United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Risk Reduction
Engineering Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Research and Development
EPA/600/SR-92/031 April 1992
Project Summary
Reclamation and
Redevelopment of Contaminated
Land: Volume II.
European Case Studies
Garrie L. Kingsbury and Tayler H. Bingham
The Research Triangle Institute (RTI)
began work for the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in 1983 to in-
vestigate contaminated sites in the
United States where cleanup measures
have been carried out to enable spe-
cific redevelopment of a site. This work
resulted in a report issued by EPA in
August 1986, documenting 16 uncon-
trolled hazardous waste sites. Case
studies presented land use history and
redevelopment objectives, the nature
of the contamination, descriptions of
the remedial actions undertaken, the
planned upgraded reuse of the prop-
erty, and the criteria for cleanup.
During the course of the study of
U.S. sites, it became apparent that con-
taminated land reclamation and rede-
velopment were of international inter-
est. Thus, the EPA study was extended
to include experiences in certain Euro-
pean countries. This report presents
highlights of programs dealing with
contaminated land in England, Wales,
Sweden, the Netherlands, and then the
Federal Republic of Germany.
This report is a companion document
to the August 1986 EPA report address-
ing reclamation and redevelopment in
the U.S. (EPA/600/2-86/066).
This Project Summary was developed
by EPA's Risk Reduction Engineering
Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH, to announce
key findings of the research project
that is fully documented in a separate
report of the same title (see Project
Report ordering information at back).
Introduction
There ar.e numerous instances in the
United States and Europe where uncon-
trolled dumping or industrial spills have
contaminated properties with hazardous
materials. Since many of these properties
are in prime urban locations, issues sur-
rounding the reclamation and redevelop-
ment of contaminated sites have become
important international topics. This report
documents experience in reclamation and
redevelopment at selected contaminated
sites jn England, Wales, Sweden, The
Netherlands, and the then Federal Re-
public of Germany. Much of the informa-
tion is drawn from interviews with various
government officials and local authorities
from each country who are responsible for
overseeing and implementing the contami-
nated land activities related to reclama-
tion and redevelopment.
Interviews and site visits were conducted
during February and March of 1985. Ad-
ditional information was subsequently re-
ceived through correspondence with vari-
ous individuals previously contacted in
Europe. The report is current through
April 1985 with certain portions updated
through 1987 and early 1988. The report
does not critique or judge any country's
program or compare European approaches
to approaches applied in the U.S. The
objective is merely to extend the informa-
tion base pertaining to contaminated land
reclamation actions undertaken for spe-
cific land reuse.
The study addresses site assessment
and reclamation programs, available fund-
ing sources, and guidelines established to
Printed on Recycled Paper
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assist reclamation. The reclamation and
redevelopment experience at selected sites
In each country is described in detailed
case studies. Each case study describes
the land use history and redevelopment
objectives, the nature and extent of the
contamination, remediation activities, site
reuse, and criteria for cleanup.
Discussion
England, United Kingdom (U.K.)
England is one of the most industrial-
ized nations of the world and has a popu-
lation density about 15 times higher than
that of the U.S. As a result of this indus-
trialization and urbanization, the potential
problems associated with the redevelop-
ment of contaminated land were recog-
nized earlier in England than in the U.S.
Several legislative Acts of Parliament
provide the framework for dealing with
contaminated land in England and Wales.
The Derelict Land Act of 1982 encour-
ages the redevelopment of contaminated
and derelict land, particularly where pri-
vate sector development will result. The
disposal of all controlled material, includ-
ing surplus excavated material from rede-
velopment sites is regulated under the
Control of Pollution Act of 1974. Site
licensing is the primary means of regulat-
ing the disposal of all controlled wastes.
The Town and Country Planning Act of
1971 empowers local authorities to con-
trol most forms of development including
development of contaminated land.
Within Central Government, the Depart-
ment of the Environment (DOE) sets envi-
ronmental policy for England and Wales
and Is responsible for implementing the
programs related to the various environ-
mental legislative Acts. The Central Di-
rectorate on Environmental Pollution
(CDEP) within the DOE is mainly respon-
sWs for dealing with issues involving con-
taminated land and advising local au-
thorities.
The Interdepartmental Committee on the
Redevelopment of Contaminated Land
(ICRCL) was established in 1976 to coor-
dinate government activities and advice
relating to contaminated land. The ICRCL
includes representatives of several British
government departments. A basic objec-
tive of the ICRCL is "to restore contami-
nated land to beneficial use economically".
