United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Washington, DC 20460
EPA/600/R-98/154
February 1999
www.epa.gov/ORD
&EPA
Waste Research
Strategy
Barrels of waste
Improved disposal techniques
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EPA/600/R-98/154
February 1999
Waste Research Strategy
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Printed on Recycled Paper
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Notice
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use. The document cover includes an image (barrels) used under license
from Corel Stock Photos which is protected by the copyright laws of the U.S.,
Canada and elsewhere. The image is incorporated for viewing purposes only; it
may not be saved or downloaded for use other than as presented as part of the
cover of this publication.
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Foreword
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with
protecting the Nation's land, air and water resources. Under a mandate of na-
tional environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement ac-
tions leading to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability
of natural systems to support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA's
Office of Research and Development (ORD) is providing data and technical
support for solving environmental problems today and building a science knowl-
edge base necessary to manage our ecological resources wisely, understand
how pollutants affect our health, and prevent or reduce environmental risks in
the future.
The 1997 Update to ORD's Strategic Plan sets forth ORD's vision, mission,
and long-term research goals. As part of this strategic process, ORD used the
risk paradigm to identify EPA's top research priorities for the next several years.
The ORD Strategic Plan thus serves as the foundation for the research strate-
gies and research plans that ORD has developed, or is in the process of devel-
oping, to identify and describe individual high-priority research topics. Waste
research, particularly for contaminated sites, was identified by the ORD Strate-
gic Plan as an area of high importance that will continue to be a major part of
the ORD's research program.
This publication describes ORD's strategy for conducting a waste research
program. The strategy identifies broad waste research topic areas that need to
be addressed, and prioritizes the research activities associated with each. The
strategy is an important planning tool because it makes clear the rationale for
selection and prioritization of these research activities. This research strategy
is also an important accountability tool, enabling EPA to clearly track progress
toward achieving its research goals, as required by the 1993 Government Per-
formance and Results Act.
Norine E. Noonan, Ph.D.,
Assistant Administrator,
Office of Research and Development
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Peer Review
Peer review is an important component of research strategy development. The peer review history for
this research strategy is as follows:
Initial Internal Agency Review:
ORD Science Council:
Lead Reviewers:
Submitted for Comments
to the Committee on
Environmental and Natural
Resources - Agency
Principals and Subcommittee
Chairs
External Peer Review:
Reviewers:
Hilary I. Inyang, Chair
Stephen L. Brown
Barry Bellinger
Terry Foecke
James H. Johnson, Jr.
Richard Kimerle
Ishwar Murarka
Frederick Pohland
Lynne Preslo
Wm. Randall Seeker
Lauren Zeise
Coordinated by:
Final Acceptance by ORD:
ORD Executive Lead:
January 1997
May 1997
Robert Dyer, NCEA
GilmanVeith, NHEERL
June 1997
June 30 - July 3, 1997: Cincinnati, OH
University of Massachusetts
R2R2 Risks of Radiation and
Chemical Compounds
University of Dayton Research Institute
Waste Reduction Institute
Howard University
Independent Consultant
Electric Power Research Institute
University of Pittsburgh
Earth Tech
Energy and Environmental Research Corp.
California Environmental Protection Agency
EPA's Science Advisory Board,
Kathleen Conway, Designated Federal
Official
September, 1998
E. Timothy Oppelt, NRMRL
IV
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Table of Contents
Foreword iii
Peer Review iv
Figures vii
Tables vii
Acronyms viii
Executive Summary xi
Chapter 1. Introduction and Background 1
1.1 Research Strategy Purpose, Scope, and Structure 1
1.1.1 Purpose 1
1.1.2 Scope 1
1.1.3 Structure 1
1.2 Nature and Scope of the Problem 1
1.2.1 Hazardous and Solid Waste Management 1
Hazardous Waste Facilities 2
Solid Waste Management 2
Waste Combustion Facilities 2
Waste Management Costs 2
Oil Spills and Leaking Storage Tanks 2
1.2.2 Hazardous Waste Remediation (Superfund) 3
Waste Site Cleanup 3
Accidental Releases 4
1.3 Waste Research Program Mission, Goals and Resources 4
1.3.1 Mission Statement 4
1.3.2 Waste Research Goals 5
1.3.3 Relationship to Agency Goals 5
1.3.4 Relationship to ORD's Strategic Plan 5
1.3.5 Prior Research Strategies 6
CENR National Strategy 6
ORD Strategic Issue Plans 7
1.3.6 Research Program Funding Resources 7
Chapter 2. Setting Research Priorities 9
2.1 Process for Ranking Research 9
2.1.1 ORD Strategic Planning Process 9
2.1.2 Waste Research Strategic Planning Process 9
2.2 Application of the Waste Ranking Scheme 11
2.2.1 Identify Research Needs 11
2.2.2 Scope ORD's Research Strategy and Identify Research Topic Areas 11
2.2.3 Identify and Rank Research Activities 15
2.2.4 Determine How to Accomplish Research Activities 15
2.2.5 Prioritize Internal ORD Research Activities for Resource Allocation 16
2.3 Ranking Research Activities within Research Topic Areas 19
2.3.1 Ranking Research on Contaminated Sites 19
2.3.1.1 Ground Water 19
2.3.1.2Soils/VadoseZone 22
(cont.)
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Table of Contents (cont.)
2.3.2 Ranking Research on Active Waste Management and Combustion Facilities 23
2.3.2.1 Active Waste Management Facilities 23
2.3.2.2 Emissions from Waste Combustion Facilities 26
Chapters. Conclusions and Issues 31
3.1 Conclusions 31
3.2 Issues 32
References 35
Glossary of Terms 37
Appendices
A. Summary of Research Needs 39
B. Related Research Programs 51
C. Research Ranking Process 59
VI
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List of Figures
1-1. A Risk Paradigm Used by the Office of Research and Development 5
1-2. Translating ORD's Strategic Plan Into a Research Plan 6
2-1. Office of Research and Development Strategic Planning Process 10
2-2. ORD Waste Research Ranking Scheme 11
2-3. Setting Research Priorities 16
List of Tables
2-1. ORD Criteria for Evaluating and Ranking Potential Research Topics 9
2-2. Summary of Major Program Office and Regional Research and Support Needs 12
2-3. Research Activities Ranked within Each Research Topic Area 17
2-4. Selected ORD Waste Research Activities Ranked Across All Research Topic Areas 18
2-5. Focus and Ranking of Research Activities for Contaminated Sites - Ground Water 21
2-6. Focus and Ranking of Research Activities for Contaminated Sites - Soils / Vadose Zone 24
2-7. Focus and Rankings of Research Activities for Active Waste Management Facilities 26
2-8. Focus and Ranking of Research Activities for Emissions from Waste Combustion Facilities.. 29
3-1. Research Activities Unfunded in the Base Waste Research Program 34
VII
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Acronyms
AST Aboveground Storage Tank
ASTM American Society for Testing and Measurement
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
ATTIC Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center
AWMF Active waste management facility
BOAT Best demonstrated available technology
CA [RCRA] Corrective action
CAA Clean Air Act
CE Capillary electrophoresis
CEAM Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling
CEM Continuous emissions monitor[ing]
CENR Committee for Environment and Natural Resources
CEPPO Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office
CEQ Council on Environmental Quality
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
CRP Combustion research program
CSCT Consortium for Site Characterization Technology
DBP Disinfection by-product
DNAPL Dense non-aqueous phase liquid
DOD United States Department of Defense
DOE United States Department of Energy
DOE-OHER Department of Energy, Office of Health and Environmental Research
DOIT Develop Onsite Innovative Technology
DOS Differential absorption spectroscopy
DQO Data quality objective
DW Drinking water
EMAP Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program
EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
EPIC Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center
ESTCP Environmental Security Technology Certification Program
ETI Environmental Technology Initiative
ETV Environmental Technology Verification
FAME Fatty acid methyl esters
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FRAMES Framework for Regulatory Analysis and Management of Environmental Systems
FTE Full-time equivalent
FT-IR Fourier-transformed infrared
FY Fiscal year
GAO General Accounting Office
GC/AED Gas chromatography/atomic emission detection
GCL Geosynthetic clay liner
GHG Greenhouse gas
GPRA Government Performance and Results Act
GW Ground water
VIM
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GWRTAC Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center
HAP Hazardous air pollutant
HEAST Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables
HSRC Hazardous Substance Research Center
HSWA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
HWIR Hazardous Waste Identification Rule
IEM Indirect exposure methodology
INERT In -Place Inactivation and Natural Ecological Restoration
IRIS Integrated Risk Information System
ITER Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
ITVR Innovative Technology Verification Report
ITRC Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation working
ITVR Innovative Technology Verification Report
LDR Land Disposal Regulation
LIF laser-induced fluorescence
LIF Laser-induced fluorescence
LNAPL Light non-aqueous phase liquid
MACT Most achievable control technology
MARLAP Multi-Agency Radiation Laboratory Protocol
MARSSIM Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual
MCL Maximum Contaminant Level
MERA Multipathway Exposure and Risk Analysis
MITE Municipal Innovative Technology Evaluation
MS Mass spectrometer
MSW Municipal solid waste
MTBE Methyl-tertiary-butyl ether
NA Natural attenuation
NAPL Non-aqueous phase liquid
NCEA National Center for Environmental Assessment
NECI National Enforcement Investigation Center
NERL National Exposure Research Laboratory
NETAC National Environmental Technology Applications Center
NHEERL National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
NIEHS National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOAEL No observed adverse effect level
NPL National Priorities List
NRC (a) National Response Center; (b) National Research Council
NRMRL National Risk Management Research Laboratory
NTP National Toxicology Program
OERR Office of Emergency Response and Remediation
OMB Office of Management and Budget
OPA Oil Pollution Act
ORD Office of Research and Development
ORIA Office of Radiation and Indoor Air
OSP Office of Science Policy
OST United States Department of Energy Office of Science and Technology
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OSW Office of Solid Waste
OSWER Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OUST Office of Underground Storage Tanks
P2 Pollution prevention
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PBAA [Office of] Planning, Budgeting, Analysis, and Accountability
PBPK Physiologically based pharmacokinetics
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PCE Perchloroethane
PIC Product of incomplete combustion
PM Particulate matter
PRB Permeable reactive barrier
QA Quality assurance
QSAR Quantitative structure-activity relationship
RA Research area
RCI Rapid commercialization initiative
RCT Research Coordination Team
RFA Request for Application
ROD Record-of-decision
ROST Rapid optical screening tool
RTA Research topic area
RTDF Remediation Technologies Development Forum
S/S Solidification/stabilization
SAB Science Advisory Board
SAR Structure-activity relationship
SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SBIR Small Business Innovative Research
SERDP Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program
SFE Supercritical fluid extraction
SITE Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
STAR Science To Achieve Results
START Superfund Technology Assistance Response Team
SVOC Semi-volatile organic compound
TCE Trichloroethane
TCLP Toxicity characteristic leaching process
TIO Technology Innovation Office
TOE Total Organic Emission
TOF/MS Time-of-flight/mass spectrometer
TRD Technical resource document
TSAP Treatability Study Assistance Program
TSC Technical Support Center
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
USGCRP United States Global Climate Research Program
USGS United States Geological Survey
UST Underground Storage Tank
UXO Unexploded ordinance
VOC Volatile organic compound
XRF X-Ray fluorescence
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Executive Summary
Chapter 1. Introduction and Background
This document describes a strategy to focus waste research at
a national level to reduce the greatest risks to people and the
environment. This strategy builds upon the principles set forth
in the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and Office of Research and Development (ORD) strategic plans.
Key scientists, engineers, and environmental professionals were
engaged in its development to achieve real progress in meet-
ing the needs identified by the Office of Solid Waste and Emer-
gency Response (OSWER), Regional Offices, and other stake-
holders and to advance the state of the science. This strategy
identifies four research topic areas which correspond to the
major waste-related environmental problems (contaminated
ground water, contaminated soil/vadose zone, emissions from
waste combustion facilities, and active waste management fa-
cilities). The strategy prioritizes research activities that ORD
should undertake through Fiscal Year 2000 (FYOO).
This document is intended to be a "living document" and will be
updated as needed to remain current with identified customer
needs and the state of the science in waste research. The
research needs and priorities described in this document re-
flect decisions made in the latter half of Fiscal Year 1997 (FY97).
ORD's waste research program has continued to evolve since
then.
Purpose
The purpose of this strategy is to apply ORD's strategic prin-
ciples, goals, and ranking criteria to waste problems identified
by OSWER and other stakeholders to set priorities for waste-
related research. These priorities will be used to focus the ef-
forts of ORD sponsored research (including the use of grants)
and form the basis for EPA's coordination with other research
organizations and stakeholders.
Structure of the Plan
This report is organized into three chapters. Chapter 1 sum-
marizes the major waste problems facing the United States,
associated risks to human health and the environment, and costs
of proper management and cleanup. Chapter 2 contains the
essence of the strategy. It first lists waste research needs; then
describes the four environmental problem areas plus technical
support along with related research activities for each topic;
and finally presents the ranking of the activities with the ration-
ales for the rankings. The conclusions of the strategy are dis-
cussed in Chapter 3 along with outstanding issues that require
further evaluation.
Nature and Scope of the Problem
This strategy covers research necessary to support both the
proper management of solid and hazardous wastes, and the
effective remediation of contaminated waste sites. As such, it
responds to two major legislative mandates and large programs
within the USEPAThe Resource Conservation and Recov-
ery Act (RCRA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Re-
sponse, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, or
"Superfund") and their amendments.
The number of existing RCRA waste management facilities and
abandoned Superfund waste sites is very large and their po-
tential risks to human health may be significant because of nu-
merous releases of contaminants to the environment.
Abandoned waste sites present a risk to human health. The
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
found that some heavy metals, volatile organic compounds, and
other specific substances occur at levels of health concern in
the bodies of exposed people. ATSDR concluded that "uncon-
trolled hazardous waste sites and unplanned releases of haz-
ardous substances that constitute emergency events are a major
environmental threat to human health." (ATSDR, 1996)
Waste management and remediation also have major economic
impacts. The average remedial action cost at a Superfund site
was about $9 million per site in1996 (U.S. EPA, 1996a). One
report concluded that over the next 30 years, the nation as a
whole will spend $480 billion to $1 trillion, with a "best guess" of
$750 billion, cleaning up sites. (Russell etal., 1991, NRC, 1994).
Chapter 2. Setting Research Priorities
Priorities for waste-related research were set by using the gen-
eral strategic principles, methods, and criteria identified in the
ORD Strategic Plan and then adapting them to waste research
topics and activities. This entailed developing a ranking scheme
comprised of the following steps: (1) Identify research needs,
(2) identify Congressional directives, (3) identify research topic
areas and activities, (4) rank research activities, (5) determine
how to best accomplish research activities (internal expertise,
other areas within ORD, external coordination outside EPA,
grants), and (6) prioritize research activities for funding.
Identification of Research Needs
Research needs were identified from two major sources: those
identified by the Committee for Environment and Natural Re-
sources (CENR) that were relevant to the EPA's mission, and
those identified by the various programs within the Office of
Solid Waste and Emergency Response and the Regional waste
offices. The latter needs were sorted and categorized as either
higher, medium, or lower priority needs. Over one hundred
needs were identified during this exercise.
Identification of Congressional Directives
The Congress has directed ORD to conduct certain types of
Superfund related activities through legislation and appropria-
tions language. The Superfund Innovative Technology Evalu-
ation (SITE) Program was identified as having Congressional
direction included in appropriations' language.
XI
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Identification of Research Topic Areas and Associated
Research Activities
Four broad research topics were established in two categories
that represent the major waste-related research problems:
Contaminated Sites
1) Ground Water
2) Soils/Vadose Zone
Active Waste Management and Combustion Facilities
3) Active Waste Management Facilities
4) Emissions from Waste Combustion Facilities
Thirty-nine (39) research activities were identified to address
the major research needs in the four research topic areas.
Technical Supportto OSWER and the Regional Offices, although
not a specific environmental problem, was also identified as a
high priority need and a major activity of ORD. Since it is not
research, it is not discussed in this document.
Ranking of Research Activities
Using the three sets of ranking criteria identified in the ORD
Strategic Plan, ordinal rankings were developed forthe research
activities within each research topic area. Research activity
rankings were first developed based on science criteria only.
Uncertainty in risk assessment, efficacy and cost-effectiveness
of risk management technologies, and the broad applicability
of methods and models were the primary criteria in establish-
ing the science ranking. The final rankings (shown in paren-
theses next to each research activity in Table ES-1) also con-
sidered a number of other non-science factors (this final rank-
ing is referred to as the "Science Plus" ranking). Examples of
these other factors include: Administration priorities; CENR re-
search priorities; EPA Program Office priorities; regulatory or
legal mandates; Agency priorities; Congressional directives;
and FY98 area for new funding.
Determination of How to Best Accomplish
Research Activities
Prioritized research activities were considered to determine how
to best accomplish the activity and deliver a product to meet
the associated "need". Research activities that directly corre-
lated to the expertise, mission and goals of a particular ORD
Laboratory or Center were retained for ranking in step six. Ac-
tivities considered more appropriate for other research programs
within ORD or another Federal Agency were noted for coordi-
nation as appropriate. Activities that were most appropriate for
external grants were likewise noted for coordination into the
overall program.
Detailed development and prioritization of research topic areas
and activities related to epidemiological studies at waste sites
(conducted primarily by the Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry (ATSDR)) and nuclear, defense- and energy-
related wastes (activities primarily under the Departments of
Energy (DOE) and the Defense of Defense (DoD)) were not
done for this version of the Waste Research Strategy. Coordi-
nation with ATSDR, DOE, and DoD will be included in greater
detail in later revisions to this strategy.
Chapters. Conclusions and Issues
Conclusions
There is a large and diverse set of waste research needs that
span the spectrum of the risk paradigm. As a result, well inte-
grated research programs are needed for each of the four re-
search topic areas which have the goal of improving our as-
sessment, characterization and risk management capabilities.
Also, because there are insufficient resources available to meet
all these research needs, the process of ranking research top-
ics and activities is critical.
Four broad research topic areas relating to environmental prob-
lems were identified to cover the full range of waste-related
research. Priority research activities in each research topic area
are:
Contaminated ground water: The focus of the research ac-
tivities is on the issues of: improved risk assessment, char-
acterization and remediation of non-aqueous phase liquids
(NAPLs); the application and management of natural and
accelerated process for subsurface remediation; and the
demonstration and verification of innovative characterization
and remediation technologies.
Contaminated soil/vadose zone: The focus of research ac-
tivities is on the issues of improved exposure and risk as-
sessment of soils, the application and management of natu-
ral and accelerated process for remediation, and the demon-
stration and verification of innovative characterization and
remediation technologies in soils and the vadose zone.
Active waste management facilities: The focus of the research
activities proposed for this research topic area is on the sci-
ence needs related to the Hazardous Waste Identification
Rule (HWIR), especially in multimedia, multipathway model-
ing, and the development or estimation of toxicity values.
Emission from waste combustion facilities: The focus of re-
search in this topic areas is on the control and monitoring of
emissions, emissions fate process and transport modeling,
and indirect exposure and risk assessment methods and
models.
While there is much uncertainty, debate, and controversy about
the health and ecological risks posed by waste sites, there is
consensus that the economic impact of current waste manage-
ment and cleanup practices is clearly large. Within this context,
waste research should be viewed as a relatively small but valu-
able investment to save future expenditures.
Because of the multi-disciplined nature of waste-related re-
search, there are many organizations (across government, in-
dustry, and academia) actively involved in sponsoring research
activities. In order to maximize efficiency of effort and avoid
duplication, special efforts are needed to coordinate and lever-
age these research programs and activities.
ORD's current research program emphasizes risk management
research. There is a need to increase the relative amount of
risk assessment research in this program.
Issues
Several issues were identified that may require further atten-
tion.
The lack of risk characterization research
Future waste strategy development
Funding strategies
XII
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Table ES-1. Selected ORD Waste Research Program Activities.
Research
Topic Areas
(in Priority Order)
Contaminated Sites -
Ground Water
Contaminated Sites -
Soils/ Vadose Zone
Emissions from Waste
Combustion Facilities
Active Waste
Management Facilities
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES BY PARADIGM CATEGORIES
Risk Assessment
Exposure
Assessment
- Environmental Fate
and Transport
Modeling (7)*
- GW Exposure
Factors
/Pathways (21)
- Estimating Human
Exposure &
Delivered Dose (1)
- Estimating Soil
Intake and Dose -
Wildlife Species (3)
- Indirect Exposure
Characterization
Modeling (13)
- Indirect Pathway
Risk Assessment
Methods (11)
- Multimedia, Multi-
pathway Exposure
Modeling (14)
- Environmental Fate
and Transport;
Physical Estimation
(25)
Hazard
Assessment
- Mixtures Toxicology
(26)
- Ecological Risk
Assessment
Methods (38)
- Human Dose-
Response Models for
Mixtures (3)
- Ecological Screening
Tests to Measure the
Effectiveness of
Treatment (18)
- Mixtures Toxicology
(34)
- Movement of
Bioaccumulative
Chemicals in Food
Webs (33)
- Dose-Response of
Key Contaminants
(24)
- Developing
Provisional Toxicity
Values for
Contaminants (18)
Risk
Characterization
Risk Management
Remediation &
Restoration
- Natural Attenuation (2)
-Abiotic Treatment of
GW(9)
-BiotreatmentofGW(16)
- Containment of GW
(17)
- Demonstration
Verification of
Innovative Remediation
Technologies (27)
- Biotreatment of Soils (3)
-Containment of Soils
(18)
- Demonstration
Verification of
Innovative Remediation
Technologies (27)
- Abiotic Treatment of
Soils (31)
-Oil Spills (36)
Control
- Emissions
Prevention and
Control (12)
- Waste
Management (36)
Monitoring
- Subsurface
Characterization (6)
- Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
forGW(15)
- Demonstration
Verification of Field
Monitoring
Technologies (27)
- Field Sampling
Methods (8)
- Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
for Soils (9)
- Sampling Design (22)
- Demonstration /
Verification of Field
Monitoring
Technologies (27)
- Continuous
Emissions
Monitoring (CEMs)
Methods (23)
- Waste
Characterization
and Sampling (32)
* Equals the ordinal rank of each research activity across the entire Waste Research Program based on the "Science Plus" ranking factors.
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XIV
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Chapter 1. Introduction and Background
1.1 Research Strategy Purpose,
Scope, and Structure
This document describes a strategy to focus waste research at
a national level to reduce the greatest risks to people and the
environment and to make waste management more cost-effec-
tive. This strategy builds upon the principles set forth in the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
Office of Research and Development (ORD) strategic plans.
Key scientists, engineers, and environmental professionals
were engaged in its development to achieve real progress in
meeting the needs identified by the Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (OSWER), Regional Offices, and other
stakeholders, and to advance the state of the science. This
strategy identifies four research topic areas that correspond to
the major waste-related environmental problem: contaminated
ground water, contaminated soil/vadosezone, emissions from
waste combustion facilities, and active waste management
facilities. It also summarizes ORD technical support activities
needed to assist stakeholders.
This document is intended to be a "living document" and will
updated as needed to remain current with identified customer
needs and the state of the science in waste research. The
research needs and priorities described in this document reflect
decisions made in the latter half of Fiscal Year 1997 (FY97).
ORD's waste research program continues to evolve.
