United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air and Energy Engineering
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
Research and Development
EPA/600/SR-93/045 May 1993
*? EPA Project Summary
Identification and
Characterization of Five
Non-traditional Source
Categories: Catastrophic/
Accidental Releases, Vehicle
Repair Facilities, Recycling,
Pesticide Applications, and
Agricultural Operations
Stanley Sleva, J.A. Pendola, John McCutcheon, Ken Jones, and S.L Kersteter
This report presents the results of
work that is part of EPA's program to
identify and characterize emissions
sources not currently accounted for
by either the existing Aerometric In-
formation Retrieval System (AIRS) or
State Implementation Plan (SIP) area
source methodologies and to develop
appropriate emissions estimation
methodologies and emission factors
for a group of these source catego-
ries. Based on the results of the iden-
tification and characterization portions
of this research, five source catego-
ries were selected for methodology
and emission factor development:
catastrophic/accidental releases, ve-
hicle repair facilities, recycling, pesti-
cide application, and agricultural
operations. This report presents emis-
sions estimation methodologies and
emission factor data for these source
categories.
The discussions of each category in-
clude general background information,
emissions generation activities, pollut-
ants emitted, sources of activity and
pollutant data, emissions estimation
methodologies, issues to be consid-
ered, and recommendations. The .infor-
mation used in these discussions was
derived from various sources includ-
ing available literature, industrial and
trade association publications and con-
tracts, experts on the category and ac-
tivity, and knowledgeable federal and
state personnel.
This Project Summary was devel-
oped by EPA's Air and Energy Engi-
neering Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC, to announce key find-
ings of the research project that is fully
documented in a separate report of the
same title (see Project Report ordering
information at back).
Introduction
Area source emissions of particulate
matter (PM or TSP), sulfur dioxide (SO ),
oxides of nitrogen (NO), reactive volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and carbon
monoxide (CO) are estimated annually by
the National Air Data Branch (NADB) of
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). Area sources are typically aggre-
gations of individual sources that are too
small to be defined as point sources in a
specific geographic area. Area sources
usually include all mobile sources and any
stationary sources that are too small, diffi-
cult, or numerous to be inventoried as
point sources. The National Emissions
Data System (NEDS) is the data manage-
ment and processing system that has his-
torically been used to maintain these
annual emissions data. The statutory re-
quirement for annual inventories defines
an area source as an anthropogenic mo-
Printed on Recycled Paper
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bile or stationary source that emits less
than 100 tons* per year (TRY) of TSP,
SO, NO or VOCs, or 1,000 TPY of CO.
"The original NEDS area source meth-
odology and algorithms were developed
in 1973 and 1974 using 1960 census data
(e.g., population, housing, manufacturing).
The NEDS methodology, relatively un-
changed over the past 17 years, forms
the basis for the AIRS' Area and Mobile
Source Subsystem (AMS) methods. The
Joint Emissions Inventory Oversight Group
(JEIOG) is currently updating and revising
estimation and allocation methods, using
more recent data.
While emissions sources included in
current inventory methodologies do cover
a large portion of anthropogenic emissions,
many small source categories are not in-
cluded in the inventory. Identification, char-
acterization, and inclusion of these
categories and their emissions in the in-
ventory will result in a more thorough and
complete emissions inventory.
This report more fully characterizes five
source categories not currently accounted
for in the NEDS area source and AIRS/
AMS methodologies: Catastrophic/Acci-
dental Releases, Vehicle Repair Facilities,
Recycling Processes, Farming Operations,
and Crop Dusting/Pesticide Application. To
the extent that data and information are
available, the following topics are included
in the categorization:
Definition and description of the cat-
egory and activity
Process identification and definition
Pollutants emitted from each identi-
fied process
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Source activity data availability
Level of detail required by user
Emission factors available/required
for each identified process
Regional, seasonal, or other tem-
poral characteristics
Potential methodology
Additional data requirements criti-
cal to methodology development
Catastrophic/Accidental Re-
leasesRail Car.TankTruck, and
Industrial Accidents
Catastrophic releases, which often in-
volve the release of large quantities of
substances over a very short period of
time, potentially represent a significant
portion of an area's total emissions. How-
ever, these emissions are not represented
in the current area source emissions in-
ventory methodology.
