United States
              Environmental Protection
              Agency
Air and Energy Engineering
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
              Research and Development
EPA/600/SR-94/008  March 1994
EPA       Project Summary
               Proceedings:  The  1992
               Greenhouse  Gas  Emissions  and
               Mitigation Research Symposium
              Sue Philpott, Compiler
                The report documents results of the
              1992 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and
              Mitigation Research Symposium, spon-
              sored by the U.S.  Environmental  Pro-
              tection Agency's Air and Energy Engi-
              neering  Research Laboratory (EPA-
              AEERL), and held in Washington, D.C.,
              on August 18-20,1992. The symposium
              provided a forum of exchange of tech-
              nical  information  on global change
              emissions and potential mitigation tech-
              nologies. The primary objectives of the
              meeting were dissemination of techni-
              cal information and education in recent
              research. Oral papers along  with an
              international   panel  discussion,
              overheads, slides, and a GloED dem-
              onstration proved for lively exchanges
              in the following areas: activities in EPA,
              U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), and
              Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
              on greenhouse gas emissions and  miti-
              gation research, and AEERL's global
              emissions and technology databases;
              international activities of  selected in-
              dustrialized and  developing countries;
              carbon dioxide  (CO2) emissions  and
              their control, disposal, and reduction
              through conservation and  energy effi-
              ciency, and carbon sequestration in-
              cluding utilization of waste CO2; meth-
              ane (CH4) emissions and mitigation
              technologies including such topics as
              coal  mines, the natural gas industry,
              key agricultural sources, landfills and
              other cookstove emissions and control
              approaches; and solar and renewable
              energy sources, including renewable
              energy options, alternative biomass fu-
els, advanced energy systems, solar
energy developments, and woodstove
emissions and mitigation. The proceed-
ings contain 34 submitted papers.
  This Project Summary was developed
by EPA's Air and Energy Engineering
Research  Laboratory, Research Tri-
angle Park, NC, to announce key find-
ings of the research project that is fully
documented in a separate report of the
same title  (see Project Report ordering
information at back).

Introduction
  The 1992 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Mitigation  Research Symposium,
sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency's Air and Energy Engineer-
ing Research Laboratory  (EPA/AEERL)
and Acurex Environmental Corporation
was held August 18-20, 1992, in Wash-
ington, DC. Thirty-four speakers presented
papers on  recent research on  global
change emissions and potential mitigation
technologies. The  symposium Chairper-
son was Robert P. Hangebrauck of EPA/
AEERL.  This project summary includes
abstracts of the papers presented at the
symposium. The six sessions were:

   I. Overview
  II. International Activities
  III. CO2,  Emissions, Control, Disposal,
    and Utilization
  IV. Emissions and Mitigation of Meth
    ane and Ozone Precursors
  V. Biomass Emission Sources and
    Sinks
  VI. Energy Sources/Solar/Renewable

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Session I
Overview

(Frank T. Princiotta, EPA, Session
Chairperson)


"Greenhouse Warming: The Mitigation
Challenge," Frank T. Princiotta, EPA)
  This paper describes the symposium as
a forum to discuss the state-of-the-art and
research opportunities associated with the
sources and  mitigating releases of green-
house gases. Essential to discussing miti-
gation opportunities is the understanding
of fundamental driving forces for releases
of these  gases,  relating projected  emis-
sions to anticipated global warming, ex-
amining the  important greenhouse gases
and  their  relative contributions,  and un-
derstanding the penalties associated with
delaying  implementation  of a  mitigation
program.


"Methane Reductions are a Cost-
Effective Approach for Reducing
Emissions of Greenhouse Gases,"
Kathleen B.  Hogan and Dina W.
Kruger, EPA
  Methane reductions can play  a  large
role in providing low cost, if not profitable,
opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, in addition to other benefits for
the  atmosphere. This paper  reports  on
opportunities for reducing emissions of
methane that have been examined  through
a number of EPA efforts and activities
developed by the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change. The paper concludes
that efforts to encourage methane reduc-
tions will require identification and removal
of a number of barriers that  hinder the
implementation of available technologies.
"Climate Change and Related
Activities," Kenneth Freidman, DOE
  This report is a brief discussion of the
U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) ac-
tivities in scientific research,  technology
development, policy studies, and interna-
tional cooperation that are directly related
to or  have some bearing on the issue  of
global climate change. Part I  describes
DOE's major activities: 1) developing com-
puter models to  predict rate and magni-
tude of global and regional climate change,
2) understanding the systems that control
the  current and past climates of the Earth,
and  3) exchanging and communicating
data and modeling results with other cli-
mate researchers around the world.  Part
II focuses on DOE's  related activities in-
cluding scientific research; transportation;
alternative fuels development; residential,
commercial,  and industrial efficiency; ap-
pliance and  equipment efficiency;  indus-
trial process technologies; industrial waste
minimization; electricity  generation  and
use; and  policy analysis.