The ICRCL has developed a series of
Formal Notes to address redevelopment
at landfill sites, sewage works and farms,
gas works sites, and scrap yards and simi-
lar sites.
One of the tasks carried out by the
•CDEP for the ICRCL is an effort to de-
velop guidelines pertinent to contaminant
levels at sites where redevelopment is
being considered. In 1983, the ICRCL
issued guidance for local authorities vand
prospective developers on assessing and
redeveloping land that has been contami-
nated by its former use. This guidance
included 'Tentative Trigger Levels" to serve
as criteria for comparison with specific
contaminant levels in soils. The appli-
cable concentrations vary with the pro-
posed use of a site. The Tentative Trig-
ger Concentrations are reviewed and up-
dated periodically by the ICRCL The
guidance issued with the trigger concen-
trations stresses the importance of an ad-
equate investigation of the site prior to
applying the assessment criteria.
Methane or other combustible or explo-
sive materials are present on many sites
being considered for redevelopment. The
assessment of fire and explosion hazards
of contaminated land is an important pro-
gram aspect of the CDEP and the ICRCL.
The ICRCL has developed "Notes on the
Fire Hazards of Contaminated Land."
The Greater London Council (GLC) was
established in 1965 to be responsible for
London fire service, refuse disposal, high-
ways and traffic planning, and structure
planning. Until abolition in March 1986,
the GLC had absolute control over plan-
ning for Inner London and strategic plan-
ning control for outlying areas. The GLC
also coordinated efforts to bring derelict
land into beneficial use.
The GLC in 1979 suggested guidelines
for use during site assessments to define
various levels of soil contamination. The
degree of soil contamination is classified
as "uncontaminated," "slight contamina-
tion," "contamination," "heavy contamina-
tion," or "unusually heavy contamination."
The ranges of contaminant levels corre-
sponding to the various classifications are
based on comparison with typical
"uncontaminated" soils rather than on an
assessment.
The case studies for England are the
Corby Steelworks in the town of Corby in
Northhamptionshire in the English Mid-
lands; the Wandsworth Gas Works, Lon-
don; and the planned community of
Thamesmead on the Thames River in Lon-
don. Experience at these sites illustrate
the manner in which certain problems were
dealt with during site reclamation and re-
development.
The Corby Steelworks operated from
the 1930's until 1979. When the steel mill
closed, the Corby district Council acquired
the steelworks site for redevelopment. At
several tracts of land formerly occupied
by the steel works (or its ancillary opera-
tions), site reclamation to deal with con-
tamination had to precede any redevelop-
ment activity. Chemical contaminants
found in the various areas of the former
steel mill property included heavy metals,
cyanides, sulfur salts, naphthalene and
other volatile organics, coal tar, various
oily wastes, phenols and asbestos. The
site reclamation plan was developed on
the basis of a detailed site assessment to
determine the extent of the contamina-
tion. Guidelines developed by the Greater
London Council (GLC) were used in the
assessment.
Future use plans for the reclaimed steel
mill site focus primarily on industrial de-
velopment that will provide jobs. The fact
that the sites offered in Corby are, in many
cases, reclaimed contaminated land does
not appear to have any influence on the
attractiveness of the redevelopment prop-
erties.
The Wandsworth Gas Works produced
gas from coal for about 100 yr. The gas
works site extended some 550 m along
the Thames River. Parts of the s'rte were
reclaimed from river marsh by filling with
process wastes such as spent iron oxide
from gas cleanup. The site was pur-
chased by the GLC for development as
housing. Based on findings of extensive
contamination in site assessment in 1976,
the GLC determined that redevelopment
of the site should be for less sensitive
land use. Contamination from coal tar is
believed to pose the mosjt serious poten-
tial hazard at the site.
Disturbing the buried foundations, tanks,
pipelines, pits, and other structures was
considered to pose a major pollution prob-
lem and a direct exposure hazard to work-
ers. Because of these problems, the GLC
recommended, "reduction of site distur-
bance to the minimum possible." Suffi-
cient remedial work was carried out in
1983 to insure that contamination from
the gas works did not pose a hazard to
the surrounding areas. Portions of the
site are scheduled for redevelopment for
light industry to provide jobs in the area.