For this discussion, catastrophic/acci-
dental releases refer to the unintentional
and unexpected, sudden release of pollut-
ants to the atmosphere from rail cars,
tank trucks, and industrial facilities. Natu-
rally occurring releases like the Mount St.
Helens volcanic eruption in 1980 are not
covered in this definition. The accident or
catastrophe may be caused by equipment
failure, roadway conditions, human error,
or by natural conditions (i.e., hurricane,
lightning, earthquake, or flash flood). These
two types of releases differ in their sever-
ity. Because accidental releases are con-
sidered not as severe as catastrophic
releases, minor accidental releases often
go unreported, whereas catastrophic re-
leases are reported. Examples of acci-
dental releases are the overloading of an
underground storage tank and chemical
spill resulting from a highway truck acci-
dent. A catastrophic release would be the
Chernobyl disaster.
Catastrophic releases from rail car, tank
truck, and industrial accidents are usually
chemical spills, with or without combus-
tion. The types and quantities of emis-
sions depend on factors such as the
material released, remediation efforts, and
weather conditions.
The nature of catastrophic releases
makes precisely describing the released
materials difficult. A material may be in
one form for storage or transportation but
may form a different substance when re-
leased. A compilation of common hazard-
ous materials from the U.S. Department
of Transportation's (DOT's) National Re-
sponse Center (NRC) that could be sub-
ject to accidental release is also included
in EPA's List of Hazardous Substances,
Section 302.4(a) of the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act (CERCLA). VOC species
emitted are dependent on the material
released. VOC, NO, and CO emissions
are possible if combustion takes place.
Air toxics may also be emitted.
Levels of pollutants vary widely from
year to year and from area to area. Due
to the nature of catastrophic/accidental re-
leases, it is very difficult to estimate an-
nual emissions for any particular
hazardous material. Using national haz-
ardous material databases, information on
various spills can be collected. For in-
stance, using information from the Emer-
gency Response Notification System
(ERNS)a database run by EPA and sup-
ported by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)
estimates for the reported quantities of
released hazardous substances were ob-
tained. In 1989, an estimated 219.8 mil-
lion Ib* of hazardous substances were
1 TPY 0.907 metric ton (tonne)
1 Ib = 0.454 kg
catastrophically/accidentally released in the
U.S. and its territories. This number is
probably low because it covers only re-
ported occurrences.
40 CFR Part 302.6 requires that re-
leases of hazardous chemicals be reported
to the NRC. The NRC maintains a data-
base on oil spills, hazardous materials,
and other releases. Data reported for each
accident include, but are not restricted to,
Date of release
Material released
Media affected (water, air, etc.)
Mode (train, ship, truck, etc.)
Location
Quantity released
Another source of information on cata-
strophic emissions is ERNS. ERNS is a
national computer database and retrieval
system that is run by the EPA and sup-
ported by the USCG. ERNS stores infor-
mation on releases of oil and hazardous
substances, and provides a direct source
of easily accessible data that can be used
to analyze spills and to support emer-
gency planning efforts by federal, state,
and local governments. The database con-
tains the following types of information:
Material released
Amount released
Source of release
Incident location
Response actions taken
Environmental medium into which
the release occurred
Information from ERNS is made avail-
able to the public in periodic reports pub-
lished by EPA's Emergency Response
Division. These reports can be obtained
by calling the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA)/Superfund Hotline
at 1-800-424-9346 (in the Washington,
D.C. metropolitan area, call 1-202-382-
3000).
A future source of information on acci-
dental releases will be the Toxic Chemi-
cal Release Inventory (TRI). TRI contains
files on the annual estimated releases of
toxic chemicals to the environment from
point sources complying with Title III of
the Superfund Amendments and Reau-
thorization Act (SARA) of 1986. EPA col-
lects the information, and it becomes
accessible through the National Library
of Medicine's (NLM) Toxicology Data
Network (TOXNET). Data submitted to
EPA include names and addresses of
facilities that manufacture, process, or
otherwise use these chemicals, as well
as amounts released to the environment
or transferred to waste sites.