"EPRI's Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Assessment and Management
Research Program," D.F. Spencer and
G.M. Hidy, EPRI
  This paper briefly reviews the  rationale
and need for an electric utility greenhouse
gas emissions  assessment and manage-
ment research program, as well as  poten-
tial  cost implications  to society of short-
term control requirements. The balance of
the  paper focuses on EPRI's directly re-
lated R&D program and its key elements,
namely: a) model development and model
evaluation activities, b) ecological effects,
c) management/mitigation  research,  and
d) development of an integrated assess-
ment framework.  EPRI's  directly related
greenhouse gas research program,  includ-
ing  co-funding, is expected to expend ap-
proximately $60 million over the next 4
years to address key aspects of this sig-
nificant environmental issue.
"Global Emissions Database (GloED)
Software," Lee Beck, EPA
  The  EPA Office of Research and De-
velopment has developed a powerful soft-
ware package called the Global Emissions
Database (GloED). GloED is a user-friendly,
menu-driven tool for storage and retrieval
of emissions factors and activity data on a
country-specific basis. Data  can be se-
lected  from databases  resident  within
GloED and/or  imputed by the  user. The
data are used to construct emissions sce-
narios  for the  countries and  sources se-
lected. References are linked to the data
to ensure clear data  pedigree. The sce-
nario  outputs  can  be  displayed on the-
matic global maps or  other graphic out-
puts such as bar or pie charts. In addition,
data files can be exported as  Lotus 1-2-3,
dBase, or ASCII files, and graphics can
be saved as a PCX file or exported to a
printer. This paper describes GloED and
how it works. It also presents  future plans
for software enhancements and populat-
ing the databases.
Session II
International Activities

(Jane Leggett, EPA, Session
Chairperson)

"Beyond Rio," Hans van Zijst, Royal
Netherlands Embassy
  This brief narrative explores the Dutch
perspective on the future of research and
policies on climate change. Current policy
goals and measures taken  by the Dutch
government are examined, which include
issues such as energy savings, fuel con-
sumption,  traffic  and transport,  and the
waste sector.  The paper emphasizes the
strong need for international cooperation
in  implementing  the Convention  on Cli-
mate Change.


Session III
CO2, Emissions, Control,
Disposal, and Utilization

(Ken Freidman, DOE, Session
Chairperson)
"Carbon Dioxide Sequestration,"
Robert P. Hangebrauck, Robert H.
Borgwardt, and Christopher D. Geron,
EPA
  Mitigation of global climate change will
require  the stabilization of atmospheric
concentration  of greenhouse gases, es-
pecially carbon dioxide (CO2). CO2 can be
sequestered by flue-gas and fuel CO2 se-
questration or by atmospheric  CO2 fixa-
tion/utilization.  Flue-gas sequestration in-
volves separation/concentration, transport,
and either disposal or use. Disposal op-
tions are either land or ocean based. Utili-
zation is by either chemical or biological
utilization (recycling). Flue-gas-oriented
techniques in general have  high economic
and energy costs, but a few areas show
potential  and warrant research and devel-
opment  (R&D) attention, especially those
holding  promise  of  combined  CO/sulfur
dioxide (SO2)/nitrogen oxides (NOx) con-
trol  and the integrated gasification com-
bined cycle approaches. CO2 disposal  is
neither a "sure thing" nor a  permanent
solution,  with  options needing further en-
vironmental assessment. Near term, some
CO2 recycling  is possible,  and R&D  to
examine longer-term prospects  seems
warranted. Atmospheric CO2 fixation/utiliza-
tion involves either enhanced terrestrial  or
marine fixation with utilization of the biom-

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ass in some cases.  Atmospheric fixation
approaches which seem most attractive
are those involving enhanced biomass CO2
sequestration  combined with utilization of
the biomass for energy to displace fossil
fuel. Of these, the most attractive for R&D
appear to be advanced direct combustion
using  biomass and use of  biomass as a
source of hydrogen to  leverage fossil fuel
use for  methanol production (Hydrocarb
process).
"The NOAA Carbon Sequestration
Program,"  Peter Schauffler, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
  Increasing attention is being given to
oceanic techniques for sequestering car-
bon in various  molecular forms as part of
an overall global-change strategy.  EPRI,
through a Caltech contract,  is looking at
the formation and semi-permanent reten-
tion of CO2 hydrates at ocean depths of
1,000 m or so. Similar investigations are
being actively pursued by the Japanese.
EPRI and NOAA, assisted by Caltech and
George Washington  University, are re-ex-
amining the feasibility of large-scale farm-
ing of microalgae as a way of collecting
CO2 from the atmosphere and upper ocean
layers,  sequestering  it in liquid or hydrate
form in the deep  ocean and/or locking up
the carbon in the farm structure, and us-
ing the farm-produced methane and per-
haps methanol  as a CO2-neutral fossil fuel
substitute.

"The Role of DOE Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy Programs in
Reducing Greenhouse Gas
Emissions," Eric Peterson, DOE
  This presentation illustrates DOE's pro-
grams in energy conservation and energy
efficiency, and renewable, nuclear and fos-
sil energy technology research and devel-
opment. The history and the mission of
the  Office of  Conservation  and  Renew-
able Energy is described. Also, overviews
of other DOE-initiated programs  such as
the Wind Energy  Program are given.

"Fuzzy Logic Control of AC Induction
Motors to Reduce Energy
Consumption," R.J. Spiegel and P.
Chappell, EPA; J.G. Cleland, Research
Triangle Institute; and B.K. Bose,
University of Tennessee
  Fuzzy logic control of electric motors is
being investigated under sponsorship of
EPA to reduce  energy consumption when
motors  are operated at less than rated
speeds and loads.  Electric motors use
60% of the electrical energy generated
in  the  U.S.  An  improvement of 1% in
operating efficiency of all  electric motors
could result in savings of 17 x 109 kWh/yr
in the U.S.. New techniques are  required
to  extract maximum performance  from
modern motors. This  paper  describes
EPA's research  program, as well as  early
stages  of work,  to implement fuzzy  logic
to  optimize the  efficiency of alternating
current (AC) induction motors.

