-effective, technically sound, and accept-
able. ORD must assist public officials and the private
sector in making decisions on which new technologies
and approaches will be the most effective, both eco-
nomically and environmentally. The research and devel-
opment conducted will (1) improve engineering economy
and cost tools, (2) refine and advance the utility of life
cycle analysis, (3) develop process simulation tools, (4)
develop pollution prevention progress measurement
methodologies, and (5) develop and improve impact
assessment tools.
3. Continued Emphasis Improve and develop tar-
geted tools and methodologies
ORD has a continuing commitment to support various
Program Offices in the development and evaluation of
tools and methodologies that advance pollution preven-
tion in specific areas or for specific problems. The
research and development to be conducted will be in
support of (1) the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response (OSWER) on municipal solid waste, and (2)
the Office or Air and Radiation (OAR) on volatile organic
chemical substitutes. ORD will support other Program
Offices that would benefit from the tools and methodolo-
gies under development and testing by ORD scientists
and engineers as the need arises.
Resource Allocation and Emphasis
Goal I will receive increased emphasis under this re-
search strategy. Providing user friendly tools and meth-
odologies for improved decision making on pollution
prevention risk management alternatives is extremely
important. This is particularly true as the Agency moves
to environmental decision making at the community
level. ORD is well positioned to conduct research in this
area in terms of staff knowledge, expertise and experi-
ence, and supporting financial resources. Increased staff-
ing and financial resources will be directed into the tools
and methodologies area and, if necessary, additional
resources will be solicited as part of the Agency's plan-
ning and budgeting process to ensure progress in meet-
ing this long-term goal.
Goal II: Develop and Transfer Technologies
and Approaches
ORD will develop, test, and transfer pollution prevention
technologies and approaches that are applicable across
economic sectors, and evaluate products, technologies
and approaches targeted at preventing high-priority hu-
man health and environmental problems in support of
the Agency's regulatory and compliance programs. The
focus of this work will be the manufacturing and con-
sumer products sectors.
Objective A: Research, design, and assess novel and
advanced environmentally benign approaches for indus-
trial processing and manufacturing.
Rationale
Sustainable development has been defined as develop-
ment that meets the need of the present without com-
promising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs (WCED, 1987). Technology can have a
profound effect on the environment both positively and
negatively. The challenge is to use technology in such a
way that it does not lead simply to short-term advances
in productivity at the expense of long-term resource
viability. A new generation of cleaner industrial manu-
facturing and processing technologies is needed to sup-
port pollution prevention, efficient resource use, and
industrial ecology. Such a strategy can help the U.S.
economy become more competitive by lowering re-
source and energy needs, reducing waste and emis-
sions control costs, and fostering sustainable develop-
ment.
Current Situation
According to the U.S. Council of Economic Advisers
(1995), an investment in research and development has
a private rate of return of 20 to 30 percent (i.e., benefit
that accrues to the inventor) and a social rate of return
approaching 50 percent (i.e., benefit that accrues to
others). Research and development is the source of
new products that improve the quality of life and new
processes that enable firms to reduce costs and be-
come more efficient and competitive. Yet, most new
chemical science and engineering technologies are fo-
cused on improving operations, increasing efficiency in
the use of raw materials, and continuing to balance
environmental and economic considerations. Until re-
cently, few research and development resources have
18
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been devoted to the design of alternative synthetic
pathways for green chemistry, or the development of
improved reactor, catalyst, or process designs in order
to increase product yield, improve selectivity, or reduce
unwanted reaction byproducts.
Research and Development Activities
1. Continued emphasis Chemistry for pollution pre-
vention
The goal of this research effort is to improve existing
chemical design practices by developing more environ-
mentally benign chemical synthesis (i.e., green chemis-
try) and safer commercial substances. Green chemistry
research was established to promote fundamental and
innovative chemical methodologies that accomplish pol-
lution prevention and have broad application in the
industrial sector. It is the use of chemistry for source
reduction, the highest tier of the risk management hier-
archy. Green chemistry encompasses all aspects and
types of chemical processes (e.g., synthesis, catalysis,
analysis, monitoring, separations, and reaction condi-
tions) that reduce negative impacts on human health
and the environment relative to the current state of the
art. Emphasis will be on (1) an extramurally-focused
program on green chemistry, and (2) an in-house pro-
gram on improved oxidation pathways.
2. Continued emphasis Engineering for pollution pre-
vention
Novel engineering approaches are being pursued to
prevent and/or reduce pollution from industrial manufac-
turing activities both continuous and discrete pro-
cesses. The scope of this research includes: equipment
and technology modifications, reformulation or redesign
of products, substitution of alternative materials, and in-
process changes. Although these methods are often
thought of in relation to the chemical, biochemical, and
materials processing industries, they can also be utilized
in many other industries such as semiconductor manu-
facturing, metals processing and other fabrication indus-
tries. ORD will continue to support pre-competitive engi-
neering research in a variety of industries. Potential
areas include improved reactor, catalyst, or process
designs in order to reduce unwanted byproducts.
In addition, to be sustainable, engineering processes
will increasingly rely on technologies which allow them
to achieve at or near "zero releases" of wastes. In-
process recycling is an important part of the Agency's
definition of pollution prevention and may be the best
way to approach "zero releases" via direct recycling of a
process stream back into the process from which it was
generated. It enables recovery of valuable products, and
can prevent or minimize releases of both toxic metals
and organics. In-process recycling is best accomplished
using separations technologies such as adsorption, mem-
branes, filtration, distillation, or a combination of these.
In ORD's research program, emphasis will be on devel-
oping separations technologies for recycle and recovery
of toxic metals and organics. Results are expected to be
widely applicable across industrial, and possibly, eco-
nomic sectors.