Vehicle Repair Facilities
Vehicle repair facilities are defined as
locations that service or repair light-duty
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vehicles with predominantly gasoline en-
gines. This category includes the general
service station or garage, as well as facili-
ties offering more specialized services
(e.g., oil change, tune-up, muffler/exhaust
repair, radiator repair). This category does
not include exterior-related services such
as car washing/detailing shops and paint
and body repair shops. Many repair activi-
ties that generate emissions are also per-
formed by individual vehicle owners. These
do-it-yourselfers (DIYers) could account
for a large percentage of the emissions
related to this category. Due to the broad
scope of this category, several subcat-
egories were identified. The following sub-
categories represent the fluids or classes
of fluids identified as sources of emis-
sions:
Maintenance
Antifreeze/engine coolants
Brake fluids
Crankcase oils
Lubricants & silicones
Steering fluids
Transmission fluids
Windshield washer fluids
Cleaning
Brake cleaners
Carburetor and choke cleaners
Engine/parts cleaners/degreasers
Specialty
Belt dressings
Engine starting fluids
Tire repair products
. Windshield deicers
Additives
Crankcase
Fuel system
Radiator
Transmission
Automotive repair products are used by
professional mechanics and vehicle own-
ers. VOC emissions from automotive flu-
ids are associated with draining, refilling,
overfilling, or replacing fluids and from run-
ning and standing losses. Vehicle repair
facilities generate emissions through the
use of products containing solvents and
aerosol propellants. Propellants are used
to propel aerosol products from contain-
ers, solubilize active ingredients, and serve
as part of the diluting system. Solvents
solubilize the product ingredients and af-
fect the evaporation rate of the product.
Many of these products are composed of
VOCs. In addition, some of the compounds
in automotive fluids are considered haz-
ardous, composed of toxic and ignitable
chemicals.
Some categories and product types
were found to be more fully defined than
others, particularly with regard to the speci-
ficity of the terminology for various dis-
crete product types and the variability of
formulations for a specific type of product.
For example; the basic functional fluids
used in vehicles (antifreeze, brake fluid,
transmission fluid, etc.) tend to have the
same basic formulation and principal in-
gredients. However, the term "carburetor
cleaner" can apply to products designed
to be sprayed into the carburetor as well
as buckets of solvent used to soak par-
tially disassembled carburetors. There are
also numerous other examples of multi-
use products, such as dressings, and other
product categories such as lubricants,
where descriptions and designations may
overlap. With the available information on
product types and formulations, it can be
difficult to distinguish between formula-
tions for distinct product types (i.e., prod-
ucts with different intended applications)
and different formulations for products in-
tended for the same basic use. In some
cases, varying formulations may be due
to differences in product form (e.g., aero-
sol, liquid, or solid), while some products
in the same category may use different
ingredients for the same function (e.g.,
different solvents) or even operate on dif-
ferent basic principles (solvent versus al-
kaline cleaning).
Almost without exception, the products
discussed in the report are designed and
labeled for use in general automotive ap-
plications, which include cars, trucks, and
motorcycles. Specific products for trucks
or motorcycles are mentioned where they
have been identified.
The EPA report, "Compilation of Air Pol-
lutant Emission Factors," AP-42, contains
national evaporative emissions and per
capita emission factors for commercial/
consumer solvent use. The only automo-
tive product categorized, however, is wind-
shield washing. The windshield washing
per capita emission factor listed is 0.63 Ib/
yr. Use of this factor and assuming an
annual growth rate of 1.8% results in a
VOC emissions national total of 81,900
TPY. National VOC estimates for solvents
used in automotive repair in 1986 are
37,143 TPY. In a study of New York State
emissions, the total emissions of VOCs
for 49 consumer product categories are
estimated as 26,979 TPY. Of this total,
2,766 TPY are attributed to seven auto-
motive categories: auto antifreeze, carbu-
retor and choke cleaners, brake cleaners,
engine degreasers, engine starting fluids,
lubricants and silicones, and windshield
deicers. In addition to these data, the Cali-
fornia Air Resources Board (GARB) has
an extensive program underway to reduce
VOC emission from consumer products.