"Evaluation of Methanol Production
from Hydrogen and Waste Carbon
Dioxide," Stefan Unnasch and Dan
Luscher, Acurex Environmental
Corporation
  The production of methanol from waste
carbon dioxide (CO2) and  hydrogen was
evaluated. Using recycled CO2 in metha-
nol  fuel would  reduce  the emissions of
CO2 into the atmosphere. We investigated
the  cost and technical status of  potential
non-fossil hydrogen  production technolo-
gies and CO2 recovery technologies. The
primary focus for hydrogen production was
an  photovoltaic  (PV)  power sources.
Methanol can  be produced from CO2 and
hydrogen by reacting CO2  with hydrogen
to form carbon monoxide (CO) and water.
The CO is then  reacted with hydrogen to
form methanol. Producing 1.0 Ib of metha-
nol  with this approach would require 4.37
kWh of electrical power  for the production
of  hydrogen  and capture of  CO2.  The
methanol would cost over $3.00/gal  if the
power were derived from current PV tech-
nology; about 85% of this cost is associ-
ated with hydrogen production. This cost
could be  reduced by 70% with improve-
ments in PV technology that are expected
to be feasible with large scale production
and projected  advances in technology. Al-
most all of the carbon in a coal  gasifica-
tion system can  be converted to methanol
with the addition of hydrogen.  Producing
1.0  Ib of methanol from coal would require
only 1.89 kWh of electric power.


Session IV
Emissions and Mitigation of
Methane and Ozone  Precursors

(M.J. Shearer,  Global  Change
Research Center, Session
Chairperson)

"Global Atmospheric Methane: Trends
of Sources, Sinks and
Concentrations," M.A.K. Khalil, R.A.
Rasmussen, and M.J. Shearer, Global
Change Research Center
  The global  cycle of methane is driven
by emissions around 550 Tg/yr from both
natural and sources related to anthropo-
genic activities, particularly the production
of food  and energy.  Major sources are
rice agriculture,  domestic ruminants,  and
wetlands. Methane is removed  from the
atmosphere mostly by reacting with OH
radicals. Some  methane is removed by
the soils. Over the  past decade methane
concentrations have been  increasing at
about 1%/yr or 16 ppbv/yr. A record of
atmospheric  methane  extending  back
150,000 years has been constructed from
the analysis of polar ice cores. It shows
that, during  this time, methane concentra-
tions have never been more than half of
present  levels.  The recent increase of
methane was  probably caused by increas-
ing emissions. Recent changes in the trend
of methane may also  be attributed to
changing levels of OH. This paper deals
with the changes in global  methane con-
centrations  in  the past, the causes of in-
creased levels at present, and the future
of atmospheric methane. The present un-
derstanding of the  global methane bud-
get provides critical facts for policies re-
lated to controlling anthropogenic sources.


"Coal Mine Methane Emissions and
Mitigation," David A. Kirchgessner,
EPA; and Stephen D. Piccot, Science
Applications  International Corporation
   Estimates of methane (CH4) emissions
from coal mines range from 25 to 45 Tg/yr
with a recent  estimate as high as 65 Tg/
yr. At 46 Tg/yr, the estimate produced by
this project, coal mines contribute about
10% of anthropogenic CH4 emissions and
may contribute significantly to the  global
change phenomenon. Although emissions
from underground mines are now believed
to be adequately  characterized,  virtually
no data are available on emissions from
surface  mines, and data are totally lack-
ing on emissions from  abandoned/inac-
tive mines and coal handling operations.
The methodology developed to  calculate
emissions from  underground mines is
briefly described, as is the  Fourier trans-
form infrared spectroscopy  technique be-
ing employed for  measuring  emissions
from surface  mines. A  nitrogen-flooding
technique for  enhancing  the  recovery of
CH4 from coalbeds in advance of mining
is described as a  possible measure for
mitigating  CH4 emissions from  under-
ground mines.


"Emissions and Mitigation of Methane
from the Natural Gas Industry," Robert
A. Lott,  Gas Research Institute
  The Gas Research Institute and EPA
are co-funding and co-managing a pro-

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gram to evaluate methane emissions from
U.S. natural gas operations. The purpose
of the program is to provide an emissions
inventory accurate enough for global cli-
mate  modeling  and for addressing the
policy question of "whether  encouraging
the  increased use of natural gas is a vi-
able strategy for reducing the U.S. contri-
bution to global warming." The program is
comprised of three phases: Scoping, Meth-
ods Development, and Implementation.
  The  purpose of Phase I was to define
the  problem. Phase II of the program con-
centrated  on developing techniques for
measuring  steady state  or fugitive emis-
sions  and for calculating the highly vari-
able unsteady  emissions from the  variety
of sources that comprise the gas industry.
Because of the large number of sources
within each source type, techniques were
also developed for extrapolating emissions
data to similar sources within the industry.
  Phase III of the program was started in
early  1992 and  should  be  completed in
early  1994.  The  purpose of the current
phase  of the program is to  collect  suffi-
cient data to achieve the accuracy  goal of
determining  emissions to within + 0.5% of
production.
  Based on the  limited amount of data
collected to date, methane emissions from
the  U.S. gas industry appear to be in the
range of 1% of production.