A refuse transfer station has been con-
structed on a 20-hectare (49 acres) tract
at the western end of the site. Remedial
measures must precede any redevelop-
ment of the remainder of the site occupied
by the gas works.
Some 400 hectares (988 acres) of the
Thamesmead development are on the site
of the former Royal Arsenal in Woolwich.
The extent of the contamination from the
old arsenal activities was first recognized
in 1975. Chemical contaminants of con-
cern at site include heavy metals, coal
tars, oils, phenols, sulfur salts, free and
complexed cyanides, combustible materi-
als and asbestos. For the purposes of
development, the Thamesmead site has
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been divided into a number of areas, each
with its own characteristics and planned
use. About 40 % of the site had been
developed by 1985. When complete,
Thamesmead is planned to accommodate
some 40,000 people, including homes, rec-
reation and shopping, and local employ-
ment on purpose built industrial estates.
Recommendations for remedial measures
are proposed based on projected long-
term hazards to site users.
Wales, United Kingdom
The Principality of Wales is politically
united with England, and the two coun-
tries have shared common systems of law
and government for nearly 450 yr. The
legislative Acts of Parliament effective in
England also apply to Wales. The largest
category of derelict sites in Wales involves
coal wastes. Because so little land in
Wales is suitable for development due to
the steep slopes, there is pressure to de-
velop any unused land, particularly in or
near towns, and to reclaim derelict land.
In the narrow valleys characteristic of the
mining areas, level ground is primarily oc-
cupied by surface works, and mining
wastes are tipped on the valley sides.
The Central Government of the U.K.
establishes environmental policy in both
England and Wales. The role of the Welsh
Office in Wales is analogous to the role of
the DOE in England. The Environmental
Protection Division within the Welsh Of-
fice, Cardiff, is responsible for administer-
ing the environmental programs in Wales
including programs pertaining to contami-
nated land.
The Welsh Development Agency (WDA)
is empowered to make grants to County
and District Councils for the purpose of
reclaiming derelict land. The costs re-
quired to bring such sites to a "greenfield"
state are eligible for these grants, the
WDA also engages in site redevelopment.
In 1983, the Welsh Office and the WDA
co-sponsored a survey of sites that are
believed to be contaminated. Emphasis
was placed on contaminated sites of 0.5
hectares (1.2 acres) or larger; sites cur-
rently in beneficial uses were excluded.
More than 700 sites were cataloged dur-
ing the initial survey, and additional up-
dates and expansion of the data base are
planned.
The Lower Swansea Valley near the
south coast of Wales is described in detail
in a case study. From the beginning of
the 18th century, the port of Swansea
was an important shipping outlet for coal
from the South Wales Coal Field. The
Lower Swansea Valley became a major
center for smelting of copper, zinc, and
other metals and later for steel and tin
plate production. The heavy industrial
activity in the Valley ceased after World
War II, leaving the Valley in a polluted,
derelict state. It was estimated in 1964,
that approximately 12 hectares (400 acres)
within the Lower Swansea Valley were
covered by waste tips containing some 5
million tons of industrial waste containing
high levels of copper and zinc as well as
antimony, arsenic, cadmium and lead.
The Lower Swansea Valley Project was
initiated in 1961 to address the dereliction
and contamination in the Valley and to
begin the planning for future development.
Among the recommendations of the project
that influenced later work were: An accu-
rate and detailed base map, visual im-
provements through planting trees and
grasses, statement of the need for a single
body to acquire all the land to be redevel-
oped, and planning for the Valley that
included housing and recreation as well
as industry.
The first major reclamation schemes
were undertaken beginning in 1966 when
Swansea was designated a Development
Area, qualifying the area for financial as-
sistance from Central Government to re-
claim derelict land for industrial develop-
ment. The policy was to clear the derelict
land, return the land to active use, and
encourage new and modern industry to
the area.
By 1974, the Local Authority had ac-
quired some 330 hectares (815 acres) of
land and the reclamation programs were
substantially complete for 172 hectares
(425 acres). Additional land clearance,
reclamation, infrastructure, amenity plant-
ing, and industrial promotion were carried
out between 1974 and 1983 supported by
grant aid from the WDA, and other
sources.
Sweden
The Ministry of Environment and En-
ergy is responsible for environmental pro-
grams throughout Sweden. Environmen-
tal policy is implemented through permits
and National physical planning. Environ-
mental issues are among the highest rated
priorities of the Swedish general public.