1.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this strategy is to apply ORD's strategic prin-
ciples, goals and ranking criteria to waste problems identified by
OSWER and other stakeholders to set priorities for waste-
related research. These priorities will be used to focus the
efforts of ORD research laboratories and ORDs external grants
program. It will also form the basis for EPA coordination with
other Federal agencies.
1.1.2 Scope
This strategy addresses waste-related environmental problems
that are of greatest importance from the perspectives of both
ORD's research ranking criteria and the program priorities of the
OSWER and the EPA Regions. The research activities de-
scribed herein are those involving the assessment and
remediation of contaminated sites (e.g., Superfund, RCRA,
corrective action [CA], underground storage tank and oil spill
sites), as well as the assessment and control of contaminant
releases from waste management (i.e., treatment, storage, and
disposal). A fourth important waste management research
area, pollution prevention, is addressed in a separate ORD
Research Plan (ORD, 1998). Also, contaminated sediments are
not explicitly addressed in this document because there is
separate ORD research planning activity for this topic (ORD,
1997c). Because it is an integral part of waste management,
ORD research planning activities for pollution prevention are
summarized in Appendix B.
ORD has significant personnel resources committed to waste
technical support and these activities are closely tied to ORD's
waste research program. These nonresearch activities are not
addressed in this strategy.
This research strategy represents the first comprehensive waste
research planning done by ORD. It addresses just research
funded in ORD's Waste Research Program. As indicated in
Chapter 3, there are other related research activities in ORD
which were not considered in the strategy but could be in future
strategies.
1.1.3 Structure
This strategy is divided into three chapters. Chapter I describes
major waste problems faced by the United States, and their
associated risks and risk management costs. This chapter also
describes the mission, goals and resources of the ORD Waste
Research Program, and the relationship of this research plan to
the ORD Strategic Plan. Chapter 2 describes waste research
needs identified by ORD, EPA's Program Offices, EPA Regions,
and others. Four research topic areas are identified along with
a set of research activities that ORD needs to carry out for each
topic area. These research activities are then prioritized based
upon a waste ranking scheme that uses ORD's strategic plan-
ning principles. Chapter 3 provides conclusions from the
strategic planning process and summarizes planning issues
that remain to be addressed.
There are three appendices. A summary of waste-related
environmental research needs is provided in Appendix A in six
tables, each describing research needs within one of the six
Committee on the Environment and Natural Resources (CENR)
risk paradigm categories (discussed in detail later in this chap-
ter). Appendix B provides a summary of other waste-related
research programs in ORD, OSWER, other Federal agencies,
and the private sector. Appendix C provides additional details
to the research ranking process outlined in Chapter 2.
1.2 Nature and Scope of the Problem
1.2.1 Hazardous and Solid Waste Management
In 1965, Congress passed the Solid Waste Disposal Act, the first
lawto require safeguards and encourage environmentally sound
methods for disposal of household, municipal, commercial, and
industrial refuse. Congress amended this law in 1970 by
passing the Resource Recovery Act and again in 1976 by
passing the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
Congress revised RCRA first in 1980 and again in 1984. The
1984 amendments (referred to as the Hazardous and Solid
Waste Amendments [HSWA]) significantly expanded the scope
of RCRA. The major sections of the statute are:
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Subtitle C, which establishes a program for managing
hazardous waste from generation to ultimate disposal.
Subtitle D, which establishes a program for managing
solid (primarily nonhazardous) waste, such as household
waste.
Subtitle I, which regulates toxic substances and petro-
leum products stored in underground tanks.
Hazardous Waste Facilities
A total of 400,000 facilities have reported generating RCRA
hazardous waste in the United States (OSW, 1993a). These
waste are regulated under RCRA Subtitle C. About 200 million
tons of hazardous waste are generated each year by the largest
generators (OSW, 1993b). While far fewer are active today,
historically more than 5,000 facilities have been involved in the
treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous waste. These
facilities, with approximately 100,000 solid waste management
units, are potentially subject to RCRA's cleanup program. One
study estimates that 2,200 of these facilities will have releases
to the environment which are likely to require corrective action
(OSW, 1993c). The study indicates that cleanup is driven by
ground water and soil contamination, and cancer or non-cancer
risks of concern are estimated to occur at between 1,900 and
2,200 hazardous waste management facilities. Roughly 500 of
these sites are estimated to have onsite ground water plumes
that are over 10 acres in area. Roughly 1,700 of these facilities
are projected to have significant contamination. Of the facilities
needing cleanup, 350 are estimated to have over 1 million cubic
feet of contaminated soil. EPA currently is addressing roughly
1,500 facilities under the RCRA corrective action program
(OSW, 1993c).
Solid Waste Management
Some waste streams not managed under RCRA Subtitle C
contain constituents that require safe management to protect
human health and the environment. Certain large-volume
categories of primarily non-hazardous waste include constitu-
ents, such as hazardous metals, that may pose serious risks to
exposed populations and cause extensive environmental dam-
age. Large-volume wastes include oil and gas industry waste,
mining wastes, waste created from fossil fuel combustion, and
cement kiln dust. Overall, approximately 6.1 billion tons of these
"special" wastes (as defined by the Bevel amendmentto HSWA)
are generated annually (Laws, 1996).
Further, about 72,000 facilities generate about 7.6 billion tons of
other industrial wastes each year (OSW, 1993a). These wastes
are managed in 3,300 industrial landfills and at other on- and
offsite management units. Information about many manufactur-
ing wastes, which include toxic organic and inorganic constitu-
ents, is limited in many cases.
Finally, the evidence from National Priorities List (NPL) shows
that even municipal landfills must be managed carefully to
prevent risks, since a number of them appear on the NPL.
Approximately 209 million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW)
are generated annually (OSW, 1995a); 127 million tons are
managed in 3,600 MSW landfills in the United States, and the
remainder is burned and recycled (OSW, 1996a).
Waste Combustion Facilities
In 1995, the United States incinerated approximately 48 million
metric tons of municipal, pathological, and hazardous wastes.
There were 211 municipal incinerators, 2,400 medical incinera-
tors, 160 hazardous waste incinerators, 136 industrial furnaces,
and 44 cement kilns burning waste materials in various U.S.
locations.
Concerns have been raised about emissions from waste com-
bustion facilities for a number of reasons: (1) these facilities can
emit significant amounts of toxic contaminants, such as dioxin,
furans, mercury, lead, cadmium, and products of incomplete
combustion; (2) these emissions become dispersed over large
geographic areas that often include large populations or impor-
tant food products (crops, animal, and dairy products); (3)
exposure occurs overseveral pathways and routes; and (4) high
levels of contaminants emitted from waste combustion facilities
(e.g., mercury) have been measured in soil and water adjacent
to waste combustion facilities.
While there is much scientific uncertainty about the actual risks
from contaminants emitted from waste combustion facilities, the
factors listed above are enough to influence public perception
and the press that these risks are very high and unacceptable.
Community protests at facilities such as Waste Technologies
Incorporated (WTI) in East Liverpool, Ohio, and at many
Superfund sites such as New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts,
and Bloomington, Indiana are examples.
Waste Management Costs
Waste management costs faced by the Nation are significant. It
is estimated to cost between $140 and $187 million per year for
hazardous waste combustion facilities to comply with proposed
Maximum Achievable Control Technologies (MACT) regula-
tions. (OSW, 1995b & 1996b) The potential cost savings from
implementing the proposed Hazardous Waste Identification
Rule (HWIR)for Industrial Process Wastes, which could exempt
some low-hazard wastes from Subtitle C requirements, are
estimated at over $100 million annually (OSW, 1995c).
Oil Spills and Leaking Storage Tanks
Spills and leaks of petroleum, petroleum products, and non-
petroleum oils are a serious problem affecting nearly every
community in the United States. Oil releases threaten public
health and safety through contamination of drinking water and
through fire and explosions, diminish air and water quality,
compromise agriculture, destroy recreational areas, waste non-
renewable resources, and cost the economy millions of dollars.
Oil spills harm the environment by killing fish, birds, wildlife, and
biota; they destroy habitat and food and produce toxic effects in
organisms and ecosystems (Laws, 1996).
Particular hazardous constituents of petroleum products have
received attention because of their toxicity. They include
benzene, MTBE (methyl-tertiary-butyl ether, a fuel additive
intended to reduce carbon monoxide emissions from automo-
biles), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Benzene
is volatile and is a carcinogen. MTBE is considered a potential
human carcinogen, is highly water soluble, and may not readily
biodegrade. Several of the PAHs found in heavier petroleum
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hydrocarbon blends (e.g., fuel oils) are carcinogenic or mu-
tagenic(IARC, 1989). The mobility, toxicity, and biodegradabil-
ity of PAHs varies depending upon the specific compound.
The magnitude and complexity of the problem are reflected in
our society's extensive reliance on petroleum, petroleum prod-
ucts and non-petroleum oils to fuel vehicles, heat buildings,
generate electricity, produce food, and manufacture a wide
variety of goods. The Department of Energy (DOE) reported
that approximately 212 million gallons of crude and 584 million
gallons of refined petroleum products were produced in, im-
ported to, or exported from the United States in 1994 (Energy
Administration, 1995). Our continued national reliance on oil,
the broad extent of its use, and the aging of our oil industry
infrastructure suggest that oil spills and leaks will continue to be
a serious problem in the future.
Much of the nation's petroleum and chemicals are stored in
underground storage tanks (USTs). At present, there are over
1.1 million active regulated USTs at over 400,000 sites across
the United States. Through September 1996, over 317,000
petroleum releases had been confirmed at about 40 percent of
the 750,000 UST facilities in existence in 1990. EPA anticipates
an additional 100,000 confirmed releases by the year 2000;
30,000 new releases are reported every year as owners and
operators are complying with EPA's 1998 requirements to
upgrade, replace, or close substandard USTs. Besides petro-
leum, there are approximately 30,000 regulated USTs that store
hazardous substances.
EPA also regulates about 450,000 aboveground oil storage
facilities for prevention, preparedness, and response purposes
(OERR, 1991). These facilities each have from one-to several-
hundred individual aboveground storage tanks (ASTs); each
AST may contain between 661 and 10 million gallons. Petro-
leum oil and refined products are transported through approxi-
mately 1.9 million miles of oil and gas pipeline and 152,000 miles
of liquid pipeline in the United States. In addition, large and
increasing amounts of non-petroleum oils are produced and
widely used in the generation of electricity, in food processing,
and in other industries throughout the country.
Annually, between 18,000 and 24,000 AST oil spills are reported
to the National Response Center (NRC) and EPA Regions, and
between 10 million and 25 million gallons are spilled per year
(OERR, 1996a). Many of these spills were largerthan 100,000
gallons in quantity; however, depending upon the location,
small spills also can cause great ecological damage.
1.2.2 Hazardous Waste Remediation (Superfund)
Problems with our nation's past mismanagement of hazardous
waste first gained widespread attention in the late 1970s.
Incidents such as the contamination of Love Canal in Niagara
Falls, New York, sparked widespread concern over hazardous
wastes. In response to this growing concern, Congress passed
the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation
and Liability Act (CERCLA) in 1980. This law, commonly known
as "Superfund," taxed the chemical and petroleum industries
and provided broad Federal authority to address the release or
threatened release of hazardous substances that may endan-
ger public health, welfare, or the environment. Over five years,
$1.6 billion was collected in a trust fund for cleaning up aban-
doned hazardous waste sites. In 1986, the Superfund Amend-
ments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) was signed into law.
SARA increased the trust fund to $8.5 billion over five years and
strengthened EPA's authority to conduct cleanup and enforce-
ment activities.
Waste Site Cleanup
EPA's Superfund program has screened hundreds of thou-
sands of sites and release incidents. A measure of the imme-
diacy of problems at sites is reflected in the work of the
Superfund emergency response program (the EPA "Removal"
program). Nearly 4,300 emergency actions have been initiated
to mitigate or eliminate immediate risks to human health and to
prevent future risks (OERR, 1996b). These actions have
reduced potential acute risks leading to death and injury, from
explosions, fire, and toxic vapor clouds.
Approximately 40,000 sites have been identified as potential
candidates forthe Federal Superfund remedial program (OERR,
1996b). To date, about 1,300 highest priority sites have been
assigned to the NPL, and additional sites are being studied to
determine whether NPL listing is necessary. The NPL sites
represent approximately 3 million acres in total area. The
problem is not static; new sites are constantly being proposed to
EPA and the states. The size of this unaddressed problem was
recently estimated by the General Accounting Office (GAO),
which projected that a cap on the federal NPL might leave the
states with 1,400 to 2,300 NPL-caliber sites to clean-up, at a total
cost of $8.4 to $19.9 billion (Sands, personal communication,
1996).
The seriousness of contamination at Superfund sites is exhib-
ited by actions taken to remove populations fromthe immediate
threat of contaminants at sites. The Superfund program has
relocated, temporarily or permanently, almost 15,000 residents.
It also has provided alternative drinking water supplies to
approximately 350,000 people (OERR, 1996c).
Federal facilities represent another important class of waste
disposal sites where serious contamination has been identified.
An estimated 61,000 potential hazardous- substance release
sites exist at over 2,000 federal facilities (U.S. CEQ, 1993).
Contamination at remedial sites involves substances of signifi-
cant concern to EPA both because of their cancer and non-
cancer hazards. Forexample, lead and PCS contamination are
common problems addressed bythe remedial program. Unsafe
concentrations of benzene, several chlorinated solvents, mer-
cury, creosote, toluene, and other highly hazardous substances
often are encountered. The Superfund program also confronts
risks posed by substances such as DDT or chlordane that no
longer are produced commercially but persist in the environ-
ment.
The existence of a hazardous contaminant in the environment
does not in itself demonstrate an actual or potential threat to
human health by exposure. There are reasons for serious
concern. ATSDR estimates that about 11 million people live
within one mile of the 1,200 NPL sites studied (Williams and
Lybarger, 1996). In addition, approximately 68 million people
live within four miles of these NPL sites and approximately 65
percent of the sites have identified ground water contamination
-------
problems (Sands, personal communication, 1996). Further,
ATSDR (1996) also reported:
Exposure assessment studies conducted by ATSDR
during this reporting period show that some heavy
metals, volatile organic compounds, and other specific
substances occur at levels of health concern in the
bodies of exposed people. Compounds such as lead,
arsenic, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls, and
bromides are found at significant levels in people
near some hazardous waste sites. Taking these
health findings in the aggregate, ATSDR concludes
that uncontrolled hazardous waste sites and
unplanned releases of hazardous substances that
constitute emergency events are a major
environmental threat to human health. Although there
remain significant gaps in the scientific database on
the extent of human exposure to hazardous
substances released from sites, and key toxicological
data gaps still exist, progress has been made in
better characterizing both the exposure and toxicity
data bases. The human health finding accrued to
date support the need for interdicting human exposure
and mitigating toxicity of hazardous substances
released from hazardous waste sites and similar
sources of exposure.
EPA has defined an acceptable human health risk range for
carcinogens (10~4 to 10~6 excess cancer risk) and a threshold of
concern for non-carcinogens (hazard index of 1) for Superfund
sites. At most Superfund sites, risks exceed acceptable levels,
and action is taken. The cancer risk exceeded EPA's accept-
able range in 80 percent of sites where decisions were made in
1991, and it exceeded 10-2 at approximately 25 percent of these
sites. Another recent finding is that non-carcinogenic risk
represents a very significant portion of the risk addressed bythe
Superfund program. The hazard index exceeded 1 at 75
percent of the 1991 sites for which decisions were made. At half
ofthese sites, the hazard index was above 10, and at 15 percent
of the sites it was above 100. Data from Superfund risk
assessments completed from 1989 to 1995 at 380 Superfund
sites show similar results (Walker, 1995; OERR, 1995).
The costs of assessment and remediation of contaminated sites
are large. The average remedial action cost alone at a Superfund
site remediation is about $9 million per site (U.S.EPA, 1996a).
A 1994 report by the National Research Council (1994) on
ground water cleanup reviewed available data on the national
cost of contaminated site remediation:
In part because of the wide variation in contaminated
sites and because the total number of sites is
uncertain, estimating the total national costs of
cleaning up contaminated ground water is extremely
difficult. One recent, widely publicized report
concluded that over the next 30 years, the nation as a
whole will spend $480 billion to $1 trillion, with a "best
guess" of $750 billion, cleaning up ... sites. With 90
million households in the nation, this represents a
cost of $8,000 per household. Another recent report
concluded that by the year 2000, the nation will be
spending nearly $24 billion per year complying with
requirements for hazardous waste and underground
storage tank cleanup under RCRA and site cleanups
under CERCLA. Some contest the accuracy of such
cost estimates because of the high level of uncertainty
associated with the magnitude of the contamination
problem and the large number of assumptions
underlying the estimates. Nevertheless, the potential
enormity of the costs has fueled the debate about
whether the benefits the nation will receive from
ground water cleanup at hazard waste sites justify
the costs.
Improved site characterization can reduce cleanup costs, by
millions of dollars, by better defining the volumes of soils that
really need to be remediated. At a site in Missouri, $6 million was
saved because an improved ORD sampling design for the site
more accurately defined the location of significant contamina-
tion. Similarly, millions of dollars can be saved bythe application
of innovative remediation technologies. A 1996 analysis of 46
Records of Decision (RODs) that applied innovative technolo-
gies of the type tested in the EPA Superfund Innovative Tech-
nology Evaluation (SITE) program showed an average of $30
million saved per ROD compared to the cost of using conven-
tional cleanup technologies (Gatchett, 1998).
Accidental Releases
In 1995, approximately 17,000 accidental release reports in-
volving chemicals were made to the National Response Center
(NRC, 1996). These accidents occur during the transport of a
chemical, in the manufacturing process, orwhile the chemical is
being employed as an end product.
As a way of understanding the magnitude of the problem, the
National Environmental LawCenter(1995) has calculated "worst
case scenarios" for accidents involving approximately 10,000
U.S. manufacturing companies. They have concluded that
close to 45 million Americans live in zip codes containing
facilities with vulnerable zones extending outward more than
three miles from the facility. This analysis may underestimate
potential exposure, since it does not address populations vul-
nerable to transportation accidents.
1.3 Waste Research Program Mission,
Goals and Resources
1.3.1 Mission Statement
The mission of the ORD Waste Research Program is to:
Perform research and development to identify, under-
stand, and solve current and future problems related to
the handling and disposal of hazardous wastes and the
characterization and remediation of contaminated waste
sites.
Interpret and integrate scientific information to help
organizations make better decisions about handling and
treating of hazardous wastes.
Provide national leadership in addressing emerging
hazardous waste issues and in advancing the science
and technology of risk assessment and risk management
as they relate to hazardous wastes.
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1.3.2 Waste Research Goals
1.3.3 Relationship to Agency Goals
The five scientific and technological goals of this research plan
are:
To advance the science of risk assessment to support
hazardous waste management and remediation of con-
taminated sites, including:
Understanding the effects of exposures to hazardous
wastes on human health and ecological systems.
Developing processes for predicting and measuring
exposure to humans and ecological systems, and
uncovering the processes leading to those exposures.
Estimating risk and characterizing and communicating
those estimates.
To develop, demonstrate, and evaluate more cost-effec-
tive, innovative technologies for controlling of hazardous
wastes, site characterization, and remediation.
To advance the science of monitoring and predicting envi-
ronmental concentrations and effects and the fate and
transport of toxic material.
To provide technical assistance to ensure that innovative
approaches to site assessment, characterization, and
remediation are applied in a consistent and effective man-
ner.
To lead in areas of ORD capability by providing, develop-
ing, and maintaining a highly respected research program
that reflects the concerns of stakeholders.
Recently Congress passed the Government Performance and
Results Act (GPRA) requiring each agency to submit an annual
performance plan covering each program activity set forth in the
agency's budget. In response to GPRA, EPA developed pro-
grammatic goals, objectives and subobjectives. OSWER has
developed a "Safe Waste Management" goal that has two
objectives (contaminated waste sites and waste management)
for which ORD has developed subobjectives:
ORD Safe Waste Subobjective 1.6 - Contaminated Sites.
ORD Safe Waste Subobjective 2.6 - Active Waste Man-
agement Facilities.
The research topic areas described in Chapter 2 of this research
strategy are divided between these two subobjectives.
1.3.4 Relationship to ORD's Strategic Plan
ORD has developed a strategic process for planning research
that follows the risk assessment paradigm (Figure 1-1) and sets
research priorities (ORD, 1997a). Figure 1-2 shows the steps
recommended to translate the strategic guidance of ORD's
Strategic Plan into ORD research activities. The first step is the
development of research science plans (or research strategies).
Each such plan or strategy deals with a selected research topic,
such as waste, and is expected to:
Describe the major research components and directions
ORD will pursue over the next few years.
Identification of Future Problem,
Initiating Event, or Public Policy Mandate
Risk Management
Formulate the Problem
Dose-Response
Assessment
Define Risk Management
Objectives
Risk Assessment
Hazard Risk
Identification Characterization
Identify and Evaluate
Risk Management Options
Exposure
Assessment
Risk Management
Decision
Develop Compliance
Assurance Models and Methods
Implement Option(s)
Develop Measures of
Environmental and
Public Health
Improvement
Monitor
.. Environmental
and Public Health
Improvement
Public Health
Considerations
Statutory and Legal
Consideration
Social Factors
Economic Factors
Political
Considerations
Reduced Environmental
and/or
Public Health Risk
Figure 1-1. A risk paradigm used by the Office of Research and Development (Source:
ORD, 1997a).
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Describe how these components fit into the risk paradigm. 1.3.5 Prior Research Strategies
Delineate the major outputs expected to be produced over
the next three years.
The ORD Strategic Plan also identifies general goals, long-term
objectives, and activities to meet these objectives.
The Waste Research Strategy contains these components of a
research strategy and is consistent with, and builds upon, the
goals and objectives of the ORD Strategic Plan.
Previously, a number of research plans and strategies related to
hazardous waste have been produced and they contributed to
the identification of research needs in this strategy.
CENR National Strategy
The most current and important federal strategy was the
President's National Science and Technology Council through
its Committee on the Environment and Natural Resources
ORD's Strategic Plan
Objectives
1
Activities to
Meet the
Objectives
EPA Program and Regional Office Involvement
External Scientific Community Involvement
Figure 1-2. Translating ORD's Strategic Plan into a research plan (Source: ORD, 1997a).
6
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(CENR). This group published A National R&D Strategy for
Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Solid Waste (CENR,
1995). This is the first consensus Federal "framework" for
research in this area.
The CENR strategy has adopted "risk" as the organizing theme.
Consequently, the three sections of that strategy are: Risk
Assessment; Managing Risks from Toxic Substance and Wastes;
and, Social and Economic Aspects of Risk Management. Each
of these is further divided as shown below:
Risk Assessment
Hazard Assessment
Exposure Assessment
Risk Characterization
Risk Management
Pollution Prevention
Control
Remediation
Monitoring
Social and Economic Aspects of Risk Management
For each of the three major sections, the CENR strategy
discusses a conceptual framework, the current state of under-
standing, research priorities, and a set of milestones for 1995
through 1999.
The ORD Waste Research Strategy uses the CENR structure to
organize research needs and proposed research activities.