"Emissions and Mitigation at Landfills
and Other Waste Management
Facilities," Susan A. Thorneloe, EPA
  Landfills and  other waste management
sources  of  methane are amenable to
cost-effective control. Consequently, these
sources have been given a high  priority
for clarification of their emission potential.
EPA is conducting research to determine
the  emission potential and mitigation op-
portunities for cost-effective control for the
major sources of greenhouse gases. EPA/
AEERL is responsible for developing more
reliable  global and  country-specific esti-
mates  for the  major  sources of  green-
house gases including waste management,
coal mines,  natural gas  production/distri-
bution, energy usage, cookstoves, and bio-
mass combustion. AEERL has gathered
data that  have resulted in  the develop-
ment of more reliable estimates for  land-
fills. Research  has been initiated to char-
acterize the methane potential of other
waste  management facilities including
wastewater treatment lagoons, septic sew-
age systems, and livestock waste.
  AEERL is also documenting the current
state of technology for utilization projects.
Currently,   114 landfill  gas-to-energy
projects are occurring in  the U.S.  and
about 200 worldwide. Technology trans-
fer/technical assistance programs have
been initiated to help encourage the utili-
zation of waste methane and to help imple-
ment the upcoming Clean Air Act (CAA)
regulations for municipal solid waste land-
fills. For example, AEERL is working with
a consortium of local government repre-
sentatives to explore the application  of
EPA research  on methane/energy recov-
ery from municipal solid waste landfills.
AEERL  also serves  on  the International
Energy Agency Expert Working Group on
Landfill Gas and the Steering Committee
for the Solid Waste Association of North
America. AEERL is also responsible for
demonstrating  innovative approaches  to
the control of waste methane such as the
application  of fuel cell  technology to re-
cover energy from landfills gas  and di-
gester gas.
  This paper describes the emission po-
tential for waste management sources and
the mitigation  opportunities. It also pro-
vides an overview of some of the barriers
in the U.S. that affect methane utilization.
This  research  is funded through EPA's
Global  Climate  Change  Research  Pro-
gram.


"Fuel Cell Power Plant Fueled by
Landfill Gas," R.J. Spiegel, EPA, and
G.J. Sandelli, IFC
  International  Fuel  Cells Corporation
(IFC), a  subsidiary of  United  Technolo-
gies Corporation, is conducting an EPA-
sponsored program to demonstrate meth-
ane control from landfill gas using a com-
mercial  phosphoric acid fuel  cell power
plant. This is the world's first commercial-
scale  demonstration to  control methane
emissions from landfills  using a fuel cell
energy recovery system. EPA is interested
in fuel cells for this application because it
is potentially the cleanest energy conver-
sion technology available. This paper dis-
cusses the project in general and describes
some results to date, with  emphasis on
the landfill gas pretreatment system.


"Methane Emissions from Rice
Agriculture,"  M.A.K. Khalil, M.J.
Shearer, and R.A. Rasmussen, Global
Change Research Center
  Rice agriculture has  long been recog-
nized as a major source of methane (CH4).
Global  budgets of methane have gener-
ally included emissions of about 100 Tg/yr
(Tg = 1012 g) from rice  agriculture (range
of 50-300 Tg/yr) and constituting about
20% of emissions from all sources (range
14-40%).
  During the last decade,  a number of
systematic experiments  have been re-
ported on methane emissions from  rice
fields. Seasonal averages range from 0 to
40 mg/m2/hr.  Factors affecting the flux of
methane include irrigation  regime, fertil-
izer,  soil temperature, and soil type.
  The most recent  global  estimates put
the emissions from  rice paddies at 50 to
100 Tg/yr. The major cause of increasing
methane emissions from rice paddies over
the past 50 years appears  to be the tre-
mendous increase in area planted  to rice.
Emissions appear to have stabilized over
the past decade. Future increases in meth-
ane emissions from rice will probably de-
pend  on access to irrigation and the use
of organic fertilizer.


"Livestock Methane: Sources and
Management Impacts," Donald E.
Johnson, T. Mark Hill, and  G.M. Ward,
Colorado State University
  Herbivorous animals, particularly rumi-
nants, have a digestive  tract that facili-
tates extensive symbiotic  microbial diges-
tion  of dietary structural  plant  carbohy-
drates. A by-product of this  symbiotic mi-
crobial process is an estimated  70 Tg of
methane globally per year,  primarily from
cattle and buffalo.  Cattle  methane emis-
sions equal 6 +/- 0.5% of their diet  energy
(2% by wt) for most global  conditions stud-
ied. Emissions by U.S. feedlot cattle are
uniquely lower at about 3.5% of diet en-
ergy. A major lack of information on size,
diet, class distribution and  percentage loss
from  developing country livestock pre-
cludes accurate definition of this source,
which  is about 65%  of  global.  Manure
disposal from  livestock may produce an
additional  12 Tg globally, primarily through
anaerobic lagoons.  Possible ameliorative
strategies  include the decreased  use of
lagoon disposal or the capture of this meth-
ane.  General efforts should concentrate
on improving productivity of beef and dairy
cattle production systems, which will sec-
ondarily reduce methane.