Except for some sites in metropolitan ar-
eas, however, the reuse of contaminated
land in Sweden has not been a major
focus of concern.
The Central Organization of Swedish
Communities has completed a national
inventory of oil dumps and landfills. In all,
3,800 properties have been registered in-
cluding about 500 that are believed to
represent a potential threat to man and
the environment. High priorities have been
assigned to about 20 dump sites.
Two sites are addressed in case stud-
ies. These are the Augustendal Dumpsite
in Nacka, a suburb of Stockholm, and the
BT-Kemi Pesticide Plant, near Malmo, in
Southern Sweden. The cleanup of the
BT-Kemi site was the first remedial action
project in-Sweden.
The Netherlands
The Netherlands is the most densely
populated country in Europe. The Neth-
erlands is also a highly industrialized na-
tion, smaller than the State of New York.
Metal manufacturing (iron, steel, alumi-
num) and, in more recent years, the chemi-
cal industry are the most important indus-
tries. The Netherlands is a parliamentary
democracy under a constitutional mon-
arch.
Because of the scarcity of land in the
Netherlands, every site is needed. Many
sites, particularly in the municipalities, have
been used for many decades and for more
than one type of use. Contaminated land
in The Netherlands is viewed as a very
serious problem because of the high popu-
lation density, the relative scarcity of land,
the high water table in many parts of the
country, and the reliance on groundwater
from drinking supplies. Protection of
groundwater is of special concern in the
Netherlands.
A survey of contaminated sites in 1980
identified more than 4,000 potentially con-
taminated sites. In 1981, about 350 in-
vestigations and 30 cleanup operations
were started at a cost equivalent to about
20 million U.S. dollars. In 1985, it was
estimated that urgent cleanup measures
were needed at 1,170 sites. The major
types of contaminated sites identified are
waste dumps, former factories and manu-
facturing plants, former gas works, and
other sources.
The Soil Protection Bill which became
law on Jan. 1, 1984, provides for a 5-yr
program of measures aimed at protecting
the soil. The program is to be overseen
by the Ministry of Housing, Physical Plan-
ning, and the Environment. The policy
regarding soil protection is that the soil
must retain its ability to perform a wide
variety of functions adequately. The cre-
ation of ground-water protection areas is
a short-term policy objective.
Under the Soil Cleanup (Interim) Act,
which came into force in January 1983,
the Provincial Authorities are required to
submit each year to the Ministry of Hous-
ing, Physical Planning, and the Environ-
ment, a cleanup program to deal with soil
contamination. A cleanup program runs
for a period of 5 yr and covers all in-
stances of severe soil contamination within
each province. Each province, in consul-
-------
tatton with the Municipal Authorities devel-
ops priorities for she cleanups. The Min-
ister determines which cases are to be
considered for remedial measures or in-
vestigations with Central Government as-
sistance.
The Soil Clean-Up Act was later incor-
porated in the Soil Protection Bill. Cleanup
costs are shared by central government,
the provinces, municipalities, and certain
industries. The Ministry of Health and
Environmental protection normally contrib-
utes approximately 90% of the cleanup
operations. In some instances, an indus-
try is responsible for paying the cost of
cleanup, and the government will collect
the payment from the responsible party
after the cleanup is completed. The Cen-
tral Government has budgeted equivalent
to about 700 million U.S. dollars for the
program over a 15-yr period to provide
for site clean-ups and also for the Central
Government's program in research, stan-
dards development, analysis, and coordi-
nation to insure consistency in the cleanup
efforts.
The Ministry of Housing, Physical Plan-
ning, and the Environment (1983) has de-
veloped guidelines to be used in site in-
vestigations to assess the degree of con-
tamination. Soil contamination means
there is a chemical in the ground exceed-
ing the level normally expected to occur.
Constituents for which the guidelines are
developed are recognized as indicators of
pollution.
The capacity of cleanup installations in
Tha Netherlands is insufficient to treat all
the excavated contaminated soil from site
cleanups. As a result, storage of a con-
siderable amount of material is necessary
while awaiting processing. It is estimated
that The Netherlands has 1.5 million tons
of contaminated soil from old gas works
and an even greater quantity of soil pol-
luted with oil.
The contaminated land problem in the
Netherlands first came to public attention
In 1978 with the discovery of serious soil
contamination near homes in the town of
Lekkerkerk. The contaminated area (8.9
hectares [22 acres]) underlies 268 houses.