This effort includes data on average an-
nual day VOC emissions from aerosol con-
sumer products in California. For the cat-
egory automotive and industrial consumer
products, GARB estimates a total of 3.96
VOC tons per day (TPD) of propellant
emissions and 27.37 TPD of solvent emis-
sions for a combined total of 31.33 TPD.
Recycling
Recycling may be defined as the recla-
mation of materials from waste. For this
report, the definition includes all activities
or processes related to the recycling ef-
fort, beginning with the removal of mate-
rial from the waste stream and extending
to where recycled material is essentially
identical to products derived from virgin
materials or may be acceptable as a sub-
stitute for virgin materials. This distinction
is made to concentrate on the air emis-
sions which are attributable to recycling
processes to the identified point. In re-
porting emissions, however, care is needed
to ensure that emissions associated with
a recycling process are not double
counted. For example vehicle emissions
resulting from the collection of recyclable
materials should be reported as part of a
mobile source inventory and not as part of
a recycling emissions inventory. Air emis-
sions data are currently available from
several information sources, such as AP-
42 and EPA's AIRS, for a number of manu-
facturing processes which incorporate
recycled materials. Presented in the re-
port are findings from research on the air
emissions generated during recycling pro-
cesses involving five materials: paper, plas-
tic, glass, metals from Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW), and solvents. Recycling of
the first four materials involves one or
more energy-intensive steps. Emissions
resulting from associated energy produc-
tion, however, are not addressed as part
of this section. This section focuses on
emissions from actual recycling processes.
The fifth category of materials re-
searched for air emissions resulting from
recycling was solvents. Unlike the other
four recyclable material categories in this
study which originate in homes or com-
mercial establishments, spent solvents are
generated primarily by industry. As the
point of origination and the recycling path
of spent solvents are significantly different
from the other materials, the findings on
this subject are presented separately.
A limited amount of statistical informa-
tion is provided to describe the extent of
recycling activities. Sections of the recy-
cling industry are experiencing rapid
change. As evidence of this change, perti-
nent historical data are provided along
with projections. The flow of recyclable
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material is traced from the post-consumer
waste stream through the production of
materials suitable for secondary markets.
Descriptions of the various collection and
sorting methods are provided, followed by
a detailed description of material-specific
processing activities. Information which
considers potential to emit air contami-
nants is presented for each of the four
materials in the study.
Historically, recycling has been prac-
ticed primarily by the manufacturing sec-
tor to reduce waste stream volumes, the
resulting disposal costs, and also as a
means of cost recovery by selling scrap
materials. Recycling of post-consumer
wastes was primarily limited to paper and
rags until the 1970s. The environmental
movement was partially responsible for
educating the general population on the
potential benefits of recycling, but mar-
kets for recycled materials remained lim-
ited. One of the driving forces behind an
increased interest in recycling is the dwin-
dling number of available landfills in the
more densely populated areas of the U.S.
The MSW Landfill Survey conducted by
EPA projects that the number of landfills
is expected to decrease from approxi-
mately 5500 in 1988 to about 1000 in
2013.
Three disposal methods are used for
MSW: landfilling, incineration, and recy-
cling. Incineration and recycling are be-
coming increasingly popular. In 1984,85%
of MSW was disposed of in landfills, 5%
was incinerated, and 10% was recycled.
Statistics from 1988 show the incineration
and recycling proportions to have grown
to 14.2 and 13.1%, respectively, with
72.7% disposed of in landfills.
In 1986,17 million tons of material was
recycled, a 13% increase over the 1984
level. This amount is primarily due to vol-
untary efforts. However, most states have
adopted recycling initiatives with recycling
targets of 15% or higher. EPA has set a
national recycling goal of 25% of the MSW
by 1995. It is estimated that 63% of MSW
generated in 1988 was recyclable. Fur-
ther, disposal of these materials accounted
for 68% of landfill volume.
Several criteria pollutants would be re-
leased by vehicles involved in the collec-
tion and transportation of recyclable
materials. CO, NO,, PM, and VOCs are
emitted by vehicles. However, such emis-
sions should not be counted as part of an
agency's recycling emissions inventory.
Their proper place is the mobile source
Inventory.
