United States         EPA/625/12-91/002
Environmental Protection  November 1991
Agency
Technology Transfer
Description and
Sampling of
Contaminated Soils
A Field Pocket Guide

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           Technology Transfer    EPA/625/12-91 /002
&EPA   Description and
           Sampling of
           Contaminated Soils:
           A Field Pocket Guide
           Center for Environmental Research Information
           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           26 West Martin Luther King Drive
           Cincinnati, OH 45268
                     rJ5y Printed on Recycled Paper

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Notice
   This guide has been reviewed  by  the  U.S. Environmental
   Protection Agency and  approved for publication. Mention of
trade  names  or commercial  products does  not  constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.

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Contents
                                               Page
       How to Use This Guide	ix

       Chapter 1. Field Methods, Equipment,
       and Documents	1
1.1     Nature of Soil Pollutants* and Surface
       Pollution Situation*	1
1.2     Soil Parameters for Field Sampling and
       Characterization	2
1.3     Field Description of Soils	3
1.4     Field Sampling and Testing	5
1.5     Field Equipment and Documents	5
1.6     Use of EPA's Environmental Systems
       Monitoring Laboratory	6

       Chapter 2. Site Characteristics...	19
2.1     Climate and Weather*	19
       2.1.1   Air Temperature	20
       2.1.2   Wind Speed and Direction*	20
       2.1.3   Humidity	20
2.2     Slope*	21
2.3     Surface Erosion and Erodibility*	22
2.4     Surface Runoff*	23
2.5     Vegetation*	24
2.6     Macro- and Mesofauna*	26

       Chapter 3. Field Description and
       Analysis of Soils	27
3.1     Soil Physical Parameters	28
       3.1.1   Soil Horizons*	31
       3.1.2   Soil Texture Classes*	38

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                                                         iv
                                                      Page
        3.1.3   Soil Color*	41
        3.1.4   Soil Porosity*	46
        3.1.5   Zones of Increased
               Porosity/Permeability	48
               3.1.5a  Soil Structure Grades*	49
               3.1.5b  Extrastructural Cracks	49
               3.1.5c  Roots*	53
               3.1.5d  Surface Features*	53
               3.1.5e  Sedimentary Features	54
        3.1.6   Zones of Reduced
               Porosity/Permeability	55
               3.1.6a  Genetic Horizons	55
               3.1.6b  Rupture Resistance
                       (Consistency*)	56
               3.1.6c  Bulk Density*	58
               3.1.6d  Root Restricting Layers	60
               3.1.6e  Penetration Resistance
                       (Compaction*)	60
        3.1.7   Soil Engineering Parameters and
               Properties	62
               3.1.7a  Unified (ASTM) Texture	62
               3.1.7b  Atterberg  Limits	69
               3.1.7c  Shear Strength	69
               3.1.7d  Shrink-Swell	70
               3.1.7e  Corrosivity*	70
        3.1.8   Soil TemperatureVTemperature
               Regime*	71
3.2     Soil Hydrologic Parameters	73
        3.2.1    Moisture Conditions*
               (Soil Water State)	73
        3.2.2   Water Table (Internal Free Water
               Occurrence)	75
        3.2.3   Available Water Capacity	76
        3.2.4   Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity*
               and Soil  Drainage Class	76
        3.2.5   Infiltration*	77
3.3     Soil Chemistry and Biology	81
        3.3.1    Organic  Matter*	81
        3.3.2   Odor*	83
        3.3.3   Cation Exchange Capacity*	84
        3.3.4   Reaction (pH)*	84

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                                                   Page
       3.3.5   Redox Potential* (Eh)	85
       3.3.6   Electrical Conductivity* (Salinity)	85
       3.3.7   Clay Minerals*	86
       3.3.8   Other Minerals	87
       3.3.9   Fertility Potential*	90
       3.3.10  Soil Microbiota*	91
3.4    Soil Contaminants	92

       Chapter 4.  Soil Sampling and Quality
       Assurance	93
4.1     Changes in Soil Sampling Procedures	93
4.2    Quality Assurance/Quality Control	94

       References
       References	102

       Appendices
A.1     General Protocol for Description of
       Soil Cores	106
A.2    General Protocol for Soil Sample
       Handling and Preparation	110
       A.2.1   Soil Sample Collection Procedures
              for Volatiles	110
       A.2.2   Soil Sample Collection and
              Mixing Procedures for Semivolatiles
              and Metals	111
       A.2.3   Equipment
              Decontamination/Disposal	112
       A.2.4   Air Drying	113
A.3    General Protocol for Soil Sampling with
       a Spade and Scoop	116
A.4    General Protocol for Soil Sampling with Augers
       and Thin-Walled Tube Samplers	118
B.     Manufacturers and Distributors of Soil
       Sampling Equipment	120

       'Indicates that guidance for interpretation of
       observations and measurements can be found in
       Cameron (1991).

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                                                       w
                'X'X'X*:*:^^

        Forms
                                                    Page
 1 -1     Checklist of Soil Physical and Chemical
        Property Sampling and Field
        Test Procedures	7
 1 -2     Soil Description/Sampling Equipment and
        Documents Checklist	8
 1 -3     Soil Sampling Quality Assurance/Quality
        Control Checklist	13
 1 -4     Coding Sheet for ESES Site
        Knowledge Frames	15
 1-5     Coding Sheet for ESES Soil
        Knowledge Frames	16
 3-1     Soil Profile and Related Information	29
 3-2     Unified (ASTM) Field Texture
        Determination Form	63
 4-1     Sample Alteration  Form	99
 4-2     Field Audit Checklist	100
 4-3     Sample Corrective Action Form	101

        Tables
 1 -1     Suggested Soil Parameters for
        Field Description	4
 2-1     Index Surface Runoff Classes	25
 2-2     Criteria for Placement of Hydrologic
        Soil Groups	25
 3-1     Definitions and Designation Nomenclature
        for USDA Soil Horizons and Layers	32
 3-2     Comparison of the 1962 and 1981 USDA
        Soil Horizon Designation Systems	35
 3-3     Subdivisions of the C Horizon
        Used in Illinois	37
 3-4     Abbreviations and  Designations for USDA
        Soil Texture Classes
        (including coarse fraction)	40
 3-5     Rupture Resistance Classes	57
3-6     Field Estimation of Soil Shear Strength	69
3-7    Guide for Estimating Risk of Soil
       Corrosion Potential of Uncoated Steel	72
3-8    Water State Classes	74
3-9    Guide for Estimating the Class of  Saturated Vertical
       Hydraulic Conductivity from Soil Properties	78

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                                                    Page
3-10   Criteria for SCS Soil Drainage Classes	79
4-1     Summary of Hand-Held Soil
       Sampling Devices	95
4-2    Summary of Major Types of Power-Driven
       Tube Samplers	97
A-1    EPA Recommended Sampling Containers,
       Preservation Requirements, and Holding
       Times for Soil Samples	114
B-1    Manufacturers and Distributors of Soil Sampling
       Equipment	120


       Figures

3-1     USDA soil texture triangle	39
3-2    Percentage of sand sizes in subclasses
       of sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam basic textural
       classes	42
3-3    Charts for estimating proportions of coarse
       fragments and mottles	43
3-4    Guide for designation of mottle contrast	45
3-5    Charts for estimating pore and root size	47
3-6    Drawings illustrating some of the types of
       soil structure	50
3-7    Charts for estimating size class of different
       structural units	51
3-8    Summary of field tests for Unified (ASTM) soil
       textural classification	64
                                                      vii

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                                                  via
Acknowledgments
   This document was prepared for EPA's Center for Environmen-
   tal Research Information, Cincinnati, Ohio, and the Exposure
Assessment Research Division of EPA's Environmental Monitor-
ing Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada.
      Author:
      J. Russell  Boulding,  Eastern  Research  Group,  Inc.
      (ERG), Arlington, Massachusetts
      Project Management:
      Carol Grove, EPA CERI, Cincinnati, Ohio
      J. Jeffrey van Ee, EPA ORD, Environmental Monitoring
      Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada
      Heidi Schultz, ERG, Arlington, Massachusetts
      Editing and Production:
      Susan Richmond, ERG, Arlington, Massachusetts
      David Cheda, ERG, Arlington, Massachusetts
      Reviewers:
      Noel Anderson, Geraghty and Miller, Madison, Wisconsin
      Robert   Breckenridge,  Idaho  National  Engineering
      Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho
      Roy Cameron, Lockheed  Engineering & Sciences Com-
      pany, Las Vegas, Nevada
      H. Raymond Sinclair, Jr., Soil Survey Interpretations and
      Geography  Staff, USDA  SCS  National Soil  Survey
      Center, Lincoln,  Nebraska
      Bobby Ward, State Soil Scientist, USDA Soil Conserva-
      tion Service, Indianapolis,  Indiana

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How to Use This Guide
   This guide describes many field methods and procedures
   that can be used for (1) preliminary site reconnaissance,
(2) detailed site and contaminant characterization/sampling
for transport/fate  modeling  and risk assessment, and (3)
remediation selection and design.
       All methods and procedures described in this guide
are simple and  inexpensive.  When used  early in  site
reconnaissance,  site  characterization,  or  remediation
projects, the methods in  the  guide may reduce project
costs by providing a basis for more efficient application of
more complex and expensive field methods, when they
are needed.
       This guide has also been designed to serve as  a
companion to EPA's Guide to Site and Soil  Description
for Hazardous Waste Site Characterization (Cameron,
1991),  which also serves as the basis for the site and soil
components for  metals of the  Environmental Sampling
Expert System  (ESES) under  development by EPA's
Environmental   Monitoring  Systems   Laboratory,   Las
Vegas.
       Use for Preliminary Site Reconnaissance.  If  a
soil survey prepared by the  Soil  Conservation Service
(SCS)  of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is available
for the  site, this guide in  combination with Cameron (1991)
can  be  used  to  develop  preliminary interpretations
concerning the potential for site and soil conditions to
facilitate or inhibit contaminant transport.
       Use  for   Detailed  Site  and  Contaminant
Characterization:
1.      To assist field personnel in preparing for a visit to  a
       contaminated site by providing checklists to ensure
       that no documents or equipment are accidentally
       left behind (see Forms 1-2 and 1-3 in Chapter 1).
                                                 Ix

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2.     To   provide  a   concise,  but   comprehensive,
       reference  source for methods of describing and
       analyzing  site and soil characteristics in the field
       that require only visual/tactile observation or very
       simple  equipment.  Chapter  2  provides  this
       information for  site characteristics.  Chapter 3
       provides  this information for soil characteristics,
       placing  special   emphasis  on  soil  description
       procedures of the U.S.  Soil Conservation Service.
       Abbreviations and codes  that can be used for
       specific  soil features are  suggested  to facilitate
       notetaking. Where soil conditions favor use of a
       soil  probe (no  coarse  fragments),  description
       procedures outlined in Appendix A.1 may be useful
       for characterizing soils  at a site prior to sampling
       for detailed chemical characterization.
3.     To assist in selecting and obtaining alternative soil
       sampling equipment if unforeseen problems at the
       site prevent use of sampling procedures specified
       in the Soil Sampling and Quality Assurance Plans.
       Chapter  4  provides   information  on sampling
       equipment characteristics. A series of Appendices
       describe   some   standard   soil   sampling  and
       handling protocols that may help address quality
       control concerns  related to alternative  procedures
       that may be required by unforeseen site conditions.
4.     To facilitate use of EPA's Environmental Sampling
       Expert System (see Section 1.6).

       Use  for  Modeling   and   Remediation
Selection/Design. When site soil parameters that are
required for modeling or remediation selection/design are
known, the appropriate sections of this guide can be used
for data collection. Characterizing Soils for Hazardous
Waste Site Assessments (Breckenridge et al., 1991) and
Cameron (1991) may assist in  identifying soil parameters
of interest.

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Chapter 1
Field Methods, Equipment,
and  Documents
   This chapter provides tables and checklists that can be
   used to help select specific field methods, and to iden-
tify equipment and documents that should be assembled
prior to going into the field.

1.1    Nature of Soil Pollutants and Surface
       Pollution Situation
       Before  beginning  field  sampling  and charac-
terization, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the
nature  of soil pollutants at a site, whether they are heavy
metals, toxic organics, or both, and of the areal extent of
pollution. EPA's Environmental Sampling Expert System
(ESES) defines two major types of surface pollution situa-
tions related to the areal distribution  of the contaminants:
(1) large (covers a wide area, primarily on the surface),
and (2) localized (areas usually polluted near the source).
       Once all  available  site  information  has  been
evaluated, an exploratory soil sampling program may be
undertaken to further define the nature and extent of soil
pollutants, before developing a detailed soil sampling plan.
Soil descriptions  of near-surface soil cores (1.5 to  2 m)
taken on a grid at the site using procedures described in
Appendix A.1 may provide valuable additional information
at relatively low  cost prior to  developing either an ex-
ploratory or detailed soil sampling plan.
       Existing data, or soil sampling results, will indicate
the nature of pollutants. Specific contaminants of concern
are broadly defined in EPA's ESES  as relatively mobile
and toxic (residence time in the solid phase is relatively
short,  enhancing toxicity) or relatively  nonmobile  and
nontoxic (residence time  in the solid phase is relatively
long, decreasing potential toxicity).
Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                   1

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Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                     2


1.2   Soil Parameters for Field Sampling and
       Characterization
       This field guide assumes that:
1.     Physical,   hydrologic,   and   chemical/biological
       parameters of soils  and contaminants have been
       selected for description and sampling prior to the
       field collection phase for characterization of a con-
       taminated site.
2.     These parameters and methods or protocols are
       contained  in statistically sound and detailed Soil
       Sampling and Quality Assurance Plans for the site.
       Guidance for the preparation of such plans  can be
       found in Mason  (1983), Barth et al.  (1989), van Ee
       et al. (1990), and U.S. EPA (1986, Vol. 2, Chap. 9).
       Appendix D in a companion document to this field
guide, Guide to Site and Soil Description for Hazard-
ous Waste Site Characterization (Cameron, 1991), may
provide assistance  in selecting  site and  soil charac-
terization  parameters  and  in  identifying  available field,
laboratory, and  calculation or lookup  methods  for in-
dividual parameters.
       This field guide is  intended to assist in carrying out
three  major types of activities in the field:
       • Description  of site and soil  features based on
         visual and tactile observation
       • Field tests or measurements that involve  rela-
         tively simple procedures and equipment
       • Methods for collecting undisturbed  or minimally
         disturbed samples for physical and microbiologi-
         cal characterization in the laboratory

       Collection of samples for chemical characterization
in the laboratory is not  covered  in detail in  this guide, be-
cause it is assumed that this  is defined in detail in the
Sampling  and  Quality  Assurance  Plans for the  site.
However,  general protocols for  sample  handling  and
preparation and for sampling with a  spade and  scoop,
augers, or thin-walled tube samplers are contained in Ap-
pendices A.2 through A.4.
       Specialized field procedures involving  more com-
plicated equipment, such as for measuring  unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity, are not covered in this field guide.

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Procedures involving such methods should be described
in the Sampling Plan.

1.3   Field Description of Soils
       Multiple  soil profile  descriptions at a  site  can
provide a great deal of information that may be useful in
evaluating the  variability of soil properties, and the direc-
tions  and  potential  for transport of contaminants  in the
subsurface. Detailed  soil profile descriptions have not
been commonly used at contaminated sites. One purpose
of this field guide is  to encourage greater use of this rela-
tively easy field method.
       Table 1-1 summarizes the key features that should
be noted in detailed soil profile descriptions and identifies
the sections in this  field  guide that cover individual  fea-
tures.  Preparation  of a  complete, detailed  soil  profile
description requires the digging of a pit so that feature can
be observed laterally  as  well as vertically. Although this
method is time consuming, the ability to observe  small-
scale lateral variations in  soil features associated with in-
creased  or reduced soil permeability, justifies,  in  most
instances,  a limited number of  such soil profile descrip-
tions at a site.
       Where soils  are not rocky, a thin-wall soil  probe
can be used to prepare a moderately detailed soil  profile
description in a sufficiently short time so that larger scale
variations in soil characteristics can be identified. Appen-
dix A.1 describes a general protocol for description  of soil
cores.  Table 1-1 recommends that all the features used in
preparing  a pit soil profile  description be observed.  It
should be  recognized, however, that the soil core may be
too small  a sample  of  the subsurface to accurately
describe  a number  of  features,  such  as transitions
between horizon boundaries, certain types of soil structure
(columnar, for  example),  pore and root distribution,  and
genetic horizons (fragipans, for example). These features
are indicated with an asterisk in Table 1-1.
       Preparation of an accurate, detailed  soil profile
description  requires training and experience,  and such
descriptions are best done under the supervision of some-
one familiar with procedures developed by the Soil Con-
servation Service in the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents

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Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                      4
KWXXttWX-KWW'KWM'W^

Table 1-1. Suggested Soil Parameters for Field Description
Parameter Section
in Guide
Horizons 3.1.1
USDA Texture 3.1.2
Color 3.1.3
Porosity 3.1.4
Zones of Increased Porosity/Permeability
Soil structure 3.1. 5a
Extrastructural cracks 3.1.5b
Roots 3.1.5c
Surface features 3.1. 5d
Sedimentary features 3.1.5e
Zones of Reduced Porosity/Permeability
Genetic horizons 3.1.6a
Consistency 3.1.6b
Root restricting layers 3.1 .6d
Compaction 3.1.6e
Moisture Condition 3.2.1
Water Table 3.2.2
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity 3.2.4
Clay Minerals 3.3.7
Other Minerals 3.3.8
Odor 3.3.2
Soil
Profiles
R*
R
R
R*

R*
r
R*
R
R*

R*
R
R*
r
R
R
R"
r
r
r
Soil
Samples
R
R
R
r

r
r
r







R
R
r



R  =   Recommended for all situations.
r  =   Recommended where climatic, geologic, and soil
       conditions make parameter significant.
* Soil pit may be required for accurate description of this
soil feature.
** Estimation of Ksat class based on other observable features.

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       Soil samples for chemical characterization  in the
laboratory  should generally  not double  as samples for
detailed  soil description,  because exposure  to the air
before placement in sample containers  should be mini-
mized.  However, abbreviated  descriptions  should be
made to  identify the samples and possibly help in relating
sample results to other soil profile descriptions. Table 1 -1
recommends that, at a minimum, soil horizon (or depth in-
crements), color, texture, moisture condition, and relation-
ship to  the  water table  be observed.  The  table also
identifies several other features (porosity, structure, and
roots) for which observations would be useful, if the  nature
of the sample allows (soil core) and exposure to air  is less
of a concern (heavy metals in aerated soil).