Excavations in the area revealed chemi-
cal waste buried in containers and in bulk
in trenches and pits. The wastes depos-
ited at Lekkerkerk originated at a variety
of industries including the building indus-
try, paints and varnish manufacture, paint
spraying, plastics manufacture and pro-
cessing, chemical industry, and printing
ink manufacture and application. Soils
adjacent to the buried wastes were also
polluted. Pollutants were found beneath
houses, just below the floor.
The remediation activities involved the
excavation and removal of 93,800 m3 of
contaminated soil. This material was pro-
cessed in a domestic refuse incinerator at
Rotterdam.
No polluting materials were allowed to
remain at Lekkerkerk. The total cost of
the remediation work at Lekkerkerk
amounted to about 65 million U.S. dollars,
paid by the Netherlands Central govern-
ment. If Lekkerkerk were discovered to-
day, the remedial action for the site would
likely be very different as the cost of such
a program cannot be justified ($242,000
per house).
Other case studies of contaminated sites
in the Netherlands include Delfshave, an
older area of Rotterdam Harbour where a
special infilling technique is being used to
provide land for housing; Merwedepolder,
Dordrecht, where remedial action was un-
dertaken after a housing development was
built over a former chemical waste dump;
and the Tilburg Gas Works where exten-
sive excavations were necessary to re-
claim the site for housing.
The Tilburg Gas Works produced gas
from coal for more than 100 yr on a 5.5
hectare (13 acres) site that is now in cen-
tral Tilburg. The plant also produced coke
as well as byproduct tars, benzene, tolu-
ene, naphthalene, and ammonia. Site
investigations were carried out in 1982.
Available maps and site history were stud-
ied to identify areas where contamination
was likely to be most concentrated.
Samples were taken both at the surface
and at depth on a 10 x 10 m grid. Chemi-
cal analyses revealed the presence of vola-
tile aromatics, polynuclear aromatic hy-
drocarbons, and cyanides., Tar and oil
products polluted large areas to a depth
of 4 m. The pH of water at the site
measured 2.5 due to the presence of hy-
drogen sulfide. Coal and sinters covered
several acres of the she.
The remediation work was carried out
during the winter 1984-1985 and in Octo-
ber and November of 1985. The excava-
tions were performed during the winter in
order to minimize worker exposure to vola-
tile contaminants. During the winter 1984-
1985 a total of 28,186 m3 of polluted soil
were excavated and transported off-site
for temporary storage and thermal treat-
ment.
Guidelines from the Ministry suggested
that contamination should be cleaned up
to background levels. All detectable pol-
lution to a depth of 2 m was removed.
Excavations were also carried out to lower
depths (below the water table) to reduce
contaminant levels and to minimize fur-
ther contamination of the aquifer.
Federal Republic of Germany
The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)
before German unification of October 1990,
was somewhat smaller than the state of
Oregon in the U.S. and had a population
of just over 61 million people. The coun-
try included 10 states plus the territory of
Berlin. The individual states (Lander) en-
joyed considerable political autonomy.
The Federal Environmental Agency,
Umweltbundesampt, headquartered in Ber-
lin was responsible for establishing basic
environmental policies for the FRG, al-
though the individual Lander implemented
their own programs. The Federal Waste
Disposal Act, issued in 1972, required
wastes to be disposed of in a way that
avoided environmental damage.
The German work "Altlasten" (meaning
old burdens) is used to refer to environ-
mentally hazardous waste disposal prob-
lem sites. Although the total number of
sites containing hazardous materials is
quite large, the subset of waste disposal
problem sites was estimated in 1983, to
be less than 1,000. Investigations and
possibly remedial action is needed at these
sites.
Although there are no official guidelines
to assess soil contamination in the FRG,
threshold levels for certain heavy metals
are recognized based on average levels
found in soils. These normally occurring
and acceptable levels derive from a litera-
ture search and recommendations pub-
lished in 1977.
The discussion of reclamation and re-
development in the then FRG addresses
three different areas: The City-State of
Hamburg, the Ruhr district, and the Cen-
tral and South Regions. The programs
for environmental planning reflect the very
different geographical features of these
areas. The concerns in Hamburg, a city
of over a million people, differ from the
issues of the Ruhr district which is marked
by many small to medium-sized industrial
towns located adjacent to each other. The
Central and Southern regions include sub-
stantial rural areas as well as several very
large industries.