When assessing emissions quantities,
factors to be considered would include
the type of recycling program and the
extent of public participation. Many
curbside recycling programs attempt to
minimize additional vehicle (and man-
power) requirements by collecting recy-
clable materials concurrently with
non-recyclables. Given that many munici-
palities collect refuse weekly, vehicle miles
travelled (VMT) by refuse collection ve-
hicles should represent a negligible por-
tion of total VMT in most areas.
Programs that require a second pickup
would result in additional VMT during col-
lection. Some municipalities have gone
from weekly pickup of MSW to biweekly
alternating pickups of both MSW and re-
cyclable materials. This approach was de-
signed to minimize additional VMT. For
programs resulting in increased VMT,
emissions may be estimated by obtaining
the VMT attributable to recycling and other
vehicle information.
Regardless of the type of recycling pro-
gram, the result of waste segregation pro-
duces one or more reclaimed materials,
and remaining wastes which require dis-
posal by landfilling or incineration. Incin-
eration achieves significant waste volume
reductions, lending to increased landfill
lifetimes. As of 1988, nearly 160 MWC
facilities were on-line, accounting for ap-
proximately 320 incinerators. Air emissions
resulting from waste combustion must be
addressed along with potential problems
associated with the disposal of incinerator
ash. Over 95% of the municipal combus-
tors brought on-line since 1980 have heat
recovery boilers. These facilities represent
78% of the total incinerator capacity of
68,000 TPD. Although energy is "recov-
ered" at some facilities, incineration is not
considered to be a recycling process for
the purposes of this report.
Automated systems are often employed
in separating waste types in either of these
facility types. A number of different pro-
cesses may be employed to remove ma-
terials from the waste stream. Upon
arriving at a processing facility, collection
vehicles usually dump their contents on a
tipping floor. Equipment, such as a front-
end loader, is used to transfer the materi-
als to a conveyor system. The waste
moves between one or more stations within
the facility where specific components are
targeted for removal from the total stream.
The waste is treated by a number of pro-
cesses to achieve material-specific segre-
gation. Some recyclables may also be
subjected to compaction and/or baling prior
to shipping.
A number of facilities may use manual
extraction of specific materials from the
waste in place of any or all of the afore-
mentioned mechanical means. This is
more common in smaller scale facilities.
The methods of separation used by a
given facility depend on a number of fac-
tors, including waste stream composition,
throughput rates, workers' wages, health
and safety considerations, alternate dis-
posal methods, and secondary market
material specifications and prices.
After separation and consolidation, pa-
per, plastic, glass, and metals are all sub-
ject to a unique series of additional
processes in preparation for sale in the
secondary market. The path followed by
each material is presented separately.
Pesticide Application
Under the Federal Insecticide, Fungi-
cide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), a pes-
ticide (or economic poison) includes any
substance or mixture of substances in-
tended for preventing, destroying, repel-
ling, or mitigating any pest, and any
substance or mixture of substances in-
tended for use as a plant regulator, defoli-
ant, or desiccant. The general category of
pesticide can be further defined by the
following terms which identify the target of
the pesticide:
Acaricide (miticide) - used to con-
trol plant-feeding mites (acarids)
Algicide - used to control algae
Aphicide - used to control aphids
(plant lice)
Avicide - used to control pest birds
Bactericide - used to control bacte-
ria
Biocide - when absorbed by eating,
drinking, breathing, or other means
in relatively small quantities, may
cause illness or death, or even re-
tardation of growth or shortening of
life
Fungicide - used to protect against
fungi
Gameticlde - used to prevent polli-
nation
Herbicide - used to control weeds
Insecticide - used to control insects
Larvicide - used to kill insect larvae
Molluscicide - used to control slugs
and snails (mollusks)
Nematicide - used to control nema-
todes
Ovicide - used to kill eggs of in-
sects and mites
Piscicide - used to control fish
Predacide - used to control verte-
brates
Rodenticide - used to control ro-
dents (rats, mice, etc.) and related
animals (such as rabbits)
Slimicide - used to control slime
and molds
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Of the total pesticides currently used in
the U.S., approximately 60% are herbi-
cides, 25 to 30% are insecticides and 10
to 15% are fungicides.