1.4   Field Sampling and Testing
       A number of tests involving relatively simple proce-
dures and equipment can  be used to measure or charac-
terize soil physical and chemical  properties.  Such tests
are generally not as accurate as laboratory tests but have
the advantage of being inexpensive and may be used for
preliminary screening or selection of samples for more ac-
curate laboratory testing.
       Form  1-1  provides a checklist of soil engineering,
physical, and chemical parameters for which field tests are
described in this field guide. Special sampling procedures
for microbiological characterization  are covered in Section
3.3.10.
       Before going into the field, this checklist should be
used  to  identify the specific tests that appear to  be of
value for the site of interest. This procedure will assist in
locating the appropriate section of the field guide  where
specific  procedures  are  described,  and  in  identifying
equipment needs (see next section).

1.5   Field Equipment and Documents
       Form  1-2 is a checklist of over 90 items that may
be required for field description, analysis, and sampling of
soils. Major categories covered in this checklist include (1)
documents,  (2)  protective equipment,  (3) miscellaneous
equipment,  (4)  site  surface characterization, (5)  soil
description equipment/materials, (7) texture analysis and
sample  preparation equipment, (8)  sample,  equipment,
Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents

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 Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents
 and waste containers and forms, and (9) field testing and
 analysis. Form 1 -3 contains a checklist of around 20 items
 related to quality assurance and quality control of the sam-
 pling process, such as (1) QA/QC forms and samples, (2)
 material required for sample preservation and transport,
 and (3) decontamination equipment.
       These  checklists have two columns: the first is to
 identify those  items that are needed for the site in ques-
 tion; the second column  can be checked when the item
 has been obtained and packed. Required items  can be
 identified by reviewing the site Soil Sampling Plan  and
 Quality Assurance  Plan  and the checklist of field tests
 contained in this guide (Form 1 -1 ).

 1 .6   Use of EPA's Environmental Systems
       Monitoring Laboratory
       EPA's    Environmental   Systems    Monitoring
 Laboratory is developing  an Environmental Sampling Ex-
 pert System  (ESES) which ultimately will integrate a
 Geographic Information System and Site Description Sys-
 tem (including data quality objectives, quality  assurance
 and quality control, and site description) with a Knowledge
 Frame Manager (for analysis, interpretation of data, and
 report preparation) for contaminated sites.
       The Guide to Site and Soil Description for Haz-
 ardous Waste Site Characterization (Cameron, 1991)
 provides the basis for the site and soil components for me-
 tals  in the  ESES. Site and soil  parameters (called Ob-
 ject/Attributes in the ESES), are assigned "values" which
 have significance for contaminant transport and fate.
       Form 3-1  (Soil  Profile  and Related  Information)
 contains space to record observations related to  all the
 site and soil knowledge frames in EPA's ESES. Data on
this form can  be  coded on  Forms 1-4 and  1-5 (Coding
 Sheet for Use of ESES Site and Soil  Knowledge Frames)
to aid in data interpretation using the ESES or Cameron
 (1991). These forms also indicate the section in this guide
that  covers description procedures  and  nomenclature.
Where standard SCS descriptive procedures do not readi-
ly allow assignment of a "value" for the ESES, definitions
used in the ESES are provided for use during field  obser-
vations. Cameron (1991) provides additional definitions of
terms.

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Form 1-1.  Checklist of Soil Physical and Chemical
Property Sampling and Field Test Procedures

Soil Physical Properties
	 Color ignition test (Section 3.1.3)
	 Extras!ructural crack tests (Section 3.1.5b)
	 Fragipan identification (Section 3.1.6a)
	 Cementation test (Section 3.1.66)
	 Bulk density (Section 3.1.6c)
	 Pocket penetrometer test (Section 3.1.6e)
	 Soil temperature regime characterization (Section 3.1.8)
	 Soil moisture (Section 3.2.1)
	 Water table estimation (Section 3.2.2)
	 Available water capacity (Section 3.2.3)
	 Saturated hydraulic conductivity class estimation
       (Section 3.2.4)
	 Soil drainage class placement (Section 3.2.4)
Soil Engineering Properties
	 Unified (ASTM) texture (Section 3.1.7a)
	 Atterberg limits (Section 3.1.7b)
	 Shear strength (Section 3.1.7c)
	 Shrink-swell tests (Section 3.1.7d)
	 Corrosivity characterization (Section 3.1.7e)
Soil Chemical Properties
	 Organic matter ignition test (Section 3.3.1)
	 Cation exchange capacity/exchangeable acidity
       (Section 3.3.3)
	 pH  (Section 3.3.4)
	 Redox potential (Section 3.3.5)
	 Electrical conductivity (Section 3.3.6)
	 Clay minerals—nitrobenzene test (Section 3.3.7)
	 Calcium carbonate—HCI test (Section 3.3.8)
	 Soluble  salts—chloride and sulfate (Section 3.3.8)
	 Gypsum acetone test (Section 3.3.8)
	 Iron oxides—ignition and streak tests (Section 3.3.8)
	 Manganese—streak and hydrogen peroxide tests
       (Section 3.3.8)
	 Sampling for soil microbiota (Section 3.3.10)
Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents

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Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents
mmy&m&>&mzx»s»mim&xi»>&mi^M^fm&ms».
Form 1-2.  Soil Description/Sampling Equipment and
Documents Checklist
Check first column to identify needed items. Check second
column when item has been obtained and packed prior to leav-
ing for the field.
Documents
 	  	  Sampling plan
 	  	  Quality assurance plan
 	  	  Health and safety plan
 	  	  Log  books
Protective Equipment
 	  	  Protective suits
 	  	  Boots
 	  	  Gloves (inner/outer)
 	  	  Duct tape
 	  	  Respirators, respirator cartridges, and/or dust
            masks
 	  	  Raingear and/or warm clothing
 	  	  Insect repellent (should not contain chemicals that
            will be target analytes or in matrix spikes)
Miscellaneous
 	  	  Keys for access to site, graphite lubricant for locks
 	  	  Folding table
 	  	  Camera and film
 	   	  Flashlight and extra batteries
 	   	  Toolbox, including hacksaw
 	   	  Calculator
Site Surface Characterization
 	   	  Max/min thermometer
 	   	  Humidity gage or sling  psychrometer
 	   	  Hand-held anemometer
 	   	  4-ft staffs with flags or flagging (for wind direction
            indicators)
 	   	  Clinometer for slope measurement
 	   	  6-ft rod and colored tape to mark eye level for
            clinometer readings
                                               (Continued)

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Form 1-2.  (Continued)
Soil Description Equipment/Materials
 	  	   Field notebook, pencils, ballpoints, and markers
 	  	   Clipboard with cover
 	  	   Microcassette recorder, spare microcassettes and
             batteries (optional for notetaking)
 	  	   Map of soil sampling locations
 	  	   Soil profile and related information forms (Form
             3-1)
 	  	   Unified (ASTM) texture determination form (Form
             3-2)
             Other soil data collection forms:
 	  	   Carpenters rule (for measuring horizon depth)
             and/or steel tape
 	  	   30-cm by 2-m plastic sheet for placing soil cores
             for description
 	  	   Munsell Soil Color book
 	  	   Knife (for cleaning exposed soil surfaces)
 	  	   Nails (for marking horizon boundaries)
 	  	   10 power hand lens (surface features, mineral
             identification, carbonate test)
 	  	   Sand size and coarse fragment determination
             scales
 	  	   1/2 in. mesh (for estimating areal distribution of
             features on excavated profile)
 	  	   Tile probe (soil depth determination in rocky soil)
 	  	   Stiff, 2-mm wire for crack depth measurement
 	  	   Graded sand of uniform color for crack
             characterization (excavation method)
 	  	   Stereoscopic microscope (5 to 6 in. working
             distance, 20 to 80 power)
 	  	   Small  high intensity 6v flexible lamp (for
             illuminating microscope)
                                                 (Continued)
:::::::::::::::::*::W*:*y*ra^
Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                       9

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 Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                      10
 :*:•:•:%*:*:•:•:*:•:•:•:•:•:•:•:• ww
 Form 1-2.  (Continued)
 Soil Sampling Equipment (specified in Sampling Plan)
 Hand-held sampling devices
 (Check all items that may be required at the site.)
 	  	  Shovel/spade
 	  	  Spoons
 	  	  Scoops
 	  	  Screw-type auger
 	  	  Barrel/bucket auger (regular, sand, mud, stone,
            planer, in situ soil recovery)
 	  	  Thin-walled tube
 	  	  Chisel rock breakers
 	  	  Crescent wrenches, vice grips, pipe wrenches (for
            changing drill rod length and sampling tips)
 	  	  Weighted plastic mallet
 	  	  Tube sampler cleaning tool
Power-driven sampling devices
(Check types planned for use at the site.)
 	  	  Auger
 	  	  Split spoon
 	  	  Thin-walled tube samplers
Texture Analysis and Sample Preparation Equipment
 	  	  Sieves (3 in., 1/2 in., No. 10, for characterizing
            coarse fraction)
 	  	  Hanging spring scale with canvas sling or pail (for
            weighing coarse fragments)
 	  	  No. 10 mesh stainless steel screens (for TOC and
            semivolatile samples)
 	  	  No. 10 mesh Teflon® screens (for metals samples)
 	  	  Compositing bucket/mixing containers (stainless
            steel, glass, Teflon®-lined suitable for all
            contaminants; aluminum pans for any contaminant
            except Al; plastic for metals analysis only)
 	  	  1 -m square piece of suitable plastic, canvas, or
            rubber sheeting (for sample preparation)

                                               (Continued)

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Form 1-2.  (Continued)
Sample, Equipment, and Waste Containers and Forms
 	   	  Brown plastic trash bags for dirty equipment
 	   	  White plastic trash bags for clean equipment
 	   	  Ziplock type plastic bags for protecting equipment
            that cannot be decontaminated (cameras,
            notebooks, etc.)
 	   	  Sample containers (sealed clean and labeled plus
            20 percent)
 	   	  Plastic bags for sample containers
 	   	  Sample description/identification forms
 	   	  Sample labels/tags
 	   	  Soil moisture tins
Field Testing and Analysis
 	   	  Photoionization detector (PID) or flame ionization
            detector (FID)
 	   	  Calibration gases for meters
 	Hydrogen gas for FID
 	   	  Specialty gas meters (HCN, etc.)
 	   	  Explosimeter
 	   	  Scale/balance (0.1 gram accuracy) for weighing of
            samples (moisture, bulk density, organic matter)
 	   	  Infrared lamp,  or small oven, and thermometer
            scaled to at least 120°C (for drying samples for
            moisture, bulk density, and organic matter tests)
 	   	  Portable gas soldering torch and porcelain crucible
            or small tin (not Al) with wire bracket or tongs (for
            ignition tests)
 	   	  Saran-ketone mixture (bulk density clod method)
            or sand-measuring or rubber balloon apparatus
            (bulk density excavation method)
 	   	  pH  measurement kit and standard solutions (spare
            batteries, if necessary), and/or color dyes, pH test
            strips
 	   	  Glass or plastic stirring rod (pH test)
 	   	  Small containers for mixing water and soil (pH,
            specific conductance tests)
                                                (Continued)

Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                      11

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Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                       12
X*x*x*x*:':'K*x*K*:*:'XW

Form 1-2.  (Continued)

Field Testing and Analysis (Continued)
 	   	   Conductivity meter and specific conductance
             standards
 	   	   Quart container of distilled deionized water in
             squeeze bottle (for pH, texture, and carbonate
             tests)
 	   	   Common laboratory spatulas (for texture tests)
 	   	   Porcelain spot plate (carbonate test, iron oxide,
             manganese oxide scratch tests)
 	   	   Clean glass rod (carbonate test)
 	   	   10-percent HCI in plastic squeeze bottle
             (carbonate test)
 	   	   Solution of malachite green in nitrobenzene (for
             clay minerals test)
 	   	   Hydrogen peroxide (manganese test, organic
             matter tests)
 	   	   Test tubes or plastic vials and 5-percent silver
             nitrate, and 5-percent barium chloride solutions
             (chloride and sulfate tests)
 	   	   Small stoppable bottle, filter paper, and acetone
             (gypsum test)
 	   	   Field sampling glove box and core paring tool (for
             aseptic core samples for microbiological
             analysis—see Section 3.3.10)

-------
Form 1-3.  Soi! Sampling Quality Assurance/Quality Control
Checklist
Check first column to identify needed items. Check second
column when item has been obtained and packed prior to leav-
ing for the field.
Forms
 _  _  List of sample locations where duplicates and
            other QA samples are to be taken
 _  _  Sample alteration form (Form 3-1 ), multiple copies
 _  _  Field audit checklist (Form 3-2)
 _  _  Soil sample corrective action form (Form 3-3)
QA Samples (check types specified in QA Plan)*
Double-Blind Samples
 _  _  Field evaluation samples (FES)
 _  _  Low level field evaluation samples (LLFES)
 _  _  External laboratory evaluation samples (ELES)
 _  _  Low level external laboratory evaluation samples
            (LLELES)
 _  _  Field matrix spike (FMS)
 _  _  Field duplicate (FD)
 _  _  Preparation split (PS)
Single-Blind Samples
 _  _  Field rinsate blanks (FRB) — also called field
            blanks, decontamination blanks, equipment
            blanks, and dynamic blanks
 _  _  Preparation rinsate blank (PRB) — also called
            sample bank blanks
 _  _  Trip blank (TB) — also called field blank
Sample Preservation and Transport
 _  _  Chest or 6-pack cooler
 _  _  Ice
 _  _  Max/Min thermometer
 _  _  Chain-of-custody forms and seals
 _  _  Shipping forms
 _  _  Analytical analysis request forms, if different from
            chain-of-custody forms
                                               (Continued)
Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                     13

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Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents                      14
:*w*:*:o:-x-»:*:*:*:*:*:*:*xw^
Form 1-3.  (Continued)
Decontamination
 _   _   Decontamination vessel
 _   _   Wash solution(s) — should be specified in
             Sampling Plan.
 _   _   Garden spray cans for wash fluids
 _   _   Rinse solutions (acetone, deionized water)
 _         Labels for containerized wastes (solid or liquid)
* See van Ee et al. (1 990) for more detailed discussion of these
types of samples.

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Form 1-4. Coding Sheet for ESES Site Knowledge Frames
Object/Attribute Source*
Nature of Heavy Test
Metal Pollutants results
(enter elements
concentrations —
see Table 3-1 in
Cameron [1991])
Climate/Weather Lookup
Macrofauna and 2.6
Mesofauna
Slope 2.2
Surface 2.3
Erosion/Erodibility
Surface Pollution 1.1
Situations
Surface Runoff 2.4
Vegetation 2.5
Wind Speed/Direction 2.1 .2
Value
Mobile/ Nonmobile/
Toxic Nontoxic





Humid
Temperate
Dry
Many
Common
Few
Steep (>1 2%)
Moderate (3-1 2%)
Flat (<3%)
Severe
Moderate
Slight to none
Large areas
Localized areas
Rapid (H, VH)
Medium (M)
Slow (L, VL)
Ponded (N)
Dense
Scattered/Sparse
Absent
Gale
Breezy
Calm to light
*Use observations recorded on Form 3-1 or refer to indicated
section number in this guide. For lookup methods, refer to
Appendix D in Cameron (1991).
Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents
                                                      15

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Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents
                                                     16
Form 1-5,  Coding -Sheet for ESES Soil Knowledge Frames
Object/Attribute
Bulk Density (g/cc)
Cation Exchange
Capacity
(meq/100g soil)
Clay Minerals
Color
Compaction
Consistency
Corrosivity
Electrical Conductivity
(Salinity, mmhos/cm)
Fertility Potential
Source*
3.1. 6c
Lab
3.3.3
Lab
3.1.2
3.3.7
Lab
3.1.3
3.1.6e
3.1. 6b


3.1.7e
Lookup

3.3.6
Lab



3.3.9
Lab

Value
Low(<1.3)
. Medium (1.3-1. 6)
High(>1.6)
Low(<12)
Medium (12-20)
High (>20)
Abundant (>27%)
Mod/Slight(1-27%)
None/Neg. (<1%)
Dark
Red and Yellow
Brown
Gray/Whitish
Mottled
High
Moderate
Low/Slight
High
Moderate
Low/Weak
Cemented
High
Moderate
Low
Nonsaline (<2)
Slight (2-4)
Moderate (4-8)
Very (8-1 6)
Extremely (> 16)
High
Moderate
Low
                                            (Continued)

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Form 1-5. (Continued)
Object/Attribute Source*
Horizons 3.1.1
Hydraulic 3.2.4
Conductivity
(micrometers/s)
Infiltration/ 3.2.5
Percolation (cm/hr)
Microbiota 3.3.10
Lab
Moisture 3.2.1
Conditions Lab
Odor 3.3.2
Organic Matter 3.3.1
Lab
Porosity 3.1.4
Reaction (p.H) 3.3.4
Value
Master Horizons
Transitional
Disturbed
Buried
High(>10)
Moderate (0.1 -10)
Low (0.01 -0.1)
Inhibited (<0.01)
High (>5)
Medium (1.5-5.0)
Low (0.1 5-1 .5)
Inhibited (<0.1 5)
Abundant
Common
Few
None
Wet
Moist
Dry
High
Mod/Slight
None
Abundant (>4%)
Moderate (2-4%)
Sparse (<2%)
Coarse (>5mm)
Medium (2-5mm)
Fine(0.5-2mm)
Very fine (<0.5rnm)
Acid (<6.6)
Neutral (6.6-7.3)
Alkaline (>7.3)
                                                 (Continued)
Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents
17

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 Field Methods, Equipment, and Documents
                                  18
        w^^
 Form 1-5.  (Continued)
 Object/Attribute
Source*
   Value
 Redox Potential
 Roots
Structure Grades
Surface Features
Temperature
Temperature
 Regimes
Texture Classes
 3.3.5
 3.1.5c
 3.1.5a
 3.1.5d
3.1.8
3.1.8
Lookup
3.1.2
 High Oxidized
 Intermediate
 Highly Reduced

 Many
 Common
 Few

 Structureless
 Weak
 Moderate
 Strong

 Prominent
 Distinct
 Faint

 High
 Medium
 Low

 Pergelic
 Cryic
 Frigid-lsofrigid
 Mesic-lsomesic
 Thermic-lsothermic
 Hyperthermic-
 Isohyperthermic

 Fragmental
 Sandy
 Silty
 Loamy
 Clayey
Organic soils
*Use observations recorded on Form 3-1 or refer to indicated
section number in this guide. For laboratory and lookup
methods, refer to Appendix D in Cameron (1991).