The Ruhr District (Ruhrgebiet) in the
state of Nordrhein-Westfalen is perhaps
the largest industrial area in Europe. En-
vironmental problems associated with the
residue from more than 100 yr of heavy
industrial activity (i.e., coal industry, iron
and steel working, chemicals manufac-
ture) are prevalent throughout the
Ruhrgebiet. Contaminated land in the
Ruhrbegiet is often reclaimed for new in-
dustrial use, but with stringent controls
aimed at softening the environmental im-
pacts on the region.
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Five sites are described in case stud-
ies. The Havighorster Moor site, in Ham-
burg, was used as a dumping area after
World War II. After arsenic contamination
was found in a nearby stream, an exten-
sive cleanup operation was undertaken
by the State. The source of the arsenic
contamination was removed to a permit-
ted facility or isolated in a specially de-
signed pit on-srte. After the cleanup was
completed, new problems at the site be-
came apparent. Low levels of chlorinated
organics were found in water seeping from
the site. A new remediation scheme has
been planned to treat the contaminated
water using an aquatic plant (Phragmites
communis).
At the site in Bielefeld in the Ruhr Dis-
trict, buried industrial waste has been dis-
covered in a housing development. Meth-
ane resulting from municipal waste for-
merly dumped at the site is also of con-
cern. The town has offered to purchase
the homes of any owner who wishes to
relocate.
At an industrial site in Dortmond, a ma-
jor cleanup is underway in which contami-
nated soil and water are mixed with lignite
fly ash in a patented process. The result-
ing mixture hardens to a concrete-like
mass and is disposed on-site in a lined
Pit-
Additional case studies describe the re-
medial actions at an urban site contami-
nated with diesel fuel and an industrial
site where residues from Lindane produc-
tion were deposited.
Conclusions
The Role of Central
Government
In each country the central government
is responsible for formulating policy re-
garding the cleanup of contaminated sites.
The actual cleanups, however, are carried
out by local authorities in most instances.
Government regulations are established
in each country to control the disposal of
contaminated materials. The Central gov-
ernments in Wales, Sweden, and the Neth-
erlands have conducted surveys of con-
taminated sites to assess the extent of
contaminated land. Efforts were also made
to prioritize sites based on their potential
impacts on people and the environment.
Such surveys in England and in the then
FRG have been limited to specific regions
or municipalities.
Of the cleanup efforts investigated for
this report in England, Wales, and the
Netherlands, almost all were financed
through funding programs made available
through the Central Government of the
respective country. In most cases, a small
percentage of the total rehabilitation cost
(typically 10%) is borne by local govern-
ments.
Very Large Sites
Three sites that are treated in detail in
case studies encompass areas exceeding
100 hectares (247 acres). These are
Thamesmead, London, England; Corby
Steelworks, Northhamptonshire, England;
and the Lower Swansea Valley, West
Glamorgan, Wales. Although each of
these sites is subdivided into many smaller
areas for specific reclamation work, the
success of the various individual reclama-
tion and redevelopment efforts is depen-
dent on the overall reclamation scheme
for the area. Common ownership by a
single authority and a coordinated master
plan for site reclamation have been vital
to the success of the redevelopment of
these areas. Because the quality of con-
taminated soil and debris is so great at
these large sites, the cost of complete
removal of the contaminated material
would be prohibitive. The master plan for
reclamation and redevelopment at these
sites includes contaminant areas for on-
srte disposal of large quantities of con-
taminated materials.
Response When Contamination
Impacts Current Land Use
At three of the sites addressed in case
studies, the remedial actions were
prompted by concern over potential ad-
verse health effects from exposure to con-
taminants present in the ground beneath
private homes. The local municipalities
were considered responsible for the de-
velopments since they had granted plan-
ning permission for the developments in
spite of the buried waste. The remedial
efforts at Merwedepolder and Brake were
still being discussed in 1985. At
Lekkerkerk, all buried waste and contami-
nated soil were removed from the housing
area. At Brake and Merwedepolder, the
local authorities offered to purchase, at
market prices, all the houses affected by
the buried waste in order that the people
might relocate. Although the presence of
toxic materials near homes at Lekkerkerk,
Merwedepolder, and Brake is clearly es-
tablished, there is no medical evidence of
serious adverse effects from exposure in
any of the inhabitants.