3. Continued emphasis Feedback techniques for
pollution prevention
ORD will design approaches for predicting the perfor-
mance of intelligent controls (1C) in pollution prevention
applications. 1C computational approaches based on
fuzzy logic, neural networks, and generic algorithms are
broadly applicable technology which can be used in
many processes and sectors to reduce pollution from all
media. IC-based approaches have the potential to make
a major impact by preventing releases and increasing
energy efficiency at affordable costs. As part of this
effort, ORD will develop and demonstrate intelligent
controllers in the laboratory and at pilot-scale facilities
with various industrial, commercial, and consumer prod-
uct partners (e.g., states, universities, environmental
agencies, manufacturing and commercial industries, utili-
ties, trade associations, and federal organizations).
Objective B: Develop and test technologies and ap-
proaches targeted at specific environmental problems.
Rationale
Problems persist that pose high risks to both human
health and the environment. The challenge is to develop
economically attractive technologies and approaches
that result in significant reductions in pollution over the
longer term (e.g., the next 10 to 20 years), while provid-
ing the maximum amount of human health and environ-
mental protection. The federal government plays a criti-
cal role in advancing technologies and approaches to
the point of joint, pilot- and full-scale evaluation and
demonstration. Government-supported research and
development of cutting edge preventive technologies
and approaches helps companies of all sizes, but is
particularly beneficial to medium- and small-sized com-
panies which have neither the capability nor the re-
sources to conduct their own programs.
Current Situation
While specific companies may address many important
knowledge gaps related to pollution prevention, the pri-
vate sector does not generally sponsor research to
address human health and environmental problems that
cut across economic sectors, nor do they transfer propri-
etary technologies and approaches that give them an
advantage over their competitors. Problems associated
with persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals
(e.g., chlorinated compounds, metals) and volatile or-
ganic compounds (VOCs) exist in a number of industries
and result from a variety of processes. Technologies
and approaches that have the potential to yield marked
improvements in preventing these pollutants can lan-
guish for years because the problem is owned by every-
one and no one. Merely requiring industries to meet a
19
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regulatory limit or compliance standard does not guar-
antee their ability to do so. Medium- and small-sized
companies, in particular, can suffer from a lack of capital
with which to conduct research and development, and a
lack of expertise with which to interpret and then employ
technologies and approaches that are preventive in
nature.
Research and Development Activities
1. Continued Emphasis Address problems associ-
ated with global warming to reduce Total Equivalent
Warming Impact (TEWI)
The application and demand for hydrofluorocarbons
(MFCs) are increasing every year as these chemicals
have become the simplest choice for replacing the ozone-
depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigera-
tion and air conditioning applications. The decision to
use MFCs has been driven by the need to stop ozone
depletion, with less consideration given to their other
potential environmental impacts. Although MFCs pres-
ently account for only 1 percent of the greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, these are the fastest growing GHG
emissions component and are expected to reach 6
percent by the year 2010. Many of these chemicals have
long atmospheric lifetimes (between 20 to 100 years)
and have global warming potentials (GWP) several thou-
sand times greater than CO2. ORD will research and
develop approaches to measure and minimize the TEWI
performance of technologies using MFCs and HFC alter-
natives.
2. Continued Emphasis Address problems associ-
ated with VOCs and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) by
improving coating and cleaning operations
Surface coatings (e.g., paints, adhesives, inks, gel coats,
lacquers, mold release agents) are an aspect of almost
all manufactured items. Many of these surface coatings
(and stripping or cleaning materials) were and still are
manufactured with chemical solvents which improve
ease of application. Because almost all of these chemi-
cal solvents are VOCs and HAPs, their release to air,
water, and in wastes creates environmental problems
that have become the focus of many domestic and
international regulations and initiatives. The pressure of
current and pending environmental regulations has
spurred the development of many new, low-VOC/HAP
surface coating systems. While these new coatings are
making major inroads into markets that were at one time
dominated by low-solids solvent-borne coatings, prod-
uct development issues continue to limit the commercial
availability and use of these systems in many applica-
tions. In ORD's research program, innovative, cost-
effective, and low-pollution coating and cleaning materi-
als and application technologies will be developed and
evaluated. ORD will also test and evaluate the applica-
bility of environmentally friendly coating and cleaning
technologies to other industries, substrates and applica-
tions.
3. Increased EmphasisAddress problems associated
with products used indoors.
Consumer products and building materials (e.g., archi-
tectural coatings; dry cleaning spotting preparations;
specialty cleaners and sanitation products; adhesives,
caulks, and sealants; shoe polish and leather care prod-
ucts) can emit high levels of indoor contaminants known
to pose a significant risk to human health. A study by
EPA (Wallace, 1987) identified indoor air pollution as
one of the most important environmental risks to the
nation's health because (1) indoor pollution levels are 2
to 5 times higher than outdoors, (2) after some activities,
indoor pollution levels can be up to 1000 times higher
than outdoors, and (3) in new, nonresidential buildings,
levels of VOCs are as much as 100 times higher than
outdoors. Test methods and models can be used to
better understand the emissions from these products
and stimulate development and commercialization of
lower-emitting products. ORD's program will identify
products that emit high levels of indoor contaminants
known to pose a significant risk to human health, de-
velop appropriate test methods and models that can be
used to better understand emissions from these prod-
ucts, and stimulate development and commercialization
of lower-emitting products.