(The CENR "Hazard Assessment" research category incorpo-
rates both hazard identification and dose-response assessment
activities in ORD's risk paradigm.) Also, the CENR report is one
source of research needs addressed by this Waste Research
Strategy. Adopting the CENR framework and considering
priority CENR research needs, helps to insure consistency of
Waste Research Strategy with other Federal waste research
programs.
ORD Strategic Issue Plans
During the early 1990s, ORD conducted research planning by
developing topical "issue plans." The four issue plans most
relevant to the current waste research planning activity are the
Hazardous Waste Issue Plan (ORD, 1993a), the Surface
Cleanup Issue Plan (ORD, 1993b), the Bioremediation Issue
Plan (ORD, 1993c), and the Ground Water Issue Plan (ORD,
1993d). These issue plans summarize much of the ORD
perspective on waste research priorities at the beginning of the
development of this document.
1.3.6 Research Program Funding Resources
In Fiscal Year 1998 (FY98) ORD had a total of $23.2 million
available to its Waste Research Programto conduct riskassess-
ment and risk management research on contaminated sites and
active waste management facilities. These funds were avail-
able for: a) the conduct of waste research by EPA staff
(excluding salaries, travel, etc.); and, b) extramural grants
programs directly administered by the EPA. Of this total,
contaminated sites research was funded at $21.7 million with
approximately 80 percent of the funds being applied to risk
management research and 20 percent of the funds being
applied to risk research. Active waste management facilities
research was funded at $1.5 million, with an approximately 157
85 split of funds between riskmanagementand risk assessment
research.
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Chapter 2. Setting Research Priorities
Research needs invariably exceed resources available to sup-
port them, and decisions must be made about which needs to
pursue. This section describes howthe selection and prioritization
of waste research fits into ORD's strategic planning process,
what are the waste research needs, how waste research priori-
ties were developed, and what are the resulting priorities.
2.1 Process for Ranking Research
The ranking of waste research builds upon ORD's Strategic Plan
(ORD, 1997a) by refining the priority setting process and adding
some additional criteria based upon waste-specific strategic
considerations.
2.1.1 ORD Strategic Planning Process
In ORD's Strategic Plan (Figure 2-1), potential research topics
are evaluated by determining whether they are mandated (by
the Executive, Congress, orthe courts) and if they are consistent
with ORD's mission and goals. Topics that remain are ranked
and a determination made as to whether ORD can make a
significant research contribution to these areas. The three sets
of criteria for evaluating and ranking potential research topics
are: Human Health and Ecological Health Criteria, Methods/
Models Criteria, and Risk Management Criteria (Table 2-1).
These criteria are to be applied to research topics to compare
their potential to support effective risk reduction.
2.1.2 Waste Research Strategic Planning Process
To facilitate the identification and ranking of waste-specific
research, ORD developed a process called the Waste Research
Ranking Scheme (Figure 2-2). ORD first identified waste re-
search needs based on several sources, resulting in a lengthy
list of varying degrees of specificity. Preliminary determinations
were made on who should address these needs, another
Federal agency, other ORD research programs, or the ORD
Waste Research Program itself. Based on an evaluation of
these research needs, ORD identified major waste-related
environmental problems that it could address and defined these
as "research topic areas" (RTAs). The RTAs in the Waste
Research Strategy are: Contaminated Sites - Ground Water,
Contaminated Sites - Soil/Vadose Zone, Emissions from Waste
Combustion Facilities, and Active Waste Management Facili-
Table 2-1. ORD criteria for evaluating and ranking potential research topics.*
Human Health and Ecological
Health Criteria
Methods/Models Criteria
Risk Management Criteria
What type of effect would the
research investigate / mitigate
and how severely might this ef-
fect impact humans or ecosys-
tems?
Over what time scale might this
effect occur?
How easily can the effect be
reversed, and will it be passed
on to future generations?
What level of human or ecologi-
cal organization would be im-
pacted by the effect?
On what geographic scale might
this effect impact humans or eco-
systems?
How broadly applicable is the
proposed method or model ex-
pected to be?
To what extent will the proposed
method or model facilitate or im-
prove risk assessment or risk
management?
How large is the anticipated user
community for the proposed
method or model?
Have the problem's source(s)
and risk been characterized suf-
ficiently to develop risk manage-
ment options?
Do risk management options
(political, legal, socioeconomic,
or technical) currently exist?
If so, are they acceptable to
stakeholders, implementable, re-
liable, and costeffective?
Could new or improved techni-
cal solutions prevent or mitigate
the risk efficiently, cost-effec-
tively, and in a manner accept-
able to stakeholders?
Are other research organizations
(e.g., agencies, industry) cur-
rently investigating / developing
these solutions or interested in
working in partnership with ORD
on the solutions?
* Criteria used as "Science" Ranking Criteria in this strategy.
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External Scientific Community Input:
EPA Science Advisory Board
National Research Council
Other Government Agencies
Private Sector
ORD National Labo
EPA Progr
EPA Regio
Research Coor
- Identify Resej
Evaluate Rese
stories and Centers
am Offices
nal Offices
dination Council
arch Topics and
arch Products
Yes
Reject
for ORD
Funding 2
Is the Topic
Within ORD's
Mission and
Goals?
Is the
Topic Clearly
Mandated? 1
Yes
Apply Evaluation Criteria:
Human Health/Ecological Health
(Use Comparative Risk Analyses
as Appropriate)
Risk Management
Methods/Models
Prioritized Research
Topics
Reject
for ORD
Funding 2
Can
ORD Make
a Significant
Contribution?
Determine Research Needs:
Effects
Exposure
Risk Characterization
Risk Management
Conduct External
Peer Review of
Extramural
Research
Proposals
Conduct Research
(In-house, Grant, Coop. Contract, etc.)
Research Products
1 If so, EPA may have no discretion to reject or delay this research.
2 EPA program offices and regions may still choose to fund, using ORD labs, grants, contracts, etc., or a
research sourse outside of ORD.
Figure 2-1. Office of Research and Development strategic planning process (Source: ORD, 1997a).
10
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Needs Input
OSWER, ORD,
Regions, CENR
Strategy, & Others
Identify Research
Needs
Scope ORD's Research
Strategy & Identify
Research Topic Areas
V J
Identify & Rank
Research Activities
Determine How to
Accomplish
Research Activities
Prioritized Internal
ORD Research
Activities for
. Resource Allocation /
Figure 2-2. ORD waste research ranking scheme.
ties. All of these RTAs are discussed in detail later in this
chapter. For each RTA, ORD identified a set of "research
activities" that needed to be carried outto address uncertainties
associated with the particular environmental problem. These
research activities were evaluated and ranked within each RTA
using the same three sets of criteria identified in Table 2.1.
These criteria were considered when ranking the research
activities and formed the basis of the "science" ranking criteria
(see Section 2.2.3).
Throughout this process, research needs and research activi-
ties were organized using a slight modification of the risk
paradigm organizing principles from the CENR strategy. Six of
the CENR categories were used: three were risk assessment
categories: hazard assessment, exposure assessment, and
risk characterization and the otherthree were risk management
categories: control/management, remediation, and monitoring.
Pollution Prevention and Social and Economic Aspects of Risk
Management were not used since they are outside the scope of
this research plan.
2.2 Application of the Waste Ranking
Scheme
The purpose of this section is to describe what research needs
were identified, howthe research priorities were developed, and
what the resulting priorities were. The multi-step approach to
waste ranking is outlined in Figure 2-2 and discussed below.
2.2.11dentify Research Needs
Research needs were identified from three sources: 1) those
identified by the CENR that were relevant to the EPA's mission;
2) those identified by the individual Program and Regional
Offices; and 3) those identified by ORD. The majority of research
needs are based on material provided by OSWER at the Waste
Research Program Review in December 1996. Additional
information on research needs from all three sources is provided
in Appendix A.
The OSWER and Regional research needs are summarized in
Table 2-2. Generally, OSW identified hazardous waste com-
bustion, multimedia science, waste technology, and pollution
prevention/derived waste products as their four highest priority
areas. They also identified human health sciences, ecological
risk, socioeconomic, methods, and technical assistance for
corrective action as high priority. OERR's highest priorities for
support and research have been consistently site-specific tech-
nical support, risk assessment support, innovative site charac-
terization technologies, and site remediation/cleanup technolo-
gies. Research priorities from OUST are focused on corrective
action. The Technology Innovation Office (TIO) identified priori-
ties related to continuation of the Superfund Innovative Technol-
ogy Evaluation (SITE) Program and research in the areas of
bioavailability and natural attenuation. The Chemical Emer-
gency Preparedness and Prevention Office (CEPPO) has iden-
tified research related to the accidental large-scale release of
gases and liquids and support of the DOE spills facility in
Nevada. The Regional Offices have identified needs related to
indirect exposure from waste combustion, natural attenuation,
development of measurement and risk assessment tools, site-
specific technical support and training courses and seminars as
their highest priorities.
2.2.2 Scope ORD's Research Strategy and Identify Re-
search Topic Areas
In determining the scope of research to be addressed in this
strategy, ORD limited itself to waste streams and related envi-
ronmental problems that are of significant priority to the Agency,
particularly OSWER and the Regions. This decision recognizes
thatthere are numerous high priority waste-related environmen-
tal problems which the Agency has to address and ORD has only
limited resources to conduct related research. As a result, the
research needs addressed by this strategy fall into two broad
categories of environmental problems: contaminated sites and
active waste management facilities.
For contaminated sites the principal emphasis is on those within
the Federal Superfund, RCRA Corrective Action, and LIST
programs. Environmental problems from oil spills are also
considered. Sites in these Federal programs are usually the
most contaminated in the nation, and results of research on
them should have wide applicabilitytoothersit.es, suchasthose
11
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Table 2-2. Summary of major program office and regional research and support needs.
Program
Office
Higher Priority
Needs
Medium Priority
Needs
Lower Priority
Needs
osw
Hazardous Waste Combustion, including
- Dioxin/Furan Emissions
- Surrogates and CEMs for HAPs,
Dioxins, and Furans
- Technical Support for Combustion
Issues
- Speciation Methods for PICs
- Air Deposition Models
- Indirect Exposure Bioaccumulation
through the Food Chain
Human Health Sciences
- IRIS/HEAST Data Base Updates
- Alternative Endpoints
- QSAR/SAR Methodology
Development
Ecological Risk
- Ecotoxicity Screening Levels,
Bioavailability Mechanisms
- Improved Screening Tools
Multimedia Science, including
- Improve Multimedia Models and
Data Bases
- Validation / Verification of Fate and
Transport Models (Multimedia and
Indirect Exposure Portions)
- Subsurface Biodegradation Rates
- Enhance Subsurface Models to
Include Fractured Flow
Socioeconomic
- Risk Tolerance Thresholds for
Exposed Populations
- Engineering/Costing Support
- Contingent Valuation
Waste Technology, including
- Stability/Bioavailability of
Constituents in Waste Derived
Products
- Chemistry of Waste Leaching-
Improve TCLP
- Treatment Alternatives for Mercury
- Efficacy of Waste Solidification /
Stabilization Technologies
- Natural Attenuation, Permeable
Reaction Barriers
- Innovative Site Characterization
Technologies
Methods
- Speciation of Arsenic and Selenium
- Pesticide Methods Development
(GC/AED)
- PAHs by Capillary Electrophoresis
Technical Assistance for Corrective
Action
Pollution Prevention / Waste Derived
Products, including
- Source Reduction / Recycling for
Processes that Generate the Most
Toxic Wastes
- Technologies for Reducing Barriers
to Recycling
- Source Reduction for Combustion
Wastes
12
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Table 2-2. (Continued).
Program
Office
Higher Priority
Needs
Medium Priority
Needs
Lower Priority
Needs
Regions
(RCRA Needs)
Particle Size Distribution Testing
Methods in Support of Air Modeling
Develop Ecological Risk Screening
Values for Various Exposure Scenarios
Natural Attenuation for Chlorinated
Solvents
- Improve the Total Organic Emission
(TOE) Test Methods
- Enhance Dry Gas Air Dispersion
Models
- Enhance Guidance on Synergistic
Effects When Deal with Mixtures
(Low Priority)
- Fill Data Gaps in IRIS and HEAST
Databases
- Ecological Toxicity Mechanisms of
Action for Endocrine Disrupters
- Improved Biotransfer and Uptake
Factors for Risk Assessments
- Modify TCLP to Address Oily Wastes
- Develop a Test for Corrosivity of a
Solid
- Develop a Test for Ignitability of a
Solid
- Develop a Test to Evaluate the
Permanence of Stabilized Wastes
OERR
Site Specific Technical Support
- Technical Support Centers
- Environmental Photographic
Interpretation Center (EPIC)
- START
- Center for Exposure Assessment
Modeling)
- Establish a Technical Support
Center for Ecological Risk
Assessment
- Technology Transfer - Seminars
and Courses
- Program Office Support
Presumptive Remedies, Soil
Screening, etc.
- Technology Transfer - ATTIC, etc.
Site Remediation Research
- Ground Water Containment
- DNAPL Remediation Methods
- Subsurface Reaction Walls
- Phytoremediation
Oil Spills Research
- Technical Correction on Swirling
Flask Test for Dispersants
- Develop Surface Washing
Effectiveness Test
Oil Spills Research
- Develop Bioremediation
Strategies
- Ecological Impacts of
Countermeasures
13
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Table 2-2. (Continued).
Program
Office
OERR (cont.)
Regions
(Superfund
Needs)
OUST
TIO
CEPPO
Higher Priority
Needs
Site Characterization Research
- Ground Water DNAPL
Characterization
- Natural Attenuation/in situ
Bioremediation Site
Characterization and Process
Research
- Ground Water Modeling
Risk Assessment Research
- Ecological Significance
- Benefits versus Habitat
Destruction
- Dermal Toxicity Values
- Bioavailability of Metals and
Organics - Soil
- Improved Exposure Assessment
- Improved Dose-Response
Assessment
- Pb Uptake / Models
- Dermal Exposure Model
- Site-specific Technical Support
- Training Courses and Seminars
- Remediation Design and Field
Construction Support
- Develop Alternative Approaches
using Immunoassay and Bioassay
Tools
- Develop Ecologically-based
Screening Values
- Natural Attenuation
- MTBE Treatment
- Fate and Transport Models for Risk-
based Corrective Action
Superfund Innovative Technology
Evaluation (SITE) Program
- Remediation Technologies
- Monitoring / Characterization
Technologies
Consortium for Site Characterization
Technologies
Bioavailability of Families of
Contaminants
Metrics for Evaluation of In situ
Technologies
Models to Predict the Efficacy of Natural
Attenuation
- Support DOE Spill Test Facility
Hazard Analysis Support - Large-scale
Releases of Gases and Liquids
Medium Priority
Needs
Site Characterization Research
- Analytical Methods for
Bioaccumulative Chemicals
- Analytical Methods and QA for
Complex Mixtures
Risk Assessment Research
- Weight of Evidence Approach for
Ecological Effects Cleanup Levels
Lower Priority
Needs
14
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in state clean-up programs and Brownfields sites. ORD divided
the contaminated site issues into two RTAs: Contaminated
Sites - Ground Water, and Contaminated Sites - Soils/Vadose
Zone.
The selection of two contaminated site RTAs recognizes that
there are a number of distinctions in the technical problems that
need to be addressed in the saturated zone compared to the
unsaturated zone.
ORD will not address certain types of contaminants and waste
streams because they are outside the principal areas of exper-
tise, are being handled by other Federal agencies, are not an
environmental priority or are not readily addressed by a re-
search program with only modest resources. Radionuclidesare
not being addressed because ORD lacks expertise in this area
and DOE is doing research related to these pollutants. Similarly,
DOD has major research programs on remediation of sites
contaminated with munitions wastes. This strategy also does
not address high volume wastes (e.g., mining wastes) that are
excluded from RCRA either by statue or by RCRA regulations.
It is important to note, however, that many of the research issues
addressed by the strategy are important to these excluded
waste types. For example, research on metals contamination
should prove applicable to radionuclide contaminated sites,
mining wastes, and utility wastes.
ORD also decided to limit its research on environmental issues
associated with solid waste management. ORD has conducted
relatively large research programs in this area in the past, but
since the early 1990s, work has been reduced in response to
guidance from OMB and OSWER. As a result, a decision was
made to focus on a few areas of high priority to OSWER: waste
combustion, multipathway assessments, and - to the extent
ORD has expertise solid waste - management and characteriza-
tion issues. This resulted in two waste management research
topic areas: Waste Combustion Facility Emissions, and Active
Waste Management Facilities.
Such choices make sense within the context of the risk para-
digm, because solid waste regulations have been in place since
the 1980s, and, with limited exceptions, solid waste manage-
ment approaches at active waste management facilities are
already minimizing risks at reasonable costs.
2.2.3 Identify and Rank Research Activities
Research activities were identified that would address the major
research needs within each RTA (Table 2-3).
The research activities within each RTA were then ranked in a
two-step process, details of which are provided in Appendix C.
First, a "Science" ranking was conducted using the three sets of
criteria identified in the ORD Strategic Plan (Table 2-1). These
criteria were used for establishing priorities according to the
three simplified graphic representations shown in Figure 2-3.
Those research activities that fall within the upper right corners
were considered to be high priority, those that fall in the top left
and bottom right corners were considered medium and those
that fall in the lower left corners were considered low. These
"Science" rankings were then adjusted to take into consideration
a number of non-scientific factors, yielding a "Science Plus"
ranking of research activities within each RTA. Examples of
these non-scientificfactors include: Administration priority; CENR
research priority; EPA Program Office and Regional Offices'
priorities (Table 2-2); regulatory or legal mandates; EPA priori-
ties; Congressional directives; and FY98 areas for new funding.
2.2.4 Determine How to Accomplish Research Activities
Research activities were examined to determine if they are best
accomplished through the expertise of the waste research
program at ORD Laboratories and Centers or through other
means. Coordination with the Hazardous Substance Research
Centers (HSRCs), other research programs within ORD, other
Federal research programs, Program Office funded research
activities, or independent private sector research programs will
be sought when these mechanisms are more appropriate due to
the particular expertise of these groups or due to constraints on
available ORD waste research resources.
Ecosystem effects and chemical toxicity testing for human and
ecological endpoints are two areas to be leveraged with other
programs. Ecosystem effects are most appropriately accom-
plished as part of ORD's Ecosystem Protection Program. Chemi-
cal toxicity testing for human and ecological endpoints - the
routine application of standard toxicology protocols for the
development of human and ecological toxicity values - could be
best accomplished through coordination with the National Insti-
tute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) National Toxi-
cology Program. As a result, these two research activities -
Ecological Effects and Chemical Toxicity Testing - were re-
moved from further consideration for funding under the Waste
Research Program.
Congress established the HSRCs to conduct waste research
through regional academic consortia. The HSRCs are conduct-
ing fundamental and applied research in many of the same
areas as ORD; therefore, ORD needs to coordinate closely its
research to ensure it does not duplicate that of the HSRCs. The
HSRCs are discussed in further detail in Appendix B.
In addition, there are major waste related research programs
being conducted by the ATSDR, NIEHS, DOD, and DOE as
described below.
Superfund legislation mandates that ATSDR and NIEHS per-
form research in specific areas. ATSDR has been charged to
perform health assessments at waste sites to assess whether
exposure has occurred and to determine the potential impact of
any exposure. ATSDR has also been directed to conduct
applied substance-specific research to fill data gaps identified
by its toxicological profiles. NIEHS has been directed to estab-
lish a university-based basic research program. This is a mature
program that conducts research in the detection of hazardous
substances in the environment, evaluation of health effects,
assessment of risk, and site remediation methods.
DOE has also been directed by Congress to establish a program
in basic environmental research through grants and DOE's
laboratories. The DOE Office of Energy Research conducts
additional environmentally related basic science research in a
variety of areas.
Many important waste sites have nuclear, mixed nuclear and
hazardous, and other defense related wastes, such asconven-
15
-------
tional and chemical munitions. DOE and DOD have established
research programs to address these specific needs. Coordina-
tion and collaboration with these research programs will con-
tinue to be pursued by ORD.
By using a variety of approaches, ORD will strive to leverage
resources to meet identified needs and priorities while remain-
ing in the forefront of scientific research in waste-related disci-
plines. This step will be revisited to consider how to best meet
unfunded customer priorities when appropriate.
2.2.5 Prioritize Internal ORD Research Activities for
Resource Allocation
Table 2-4 presents the remaining research activities addressed
by the Waste Research Strategy and are research activities that
ORD should conduct if funding exists. This table shows the
"Science Plus" ranking of these waste research activities across
the entire Waste Research Program. This is a consensus
ranking arrived at in discussions amongst ORD, OSWER and
Regional representatives, and serves as guidance for ORD
funding decisions through FYOO.
/ Little >.
./understanding \.
Greatest
Need
for
Research
Least
Need
for
Research
for
and
J"V Greatest
>reX ,Ne-ed,
1ainty\ ^ for Tool
ction ^Development
Narrow applicability Broad applicability
Less
Least \ uncertainty
Need xreduction
for Tool
Development
for
and
Research
Risk problem Risk problem
poorly characterized well characterized
Research
for
Research
Source: Adapted from Paul Slovic, Risk Perception
Figure 2-3. Setting research priorities.
16
-------
Table 2-3. Research activities ranked within each research topic area.
Research
Topic Areas
(in Priority Order)
Contaminated Sites -
Ground Water
Contaminated Sites -
Soils / Vadose Zone
Emissions from Waste
Combustion Facilities
Active Waste
Management Facilities
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES BY PARADIGM CATEGORIES
Risk Assessment
Exposure
Assessment
- Environmental Fate
and Transport
Modeling (4)*
- GW Exposure
Factors
/ Pathways (9)
- Estimating Human
Exposure &
Delivered Dose (1)
- Estimating Soil
Intake and Dose -
Wildlife Species (2)
- Indirect Exposure
Characterization
Modeling (1)
- Indirect Pathway
Risk Assessment
Methods (3)
- Multimedia, Multi-
pathway Exposure
Modeling (1)
- Environmental Fate
and Transport,
Physical Estimation
(3)
Hazard
Assessment
- Mixtures Toxicology
(12)
- Ecosystem Effects
(13)
- Ecological Risk
Assessment
Methods (14)
- Human Dose-
Response Models for
Mixtures (2)
- Screening Tests to
Measure the
Effectiveness of
Treatment (6)
- Mixtures Toxicology
(12)
- Movement of
Bioaccumulative
Chemicals in Food
Webs (6)
- Dose-Response of
Key Contaminants
(5)
- Chemical Toxicity
Testing for Human
and Ecological
Endpoints (6)
- Developing
Provisional Toxicity
Values for
Contaminants (2)
Risk
Characterization
Risk Management
Remediation &
Restoration
- Natural Attenuation (1)
- Abiotic Treatment of
GW(5)
- Biotreatment of GW (7)
-Containment of GW (8)
- Demonstration
Verification of
Innovative
Remediation
Technologies (10)
- Biotreatment of Soils (2)
- Containment of Soils (6)
- Demonstration
Verification of
Innovative Remediation
Technologies (9)
- Abiotic Treatment of
Soils (11)
-Oil Spills (13)
Control
- Emissions
Prevention and
Control (1)
- Waste
Management (5)
Monitoring
- Subsurface
Characterization (3)
- Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
for GW (6)
- Demonstration
Verification of Field
Monitoring
Technologies (10)
- Field Sampling
Methods (4)
- Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
for Soils (5)
- Sampling Design (8)
- Demonstration /
Verification of Field
Monitoring
Technologies (9)
- Continuous
Emissions
Monitoring (CEMs)
Methods (4)
- Waste
Characterization
and Sampling (4)
' Equals the ordinal rank of each research activity within each Research Topic Area based on the "Science Plus" ranking factors.