"Ozone and Global Warming," Robert
P. Hangebrauck and John  W. Spence,
EPA
  Changes in several trace  substances in
the Earth's atmosphere are  affecting  glo-
bal radiative  forcing.  Those  substances
that seem to be in  the greatest state of
change now and projected into the future
are carbon dioxide, ozone (and its  precur-
sors  and  depleters), and  aerosols.  Con-
ceivably, countervailing changes in the ra-
diative forcing effects of these substances,

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especially ozone and  aerosols,  may  be
temporarily hiding or at least changing the
"greenhouse signal"—an unfortunate cir-
cumstance, particularly if the overall im-
pacts that will eventually occur are unpre-
dictable or difficult to reverse quickly. If in
fact the greenhouse signal  is partially be-
ing obscured at present, there  is also po-
tential for this effect becoming less signifi-
cant in the decades ahead  because of 1)
a continuation of increases  in greenhouse
gas emissions, 2)  saturation of the tropo-
spheric aerosol effect plus controls on sul-
fur  emissions,  and  3)  increasing  tropo-
spheric ozone. The substantial complexi-
ties in  factors affecting ozone and  aero-
sols are discussed with emphasis on ozone
and its  precursors, including  methane, non-
methane hydrocarbons,  carbon monoxide,
and nitrogen oxides. Quantifying  radiative
forcing is of substantial importance. EPA
is undertaking  research to enhance the
ability to estimate  indirect factors contrib-
uting to forcing, including measures such
as Global Warming Potentials.  Many of
the  important but difficult  factors  to re-
solve are of the indirect type. A number of
potential indirect forcing effects are identi-
fied  along with  an estimate of  direction
(sign).

"Overview of Methane Energy and
Environmental Research Programs in
the United Kingdom," Suzanne A.
Evans, Anton van Santen, Paul S.
Maryan, Caroline A. Foster, Keith M.
Richards, Harwell Laboratory
  The  biofuels program of research and
development forms  an  important part of
the  UK Department of Energy's renew-
able energy program.  This program be-
gan  in  the  mid-1970s as a response to
the oil crisis of that time and was part of a
much wider look at alternative energy sup-
plies. The initial driving force for biofuels
and  other renewables research  was the
prospect of greater diversity, and  hence
security of  energy  supply for the nation.
More recently, concerns over the environ-
ment and the need for sustainable sources
of energy have added further strength to
the  case for using  "environmentally
friendly" renewables. This  paper reviews
the  history of  the  biofuels program,  its
present content, and considers where fu-
ture emphasis might lie.
Session V
Biomass Emission Sources and
Sinks
(Robert Dixon, EPA, Session
Chairperson)
"The Carbon Balance of Forest
Systems: Assessing the Effects of
Management Practices on Carbon
Pools and Flux," Robert K. Dixon and
Jack K. Winjum, EPA, and Paul E.
Schroeder, ManTech Environmental
Technology, Inc.
  Forests play a major role in the Earth's
carbon cycle through  assimilation, stor-
age, and  emission of CO2.  Establishment
and management of  boreal, temperate,
and tropical forest and  agroforest systems
could potentially enhance sequestration of
carbon in the terrestrial biosphere.  A bio-
logic and economic analysis of forest es-
tablishment and management options from
94  nations  revealed that forestation,
agroforestry, and silviculture could be em-
ployed to  conserve  and  sequester 1
gigaton (Gt) of carbon annually over a 50-
year period. The marginal  cost of  imple-
menting these  options to sequester 55 Gt
of carbon would be  approximately $107
ton.

"Global BIOME (BlOspheric Mitigation
and adaptation Evaluation) Program,"
Robert K. Dixon and Jack  K. Winjum,
EPA
  Preliminary assessments suggest  that
forests and  agroecosystems can  be man-
aged to conserve and sequester carbon,
thereby reducing the  accumulation of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.  Bio-
mass  utilization is  a  necessary compo-
nent of a sustained terrestrial carbon se-
questration  effort.  The Global BIOME
(BlOspheric Mitigation  and adaptation
Evaluation) Program will consist of a) tech-
nical assessments of effectiveness  of ter-
restrial biosphere management options and
biomass fuel technology in reducing at-
mospheric  accumulation of greenhouse
gases,  b) demonstration projects  to as-
sess the technical and economic feasibil-
ity of applying agricultural and forest man-
agement options and biomass fuel  substi-
tution,  c) regional,  national, and  global
assessments of effectiveness of terrestrial
biosphere management and  adaptation
options, and d) assessment  of practices
and  technologies that,  if  implemented,
could facilitate adjustment  of forest  and
agroecosystems to global climate change.
The  Global BIOME initiative is a compo-
nent of EPA's Office of Research  and
Development national Global Change Re-
search Program. The research is man-
aged by the Agency's laboratories: ERL-A,
ERL-C, AEERL, and AREAL.  Research is
conducted by EPA scientists in coopera-
tion with  universities, other federal  agen-
cies  and laboratories, and contractors.
"Agricultural Management and Soil
Carbon Sequestration: An Overview of
Modeling Research," Robert B.
Jackson IV and Thomas O. Barnwell
Jr., EPA; Anthony S. Donigian Jr. and
Avinash S. Patwardhan, Aqua Terra
Consultants; and Kevin B. Weinrich
and Allen L. Rowel I, Computer
Sciences Corporation
  Soil  carbon fluxes and pools are pro-
foundly affected  by  agricultural manage-
ment, which is in turn affected by national
and international  agricultural policies. This
paper briefly describes the framework and
some details of a computer modeling re-
search  strategy that is being implemented
at the  Athens Environmental  Research
Laboratory (AERL).  The objective  of the
research is to determine the potential for
U.S. agroecosystems to accumulate and
sequester carbon as a means of slowing
the global increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide.
"Assessment of the Biogenic Carbon
Budget of the Former Soviet Union,"
Tatyana P. Kolchugina and Ted S.
Vinson, Oregon State University
  A  framework was created to quantify
the natural  terrestrial carbon  cycle of the
former Soviet Union (FSU). The organiza-
tion  of the carbon cycle  parameter and
georeferenced database, which supports
the framework and the  calculations, which
are required to establish the carbon bud-
get,  are  performed  with  personal  com-
puter hardware and commercially avail-
able spreadsheet software. Based on the
framework,  net primary productivity (NPP)