Objective C: Demonstrate and evaluate pollution pre-
vention in support of Agency and Program Office initia-
tives and priorities
Rationale
Supporting the Agency's regulatory and compliance pro-
grams with objective, scientifically sound pollution pre-
vention technologies and approaches is an extremely
important role that ORD plays. Both large and small
companies can have significant compliance problems,
but complying with environmental regulations can be
particularly difficult for small, geographically dispersed
businesses. They do not have the capital or the techni-
cal capability to investigate, evaluate, or demonstrate
pollution prevention technologies. In many cases, col-
laborative research between industry and government is
necessary to ensure that less-polluting technologies are
accepted and applied.
Current Situation
Billions of pounds of chemicals are released annually
resulting in exposures that are both carcinogenic and
mutagenic to human and animal life. Reductions in
these releases to air, water, and in waste have resulted
from concerted efforts by EPA and industry (e.g., 33/50,
Design for the Environment). The chemical industry, in
particular, has taken major steps to reduce the produc-
tion of toxic chemicals and the impact of these chemi-
cals and chemical byproducts on human health and the
environment, but many industrial sectors still have diffi-
culty in meeting Agency requirements. Efforts to solve
medium-specific problems using a multimedia approach
(e.g., Source Reduction Review Project) have had mixed
20
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success. The Common Sense Initiative (CSI) promises
to foster pollution prevention as an important part of its
mission across the six CSI-targeted industries. The Ad-
ministrator has directed the Agency to look for additional
opportunities to adopt a sector approach to environmen-
tal protection.
Research and Development Activities
1. Continued Emphasis Address problems associ-
ated with medium- and small-sized companies that pose
high risk problems
ORD will continue to focus on medium- and small-sized
companies with particular emphasis on those that are
part of CSI. Because these companies are often poorly
capitalized, run as small businesses, and geographically
dispersed, they have difficulty in meeting regulatory and
compliance requirements. They often do not have the
expertise or the resources to devote to the research and
development of advanced technologies and approaches
that are less polluting, although they may be affiliated
with a trade association that represents their collective
interests. ORD has been successful in the past, and will
continue to work in the future with those medium- and
small-sized businesses and their trade associations which
look to the Agency for assistance in reducing these
risks. Emphasis will be on (1) metal finishing, (2) print-
ing, (3) computers and electronics, (4) auto refinishing,
and (5) dry cleaning.
2. Continued Emphasis Support Agency rule makings
and initiatives that encourage pollution prevention
ORD will continue to participate with the Office of Water,
the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response,
and the Office of Air and Radiation to investigate pollu-
tion prevention alternatives for those industrial catego-
ries involved in rule making or Agency Initiatives (e.g.,
Source Reduction Review Project, Common Sense Ini-
tiative). The projects will be nominated by the Program
Offices and selected by ORD on the basis of their ability
to achieve a meaningful and useful result with a broad
applicability.
Resource Allocation and Emphasis
Goal II is an area of continuing emphasis under this
research strategy. This area is one that has enjoyed
support within the Agency and it is anticipated that it will
continue into the foreseeable future. Research and de-
velopment activities under Objective A will receive in-
creasing emphasis as ORD enhances its in-house re-
search and development program. Objective B, cover-
ing the development of generic technologies and ap-
proaches that prevent pollution, has the potential to be
widely applied; ORD can play a unique role not likely to
be filled by other public or private entities. Resources for
this area are expected to remain steady. Most of the
research and development activities under Objective C
will continue to support high-priority EPA regulatory and
regulatory re-invention efforts and will likely remain con-
stant with some annual shifts in emphasis among indus-
try sectors.
Goal III: Verify the Performance of Cleaner
Products, Technologies, and Approaches
As part of its Environmental Technology Verification
(ETV) Program, ORD will serve as a catalyzing organi-
zation to propel into the marketplace the most promising
commercial-ready pollution prevention products and tech-
nologies from both the public and private sectors.
Objective: Build a high-quality and efficient program to
verify the performance characteristics of pollution pre-
vention products and technologies.
Rationale
Throughout its history, EPA has evaluated technologies
to determine their effectiveness in monitoring, prevent-
ing, controlling, and cleaning up pollution. Such data are
needed by technology buyers and permitters both at
home and abroad to make more informed decisions.
Since the early 1990s, numerous government and pri-
vate groups have identified the lack of an organized and
ongoing program to produce independent, credible per-
formance data as a major impediment to the develop-
ment and use of innovative environmental technologies.
With respect to products and technologies that prevent
pollution, regulatory officials and private industry can
make more informed decisions when scientifically sound
data are available. Verifying the performance of prod-
ucts and technologies that prevent pollution can have an
important impact both nationally and internationally in
reducing pollutant loads in the coming decades. Pollu-
tion prevention innovations which have been systemati-
cally verified under the ETV Program will be more widely
accepted by both the public and private sectors and the
technical results of the verifications will quantify their
preventive nature.
Current Situation
ORD has developed a program to verify environmental
technologies across a wide variety of human health and
environmental problems (EPA, 1997b). Among the most
hopeful approaches to pollution prevention are the nu-
merous products and technologies which not only pro-
tect the environment, but also save money. While many
opportunities for such products and technologies have
been identified over the last few years, few industry,
manufacturing, commercial and even community orga-
nizations are willing to change their normal way of doing
business and accept these new opportunities without
documented, credible data on their performance. For
this reason, pollution prevention products and technolo-
gies have significant difficulties in penetrating domestic
and international markets, and the potential for signifi-
cant prevention of pollution goes unrealized.
21
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Research and Development Activities
Continued Emphasis Verify commercial-ready prod-
ucts and technologies that substantially reduce or elimi-
nate the production of air, water, and waste products
Hazardous Waste Pollution Prevention and Treat-
ment ETV Pilot. In October! 995, ETV began one of its
first pilot projects with the State of California to verify the
performance of innovative technologies in hazardous
waste pollution prevention, recycling, treatment and
monitoring. This ETV pilot will continue operation with
emphasis on outreach to the pollution prevention com-
munity and targeted industry groups being emphasized
during 1997.