-------
Table 2-4. Selected ORD waste research activities ranked across all research topic areas.
Research
Topic Areas
(in Priority Order)
Contaminated Sites -
Ground Water
Contaminated Sites -
Soils/ Vadose Zone
Emissions from Waste
Combustion Facilities
Active Waste
Management Facilities
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES BY PARADIGM CATEGORIES
Risk Assessment
Exposure
Assessment
- Environmental Fate
and Transport
Modeling (7)*
- GW Exposure
Factors
/Pathways (21)
- Estimating Human
Exposure &
Delivered Dose (1)
- Estimating Soil
Intake and Dose -
Wildlife Species (3)
- Indirect Exposure
Characterization
Modeling (13)
- Indirect Pathway
Risk Assessment
Methods (11)
- Multimedia, Multi-
pathway Exposure
Modeling (14)
- Environmental Fate
and Transport;
Physical Estimation
(25)
Hazard
Assessment
- Mixtures Toxicology
(26)
- Ecological Risk
Assessment
Methods (38)
- Human Dose-
Response Models for
Mixtures (3)
- Ecological Screening
Tests to Measure the
Effectiveness of
Treatment (18)
- Mixtures Toxicology
(34)
- Movement of
Bioaccumulative
Chemicals in Food
Webs (33)
- Dose-Response of
Key Contaminants
(24)
- Developing
Provisional Toxicity
Values for
Contaminants (18)
Risk
Characterization
Risk Management
Remediation &
Restoration
- Natural Attenuation (2)
- Abiotic Treatment of
GW(9)
- Biotreatment of GW(16)
- Containment of GW
(17)
- Demonstration
Verification of
Innovative Remediation
Technologies (27)
- Biotreatment of Soils (3)
-Containment of Soils
(18)
- Demonstration
Verification of
Innovative Remediation
Technologies (27)
- Abiotic Treatment of
Soils (31)
-Oil Spills (36)
Control
- Emissions
Prevention and
Control (12)
- Waste
Management (36)
Monitoring
- Subsurface
Characterization (6)
- Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
forGW(15)
- Demonstration
Verification of Field
Monitoring
Technologies (27)
- Field Sampling
Methods (8)
- Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
for Soils (9)
- Sampling Design (22)
- Demonstration /
Verification of Field
Monitoring
Technologies (27)
- Continuous
Emissions
Monitoring (CEMs)
Methods (23)
- Waste
Characterization
and Sampling (32)
* Equals the ordinal rank of each research activity across the entire Waste Research Program based on the "Science Plus" ranking factors.
-------
2.3 Ranking Research Activities within
Research Topic Areas
The following sections briefly describe each of the RTAs, the
scientific and technical uncertainties associated with them, and
the rationale for the relative rankings of the research activities
within each topic area.
2.3.1 Ranking Research on Contaminated Sites
2.3.1.1 Ground Water
Ground water has been contaminated by a large number of
releases to the environment. In 1994, the National Research
Council (NRC) estimated that the number of hazardous waste
sites that are likely to have ground water contamination ranges
from 300,000 to 400,000. The majority of this contamination is
caused by leaking USTs, but a recent OSWER white paper
indicates that up to 40,000 sites are potential candidates forthe
federal Superfund program and historically about 80 percent of
Superfund sites have ground water contamination. The NRC
assessment includes estimates of ground water contamination
at RCRA facilities (1,500-5,000 sites), federal facilities (10,000-
12,000 management units) and 20,000-40,000 state sites.
In the past, concerns about contaminated ground water have
been associated predominantly with its risks to human health.
Three hundred and fifty thousand people have been provided
with alternative sources of drinking water at Superfund sites
alone, and as the percentage of the Nation's population that
relies on ground water expands past 50 percent, the number of
people at potential risk will increase. Concern is growing about
the extent to which ground water is impacting ecosystems,
particularly through ground water transfer of contaminants to
sediments and to surface water, which can be significant in
some watersheds during periods of low flow.
Due to the complex nature of the contaminants at many sites and
the complex subsurface hydrogeology encountered at most
sites, there are many uncertainties associated with the assess-
ment and management of ground water contamination and the
cost of these activities is high. These are summarized below.
For risk assessment, the major uncertainties are:
transport and fate mechanisms, particularly in complex
strata
predicting human toxicity of complex mixtures
predicting risk to ecosystems
For site characterization, major uncertainties are:
delineating ground water contaminants, particularly non-
aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs)
speciation of contaminants, particularly metals
sampling and detecting contaminants at low concentra-
tions
achieving quick, low-cost ground water and NAPL charac-
terization
For remediation, major uncertainties are:
achieving cleanup goals of NAPLs and contaminated
ground water
assessing and optimizing long-term effectiveness of in
situ ground water treatment and containment techniques
achieving rapid, low cost cleanup
To address these uncertainties and associated high-priority
research needs, 14 contaminated ground water research activi-
ties have been identified (Table 2-5). These activities were first
ranked by a set of Science criteria and then a set of "Science
Plus" criteria following a process described earlier in this chap-
ter. These rankings are shown in Table 2-5 and the rationale for
them is described in what follows.
Science Ranking
ORD has determined that the most significant problems to be
addressed by contaminated ground water research are: 1)
understanding the effectiveness and applicability of natural
attenuation; and 2) the characterization and remediation NAPLs
a major source of ground water contamination. Assessment
and remediation of ground water contaminated by dissolved
pollutants is an important, but somewhat lower priority. These
conclusions are based on several considerations. Natural
attenuation (NA) has the potential for being a relatively inexpen-
sive means of remediating sites. It appears, for example, that it
is an effective technique forthe remediation of fuel contamina-
tion under certain conditions. There is, however, very limited
understanding on how to assess whether natural attenuation is
working at a site. This includes locating the plume and determin-
ing the rate of contaminant disappearance. Proper site charac-
terization and monitoring to show that NA is effective and
protective may increase its costs substantially.
NAPL research is also a high priority. NAPLs are a persistent
source of ground water contamination, and the resultant loss of
the ground water resource and threat to human health and the
environment may last for tens of decades. Without the removal
or control of these major sources, treatment of contaminated
ground water must go on indefinitely. Research results that will
enable locating and chemically characterizing NAPLs will aid in
the development of new, cost-effective risk management op-
tions, as will continued development of innovative NAPL extrac-
tion and destruction options.
Research on the assessment and remediation of contaminated
ground water remains important. Techniques for cleaning up
many sources of ground water contamination do not exist now
and therefore improved, cost-effective plume remediation or
containment techniques are needed to minimize risks from
contaminated ground water. Similarly, improved techniques to
characterize and assess the risks of ground water contamina-
tion are needed to set realistic cleanup goals and reduce
cleanup and monitoring costs.
Research on ecosystem impacts of ground water was ranked
low because health concerns are still of highest priority. Also,
the impacts of ground water on ecosystems are limited, being
mainly through contamination of riparian zones (e.g., sediments
and surface waters); since during low flow periods ground water
can contribute significantly to base stream flow. Also, since
many contaminated sites lie beside or near surface waters,
direct runoff fromthe sites is believed to be of greater importance
19
-------
than transport through ground water. However, many uncer-
tainties about these ecosystems impacts exist, and therefore
research in this area needs to be done if adequate funds exist.
Science Plus Ranking
As can be seen from Table 2-5, the Science Plus ranking of
research activities differs from the Science ranking for research
activities ranked in the lower half of the list, but the changes in
ranking are not large. First, containment research was elevated
in ranking because it is of high priority to OSWER. Second, the
ranking of the two demonstration/verification activities was
increased 1 to 3 places reflecting ORD's recognition that Con-
gress has indicated that these activities are a priority through its
explicit authorization of the SITE Program, its mandate for 10
SITE demonstrations, and its guidance that SITE be fully funded
in FY97. Also, the SITE program recently received a very
favorable SAB review. As a result of these three increases in
ranking, mixtures toxicology human health effects research fell
to a lower priority.
With the exception of these four changes, the ranking of re-
search activities changed little from Science to Science Plus.
This reflects the fact that with one exception, all the Science Plus
ranking factors were equally applicable to all research activities
in this topic area. These factors were: 1) high priority for
research across the riskparadigmintheCENRreportandbythe
Program Office, and 2) high Congressional priority (reflected by
the annual Superfund appropriation of about $1.5 billion [22
percentofthe Agency's budget]), high Administration priority (as
reflected by the President's initiative to cleanup two-thirds of the
Superfund sites by 2000, and by the tight, 8-10 year schedules
for DOD and DOE site cleanups).
The Natural Attenuation research activity was ranked high for
reasons described above. This particular research activity is
focused on remediation issues and is supported by subsurface
characterization and field analytical methods research.
Human Dose-Response Models for Mixtures was ranked
high because there are currently very large uncertainties about
the health risks from complex mixtures of ground-water con-
taminants. The presence of multiple contaminants may result in
enhanced toxicity(synergism), decreased toxicity (antagonism),
ora simple summation ofthetoxicities ofthe individual contami-
nants (additivity). Current practice is to generally assume
additivity, which can result in either an under- or overestimation
of the actual risk. Research in this area will use existing scientific
toxicologic studies and mechanistic data to develop dose-
response models and toxicity values for common mixtures of
contaminants. Mixtures Toxicology was ranked lower be-
cause hazard identification was judged less urgent a need than
developing dose-response models or factors. Existing studies
of individual contaminants should be used firstto develop dose-
response models before initiating toxicologic studies of mix-
tures. Once dose-response models have been developed with
the existing data base, then toxicologic studies would be initi-
ated on actual mixtures.
The Subsurface Characterization research activity was ranked
high because ofthe inherent complexity ofthe subsurface and
the contribution ofthe research activityto resolving both NAand
NAPL characterization problems.
Environmental Fate and Transport Modeling is a high priority
because it is basic to our understanding of the various natural
and contaminant-induced processes that occur in an aquifer.
Ground water modeling allows us to understand how these
various processes, along with remediation activities, impact
contaminant fate and transport. Such an understanding is
important scientifically, as well as to make sitespecific assess-
ment and cleanup decisions.
Abiotic Treatment was ranked high because of its focus on
NAPLs remediation. In addition, it involves studying in situ
abiotic treatment options such as permeable reactive barriers,
which are a more cost-effective option than pump-and-treatfor
major classes of contaminants in ground water.
Field and Screening Analytical Methods were ranked high
because ofthe need for improved methods to characterize and
monitor sites for natural attenuation, and quicker, less-expen-
sive characterization and monitoring methods. This research
would also lead to more thorough characterizations because
more samples could be analyzed in the field and the results used
immediate.
Biotreatment and Containment research activities were ranked
lower because they deal primarily with the control and remediation
of contaminated ground water, a lower priority than NA and
NAPLs cleanup. Biotreatment remains important to consider
along with abiotic treatment because the two are likely to
complement each other in terms ofthe contaminants they can
address. Also, biotreatment may have application to residuals
from NAPLs extraction. Under the Science ranking, contain-
ment was ranked lower than biotreatment because ORD be-
lieves that remediation of contaminants is at least as important
as containment in terms of risk management, and because
pump-and-treat can be used as a containment technique at
many sites. The ranking for containment was increased be-
cause OSWER feels that it is an option of equal importance to
treatment with significant implementation uncertainties. Con-
tainment research is particularly important for minimizing NAPL
transport, for confining plumes to allow NA to occur, and for
determining the long-term effectiveness of containment sys-
tems.
Ground Water Exposures Factors / Pathways was ranked in
the middle because current research has been successful in
identifying and quantifying key exposure factors such as drink-
ing-water intake rates for various activities. There are still
significant uncertainties associated with estimates of contami-
nants from non-ingestion routes of exposure, such as showering
and use of appliances.
The two research activities dealing with Demonstration/Veri-
fication of Innovative Technologies were moved up in the
Science Plus ranking because of the high priority allotted to
them by Congress. While these two research activities do not
develop new technologies, they are an important ORD activity
for contaminated ground water (and soils), because they allow
ORD to evaluate technologies developed outside the Agency.
These "independent" evaluations provide credible reports on
the applicability, performance, and cost of these technologies to
site managers and other decision makers. Evaluation of inno-
vative ground water remediation technologies is particularly
important, because there are no effective technologies currently
20
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Table 2-5. Focus and ranking of research activities for contaminated sites - Ground Water.
Research Activity Title
Natural Attenuation (NA)
Human Dose/Response
Methods for Mixtures
Subsurface Characterization
Environmental Fate and
Transport Modeling
Abiotic Treatment
Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
Biotreatment
Containment
Ground Water Exposure
Factors/Pathways
Demonstration/Verification of
Innovative Ground Water
Remediation Technologies
Demonstration/Verification of
Field Monitoring Technologies
Mixtures Toxicology
Ecosystem Effects
Ecosystem Risk Assessment
Methods
Potential Research Focus
Determine under what conditions NA is applicable.
Determine techniques for assessing site-specific applicability
of NA.
Develop biologically based toxicity models.
Develop expert systems for determining likelihood of
synergism antagonism or additivity of response.
Develop surface based, noninvasive methods to characterize
the structure and contaminant distributions in the subsurface.
Determine processes affecting contaminant fate of transport,
particularly in heterogeneous environments.
Develop improved models for representing site-specific
ground water fate and transport, and effects of remediation.
Develop more cost-effective techniques for NAPL remediation.
Develop more cost-effective techniques for ground water
remediation.
Develop field portable and screening analytical methods for
rapid analysis of ground water.
Develop analytical methods to determine the status of and
to monitor the rates of natural attenuation in ground water.
Determine more cost-effective techniques for ground water
remediation.
Develop more cost-effective methods to contain NAPLs and
contaminated ground water.
Develop methods for evaluating long-term effectiveness of
containment systems.
Determine contaminant intake rates from showering, bathing
and use of household appliances (e.g., dishwashers).
Develop exposure models for vapors released indoors.
Produce technically sound performance, cost and applicability
data for full-scale innovative remediation technologies.
Produce scientifically sound performance data for innovative
ground water monitoring and characterization technologies.
Develop improved models of the synergistic/antagonistic
effects of contaminant mixtures.
Develop screening tests to determine the effects of
contaminated ground water on ecosystems.
Develop methods to determine the flux of ground water
contaminants into sensitive ecosystems such as wetlands.
Develop ecotoxicity transfer/dilution factors between ground
water and surface water.
Develop ground water ecotoxicity criteria and screening
levels.
"Science"
Ranking
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
8
11
13
9
12
14
"Science
Plus"
Ranking
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
10
12
13
14
21
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available. Evaluation of innovative ground water contamination
characterization techniques is also important to help fill gaps
where there is a lack of adequate techniques and to improve
cost-effectiveness.
Research on Mixtures Toxicology was ranked lower because
the need to develop information on interactions between mixture
constituents was judged less urgent than the need to develop
dose-response models for mixtures using existing databases.
Ecosystems Effects and Ecological Risk Assessment Meth-
ods were ranked lowest despite uncertainties about the effects
of ground water on ecosystems, because the impact is expected
to be low compared to human health effects.
2.3.1.2 SoilsA/adose Zone
The complexity and heterogeneity of soil/vadose zone matrices
present a large number of technical challenges to their assess-
ment and remediation. There are numerous uncertainties
associated with soil/vadose zone decisions and the cost of
remediation is still high (remedial actions alone cost an average
of $9 million perSuperfund site in 1996). Local risks to humans
and ecosystems, high costs and uncertainty in decision making
are all reasons for supporting contaminated soil/vadose zone
research.
Specific scientific uncertainties are associated with each step of
the site evaluation and remediation process. In the risk assess-
ment process, major uncertainties are:
magnitude of effects on human health and the ecosystem
contributions of indirect pathways to receptor exposure
availability of adsorbed contaminants and treatment re-
siduals to human and ecological receptors
intake of contaminants across multiple exposure routes -
ingestion, dermal exposure, and inhalation
In the site characterization process, major uncertainties are:
sampling of contaminants to determine their location and
magnitude
quantitative analysis of selected compounds
design of sitespecific sampling strategies
physical characterization of soils and the vadose zone
In remediation, major uncertainties are:
applicability of treatment techniques to different contami-
nants and soil matrices, particularly heterogeneous matri-
ces
cost of remediation techniques
To address these uncertainties and associated high-priority
research needs, 13 research activities were identified (Table 2-
6). These activities were first ranked by a set of Science criteria
and then a set of Science Plus criteria following a process
described earlier in this chapter.
Science Ranking
ORD determined that a combination of site characterization, risk
assessment and remediation research is needed in this topic
area to address important scientific and technical issues, help
clarify the risks posed by contaminated sites to surrounding
communities, and reduce the high costs of site remediation.
There are improvements needed in site risk assessments to
reduce uncertainties in the magnitude of human health effects,
and there are limited tools to evaluate the risks that these sites
pose to ecosystems. The high cost of site remediation (and the
ineffectiveness of some available technologies) requires re-
search on innovative technologies. Improved site characteriza-
tion contributes to both risk assessment and risk management,
helping to define risks more accurately and define what needs
to be remediated.
Science Plus Ranking
The Science Plus ranking of research activities (Table 2-6)
varies little from the Science ranking for contaminated soils/
vadose zone, except that the two research activities on demon-
stration/verification of innovative technologies are ranked higher
in the Science Plus ranking. This reflects the fact that with this
one exception, all the Science Plus ranking factors were equally
applicable to all research activities in this topic area. These
factors included: 1) high priority given research across the risk
paradigm in the CENR strategic plan and by the Program Office;
2) high Congressional priority (as reflected by the annual
Superfund appropriation of about $1.5 billion); and 3) high
Administration priority (reflected by the President's initiative to
cleanup two-thirds of the Superfund sites by 2000 and by the
tight 8-10 year schedules for DOD and DOE site cleanups).
The two demonstration/verification research activities were
given a higher ranking under Science Plus because Congress
has indicated the importance of such work by requiring that ORD
conduct ten demonstrations per year as part of the SITE
program.
The Estimating Human Exposure and Delivered Dose and
Biotreatment research activities were ranked highest, in part
because both address the availability of contaminants in soils
to impact receptors, particularly humans. Currently, it is as-
sumed that all or most of an agent found in soils is biologically
available, but this assumption is probably inaccurate. Improved
estimation of the fraction of contaminants that are biologically
available to humans or ecosystems could significantly reduce
the estimates of risks at contaminated sites and reduce the cost
of remediation by raising the level of the cleanup standard. The
Estimating Human Exposure research activity would develop
better models and factors for making these estimates for indi-
vidual contaminants in soil. Research would include developing
models for dermal exposure, estimating soil intake rates for
children and adults, and estimating bioavailability of contami-
nants. Inthelongterm, the Biotreatment research activity would
evaluate the effectiveness of different types of biotreatment
processes in different soil media based on these models and
factors.
The Estimating Human Exposure research activity was also
ranked high because its goal is to reduce other uncertainties
associated with risk characterization. These include increasing
the certainty of multipathway analysis, developing statistical
distributions for exposure factors, and addressing specific is-
sues related to soil risk, such as intake rates for children and
adults.
22
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The Biotreatment research activity was also ranked high be-
cause it would address natural attenuation of contaminants in
soils (and landfills). Natural attenuation in soils has the potential
for being a relatively low-cost means of site remediation, if its
selection is justified and its progress is monitored to insure that
there are no significant environmental risks. In addition, the
Biotreatment research activity develops enhanced biotreatment
processes for soils, vadose zones and landfills. These all have
the potential to significantly reduce remediation costs, particu-
larly in situ processes.
Estimating Soil Intake and Dose by Wildlife Species was
ranked in the upper half because ecological risks are becoming
more significant as drivers of cleanup levels at many contami-
nated sites. In most cases, soils are believed to have a more
significant ecological risk at contaminated sites than do con-
taminated ground waters, due to the greater variety of wildlife
that can come in direct contact with contaminated soils or feed
on species residing in these soils. There are numerous uncer-
tainties about the extent to which soil contaminants impact
ecosystems and therefore ecosystems may not be adequately
protected.
Field Sampling Methods and Field and Screening Analyti-
cal Methods were both ranked near the top because: uncer-
tainty associated with site characterization is often high, thereby
leading to uncertain risk assessment or high remediation costs,
and there are significant savings in time and money to be gained
by conducting analyses in the field.
Ecological Screening Tests to Measure Effectiveness of
Treatment was ranked near the middle because it deals only
with bioavailability issues and therefore is a more narrowly
focused research area than Estimating Human Exposure or
Wildlife Species research.
The Containment research area was ranked in the middle
because its use is increasing because of its relatively low cost,
yet there are still uncertainties about the long- term effective-
ness of these systems and the most effective ways to install
them. Also, there is the potential to reduce costs further by
utilizing new materials for containment.
The research activity Sampling Design was ranked in the
middle because improved designs can have a significant impact
on reducing costs of cleanup by more accurately identifying
what volumes of soils need to be remediated and what and
where the sources of the risks are.
The two research activities dealing with Demonstration/Veri-
fication of Innovative Technologies were moved up in the
Science Plus ranking because of the high priority allotted to
them by Congress. While these two research activities do not
develop new technologies, they are an important ORD activity
for contaminated soils (and ground water) because they allow
ORD to evaluate processes developed outside the Agency and
through these "independent" evaluations provide credible re-
ports on the applicability, performance and cost of these pro-
cesses to site managers and other decision makers.
The Abiotic Treatment research area was ranked below Con-
tainment, Biotreatment and Demonstration/Verification of Inno-
vative Remediation Technologies because it has less potential
to impact cleanup costs or achieve significantly lower remediation
levels. There are, however, important areas where abiotic
treatment, either alone or as part of a multifaceted management
option, is needed for cost effective site clean up.
The two remaining research activities: Mixtures Toxicology
and Oil Spills are of less importance than the other research
activities. Oil spills was ranked relatively low because its
primary impact is to ecological systems. Research on Mixtures
Toxicology of soil contaminants was ranked lower due to the
sequence in which activities should be conducted to maximize
research yield. For example, knowledge of the bioavailability of
soil contaminants assists in predictions of the toxicological
impact of mixtures.
2.3.2 Ranking Research on Active Waste Management and
Combustion Facilities
Research evaluated underthis topic area is limited to supporting
OSWs Hazardous Waste Identification Rule (HWIR), develop-
ing the treatment technologies for wastes and waste streams
that are hard to treat, and to understanding hazardous waste
combustion risks and risk management options.
2.3.2.1 Active Waste Management Facilities
The current regulatory approach to the management of hazard-
ous wastes is extremely burdensome and costly to the U.S.
economy. In addition, the regulations are overly conservative
and not founded on risk. As a result, the Administration is
proposing regulatory reforms to provide administrative and
economic relief by developing a multimedia, multipathway risk-
based approach that is expected to exclude many wastes and
waste streams from regulatory control under Subtitle C of RCRA
(Hazardous Waste Identification Rule [HWIR]). In addition,
acceptable disposal of hazardous wastes is specified by Land
Disposal Restriction (LDR) rules. As part of these rules, Best
Demonstrated Available Treatment (BOAT) technologies are
specified that must be used to treat the waste prior to disposal.