Several additional terms are used to
describe the actions or purposes, rather
than the target, of certain pesticides.
Defoliant - a preparation intended
for causing leaves to drop from crop
plants such as cotton, soybeans,
or tomatoes, usually to facilitate
harvest
Fumigant - a substance or mixture
of substances which produce gas,
vapor, fume, or smoke intended to
destroy insects, bacteria, or rodents
Plant growth regulator - a prepara-
tion which, in minute amounts, al-
ters the behavior of ornamental or
crop plants or the produce thereof
through physiological (hormonal)
rather than physical action
Repellant - a material used prima-
rily for the control of insects, birds,
and other vertebrates
Pesticides fall into three basic chemical
categories: synthetics, non-synthetics (pe-
troleum products), and inorganics. Formu-
lations are commonly made by combining
synthetic materials with various petroleum
products. The synthetic pest-killing com-
pounds in such formulations are labeled
active ingredients; the petroleum product
solvents acting as carriers or diluents for
the active ingredients are labeled inert.
Pesticides are regulated primarily on the
basis of active ingredients. (The terms
active and inert in this application refer to
toxicological action in pesticides and are
not to be confused with the common use
of these terms to indicate photochemical
activity.)
Carriers are inert materials added to a
technical (or economic) poison to facilitate
later dilution to field strength in simple
blending equipment. (A technical poison
or technical material is defined as. the
pesticide chemical in pure form, usually
95 to 100% active ingredient, as it is manu-
factured by a chemical company prior to
being formulated into wettable powders,
dusts, emulsifiable concentrates, granules,
etc.) Certain kaolin clays, attapulgites,
diatomites, and several highly absorbent
synthetic pigments are used as carriers.
Diluents are material liquids or solids serv-
ing to dilute the technical material to field
strength for adequate plant coverage,
maximum effectiveness, and economy.
They may be used directly with technical
materials to dilute to field strength sprays
or dusts, but usually are blended with
wettable powders and dust concentrates
previously prepared with carriers. The
most widely used solid diluents are ka-
olin clays, pyrophyllites, and talcs, al-
though attapulgites and diatomites, local
clays, limestone products, and other min-
erals are also used. Although solid carri-
ers and diluents are generally considered
to be inert, certain attapulgites, kaolin
clays, and diatomites aid in increasing
toxic effectiveness, probably due to physi-
cal properties which induce starvation,
desiccation, and abrasion. Most formula-
tions of dusts and sprays contain from
80 to 99% carrier-diluent.
Adjuvants are materials which are added
to a pesticide mixture in the spray tank to
improve mixing and application or enhance
pesticide performance. An adjuvant cus-
tomizes the formulation to meet specific
needs or to compensate for local condi-
tions. By using the proper adjuvant, it is
often possible to use certain chemical pes-
ticides in a tank mixture that otherwise
would present compatibility problems. (A
tank mix is a mixture of two or more
pesticides in the spray tank at the time of
application. Non-compatibility of the ingre-
dients can be a problem.) The term in-
cludes such materials as buffers,
defoaming agents, spreaders, stickers, and
surfactants. Often, a single adjuvant will
accomplish more than one adjuvant func-
tion, such as a spreader-sticker or
spreader-sticker-drift retardant.
The "process breakdown" depends on
several factors including the user, the pes-
ticide formulation, the type of equipment,
the crop or area to be treated, the appli-
cation, and treatment. These factors are
often closely interrelated and not easily
separated from one another. For example,
while the formulation of the pesticide helps
to determine the type of equipment to be
used, the type of equipment available de-
termines the type of formulation that can
be used. The specific pest to be con-
trolled determines the type of pesticides
used. Particular pesticides may not be
available in all formulations.
Pesticide application may be broken
down into several user categories: con-
sumer, agricultural, commercial, munici-
pal, and industrial. Consumer application
refers to individual home and garden pes-
ticide use. These products are generally
applied as sprays or baits and include
disinfectants, fungicides, insecticides, mol-
luscicides, rodenticides, herbicides, and
repellents. Agricultural pesticide applica-
tion refers to farm chemical usage, other
than fertilizers, for soil and site prepara-
tion, pest control, and harvesting aids. Ag-
ricultural pesticides can be applied in a
variety of formulations (sprays, dusts, pel-
lets, fogs, etc.) from the ground or from
the air (aerial application).