Industrial Coatings ETV Pilot. Based on the experi-
ence with the Hazardous Waste Pollution Prevention
and Treatment Pilot, the ETV program began a pollution
prevention pilot targeted at alternative products for one
specific industry (i.e., industrial coatings) in October
1996. In response to recent solicitations, 32 coatings
products and technologies have applied for verification;
testing will begin for most by the end of 1998.
Metal Finishing ETV Pilot. Another ETV pilot targeted
at a single industry (i.e., metal finishing) will be started in
1998. This industry is perceived to represent a substan-
tial opportunity for pollution prevention technology alter-
natives and has the active backing of the Agency's
Common Sense Initiative Committee. Verification of new
technologies that promise to assist this small business
sector will begin in 1999.
Indoor Air ETV Pilot. In this ETV pilot an extensive
process to formulate a series of protocols to test prod-
ucts that impact the indoor air environment has been
instituted. The initial focus is on office furniture, office
machines, and room air filtration systems. As stake-
holder groups for each of these areas are formed, ORD
will support validation testing using the protocols over
the next few years. Stakeholders will follow protocol
development and select additional product categories
for verification in 1998.
Climate Change ETV Pilot. In December, 1998 ETV
will put in place a new pilot to assess commercial-ready
technologies that reduce the emission of greenhouse
gases. Initial efforts are likely to focus on methane gas
recovery systems, innovative cookstove technologies
(used by millions in third-world countries), and other
alternative technologies, such as fuel cells.
Air Pollution Prevention and Control ETV Pilot. In
October 1997, ETV selected a partner organization for
its Air Pollution Prevention and Control pilot. This effort
will have both pollution prevention and pollution control
technologies as foci. EPA began this effort with an in-
house evaluation of emulsified boiler and diesel fuels in
1997. Emulsified fuels are designed to significantly re-
duce the release of NO into the air.
Source Water Protection ETV Pilot. ETV will address
the important area of prevention approaches to support
sustainable community development in its recently funded
Source Water Protection pilot. This pilot, which will
formally begin in 1998, will evaluate technologies that
prevent contamination of ground and surface waters by
technologies such as septic tanks, pipelines, agricultural
runoff control, and storage tanks.
Resource Allocation and Emphasis
Goal III is an area of significant emphasis and is particu-
larly important since it is a Presidential Initiative. For the
past several years it has been supported as a line item
in the annual budget appropriation passed by Congress.
The ETV program has been maintained at a level of
approximately $10M since FY 1996, but the need for this
level of funding is expected to decrease over the coming
years as private sector developers of effective pollution
prevention technologies come to value, and pay for,
verification services. ETV sector-specific programs are
expected to become largely self-sustaining by 2005.
Technical staff currently dedicated to this effort will
remain involved throughout the life of the pilot program.
and continue appropriate quality assurance activities.
With a shift into the outreach and information dissemina-
tion phase of the program in the coming years, in-
creased financial resources will be directed toward, and
staffed with, expertise in technical information to de-
velop and deliver research products through a variety of
venues.
Goal IV: Conduct Research to Address the
Economic, Social, and Behavioral Aspects of
Pollution Prevention
Through its extramural grants program, ORD will spon-
sor economic, social, and behavioral research to im-
prove decision making and foster the adoption of pollu-
tion prevention by the public and private sectors at all
levels. The results of the grant-sponsored work will be
integrated into the decision-making tools developed un-
der Goal 1. ORD will also expand its in-house capabili-
ties to better address economic considerations of imple-
menting pollution prevention.
Objective: Develop and integrate social science and
socioeconomic information and research products into
environmental decision making.
Rationale
With the Agency moving from a command-and-control
approach of protecting the environment to one which is
more collaborative and community based, old mind sets
and ways of doing business must change. As a part of
this change, EPA requires an improved understanding
of why individuals and organizations make the decisions
they do regarding both human health and environmental
protection. As other organizations embrace a preventive
22
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approach that goes beyond improved housekeeping
and easy fixes, the social, economic, and behavioral
barriers to, and incentives for, pollution prevention must
be understood. An improved understanding of the fac-
tors which are influential in moving individuals and orga-
nizations toward preventive risk management will be of
invaluable assistance in the evolving dialogue on envi-
ronmental sustainability, both in the corporate board-
room and at the community level.
Current Situation
ORD initiated a research and development program in
the area of economic, social, and behavioral research in
1995 as part of its newly created extramural grants
program. This program of extramurally funded social
science research and development will continue for the
next several years. Such a program is particularly impor-
tant to the Agency since many of its policies and pro-
grams must take into account both the benefits and the
costs associated with Agency policies, rules, and regu-
lations. Non-technical (i.e., economic, social, behav-
ioral) data and information are increasingly a part of
Agency decision making and this will continue to be the
case well into the future. Unfortunately, there is a pau-
city of reliable, scientifically-based socioeconomic tools
and methodologies available to assist Agency decision
makers in collecting, analyzing, and then understanding
such data and information. Much of the research to date
under this program has focused on economic research,
including techniques for valuation of ecosystems and of
human morbidity and mortality. Social science is needed
as well, but most of this has focused on broad environ-
mental issues not specifically pollution prevention. In the
future a stronger emphasis is needed on issues related
to pollution prevention and sustainable development
particularly in the community context.
environmental protection. A research focus will be de-
veloped that emphasizes "sustainable communities," link-
ing economic, environmental, and social issues that
surround community level decision-making.