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Chapter 2
!06SSiSeiS®®iiSS8SittSttitStiiliit

Site Characteristics
   This chapter covers a number of weather-related factors
   that affect the ease or difficulty of soil description and
sampling in the field (Section 2.1) and other site surface
features  at  locations  where  soils  are described  or
sampled. These features include slope (Section 2.2), sur-
face erosion  (Section 2.3),  surface runoff (Section 2.4),
vegetation  (Section 2.5), and macro- and mesofauna as-
sociated with the surface and subsurface (Section 2.6).

2.1   Climate and Weather
       Climate exerts a profound influence on soil directly
through soil forming and weathering processes such as
precipitation,  evapotranspiration, and temperature,  and in-
directly by  its influence on vegetation.  Climate is a known
factor at a site  that is  usually evaluated by analysis of
meteorologic records from  nearby weather  stations, al-
though  in   some   instances  detailed   monitoring   of
meteorologic parameters such as  precipitation, tempera-
ture, and wind may be required as a part of site charac-
terization and remediation.  This  guide does  not cover
methods for systematic monitoring of climatic factors.
       Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at a
site during  field  investigation activities. Unusual weather
conditions  are usually  noted during  the sampling and
description  of soils.  Weather usually  doesn't  become a
concern during field work unless conditions, such as rain
or snow, adversely affect the carrying out of field proce-
dures or create  health and  safety  concerns for field per-
sonnel. The  major weather  parameters to be monitored
during field work include air  temperature, wind speed and
direction, and humidity.  The  site health and safety officer
is  primarily responsible for  evaluating adverse weather
conditions and pacing field activities accordingly, but field
personnel should communicate their own feelings about
working under adverse weather conditions.
::::Wi^::::::::::::y:y::::::::ftW*::W:y:;:W:^
Site Characteristics                                     19

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 Site Characteristics                                    20
 2.1.1  Air Temperature
       Air temperature is primarily a concern when it is at
 one extreme or the other. Heat becomes a special con-
 cern when protective  clothing must be worn on site, be-
 cause the impervious  material used increases sweating
 and the  possibility of heat stress from dehydration. Ex-
 treme cold makes sampling and notetaking  difficult. Max-
 min thermometers are relatively  inexpensive  and daily
 extremes should be recorded along with periodic observa-
 tions  through the day,  if appropriate. Wind speed (see
 Section 2.1.2) should  be monitored when working in the
 winter to determine wind chill temperatures. Humidity (see
 Section 2.1.3) should be monitored when the  climate is
 humid and temperatures are high.

 2.1.2  Wind Speed and Direction
       In winter, wind speed should be monitored to es-
 timate wind chill  temperature. Hand-held anemometers
 can be  used for this purpose.  High winds create un-
 favorable conditions for soil sampling, especially when soil
 is dry, because of the possibility of contamination from
 blowing surface soil and the mobilization of contaminated
 subsoil that is brought to the surface. When it is breezy,
 personnel should  position themselves upwind during soil
 sampling, and  avoid  sampling in  locations where con-
 taminated soil might blow into the  exclusion area. Four-
 foot staffs with flags or flagging placed around the site can
 serve as wind direction indicators. Wind speed and direc-
 tion should be recorded at each location where soils are
 sampled.
       EPA's ESES defines wind speed classes as follows:
       Gale: >32 mph  (>37 knots)
       Breezy: 4 to 32 mph (3 to 37 knots)
       Calm to  light: <4 mph ( <3 knots)

2.1.3   Humidity
       Relative  humidity, the  ratio  of measured  atmos-
pheric water vapor pressure to that which would prevail
under saturated conditions, is the most commonly used
measure of atmospheric moisture. For general field use,
relative humidity can be measured using a humidity gage,
but if very accurate measurements are desired, a sling
psychrometer should be used.

-------
       Humidity is primarily a concern for field operations
when it is very high or very low. Very high humidity as-
sociated with high temperatures increases  the danger of
heat stress in field personnel, especially when protective
clothing  must be  used on site. When  sampling for soil
moisture when the humidity is low, special care should be
taken to minimize exposure of soil to the air to avoid
drying before the sample is sealed.

2.2   Slope
       Slope is  an important site feature that influences
the distribution of  precipitation between the soil and sur-
face  runoff,  and  the movement of soil  water.  Slope
gradient  is usually measured as a percentage, but may be
measured in degrees. Both gradient and the length of the
slope (to the point where surface runoff loses its  energy
and deposits suspended soil particles) are required for es-
timating  erosion using the Universal Soil Loss Equation
(see Section 2.3  below). Slope shape and topographic
position influence the movement of water on the surface
and in the subsurface. Slope aspect affects the moisture
status of soil, with southern exposures usually drier than
northern exposures due to increased evapotranspiration.
       Soil surveys prepared by the U.S. Soil Conserva-
tion Service (SCS) differentiate soil map units in  upland
areas by the dominant soil series and a slope range (such
as 0 to 2 percent, 2 to 6 percent, 6 to 12 percent, etc.) that
is  based on  soil management  considerations.  Slope
classes are based on slope gradient limits as follows (Soil
Survey Staff, 1991):
Classes
Simple
Slopes
Nearly level
Gently sloping
Strongly sloping
Moderately steep
Steep
Very steep
Complex
Slopes
Nearly level
Undulating
Rolling
Hilly
Steep
Very steep
Slope Gradient
Limits (%)
Lower
0
1
4
10
20
>45
Upper
3
8
16
30
60

Site Characteristics
21

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 Site Characteristics                                    22

       Different SCS county soil surveys may specify dif-
 ferent slope ranges for a slope class within the lower and
 upper limits identified above.
       The following slope features should be observed
 when preparing a soil description:
       Gradient (percent or degrees)—Measured using a
       clinometer  and a rod with a  marking at  the  ob-
       server's eye level. Siting through the clinometer up
       or downslope to the marker on the rod allows a
       direct reading in percent  or degrees. Accurate
       readings require that (1) the line of siting is  perpen-
       dicular to the contour of the slope, and (2)  there is
       no change  in slope gradient over the distance the
       siting is taken.
       Length (if erosion potential is evaluated).
       Shape—Convex, concave, or flat.
       Topographic position—Summit, shoulder, back-
       slope, footslope, toeslope, orfloodplain.

 2.3   Surface Erosion and Erodibility
       Field evaluation of surface erosion  has two com-
 ponents: (1) assessment of soil loss or deposition that has
 occurred  in the past, and  (2) evaluation of the future
 erosion potential.
       In  upland soils, the  amount  of erosion can be in-
ferred  by  comparing observed texture and color in the A
 and  B horizons (see Section  3.1.1  for  definitions of
 horizons)  with  a  nearby undisturbed  soil  in a  similar
topographic setting  (if available),  or with a  soil profile
description prepared by  the SCS for the  soil series to
which the soil belongs. The thickness of the A horizon is
 reduced  in moderately eroded  soils, and may show
 mixing with the B horizon if the soil has been cultivated.
 Rill erosion, the removal of soil through the cutting of
many small, but conspicuous channels, may be evident on
unvegetated soil. In severely eroded soils, most of the
topsoil is missing and gully erosion (channels that cannot
be obliterated by ordinary tillage) may  be  evident. Soils
with slight to no erosion have fully developed A horizons
and surface material showing little evidence of erosion.

-------
       In depressional areas, the thickness of soil that has
accumulated as a result of accelerated erosion can be
measured by finding the top of the natural A horizon,
provided the  eroded material  can  be  differentiated by
color,  texture, and  other soil  features. Surface  con-
taminated soil preferentially concentrates in such areas,
and special sampling may be desirable.
       Use of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) or
its revised version (RUSLE) to estimate erosion potential
from a site  requires the following field  observations: (1)
slope gradient and length (see Section 2.2 above) and (2)
vegetation (Section 2.5). The soil credibility factor (K) can
usually be obtained from SCS  soil  series interpretation
sheets. If classification of a soil is uncertain, the K factor
can be estimated using  soil erodibility nomographs (SCS,
1983).  The following soil properties must be described or
estimated to use these  soil  nomographs: (1)  percent silt
plus very fine sand, (2) percent sand  (0.10 to 2.0 mm), (3)
percent organic matter (see Section  3.3.1), (4) soil struc-
ture (see Section 3.1.5a), and (5) permeability class (see
Section 3.2.4).
       EPA's  ESES defines soil erodibility classes based
on estimated annual soil loss, using the  USLE or RUSLE,
as follows:
       Severe: >10 metric tons/hectare.
       Moderate: 2.5 to 10 metric tons/hectare.
       Slight: <2.5 metric tons/hectare.

2.4   Surface Runoff
       Surface runoff  potential is important for evaluating
the potential for transport of contaminants at the soil sur-
face to surface streams or water bodies.
       SCS defines six runoff classes that can be used for
qualitative comparison of runoff  from  different locations at
a site (See Table 2-1). Placement requires measurement
of the slope  gradient (see Section 2.2) and measurement
or estimation of the saturated hydraulic  conductivity (see
Section 3.2.4).
      Computation of  runoff by SCS's Curve Number
Method requires placement of soils in hydrologic groups
Site Characteristics                                     23

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Site Characteristics                                     24
based on saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat—see Sec-
tion 3.2.4) and water table characteristics  (Section 3.2.2).
If the hydrologic class of the soil of interest is not known, it
can be determined using Table 2-2.

2.5   Vegetation
       Vegetation at a site serves as an indicator of site
history and site productivity and is a major determinant in
erosion potential at a site (see Section 2.3).
       Features observed and noted should include the
nature,  kind, extent, and  distribution of plants and plant
cover. The charts in Figure 3-3 (Section 3.1.2) for estimat-
ing areal percentages of coarse fragments and  mottles
also can be used to estimate amount of vegetative cover.
Vogel (1987) describes more precise methods for measur-
ing vegetation cover such as the point-quadrant method,
rated microplots, and line intercepts.
       Stunted vegetation or discolored leaves may be an
indication of toxic effects from contaminants in the soil. In
heavy metal contaminated sites, sampling of vegetation
along with soil  may be  desirable  to assess exposure
through bioaccumulation.
       EPA's ESES defines qualitative vegetation  classes
as follows:
       Dense: Site completely covered with vegetation of
       predominant  forms or varying composition  and
       species, usually with slow temporal variability.
       Scattered to sparse: Plant cover, aerial,  or soil
       surface vegetation, is intermittent or infrequent  at
       site.
       Absent: No visible macrovegetation can  be ob-
       served, but some  scattered soil vegetation cover
       (e.g.,  algal-lichen  crusts   or mosses) may  be
       evident.

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Table 2-1. Index Surface Runoff Classes
Slope
Gradient
(%)
Concave***
<1
1-5
5-10
10-20
>20
Runoff Classes*
Ksat Class"
VH
N
N
N
VL
VL
L
H
N
N
VL
L
L
M
MH
N
N
L
M
M
H
ML
N
L
M
H
H
VH
L
N
M
H
VH
VH
VH
VL
N
H
VH
VH
VH
VH
* Abbreviations: Negligible-N; very low-VL; low-L; medium-M;
high-H; and very high-VH. These classes are relative and not
quantitative.
** See Section 3.2.4 for definitions. Assumes that the lowest
value for the soil occurs at <0.5 m. If the lowest value occurs
at 0.5 to 1 m, reduce runoff by one class. If it occurs at >1 m,
then use the lowest saturated hydraulic conductivity <1 m. VL
Ksat is assumed for soils with seasonal shallow or very shal-
low free water.
*** Areas from which no or very little water escapes by flow
over the ground surface.


Table 2-2.  Criteria for Placement of Hydrologic Soil Groups
Criteria*
Soil
Group*
A
B
C
D


Ksat
>55
5.5 to 55
.55 to 5.5
<.55


Free Water Depth/Duration
DV**(>1.5m)
DorDV(>1 m)
>S (>0.5 cm)
S or SV (0 to 0.5 m);
T through P
* The criteria are guidelines only. They are based on the as-
sumption that the minimum saturated hydraulic conductivity
occurs within the uppermost 0.5 m. If the minimum occurs
between 0.5 and 1 m, then Ksat for the purpose of placement
is increased one class. If the minimum occurs below 1 m,
then the value for the soil is based on values above 1 m
using the rules previously given.
** See Section 3.2.2 for meaning of abbreviations.
Site Characteristics                                         25

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Site Characteristics                                    26
2,6   Macro- and Mesofauna
       Soil  macrofauna,  such  as burrowing  animals,
earthworms, and larger insects that can be measured in
centimeters, and mesofauna,  such as smaller  mollusks
and arthropods, affect soil profiles by mixing, changing,
and moving soil material. The activities of soil macro- and
mesofauna tend to increase the secondary permeability of
soil horizons and thus provide preferential paths for sub-
surface migrations of contaminants.
       Surface features that animals produce include ter-
mite mounds, ant hills, heaps  of excavated earth beside
burrows, the openings of burrows, paths, feeding grounds,
and earthworm or other castings.
       These features can be described in terms of  (1)
number of structures per unit area, (2)  proportionate area
occupied,  and  (3)  volume  of  aboveground structures.
Krotovinas, irregular tubular streaks of soil  material with
contrasting color or texture, resulting from filling of tunnels
made by burrowing animals, may be observed in soil pits.
       Where soils are contaminated with heavy metals,
collection  of  soil  macro- or  mesofauna  for  chemical
analysis may provide evidence of bioaccumulation for ex-
posure assessment, provided that similar species on near-
by uncontaminated soils with similar characteristics can be
obtained for comparison.
       Macro-  and mesofauna are described for EPA's
ESES by species and abundance per unit area as follows:

  Class                      Number/m2

  Macrofauna
     Many                       >10
     Common                    5-10
     Few                         1-5
     None                        0
  Mesofauna
     Many                     >100,000
     Common                 100-100,000
     Few                       10-100
     None                       <10

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Chapter 3
 Field  Description
 and
 Analysis of Soils
   This chapter presents field test and soil description pro-
   cedures that can be done visually or with simple field
equipment. Appendix D of Cameron (1991) identifies ref-
erences where  more detailed information can  be  found
about  more  complex  field  procedures for measuring
specific soil parameters.
       For nonengineering applications, the soil taxonomy
of the U.S. Soil Conservation Service is the most widely
used system for describing and classifying soils. The basic
reference  on this system is Soil Taxonomy, Agricultural
Handbook 436  (Soil Survey  Staff, 1975). Revisions and
amendments are periodically published in looseleaf form
as Soil Taxonomy Notes. The most recent edition  of the
pocket-sized Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff,
1990) is the best concise reference source on classifica-
tion of soils, and is recommended for use in the field (price
and ordering information are given in  the reference sec-
tion).
      Unfortunately, the most up-to-date  reference for
current SCS soil description procedures, a major revision
of Agricultural Handbook 18, Soil Survey Manual  (Soil
Survey Staff,  1991), is not  yet readily available. Most of
the soil description procedures in this guide are taken from
the latest version of the new manual. Other important ref-
erences for field  investigation procedures  for  noncon-
taminant  parameters are published by SCS (1971 and
1984). Procedures from the geologic literature for descrip-
tion of unconsolidated material below the weathering zone
are also included in this chapter.
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                     27

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Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       28
3.1   Soil Physical Parameters
       A  number  of  soil physical  parameters such  as
coarse fragments,  pores, mottled colors, roots, lateral fea-
tures, and mineral concentrations require area measure-
ments on  the  ground surface or the wall of a pit  for
conversion to  volume or  weight  percentages.  Section
3.1.2 includes charts  for estimating proportions of a fea-
ture at the surface, but if more accurate measurements
are desired, traverses on an arbitrary grid can be used.
       Coarse  screening such as  hardware  cloth or  rat
wire with  a  1/2-inch mesh  makes  a convenient and
durable grid for small and medium objects as large as 2 to
4 inches (5 to 10 cm). A screen 1 foot square is suitable
for most situations. Marking every fifth, tenth, or twentieth
wire in each direction, or at intersections, with paint makes
counting easier. When the screen is tacked over the area
to be measured, a small wire pointer pushed  into the soil
at the intersection  of each wire allows the most accurate
counting  of features in the grid. SCS (1971, Section I2.7)
provides  additional guidance on making linear and volume
measurements.
       Form 3-1 provides a sample form for description of
a soil profile. This  form follows the sequence of features
for description of soil horizons in this chapter. Standard
forms used by SCS and  coding  sheets  for computer
programs,  which"  automatically prepare  narrative soil
profile descriptions, can also be used.
      A dug pit  that provides a  lateral view of soil
horizons  is best  for  accurate and detailed  soil  profile
description. Thin-walled tube  samplers are the next best
alternative. Appendix A.1  outlines  procedures for soil
descriptions  using  tube  samplers  and  augers. Com-
prehensive descriptions using one or two pits, along with
less  detailed tube/auger sampler  descriptions at  each
sampling  site,  would  probably provide the  maximum
amount of useful data.