BOAT technologies were identified for each hazardous waste
stream in the late 1980s and early 1990s and were based on the
most effective treatment technologies that were commercially
available at the time. It was recognized that there were some
hard-to-treat wastes for which available technologies were
either not sufficiently effective, or were very expensive, and that
ongoing efforts would be needed to upgradethe BOAT technolo-
gies for a limited number of hazardous waste streams.
Major uncertainties are associated with several elements of the
risk paradigm. Of the 400 waste constituents that require the
development of "exit levels" underthe proposed HWIR, 220 are
without health-based levels (even fewer for ecologically based
levels). These values need to be determined or estimated. In
addition, approximately 210 of the constituents are without
adequate analytical methods (current methods cannot measure
the constituents at the proposed exit levels). Current multimedia
modeling is constructed on a" most critical pathway" basis rather
than on a mass balance basis. Components of some of the
models are probabilistic and well developed (e.g., ground water)
while others are poorly developed and deterministic or not
developed at all. There is no system to exchange information
between existing or planned models and data bases. Existing
toxicity and environmental fate data bases are out of date and
need to be updated with existing literature and new data.
Methodologies to conduct assessments on mixtures or to ac-
23
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Table 2-6. Focus and ranking of research activities for contaminated sites - Soils / Vadose Zone.
Research Activity Title
Potential Research Focus
'Science"
Ranking
"Science
Plus"
Ranking
Estimating Human Exposure
and Delivered Dose
Estimate soil intake rates for children and adults.
Evaluate the bioavailability of contaminants in various
soil matrices.
Develop and validate biokinetic dose-response models for
lead and other heavy metals.
Derive dermal absorption factors for common soil
contaminants.
Develop biotransfer and bioaccumulation factors for
contaminants to facilitate estimates of exposure via the
food chain.
Develop statistical distributions for exposure factors to
facilitate use of probabalistic techniques to evaluate
variability and uncertainty (e.g., Monte Carlo methods).
1
Biotreatment
Determine under what conditions biotreatment processes
can reach risk-based cleanup levels.
Develop less expensive cleanup processes for frequently
found hard-to treat contaminants (e.g., TCE, PAHs, PCBs).
Develop inexpensive permanent cleanup options for landfills.
Determine when natural attenuation is an appropriate
remediation option for soils and landfills.
Estimating Soil Intake and
Dose for Wildlife Species
Develop critical ecological exposure factors such as: species-
specific soil intake rates, uptake factors from soils to plants
to herbivores, species-specific dietary factors uptake factors
from herbivores to carnivores, and data on migratory and
range patterns.
Develop a wildlife contaminant exposure model that should
be useful for constructing and evaluating site-specific
scenarios. This model would allow calculations of intake via
the food web and analyses of multiple exposure pathways
and species. It would also include a probabalistic component
to evaluate variability and uncertainty.
Field Sampling Methods
Develop sampling methods that better preserve the integrity
of contaminants in soil (e.g., volatile organic compounds).
Develop sampling approaches to better ensure that a sample
is "representative" of the area surrounding tile sample location.
Field and Screening Analytical
Methods
Develop field-portable methods for rapid in situ determination
of contaminants in soils.
Develop analytical methods to determine the status and
rates of natural attenuation in soils.
Containment
Develop methods for evaluating the long term effectiveness
of containment systems.
Develop more cost-effective containment systems.
Ecological Screening Tests to
Measure Effectiveness of
Treatment
Develop inexpensive methods to screen for significant risks
from treatment residuals.
Develop inexpensive methods to determine cleanup goals.
Sampling Design
Develop new statistical designs for sampling/characterizing
contaminated soils at waste sites (e.g., multivariate, 3-D
technologies).
24
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Table 2-6. (Continued).
Research Activity Title
Demonstration/Verification of
Innovative Remediation
Techniques
Demonstration/Verification of
Innovative Monitoring
Technology
Abiotic Treatment
Mixtures Toxicology
Oil Spills
Potential Research Focus
Produce technically sound performance, cost and applicability
data for full-scale innovative remediation techniques.
Produce technically sound performance data for innovative
soil monitoring and characterization technologies.
Develop less expensive cleanup processes for hard-to-treat
contaminants and matrices.
Develop improved models of the synergistic/antagonistic
effects of common soil contaminant mixtures.
Develop more effective ways to remediate spills in an
environmentally safe manner.
"Science"
Ranking
12
12
9
10
10
"Science
Plus"
Ranking
9
9
11
12
13
count for cumulative effects are nearly non-existent. Sound
approaches for determining specific waste constituent compli-
ance with proposed exit levels do not exist or, at best, have not
been validated.
Uncertainties still exist in the treatment of some hazardous
waste streams. There still remain a number of hard-to-treat
waste streams, such as those containing mercury. As a result,
it is not always possible to obtain the desired cleanup levels
using current treatment technologies. In addition, there have
been advances in existing, inexpensive treatment technologies
(solidification/stabilization) that may make them more broadly
applicable than previously, thus reducing costs of hazardous
waste management.
Also, there is a need to reduce the volume of solid wastes
requiring disposal, and this is not being done as quickly as it
might, partially because of the uncertainty aboutthe applicability
of innovative recycling processes. This uncertainty may be
reduced by improving the availability of technically sound infor-
mation on innovative recycling techniques by having indepen-
dent evaluations done on them cooperatively by government
and private sectors.
To address these uncertainties and associated high priority
research needs, six research activities have been identified
(Table 2-7). These activities were first ranked by a set of
Science criteria and then a set of Science Plus criteria following
a process described earlier in this chapter.
Science Ranking
ORD has determined that a combination of environmental fate,
exposure modeling, risk assessment, and waste management
research is needed in this topic area. All four research areas are
of high priority because each addresses important scientific and
technical issues that can help determine or reduce the risks
posed by active waste management facilities and hazardous
waste generators.
Science Plus Ranking
As can be seen from Table 2-7, the Science Plus ranking of
research activities is identical to the Science ranking exceptthat
the activity, "Chemical Toxicity Testing for Human and Ecologi-
cal Effects," moved to the bottom of the list. With this one
exception, the Science Plus ranking factors had little impact.
These factors included: 1) high-priority across the risk paradigm
in the CENR Strategic Plan and by the Program Office (OSW),
2) HWIR as a high-priority effort under the Administrations
regulatory reform efforts, 3) the identification of waste research
as "an area of high importance" in the ORD Strategic Plan, and
4) SAB and ORD recommendations for research resulting from
their review of OSWs proposed HWIR. ORD considers the
"Chemical Toxicity Testing for Human and Ecological Effects"
research need to be of lower priority since it is essentially routine
testing and is expensive.
The remainder of this section describes the rationale for the
Science Plus relative ranking of the six research areas. This
ranking reflects the application of science and other factors to
determine the relative importance of each research activity.
The first four research areas (Multimedia, Multipathway Ex-
posure Modeling; Environ mental Fateand Transport, Physi-
cal Estimation; Developing Provisional Toxicity Values for
Contaminants; and Waste Characterization and Sampling)
are all responsive to the research needs identified by recent
ORD and SAB reviews of the proposed HWIR. Research in all
four areas is needed if a scientifically sound HWIR approach is
to be developed.
Current exposure and risk models lack the ability to produce true
multimedia, multipathway analyses. Major improvements are
needed to ensure various models are compatible from the
perspectives of computational, pathway, environmental scale,
time scale, error propagation, and mass conservation/balance.
Significant uncertainty still remains in the fate, transformation,
and transport of many of the waste contaminants regulated
25
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under RCRA. These uncertainties include metal and organic
compound speciation and the effects and rates of reductive and
biological fate processes.
Until test-based toxicity values become available, provisional
values will have to be estimated from the literature, from struc-
ture activity relationships, or from physical/chemical properties
of the constituent. Much uncertainty remains in these current
estimation methods, especially relatedto mixtures, bioavailability,
and pharmacokinetics. As is the case for toxicity values,
analytical methods are inadequate (as a result of poor sensitivity
or specificity) or nonexistent for 210 of the 400 constituents. For
wastes and waste constituents to "exit" regulatory control under
RCRA, they must be present at concentrations less than the
proposed "exit level" values developed through the multimedia,
multipathway risk assessment approach proposed in HWIR.
Great uncertainty exists, however, in how this is determined.
OSWER has estimated that hundreds of millions of dollars per
year can be saved as a result of this regulatory approach, but the
research is needed to ensure the science is available to support
a creditable HWIR (OSW, 1995c).
The Waste Management research area ranks fifth out of six
areas. It is relatively less- important since it is a much more
mature research area for ORD and significant resources have
been committed to this area in the past. Most RCRA wastes and
waste streams have established BDATs. However, there are
still a number of "hard to treat" wastes where research could
provide new or less-expensive technological solutions.
Chemical Toxicity Testing for Human and Ecological End-
points ranks last because it is the routine application of stan-
dard toxicity testing protocols and is very expensive, thus, not a
suitable use of limited research resources.
2.3.2.2 Emissions from Waste Combustion Facilities
There are 307 municipal waste combustion facilities with a
current capacity of 104,000 tons per day. About 30 million
people in 35 states and 900 communities are served by munici-
pal waste combustion facilities. This accounts for approximately
16 percent of the waste generated annually. These facilities are
known to emit toxic contaminants such as dioxin, furans, cad-
mium, lead, and mercury. In addition to large municipal waste
combustion facilities, there are thousands of small incinerators
such as those used to dispose of medical wastes. Recent
studies indicate that medical waste incinerators are a major
source of mercury emissions. There are also over 300 facilities
burning hazardous wastes. These facilities include waste
combustors (e.g., incinerators, cement kilns), industrial boilers
and thermal desorption units. All of these units are burning
complex mixtures of toxic contaminants, often in high concen-
trations, and therefore can contribute significant emissions on a
site-specific basis if improperly designed or operated. Public
acceptance of waste combustion and thermal treatment as a
viable disposal technology is very low because of our inability to
answer questions concerning the safety of this waste manage-
ment option.
The risks associated with combustion facilities are potentially
very high because (1) the number of combustion facilities is
high, (2) the facilities have the potential to emit very toxic
contaminants such as dioxin, furans, mercury, lead, and cad-
mium, (3) these emissions become dispersed over large geo-
Table 2-7. Focus and ranking of research activities for active waste management facilities.
Research Activity Title
Multimedia, Multipathway
Exposure Modeling
Developing Provisional Toxicity
Values for Contaminants
Environmental Fate and
Transport; Physical Estimation
Waste Characterization and
Sampling
Waste Management
Chemical Toxicity Testing for
Human and Ecological
Endpoints
Potential Research Focus
Develop true multimedia, multipathway exposure and risk
models that support HWIR.
Review animal toxicologic studies, human epidemiologic
studies, structure activity relationships, and then conduct
dose-response assessments to derive Reference Doses,
Reference Concentrations and/or cancer slope factors.
Provide the science and environmental data needed to
understand the fate, transport and transformation of RCRA
constituents.
Develop the sampling methods, techniques and designs
necessary to determine compliance with proposed RCRA
exit level values.
Develop analytical methods with the necessary specificity
and sensitivity to support exit level determination and
compliance monitoring.
Develop more cost-effective treatment options for hard-to-
treat wastes.
Determine the applicability of innovative treatment options
to hazardous wastes.
Perform toxicity testing for high priority contaminants
constituents of hazardous waste streams.
"Science"
Ranking
1
3
2
5
6
4
"Science
Plus"
Ranking
1
2
3
4
5
6
26
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graphic areas that often have large populations or produce
important food products (crops, animal, and dairy products), and
(4) exposure occurs over several pathways and routes. These
risks are also perceived by the public as very high as evidenced
by community protests at facilities such as Waste Technologies
Incorporated (WTI) in East Liverpool, Ohio, and at many
Superfund sites such as New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts,
and Bloomington, Indiana.
The risks associated with combustion facilities are also highly
uncertain and cut across the risk assessment paradigm. Areas
of major uncertainty in exposure assessment include:
What contaminants are being formed? What additional
contaminants are formed as the emissions disperse and
are transformed in the environment?
What is the fate and transport of the contaminants?
Where do they go and who might be exposed? What is
the geographical scale of exposure? Current studies indi-
cate that airborne contaminants are extremely mobile and
can affect regional receptors.
How much contamination are people and ecological re-
ceptors exposed to? Through what exposure pathways?
How much contamination eventually makes its way into
our food? And how much of the contamination found in
our food is bioavailable to cause a toxic response in
human receptors?
How effective and accurate are current monitoring tech-
nologies?
Areas of major uncertainty in hazard assessment include:
How toxic to humans are the contaminants that are being
released? What doses of dioxin, furans, mercury, lead,
cadmium and other contaminants are safe for human
receptors?
How harmful to ecological receptors are the contaminants
that are being released? What amounts of dioxin, furans,
mercury, lead, cadmium and other stressors are harmful?
Areas of major uncertainty in risk characterization include:
Which contaminants being emitted present the greatest
risk to human health and the environment and, thus,
should be the focus of control efforts?
What is the risk of cumulative continuous exposure?
Combustion facilities are normally evaluated and regu-
lated based on their individual emissions, exposure, and
risk to surrounding receptors. The cumulative impact of
continuous emissions from multiple combustion facilities
and other sources of contaminants is not known.
The areas of greatest uncertainty in risk management are:
How can emission levels of contaminants be reduced
most cost-effectively?
What are the combustion processes that lead to contain-
ment formation?
Are process design/operation changes appropriate, or
should add-on controls be used? What are the cheapest
ways to minimize emissions from small combustors? How
can the control of multiple emissions be most cost-effec-
tively accomplished?
To address these uncertainties and associated high priority
research needs, six research areas were identified: 1) exposure
characterization and modeling; 2) continuous emission monitor-
ing; 3) evaluation of the movement of metals in the food chain;
4) indirect pathway riskassessment methods; 5) dose-response
assessments of key contaminants; and 6) emissions prevention
and control (Table 2-8).
ORD first ranked these research areas relative to each other
based on the potential for the research to either reduce risk;
reduce uncertainties in risk estimation, site characterization or
risk assessment; or reduce cleanup costs. The third column of
Table 2-8 lists the research activities in order of decreasing
priority based on this Science ranking. The fourth column Table
2-8 lists the ranking of research activities in terms of "Science
Plus," reflecting revised priorities based on Congressional man-
dates, Program Office and Regional priorities, and other impor-
tant considerations that are more of a managerial nature than
solely scientific.
The Science Plus ranking of research activities is identical to the
Science ranking for waste combustion facilities. This reflects the
fact that all the Science Plus ranking factors were equally
applicable to all research activities in this topic area. These
factors included: 1) high priority for research across the risk
paradigm in the CENR report; 2) high Administration priority as
reflected by the Administrator's Combustion Strategy, which
requires that all hazardous waste combustion facilities be evalu-
ated for health and ecological impact using the indirect exposure
methodology; 3) high priority by the Office of Solid Waste and
Regional offices as evidenced by their commitment to establish
with their own funds a Technical Support Center to evaluate
indirect exposures; and 4) listing of waste research as "an area
of high importance" in the ORD strategic plan.
Application of the Science Plus criteria did not impact any of the
rankings with in the Combustion Facility research topic. Applying
the Science Plus criteria resulted only in some minor changes in
the ordinals when combustion facility research areas were
compared to the other three hazardous waste topic areas. The
combustion research areas dropped to slightly lower ranks due
to several factors. First, issues relating to combustion were
judged by ORD as not as high a priority to the program offices
as contaminated ground water or contaminated soil. Secondly,
Congressionally authorized programs which received relatively
lower science rankings (e.g., various SITE demonstration pro-
grams) were bumped upward in their science plus rankings.
The Waste Research Coordination Team (RCT) judged that the
highest priority areas within the waste combustion facility topic
area were emission prevention and control and exposure char-
acterization/modeling. Emission Prevention and Control in-
volves the characterization of waste combustion systems and
their emissions along with the development and evaluation of
techniques to prevent emissions formation or control their
release. This area addresses incinerators and industrial sys-
tems burning wastes. It studies the reduction of emissions by
system design and operation changes, as well as through the
use of add-on controls. This area was judged as the highest
priority because of the high potential for risk reduction and cost
savings that could be achieved with reduced emissions from the
waste combustion facilities. Indirect Exposure Characteriza-
27
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tion/Modeling involves developing improved fate, transport,
and transformation models of contaminants that are emitted
from waste combustion facilities. Current models lack the ro-
bustness and resolution to provide adequate fate and transport
data needed to accurately estimate exposure and risk. Potential
avenues of research include developing improved/validated
complex terrain models for combustion sources, vapor-particle
partitioning of semi-volatile organics (chlorinated dioxins and
PAHs) under ambient conditions, air deposition of semivolatile
organics (chlorinated dioxins, PCBs, higher molecular-weight
chlorinated benzenes/phenols, PAHs, and high molecularweight
phthalates), vaportransportto surfaces, wet and dry deposition,
surface vapor uptake in plants and animals, mathematical
models, parameter characterization, validation of models for dry
gas deposition and air dispersion, and methods for particle size
distribution for input to air dispersion models. This area was
judged as the highest priority because of the very large uncer-
tainties associated with the fate, transport, and transformation of
emissions from waste combustion facilities.
Research on Indirect Pathway Risk Assessment Methods is
needed to develop, validate, and refine a methodology that
estimates exposures from combustion facilities via indirect
(non-inhalation) exposure pathways. The indirect exposure
methodology (IEM) is a multimedia and multi-pathway model
that was developed for application to numerous emitted pollut-
ants being released from stationary combustion sources. The
methodology was developed to provide a set of procedures for
the estimation of exposures resulting from emitted pollutants
that have been transferred from the atmosphere to environmen-
tal media and biota. In addition, indirect exposures may result
from uptake and transfer of an atmospheric pollutantthrough the
terrestrial or aquatic food. Tasks in this research area include
refining and validating the algorithm, developing guidance manu-
als on how to properly select input parameters, and developing
an expert system. Research in this area is a high priority
because recent risk assessments of waste combustion facilities
indicate that the greatest risks appear to be those caused by
these indirect exposure pathways. Typically, the risks resulting
from indirect exposure pathways are an order of magnitude
higher than those from the direct inhalation of emissions.
Conducting Dose-Response Assessments of Key Contami-
nants Released is also a high priority. The purpose of this
research area is to develop updated dose-response risk assess-
ments for contaminants that present the greatest risk from
combustion facilities. As more scientific data become available
in the form of animal toxicological studies, human epidemiologi-
cal studies, and mechanistic toxicodynamic models, toxicity
values (reference doses, reference concentrations, and cancer
slope factors) will need to be updated to provide a more accurate
estimate of risks. Because there is a linear relationship between
the toxicity values and risk, any change in the toxicity value will
translate into the same change in estimated risk. Currently, the
"risk drivers" are mercury, dioxin, furans, cadmium, and lead.
Because there are many ongoing epidemiologic and toxicologic
studies of these contaminants, the Waste RCTjudged that it was
very important that the results from these emerging studies be
evaluated and that current toxicity values be updated if neces-
sary so that the risks from waste combustion facilities can be
accurately estimated.
Research on Continuous Emissions Monitoring Methods is
another important research area. Acceptance of incineration as
a viable treatment option for hazardous waste has been hin-
dered by an inability to know continuously how well the combus-
tion units are performing and whetherthere are any unexpected
emissions. Emphasis in this research area would be on toxic
metals (lead, mercury, cadmium), dioxins, furans and other
semi-volatile organics. Simple, inexpensive methods are espe-
cially needed for monitoring the thousands of small incinerators
(e.g., medical waste incinerators) around the country. While this
research area is very important in providing assurance to the
public about the reliability of operations and uncertainties asso-
ciated with incinerator emissions, ORD judged this area to be
less critical than the previously described research areas, which
should provide more reduction of uncertainty in our estimates of
exposure and risk.
The purpose of research studying the Movement of
Bioaccumulative Chemicals in Food Webs is to determine
the ecological effects of emissions from combustion facilities by
studying their uptake and transferthrough terrestrial and aquatic
food webs. Research would include the identification of indica-
tor species and studies of species-specific exposure rates.
Research would also include the study of contaminant
bioavailability in combustor residues, including those from ther-
mal treatment units. While this is an important area of research,
ORD judged it to be a relatively lower priority because many of
the principal contaminants of concern such as mercury and
cadmium, have already been widely studied or are currently
being studied by other programs. Any research would be tar-
geted toward issues specific to waste combustion, such as
bioavailability of specificforms of contaminants being emitted by
waste combustion.
28
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Table 2-8. Focus and ranking of research activities for emissions from waste combustion facilities.
Research Activity Title
Emission Prevention and
Control
Indirect Exposure
Characterization/Modeling
Indirect Pathway Risk
Assessment Methods
Continuous Emissions
Monitoring Methods
Dose-Response of Key
Contaminants
Studies of the Movement of
Bioaccumulative Chemicals in
Food Webs
Potential Research Focus
Develop a better understanding of the combustion processes
that lead to emissions formation.
Characterize toxic emissions from industrial hazardous waste
combustion units.
Determine the most cost-effective means of controlling
emissions from hazardous waste combustion units, especially
industrial units and small incinerators.
Determine the fate and transport of emission contaminants.
Develop models that identify and predict the formation of
secondary contaminants from primary emissions.
Test and validate indirect exposure methodology (IEM) using
site specific data.
Develop and validate contaminant biotransfer and uptake
factors.
Develop guidance manuals and software program to apply
IEM procedures.
Develop improved instruments that measure (on a "real time"
basis) what contaminants are being released to the
environment.
Complete the risk assessment of mercury.
Develop toxicity values (Reference Doses, Reference
Concentration, Cancer Slope Factors) for critical
contaminants.
Determine ecological effects of metal emissions.
Study the movement of mercury in aquatic environments.
Determine bioavailability of metals.
"Science"
Ranking
1
1
3
5
4
6
"Science
Plus"
Ranking
1
1
3
4
5
6
29
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30
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Chapter 3. Conclusions and Issues
Based on the analysis of research needs and ranking of re-
search topics described in Chapter 2, ORD reached several
conclusions and identified three issues that may require further
attention.
3.1 Conclusions
1. There is a large and diverse set of waste research needs that
span the spectrum of the risk paradigm. As a result, well
integrated research programs are needed for each research
topic area which have the goal of improving our assessment,
characterization and risk management capabilities. Because
there are insufficient resources available to meet all these
research needs, the process of ranking research topics and
activities is critical.
The large volumes of solid and hazardous wastes generated in
the United States pose a number of environmental problems
that EPA is responsible for minimizing. Given the variety of
waste types and of past waste management practices, it is not
surprising that there is also a variety of technical and scientific
issues that need to be addressed. The CENR report identified
broad risk assessment and risk management research needs
for waste-related environmental problems, and OSWER and the
Regions identified more- focused needs that support their
regulatory programs.
2. Four high-priority research topic areas and associated re-
search activities were identified:
Contaminated Sites - Ground Water.
The National Research Council (NRC) has estimated
that 300,000 to 400,000 sites have contaminated
ground water from USTs, and about 80 percent of the
NPL sites have contaminated ground water. The
subsurface is also the most complex and costly me-
dia to characterize, model, assess, and remediate,
and there are still numerous scientific uncertainties
associated with each of these topics. Congress ap-
propriates approximately $1.2 billion annually to clean
up the NPL sites and the Waste Research Program
has demonstrated repeatedly the ability of its re-
search to significantly reduce these costs.