Resource Allocation and Emphasis
Goal IV will continue to receive significant emphasis
under this research strategy. Providing research and
development products on the economic, social, and
behavioral aspects of pollution prevention is important if
prevention is to be an effective risk management option
in the future. This type of research will become even
more important for the Agency as it moves to a
community-based approach for environmental protec-
tion in the coming years. Research related to socio-
economic sectors that influence decisions at the corpo-
rate, individual, and community levels will be given
increased emphasis. While all of this work will be con-
ducted through the extramural grants program, ORD will
consider developing an in-house capability for social
science research. A decision on staffing and the nature
of the in-house research is reserved until the results of
the extramurally funded projects for the first several
years are available.
Research and Development Activities
Increased Emphasis Develop economic, social, and
behavioral tools to improve environmental policies and
programs
There is a general lack of accepted tools for determining
the benefits and costs associated with environmental
problems and issues. The federal government and EPA
in particular are required to conduct cost/benefit analy-
sis for all major regulations and legislative initiatives
including those pertaining to pollution prevention. Gov-
ernment agencies responsible for policy analysis, statu-
tory rules, regulatory decision making, and priority set-
ting for environmental actions, including pollution pre-
vention, will benefit from a set of systematic and credible
tools for estimating the economic and social benefits
and costs of a given action or set of actions. ORD can
assist in providing this information through extramural
research and development in such areas as environ-
mental economics, public policy, alternative approaches
to regulations, and the sociological (individual and orga-
nizational behavioral) dimensions of human health and
23
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Chapter 4. Moving Forward to Implementation
This research strategy provides guidance and direction
for ORD's Pollution Prevention Research and Develop-
ment Program over the next five years. It is designed to
be the first step in what will become a world-recognized,
ORD capability in providing the tools, methodologies,
technologies, and approaches for advancing pollution
prevention in the context of sustainable development
well into the 21st century. The next step is to develop
and conduct projects meeting the "essential" and "desir-
able" criteria described in Chapter 2.
General Resource Trends
The enactment of the Government Performance and
Results Act (GPRA) in 1994 and its implementation by
EPA in FY 1999, places increased emphasis on goals
and objectives which are measurable and achievable.
With a greater emphasis on meeting the goals, objec-
tives, and subobjectives identified by the Agency in
response to GPRA, increased stability in resource allo-
cation and budgeting is anticipated. Pollution prevention
is part of the Agency's Sound Science Goal and is
described under that goal's Pollution Prevention and
New Technology (PPNT) Objective. All of the research
and development activities described in this research
strategy fall under one of several of the PPNT
Subobjectives.
The actual allocation of resources for the various objec-
tives and research and development activities described
in this research strategy is not specifically defined at this
time. However, it is reasonable to project trends based
on the information that has been presented in Chapter 3
(Table 3). Ultimately, the ability to sustain a research
and development program in pollution prevention under
GPRA will depend on the outputs and outcomes (e.g.,
products, accomplishments) described in the implemen-
tation plan and whether or not specific milestones have
been met in a timely manner. As with all types of
research and development programs, environmental re-
search and development can offer no guarantees of
success. Therefore, the resource trends identified in
Table 3 are projections subject to a number of influ-
ences both internal and external.
Engagement and Partnership
While not a key scientific or technical issue, it is clear
that engagement and partnering with a variety of stake-
holders will enhance the adoption of pollution preven-
tion. Pollution prevention frequently works best when
efforts at preventing pollution are collaborative, involving
many individuals and organizations that have a stake in
seeing it succeed. The Agency is moving from a com-
mand-and-control approach in protecting both human
health and the environment to one that is based on
environmental protection at the community level. As this
happens, it becomes important for ORD to more fully
engage a number of organizations in both the public and
private sectors that are receptive to and supportive of
pollution prevention research and development.
For pollution prevention to be adopted as the preferred
approach for environmental protection, it is essential
that ORD work more closely with individuals and organi-
zations that are directly involved in the implementation
of pollution prevention approaches. This is particularly
true for organizations that are influential in advancing
the concept and routine consideration and use of pollu-
tion prevention, in both the United States and around the
World. This includes EPA's Program Offices and other
stakeholders:
Various industrial sectors in order to provide tools
and technologies which employ pollution prevention
in a variety of economic sectors to improve compli-
ance, and then going "beyond compliance" where it
makes environmental and economic sense.
States, communities, and tribes, in order to better
understand those situations at the community level
where pollution prevention might best be employed.
Implementation of the strategy will also raise the
profile of pollution prevention as a routine part of the
Agency's approach to community-based environ-
mental decision making.
Federal organizations, in order to identify what re-
search and development is needed to enhance the
use of pollution prevention at federal facilities. Imple-
mentation of the strategy will also stress testing
pollution prevention tools, methodologies, technolo-
gies, and approaches at government sites where
they can be evaluated in real-world settings.
The international community, in order to exchange
information on pollution prevention research and
development and its implementation. Implementa-
tion of the strategy will also provide perspectives on
what other countries are doing to advance pollution
prevention in the broader context of sustainable
development, including the International Organiza-
tion for Standardization's ISO 14000 standards for
environmental management.