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Form 3-1.  Soil Profile and Related Information
Soil Type or Designation
Date	ID No.
Described by	
Location
                             Elevation
Wind Speed/Direction (2.1.1) _
Other Weather Conditions (2.1)
Parent Material	
Topographic Position (2.2)
   Slope Gradient	Slope Length
   Slope Shape	Slope Aspect
Erosion (2.3)	
Surface Runoff Class (2.4)
Vegetation (2.5)	
Macro- and Mesofauna (2.6)_
Engineering Properties (3.1.7)
   USCS Texture
   Shear Strength	Corrosivity_
Soil Temperature/Regime (3.1.8)	
Water Table (3.3.3)
   Depth (Max/Min)	
   Thickness, if Perched
   Duration
Drainage Class (3.2.4)
Infiltration (3.2.5)	
Redox Potential (3.3.5)	
Electrical Conductivity (3.3.6)
Fertility Potential (3.3.9)	
Soil Classification
Additional Notes
                                                 (Continued)
          ^
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                          29

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                           30
 x>HwXw:vX*:vM-:*:w-X':w
 Form 3-1.  (Continued)

 Horizon (3.1.1)*       	     	     	
    Depth             	     	     	
    Boundary         	     	     	
 Texture (3.1.2)        	     	     	
    Fines (<2 mm)     	     	     	
    >2 mm %         	     	     	
    >2 mm description 	     	     	
 Color (3.1.3)          	     	     	
    Moist             	     	     	
    Dry                	     	     	
 Mottles (3.1.3)        	     	     	
    Color             	     	     	
    Description        	     	     	
 Pores (3.1.4)         	     	     	
 Structure (3.1.5a)     	     	     	
 Roots(3.1.5c)        	     	     	
 Surface Features
 (3.1.5d)              	     	     	
 Sedimentary Features
 (3.1.5e)              	     	     	
 Consistency (3.1.6b)   	     	     	
    Moist/Dry         	     	     	
    Cementation       	     	     	
 Bulk Density (3.1.6c)   	     	     	
 Compaction (3.1.6e)   	     	     	
 Water State (3.2.1)    	     	     	
 AWC (3.2.3)          	     	     	
 Ksat (3.2.4)            	     	     	
OM (3.3.1)            	     	     	
Odor (3.3.2)          	     	     	
CEC (3.3.3)           	     	     	
pH (3.3.4)             	     	     	
Clay Minerals (3.3.7)   	     	     	
Carbonates (3.3.8)     	     	     	
Other Minerals (3.3.8)  	     	     	
Microbiota(3.3.10)     	     	     	

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3. 1. 1  Soil Horizons
       Table 3-1 provides a key to SCS's 1981 system for
designating master horizons, layers, and transitional
horizons, along with the lower case letters that are used
for subordinate distinctions within horizons. If an SCS soil
survey of the site is available, the soil series descriptions
should be  reviewed for a general idea of the types of
horizons likely to be encountered. SCS soil surveys pub-
lished prior to around 1984 contain soil profile descriptions
using the 1962 system. Table 3-2 compares the 1962 and
1981 systems  and  provides approximate equivalencies
where nomenclature has changed.
       In glaciated  areas, it may  be useful to make more
precise designations for the  C horizon. Table 3-3 shows
subdivisions and diagnostic characteristics of four types of
C horizons recognized by the Illinois State Geological Sur-
vey. If this notation  is used in the description, it should be
clearly noted on the field sheet.
       Key  features  to record are the depth and  charac-
teristics of the boundary between horizons. The following nota-
tion can be used to describe horizon boundaries or contacts:
       Distinctness
       a  —  abrupt (<2 cm)
       c  —  clear (2-5 cm)
       g  —  gradual (5-1 5  cm)
       d  —  diffuse (>5 cm)
       Topography
       s  —  smooth (nearly a plain)
       c  —  clear (pockets with width > depth)
       i   —  irregular (pockets with depth > width)
       b  —  broken (discontinuous)
       A disturbed  soil has been  truncated or manipulated
to the extent that its principle pedogenic characteristics have
been severely altered or can no longer be recognized.
       A buried soil, or paleosol,  is covered by an alluvial,
loessial,  or other depositional surface  mantle of  more
recent  material, and usually lies below the weathering
profile of the soil at the land  surface. As noted in  Section
3.1 .5, buried soils may have high secondary porosity com-
pared to  materials above and below it, forming a potential
zone for preferential movement of contaminants.
     :::::::^^^                                  ..   .. ..
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       31

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                         32
 s*:*:*:*:*:*:*^*:*^

 Table 3-1.  Definitions and Designation Nomenclature for
 USDA Soil Horizons and Layers (Adapted from SSSA, 1987)

 Master Horizons and Layers
 O Horizons—Layers dominated by organic material, except lim-
   nic layers that are organic.
 A Horizons—Mineral horizons that formed at the surface or
   below an O horizon and (1) are characterized by an ac-
   cumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with
   the mineral fraction and not dominated by properties charac-
   teristic of E or B horizons; or (2) have properties resulting
   from cultivation, pasturing, or similar kinds of disturbance.
 E Horizons—Mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss
   of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some combination of
   these, leaving a concentration of sand  and silt particles of
   quartz or other resistant materials.
 B Horizons—Horizons that formed below an A, E, or O horizon
   and are dominated by (1) carbonates, gypsum, or silica,
   alone or in combination; (2) evidence of removal of car-
   bonates; (3) concentrations of sesquioxides; (4) alterations
   that form silicate clay; (5) formation of granular, blocky, or
   prismatic structure; or (6) a combination of these.
 C Horizons—Horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock,  that
   are little affected by pedogenic processes and lack properties
   of O, A, E, or B horizons. Most are mineral layers, but limnic
   layers, whether organic or inorganic are included.
 R Layers—Hard bedrock including granite, basalt, quartzite, and
   indurated limestone or sandstone that is sufficiently coherent
   to make hand digging impractical.
Transitional Horizons
Two kinds of transitional horizons occur. In one, the properties
   of an overlying or underlying  horizon are superimposed on
   properties of the other horizon throughout the transition zone
   (i.e., AB, BC, etc.). In the other, distinct parts that are charac-
   teristic of one master horizon are recognizable and  enclose
   parts characteristic of a second recognizable master horizon
   (i.e., E/B, B/E, and B/C).
Alphabetical Designation of Horizons
Capital letters designate master horizons (see definitions above).
Lowercase letters are used as suffixes to indicate specific char-
   acteristics of the master horizon (see definitions below). The
   lowercase letter immediately follows the capital letter
   designation.
                                                (Continued)

-------
Table 3-1.  (Continued)
Numeric Designation of Horizons
Arabic numerals are used as (1) suffixes to indicate vertical sub-
   divisions within a horizon and (2) prefixes to indicate discon-
   tinuities.
Prime Symbol
The prime symbol (') is used to identify the lower of two horizons
   having identical letter designations that are separated by a
   horizon of a different kind. If three horizons have identical
   designations, a double prime (") is used to  indicate the
   lowest.
Subordinate Distinctions within Horizons and Layers
a  — Highly decomposed organic material where rubbed fiber
     content averages <1 /6 of the volume.
b  — Identifiable buried genetic horizons in a mineral soil.
c  — Concretions or hard nonconcretionary nodules of iron,
     aluminum, manganese, or titanium cement.
e  — Organic material of intermediate decomposition in which
     rubbed fiber content is 1/6 to 2/5 of the volume.
f   — Frozen soil in which the horizon or layer contains
     permanent ice.
g  — Strong gleying in which iron has been reduced and
     removed during soil formation or in which iron has been
     preserved in a reduced state because of saturation with
     stagnant water.
h  — Illuvial accumulation of organic matter in  the form of
     amorphous, dispersible organic matter-sesquioxide
     complexes, where sesquioxides are in very small quantities
     and the value and chroma of the horizons are <3.
i   — Slightly decomposed organic material in  which rubbed fiber
     content is more than about 2/5 of the volume.
k  — Accumulation of pedogenic carbonates, commonly calcium
     carbonate.
m  — Continuous or nearly continuous cementation or induration
     of the soil matrix by carbonates (km), silica (qm), iron (sm),
     gypsum (ym), carbonates and silica (kqm), or salts more
     soluble than gypsum (zm).
n  — Accumulation of sodium on the exchange complex sufficient
     to yield a morphological appearance of a natric horizon.

                                                (Continued)
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                         33

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Field Description and Analysis of Soils                          34
ti$#H8^^

Table 3-1. (Continued)

o — Residual accumulation of sesquioxides.
p — Plowing or other disturbance of the surface layers by
      cultivation, pasturing, or similar uses.
q — Accumulation of secondary silica.
r — Weathered or soft bedrock including saprolite; partly
      consolidated soft sandstone, siltstone, or shale; or dense till
      that roots penetrate only along joint planes and which is
      sufficiently incoherent to permit hand digging with a spade.
s — Illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides and organic matter in
      the form of illuvial, amorphous dispersible organic matter-
      sesquioxide complexes, if both organic matter and
      sesquioxide components are significant and the value and
      chroma of the horizon are >3.
t  — Accumulation of silicate clay that either has formed in the
      horizon and is subsequently translocated or has been
      moved into it by illuviation.
v — Plinthite which is composed of iron-rich, humus-poor,
      reddish material that is firm or very firm when moist and that
      hardens irreversibly when exposed to the atmosphere
      under repeated wetting and drying.
w — Development of color or structure in a horizon but with little
      or no apparent illuvial accumulation of materials.
x — Fragic or f ragipan characteristics that result in genetically
      developed firmness, brittleness, or high bulk density.
y —  Accumulation of gypsum.
z — Accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum.

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Table 3-2. Comparison of the 1962 and 1981 USDA Soil
Horizon Designation Systems

Alphabetical Designation of Horizons
Capital letters designate master horizons in both systems, but
   there are some changes in specific letter designations (see
   below).
Lowercase letters are used as suffixes to indicate specific char-
   acteristics of the master horizon in both systems, but there
   are some changes in specific letter designations (see below).
   In the 1981  system, the lowercase letter always immediately
   follows the capital letter designation.
Numeric Designation of Horizons
1962 System: Arabic numerals used as suffixes to (1) indicate
   kind of O, A, or B horizon, and (2) indicate vertical sub-
   divisions of a horizon; Roman numerals used as prefixes to
   indicate lithologic discontinuities.
1981 System: Arabic numerals used as suffixes to indicate verti-
   cal subdivisions within a horizon and as prefixes to indicate
   discontinuities. Their use to indicate kind of O, A, or B
   horizon has been eliminated.
Prime Symbol
1962 System: The prime used to identify the lower sequum of a
   soil having two sequa (horizon sequences), although not for
   a buried soil.
1981 System: The prime used to identify the lower of two
   horizons having identical letter designations that are
   separated by a horizon of a different kind. If three horizons
   have identical designations, a double prime is used on the
   lowest.

                                                (Continued)
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                         35

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils            ......... ................
     K.«SK.^
 Table 3-2.  (Continued)
Comparisons of Horizon Designations (see Table 3-1 for
definitions)
Master Horizons
Distinctions
1962
0
O1
O2
A
A1
A2
A3
AB
A&B
AC
B
B1
B&A
B2
B3
C
R

IIB23t



1981
O
Oi.Oe
Oa.Oe
A
A
E
ABorEB
—
E/B
AC
B
BAorBE
B/E
BorBw
BC or CB
C
R

2B13



Subordinate Horizon
1962
—
b
en
—
f
g
h
—
ca
m
sa
—
P
si
r
ir
t
—
—
X
cs
sa
1981
a
b
c
e
f
g
h
i
k
m
n
0
P
q
r
s
t
V
w
X
y
z
Source: Adapted from Guthrie and Witty (1982).

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Table 3-3.  Subdivisions of the C Horizon Used in Illinois
Horizon  Mineralogy Carbonates  Color
                                   Structure
C1
Strongly
altered
Leached
Uniform,
mottled
or
stained
C2
Altered
Unleached  Uniform,
            mottled,
            or
            stained
 C3
C4
Partly       Unleached   Uniform;
altered                  rare
                        stained
Unaltered   Unleached   Uniform
Some soil
structure, peds
with clay films;
structure of
parent material—
blocky; layered,
or massive-
dominant; often
porous
Less soil,
structure, clay
films along
joints; structure
of parent
material—blocky;
layered, or
massive—
dominant;
often porous
Massive, layered,
or very large
blocky;
conchoidal
fractures; dense
Massive or
layered,
conchoidal
fractures; dense
Source: Follmer et al. (1979).
Field Description and Analysis of Soils
                                                 37

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Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       38
    •.-• v1.-         v-.              v*-1    •"  -,f  f. •:••   •: •"   '

3.1.2  Soil Texture Classes
       Soil texture, the relative proportions of silt-, sand-,
and clay-sized particles (also called  particle-size distribu-
tion),  is an important property from which many other soil
parameters  can  be estimated or inferred. This section
focuses on  the USDA soil texture  classification system.
Many other classification systems have been developed,
but of these, only the ASTM  (Unified) system,  which is
oriented toward soil engineering applications, is covered in
this field guide (see Section 3.1 .la).
       Figure 3-1  shows the USDA soil texture triangle.
Classification is based on the fine fraction (less than 2
mm),  with modifiers applied where coarse fragments are
more  then 15 percent by volume. For example, a sample
that plots on the texture triangle  as  a sand,  contains 40
percent rock fragments, which are mostly around 30 mm in
diameter. Using Table 3-4, the adjective modifier for 35 to
60 percent coarse fragments is the dominant rock plus the
word  "very." The SCS  adjective for coarse fragments
around 30 mm is gravelly or coarse gravelly. Thus, the full
texture description would be "very coarse gravelly sand."
The noun used to describe the coarse fragments is peb-
bles or coarse pebbles. Table 3-4 also shows  simplified
descriptors for the >2 mm fraction based on the Wentworth
scale, which is more commonly used by geologists.
      Sandy soil classes are often divided into  subclass-
es according to the coarseness of the sand grains. Figure
3-2 shows the criteria for subclasses of sandy soils. Table
3-4 summarizes abbreviations and designations for record-
ing USDA soil texture in the  field.  Figure 3-3 provides
charts for estimating percentages of coarse fragments in a
soil horizon. Field determinations based on estimated per-
centages of  clay and sand should be verified by laboratory
analysis of samples.
      The following general groupings of texture classes
are sometimes used (see Table 3-4 for abbreviations):
      Sandy (light or coarse)—s, Is
      Silty  (medium)—si, sil, sicl
      Loamy (medium)—si, I, cl, scl (sil, si, sicl may be
      included in this category)
      Clayey (heavy or fine)—sc, sic, c

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100
                       40    50    60
                        PERCENT SAND
                                            80
                                                 90   100
   Using Materials Less Than 2.0 mm in Size. If
   approximately 20% or more of the soil material is
   larger than 2.0 mm, the texture term includes a modifier.
   Example: gravelly sandy loam.


   Example of Use: A soil material with 35% clay, 30% silt,
   and 35% sand is a clay loam.
Figure 3-1.  USDA soil texture triangle.

ffiiSSBiKiMHSB^^
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       39

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                         40
 Table 3-4,  Abbreviations and Designations for USDA Soi!
 Texture Classes (including coarse fraction)

 <2 mm Fraction          >2 mm Fraction (SCS)

 (See texture triangla,      Adjective modifier
 Figure 3-1 )               (see text explanation)

s — sand
Is — loamy sand
si — sandy loam
I — loam
si — silt
sil — silt loam
cl — clay loam
sicl — silly clay
loam
sc — sandy clay
sic — silty clay
c — clay
<15% none
<15-35% dominant rock
35-60% dominant rock + very
>60% (>5% fines) dominant
rock + extremely
>60% (<5% fines) dominant
rock adjective
Other Descriptive Features
of >2 mm fraction
Percent
Roundness
Mineralogy/rock type
Sorting
Rock Descriptors for >2 mm Fraction (SCS)
                                          Shape/Size
                                    rounded, subrounded,
                                     angular, or irregular
  Adjective/Noun                        (diameter, mm)

g    — gravelly/pebbles                      2-76
fg   — fine gravelly/fine pebbles               2-5
mg  — medium gravelly/medium pebbles       5-20
eg   — coarse gravelly/coarse pebbles        20-76
k    — cobbly/cobbles                       76-250
st   — stony/stones                        250-600
b    — bouldery/boulders                    >600
                                        Flat (long, mm)
st   — stony/stones                        280-600
b    — bouldery/boulders                    >600
ch   — channery/channers                   2-150
fig   — flaggy/flagstones                    150-380
                                                (Continued)

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Table 3-4. (Continued)
Simplified Descriptors for >2 mm Fraction (IDEM)
gn —
pb -
fpb —
cpb —
cb —
b —
granules
pebbles
fine pebbles
coarse pebbles
cobbles
boulders
2-4
4-64
4-16
16-64
64-256
>256
Source: Soil Survey Staff (1991) and IDEM (1988).
       The  USDA soil  taxonomy  defines  particle-size
classes for differentiation of the  soils at the family level
(Soil Survey Staff 1975,1990) as described below:
       Fragmental—Stones, cobbles, gravel,  and very
       coarse sand particles with too little fine earth to fill
       some  of  the  interstices  larger  than 1  mm  in
       diameter.
       Skeletal—Rock fragments make up 35 percent or
       more by volume.  The dominant fine earth fraction
       (sandy, loamy, or clayey) is used as a modifier.
       Sandy—Texture of fine  earth is sand or loamy
       sand with  <50 percent very fine sand;  <35 percent
       clay; <35 percent rocks.
       Loamy—Texture of fine earth is very fine sand or
       finer; <35  percent clay; <35 percent  rocks. Sub-
       divisions include coarse-loamy, fine-loamy, coarse-
       silty, and fine-silty.
       Clayey—Texture of fine earth is >35 percent clay;
       <35 percent rocks. Subdivisions include  fine and
       very fine.

3.1.3  Soil Color
       Soil color  is described  using Munsell Soil Color
charts (available  from Munsell  Color Company,  2441  N.
Calvert St., Baltimore, MD 21218). Color is usually a good
indicator of  the  redox status (see Section  3.3.5) of  a
horizon (uniform high chroma colors indicate oxidizing con-
ditions; uniform low chroma colors usually indicate reduc-
ing   conditions;   mixed   chromas   indicate   variable

Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      41

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils
42

Basic
soil class
«
?
<3
Loamy Sands
Sandy Loams
Subclass
Coarse
sand
Sand
Fine
sand
Very fine
sand
Loamy
coarse
sand
Loamy
sand
Loamy
fine sand
Loamy
very fine
sand
Coarse
sandy
loam
Sandy
loam
Fine
sandy
oam
Very tine
sandy
oam
Soil separates
Very
coarse
sand, 2.0-
1.0 mm.
Coarse
sand, 1.0-
0.5 mm.
25% or more
Medium
sand, 0.5-
0.25 mm.
Less
than 50%
25% or more
L

ass than 25

25% or more
-or-
%

Less
than 50%
25% or more
L(

)ssthan25

25% or more
3
Less
than 25%
Betw
Le
0% or mon
-or-
een 15 and
ss than 15
-or-
%

Less
than 50%
»
-ar
30%
-or-
/„
Fine
sand,
0.25-
0.1 mm.
Less
than 50%
Less
than 50%
50% or
more

Less
than 50%
Less
than 50%
50% or
more

Less
than 50%
d-
Less
than 30%
30% or
more
More th
Very fine
sand, 0.1-
0.05 mm.
Less
than 50%
Less
than 50%
Less
than 50%
50% or
more
Less
than 50%
Less
than 50%
Less
than 50%
50% or
more
Less
than 50%
Less
than 30%
Less
than 30%
30% or
more
an 40%
   "Half of fine sand and very fine sand must be very fine sand.
Figure 3-2.  Percentage of sand sizes in subclasses of
sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam basic texture classes
(Source: Portland Cement Association, 1973).