The focus of the research activities (Table 3-1) is on
the issues of: improved risk assessment, character-
ization and remediation of non-aqueous phase liq-
uids (NAPLs), the application and management of
natural and accelerated process for subsurface
remediation, and the demonstration and verification
of innovative characterization and remediation tech-
nologies.
The activities shown for contaminated sites - ground
water are currently funded in the base research pro-
gram except for mixture toxicology and containment
of ground water.
Contaminated Sites - Soils/Vadose Zone.
The complexity and heterogeneity of soil/vadose zone
matrices present many challenges to their character-
ization, assessment, and remediation. The cost of
remediation is still high; remedial actions alone aver-
aged approximately $9 million per site in 1996.
The focus of research activities (Table 3-1) is on the
issues of improved exposure and risk assessment of
soils, the application and management of natural and
accelerated process for remediation, and the demon-
stration and verification of innovative characterization
and remediation technologies.
The activities shown for contaminated sites - soils/
vadose zone are currently funded in the base re-
search program except for mixture toxicology and
estimating soil intake and dose for wildlife species.
Active Waste Management Facilities.
Currently, hazardous waste regulations are burden-
some and costly to the U.S. economy. A proposal to
provide administrative and economic relief by devel-
oping a multimedia, multipathway risk-based approach
to exclude waste and waste streams has been made
(proposed Hazardous Waste Identification Rule).
However, for this rule to succeed, significant new
science, models and data are required. Also, OSWER
has identified a number of waste control/ treatment
issues for waste and waste streams that are hard to
treat or where current technological solutions are too
costly or do not meet current treatment standards.
The focus of the research activities proposed for this
research topic area is on the science needs related to
HWIR, especially in multimedia, multipathway model-
ing, and the development or estimation of toxicity
values.
The activities shown for active waste management
facilities are currently funded in the base research
program except for the development of provisional
toxicity values and waste management.
Emission from Waste Combustion Facilities.
Waste combustion facilities are know to emit toxic
contaminants such as dioxins, furans, cadmium, lead,
and mercury. In addition to large municipal waste
combustion facilities, there are thousands of small
incinerators such as those used to dispose of medical
waste which are suspected of being a major source
of mercury emissions. Public acceptance of incinera-
tion as a viable disposal technology is very low
because of our inability to answer questions related
to emission sources, emissions monitoring, indirect
31
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exposure pathways, and economical control and moni-
toring of small incinerators.
Research in this topic area is on the control and
monitoring of emissions, emissions fate process and
transport modeling, and indirect exposure and risk
assessment methods and models.
No research is funded currently in the base waste
program.
3. While there is much uncertainty, debate, and controversy
about the health and ecological risks posed by waste sites, there
is consensus that the economic impact of current waste man-
agement and cleanup practices is staggering. Within this
context, waste research should be viewed as a relatively small
and valuable investment to save future expenditures.
Waste management and remediation are estimated to cost as
high as $750 billion (Russell, etal., 1989). In contrast, ORD's
research budget for FY97 was less than $50 million. This
research, however, has yielded significant savings. For ex-
ample, ata mining site in EPARegion 8, a$50,000 bioavailability
study reduced cleanup costs from $8 million to $4 million (Weiss,
1997). Similarly, use of a phased characterization/sampling
and analysis design at a dioxin contaminated soil site resulted
in an overall savings of approximately $6.0 million (Ryti, etal.,
1992, and Ryti, et a/., 1993). A 1996 Analysis of 46 RODs
showed that where innovative technologies of the type tested in
the SITE program were used instead of conventional technolo-
gies, showed that an average savings of $30 million dollars per
ROD was achieved (Gatchett, 1998). Clearly, there have been
significant reductions in remediation costs resulting from re-
search, and it is expected that future research will yield similar
benefits.
4. Because of the multi-disciplined nature of waste-related
research, there are many organizations (across government,
industry, and academia) actively involved in sponsoring re-
search activities. In order to maximize efficiency of effort and
avoid duplication, and to improve every organizations' under-
standing of waste research needs, special efforts need to be
made to coordinate and leverage these research programs and
activities.
5. ORD's current research program emphasizes risk manage-
ment research. There is a need to increase the relative amount
of risk assessment research in this program.
About 80 percent of ORD's current waste research program is
invested in risk management and monitoring, while only 20
percent is invested in risk assessment research. This is due to
several factors. First, within ORD, the waste research program
is the only place where characterization and remediation re-
search specific to hazardous waste and Superfund sites is
conducted. In contrast, a number of other ORD research
programs (Human Health Protection, Ecological Research,
etc.) have research efforts on topics related to generic risk
assessment that benefit the waste programs. Additionally,
CERCLA has mandated that ORD conduct 10 technology
demonstrations per year as part of the SITE program. These
activities utilize a significant portion of ORD's Superfund re-
search resources. Finally, both NIEHS and ATSDR have
Congressionally mandates to conduct basic research and de-
velop toxicological profiles. While these efforts do not necessar-
ily have a direct relationship to risk assessments at sites, they
are helpful to the Superfund program.
There are several areas where risk assessment issues need to
be addressed, either as part of the ORD waste research pro-
gram, or by other research programs inside ORD or elsewhere.
The research activities identified in Table 3-1 are those that
should be conducted in whole or in part in the ORD waste
research program. Both the risk assessment research activities
(left three columns) and the risk management research activities
(rightthree columns) address high-priority research needs. This
research strategy provides guidance on deciding the relative
emphasis that should be placed on risk management and
assessment research from FY97 to FYOO.
3.2 Issues
1. Lack of Risk Characterization Research. The CENR report
identified risk characterization as a commonly overlooked, yet
very important, research priority. ORD does not have any
research activities under this component of the risk assessment
paradigm. Should ORD conduct additional research in this
area? If yes, should it be part of the Waste Research Strategy
or is it more appropriate as part of another research plan such
as the Research Strategy for Human Health Risk Assessment?
2. Future Waste Strategy Development. This waste strategy
and its associated research plans present the first comprehen-
sive waste research planning done by ORD. The planning will
not stop with publication of this document. The authors plan to
coordinate ORD discussions that will lead to a more integrated
set of research activities both across ORD waste research and
with other related ORD research programs, such as ecosystems
protection. The research strategy itself will be revisited within
two to three years to provide guidance beyond FYOO.
3. Funding Strategies. The number and diversity of research
needs far exceeds ORD's ability to meet them. ORD has
identified a set of research activities through which it believes
can make significant scientific contributions and that are respon-
sive to many of the high priority needs. However, some of these
activities are not currently funded in our base research program
(FY97). These unfunded research activities are identified in
bold in Table 3-1. Strategically, ORD will use four approaches
to identify funds for these unfunded priorities. They are:
Annual Reallocation of Funds Annually, for both
the enacted and President's budgets, ORD will look
for opportunities to reallocate funds to higher priority
research from completed or lower priority research
activities.
Research Appropriate for ORD's External Grants
Program Annually ORD will identify research
needs that are appropriate for the external grants
program. Generally, this will be in areas where
fundamental advances to the science are needed.
Unfunded high priority research activities will be
emphasized.
32
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Other Research Programs Where a Need May Be
Met ORD will seek to identify other ORD, Federal,
or private sector research programs where high
priority waste research needs may be met.
Additional Resources Should additional resources
become available, they will be allocated to high-
priority unfunded or underfunded research activities.
33
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Table 3-1. Research activities unfunded in the current base waste research program (shown in bold).
Research
Topic Areas
(in Priority Order)
Contaminated Sites -
Ground Water
Contaminated Sites -
Soils/ Vadose Zone
Emissions from
Waste Combustion
Facilities
Active Waste
Management Facilities
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES BY PARADIGM CATEGORIES
Risk Assessment
Exposure
Assessment
- Environmental Fate
and Transport
Modeling (7)*
- GW Exposure
Factors
/Pathways (21)
- Estimating Human
Exposure &
Delivered Dose (1)
- Estimating Soil
Intake and Dose -
Wildlife Species (3)
- Indirect Exposure
Characterization
Modeling (13)
- Indirect Pathway
Risk Assessment
(11)
- Multimedia, Multi-
pathway Exposure
Modeling (14)
- Environmental Fate
and Transport;
Physical Estimation
(25)
Hazard
Assessment
- Mixtures Toxicology
(26)
- Ecological Risk
Assessment
Methods (38)
- Human Dose-
Response Models for
Mixtures (3)
- Ecological Screening
Tests to Measure the
Effectiveness of
Treatment (18)
- Mixtures Toxicology
(34)
- Movement of
Bioaccumulative
Chemicals in Food
Webs (33)
- Dose-Response of
Key Contaminants
(24)
- Developing
Provisional Toxicity
Values for
Contaminants (18)
Risk
Characterization
Risk Management
Remediation &
Restoration
- Natural Attenuation (2)
-Abiotic Treatment of
GW(9)
- Biotreatment of GW(16)
- Containment of GW
(17)
- Demonstration
Verification of
Innovative Remediation
Technologies (27)
- Biotreatment of Soils (3)
-Containment of Soils
(18)
- Demonstration
Verification of
Innovative Remediation
Technologies (27)
- Abiotic Treatment of
Soils (31)
-Oil Spills (36)
Control
- Emissions
Prevention and
Control (12)
- Waste
Management (36)
Monitoring
- Subsurface
Characterization (6)
- Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
forGW(15)
- Demonstration
Verification of Field
Monitoring
Technologies (27)
- Field Sampling
Methods (8)
- Field and Screening
Analytical Methods
for Soils (9)
- Sampling Design (22)
- Demonstration /
Verification of Field
Monitoring
Technologies (27)
- Continuous
Emissions
Monitoring (CEMS)
Methods (23)
- Waste
Characterization
and Sampling (32)
Equals the ordinal rank of each research activity across the entire Waste Research Program based on the science plus ranking factors.
-------
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Glossary of Terms
bioavailability: The availability of a chemical to an animal,
plant or microorganism. It may be assayed by measurement of
uptake, toxicity or biodegradability.
biomarker: A measurable indicator of exposure or effect in
a biological receptor.
biodegradation: The biological conversion of an organic
compound to products of simpler structure, often inorganic
products.
bioremediation: The treatment of contaminants by
biodegradation to reduce their concentration.
biosensor: An analytical device composed of a biological
recognition element (enzyme, receptor, DMA, antibody, or mi-
croorganism) in intimate contact with a signal transducer (e.g.,
electrochemical, optical, thermal, or acoustic) that together
relate the concentration or chemical property of an analyte to a
measurable electronic signal.
cellular biology:
the cellular level.
The study of processes and interactions at
cone penetrometer: A hydraulically driven [geotechnical] tool
for characterizing the arrangement of hydrogeologic materials.
dose-response assessment: The evaluation of the relation-
ship between chemical exposure concentrations (dose) and the
incidence of adverse effects in humans or other species (re-
sponse).
exposure assessment: The determination of the conditions
under which people could be exposed to contaminants and the
doses that occur as a result of such exposure scenarios.
hazard assessment: The activities of hazard identification and
dose-response assessment.
hazard identification: The determination of the identities and
quantities of chemicals present as contaminants in the environ-
ment or manufactured for various uses, and the types of hazards
they may pose to human health.
hydrofracturing: The injection of water into [contaminated]
consolidated sediments to create fractures that increase the
permeability of the sediments, thereby increasing the effective-
ness of in situ treatment processes.
immunoaffinity: A separation technique using
chromatography specific antibodies to extract the target
analyte(s) from an environmental or biological matrix prior to
detection by immunoassay or instrumental methods.
immunoassay: An analytical method based on the interaction
of a specific antibody with its target analyte(s) used for detection
and quantitation. Although based on biological reagents, immu-
noassays are physical assays.
immunochemical method: Analytical methods based on the
reaction of a specific antibody with its target analyte(s) for
extraction, cleanup, concentration, detection and quantitation.
immunochemistry: A scientific discipline bridging chemistry
and biology, providing highly specific and precise quantitative
methods for the study of environmental contaminants and
human exposure assessment.
incineration: Thermal destruction of waste materials by
oxidation.
innovative technology: Technology lacking sufficient pub-
lished cost and performance data.
in-situ remediation: Remediation processes that are pro-
cesses applied "in place" in the ground, without excavation of the
contaminated soil.
karst terrain: An irregular limestone region with sinks,
underground streams and caverns.
kriging: A statistical procedure that geologist use to
characterize subsurface; kriging maximizes the information
obtained from a given number of samples.
mechanistic data: Information describing the process of how
a toxic reaction occurs in an organism.
methodological research: Research conducted to develop
improved procedures to evaluate risks.
mixed wastes: Wastes containing radio nuclides as well as
other non-radioactive contaminants.
nonaqueous-phase liquid: A liquid consisting of organic
compounds that are not completely miscible with water.
natural attenuation: Naturally occurring processes in the
environment that act without human intervention to reduce the
mass, toxicity, mobility, volume or concentration of contami-
nants.
pharmacokinetics: The field of study concerned with defining,
through measurement or modeling, the absorption, distribution,
metabolism, and the excretion of drugs or chemicals in a
biological system as a function of time.
physiologically based: Pharmacokinetics based on mea-
sured pharmacokinetics (PBPK) physiological variables such
as blood flows through organs.
phytoremediation:
sites using plants.
Set of processes that clean contaminated
risk assessment: The systematic, scientific characterization
of potential adverse effects of human or ecological exposures to
hazardous agents or activities.
37
-------
risk characterization: The description of the nature of adverse
effects that can be attributed to chemical contaminants, estima-
tion of their likelihood in various exposed populations, and
evaluation of the strength of the evidence and the uncertainty
associated with the risks estimates.
risk management: The process of identifying, evaluating,
selecting, and implementing actions to reduce risk to human
health and to ecosystems.
risk paradigm: A theoretical framework describing the
components of risk assessment and risk management pro-
cesses, and the interconnection of these components. Also,
termed the "risk assessment/risk management paradigm."
soil horizon: A layer of soil approximately parallel to the
land surface that differs from adjacent layers in physical, chemi-
cal, and biological properties or characteristics such as color,
structure, or texture.
soil vapor extraction: The use of vapor extraction wells with
blowers or vacuum pumps to remove contaminants from soils
and the subsurface.
solidification: Encapsulating the waste in a monolithic solid
of high structural integrity.
solid waste management unit: A facility used for the treat-
ment, storage or disposal of solid waste, including hazardous
wastes.
stabilization: Converting contaminants into less soluble,
mobile or toxic form.
stakeholders: Persons and organization who have an interest
in an activity because they are involved in or affected by it.
thermal desorption: The use of elevated temperatures to
remove contaminants from soils by causing them to vaporize.
toxicokinetic data: Information describing the adsorption
distribution metabolism and elimination of a chemical in an
organism.
vadose zone: The subsurface zone that extends between the
ground surface and the ground water table.
vertical geomembrane curtain wall barrier: A vertical wall
consisting of a thin, low permeability man-made material
inserted in the ground to contain or divert ground water.
38
-------
Appendix A. Summary of Research Needs
All the detailed research and support needs identified by the
CENR, the Program Offices, Regional Offices, and the ORD are
arrayed by risk paradigm in Tables A-1 through A-6 (one table
for each element of the risk paradigm). These tables include
data that identify the specific support or research need, the
source of research need, and who/where the need should most
appropriately be addressed. This set of needs is considered to
be the "universe of needs" and the basis upon which ORD will
determine what research is appropriate and for which it has the
capability and capacity to conduct. The table attempts to identify
"where" each identified research need should most appropri-
ately be addressed. Those needs that are (or may be in the
future) addressed in this plan are identified by ORD Waste
Research Plan in bold. In many cases, relevant or related
research is being conducted elsewhere that will partially or fully
meet the stated research need. These other locations are also
identified. If there is no entry for a given research needs,
research is not currently planned nor has it been identified as
being conducted elsewhere.
39
-------
Table A-1. Summary of research needs - Hazard Assessment.
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Hazard
Assessment
Research Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
IDENTIFICATION OF TOXIC
- Greater emphasis on noncancer endpoints.
- Improved understanding of the biological basis for toxicity
and biologically-based extrapolation models between
species.
- Effects of short term exposure to contaminants at different
ages.
- Effects of dermal exposure on cancer and noncancer
endpoints.
- Effects of contaminants on ecological receptors.
CENR
OERR
osw
CENR
OERR
OSW
CENR
OERR
OSW
CENR
OERR
OSW
CENR
OERR
OSW
ORD Human Health
Risk Assessment
Research Plan
ORD Waste Research
Plan
ORD Human Health
Risk Assessment
Research Plan
ORD Waste Research
Plan
Ecological Research
Strategy
DOSE-RESPONSE ANALYSES
- Biologically based toxicokinetic models.
- Variation in susceptibilities within and across species.
- Improved understanding of biological mechanisms of
action at the organ, cellular, and subcellar level.
- Understanding the relationship between exposure and
dose, especially as it relates to bioavailability of
contaminants.
- Improved understanding of the effects of complex
mixtures.
- Development of predictive models of population dynamics
for selected ecological or societal species of interest.
CENR
OERR
OSW
CENR
OERR
OSW
CENR
OERR
OSW
CENR
OERR
OSW
CENR
OERR
OSW
CENR
OERR
OSW
ORD
Plan
ORD Human Health
Risk Assessment
Research Plan
ORD Human Health
Risk Assessment
Research Plan
ORD
Plan
ORD Human Health
Risk Assessment
Research Plan
ORD
Plan
ORD Waste Research
Plan
Ecological Research
Strategy
40
-------
Table A-2. Summary of waste research needs - Exposure Assessment.
Paradigm
Element
Exposure
Assessment
Research Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
PHYSICAL ESTIMATION, TRANSFORMATION, AND FATE
- Improve understanding of abiotic processes controlling
transport, fate and bioavailability of chemicals in soil,
natural waters, and sediment.
- Improve understanding of bioaccumulation and metabolic
processes controlling biodegradability of chemicals in
microbial populations in soils, natural waters, and
sediments.
- Enhancement of the IV1INTEQA2 database.
Validation/verification.
- Addition of Redox database to MINTEGA2.
- Evaluation of fate and transport parameters for hazardous
constituents.
- Expert analysis of biodegradation rates for the subsurface
environment.
- Develop a working understanding of the microbiologic
and abiotic processes contributing to the degradation of
contaminants in the subsurface, especially as related to
natural attenuation.
- Determine the environmental fate of vegetable oils and
animal fats in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems.
CENR
CENR
osw
osw
osw
osw
OERR
OERR
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Multimedia Research
Program
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Multimedia Research
Program
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Multimedia Research
Program
ORD Air Toxic Research
Program (in part)
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
PATHWAYS AND
- Improve methods for diagnosing route of exposure and
exposure history.
- Improve data on human activity patterns (e.g., food
ingestion rates, time in various settings, etc.).
- Better procedures / models for assessing dermal exposure,
especially from soil, including matrix-specific and receptor-
specific (e.g., race) properties.
- Bioaccumulation of metals, especially mercury.
- Bioaccumulation of semi-volatile organics (chlorinated
organics, PAHs, higher MW phthalates) and metals in
terrestrial plants and animals, cycling of xenobiotics from
terrestrial plants to detritus to soils to soil organisms.
- Methods/models for determining the bioavailability of
metals and organics from soils via the ingestion exposure
route, plant to animal, animal to human (direct and indirect
exposure).
- Guidance for determining residential exposure (dermal,
inhalation) from NAPL contaminated ground water and
soils (vinyl chloride, benzene, etc.).
- Develop methods to collect exposure data from minorities,
disadvantaged populations or other groups (children ,
women, etc.) likely to be disproportionately affected.
CENR
CENR
CENR
OERR
OSW
OSW
OERR
Regions
OERR
CENR
OERR
ORD Human Health Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
ORD Human Health Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
ORD Human Health Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
ORD Human Health Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
ORD Human Health Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Human Health Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
ORD Human Health Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
41
-------
Table A-2. (Continued).
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Exposure
Assessment
Research Needs Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
EXPOSURE PATHWAYS AND FACTORS (cont.)
- Improved understanding of exposure to dose relationships.
CENR
ORD Human Health Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
ORD Air Toxics Research
Program (in part)
MULTIMEDIA, MULTIPATHWAY EXPOSURE MODELING
- Evaluate existing/developing new fate, transport, and
exposure assessment models for multimedia assessments.
- Better procedures to assess complex (e.g.,
multipathway/multichemical) exposure scenarios.
- Enhancement of OSW subsurface fate and transport
models by incorporating fractured flow and heterogeneous
porous media.
- Validation and verification of fate and transport models in
general.
- DOE Spill Test Facility -- fundamental dispersion modeling
research
- Research on large-scale gas releases and liquid spills
under varying weather, density, terrain, and surface
roughness conditions to validate and enhance exposure
models.
CENR
OSW
CENR
OSW
OSW
OSW
CEPPO
CEPPO
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Multimedia Research
Program
ORD Research Plan
ORD Multimedia Research
Program
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Multimedia Research
Program
ORD Air Toxics Research
Program (in part)
EXPOSURE MODELING TECHNICAL SUPPORT
- Fate, transport and modeling support for HWIR, OUST,
OERR.
OSW
OUST
OERR
ORD Waste Research Plan
EXPOSURE CHARACTERIZATION / MODELING - COMBUSTION / INCINERATION
- Correlation between combustion mercury emissions and
methyl mercury levels in biomarkers.
- Vapor-particle partitioning of semi-volatile organics
(chlorinated dioxins and PAHs) under ambient conditions.
- Air deposition of semi-volatile organics (chlorinated dioxins,
PCBs, higher MW chlorinated benzene and phenols,
PAHs, and higher MW phthalates).
- Vapor transport to surfaces - wet and dry deposition.
- Surface vapor uptake - plants and soils.
- Mathematical models, parameter characterization, and
validation of models for dry gas deposition air dispersion.
Regions
OSW
OSW
OSW
OSW
OSW
Regions
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Multimedia Research
Program (South Florida
Mercury Study)
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Human Risk
Assessment Research Plan
(in part)
ORD Air Toxics Research
Program (very little)
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Air Toxics Research
Program
(very little)
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Air Toxics Research
Program (in part)
42
-------
Table A-2. (Continued).
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Exposure
Assessment
Research Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
CHARACTERIZATION / MODELING - COMBUSTION / INCINERATION (cont.)
- Methods for particle size distribution for input to air
dispersion models.
Regions
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Air Toxics Research
Program (in part)
INDIRECT PATHWAY METHODS - COMBUSTION / INCINERATION
- Indirect eco and human exposure methodology for
combustion sources (incineration/thermal desorbers).
osw
OERR
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Air Toxics Research
Program (in part)
Table A-3. Summary of waste research needs - Risk Characterization.
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Risk
Characterization
Research Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
RISK INTEGRATION
- Methods to integrate the elements of a risk assessment
in complex cases.
- Quantitative statistical methods to evaluate variability and
uncertainty.
- Methods to assess cumulative risk.
- Methods to include cultural and behavioral aspects into
risk analysis.
CENR
CENR
CENR
CENR
ORD Human Risk
Assessment Research Plan
ORD Human Risk
Assessment Research Plan
ORD Human Risk
Assessment Research Plan
COMMUNICATION
- Risk communication strategies that include community
members
- Better statistical and communication tools to communicate
risks to the public and risk managers.
CENR
CENR
43
-------
Table A-4. Summary of waste research needs - Control.