Delivery of Research and Development
Results
ORD will strive to deliver its pollution prevention re-
search and development results to the broadest pos-
25
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Table 3. Pollution Prevention Resource Trends for the Next Five Years (FY 1999 - 2003)
GOALS, OBJECTIVES, AND
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY STATUS
RESOURCE
TRENDS
Tools and Methodologies
Tools and methodologies that are user friendly
1. Integrate risk assessment and risk management
2. Develop broadly applicable tools and methodologies
3. Develop targeted tools and methodologies
Technologies and Approaches
Advanced, environmentally benign approaches
1. Advance Green chemistry for pollution prevention
2. Advance Engineering for pollution prevention
3. Improve Measurement, assessment, and feedback
techniques
Technologies and approaches that target problems
1. Address problems associated with global warmers
2. Address problems associated with VOCs and HAPs
3. Address problems associated with products used indoors
Pollution prevention for Agency and Program Office priorities
1. Address small companies that pose high risks
2. Support Agency pollution prevention activities
New Activity
Increased Emphasis
Continued Emphasis
Continued Emphasis
Continued Emphasis
Continued Emphasis
Continued Emphasis
Continued Emphasis
Increased Emphasis
Continued Emphasis
Continued Emphasis
Performance Verification
Performance verification of pollution prevention products and technologies
Continued Emphasis
Verify commercial-ready products, technologies, process
changes
Increasing
Increasing
Steady
Steady
Steady
Steady
Steady
Steady
Increasing
Steady
Steady
Decreasing
Social Science
Research to address the economic, social, and behavioral aspects of pollution prevention
Develop economic, social, and behavioral tools Increased Emphasis
Increasing
sible audience. The goal is to enhance the access to,
and use of, pollution prevention tools, methodologies,
technologies, and approaches. To this end, ORD will
use electronic technology (e.g., Internet home pages,
distance learning) to the maximum extent possible. Elec-
tronic delivery offers a cost-effective, widely available
means of delivering data, information, and results that
can be easily accessed by both the public and private
sectors. Pollution prevention research and development
results developed by ORD will be designed to be avail-
able electronically, and ORD intends to be a major
provider of pollution prevention research and develop-
ment products via the Internet.
ORD will also utilize pollution prevention technical assis-
tance organizations and industrial trade and profes-
sional organizations to transfer results. These organiza-
tions include the National Pollution Prevention Roundtable
(NPPR), NIST Manufacturing Extension Partnerships
(MEPs), the Business Roundtable (an organization of
26
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chief executives of the largest U.S. corporations), the
Small Business Assistance Programs and Small Busi-
ness Development Centers. Examples of trade and
professional organizations are the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, the American Electroplaters and
Surface Finishers Society, the Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association, and the Chemical Manufacturers As-
sociation.
A third and very important mechanism of results transfer
is the establishment of cooperative research and devel-
opment agreements (CRADAs) with private sector part-
ners. By having these agreements in place with ORD for
research products, companies can have exclusive rights
to newly developed pollution prevention technologies.
The profit motive provides strong incentives to compa-
nies with CRADA rights covering promising technolo-
gies and tools, to disseminate them through commer-
cialization. Private sector companies are also likely to
have skills in advertising new technologies and the
necessary credibility with potential users.
Implementation of this Research Strategy
This research strategy stresses the importance that
pollution prevention can play in addressing high-priority
human health and environmental risks. It does so within
a framework that is both visionary and pragmatic. It is
visionary in terms of seeing pollution prevention's role in
sustainable development, and it is pragmatic through its
orientation to meeting the more immediate needs of
ORD's important stakeholders, the Program Offices and
Regions. Over the next five years, ORD will continue on
the path laid out in this research strategy for performing
research to identify pollution prevention solutions to
environmental problems. In addition, as new areas of
possible research present themselves within this
timeframe, ORD will use the "essential" and "desirable"
criteria expressed in this strategy to evaluate whether its
involvement is appropriate.
27
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References
ACS (American Chemical Society). Technology Vision
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CEA (Council of Economic Advisors). Supporting
Research and Development to Promote Economic
Growth: The Federal Government's Role (Working
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econ/html/econ-top.html). (Washington, DC: CEA,
1995).
CENR (Committee on Environmental and Natural
Resources). A National R& D Strategy for Toxic
Substances and Hazardous and Solid Waste.
(Washington, DC: EPA, 1995).
Ehrenfeld, John R. and Jennifer Howard. "Setting
Environmental Goals: The View from Industry," in
National Forum on Science and Technology Goals:
Linking Science and Technology to Society's
Environmental Goals. (Washington, DC: National
Academy Press, 1996).
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Science
Advisory Board). "Report of the Pollution Prevention
Subcommittee Review of the ORD Draft Pollution
Prevention Research Plan: Report to Congress"
(EPA-SAB-EEC-89-037). (Washington, DC: EPA,
1989).
EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Science
Advisory Board). Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities
and Strategies for Environmental Protection (SAB-
EC-90-021). (Washington, DC: EPA, 1990).
EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).
Pollution Prevention Research Plan: Report to
Congress (EPA/600/9-90-015). (Washington, DC:
EPA, 1990).
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Pollution
Prevention Strategy. Federal Register 56:7849-7864.
February 26, 1991.
EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Science
Advisory Board). "Letter Report on Review of ORD's
Draft Pollution Prevention Research Strategic Plan."
(EPA-SAB-EEC-LTR- 92007). (Washington, DC:
EPA, April 21, 1992).
EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).
Pollution Prevention Research Program (EPA/600/
R-92/189). (Washington, DC: EPA, 1992).
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Pollution
Prevention Policy Statement. (June 13, 1993).
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), The New
Generation of Environmental Protection: EPA's Five-
Year Strategic Plan, (Washington, DC: EPA, 1994).
EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).
Strategic Plan for the Office of Research and
Development (EPA/600/R-96/059). Washington, DC:
EPA, 1996).
EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1994
Toxics Release Inventory: Public Data Release (EPA
745-S-96-002). (Washington, DC: EPA, 1996).
EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 7997
Update to ORD's Strategic Plan (EPA/600/R-97/
015). (Washington, DC: EPA, 1997).
EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).
Environmental Technology Verification Program:
Verification Strategy (EPA/600/K-96/003).
(Washington, DC: EPA, 1997).
EPA (a) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-Science
Advisory Board) An SAB Report: Review of ORD's
Pollution Prevention Research Strategy: Review of
the Office of Research and Development's Draft
Pollution Prevention Research Strategy by the
Environmental Engineering Committee (EPA-SAB-
EEC-98-008). (Washington, DC: EPA,1998).
EPA (b) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 7996
Toxics Release Inventory; Public Data Release -
Ten Years of Right-to-Know (EPA 745-R-98-005).
(Washington, DC: EPA, 1998).
EPA (c) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Clean
Water Action Plan: Restoring and Protecting
America's Waters (EPA-840-R-98-001).
(Washington, DC: EPA, 1998).
EPA-NRMRL (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).
Pollution Prevention Research Survey and
Opportunity Assessment: National Risk Management
Research Laboratory Internal Report. (1998).
Federal Register. Addition of Facilities in Certain Industry
Sectors; Toxic Chemical Release Reporting;
Community Right-to-Know^: 33588 - 33618, June
27, 1996).
Freeman, Harry, et. al. "Industrial Pollution Prevention:
A Critical Review," Journal of the Air and Waste
Management Association, Vol. 42, No. 5, 1992, pp.
618-656.
29
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Freeman, Harry. "Pollution Prevention: The U.S.
Experience," Environmental Progress, Vol. 14, No.4,
1995, pp. 214-219.
Habicht, Henry F., II, Deputy Administrator, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, "U.S. EPA
Memorandum: EPA Definition of Pollution
Prevention." May 28, 1992.
Hart, Stuart L. "Beyond Greening, Strategies for a
Sustainable World," Harvard Business Review,
January February 1997, pp. 66-76.
INFORM, Inc. Toxics Watch 1995. (New York, NY:
INFORM, Inc.) 1995.
NAS, et. al. (National Academy of Sciences), Allocating
Federal Funds for Science and Technology.
(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1995).
NCE (National Commission on the Environment),
Choosing a Sustainable Future: The Report of the
National Commission on the Environment.
(Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993).
NRC (National Research Council), National Forum on
Science and Technology Goals: Linking Science
and Technology to Society's Environmental Goals.
(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996).
NSTC (National Science and Technology Council),
Technology for a Sustainable Future: A Framework
for Action. (Washington, DC: NSTC, 1995).
PCSD (President's Council on Sustainable Development).
Sustainable America: A New Consensus for
Prosperity, Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment
for the Future. (Washington, DC: PCSD, 1996.
Pelley, Janet. "Environmental R&D Shifts to Pollution
Prevention," Environmental Science and Technology,
Vol. 31, A/o.3, 7997, pp.138-141.
Wallace, Lance A. The Total Exposure Assessment
Methodology (TEAM) Study: Summary and Analysis,
Vol. 1 (EPA/600/6-87/002a). (Washington, DC: EPA,
1987).
WCED (World Commission on Environment and
Development). Our Common Future, (New York:
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West Publishing Co. "Pollution Prevention Act of 1990
(PPA)," Section 13101(b). Published in Selected
Environmental Law Statutes 1991-92 Educational
Edition, St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1992),
pp. 1081-1085.
30
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Appendix I
EPA's Definition of Pollution Prevention (Habicht, 1992).
Under section 6602 (b) of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, Congress established a national policy that:
pollution should be prevented or reduced at the source whenever feasible;
pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmentally safe manner whenever
feasible;
pollution that cannot be prevented or recycled should be treated in an environmentally safe manner
whenever feasible; and
disposal or other release into the environment should be employed only as a last resort and should be
conducted in an environmentally safe manner.
Pollution prevention means "source reduction," as defined under the Pollution Prevention Act, and other
practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants through:
increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other resources, or
protection of natural resources by conservation.
The Pollution Prevention Act defines "source reduction" to mean any practice which:
reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste stream
or otherwise released into the environment (including fugitive emissions) prior to recycling, treatment,
or disposal; and
reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the release of such
substances, pollutants, or contaminants.
The term includes: equipment or technology modifications, process or procedure modifications, reformulation
or redesign of products, substitution of raw materials, and improvements in housekeeping, maintenance,
training, or inventory control.
Under the Pollution Prevention Act, recycling, energy recover, treatment, and disposal are not included within
the definition of pollution prevention. Some practices commonly described as "in-process recycling" may
qualify as pollution prevention. Recycling that is conducted in an environmentally sound manner shares many
of the advantages of preventionit can reduce the need for treatment or disposal, and conserve energy and
resources.
In the agricultural sector, pollution prevention approaches include:
reducing the use of water and chemical inputs;
adoption of less environmentally harmful pesticides or cultivation of crop strains with natural resistance
to pests; and
protection of sensitive areas.
In the energy sector, pollution prevention can reduce environmental damages from extraction, processing,
transport, and combustion of fuels. Pollution prevention approaches include:
increasing efficiency in energy use;
substituting environmentally benign fuel sources; and
design changes that reduce the demand for energy.
31
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Appendix II
Pertinent Data on TRI Chemicals Extracted from the
Toxics Release Inventory (EPA, 1996b).
1. A total of 2.26 billion pounds of listed chemicals were released with approximately 1,556 million pounds released to the
air (68.8%), 349 million pounds released underground (15.4%), 289 million pounds released to the land (e.g., landfills,
surface impoundments) (12.8%), and 66 million pounds released to surface waters (e.g, rivers, lakes, streams) (2.9%).