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     1%
      5%
     15%
                       20%
                                         25%

                   ?.«
      30%
                        40%
                                          50%
Figure 3-3.  Charts for estimating proportions of coarse
fragments and mottles (each fourth of any one square has
the same amount of black).

:*s*:*:*:*K*:itt^
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       43

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Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      44
saturation). In addition, low chroma, low value colors are
often indicative of high organic matter content.
       Dark colors have low value (generally <3) and low
chroma (generally <2). Red colors generally have hues of
10YR  or 2.SYR, and values and chromas >3.  Yellow
colors  generally have values and chromas >6 and hues of
7.5YR, 10YR, or 2.5Y. Brown colors typically have values
from 3 to 6,  chroma from 3 to 5, and hues of 7.5YR or
10YR.  Gray  or whitish colors  may be  of any hue with
chromas <2  and values generally >3. The Munsell Soil
Color charts provide precise descriptors for any soil color
reading.
       The following data  should be recorded  in field
description of color:
       Color name.
       Color notation (chroma, hue, value).
       Water state (moistor dry).
       Physical  state (broken through ped is the stand-
       ard  state. Others  are rubbed  between  fingers
       (moist), or crushed/crushed and smoothed (dry)).
       Soil mottling is usually  an indication of variable
       saturation, and is described according to abun-
       dance, size, and  color  contrast.   Figure  3-3
       provides charts that may help in estimating mottle
       abundance, and Figure 3-4 provides guidance in
       identifying contrast.
       Abbreviations, descriptors, and criteria for descrip-
tion of  mottles are:
       Abundance
       f  —  few(<2%)
       c  —  common (2-20%)
       m —  many(>20%)
       Size
       1  —  fine (<5 mm)
       2  —  medium (5-15 mm)
       3  —  coarse (> 15 mm)
       Contrast (see Figure 3-4)
       f  —  faint (1 or 2 units H,C,V)
       d  —  distinct (2-4 units H,C,V)
       p  —  prominent (4-5 units H,C,V)

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           CONTRAST OF MOTTLES
        For Use with Munseil Color Chart
                       1    23456

                          Change in Chroma
      FAINT-Record as Faint Where Similar, but
              Low Value or Chroma.
CHART DIRECTIONS:
A. Select Change in HUE (None Ref. to Same Page).
B. Record Greatest of VALUE or CHROMA at
 HUE Line Intercept (Faint, Distinct, or Prominent).
Figure 3-4. Guide for designation of mottle contrast.
Field Description and Analysis of Soils
45

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       46
                     *x^^
       Shape (spots, streaks, bands, tongues, tubes)
       Location (inped, exped)
       Boundaries  (sharp — like a  knife  edge; clear-
       colors grade over <2 mm;  diffuse — colors grade
       over >2 mm)

 Color Ignition Test
       An ignition test using 2 or 3  grams of soil can
 provide useful information for interpretation of natural soil
 colors. The equipment and procedures described in Sec-
 tion 3.3.1 for organic matter  should be used, except that
 weighing of  the samples is  not required. The  following
 provides some guidance for interpreting colors:
       Organic matter contributes black, brown, reddish
 (spodic horizons), and grayish colors. It burns away, leav-
 ing a whitish residue if it is the only colored material.
       Minerals such as quartz, which make up the bulk of
 sand and silt-sized particles,  are mostly colorless or pale
 colored to gray. These particles will not change color with
 ignition.  Mineral grains may be cemented with lime  or
 silica or stained with iron oxide,  especially in dry regions.
 SCS (1971, Section  17.1) describes procedures for clean-
 ing mineral surfaces of cement and stains.
       Iron oxides are red,  brown, or yellow.  If browns
 and yellows become  redder and brighter with ignition,
 highly hydrated iron oxide (goethite) is present.
       Ferrous (reduced) iron is indicated by gray, blue,
 or  green colors, and turns  red when  ignited to form
 hematite.
       Manganese oxides form black and purple bodies
 and effervesce  vigorously in  a 5  percent solution  of
 hydrogen peroxide  (See  Section 3.3.8).  Dark reddish
 brown  and dark brown surface soils in the southeastern
 United States usually contain enough manganese oxides
to give a positive reaction to peroxide.

 3.1.4  Soil Porosity
       Laboratory analysis is  required for accurate deter-
 mination of soil porosity, but field description of soil pores
can provide  useful qualitative data for  estimating  per-
 meability and characterization of soil variability at a site.
Johnson et al. (1960)  provides more detailed guidance on
classification and description of soil pores.

-------
      Platy, Granular, or
      Crumb Structure
                                      Roots
Pores
     Very Fine
     (less than 1 mm diameter
                                     vf
                                                      vf
Fine
(1-2 mm diameter)
Medium
2-5 mm diameter)
•
:
•
•
m ^k m
•
      Coarse
      (5-10 mm diameter)
      Very Coarse
      (more than 10 mm diameter)
Figure 3-5. Charts for estimating pore and root size.
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                           47

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       48

       SCS describes pores according to (1) abundance,
 (2) size, (3) distribution within the horizon, and (4) type.
 Figure 3-5 can be used to estimate pore size in the field.
 Below  are  abbreviations,  descriptors,  and  criteria for
 describing pores in the field:
       Abundance           No./Unit
       Classes                  Area
       1  —  few                  <1
       2  —  common            1-5
       3  —  many                >5
       Size Classes         Diameter   Unit Area
       vf   —  very fine      <0.5 mm      1 cm2
       f    —  fine           0.5-2 mm      1 cm2
       m   —  medium         2-5 mm     10 cm2
       cos —  coarse        5-1 Omm     10 cm2
       vcos—  very coarse     >10mm      1 m2
       Distribution within Horizons
       in  —  inped (most roots and pores are
              within peds)
       ex —  exped (most roots and pores follow
              interfaces between peds)
       Types of Pores
       v  —  vesicular (approximately spherical or
              elliptical)
       t   —  tubular (approximately cylindrical and
              elongated)
       i   —  irregular

3.1.5   Zones of Increased
       Porosity/Permeability
       Weathering and other soil-forming processes often
increase the secondary porosity  and permeability of un-
consolidated materials. In addition, the mode of deposition
of unweathered materials may create vertical and lateral
variations  in permeability that should be  described.  In-
creased secondary porosity is usually confined to the zone
of  soil weathering  near  the  surface.  Buried  soils
(paleosols) in glaciated areas represent zones of potential
lateral movement of contaminants due to increased secon-
dary porosity, if underlain by less permeable material.
           i

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       3.1.5a  Soil Structure Grades
       Soil structure is an important feature that affects
the movement of contaminants in soil. Contaminants often
move  preferentially along  the interfaces between  soil
structure units. SCS describes soil structure according to
shape (see Figure 3-6 for illustrations), grade, and size
(see  Figure  3-7  for charts).  Below  are abbreviations,
descriptors, and criteria for describing soil structure in the
field:
       Grade
       0  —
       1  —
       2  —

       3  —
structureless (massive or single grain)
weak (poorly defined individual peds)
moderate (well formed peds, but
not distinct)
strong (durable peds, quite evident in
place; will stand displacement)


Size
vf —
f —
m —
c —
vc —




very fine
fine
medium
coarse
very
coarse


pl-platy
gr-
granular
cr-
crumb
<1 mm
1-2 mm
2-5 mm
5-10 mm
>10 mm

Shape
abk-
angular
blocky
sbk-
subangular
blocky
<5 mm
5-10 mm
1 0-20 mm


cl-
columnar
pr-
prismatic
<10 mm
10-20 mm
20-50 mm
20-50 mm 50-1 00 mm
>50 mm

>100 mm

       Accurate  identification of  columnar or prismatic
structure generally requires a soil pit. Blocky structure can
usually be  identified  in cores  taken from  thin-walled
samplers, but  size  class  cannot always  be accurately
identified. Augers disturb the  soil too  much to allow ac-
curate description of soil structure.

       3.1.5b  Extrastructural Cracks
       Cracks are macroscopic vertical planar voids with
a width much smaller than length and depth, which result
from soil drying. Extrastructural cracks extend beyond the
planar surfaces between soil structural units and represent
Field Description and Analysis of Soils
                                     49

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Field Description and Analysis of Soils
                                                        50
                                      *.*
                                      *
Figure 3-6.  Drawings illustrating some of the types of soil
structure: A, prismatic; B, columnar; C, angular blocky; D,
subangular blocky; E, platy; and F, granular.

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                                        Shape
        10
 20
Platy
Granular Columnar
Blockv
mm Crumb ' Prismatic
2
3
4
5
7

10
12

20
50
fine

medium


coarse




coarse

very
fine


fine


medium

coarse



very
fine



fine

medium
Figure 3-7.  Charts for estimating size class of different
structural units (see also Figure 3-5 for platy, granular, and
crumb structures).
Field Description and Analysis of Soils
51

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       52
 major potential channels for increasing infiltration of water
 during precipitation and preferential contaminant move-
 ment into the soil.  The presence of irreversible cracks in
 the soil increases ponded infiltration (see Section 3.2.5).
       SCS  define four major types of extra-structural
 cracks:
       Surface-initiated  reversible cracks form  as a
       result of drying from the surface downward. They
       close after  relatively slight  surficial  wetting and
       have little influence on ponded infiltration rates.
       Surface-initiated irreversible cracks form  from
       freeze-thaw action  and other processes, and do
       not close completely when rewet. They extend to
       the depth that frost action has occurred, and act to
       increase the ponded infiltration rates.
       Subsurface-initiated reversible  cracks  form  in
       subsoils  with a high shrink-swell potential as the
       soil dries from field capacity. They close in a matter
       of days if the horizon becomes moderately moist or
       wet. They extend to the surface (unless the surface
       horizon does not permit the propagation of cracks),
       and increase ponded infiltration and  rates of soil
       evaporation.
       Subsurface-initiated irreversible cracks are per-
       manently present in the subsurface.

Tests for Crack Characterization
       A crack index value may be obtained by using a
blunt wire, approximately 2 mm in diameter. More detailed
characterization of  cracks can be accomplished by pour-
ing loose sand into  the crack and excavating  after wetting
and after the crack has closed.
       Penetrant cracks are 15 cm or more in depth as
measured by an inserted wire. Surface-connected cracks
occur at the ground surface or are covered by up to 10 to
15 cm of soil material that has very high or high saturated
hydraulic conductivity with soft, very  friable, or loose con-
sistency.  Surface   connected  cracks increase  ponded
infiltration.
       Crack development  is primarily  associated  with
clayey soils and is  most  pronounced in high  shrink-swell
soils (see Section 3.1.7d).

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       3.1.5c   Roots
       The penetration of plant  roots into  the  soil in-
creases the secondary porosity of soil, and, after the plant
dies and the root decomposes, leaves channels for more
rapid flow of water through the soil. The absence  of roots
in the near  surface  is  also an indication  of reduced
porosity/permeability.
       A soil pit is required  to  accurately describe soil
roots.  SCS conventions  for describing roots in soil are
similar to those for soil pore description, although the
criteria for abundance and size classes are different from
those for pores. These classes are described below:
       Abundance           No./Unit
       Classes                  Area
       1  —  few                  <1
       v1 —  very few           <0.2
       ml —  moderately few    0.2-1
       2  —  common            1-5
       3  —  many                >5
                                             Unit
       Size Classes         Diameter       Area
       vf   —   very fine      <0.5 mm      1 cm2
       f    —   fine         0.5-2 mm      1 cm2
       m   —   medium       2-5 mm     10 cm2
       cos —   coarse       5-1 Omm     10 cm2
       vcos—   very coarse   >10mm      1 m2
       Distribution within Horizons
       in  —  inped (most roots are within peds)
       ex —  exped (most roots follow interfaces
              between peds)
       Figure 3-5 provides charts for estimating root size.

       3.1.5d   Surface Features
       Surface or lateral  features such as clay films and
silt coatings are often indicators of areas of increased per-
meability in the soil. Stress formations, on the other hand,
are good indicators of active shrinking and swelling of
clays in the soil.  SCS describes lateral features according
to (1) kind, (2) amount, (3) distinctness, and  (4) location.
Section  13.1  in  SCS (1971)  provides  more detailed
guidance on the observation of features on ped faces.  A
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      53

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       54

 stereoscopic microscope illuminated by a high-intensity
 lamp is  useful for more detailed observation of lateral
 features. Criteria for descriptors of lateral features are as
 follows:
       Kind              Amount
       Coatings          vf  —   very few (<5%)
       Clay films         f   —   few (5-25%)
       Clay bridges       c  —   common (25-50%)
          Sand           m  —   many (>50%)
          Silt
          Other
       Stress formations
          Pressure faces
          Slickensides
       Distinctness
       Faint—Requires 10 power magnification; little con-
       trast in properties with material.
       Distinct—Detectable  without  magnification   al-
       though magnifier or other tests may be required for
       positive identification.  Contrast in properties with
       adjacent material evident.
       Prominent—Conspicuous    without    magnifier;
       properties contrast sharply with adjacent material.
       Location
       Surfaces of peds, channels, pores, primary par-
       ticles  or  grains, soil fragments,  rock fragments,
       nodules, or concretions.

       3.1.5e Sedimentary Features
       Sedimentary  features  in   unweathered  uncon-
solidated  materials often allow inferences to be made
about the depositional history of the material and, when
combined with particle-size distribution data, assist in the
location of zones of more rapid lateral movement of con-
taminants.  The main features described  are  type  and
orientation. The following types and orientations are taken
from the Indiana Department of Environmental Manage-
ment guidelines for description of unconsoiidated material
at hazardous  waste sites (IDEM, 1988):

-------
       Type
       (describe thickness)      Orientation
       1 — bedding/lamination  ver  —  vertical
       2 — cross-stratification   hor  —  horizontal
       3 — deformation         obi  —  oblique
             in bedding
       4 — bedding/surface
             structures
       5 — fossils/bioturbation
       6 — massive
             (no structure)

3.1.6  Zones of Reduced
       Porosity/Permeability
       Low-permeability soil or other horizons in uncon-
solidated material inhibit the downward movement of con-
taminants. Ground water tends to perch above such zones
and transport contaminants laterally. Soil features indicat-
ing such  zones  include  (1)  slowly permeable genetic
horizons, (2) very firm and very hard consistency classes,
(3) high bulk density,  (4)  root  restricting layers, and (5)
high penetration resistance.

       3.1.6a  Genetic Horizons
       Fragipans  and  cemented or indurated horizons
formed by  the precipitation  of carbonates,  silica, iron
oxides, or other minerals are distinctive features of certain
soil series.  Determination of degree of cementation re-
quires wetting the sample for at least an hour (see 3.1.6b).
       There are substantial problems in the field iden-
tification of fragipans. Witty and Knox (1989) suggest the
following essential characteristics of a fragipan:
1.     One  or more of the subhorizons  are  brittle at  or
       near  field capacity throughout the subhorizon or at
       least  in  any  large  prismatic structural units that
       have horizontal  dimensions of 10 cm or more and
       constitute 60 percent or more of the volume.
2.     Air-dried fragments of 5 to 10 cm in size from any
       part of the horizon slake or fracture when placed in
       water.
        ^
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      55

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       56
 tt'ttx-x-W'X'K'X'K^M'X'f^^

 3.     Roots  are  virtually  absent,  except  in  vertical
       streaks,  between  any  large  prismatic structural
       units that have horizontal dimensions of 10 cm or
       more and that constitute 60 percent or more of the
       volume.
 4.     There is evidence of pedogenesis in the form of
       mottles,  clay films, or vertical streaks that define
       large prisms.
       Many or all fragipans also exhibit  one or  more of
 the following characteristics:
 1.     Relatively low vertical saturated hydraulic conduc-
       tivity (slow or very slow permeability), as measured
       or as revealed by evidence of perched water in the
       form of mottles, an E horizon, or seasonal seepage
       immediately above the pan.
 2.     High bulk density (commonly <35 percent porosity
       of the  fine-earth  fraction)  relative to overlying
       horizons.
 3.     Large prisms defined by vertical streaks that are
       arranged in a polygonal pattern  on a horizontal
       exposure.
       Both  vertical  and  horizontal  exposure  of  the
 horizon is required for complete description of a fragipan.