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for the FSU was estimated  at 6.2 +/- 1.7
GT (109 tons) C/yr, the vegetation carbon
pool  at 118.1  +/-  28.5  GT C,  the  litter
carbon pool at 18.9 + 4.4 GT C, and total
soil carbon pool at 404.0 +/38.0 2GT C.
The  components of the carbon  budget
obtained with the framework were in good
agreement with estimates from other pub-
lished sources. The framework will allow
the role of the FSU in the  global carbon
cycle to be assessed. The extent of forest
and agricultural ecosystems within the FSU
that  can be technically managed on a
sustainable basis to conserve and seques-
ter carbon  may also be determined with
the framework.
"Household Fuels in Developing
Countries: Global Warming, Health,
and Energy Implications," Kirk R.
Smith, Program on Environment, and
Susan A. Thorneloe, EPA
  Although  individually small,  the  wide-
spread and daily use of household stoves
with poor combustion efficiency in devel-
oping   countries  raises questions  about
possible global warming and  other envi-
ronmental  implications  of their airborne
emissions.  To explore the possible utility
of efforts to measure the  emissions from
representative samples of these devices,
a  small pilot  study of greenhouse gas
emissions of biomass and fossil-fuel stoves
was  undertaken in  Manila. The results,
although  based on only a few measure-
ments, indicate that such stoves may have
a significant role in global greenhouse gas
inventories;  be subject  to substantial im-
provement  through  alternative technolo-
gies; and that policy measures should con-
sider  energy and health  implications as
well. As a  consequence,  a larger set of
studies is being planned for India, China,
Thailand,  and  Brazil.  This  research  is
funded through EPA's Global  Climate
Change Research Program. Research on
emissions and mitigation of major sources
of greenhouse gases is being conducted
by EPA/AEERL.


"The Potential for Energy Crops to
Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions,"
R.L. Graham, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory
  Energy crops are herbaceous or woody
plants grown specifically to produce biom-
ass for combustion and production of elec-
tricity  or for conversion to fuels such as
ethanol. When grown  intensively, such
crops  can yield up to 43 dry Mg biomass/
ha/yr in the temperate zone although yields
of 10 to 20 Mg are more typical.
   By substituting sustainably grown biom-
ass for  fossil fuels, CO2 emissions from
energy consumption can be  reduced sig-
nificantly. Although biomass fuels are net
emitters of CO2,  because fossil fuels  are
used in the production  of energy crops
(e.g., fertilizers,  transportation), biomass
fuels emit much less CO2than fossil fuels
per unit of energy produced.  A hectare of
U.S. farmland on the average  could pro-
duce sufficient biomass to reduce annual
CO2 emissions by 5 Mg C if such biomass
were used to produce electricity that would
otherwise be produced with coal.
  Within the  U.S.,  at  least 131  million
hectares of farmland  could  support  en-
ergy crop production. Much  of this  land
lies in the midwest although the southeast
also contains considerable acreage. More
acreage can support herbaceous energy
crops than woody crops  as there are her-
baceous crops that can tolerate drier con-
ditions than any woody crop.
  The  potential  for energy  crops to re-
duce CO2 emissions will depend on  how
much land can be profitably  dedicated to
energy crops. Farmers will adopt energy
crops when it is economically advanta-
geous for them to do so. Power compa-
nies will adopt biomass energy when  the
cost of energy from fossil fuels exceeds
that from  biomass.  Government policies
and regulations affect both these relation-
ships. Currently biomass crops must com-
pete with subsidized agricultural crops
thereby  inflating  the  price of biomass to
an energy facility. On the other hand, pol-
lution regulations can favor energy crops
as a fuel source  since biomass crops can
burn cleaner than coal.
Session VI
Energy Sources/Solar/
Renewable

(Robert Williams, Princeton
University, Session Chairperson)

"Roles for Biomass Energy in
Sustainable Development," Robert H.
Williams, Princeton University
  Biomass (plant matter)  accounts for
15% of world energy  use and  38% of
energy use in developing countries. But
most biomass is used inefficiently, mainly
for cooking and  heating in rural areas of
developing  countries, and often in much
the same way it has been used for millen-
nia. Biomass can also  be converted  into
modern energy carriers such as gaseous
and liquid fuels and electricity that can be
widely used in more affluent societies. The
most promising options are biomass-integrated
gasifier/gas turbine power systems as an al-
ternative to coal-based  power plants and
biofuels for fuel-cell vehicles as an alternative
to gasoline for internal-combustion-engine ve-
hicles. The prospects  are  good  that these
technologies could be  competitive with con-
ventional  fossil  fuel technologies  at present
world energy prices.
  The large-scale utilization of biomass
for energy can provide a  basis for rural
development and employment in develop-
ing countries, thus helping to curb  urban
migration. In addition, if biomass is grown
sustainably,  its production and  use cre-
ates no net buildup of carbon dioxide (CO2)
in the atmosphere, because the CO2 re-
leased during combustion is  offset by the
CO2  extracted from the atmosphere dur-
ing photosynthesis.
  Biomass  for energy can  be  obtained
from residues of ongoing  agricultural and
forest product  industries, from harvesting
forests,  and from dedicated plantations.
The  harvesting of forests for biomass is
likely to be  limited by environmental con-
cerns.  Over  the next couple of decades
new bioenergy industries will be  launched
primarily using residues  as feedstocks.
Subsequently, the industrial base will shift
to plantations, the largest potential source
of biomass.
  The most promising sites for planta-
tions  are deforested and  otherwise de-
graded lands in developing countries and
excess  croplands in the industrialized
countries. Revenues from the sale of bio-
mass crops  grown on  plantations estab-
lished on degraded lands can help finance
the  restoration of these lands.  Establish-
ing  plantations  on excess croplands can
be a new livelihood to farmers who would
otherwise abandon their land because of
foodcrop overproduction.  In  either  case,
biomass plantations can, with careful plan-
ning,  substantially improve  these  lands
ecologically relative to their present uses.
But a substantial and sustained research
and development effort is  needed to en-
sure the realization and sustainability  of
high yields under a wide range of growing
conditions.  Moreover, the establishment
and maintenance of  biomass plantations
must  be  carried out in the framework of
sustainable  economic development  in
ways  that are acceptable to  the  local
people.
  Ultimately, land and water resource con-
straints will limit the contributions that bio-
mass can make as an energy source in