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Control
Research Needs Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
COMBUSTION
- Characterization of dioxin/furan emissions from boilers,
especially boiler tubes and boilers of various types; and
from halogen acid furnaces.
- Full scale PIC testing to better understand formation
dynamics; particularly post-combustion PICs.
- Determine good combustion practices (design and
operation) which will minimize emissions of priority
pollutants, especially for small combustors.
- Develop control techniques for mercury emissions.
Improved mercury speciation.
- Characterize emissions of high priority semivolatiles and
Hazardous Air Pollutants from Waste combustion and
develop effective control techniques.
- Identification of organic and PIC surrogates for non-dioxin
organics.
OSW
osw
OSW
osw
osw
osw
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
(related bench studies)
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
TECHNOLOGY
- Research the chemical dynamics and long term efficacy
of emerging waste solidification and stabilization
technologies.
- Evaluate treatment alternatives for wastes that contain
mercury, particularly in light of air emissions and elemental
mercury.
- Evaluate the cross media transfer of contaminants during
treatment.
- Evaluation of ground water/surface water interactions.
- Municipal Innovative Technology Evaluation (MITE)
Program.
- Guidelines: Life Cycle Management Evaluation of Waste
Management
osw
osw
osw
osw
osw
osw
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
(Part of ORD tech. devel.
activities)
ORD Eco. Protection Plan
P2 Research Plan
POLLUTION PREVENTION & RECYCLING
- Source Reduction/Recycling Options for High Priority
Processes.
- Technologies to Reduce Barriers to Recycling.
- Source Reduction Opportunities for Combusted Wastes.
- Criteria to Delay MACT Implementation Dates.
- National P2 Roundtable RCRA Priorities Support.
osw
osw
osw
osw
osw
P2 Research Plan
P2 Research Plan
P2 Research Plan
44
-------
Table A-5. Summary of waste research needs - Remediation.
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Remediation
Research Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
GROUND WATER REMEDIATION
- Conduct field evaluations of ground water remediation
technologies to obtain data on performance, cost and
environmental effects.
- Develop, demonstrate and evaluate in situ technologies,
such as bioremediation, to remediate subsurface plumes.
- Develop technologies to characterize, model monitor and
remediate contaminated plumes in ground water,
particularly DNAPLs.
- Identify new or improved techniques for removing or
treating subsurface DNAPLs.
- Develop workable site characterization protocols for
evaluating the potential for using natural attenuation to
meet cleanup goals in the subsurface.
- Develop understanding of microbial and abiotic processes
contributing to contaminant degradation in the subsurface.
- Conduct research to better understand the process
associated with reactive barrier effectiveness and develop
improved barrier media.
- Develop improved methods of remediating ground water
using vegetation planted and grown in the contaminated
areas.
- Develop improved methods for monitoring and evaluating
performance of barriers designed to control migration of
contaminated ground water.
- Conduct research to understand the fate and remediation
options for MTBE in fuels.
- Conduct research in natural attenuation of fuels in ground
water.
CENR
CENR
OERR
CENR
OSWER
Regions
OSWER
OERR
OERR
OERR
OERR
OUST
OUST
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
SOILA/ADOSE ZONE REMEDIATION
- Conduct field evaluations of contaminated soils remediation
technologies to obtain data on performance, costs and
environmental effects.
- Develop, demonstrate, and evaluate in situ technologies,
such as bioremediation, for remediation of contaminated
soils.
- Evaluate the applicability of composting remedies to
stabilization of metals in surface soils.
- Develop workable site characterization protocols for
evaluating the potential for using natural attenuation to
meet cleanup objectives in the subsurface.
CENR
CENR
ORD
OERR
OSWER
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
45
-------
Table A-5. (Continued).
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Remediation
Research Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
SOIL/VADOSE REMEDIATION (cont.)
- Conduct research on NA of fuels in soils and vadose zone.
- Develop understanding of microbial and abiotic processes
contributing to contaminant degradation in the subsurface.
- Develop improved methods of remediating soil using
vegetation planted and grown in the contaminated area.
- Investigate the basic natural biological, chemical, and
physical mechanisms that affect the toxicity or mobility of
contaminants in soils to identify and optimize remediation
processes.
- Determine the long-term effectiveness and costs of
containment systems, the proper means of monitoring
them and ways to fix them effectively.
- Evaluate treatment technologies for contaminated
sediments.
OUST
OERR
OERR
ORD
OERR
Regions
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Contaminated
Sediments Work Plan
LANDFILLS
- Develop, demonstrate, and evaluate in situ technologies,
such as bioremediation, for remediation of landfills.
- Evaluate the performance of waste containment systems
at working landfills.
CENR
ORD
OERR
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
OIL SPILLS
- Develop, evaluate, and demonstrate innovative
technologies to remediate and restore environments
impacted by oil spills or chemical releases
- Evaluate the environmental impacts of oil spills remediation
options.
CENR
OERR
ORD Waste Research Plan
CLEAN UP
- Develop techniques to measure the health of ecosystems
and the effectiveness of restoration efforts.
- Develop techniques for determining risk-based cleanup
goals for a variety of remediation technologies.
CENR
OERR
Regions
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
- Develop new information management and quality
assurance tools and procedures to improve the speed
with which data are collected, tracked, interpreted and
reviewed at sites.
- Provide site-specific technical support, including in-depth
support that deals with complex remediation problems.
CENR
OSWER
ORD Waste Research Plan
46
-------
Table A-5. (Continued).
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Remediation
Research Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
BETTER MANAGEMENT DECISIONS (cont.)
- Provide support for the development of Presumptive
Remedies (guidance to speedy remedy selections and
promote technically sound, consistent selections).
- Expand bioremediation field data base to include
composting.
- Direct research and development expertise towards solving
site-specific cleanup problems.
- Provide site-specific technical assistance on the application
of subsurface modeling at contaminated sites, especially
to address cleanup technical impracticability and the
applicability of natural attenuation.
- Develop methodologies for evaluating the outcomes, or
benefits, of cleanup projects.
- Develop tools and provide guidance on how to estimate
costs of remediation projects to support cleanup decisions
and justify budget requests.
- Develop and implement ways to ensure that recent
scientific/engineering advances can be rapidly and correctly
implemented in remediation practice.
- Develop means to keep remediation stakeholders informed
about state-of-the-art solutions to the highest priority
technical problems.
- RCRA CA Tech Support - Remediation
OERR
OERR
OERR
OSWER
OERR
OERR
ORD
ORD
osw
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
(technical support)
ORD Waste Research Plan
(to be determined)
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
FEDERAL FACILITIES
- Conduct field evaluations of technologies to remediate
radioactive wastes and mixed wastes in order to obtain
data on performance, cost and environmental effects.
- Develop a national federal test site program at federal
facilities to support technology development and evaluation.
- Develop, demonstrate, and evaluate innovative
technologies for characterization, identification, and
remediation of energetic materials (e.g., unexploded
ordinances and chemical munitions).
- Coordinate development of robotics waste separation and
characterization technologies that are applicable to high-
level waste, mixed wastes, landfills and contaminated
soils, and ground water contaminated plumes.
CENR
CENR
CENR
CENR
DOE
DOD, DOE
DOD
DOE
47
-------
Table A-6. Summary of waste research needs - Monitoring.
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Monitoring
Research Needs Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
- Innovative site characterization (especially and related
to VOCs, metals, and natural attenuation).
OERR
ORD Waste Research Plan
FIELD AND ANALYTICAL
- Speciation of arsenic and selenium.
- Evaluation of pesticide screening by GC/AED.
- Direct determination of PAHs by capillary electrophoresis
with laser-induced fluorescence detection.
- Lower analytical detection limits for bioaccumulative
chemicals.
- Develop a wider spectrum of immunoassay tools and
methods for soil screening.
- Improve data on contaminant levels and release rates
from sites, especially field analytical methods.
- Improve TCLP, especially for oily wastes.
- Develop corrosivity and ignitability tests for solids.
OSW
OSW
OSW
OERR
Regions
CENR
OERR
Regions
Regions
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Drinking Water
Research Program (in part)
ORD Air Toxics Research
Program (in part)
CONTINUOUS MONITORING (OEMs)
- Analytical methods for chloro- and bromo- dioxins and
furans. Air, soils, waste residue, continuous emission
monitors (CEMs) for combustion sources.
- Develop guidance or improve analytical methods for better
speciation of organics (PICs).
- CEMs for mercury and mercury species.
- Improved surrogates for emissions of PIC HAPs and
associated CEMs.
- Lower detection limits of VOST methods for PICs.
- Improved discrimination of coeluting PIC peaks.
- Inexpensive monitors for good combustion conditions for
small units.
- Improvement to the Total Organic Emissions Test (TOE).
OSW
OSW
OSW
OSW
OSW
OSW
OAQPS
Regions
ORD Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
DEMONSTRATION & VERIFICATION OF FIELD MONITORING AND
CHARACTERIZATION TECHNOLOGIES
- Demonstration of innovative monitoring and site
characterization technologies.
OERR
TIO
ORD Waste Research Plan
48
-------
Table A-6. (Continued).
Risk
Paradigm
Element
Monitoring
Research Sorted by Major
Research Activities
Source of
Research
Need
Who/Where
Will Be
Addressed
SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZED SAMPLING
- Innovative site characterization (especially as related to
natural attenuation).
OSW
OUST
OERR
ORD Waste Research Plan
SURFACE /SUBSURFACE CHARACTERIZATION TECHNOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION
- Innovative site characterization (especially as related to
natural attenuation).
- Develop innovative techniques for locating DNAPLs in
the subsurface.
- Develop methods for monitoring and evaluating the
performance of barriers designed to control migration of
contaminated groundwater, especially DNAPLs.
OSW
OUST
OERR
Regions
OERR
OERR
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
MONITORING AND CHARACTERIZATION TECHNICAL SUPPORT
- Technical support on sampling and analysis and GEMS
for PICs, metals, and PM.
- RCRA corrective action technical support.
- Superfund site-specific monitoring and characterization
(including remote sensing) technical support.
- Training courses: fate and transport of contaminants and
DNAPLs.
OSW
OSW
OERR
Regions
Regions
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
ORD Waste Research Plan
49
-------
50
-------
Appendix B. Related Research Programs
B.1 Related Research in the Office of Research and Devel-
opment
B.1.1 Hazardous Substances Research Centers
The competitive Hazardous Waste Research Centers were
created as a result of the CERCLA amendments of 1986 (P.L.
99-499). Section 311, directs EPA to " ... make grants to
institutions of higher learning to establish and operate not fewer
than five hazardous substance research centers in the United
States. In carrying out this program the Administrator should
seek to have established and operated 10 hazardous sub-
stances research centers in the United States." The legislation
goes on to say responsibilities shall include at least research
and training related to the manufacturing, use, transportation,
disposal, and management of hazardous substances and pub-
lication and dissemination of the results of the research. The
focus of each center is to parallel problems within the geo-
graphic regions of the Centers.
ORD currently is supporting five HSRCs through base re-
sources or Congressional directive. The Centers draw financial
supportthrough EPA, otherfederal agencies, academia, states,
local communities and the private sector. The following table
identifies the centers, their focus and their participating mem-
bers.
Table B-1. Hazardous Substances Research Centers.
Center Name
Center Focus
Consortium Members
Northeastern HSRC
Industrial Waste
Incineration/thermal treatment
Characterization and monitoring
In situ remediation
Ex situ treatment processes
MIT, New Jersey Inst. of Tech,
Rutgers, Princeton, Stevens,
Tufts, Univ. of Med and
Dentistry of NJ.
Great Lakes and Mid-Atlantic HSRC
In situ Bioremediation
In-situ bioremediation technology
« Surfactant introduction tech.
Bioventing
U. of Michigan, Howard U.
Michigan State
Great Plains/Rocky Mountain HSRC
Contaminated Soils and Mining Wastes
Soil and water contaminated with heavy
metals
Soils and groundwater contaminated by
organic chemicals
Wood preservatives that contaminate water
Pesticides identified as haz. waste
Improved tech. and methods to characterize
and analyze contaminated soils
Waste minimization and P2 methods and
technology
Kansas State U., Haskell Indian
Nations U., Lincoln U., Montana
State U., South Dakota State,
U. of Iowa, U. of Missouri, U. of
Montana, U. of Nebraska, U. of
Wyoming, U. of Northern Iowa,
and Utah State U.
South and Southwest HSRC
Contaminated Sediments
« In-situ chemical mobilization processes in
bed and confined disposal facilities
In-situ remediation
« In-situ detection
Louisiana State U., Georgia Inst
of Tech. , Rice U.
Western HSRC
Groundwater Cleanup and Site Remediation
Chlorinated solvents
Halogenated aromatic compounds
Nonhaloginated aromatics including
petroleum derivatives
Ordnance wastes
Heavy metals
Evaluation of factors affecting the transport
and fate of chemicals in the environment
Design and management issues for site
remediation
Stanford U., Oregon State U.
51
-------
B.1.2 Minority Centers
Two minority centers are currently funded: Southern University
at Baton Rouge and University of Texas - El Paso. Both Centers
are funded from within the Waste Research Program.
B.1.3 Small Business Innovations Research and Explor-
atory Research Grants
Small Business Innovation Research is a Federal, Congression-
ally mandated program funded through a set-aside of 2.5
percent of extramural research funds appropriated within an
agency. The program's primary focus is on cleanup, resulting in
proof of concept and actual demonstration of individual
entrepreneur's technologies, many of which have application to
remediation. The most current topic areas being pursued are
addressed in the following table: "SBIR FY 1997 Topic Areas."
ORD has for many years solicited for exploratory research
beyond that covered by directed or focused STAR solicitations.
It is the opinion of ORD that there are many outstanding
investigator initiated ideas that could contribute and move the
science forward, yet have no vehicle for funding. The Explor-
atory Grants program attempts to fill this void. Eligibility is for
academic institutions and non-profits. Broad areas of solicita-
tion tend to be in categories such as: environmental chemistry,
environmental physics, engineering, and human health and
ecological effects. Proposals are solicited for all media, includ-
ing waste management, risk assessment and remediation.
B.1.4 Companion ORD Research Strategies
The Waste Research Strategy is one of 10 separate strategies
that have recently been or are being developed by ORD. They
are:
Table B-2. Minority Centers funded from within the Waste Research Program.
Center Name
Center Focus
Consortium Members
Center for Environmental Resources
Management
Problems that effect low-income individuals
and groups
Minority residents of the Mexico border region
Strengthen the capability of Hispanics to enter
environmental careers
U. of Texas at El Paso
Institute for Environmental Issues and
Policy Assessment Center for Energy
and Environmental Studies
Pollution Prevention
Environmental Equity
Mississippi River Env. Strategy
Environmental Risk
Southern U. at Baton Rouge
Table B-3. Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) topics for 1997.
SBIR FY 1997 Topic Areas
Drinking Water
Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Treatment and P2*
Wet Weather Flow Treatment and Pollution Control
Prevention and Control of Indoor Air Pollution
Prevention and Control of NOx, VOCs, SO2, and Toxic Air Emissions*
Treatment, Recycling, and Disposal of Solid Wastes, Hazardous Wastes and Sediments*
In situ Site Remediation of Organically Contaminated Soil, Sediments and Groundwater*
Treatment or Removal of Heavy Metals at Contaminated Sites*
Pollution Prevention*
Advance Monitoring and Analytical Technologies*
* Of probable interest to the waste plan and clients
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Drinking Water Disinfection/DBPs
Participate Matter
Arsenic in Drinking Water
Endocrine Disrupters
EMAP
Human Health Risk Assessment
Ecosystems Protection
Global Change
Pollution Prevention
Components of a number of these strategies, particularly those
on human health, ecosystems and pollution prevention, deal
with issues related to waste risk assessment and risk manage-
ment. Completed strategies and abstracts of those still in
preparation may be found at the ORD web site: www.epa.gov/
ORD/resplans.
B.1.5 Pollution Prevention Research
Since the early 1990s, ORD's pollution prevention research and
development program has been transformed from an extramu-
ral effort that promoted pollution prevention through technical
assistance and information transfer to an in-house effort de-
voted to scientific and technical research on pollution prevention
tools, methodologies, technologies, and approaches. Resource
allocations have been reduced and targeted at support that
provides post-doctoral researchers, master's-degree assistants,
technicians, and analytical services with which to build the in-
house capabilities of ORD scientists and engineers. This shift
has caused ORD to reevaluate its pollution prevention priorities
and to focus on a smallerset of high priority activities where it can
make a significant contribution based on its unique expertise
and capabilities.
In preparing the Pollution Prevention Research Strategy, it was
essential that the above reorientation be given full consider-
ation, and that a research and development program in pollution
prevention be targeted at and supportive of building and strength-
ening ORD's in-house capabilities. As a result, four long-term
goals have been identified:
/. ORD will deliver broadly applicable tools
and methodologies for pollution prevention
and sustainability.
II. ORD will develop and transfer pollution
prevention technologies and approaches.
III. ORD will verify selected pollution preven-
tion technologies.
IV. ORD will conduct research to address
economic, social, and behavioral research for
pollution prevention.
Pollution prevention progress in the next ten years will not
proceed as rapidly as in the past ten, but the results of that
progress can be even more significant. The "next wave" of
pollution prevention can provide economic and environmental
benefits in a host of situations. Since these advances likely will
represent more fundamental changes in individual lifestyle,
industrial process design (e.g., clean technologies), consumer
products (e.g., benign chemicals), and land use, future research
and development must focus on quantum leaps instead of
incremental improvements. ORD will only be ableto sustain this
future direction if it concentrates on longer-term research which
will produce a new generation of tools and technologies that
move pollution prevention beyond the obvious and less formi-
dable opportunities of the past.
B.2 Related Research Sponsored by the Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response
OSWER provides resources to ORD and non-ORD entities for
research of particular emphasis for their programs. Funding to
any single project may be one time only or may be part of a
longer term commitment. In the paragraphs below, several
research areas that have been funded and identified by OSWER
are described.
Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office
(CEPPO)
Analysis of emergency gas release data: CEPPO is
providing funds under the Clean Air Act through the Na-
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to
the Desert Research Institute (DRI) for analysis of emer-
gency gas release data collected at the Nevada Test
Facility. The original data were generated by research
work funded by ORD under the Clean Air Act; however,
funding was terminated in September 1995. The data are
critical to industry and others to validate dispersion model-
ing approaches to support hazard and risk assessments for
the prevention of catastrophic accidental releases.
Catastrophic accidental release: At the Wharton School
ofthe University of Pennsylvania, CEPPO-funded research
projects are in progress on issues associated with cata-
strophic accidental release risk assessment, risk manage-
ment, risk decision-making and accident investigation.
Catastrophic release of propane gas: Under a cooperative
agreement with CEPPO, the State of Delaware is develop-
ing a model risk management program and plan for pro-
pane, including the modeling and assessment ofthe con-
sequences of catastrophic releases of propane gas.
Chemical accident prevention: Under a cooperative agree-
ment with CEPPO, the National Institute for Chemical
Studies is conducting outreach, training, and technical
assistance in chemical accident prevention, addressing
particularly small businesses and local communities, and
focusing on Sections 112 (r) and 507 the Clean Air Act.
They are also analyzing local state and Federal chemical
accident investigation reports to highlight problem areas,
trends and significant findings.
Office of Underground Storage Tanks (OUST)
Expedited Site Assessment Tools for Underground Storage
Tank Sites: A Guide For Regulators, EPA 510-B-97-001 -
OUST is developing a manual that will help state and federal
underground storage tank (UST) regulators evaluate and
promote expedited site assessments. The manual will
coverfive major UST site assessment issues: the expedited
site assessment process, geophysical methods for UST site
investigations; soil gas surveys; direct push technologies;
and field analytical methods for petroleum hydrocarbons.
The equipment and methods presented in the manual will
be evaluated in terms of applicability, advantages, and
limitations for petroleum UST sites. OUST anticipates the
manual will be available in March 1997.
Howto Effectively Recover Free Product At Leaking Under-
ground Storage Tank Sites: A Guide For State Regulators,
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EPA 510-R-96-001, September 1996 - This manual assists
regulators in determining when recovery of free product is
necessary, whether an appropriate recovery method has
been proposed, and whetherthe free product recovery plan
provides a technically sound approach. (This manual was
done in conjunction with NRMRL, but was published as an
OUST document).
How to Evaluate Alternative Cleanup Technologies for
Underground Storage Tank Sites: A Guide for Corrective
Action Plan Reviewers, EPA 510-B-95-007, May 1995 -
This manual has been proposed, and whetherthe correc-
tive action plan provides a technically sound approach to
achieve cleanup. It covers 10 technologies.
Office of Solid Waste (OSW)
Risk Assessment Exposure scenarios for wastes in
commerce - Hazardous wastes are increasingly being re-
cycled and the products from these recycling operations are
finding their way into commerce and use by the public.
Consequently, these materials have a number of unique
attributes that require special evaluation. In particular, this
work is concerned with the long term stability of constituents
in stabilized matrices, the bioavailability of constituents
under different conditions, and the development of models
for exposure pathways that are nottypical of waste manage-
ment scenarios. This work is being conducted byOSWand
its contractors.
Monitoring Continuous emission monitors - In coopera-
tion with the Department of Energy, OSW is researching
and evaluating the long-term ruggedness of CEMs for
mercury and other organics. These monitors, while used in
Europe, have not been installed extensively in the United
States. This effort involves researching the long-term
performance and stability of these state-of-the-art monitors.
Formation of products of incomplete combustion (PIC) -
Field sampling efforts have been underway over the last
several years to evaluate the nature and extent of organic
hazardous constituents that form as a result of incomplete
combustion. In cooperation with cement producers, OSW
has conducted a series of field studies to assess PICs in
cement kilns.
Accelerated microwave extraction - In conjunction with
Environment Canada, OSW is developing a microwave
extraction method for organic compounds. OSWis continu-
ing to develop the method and will conduct a round-robin
study in order to evaluate and improve the performance of
this method.
Fate and Transport Model Development Groundwater
contaminant movement modeling - Although ORD makes
significant contributions to this area, OSW, with its special-
ized contractors and other academic experts, conducts
development work to improve EPA's Composite Model for
Transformation Products. OSW is presently working to
restructure the Monte Carlo framework in the model so that
we can separate model uncertainty from data variability. In
addition, in conjunction with several industries, academic
experts and the ORD, OSW will be reevaluating available
subsurface biodegradation data.
Multimedia and indirect fate and transport modeling - In
close coordination with ORD, as outlined in the draft Multi-
media Science Plan, OSWis taking the lead on a number of
areas; examples include the development of additional
human health and ecological endpoints for new chemicals,
refinement of the waste management units which describe
the source of contaminants, revisions to several submodels
including the overland flow model, and additional evaluation
of loss processes.
Environmental Benefits Analysis Contingent valuation of
groundwater - OSW is restarting an effort to evaluate the
nonuse economic benefits of avoiding groundwater con-
tamination. This effort, being conducted in conjunction with
OSWs specialized contractors, will use the controversial
method of contingent valuation. Prior SAB review and
additional peer review input has led to a strategy that
requires some experimental testing of responses to validate
the valuation information that OSW us acquiring.
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (OERR)
MARSSIM (ORIA - lead): MARSSIM is a 750- page guid-
ance document that addresses issues related to the pro-
posed rule, "EPA Radiation Site Cleanup Regulation," such
as how to set background levels and risk/method/decision
confidence levels.