       3.1.6b   Rupture Resistance
                (Consistency)
       Rupture resistance, also called consistence or con-
 sistency, is a readily observed feature in the field. Terms
 used to describe rupture resistance vary depending on the
 moisture content of the sample tested (see Table 3-5).
 The very firm (moist) and very hard (dry)  classes, and
 those that are firmer or harder, are indicative of reduced
 porosity/permeability. The  footnotes to Table 3-5 describe
 the procedure for  estimating rupture  resistance classes.
 SCS recommends  practice  with  scales to  gain a more
 precise tactile sense of the transition between the different
 classes.
       Cementation Test. Degree of cementation can be
 estimated by applying the rupture resistance tests in Table
3-5 to an air-dried specimen that has then been placed in
water  for at  least an  hour. Terms used to describe

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 Table 3-5.  Rupture Resistance (Consistency) Classes
 Moist
 (>DS*)
Dry
(DM, DV*)
Conditions of Failure**
Stress
Applied***
Loose
Very
friable
Friable
Firm
Very
firm

Extremely  Very
firm        hard
Rigid
Very
rigid
Loose     Specimen not obtainable      —
Soft       Fails under very slight       <8N
           force applied slowly
           between thumb and
           forefinger
Slightly    Fails under slight force       8-20N
hard       applied slowly between
           thumb and forefinger
Hard       Fails under moderate        20-40N
           force applied slowly
           between thumb and
           forefinger
           Fails under strong force      40-80N
           applied slowly between
           thumb and forefinger
           Cannot be failed between    80-1 SON
           thumb and forefinger but
           can be by applying
           pressure slowly with
           hands; fails if placed
           on a hard surface and
           gentle force applied
           underfoot
Extremely  Cannot be failed in hand,     160-800N
hard       but can be crushed or
           broken underfoot by the
           full body weight applied
           slowly
Rigid       Cannot be failed underfoot    800N-3J
           by full body weight but
           can be by  <3J blow
Very       Cannot be failed by blow      >3J
rigid       of 3J
Source: Adapted from Soil Survey Staff (1991).
*See Table 3-8 for definitions of abbreviations.
"Standard specimens should be block-like and 25 to 30 mm on
edge. If specimens smaller than the standard size must be
used, corrections should be made for class estimates (i.e., a 10-
cm block will require about one-third the force to rupture as will a
30-cm block). Stress is applied along the vertical in-place axis of

                                                (Continued)
Field Description and Analysis of Soils
                                             57

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                        58
 :*x*:*:*:*x*:*x*:*:-x-x*:*xw^^

 Table 3-5.  (Continued)

 the specimen by compressing it between extended thumb and
 forefinger, between both hands, or between the foot and a non-
 resilient flat surface. If the specimen resists compression, a 1 -kg
 weight is dropped from progressively greater heights up to 30
 cm, until rupture.
 ***Both force (newtons; N) and energy (joules; J) are employed.
 One newton is equivalent to the force necessary to accelerate a
 1 -kg mass 1 meter per second per second. One joule is the ener-
 gy delivered by dropping a 1 -kg weight 10 cm. A tactile sense of
 class limits may be learned by applying pressure through the
 tips of the fingers or ball of the foot to postal or bathroom scales.
cementation are as follows (use Table 3-5  to estimate
stress applied):
       Class                  Stress Applied
       Uncemented                 <8N
       Weakly cemented            8-80N
       Moderately cemented       80-800N
       Strongly cemented          800N-3J
       Indurated                    >3J
       Other consistence  classes  used in the field are
plasticity and stickiness. These are a function  of clay con-
tent and are covered in Section 3.1.7a.
       EPA's ESES  defines the  following  consistency
classes:
       High: A soil when wet that shows high  cohesion of
       soil particles, or adhesion of soil particles to other
       substances.
       Moderate: A soil when moist that shows moderate
       cohesion or adhesion.
       Low to  Weak: A  soil,  usually dry,  that  shows
       reduced or poor cohesion or adhesion.
       Cemented: A type of soil that remains  hard or brit-
       tle after an air-dried specimen has been placed in
       water for at least 1 hour.
       3.1.6c   Bulk Density
       Accurate measurement of bulk density, expressed
as  g/cc, requires weighing a  known  volume of  soil  or
determining both the weight and volume of an undisturbed

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soil sample. Some commonly used methods are described
below.
       Core Method. This method involves collecting a
core of a known  volume using a thin-walled sampler (to
minimize disturbance of the soil sample), and transporting
the core to  the laboratory for weighing.  Inserting a sam-
pling cylinder inside the sampling tube allows other meas-
urements to be made in the laboratory such as pore-size
distribution,  hydraulic conductivity,  and water retention.
Core  samples should  be placed in moisture-proof con-
tainers to maintain field moisture content.
       Hole or Excavation Method. Bulk density can be
determined directly in the field  by excavating a quantity of
soil, drying and weighing it (in the field or laboratory), and
determining the  volume  of the excavation. This volume
can be determined by  measuring the volume of sand re-
quired to fill the excavation, or placing a rubber balloon in
the excavation and  measuring the amount  of  water  or
some other liquid required to  fill the space.  SCS  (1971)
and Blake and Hartge (1986) describe equipment and field
procedures for these methods.
       Coated-Clod Method.  Bulk density  of  cohesive
soils can be measured by coating  a clod with a  saran-
ketone mixture and comparing the weights of the clod in
air and water.  Blake and Hartge (1986) describe this pro-
cedure in detail.  This procedure  can be done in  a field
laboratory with a scale that weighs accurately to 1 gram in
a range of 500 to  1,000 grams. SCS (1971) describes pro-
cedures  for determining the field-moist density and dry
density  of a clod. With  these measurements,  one can
determine the minimum and maximum density, field mois-
ture capacity, percentage of volume change, and ratio  of
moist and dry volumes for calculation of the coefficient of
linear extensibility (COLE—see Section 3.1.7d).
       The bulk density at which resistance to root penetra-
tion is high varies with texture as follows (SCS, 1983):
       Family Texture        Bulk Density
      Sandy                    >1.85
       Coarse-Loamy            >1.80
       Fine-Loamy               >1.70
      Coarse-Silty               >1.60
       Fine-Silty                 >1.50
       Fine                      >1.35

Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       59

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       60
       3,1,6d  Root Restricting Layers
       Root  restricting layers are an  indicator that  con-
 taminants will tend to move laterally along the top of the
 restrictive layer rather than vertically in the soil profile.
       SCS classifies root restricting soil layers, whether
 they are genetic horizons or not, based on a combination
 of  other  soil properties  as  follows  (the sections  that
 describe specific features are indicated in parentheses).
       Root  depth observations are the most reliable in-
 dicator, with horizons incapable of supporting more than a
 few fine or very fine roots  (see Section 3.1.5c) considered
 root restricting.
       Continuously  cemented  zones  (see  Section
 3.1.6b) of any thickness are considered root restricting.
       Zones >10 cm below the  rooting zone are con-
 sidered root restricting if they exhibit the following charac-
 teristics when water  state is very moist or wet  (Section
 3.2.1): (1) structure is massive, platy,  or is weak of any
 type for a vertical  repeat distance of <10 cm  (Section
 3.1.5a); and  (2) rupture resistance is very firm (firm, if
 sandy) or extremely firm (Section 3.1.6b), or has a large
 penetration resistance (Section 3.1.6e).
       When a root restricting layer is present, soils are
 classified  according to the following depth classes:
       Very shallow            <25 cm
       Shallow            25 to 50 cm
       Moderately deep    50 to 100 cm
       Deep             100 to 150 cm
       Very deep             >150cm

       3.1.6e  Penetration Resistance
               (Compaction)
       Penetration resistance is the capacity of the soil in
 its confined state to resist penetration by a rigid object. It
 is usually  reported as megapascals (1 MPa = 10 bars or
 9.9  atmospheres  of  pressure).   Large   penetration
 resistance is an indicator of compaction or other soil fea-
tures that  impede vertical flow of contaminants (see Sec-
tion  3.1.6a  and d).  Truck  or  tractor-mounted  cone
 penetrometers  are   commonly  used   in   engineering
 investigations and are increasingly being  used to charac-
terize the subsurface at contaminated sites.

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       For soil descriptions, the  pocket  penetrometer, a
hand-operated, calibrated-spring penetrometer, is a useful
tool for helping identify root restricting layers. It is simple
to operate, and can be pushed into the soil surface, core
samples, or soil exposed in an open pit investigation.
        Penetration resistance depends strongly on water
state  (Section 3.2.1),  which should be specified. Orienta-
tion of the axis of insertion should also be specified. SCS
defines penetration resistance classes based on the pres-
sure  required to  push  a pocket  penetrometer with a
diameter of 6.4 mm a distance of 6.4 mm into the soil in
about 1 second, as follows:
       Classes           Penetration Resistance (MPa)
       Small                 <0.1
          Extremely low                <0.01
          Very low                   0.01-0.1
       Intermediate          0.1-2
          Low                         0.1-1
          Moderate                       1-2
       Large                  >2
          High                           2-4
          Very high                       4-8
          Extremely high                  >8
       Compacted  near-surface   zones   resulting  from
equipment traffic  or  tillage  will  have large  penetration
resistance, and higher rupture resistance  (Section 3.1.6b)
and bulk densities (Section 3.1.6c) than undisturbed near-
surface horizons.
       Soil Survey  Staff  (1991)  and  Bradford  (1986)
provide further guidance on use  and interpretation of
pocket penetrometer readings.
       EPA's  ESES uses the following  soil compaction
classes:
       High: Surface soils have been subject to high com-
       paction and consequent effects on soil structure,
       such as by vehicular and foot traffic, or livestock.
       Moderate: Surface soils have been less subjected
       to compaction, either through reduced applications
       and frequency of  pressure on surface soils or be-
       cause  the  soil structure  is  more  resistant  to
       compaction.
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       61

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       62
       Low to Slight: Surface soils are only slightly af-
       fected by compaction, either because of resistance
       to compaction or because they are less subject to
       application of compacting stressor.

 3.1.7  Soil Engineering Parameters and
       Properties
       Texture, clay content (amount and types of clays),
 and strength behavior at different moisture  contents are
 the key properties affecting soil engineering. A number of
 classification systems have been developed for the selec-
 tion of soil materials and design of  foundations  and
 earthen structures.  The ASTM (Unified) soil  classification
 is the most widely used at  contaminated sites and is the
 only one covered in this guide.
       Only field  procedures for preliminary estimation of
 soil engineering properties  are  covered here. Laboratory
 tests are required for accurate determination of soil en-
 gineering properties. Once the Unified soil class has been
 identified,  other  properties such as  permeability  and
 suitability for different  types of  engineering applications
 can be estimated  using Figure 4-14 in SCS (1990).

       3.1.7a  Unified (ASTM) Texture
       Form 3-2 can be used to record the results of 11
tests for field classification  of soil texture for engineering
uses. These tests are drawn from Brown et al. (1991),
SCS (1990), and Soil Survey Staff (1991). Figure 3-8 sum-
marizes how the  results  of these tests are used to es-
timate  texture in the Unified soil classification system.
Procedures for specific tests identified  in Figure 3-8 are
described below, along with some alternative versions
described by Soil Survey Staff (1991):

Test 1 - Coarse-Grained Soil Test
a.     Spread a  sample of soil on a  flat surface (clip-
       board) and examine the particles.
b.    Approximate the grain size by visual inspection.
c.     If more than 50 percent of the grains  are easily
      distinguished by the  unaided eye, the material is a
      coarse soil; if less than  50 percent of the grains
      are  easily  distinguished  by the  unaided eye,  the
      material is a fine soil.

-------
Form 3-2. Unified (ASTM) Field Texture Determination Form
(adapted from Brown et al., 1991)

Sample No.	Site:	Date:	
Sampling Location:	
Person(s) Performing Test:.
SANDS AND GRAVELS
Test 1 (coarsegrained)	
Test 2 (gravel)	
Tests (finegrained)
COMMENTS:
SILTS AND CLAYS
Test 4 (plasticity)	
Test 5 (ribbon)	
Test 6 (liquid limit)	
Test 7 (clod strength)
Test 8 (dilatancy)	
Test 9 (toughness)	
Test 10 (stickiness)	
Test 11 (organic soils)_
COMMENTS:
tftWfcWSWSfc::^
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                        63

-------
 F/e/d Description and Analysis of Soils                          64
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Figure 3-8. Summary of field tests for Unified (ASTM) soil
textural classification (Source: SCS, 1990).

-------
d.     If some of the particles could be aggregates of fine
       particles, saturate a small sample of the soil with
       water.
e.     Rub a large marble-sized (2 cm) sample between
       the thumb and  forefinger. Sand grains (coarse
       material)  will  feel  rough and gritty,  whereas
       aggregates of  fine materials will break down  and
       feel silky.
       Alternative Jar Method (Soil Survey Staff, 1991)
f.      Thoroughly shake a mixture of soil and water  in a
       straight-sided jar or test tube, and allow the mixture
       to settle.
g.     Sand sizes will fall out first, in 20 to 30 seconds;
       successively finer particles will follow. Estimate the
       proportions of  sand and fines from their relative
       volumes.

Test 2 - Sand/Gravel Tests
2.a    Gravel/Sand
a.     Spread a representative sample of soil on a flat
       surface.
b.     If more than  one-half of the visible grains  are
       greater than 2 mm, the material is gravel; if they
       are not, it is a sand.
2.b    Clean/Dirty Test
c.     Remove any coarse material greater than 2 mm in
       diameter.
d.     Saturate  the remaining  materials with water and
       work it with your hands.
e.     Hands will not  be stained when fines are less than
       5 percent (GW or GP; SW or SP);  hands will be
       stained when there is  more than 12 percent fines,
       and weak casts can be formed (GM or GC; SM or
       SC).
2.c    Sorting Test
f.      Take a second sample of soil and place it on a flat
       surface. Spread  it out and observe the grain size
       distribution.
g.     If coarse  materials  consist of evenly distributed
       particle sizes, the material is well graded (GW or
       SW); if they are chiefly of one size particle or large
::::::::::::::¥:::S^
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       65

-------
 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       66
       and small particles without intermediate sizes, the
       material is poorly graded (GP or SP).

Test 3 - Fine-Grained Test
a.     When Test 1 indicates fine-grained soils, complete
       Tests 4 through  7 to determine if the material  is
       clayey or silty.
b.     If Test 2b indicates dirty sands or gravels (>12 per-
       cent fines), complete Test 4 to determine whether
       fines are plastic or nonplastic.

Test 4 - Plasticity Test
a.     Wet and mold a small 2 x 2 x 2  cm (3 teaspoons)
       soil sample so that it can be rolled into a thread
       without crumbing. The material will not stick to the
       hands if the correct amount of water is  added.
b.     Roll the moist soil with the palm of the  hand on any
       clean, smooth surface, such as a piece of paper or
       clipboard, to form a coarse thread and  pull it apart.
c.     Observe difficulty of pulling thread apart: GC, SC,
       CH, or CL = tough (hard to pull apart); GM, SM, or
       MH =  medium tough;  GM,  SM, or  ML = weak
       (easily pulled apart).
       Alternative Plasticity  Test (from Soil Survey
       Staff, 1991)
d.     Find the minimum thickness a 4-cm long roll must
       have to support its own weight: nonplastic = >6 mm;
       slightly plastic = 4-6 mm; moderately plastic = 2-4
       mm; very plastic = <2 mm.

Test 5 - Ribbon Test
a.     Take  a quantity of soil measuring at least 2x2x2
       cm (3 teaspoons). Square and  wet it with water
       until  it reaches  a plastic state.  This  condition
       prevails when the soil contains just enough mois-
       ture so that it can be  rolled into 3-mm diameter
       threads. These threads  or ribbons are formed by
       squeezing and working the sample between the
       thumb and forefinger. Plastic limit is governed by
       clay content.
b.     Observe properties of ribbon: ML = weak, (breaks
       easily); MH = hard (does not break easily); CL =
       flexible with medium strength; CH  =  strong and
       flexible.

-------
Test 6 - Liquid Limit Test (from SCS, 1990)
a.    Take a pat of moist soil with a volume of about
      8 cc (1.2 in.3) and add enough water to make the
      soil soft but not sticky.
b.    Rapidly add enough water to cover the outer sur-
      face, and break the pat open immediately.
c.    A positive  reaction  has  occurred when the water
      has penetrated through the surface layer: LL = low,
      if water has penetrated (ML, CL); LL = high, if the
      water has  not penetrated (MH, CH). [Note: direct
      sunlight facilitates observation of this phenomena].

Test 7 - Dry Crushing/Clod Strength Test
a.    Obtain a dry block of soil at least 2 cm (3/4 in.) in
      its smallest dimension.
b.    Crush the clod between fingers and observe the ef-
      fort required: ML =  easily  crushed;  CL or MH  =
      medium-hard to break;  CH  = almost impossible to
      break.

Test 8 - Dilatancy Test (from SCS, 1990)
a.    Mold  material  into a ball about 15 mm (1/2 in.) in
      diameter. Add water, if needed, until it has a soft
      but not sticky consistency.
b.    Smooth the soil in the palm of one hand with the
      blade of a knife or spatula.
c.    Shake horizontally,  striking the  side of  the  hand
      against the other  several  times. Note  the ap-
      pearance of water  on  the  surface.  Squeeze the
      sample and note the disappearance of water.
d.    Describe the reaction:  none = no visible  change
      (CH); slow = water  appears slowly on the  surface
      during the  shaking and does not disappear or dis-
      appears  slowly when squeezed (CL, MH); rapid  =
      water appears quickly on the surface during shak-
      ing and disappears quickly when squeezed (ML).

Test 9 - Toughness Test (from SCS, 1990)
a.    Take the specimen for the dilatancy test and shape
      it into an elongated pat and roll it on a hard surface
      or between hands into  a thread about 3 mm (1/8
      in.) in diameter. (If it is too wet to roll, spread it out
      and let it dry.)
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      67

-------
 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       68
 :*x*:*:*:*:*:-:-:*:*:*:«^^^^^^

 b.     Fold  the thread and  reroll  repeatedly until the
       thread crumbles at a diameter of 3 mm (1/8 in.).
       The soil has reached its plastic limit.
 c.     Note the pressure required to roll the thread and
       the strength of the thread: circumferential breaks =
       CH  or  CL  material;  longitudinal  cracks  and
       diagonal breaks = MH.
 d.     After  the  thread  crumbles,  lump  the  pieces
       together and knead until the lump crumbles.
 e.     Note the toughness of the material during knead-
       ing. Describe toughness: low = only slight pressure
       required to  roll the thread near the plastic limit, the
       thread and  lump  are weak and soft (ML); medium =
       medium pressure is required to roll the thread near
       the plastic limit, the thread and lump have medium
       stiffness (CL, MH); high  = considerable pressure
       required to  roll the thread near the plastic limit, the
       thread and  lump  are very stiff (CL, CH); nonplastic
       = thread cannot be rolled (CL, CH).

 Test 10 - Stickiness Test
 a.     Saturate a  sample of the soil and let it dry on the
       hands.
 b.     Observe ease with which soil is rubbed off: ML is
       brushed off with little  effort; CL or MH  require
       moderate effort to brush off; CH requires rewetting
       to completely remove.
       Alternative Stickiness Test (from Soil Survey
       Staff, 1991)
c.     Saturate a  sample of the soil and press between
       thumb and forefinger.
d.     Observe  the  adhesion to thumb and forefinger
       when they are pulled apart: nonsticky = practically
       no adhesion (ML); slightly sticky = sticks to thumb
       or forefinger (MH);  sticky =  adheres  to both,
       stretches slightly  before breaking (CL); very sticky
       = adheres to both, stretches decidedly (CH).

Test 11  - Organic Soils Test
a.     Smell  soils suspected of having  a high organic
       matter content.
b.     A distinctive, pungent musty odor is indicative of
       organic soils.