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advanced societies. But biomass energy
can make major contributions to sustain-
able development before these  limits are
reached, if biomass is grown productively
and sustainably and efficiently converted
to modern energy carriers that are used in
energy efficient end-use technologies.


"An Analysis of the Hydrocarb Process
for  Methanol Production from
Biomass," Yuanji Dong and Meyer
Steinberg, Hydrocarb Corporation, and
Robert H. Borgwardt, EPA
  A pilot plant is being designed to evalu-
ate  the  technical feasibility of producing
transportation  fuel  from biomass by the
Hydrocarb process. As a  basis for that
design, computer simulations  and experi-
mental studies have been carried out to
establish optimum  process conditions for
a range of feedstocks that are anticipated
for pilot plant tests.  This paper discusses
the  results of simulations to determine the
operating parameters  and  performance
when  using  urban  wastes such as
greenwaste  and sewage sludge as feed-
stocks. The simulations were used to con-
figure the process steps for maximum fuel
(methanol) production,  to determine feed
rates, and to estimate thermal efficiency.
The results  indicate that about 77  kg of
methanol can be produced from 79 kg of
dry  greenwaste when sludge and digester
gas are fed  as co-feedstocks in a ratio of
0.2. The optimum system pressure is found
to be 50 atm  (5 MPa).  Temperatures of
900°C for  gasification  and  1000°C for
methane pyrolysis  are  recommended on
the  bases  of  thermodynamics, kinetics,
and  the  limitations  of  materials of con-
struction. Thermal efficiency at these con-
ditions is estimated to be 74%.
"Alternative Fuels from Biomass,"
Charles E. Wyman, National
Renewable Energy Lab
  Substitution of biofuels derived from cel-
lulosic biomass for conventional fuels
would reduce the accumulation of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and the possi-
bility of global  climate change,  improve
our energy security and trade deficit, revi-
talize rural and  farm economies,  and ad-
dress urban air pollution and waste dis-
posal problems. The  major fractions  of
biomass, cellulose and hemicellulose, can
be broken down into sugars that  can be
fermented into ethanol. Through technol-
ogy advances for producing ethanol, the
projected cost at the plant gate has been
reduced  from about $3.60/gal 10 years
ago to $1.27/gal, and opportunities have
been identified to further drop the price to
$0.67/gal, a price competitive with gaso-
line from oil at $25/bbi, within 10 years.
Through  anaerobic  digestion,  a consor-
tium of bacteria can  break down cellulosic
biomass  to generate a medium-Btu gas
that can be cleaned  up  for pipeline-quality
methane. The cost  of  this  methane has
been  reduced to about $4.50/MBtu (106
Btu) for municipal solid waste (MSW) feed-
stocks, and technology advances could
drop the price to about $2.00/MBtu. Algae
could consume carbon dioxide from power
plants  and  produce lipid oil that can be
converted into a diesel fuel substitute. Pro-
jected costs for this biodiesel have dropped
from almost $18.00/gal  to about $3.50/gal
now, with a target of $1.00/gal. Biomass
can also  be gasified to a mixture  of car-
bon monoxide and hydrogen for catalytic
conversion  into methanol. Currently,
methanol from  biomass  is  projected  to
cost about  $0.85/gal, and with  improved
technology, a cost of $0.50/gal could be
realized.  Catalytic processing of pyrolytic
oils from biomass produces a  mixture of
olefins that can  be reacted with alcohols
to form ethers such  as  methyl tertiary bu-
tyl ether  (MTBE) for use in  reformulated
gasoline to reduce emissions. Costs could
be competitive today for olefins from MSW.
Because  biofuels technologies require little
if any fossil fuel inputs,  carbon is recycled
through their use,  reducing  substantially
the net amount of carbon dioxide released
to the atmosphere.