Redevelopment of Gas Works
Sites
Former gas works sites are frequently
encountered in Europe. Before the turn
of the century, gas works were in opera-
tion in virtually every major city and town
and the plants were usually centrally lo-
cated for ease in distribution. Besides
production of coal gas, coking and
byproduct refining operations were asso-
ciated with chemical industries and steel
making. Most of the gas plants ceased
operation in the 1950's as gas from the
North Sea wells became available. The
contaminants present at these types of
sites include coal tars (which contain poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that are rec-
ognized to be carcinogenic in animals),
aromatic solvents (benzene, toluene, and
xylenes) phenolic compounds, free and
complexed cyanides, suffides, sulfates (ag-
gressive to building materials) and com-
bustible materials.
Many of the former gas works sites
have been acquired for redevelopment by
local municipalities because of their cen-
tral locations. In some instances, the ex-
tent of the contamination at a gas works
site was not recognized before redevelop-
ment plans were made. Plans for sensi-
tive reuses (e.g., school, housing) have
had to be abandoned in light of site as-
, sessment findings. In some cases, (e.g.,
Thamesmead, gas works site) the site as-
sessment led to the conclusion that it was
best to allow the contaminated site to re-
main undisturbed. Factors leading to such
a conclusion include: Uncertainty as to
the extent of excavation necessary to en-
sure that future users of the site would not
be exposed to chemical contaminants, the
high cost and the uncertainty of the cost
to carry out the site reclamation, and
worker safety during site excavation.
The Problem of Extremely
Hazardous Waste
The disposal of dioxin-contaminated
waste poses a serious problem through-
out Europe. No satisfactory means for its
disposal has been approved in Sweden or
Germany. Until there is a safe, approved
method for destruction or disposal, stor-
age of the material must continue. As the
volume of stored dioxin-contaminated
waste increases, so does the likelihood of
accidental release and exposure. An im-
portant need for the European community
is an inventory of the stored dioxin waste,
an estimate of the extent of such waste
that remains buried, and an agreement
regarding the final disposal or destruction
of dioxin wastes.
On-Site Disposal Versus
Removal
Only a few sites were encountered
where waste is being treated for disposal
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on-sfte. One such she, the industrial site
near Dortmund, involved on-s'rte treatment
of contaminated waste and soil. Soils
were treated by mixing with brown coal fly
ash. The mixture hardens as it cools and
the solidified material retains the contami-
nants, even if exposed to water. At the
B.T. Kemi site in Sweden, a forced leach-
ing technique was applied to remove
chemicals (phenoxyacids) from low and
medium contaminated soils. At all other
sites, the cleanups involved excavation
followed by treatment and/or disposal at
licensed off-site facilities for most highly
contaminated waste and soil. Less se-
verely contaminated material (a notably
subjective description) was usually dis-
posed in a semi-isolated, on-site cell.
Criteria for Cleanup
None of the countries addressed in this
report have established statutory limits for
contaminants in soil, nor are there gener-
ally applicable rules for determining
whether a given site is suitable for a spe-
cific use. Guidelines have been devel-
oped in England and in the Netherlands
to be applied in site assessments when
contaminated soil is encountered. In En-
gland, the guidelines, called Tentative Trig-
ger Concentrations, developed by the
ICRCL, are recognized for site assess-
ments throughout the U.K. The Trigger
Concentrations pertain to specific contami-
nant levels in soils below which a site
could be regarded as uncontaminated. In
the Netherlands, soil assessment levels
are recommended by the Ministry of Hous-
ing, Physical Planning and the Environ-
ment. These guidelines all emphasize
the importance of site investigations and
assessments.
Protection of groundwater is of fore-
most concern in the Netherlands and in
the then FRG. A large portion of drinking
water in these countries is taken from
groundwater.
•&U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1992 - 648-080/40242
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Garrle Kingsbuiy, and Tayler Bingham are with Research Triangle Institute,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709.
Naomi Barkley is the EPA Project Officer (see below).
The complete report, entitled "Reclamation and Redevelopment of Contaminated
Land: Volume II. European Case Studies," (OrderNo. PB92-146166/AS; Cost:
$35.00, subject to change) will be available only from:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Telephone: 703-487-4650
The EPA Project Officer can be contacted at:
Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Center for Environmental
Research information
Cincinnati, OH 45268
BULK RATE
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
EPA
PERMIT NO. G-35
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300
EPA/600/SR-92/031
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