-------
c.     Feel texture of soil: PT = spongy or fibrous texture;
       OL or OH = nonfibrous.
d.     If nonfibrous, do plasticity test (Test 6):  OL = low
       plasticity; OH = high plasticity.

       3.1.7b  Atterberg Limits
       Atterberg  limits  define  various  states  of  fine-
grained  soil material  ranging from  dry to  liquid.  The
shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content at which a fur-
ther reduction in water does not cause a decrease in the
volume of the soil mass. The plastic  limit  (PL)  is the
water content at which soil changes from a semi-solid to a
plastic state. At the plastic limit, a fine-grained soil will just
begin to crumble when rolled into a thread approximately
3 mm  (1/8 in.) in  diameter. The liquid limit is  the water
content at which soil consistency changes from a plastic to
a liquid state. This is the water content  at which a pat of
soil, cut by a groove 2 mm wide will flow together for a dis-
tance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) under the impact of 25 blows in a
standard liquid limit apparatus.
       Accurate determination of Atterberg limits requires
collection of samples for laboratory analysis.

       3.1.7c  Shear Strength
       Shear strength can be  estimated approximately in
the  field by the  ease with  which  a  sample can be
penetrated by the thumb, as described in Table 3-6.

Table 3-6.  Field Estimation of Soil Shear Strength

Consistency   Identification                 Shear Strength
             Procedure                      (tons/ft2
                                          or kg/cm2)

Soft        Easily penetrated several          <0.25
            inches by thumb
Firm        Penetrated several inches by     0.25 to 0.50
            thumb with moderate effort
Stiff        Readily indented by thumb, but    0.50 to 1.00
            penetrated only with great effort
Very        Readily indented with thumbnail   1.00 to 2.00
Stiff
Hard        Indented with difficulty by           >2.00
            thumbnail

Source: SCS (1990).

Field Description and Analysis of Soils                        69

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       70
 siy*:*:!:*?:^

       3.1.7d  Shrink-Swel!
       Certain clays shrink when pore water is lost during
 drying and subsequently swell during wetting. High shrink-
 swell clays are of concern at contaminated sites because
 deeply penetrating  cracks  create  pathways  for con-
 taminant movement during the early stages of the wetting
 phase. Where sodium rich  clays with high dispersivity
 exist  in the subsurface, a form of erosion called piping is
 also a concern.
       SCS defines  shrink-swell potential classes based
 on linear extensibility (LE (%) = 100 x moist length - dry
 length/dry length) or the coefficient of linear extensibility
 (COLE = LE/100), as follows:
       Class       LE(%)      COLE     Dbd/Mdb
       Low            <3        <0.03        <1.1
       Medium       3-6     0.03-0.06     1.1-1.2
       High          6-9     0.06-0.09     1.2-1.3
       Very high       >9        >0.09        >1.3
       LE can be  measured by collecting a core from a
 wet or moist soil, carefully measuring its wet length, and
 setting it upright in a dry place. If the sample shrinks in a
 symmetrical shape without  excessive cracking or crum-
 bling, its length should be  measured and LE calculated. If
 the core crumbles or cracks, the coated clod method for
 bulk density measurement (see Section 3.1.6c) and the
 ratio of dry bulk density (Dbd) to moist bulk density (Mbd)
 should be used to place samples in shrink-swell classes
 (see table  above). SCS (1971, Section I4.3)  and SCS
 (1983) provide additional information on these procedures.
 SCS (1971) also describes a simple test for rough deter-
 mination of maximum potential shrinkage  and density of
disturbed soils.

       3.1.7e  Corrosivity
       SCS soil series interpretation sheets give separate
corrosion potential ratings  for uncoated steel and for con-
crete. If classification of a soil is uncertain, corrosivity can
be  estimated  using  the following field and laboratory-
measured parameters:
       Uncoated steel — Texture (Section 3.1.2), water
       table  (Section  3.2.2), drainage  class   (Section
       3.2.4), total acidity or extractable acidity as a rough
       equivalent to total acidity (Section 3.3.3),  resistivity

-------
       at field  capacity,  and conductivity of saturated
       extract (Section 3.3.6).
       Concrete  — Texture (Section 3.1.2), reaction
       (Section 3.3.4), and laboratory analysis of sodium
       and/or  magnesium  sulfate (ppm)  and  sodium
       chloride (ppm).
       Table  3-7  shows  criteria for soils  with  high,
moderate, and low corrosion potential for uncoated steel.
Table 603-8 in  SCS (1983) provides  criteria to estimate
corrosion potential for concrete.

3.1.8  Soil Temperature/Temperature
       Regime
       Soil temperature affects evaporation rates of water
and  volatile contaminants and influences the amount of
microbiological  activity  in the soil. In soil classification,
mean annual or summer soil temperature and the relation-
ship  between  mean summer  and  mean  winter soil
temperature  are used for placement  in soil temperature
regimes.
       Ground-water temperature gives a close estimate
of mean annual soil temperature if monitoring wells are
available with water at a depth of 1 0 to 20 meters. Alterna-
tively,  the average of  four temperature measurements
taken  at  a depth of about 50  cm equally  spaced
throughout the year gives a good estimate of mean annual
soil temperature. For mean summer temperature, readings
may be taken on June 15, July 15, and August 15, and for
mean winter temperature, on December 15, January 15,
and February 15.
       SCS (1971, Section I4.4) and  Smith et al. (1960)
describe more detailed procedures for soil temperature
regime measurement, including special procedures where
ground water or bedrock is shallow. Taylor and Jackson
(1986) discuss types of thermometers and methods for
measuring soil temperature for other applications.
       EPA's ESES defines the following soil temperature
classes based on point thermal  measurements taken on
the surface or with depth of soil at a point in time, or over
a period of time:
       High:38°C(100.4°F)
       Medium: 8-38°C (46.4 to 100.4°F)
       Low: <8°C (46.4°F)
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      71

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Field Description and Analysis of Soils
                                                          72
 Table 3-7. Guide for Estimating Risk of Soil Corrosion
 Potential of Uncoated Steel


Class
Low


Drainage Class
and Texture
Excessively drainec
Total
Acidity*
(meq/
100g)
i <8
Resis-
tivity*
(Ohm/
cm)
>5,000
Conduc-
tivity*
(mmhos/
cm)
<0.3
           coarse-textured or
           well-drained coarse-
           to medium-textured soils;
           or, moderately well
           drained, coarse-textured
           soils; or, somewhat
           poorly drained
           coarse-textured soils
Moderate  Well-drained,           8-12
           moderately fine-textured
           soils; or moderately well
           drained, coarse- and
           medium-textured soils;
           or somewhat poorly
           drained, moderately
           coarse-textured soils;
           or, very poorly drained
           soils with stable high
           water table
High       Well drained, fine-
           textured, or stratified
           soils; or, moderately
           well drained fine- and
           moderately fine-textured
           or stratified soils; or,
           somewhat poorly
           drained, medium- to
           fine-textured or stratified
           soils; or poorly drained
           soil with fluctuating
           water table
                                          2,000 to
                                            5,000
                                                     0.3 to
                                                      0.8
                                           <2,000    >0.8
* See Table 603-7 in SCS (1983) for further guidance on how
measurements should be made and interpreted.

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3.2   Soil Hydrologic Parameters

3.2.1  Moisture Conditions (Soil Water State)
       The terms  used to describe soil properties may
vary depending on the soil moisture content of the sample
being observed. Soil water state is a more precise term for
moisture conditions (Soil Science Society of America,
1987). Soil water state should be noted for any observa-
tions of properties that may vary  with moisture  content,
such as color and consistency.
       Table 3-8 describes three  main soil water  state
classes (dry, moist, and wet) and eight subclasses within
these categories,  as  defined by SCS. The water  state
classification of a particular soil sample will depend on (1)
texture (whether it is coarse or not), (2) how strongly water
is held by  the soil  (suction),  and (3)  the amount of
gravimetric water held by the soil in relation to the amount
held at  specified reference suction pressures (i.e., 1,500
kPa for dry soils).
       Referring to Table 3-8, the  following can be  used
as guidelines for field estimation of soil water state:
       Dry (VD) — Very little visual or tactile change be-
      tween field observation and after air-dried samples.
       Moist (MD) — Visual or tactile change between
      field observation and after air drying.
      Wet  — Water films  evident,  but  no free  water
       (WN); free water present (WA).
       Between moist/wet and  moderately  dry/very dry
separations, Soil Survey Staff (1991) describes four field
water state tests: (1) color value test, (2) ball test, (3) rod
test, and (4) ribbon test. These tests  require  calibration
with the results of tests  on similar soils that have been
conducted at different known points on the moisture reten-
tion curve.
      The following rules of thumb can be used to es-
timate actual percentages of water at different points on
the moisture characteristic curve:
      Water (%) at 1,500 Kpa = 0.4 x estimated clay
      content
      Water (%) of air dry soil = 0.1 x estimated clay
      content
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       73

-------
Field Description and Analysis of Soils
:*x*x-xott*:*:-:*:-:\x*:'W

Table 3-8. Water State Classes
                                                        74
           'm^
Class
                                   Criteria
                         Suction          Retention
                          (kPa)*    (% gravimetric moisture)
Dry (D)
   Very dry (DV)

   Moderately dry (DM)

   Slightly dry (DS)


Moist (M)
   Slightly moist (MS)

   Moderately moist (MM)
   Very moist (MV)

Wet (W)
   Nonsatiated (WN)
   Satiated (WA)
                         >1500
                         >1-1500
                                   <.35 x % water at
                                   1500kPa
                                   .35 - 0.8 x% water at
                                   1500kPa
                                   0.8 to 1.0 % water at kPa
                                   %waterat1500kPato
                                   MWR
                                   MWR** to UWR"
                                   UWR** to 1 or 0.5 kPa
                                   No free water
                                   Free water present
Source: Soil Survey Staff (1991).
'Coarse soil material is considered wet at 0.5 kPa suction and
moist from 0.5 to 1500 kPa if it meets the following criteria: (1)
sand or sandy-skeletal family particle-size criteria, (2) coarser
than loamy fine sand, (3) <2 percent organic carbon, (4) <5 per-
cent water at 1500 kPa, and (5) computed total porosity of the
<2 mm fabric exceeding 35 percent.
"UWR = upper water retention = % water at 5 Kpa (coarse soil)
= % water at 10 KPa (other soil). MWR = midpoint water reten-
tion = halfway between UWR and % water at 1500 Kpa.

-------
       Methods for accurately  measuring moisture con-
tent in the field require relatively sophisticated equipment
and are not discussed further  here (see Appendix D in
Cameron (1991), for  information on field methods). The
same is true for accurate measurement of water retention
at  different  matric   potentials  (moisture  characteristic
curves).
       Moisture  content   and  moisture   characteristic
curves  are most commonly measured in  the  laboratory
from samples collected in the field. Soil moisture tins with
a capacity for about 250 grams of  soil, filled to the brim
and sealed with tape or plastic bags with any extra air
removed  before sealing, are  best  for determining field
moisture content at the time of sampling. Undisturbed core
samples are best for laboratory measurement of moisture
characteristic curves.
       SCS (1971, Section 14.1) describes procedures for
determining water content that can be done  in  a field
laboratory with the following equipment: balance accurate
to 0.1  g; oven with thermometer or thermostat, or stove,
hot plate, or infrared lamp; and thermometer with scale up
to150°C.

 3.2.2  Water Table (Internal Free Water
       Occurrence)
       SCS does not define a class for saturation (i.e.,
zero air-filled porosity) because the term implies that all of
the pore space is filled with water, a situation which can-
not be readily evaluated in  the field. Free water develops
positive pressure when its depth is below the top of a wet
satiated zone (the top  of water in an unlined borehole after
equilibrium has been reached).
       SCS classifies free  water occurrence (perched  or
regional water table) into classes depending on (1) thick-
ness (if perched), (2) depth, and (3) duration as follows:
       Classes                 Criteria

       Thickness if perched
       Extremely thin (TE)       <10 cm
       Very thin (TV)            10 to 30 cm
       Thin (T)                  30 cm to 1 m
       Thick (TK)               >1  m
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      75

-------
 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      76
       Depth
       Very deep (DV)           >1.5m
       Deep(D)                1.5 to 1 m
       Moderately deep (DM)     1 to 0.5 m
       Shallow (S)              0.5 m to 25 cm
       Very shallow (SV)         <25 cm
       Cumulative Annual Duration
       Absent (A)               Not observed
       Very transitory (TV)       Present <1 month
       Transitory (T)            Present 1 to 3 months
       Common (C)             Present 3 to 6 months
       Persistent (PS)           Present 6 to 12 months
       Permanent (P)           Present continuously

 3.2.3  Available Water Capacity
       Available water  capacity (AWC)  is the amount of
 plant-available soil moisture, usually expressed as inches
 of water per inch of soil depth. It is commonly defined as
 the amount of water held between field capacity and the
 wilting  point.  AWC  is  important  in  developing  water
 budgets and designing drainage systems.
       Determination of AWC requires sampling of soil for
 moisture content when it is at field capacity. This requires
 sampling just after the  soil has drained after a period of
 rain and humid weather, after a spring thaw, or after heavy
 irrigation.  SCS  (1971,  Section  14.1) describes  several
 other procedures for bringing a plot to field capacity by
 wetting, and several methods for wetting clods or cores to
 approximate field capacity. SCS (1983) provides further
 guidance on calculation  and estimation of AWC.

 3.2.4  Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity and
       Soil Drainage Class
       The terms permeability and saturated hydraulic
 conductivity are often used interchangeably to refer to the
 ease  with  which water moves through the soil under
 saturated  conditions. Permeability  rates  are typically
 reported in  units of in./hr based on  percolation tests;
 saturated hydraulic conductivity may be reported  in units
of u.m/s, m/s, cm/day, in./hr, or cm/hr. Accurate field meas-
urement of both saturated (KSat) and unsaturated hydraulic

-------
conductivity requires relatively complex instruments and
procedures that are not covered here (see Appendix D in
Cameron (1991) for information on these methods).
       SCS currently  defines six classes for describing
soils based on saturated hydraulic conductivity:
                      Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
       Class                   (u.m/s)    '  (in./hr)

       Very low (VL)            <0.01       <0.001
       Low(L)                0.01-0.1    0.001-0.01
       Moderately low (ML)     0.1-1     0.01-0.14
       Moderately high (MH)     1-10      0.14-1.4
       High(H)                 10-100     1.4-14.2
       Very high (VH)           >100       >14.2
       Class placement is based on geometric mean  of
multiple measurements.
       Various methods have been developed for obtain-
ing rough estimates of KSat based on various soil proper-
ties. Table 3-9 provides a basis for estimating KSat based
on field observations of structure, texture, and pores. See
Section 3.1.2 for identification of textural classes, Section
3.1.4 for pore definitions, and Section 3.1.5a for definitions
of structural units.
       O'Neal (1952) describes a procedure for somewhat
more  precise  estimation  of soil permeability  classes
(which are defined slightly differently  from those  listed
above) based on (1) structure, (2) shape and overlap  of
aggregates, (3) visible pores, and (4) texture. Soil Survey
Staff  (1991, Chapter  3) provides figures for KSat  class
placement based on soil bulk density and texture.
       Soil drainage  class refers to the frequency and
duration  of wet periods for the  water regime  associated
with undisturbed soil conditions. Table 3-10 summarizes
SCS criteria for seven soil drainage classes.

3.2.5  Infiltration
       The amount of precipitation  reaching the ground
surface that enters the soil is determined by the infiltra-
tion capacity. In a dry soil, infiltration is usually rapid, un-
less there is an  impervious crust at the surface. As time
passes, infiltration slows until the ponded infiltration rate
is attained, which is determined by the saturated hydraulic
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       77

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                          78
     :*:*:*:*^
Table 3-9, Guide for Estimating the Class of Saturated
Vertical Hydraulic Conductivity from Soil Properties
       Class
 Name       Rate*
          Soil Properties"
Very High    <100
High
100-10
Moderate    10-1
Mod. Low   1-0.1
 -Fragmental
 -Sandy with coarse sand or sand
 texture, and loose consistence
 -More than 0.5 percent medium or
 coarser vertical pores with high
 continuity
 -Other sandy, sandy-skeletal, or
 coarse-loamy soil materials that are very
 friable,  friable, soft, or loose
 -When very moist or wet has moderate
 or strong granular structure;  or strong
 blocky structure of any size or prismatic
 structure finer than very coarse, and
 many surface features except stress
 surfaces or slickensides on vertical
 surfaces of structural units
 -0.5 to  0.2 percent medium or coarser
 vertical pores with high continuity
 -Sandy in other consistence classes
 except extremely firm or cemented
 -10 to 35 percent clay with moderate
 structure, except  platy, or strong very
 coarse prismatic structure; and with
 common surface features except stress
 surfaces or slickensides on vertical
 surfaces of structural units
 -0.1 to 0.2 percent medium or coarser
 vertical  pores with high continuity
 -Other sandy classes that are
 extremely firm or cemented
 -18 to 35 percent clay with other
 structures and surface conditions except
 pressure or stress surfaces
 -Greater than 35  percent clay and
 moderate structure except if platy or
 very coarse prismatic; and with common
 vertical surface features except stress
 surfaces or slickensides
-Medium or coarser vertical pores with
 high continuity, but <0.01 percent
                           (Continued)

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Table 3-9.  (Continued)
       Class
Name       Rate*
           Soil Properties*
Low
0.1-0.01
Very Low   <0.01
—Continuous moderate or weak
cementation
-Greater than 35 percent clay and
meets one of the following: weak
structure; weak structure with few or no
vertical surface features; platy structure;
common or many stress surfaces or
slickensides
-Continuously indurated or strongly
cemented and with less than
common roots
-Greater than 35 percent clay and
massive or exhibits horizontal
depositional strata and less than
common roots
Source: SCS (1983).
'Micrometers/second.
**A given soil profile would have most, but not necessarily all, of
the soil properties associated with a particular class.
Table 3-10. Criteria for SCS Soil Drainage Classes

Excessively drained. Water is removed very rapidly. Internal
   free water occurrence commonly is very deep; annual dura-
   tion is not specified. The soils are commonly very coarse tex-
   tured, rocky, or shallow. Some are steep. All are free of
   mottling related to wetness.
Somewhat excessively drained. Water is removed from the
   soil rapidly. Internal free water occurrence commonly is very
   deep; annual duration is not specified. The soils are usually
   sandy and rapidly pervious. Some are shallow. A portion of
   the soils are so steep that a considerable part of the precipita-
   tion received is lost as runoff. All are free of the mottling re-
   lated to wetness.
                                                (Continued)
Field Description and Analysis of Soils
                                             79

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                          80
 x*;*:':tt«w:':*x<*H*x*:^

 Table 3-10.  (Continued)

 Well drained. Water is removed from the soil readily but not
   rapidly. Internal free water occurrence commonly is deep or
   very deep; annual duration is not specified. Water is available
   to plants throughout most of the growing season in humid
   regions. Wetness does not inhibit growth of roots for sig-
   nificant periods during most growing seasons. Well drained
   soils are commonly medium textured. They are mainly free of
   the mottling related to wetness.
 Moderately well drained. Water is  removed from the soil some-
   what slowly during some periods of the year. Internal free
   water occurrence commonly is moderately deep and tran-
   sitory through permanent (Section 3.2.2). The soils are wet
   for only a short time during the growing season, but long
   enough that most mesophytic crops are affected. They com-
   monly have a slowly pervious layer within the upper 1 m,
   periodically receive high rainfall, or both.
 Somewhat poorly drained. Water is removed slowly enough
   that the soil is wet at shallow depth for significant periods
   during the growing season. Internal free water occurrence
   commonly is shallow and transitory or common. Wetness
   markedly restricts the growth of mesophytic crops unless ar-
   tificial drainage is provided. The soils commonly have one or
   more of the following characteristics: contain  a slowly per-
   vious layer, have a high water table, receive additional water
   from seepage, or occur under nearly continuous rainfall.
 Poorly drained. Water is removed so slowly that the soil is  wet
   at shallow depths periodically during the growing season, or
   remains wet for long periods. Internal free water occurrence
   is shallow or very shallow and common or persistent. Free
   water is commonly at or near the surface for long enough
   during the growing season that most mesophytic crops can-
   not be grown unless the soil is artificially drained. The soil,
   however, is not continuously wet  directly below plow-depth.
   Free water at shallow depth is  usually present. This water
   table is commonly the result of a shallow, slowly pervious
   layer within the soil, of seepage, of  nearly continuous rainfall,
   or of a combination of these.
Very poorly drained. Water is removed from the soil so slowly
   that free water remains at or very near the ground surface
   during much of the growing season. Internal free water occur-
   rence is very shallow and persistent or permanent (Section
   3.2.2). Unless the soil is artificially drained,  most mesophytic
   crops cannot be grown. The soils are commonly level or
   depressed and frequently ponded. If rainfall is high or nearly
   continuous, slope gradients can be moderate or high.