"Co-production of Methanol and
Power," William Weber, EPRI; Arden B.
Walters,  Florida Power & Light
Company; and Samuel S. Tarn, Bechtel
Group, Inc.
   Integrated Coal Gasification  Combined
Cycle (IGCC) is one of the emerging tech-
nologies for electric power generation from
coal. Under contract with Florida Power &
Light (FPL) and  Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI),  Bechtel is to  design an
IGCC/methanol co-production plant that is
suitable for utility operation of a  base-
loaded power plant. The potential benefits
of methanol co-production in an IGCC plant
are identified and quantified.
   Shell and Dow gasifiers are selected for
this study only to illustrate the potential
effects of the dry-feed and slurry-feed gas-
ification process on  methanol production.
The combined-cycle power plant features
the GE Model  MS-7001F  gas turbines,
heat recovery steam generation (HRSG)
with  steam reheat,  and duct firing. The
fuel-grade methanol plant design is based
on Chem Systems'  Liquid Phase  Metha-
nol (LPMEOH) Process. Two operating
modes of the methanol plant are consid-
ered:  the recycle  mode (RM) and  the
once-through mode (OTM).
   Results from cases with the slurry-feed
gasifiers  and OTM plant are presented in
this paper. They have indicated that metha-
nol co-production can increase the equiva-
lent availability of an IGCC plant to that
for a  natural gas fueled  combined  cycle
plant.  Methanol co-production can also re-
duce the  risk of the lower than anticipated
gasifier availability.


"EPA's Cost-shared Solar Energy
Program," Ronald J. Spiegel, EPA
   The objective of this  program is to es-
tablish and   demonstrate solar energy
cost-shared  commercialization projects to
demonstrate  how they can  be used  to
displace fossil fuels. The program will also
have a major impetus to validate the abil-
ity of solar energy to be used as a  pollu-
tion mitigation technology.  Further,  the
demonstrations will assist in removing ob-
stacles to the marketplace for solar tech-
nologies  by  assisting in  quantifying envi-
ronmental concerns. This  paper discusses
a project that has just commenced  in the
area of  photovoltaic demand-side power
supplies.  Additional discussion is provided
relative to future projects that are  being
contemplated.

"Photovoltaic Developments," Jack L.
Stone, National Renewable Energy
Laboratory
   Photovoltaics,  the direct conversion of
sunlight  to electricity, is  an environmen-
tally pristine,  renewable energy option cur-
rently  used in a large number of interna-
tional  applications,  principally  non-
grid-connected in remote locations.  Ex-
amples include water pumping, communi-
cations, vaccine  refrigeration,  and village
power. Over the  past  15 years, a very
aggressive research and development pro-
gram  carried out by DOE has continued
to improve photovoltaic performance and
reliability  and has contributed to lower pro-
duction costs. Along with these improve-
ments have come a large number of new,
cost-effective uses, including larger power
installations  in a  utility environment. This
technical  and economic  progress  is re-
viewed to represent the  current status of
this renewable energy option.  Near-term
plans  for large-scale installations in  the
U.S. are discussed along with the required
costs for competitiveness with conventional
electricity generation options.

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"Advanced Energy Systems Fueled
from Biomass," Carol R. Purvis and
Keith J. Fritsky, EPA
  The concentration of CO2, a greenhouse
gas,  is increasing by an estimated 0.5%
per year. CO2 emissions from  fossil fuel
combustion quadrupled between 1950 and
1980. Conversion of renewable biomass
to energy is  CO2,  neutral and produces
lower SO2 and NOx emissions than fossil
fuel combustion.
  EPA/AEERL is  studying two biomass
conversion technologies: conventional
combustion in a  boiler coupled with a
steam turbine system and gasification in a
gasifier coupled with an aero derivative tur-
bine system. In-house research is address-
ing the problems encountered in conven-
tional systems with regard to emissions,
tube fouling, bed agglomeration, and low
thermal efficiency. Extramural research is
addressing the problems of advanced sys-
tems with regard to fixed/fluidized-bed gas-
ifiers, alkali/particulate cleanup, gas com-
patibility with turbines, and system effi-
ciency. The  results will provide data for
owner/operators to improve system per-
formance and for  designer/developers to
demonstrate advanced systems. This re-
search will help promote biomass-for-energy
as a  global  warming  mitigation strategy
by focusing on a need to maximize biom-
ass resources through increased utiliza-
tion efficiency.

"Programs and Policy Impacts
Attributable to Regional Biomass
Program Woodstove Research
Efforts," Stephen Morgan, EPA
  The decision by the CONEG Policy Re-
search Center in  the spring of 1985 to
embark  upon  a  field evaluation of
woodstoves  led to an ambitious and so-
phisticated 6-year research program that
has had profound impacts on the  evolu-
tion of the industry. The initial interest in
exploring  the  claims of manufacturers
about the efficiency, particulate emissions,
and creosote buildup  in catalytic, catalytic
add-on,  and  non-catalytic "high tech"
woodstove models readily  expanded to
undergird much  of the conceptual thinking
that informed the EPA's participatory regu-
lations negotiations process engaging the
industry, the Agency  and environmental-
ists. Since the publication of the EPA cer-
tification standards in 1987 and the labo-
ratory testing methodology utilized to sup-
port the standard,  the Northwest Regional
Biomass  Program (NRBP)-sponsored  re-
search has moved on to  test the field
durability of certified  stoves.  The early,
disappointing findings in that field testing
identified structural, design and materials
flaws that have  directly contributed to im-
proved stove designs in the second gen-
eration of certified stoves.
     Sue Philpott is with Acurex Environmental Corp., Durham, NC 27713.
     Keith J. Fritsky is the EPA Project Officer (see below).
     The complete report, entitled, "Proceedings: The 1992 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
       and Mitigation  Research Symposium," (Order No. PB94-132180/AS; Cost:
       $61.00, subject to change) will be available only from:
            National Technical Information Service
            5285 Port Royal Road
            Springfield, VA 22161
            Telephone: 703-487-4650
     The EPA Project Officer can be contacted at:
            Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
            U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
            Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
  United States
  Environmental Protection Agency
  Center for Environmental Research Information
  Cincinnati, OH 45268

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