Commercial pesticide application in-
cludes professional treatment of homes,
buildings, and lawns for fleas, cock-
roaches, termites, nematodes, crabgrass,
etc. Municipal pesticide application refers
to governmental use of pesticides for mos-
quito control, roadsides, aquatic pests, etc.,
and includes both ground and aerial appli-
cations. Industrial application refers to use
for power line and gas line right-of-ways,
. etc.
Approximately 68 to 75% of pesticides
used in the U.S. are applied to agricultural
lands, both cropland and pasture. Between
8 and 17% of pesticides are used pri-
vately for home and garden pests, and
the remainder, 8 to 24%, are used for
industrial, commercial, and governmental
purposes.
Agricultural Operations
Agricultural (farming) operations include
plowing, disking, fertilizing, applying pesti-
cides, preparing seed beds, planting, cul-
tivating, and harvesting. All these
operations can be generically classified
as soil preparation, soil maintenance, and
crop harvesting. For the purposes of this
discussion, agricultural operations have
been divided into two major categories:
tilling and harvesting. Tilling includes plow-
ing, disking, fertilizing, pesticide applica-
tion, seed bed preparation, planting, and
cultivating, (i.e., soil/site preparation and
soil maintenance). (Cultivation is defined
as shallow tillage operations performed to
create soil conditions conducive to im-
proved aeration, infiltration, and water con-
servation, or to control weeds.)
Tilling and harvesting can result in emis-
sions of PM, as well as VOCs and air
toxics from the disturbed soil and organic
matter (weeds, crop residue). Dust emis-
sions from tilling are greatest during peri-
ods of dry soil and during final seedbed
preparation, and depend on surface soil
texture, surface soil moisture content, and
other conditions of a particular field being
tilled. In addition, PM emissions are also
generated by wind erosion of bare or par-
tially vegetated soil.
Tilling and harvesting activities can be
broken down by crop (e.g., sugar cane,
cotton, wheat), soil type (e.g., clay, silt,
loam), site characteristics, and activity type
(e.g., manual versus machine harvesting).
All tilling and harvesting operations can
result in PM, VOC, and air toxics emis-
sions. The type of tilling operation affects
the rate of emissions. In addition, the crop
being harvested and the crop residue that
is tilled under after harvest can also add
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organic particles to the dust emissions.
PM emissions also result from wind ero-
sion of the tilled soil.
The National Acid Precipitation Assess-
ment Program (NAPAP) developed esti-
mates of wind erosion from natural and
agricultural lands. National TSP emissions
from this category for 1985 were esti-
mated at 4,711,540 tons. PM-10 emis-
sions were estimated to be 1,130,769 tons.
No estimates of VOC or air toxics emis-
sions from tilling and harvesting opera-
tions are available.
Most emissions from agricultural opera-
tions occur in rural areas. Seasonally, till-
ing emissions will occur primarily in the
spring, especially around final seedbed
preparation time. Harvesting emissions
occur primarily at the end of the growing
season, in the fall. Wind erosion emis-
sions occur primarily when soils are dry
and not protected by a vegetative cover,
primarily during the winter and spring.
U.S. Government Printing Office: 1993 750-071/60233
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S. Sleva, J. Pendola, J. McCutcheon, and K. Jones are with TRC Environmental
Corp., Chapel Hill, NC 27514; and S. Kersteter is with Science Applications
International Corp., Durham, NC 27707.
E. Sue Klmbrough Is the EPA Project Officer (see below).
The complete report, entitled "Identification and Characterization of Five Non-
traditional Source Categories: Catastrophic/Accidental Releases, Vehicle Repair
Facilities, Recycling, Pesticide Applications, and Agricultural Operations," (Order
No. PB93-166973; Cost: $36.50), will be available only from:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Telephone: 703-487-4650
The EPA Project Officer can be contacted at:
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC27711
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Center for Environmental Research Information
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use
$300
BULK RATE
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
EPA
PERMIT No. G-35
EPA/600/SR-93/045
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