2. A total of 3.8 billion pounds of listed chemicals were transferred to off-site locations with approximately 2,456 million
pounds being sent for recycling (64.7%), 464 million pounds being sent for energy recovery (12.2%), 319 million pounds
sent for treatment (8.4%), 298 million pounds sent for disposal (7.8%), and 255 million pounds sent to publicly-owned
treatment works (6.7%).
3. The chemical industry (851 million pounds) and the primary metals industry (313 million pounds) were first and second
in total releases in 1994, and their order reversed (primary metals -1,142 million pounds and chemical industry (989
million pounds) for transfers.
4. Examples of chemicals released to the air methanol, toluene, ammonia, and xylene, released underground
hydrochloric acid, ammonium nitrate (solution), ammonia, and methanol, released to surface waters phosphoric acid,
ammonia, methanol, ammonium nitrate (solution), and released to the land zinc compounds, phosphoric acid, copper
compounds, and manganese compounds.
5. The top ten carcinogens with the largest air/water/land releases were in descending order of quantity: dichloromethane,
styrene, acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, chloroform, tetrachloroethylene, benzene, 1,3 butadiene, 1,2 dichloroethane, and
chromium for a total release of approximately 177 million pounds.
6. A total of 26.5 billion pounds of TRI chemicals in wastes were managed by facilities in the following ways: treated on-site
8,659 million pounds (32.6%), recycled on-site 8,407 million pounds (31.7%), energy recovery on-site 3,423
million pounds (12.9%), 2,515 million pounds released or disposed of 2,515 million pounds (9.5%), recycled of-site
2,517 million pounds (9.5%), treated off-site 557 million pounds (2.1%) and energy recovery off-site 469 million
pounds 1.8%).
7. Examples of chemicals involved in: recycling sulfuric acid (acid aerosols), copper, toluene, and lead compounds,
treatment hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid(acid aerosols) methanol, ammonia, energy recovery ethylene, propylene,
methanol, mixtures and other trade names, and release/disposal methanol, hydrochloric acid, ammonia, toluene.
8. Thirty-two percent of all TRI facilities reported at least one source reduction (pollution prevention) activity in 1994 with
reductions attributed to good operating practices, inventory control, spill and leak prevention, raw material modifications,
process modifications, cleaning and degreasing, surface preparation/finishing, and product modifications.
9. Since 1988, EPA's baseline year for TRI comparisons, releases have declined by 44.1% with the chemical industry
reducing releases by 622 million pounds, multiple codes by 304 million pounds and primary metals industry by 202 million
pounds.
10. The total releases from federal facilities was approximately 9.8 million pounds with 83.7% released to air, 9.2%
released to land, 4.5% injected underground, and 2.5% released to surface waters. The Department of Defense released
72.7% of the total releases followed by the Department of Energy at 9.9%, the U.S. Enrichment Corporation at 7.6%, the
Department of Agriculture at 5.8% and Others at 4.0%.
11. A total of 10.4 million pounds of listed chemicals transferred to off-site locations with approximately 5.2 million pounds
being sent for recycling (50.1%), 0.6 million pounds being sent for energy recovery (5.7%), 1.6 million pounds sent for
treatment (15.7%), 2.7 million pounds sent for disposal (25.5%), and 0.3 million pounds sent to publicly-owned treatment
works (3.0%). Of this amount, 94.5% of the transfers were by the Department of Defense of which 71.0% of that amount
was by Army facilities.
12. A total of 30.0 million pounds of TRI chemicals in wastes were managed by federal facilities in the following ways:
treated on-site 6.3 million pounds (21.0%), recycled on-site 4.1 million pounds (13.7%), energy recovery on-site
0.6 million pounds (2.1%), released or disposed of 11.5 million pounds (38.5%), recycled of-site 4.8 million pounds
(16.0%), treated off-site 2,1 million pounds (6.9%) and energy recovery off-site 0.5 million pounds 21.0%).
13. Federal facilities projected a decline in TRI chemicals in wastes to 24.4 million pounds by 1996. Forty-eight percent of
all federal facilities reported undertaking at least one source reduction activity in 1984.
32
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Appendix
Potential Adverse Human Health and Environmental Effects of the Top 25
TRI Chemicals with the Largest Air/Water/Land Releases, 1994 (EPA, 1996b).
\v
67-56-1 Methanol
7664-41-7 Ammonia J
108-88-3 Toluene
1330-20-7 Xylene (mixed isomers)
75-15-0 Carbon disulfide
Zinc compounds J
78-93-3 Methyl ethyl ketone
7664-38-2 Phosphoric acid
7647-01-0 Hydrochloric acid y0
75-09-2 Dichloromethane
7782-50-5 Chlorine J
Glycol ethers J
Copper compounds J
Manganese compounds J
100-42-5 Styrene
71-55-6 1,1,1-Trichloroethane
74-85-1 Ethylene
79-01-6 Trichloroethylene
71-36-3 n-Butyl alcohol
108-10-1 Methyl isobutyl ketone
7664-93-9 Sulfuric acid (acid aerosols)
Chromium compounds J
115-07-1 Propylene
463-58-1 Carbonyl sulfide J
Lead compounds J
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Compound categories do not have CAS numbers ().
Distinctions among cancer classifications are discussed
in the OSHA carcinogen section of this chapter.
Toxicity resulting from the metabolite or degradation
product of the parent compound.
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however, the extent of contribution to smog formation is
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Inorganic compounds.
Sources: Integrated Risk Management System, Hazard-
ous Substances Data Bank, PPT's Background Docu-
ments for Chemical Fact Sheets, EPCRA Section 313
Responses to Petitions, Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry's Toxicological Profiles, and
Environmental Health Perspective, Vol. 37, 1984.
33
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