MARLAP (ORIA-lead): MARLAP is a document concerning
analytical methods, especially measurement issues re-
lated to the Radiation Site Cleanup proposed rule.
Fact Sheets for Ground water/Modeling (and future poten-
tial EPA/DOE/NRC Interagency Modeling Working Group)
(ORIA-lead): Four reports promoting modeling of hazard-
ous and radioactive waste sites were completed and pub-
lished by ORIA. Four fact sheets were prepared summariz-
ing the reports:
- Environmental Characteristics of EPA, NRC, and
DOE Sites Contaminated with Radioactive Sub-
stances.
- Computer Models Used to Support Cleanup Decision-
Making at Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes Sites.
- Environmental Pathways Models - Groundwater Mod-
eling in Support of Remedial Decision Making at Sites
Contaminated with Radioactive Material.
- A Technical Guide to Groundwater Model Selection at
Sites Contaminated with Radioactive Substances.
Groundwater/Modeling Document Review (and future po-
tential EPA/DOE/NRC Interagency Modeling Working
Group) ORIA-lead): Two documents on modeling were
prepared:
- An Evaluation of Three Representative Multimedia
Models Used to Support Cleanup Decision-Making at
Hazardous, Mixed and Radioactive Waste Sites.
- A Recommended Guide to Documenting Groundwater
Modeling Results at Sites Contaminated with Radioac-
tive Substances.
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The Kd Model and Its Use in Containment Transport Mod-
eling: A multi-Agency workgroup is developing a guidance
document concerning the distribution coefficient for ground-
water modeling at sites, including mixed waste sites.
Estimation of Water Flux in the Unsaturated Zone-A Survey
of the Available Techniques: A multi-Agency workgroup to
develop a guidance document for groundwater modeling at
sites, including mixed waste sites.
International Containment Conference: Technical confer-
ence for complex waste sites, including mixed waste sites.
Decision Support System: ORIA and OERR are funding
delivery of a probabilistic decision tool for all waste sites,
including mixed wastes sites. Product developed in con-
junction with Sandia National Laboratory.
Technology Innovation Office (TIP)
Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center
(GWRTAC) The GWRTAC was established in 1995
through a cooperative agreement between TIO and the
National Environmental Technology Applications Center
(NETAC). NETAC's overall mission is to facilitate the
development and use of new groundwater technologies
through: improving understanding and deployment of inno-
vative groundwater remediation technologies; supporting
customer groups requiring access to this technology devel-
opers and users. Current activities include assembling
information to be included in case study and vendor infor-
mation databases, placing the databases on the Internet,
preparing technology status reports, and responding to
requests for information on groundwater technologies.
Remediation Technologies Development Forum (RTDF) -
The RTDF was established by EPA in 1992 and now
includes a consortium of partners from industry, govern-
ment agencies, and academia. RTDF's overall mission is to
foster public-private partnerships to advance the develop-
ment of more permanent-cost-effective technologies forthe
remediation of hazardous wastes. The RTDF works to
achieve this goal through: identifying priority remediation
technology development needs; establishing and oversee-
ing action teams to plan and implement collaborative re-
search projects to address remediation problems; and
addressing scientific, institutional, and regulatory barriersto
the use of innovative treatment technologies.
Five Action Teams have been formed within the RTDF to
address priority research areas: Lasagna Consortium,
Bioremediation Consortium, Permeable Barriers Action
Team, In-Place Inactivation and Natural Ecological Resto-
ration (INERT) Soil-Metals Action Team, and Sediments
Remediation Action Team. Participants in each team
provide funding or in-kind support for specific research
efforts of the team.
TIO provide funds forthe staff and contractors needed to
support the logistics of running the forum (e.g., organizing
meetings and conference calls). The research support
currently provided by EPA through its participation on the
RTDF teams is provided by ORD.
B.3 Research Conducted/Sponsored by Other Agencies
and Departments
Major waste research programs exist in other agencies and
departments. An important consideration for ranking waste
research to be performed by EPA/ORD is the extent to which a
research issue is being addressed elsewhere. Depending upon
the particular research need, a small, sharply focused ORD
effort might have significant impact even if another agency has
a large research program addressing an apparently similar
research issue. In addition, ORD's position as part of the lead
environmental regulatory agency puts it in a unique leadership
role for the research programs of others. On the other hand,
given the nature of the issue and the resources directed towards
it by other agencies, ORD might more wisely focus its resources
elsewhere.
The description of eight other government programs follows.
Each gives a brief indication ofthe mission, magnitude, scientific
direction and sharpness of focus of other Federal programs to
determine the extentto which ORD efforts might be complemen-
tary, synergistic, duplicative.orrelativelyinconsequential. Where
possible, an Internet address is provided as a pointer to more
information about these other programs.
The Department of Energy (DOE)'s Office of Health and
Environmental Research (OHER) operates an Environ-
mental Remediation Research program, which is focused
on developing an understanding ofthe fundamental physi-
cal, chemical, geological, and biological processes that
must be marshaled forthe development and advancement
of new, effective, and efficient processes forthe remediation
and restoration ofthe nation's nuclearweapons production
sites [http://www.er.doe.gov/production/oher/habir/
cover.html]. A primary effort is a comprehensive research
program in bioremediation that integrates the full range of
fundamental scientific disciplines necessary to advance
this emerging technology. DOE-OHER's natural and accel-
erated bioremediation research program is designed to
promote the use of living organism to reduce or eliminate
waste. The microbial genome research program is de-
signed to provide genome sequence and mapping data on
microorganisms of industrial importance and on those that
live under extreme conditions. The environmental technol-
ogy partnerships program is intended to encourage univer-
sity, national laboratory, and industrial partnerships to ad-
dress fundamental bioremediation and integrated assess-
ment research that is oriented toward reducing waste pro-
duction and energy consumption in manufacturing pro-
cesses. The subsurface science program is designed to
understand the physical, chemical, and biological processes
controlling the fate of complex chemical mixtures released
to terrestrial subsurface environments; and research in the
deep terrestrial biosphere.
DOE's Office of Environmental Management
(www.em.doe.gov) is responsible for environmental resto-
ration, waste management, technology development, and
facility transition and management. The Office of Science
and Technology (OST) (em-50.em.doe.gov) has the re-
sponsibility for developing better, faster, cheaper, and safer
technologies for meeting DOE's 30-year goal for environ-
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mental restoration and waste management, and for manag-
ing crosscutting activities. OST administers research in four
areas:
Tanks (http://em-50.em.doe.gov/BEST/FA/tanks/
tanks.html)
Subsurface Contaminants (Integration of Plumes and
Landfills) (http://em-50.em.doe.gov/BEST/FA/scfa/
scfa.html)
Decontamination/Decommissioning
(http://em-50.em.doe.gov/BEST/FA/DD.html)
Mixed Waste (http://em-50.em.doe.gov/BEST/FA/mw/
mixedwaste.html)
It also manages three crosscutting research programs:
Characterization, Monitoring and Sensor Technology
(CMST) (http://em-50.em.doe.gOV/BEST/FA/
CMST.html)
Robotics (http://em-50.em.doe.gov/BEST/FA/
robotics.html)
Efficient Separations (http://em-50.em.doe.gov/BEST/
FA/ES.html)
The Strategic Environmental Research and Development
Program (SERDP) is a multi-agency program created in
1990 through Public Law 101-510, and funded through the
DOD [http://www.wes.army.mil/serdp/home/html]. As such
it responds to environmental requirements of the DOD and
those that the DOD shares with the DOE, EPA, and other
government agencies. The program seeks to identify,
develop, demonstrate, and transition technology from six
areas: cleanup, compliance, conservation, pollution pre-
vention, energy conservation/renewable resources, and
global environmental change. lnFY96, SERDP wasfunded
at about $58 million, of which 30 percent, or about $17
million, was for cleanup research.
SERDP cleanup area focuses on conducting R&D to achieve
more efficient and effective environmental cleanup of soil,
sediment, ground water, surface water and structures al-
ready contaminated by past practices with hazardous ma-
terials (including unexploded ordnance), radioactive (low-
level or mixed wastes) and toxic substances. The principal
focus of this area is more cost-effective cleanup/remediation
techniques and technologies, monitoring and characteriza-
tion methods and technologies, and assessment methods.
The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
(NIEHS) manages a large basic research program directed
towards Superfund issues [http://www.niehs.nih.gov/sbrp/
home.htm]. The program is mandated in CERCLA(Section
209), which establishes a "basic university research and
education program" in NIEHS, and further reinforced in
SARA (Title III, Section 311), where the program "may
include" the following: epidemiologic and ecologic studies,
advanced techniques for detection, assessment and evalu-
ation of effects on human health of hazardous substances;
methods to assess the risks to human health presented by
hazardous substances; and methods and technologies to
detect hazardous substances in the environment and basic
biological, chemical, and physical methods to reduce the
amount and toxicity of hazardous substances.
NIEHS grants in this program are generally for a five-year
period, so new Requests for Application (RFAs) are only
developed once every five years or in the event significant
new resources are appropriated in a particular fiscal year.
Annual funding has been averaging about $35 million/year.
Projects supported include analytical chemistry, biomarkers,
bioremediation, combustion engineering, ecology, epide-
miology, exposure assessment, fate and transport, human
health effects, and non-biological remediation. The most
recent RFA was issued in FY94.
The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
(ATSDR) (http://at.sdr1.atsdr.cdc.gov:8080/atsd rhome.html)
was created by CERCLA with broad mandates including:
Superfund site public health assessments, health investiga-
tions, surveillance and registries, applied research, emer-
gency response, health education, and toxicological data-
base development. ATSDR is required to prepare toxico-
logical profiles of agents found commonly at Superfund
sites, including identifying data gaps and research needs.
ATSDR is further directed to ensure the development of an
applied research programto address data gaps identified in
the toxicological profiles. In FY96, ATSDR directed approxi-
mately $16 million to addressing its "substance-specific
mandates," including identification of priority hazardous
substances, development of toxicological profiles on those
substances, and research to answer major unknown ques-
tions about health effects.
ATSDR applied research serves two major functions: (a) to
respond to the public's concern, has human exposure to
hazardous substances occurred and resulted in adverse
health effects; and (b) to provide EPA with critical health-
based information so that cleanup decisions that are effec-
tive and protective of public health can be made. ATSDR's
in-house research capability resides primarily in the area of
human studies in communities at and around waste sites.
ATSDR supports the Association of Minority Health Profes-
sions Schools, as directed by the Congress, to fill some data
gaps identified in its toxicological profiles. Other data gaps
ATSDR hopes will be filled on an "volunteer" basis by
industry, or by EPA (through TSCA and FIFRA authority),
NIH and the National Toxicology Program (NTP).
The United States Geological Survey (USGS). as described
in a recent National Research Council review (Hazardous
Materials in the Hydrologic Environment: the Role of Re-
search by the U.S. Geological Survey, National Academy
Press, 1996) has a number of programs in which studies
are conducted to aid in resolving problems related to the
contamination of surface and ground waters by hazardous
materials. The Toxic Substances Hydrology Program (http:/
/wwwrvares.er.usgs.gov/nrp/proj.bib/wood.html) is one such
program. Areas of research focus on the fate and transport
of contaminants and bioremediation and natural attenua-
tion of contaminants, especially for petroleum sources.
USGS has worked with ORD researchers at some Superfund
sites.
The Department of Defense's Office of Environmental Se-
curity (DOD-OES) sponsors the Environmental Security
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Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) (http://
www.acq.osd.mil/ens/estcp/main.html). ESTCP'sgoalisto
demonstrate and validate promising, innovative technolo-
gies that target DOD's most urgent environmental needs.
These technologies provide a return on investmentthrough
cost savings and improved efficiency.
The current cost of remediation and compliance in DOD is
significant. Innovative technology offers the opportunity to
reduce costs and environmental risks. ESTCP's strategy is
to select lab-proven technologies with broad DOD and
market application. These projects are aggressively moved
to the field for rigorous trials that document their cost,
performance, and market potential.
ESTCP Demonstrations - Successful demonstration leads
to acceptance of innovative technologies by DOD end-
users and the regulatory community. To ensure that the
demonstrated technologies have a real impact, ESTCP
incorporates these players in the development and execu-
tion of each technology. ESTCP demonstrations
Address real DOD environmental needs.
Significantly reduce costs and risks and expedite
implementation.
Document and validate the cost and performance of
new technologies for DOD end-users and the
regulatory community.
The Rapid Commercialization Initiative (RCI) (http://
rci.gnet.org/) is a federal/state/private cooperative effort to
expedite the application of new environmental technolo-
gies. The participating federal agencies include the Depart-
ment of Commerce, Department of Defense, Department of
Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency; partici-
pating states and state organizations include the State of
California Environmental Protection Agency, Southern States
Energy Board, and the Western Governors Association.
The program makes use of cooperative demonstration
projects to identify barriers to the acceptance and use of
new technologies; once identified, these barriers will be
removed, where possible. The program consists of 10
projects, each of which will be demonstrating a different
environmental technology. The main goals of the program
are to identify and reduce the barriers that impede market
entry of new technologies. It is the opinion of many technol-
ogy developers and users, environmental groups, prospec-
tive investors, and states, that environmental technologies
face a set of unique barriers stretching from initial demon-
stration to final market entry that make commercialization
specially difficult.
The Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation
Working Group (ITRC) (http://www.gnet.org/gnet/gov/stgov/
itrcindex.htm) was established in December, 1994 by the
Develop On-Site Innovative Technology Committee, re-
ferred to as the DOIT Coordinating Group of the Western
Governors Association. The Mission of the ITRC is to
facilitate cooperation among states in the common effort to
test, demonstrate, evaluate, verify and deploy innovative
environmental technology, particularly technology related
to waste management, site characterization and site cleanup.
Western states participating include Arizona, California,
Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico,
Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Utah and Washington. Other
states that have joined or have sent observers include
Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachu-
setts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennes-
see, and Wisconsin, and the Southern States Energy Board
has actively participated in the deliberations of the ITRC. In
addition to the state members there are some representa-
tives from stakeholder groups and tribal representation.
Federal advisors have participated in ITRC meetings from
a number of Agencies including EPA (Technology Innova-
tion Office), DOD, DOE and some of the armed services
organizations.
ITRC is organized into three task forces and technology
specific task groups. Task forces have been established for
Electronic Communication Development, Case Studies,
and Protocols and Regulatory Requirements. The Proto-
cols and Regulatory Requirements Task Force has estab-
lished task groups to address specific technologies in the
areas of in situ bioremediation, Low- Temperature Thermal
Desorption, Plasma Hearth Technology, and Real-time
Field Measurement (site characterization and penetrom-
eter system).
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Appendix C. Research Ranking Process
This appendix describes the process for identifying and ranking
of research areas (RAs) by Science and Science Plus criteria
(Section 2.2.3).
ORD members of the Waste Research Coordinating Team
(RCT) representing ORD's laboratories and centers, the Office
of Science Policy and the Office of Resource Management and
Administration participated in a ranking process which con-
sisted of the following steps:
1. Identify and rankthe RAs within each ofthefour research
topic area (RTAs) using Science criteria.
2. Rankthe four RTAs using Science criteria.
3. Produces a single Science ranking for the whole waste
program by merging and ranking all the research activi-
ties in the four RTAs.
4. Revise the waste program Science ranking based on
Science Plus criteria.
Representatives from OSWER and EPA Regional Offices were
involved in the Science Plus ranking (Step 4). All four steps are
described in more detail below.
Step 1 - Ranking RAs Within Each RTA
The first step in the process was to produce a" menu" of potential
research activities that could be conducted undereach research
topic area. Potential research activities were described for each
area of ORD risk assessment paradigm (effects, exposure, risk
assessment and risk management). In identifying these activi-
ties, members of the group described the type of research most
needed to address the environmental problems in each RTA
they did not restrict themselves to activities currently being
conducted. The RCT critiqued these proposed lists to insure
that they were complete and that all listed RAs were important.
The group then rank ordered all the RAs within a given RTA,
based on the criteria in Table 2-1. All applicable criteria were
given equal weight. A multivoting procedure was used. Each
member was given ten votes and allowed to use at most 4 on an
RA. If only the highest RAs were ranked under this process, a
second voting was conducted to rank the lower priority RAs. In
cases where a distinction in priority could not be made, RAs
were given the same ranking.
The result of Step 1 was the ranking of RAs within each of the
RTAs, as shown in Table 2-3.
Step 2 - Science Ranking of RTAs
The team conducted a qualitative relative ranking of the four
research topic areas to help with ranking of research activities
across the waste program in Step 3. The criteria used for
determining relative importance among the four research topic
areas were:
Magnitude of risk
Cost of available risk management options
Uncertainty of risk, exposure/measurements, and risk
management.
All three criteria were nominally given equal weight in this
qualitative ranking. The relative significance of each criterion
was ranked high, medium or low.
Based on these qualitative comparisons of each of the four
research topic areas, the team determined the relative rankings
indicated in the left hand column of Table 2-4. (As indicated
below, the two Contaminated Sites Research Topic Areas were
ranked very close to each other). An explanation of the rationale
for the rankings follows.
Contaminated Sites-Ground Water (GW) and Soils/Vadose
Zone (S/VZ) were ranked close to each other in relative impor-
tance because there were a number of complex factors to
consider which made distinguishing the relative importance of
the two RTAs difficult. These factors included:
The cost of characterization and cleanup is high for both;
Both occur at most contaminated sites;
Both have significant unknowns and uncertainties in site
characterization;
Both have significant uncertainties in risk assessment, but
those for soils are greater due to multiple pathways of
exposure, bioavailability, issues etc.;
Both media are heterogeneous and complex and more
difficult to access than air or surface water;
The potential health impacts of GW is believed to be higher
than for S/VZ, but the potential ecological impacts for S/VZ
are higher.
Contaminated Sites - Ground Water was ranked somewhat
higher than soils for
following reasons:
Once ground water is contaminated it is usually more
difficult to remediate than soils;
Once ground water is contaminated the risks are more
persistent and it is generally harder to characterize the
contamination;
There are currently few effective remediation techniques
for contaminated ground water, while there are adequate (if
expensive) techniques available for many more soil/va-
dose zone remediation problems;
The potential of contaminated sites adversely affecting
drinking water supplies is growing as US demand on
ground water increases. On a site-specific basis, the
potential health risks to humans is usually higher from
ground water contamination than from soil contamination if
the contaminated aquifer is used for drinking water.
There were also tradeoffs in the relative ranking of different
ranking criteria between waste combustion facilities (WCFs)
and contaminated sites. There are more contaminated sites, but
the exposure from air emissions at WCFs usually covers a larger
area than exposure from most contaminated sites. There are
59
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significant risk assessment uncertainties for both WCFs and
contaminated sites (especially soils).
Taking these trade offs and similarities in account, research on
emissions from WCFs was ranked below research on contami-
nated sites because a) there are far fewer WCF sites (<3,000),
than numerous contaminated sites and therefore the national
risk from incinerators is believed to be lower, and b) the cost of
remediation is in the tens of billions of dollars, while that for
combustion is believed to be only a few billion.
Research related to environmental problems arising from non-
combustion, active waste management units (AWMFs) was
ranked lowest for two reasons. First, the risks associated with
these sites are estimated to be low after years of developing
improved management and disposal techniques. Second, and
forthe same reasons, the costs of waste treatment is generally
low and treatment is adequately effective for most hazardous
and solid wastes. However, there are uncertainties in predicting
health and ecological effects on these facilities. Hence, there is
need for HWIR research in order to predict effects from these
facilities on a national basis.
Step 3 - Science Ranking of All Wastes RAs
The objective of this step was obtain a single rank-ordered list
of all 39 RAs within the waste program The 4 lists of Science-
ranked RAs from Step 1 were "merged" taking into account the
Science criteria (Table 2-1) and the results of Step 2. There was
no change in ranking of RAs within an RTA relative to each other,
but RAs from different RTAs were interspersed amongst each
other on the resulting list.
Placement of a given RA on the list was determined by reaching
consensus in the group. The result was the list of 39 rank-
ordered RAs shown in Table C-1. In cases where a distinction
in priority could not be made, both RAs were given the same
ranking.
Step 4 - Science Plus Ranking of All Waste RAs
Following the ORD strategic planning process, the rank-ordered
list of RAs from Step 3 was then reviewed and the ordering
revised based on Science Plus criteria. This was intended to
insure thatORD priorities reflect the views of outside stakehold-
ers forORDs research programs, such as Congress, the Admin-
istration, and EPA Program and Regional Offices. Science Plus
factors which could increase the ranking of a RA were:
1. Congressional directive
2. Court directive
3. Administration priority
4. EPA Priority
5. EPA Program or Regional Office priority
6. Area of new ORD funding in FY98
7. CENR research priority
The whole Waste RCT, including representatives of OSWER
and a Regional Office, participated in the Science Plus ranking
process.
Carrying out the Science Plus ranking resulted in adjusting the
placement of RAs relative to their place in the Science rank-
order (Table C-1). This ranking process was done through
consensus to the extent possible. When necessary, votes were
taken with one vote given to ORD, OSWER and the Regions.
The Science Plus rank ordering of RAs is shown in Table 2-4
(minus several RAs, as discussed in Section 2.2.5).
60
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Table C-1. Waste RCT ordinal science rankings (February 1997).
1. Estimating Human Exposure and Delivered Dose (CS)
2. Natural Attenuation (GW)
3. Biotreatment (CS)
3. Human Dose-Response Models for Mixtures (GW)
3. Estimating Soil Intake and Dose-Wildlife Species (CS)
6. Indirect Pathway Risk Assessment Methods (CF)
7. Subsurface Characterization (GW)
8. Emissions Prevention and Control (CF)
8. Environmental Fate and Transport Modeling (GW)
10. Indirect Exposure Characterization and Modeling (CF)
10. Field Sampling Methods (CS)
12. Abiotic Treatment (GW)
12. Field and Screening Analytical Methods (CS)
12. Multimedia, Multipathway Exposure Modeling (AF)
15. Field and Screening Analytical Methods (GW)
16. Biotreatment (GW)
16. Containment (CS)
16. Screen Tests to Measure the Effectiveness of Treatment (CS)
16. Developing Provisional Toxicity Values for Contaminants (AF)
20. Ground Water Exposure Factors and Pathways (GW)
20. Sampling Design (CS)
20. Dose-Response of Contaminants (CF)
20. Physical Estimation of Environmental Fate and Transport (AF)
24. Mixtures Toxicology (GW)
25. Abiotic Treatment (CS)
26. Containment (GW)
27. Waste Characterization and Sampling (AF)
28. Demonstration/Verification of Innovative Remediation Technologies (GW)
28. Movement of Bioaccumulative Metals in the Food Web (CF)
30. Continuous Emission Monitors (CF)
30 Ecosystems Effects (GW)
30. Mixtures Toxicology (CS)
33. Oil Spills (CS)
33. Demonstration/Verification of Field Monitoring Technologies (GW)
33. Waste Management (AF)
36 Demonstration/Verification of Field Monitoring Technologies (CS)
37. Chemical Toxicity Testing (AF)
37. Ecological Risk Assessment Methods (GW)
37. Demonstration/Verification of Innovative Remediation Technologies (CS)
AF - active waste management facilities CF - combustion facilities
CS - contaminated soils GW- contaminated ground water
61
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