Source: Soil Survey Staff (1991).

-------
conductivity of the soil. Infiltration rate is usually measured
in rates of in./hr or cm/hr. Extrastructural cracks (Section
3.1.5D) may greatly increase infiltration rates compared to
soils with similar texture that do not have cracks.
       SCS's permeability  classification  system  (SCS,
1983) can be used to describe infiltration classes:
                                  Permeability
       Class                  (in./hr)       (cm/hr)
Very slow
Slow
Moderately slow
Moderate
Moderately rapid
Rapid
Very rapid
<0.06
0.06-0.2
0.2-0.6
0.6-2.0
2.0-6.0
6.0-20
>20
<0.15
0.15-0.5
0.5-1.5
1 .5-5.0
5.0-15.2
15.2-50.8
>50.8
3.3   Soil Chemistry and Biology
       Most  procedures  for  characterization  of  soil
chemistry  require collection of  samples  for  laboratory
analysis. This section focuses on pH and mineralogical
parameters that can be tested in the field using relatively
simple equipment and procedures. Most of these tests are
drawn from SCS (1971).

3.3.1  Organic Matter
       Organic matter (more precisely measured in the
laboratory as organic carbon) affects contaminant  mobility
primarily by its high sorptive capacity. Accurate determina-
tion  of total organic carbon (TOC) requires collection of
samples for laboratory analysis.
       In the field, black or dark colors generally  indicate
high organic matter  content in near-surface horizons. In
most mineral soils, organic matter is  moderately low to
high in  the A horizon, and low in the subsoil. Severely
eroded  soils,  where the  topsoil has been  completely
removed; alluvial soils, where  flooding deposits  topsoil;
and  buried soils may not follow this pattern. SCS  defines
the following classes for organic matter:
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       81

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       82
       Class             % Organic Matter
       Very low (VL)            <0.5
       Low(LL)               0.5-1.0
       Moderately low (ML)     1.0-2.0
       Medium (MM)           2.0-4.0
       High (HH)                >4.0
       Note that organic matter content is generally 1.7 to
2.0 times the TOC. An ignition test can be used in the field
to approximate organic matter content and check its  con-
tribution  to soil color. Equipment for this test includes (1)
thermometer and heat lamp,  (2) portable gas soldering
torch,  (3)  a porcelain  crucible or  small  tin can  (not
aluminum),  (4) wire brackets  or tongs to hold  the  con-
tainer, and (5) a balance accurate to 0.1 grams.

Ignition Test Procedure (adapted from SCS, 1971)
1.     Dry about 30 grams of  soil to  110°C under a  heat
       lamp.
2.     Weigh as accurately as  possible about 10 grams of
       dried soil and place in a crucible or tin, supporting
       it  with tongs or wire bracket.
3.     Apply the  flame  of the torch to the bottom  and
       lower walls of the outside of the container.  Por-
       celain and  metal  glow  red  at 500°C.  At  this
       temperature, organic matter is completely burned
       and the water of hydration is removed from the
       common oxide and clay minerals.
4.     Observe changes in color in the specimen. Apply
       heat more than once until there is no more change
       apparent in the specimen. Do not apply the flame
       directly to the sample if burning or oxidation are the
       purpose of the test, because unpredictable reduc-
       ing conditions exist in parts of the torch flame. If or-
       ganic matter  is the only  material giving color to the
       soil, it burns  away leaving a whitish residue.  See
       Section  3.1.3  for interpretation of other color
       changes.
5.     When no more change is apparent, cool and weigh
       sample again. The loss in weight divided by the
       original weight times 100 equals the organic matter
       in sandy soils and materials high in organic matter.

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       If  much clay is  present, the  loss also includes
       water of hydration in the minerals.
       Organic matter also reacts with hydrogen peroxide.
In contrast to manganese oxides (see Section 3.3.8), the
reaction starts slowly, builds up, and continues.  Organic
matter  reactions  decrease  with depth,  whereas man-
ganese oxide reactions remain constant.
       Test No.  11 in Section 3.1.7a describes proce-
dures for classifying organic soils in the Unified soil clas-
sification  system.  SCS  uses  a  number of tests for
classification of organic soils (histosols) including sodium
pyrophosphate color, fiber percentages, and pH in 0.01 M
calcium chloride.  Since  organic soils do  not  commonly
occur  at  hazardous waste sites, these  tests  are  not
described here. If organic soils are present at a site and
more detailed characterization is required, refer to Lynn et
al. (1974) and Appendix III in Soil Survey Staff (1975).

3.3.2  Odor
       High organic matter content in soil is associated
with a distinctive, pungent musty odor (see Test 11  in Sec-
tion  3.1.7a). Organic rich topsoil in mineral soils can also
be distinguished from subsoil that is low in organic matter
by this odor.
       Volatile organic contaminants can impart distinctive
odors  to  soil.  Gasoline  has an odor familiar to most
people; aging gives petroleum a musty odor. Some other
contaminants that may give soil a noticeable odor include
halogens,  ammonia,  turpentine,  phenols and  cresol,
picrates, various  hydrocarbons, and unsaturated organic
pesticides.
       Caution should be  exercised in   observing soil
odors.  They  should not  be vigorously inhaled from any
soil,  since even natural soils may contain potentially harm-
ful microorganisms. Soils where noticeable artificial odors
are present should be  checked for volatile  concentrations
using  a  detection  instrument  (HNu,   organic   vapor
analyzer,  etc.). The health and  safety officer should be
consulted to determine whether special protective equip-
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                        83

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      84
 merit, such as a respirator, should be used by individuals
 who are working close to the soil surface taking samples.
       EPA's ESES uses the following odor classes:
       High: A distinct odor, from naturally occurring soil
       organic materials with a distinctive pungent, musty
       odor, or  sharp distinct odor from chemical con-
       taminants.
       Moderate to slight: A less distinct to faint odor, from
       naturally  occurring  soil organic materials,  or from
       various odor-producing chemical contaminants.
       None: No detectable odor by olfactory means.

 3.3.3  Cation  Exchange Capacity (CEC)
       Cation  exchange  capacity,  measured  in  milli-
 equivalents per 100 grams (meq/100 g) orcentimoles per
 kilogram (cmol/kg), is a measure of the soil's ability to ab-
 sorb (and release) cations. It is an especially important
 parameter at sites  contaminated by heavy metals, be-
 cause heavy metals will often replace exchangeable ions
 such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium that
 exist in natural soil. Measurement of CEC requires collec-
 tion of samples for laboratory analysis. SCS (1971, Sec-
 tion  I9.7 and I9.8) describes relatively simple chemical
 tests that can be carried out in the  field to estimate ex-
 changeable calcium and exchangeable sodium.
       The  measurement  of extractable acidity, also
 called exchangeable acidity or extractable hydrogen be-
 cause it  measures exchangeable ions that contribute to
 soil acidity,  is required for evaluation of soil corrosivity
 (see Section 3.1.7e). Section 6H in SCS (1984) describes
 specific procedures for determining extractable acidity  in
 the laboratory.
       EPA's ESES uses the following CEC classes (ex-
 pressed as meq/100 g soil): high (>20), medium (12-20),
3.3.4   Reaction (pH)
       A variety of methods are available for field meas-
urement of pH (colorimetric, paper test strips, pH meter).
Specific procedures and instructions accompanying equip-
ment for the method used should be followed. For RCRA
sites,  EPA Method 9045A Revision 1,  November  1990,
should be used (U.S. EPA, 1986).

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       Soil Survey Staff (1991) defines 13 pH classes for
soil as follows:
       Class                                pH
       Ultra acid (UA)                       <3.5
       Extremely acid (EA)                 3.5 - 4.5
       Very strongly acid (VS)              4.5 - 5.0
       Strongly acid (SA)                   5.1 - 5.5
       Medium acid  (MA)                   5.6 - 6.0
       Slightly acid (SA)                    6.1 - 6.5
       Neutral (NA)                        6.6 - 7.3
       Mildly alkaline (MA)                 7.4 - 7.8
       Moderately alkaline (MO)            7.9 - 8.4
       Strongly alkaline (SA)               8.5 - 9.0
       Very strongly alkaline (VA)            >9.0

3.3.5  Redox Potential (Eh)
       Redox,  or oxidation-reduction  potential  (Eh),  is
measured in volts or millivolts (mV) as the potential dif-
ference in a solution between a working electrode and the
standard hydrogen electrode. Whether soil conditions are
oxidizing (aerobic) or reducing (anaerobic) will strongly af-
fect the types of microbiological activity and contaminant
transformation  and  degradation  processes that  may
occur. The  mobility of many heavy metals varies with
oxidation  state. In unsaturated soil, aerobic conditions
prevail, and measurement of Eh requires collection of soil
water  samples  using  a  suction  lysimeter.  The Eh of
saturated soil should  be  measured using ground-water
samples from properly purged monitoring wells.
       EPA's  ESES uses the following redox potential
classes: highly  oxidized  (>+400  mV),  intermediate
(+400 to -100 mV), and highly reduced (<-100 mV).

3.3.6  Electrical Conductivity (Salinity)
       In arid and semi-arid areas, soluble salts  may ac-
cumulate in the soil  and are called saline.  The electrical
conductivity of  a  saturation  extract is  the  standard
measure of salinity. Electrical  conductivity is commonly
reported in units of decisiemens/meter or millimhos/cen-
timeter (1 dS/m  =  1  mmho/cm). Electrical  conductivity
SrBKSKSBiSK::*:^
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       85

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       86
 WSSSSSrSSSS^^
 measurement or estimation  is required for evaluation of
 soil corrosivity (see Section 3.1.7e).
       Salinity classes, based on electrical conductivity of a
 saturation extract, are defined in EPA's ESES as follows:
                       Electrical Conductivity
       Class            (dS/m or mmho/cm)

       Nonsaline                0-2
       Slightly saline            2-4
       Moderately saline         4-8
       Very saline               8-16
       Extremely saline          >16

 Note  that Soil Survey Staff (1991) uses slightly different
 terms for these classes.
       SCS  (1971,  Section  I9.6) describes a relatively
 simple procedure for water extraction that can be used in
 the field or a field  laboratory for measuring  approximate
 soluble salt percentage. Accurate determination requires
 laboratory preparation of  soil samples. SCS (1984,  Sec-
 tion 8A) describes  procedures for preparing a saturated
 paste and obtaining a saturation extract for electrical con-
 ductivity measurement. Measurement  of the resistivity of
 the saturated paste (SCS, 1984, Section 8E) is required
 for evaluating soil corrosion potential for uncoated steel.
       Richards  (1954)  and  Richards et  al.  (1956)
 describe procedures for testing saline  soils in more detail
 and provide charts  and graphs for estimating total  salt
 from  electrical conductivity measurements. Rhoades and
 Oster (1986) describe more  complex  instrumentation for
 collecting soil water using in situ samplers and measuring
 soluble salts with in situ or remote monitors.
       The  electrical conductivity,  also termed specific
 conductance, of ground-water samples can be  readily
 measured in the field using a conductivity meter. Electrical
 conductivity is a measure of  the total  dissolved solids in
the ground water and should not be confused with the soil
 salinity test described above.

 3.3.7   Clay Minerals
       The following procedures can be used to identify
the dominant mineralogy of the clay size-fraction:

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Clay Mineral Test
1.     Prepare a saturated solution of malachite green in
       nitrobenzene to use as an indicator solution (follow
       prescribed   safety  procedures  when  handling
       nitrobenzene).
2.     Add  several drops of the  indicator to a  small
       sample (1 g) of soil and observe color of wetted
       soil as follows:  blue or green-blue = kaolinite; yel-
       low-red = montmorillonite; purple-red = illite.

Mica Shine Test
       Rub a small  clod of air-dried soil with a knife blade.
       A shiny surface indicates a micaceous soil with
       high plasticity.
       EPA's ESES defines the following clay mineral
abundance classes (see Section 3.1.2 for estimation of
texture): abundant  (>27 percent), moderate to slight (1
to 27 percent), none to negligible ( <1 percent).

3.3.5  Other Minerals
       Concentrations  of  minerals  may  form in soil
horizons as  a  result  of  dissolution  and  precipitation
processes. These concentrations are described by SCS
according to (1) type, (2) amount or quantity, (3) size, (4)
shape, and (5)  composition.  The following  are abbrevia-
tions of descriptors  and criteria for describing concentra-
tions in soil:
       Types
       m  —  masses (soft, no clearly defined
              boundaries)
       n  —  nodules and concretions (hard, clearly
              defined boundaries)
       c  —  crystals (single or complex clusters)
       srf —  soft rock fragments (weakly cemented
              or noncemented)
       Amount/Quantity
       f   — few(<2%)
       c  —  common (2-20%)
       m  —  many
     :y:::::::::y^^^

Field Description and Analysis of Soils                      87

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       88
       Size
       fine ( <2 mm)
       medium (2-5 mm)
       coarse (5-20 mm)
       very coarse (20-76 mm)
       extremely coarse (>76 mm)
       Shape
       rnd —  rounded
       cyl  —  cylindrical
       pi   —  platelike
       ir   —  irregular
       fe   —  ferruginous
       mn  —  manganiferous
       sal  —  saline
       Composition
       calc —  calcareous
       arg  —  argillaceous
       yp  —  gypsiferous
       sil   —  siliceous
       The following features and tests can be used to
identify major non-clay minerals  in the field.
Carbonates (calcareous)
       The presence of free calcium carbonate in soil can
be readily determined  based on effervescence in dilute
hydrochloric acid. The test procedure is as follows:
1.     Place  1 g of soil material (about the size of  a
       marble)  in  the  well  of   a porcelain  spot  plate.
       Thoroughly moisten the  soil with  a few drops of
       deionized water;  stir with a  clean glass  rod  to
       remove entrapped air.
2.     Add three drops of dilute 10 percent (4 N) cold HCI
       from a plastic squeeze bottle and immediately ob-
       serve  for  effervescence of  the treated sample
       under a hand lens if possible.
3.     If  effervescence  is observed, record intensity as
       follows:
       vse — very slightly effervescent (few bubbles seen)
       sle— slightly effervescent (bubbles readily seen)

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       ste—strongly effervescent (bubbles form low foam)
       ve—violently   effervescent  (thick  foam   forms
       quickly)
4.     Repeat procedure on a second 1 -g sample.
       Dolomite (calcium-magnesium  carbonate)  effer-
vesces slowly in cold acid unless the mineral is very finely
divided. If dolomite is suspected, place the sample in  a
container and warm it for 15 minutes after covering it with
the acid solution.

Soluble Salts (saline, gypsiferous)
       White incrustations that do not effervesce can be
separated  and checked for water  solubility and  taste.
Chlorides, nitrates, and  sulfates of sodium and potassium
are very water soluble.  Chloride salts can  be tested by
shaking a sample  of  soil in distilled water,  placing about
10  mL of the supernatent solution (after the solids have
settled) in a test tube, and adding a few drops of 5 percent
sodium nitrate solution.  Chlorides are indicated by the for-
mation of a thick, milky precipitate of silver chloride. The
formation of a heavy white precipitate after adding a 5 per-
cent barium chloride  solution to a separate supernatent
sample indicates sulfate ions. SCS (1971, Section I9.6)
provides further details for these tests.
       Crystals of gypsum, which may occur as a white in-
crustation in voids, are rhombic  plates,  laths, or some-
times fibers. Gypsum crystals can be scratched with the
fingernail, do not effervesce in acid, and are very slowly
soluble in water.
       Gypsum Acetone Test. Place 1 part soil and 10
parts water (by weight)  in a small bottle. Seal the bottle
and shake  by hand at  15-minute intervals. Filter the ex-
tract through filter paper. Mix a 50-50 solution of the filtrate
and acetone. The formation of a milky precipitate indicates
the  presence  of  gypsum. SCS  (1971,  Section  I9.6)
describes a somewhat  more complex semi-quantitative
test for gypsum using acetone which can be used in the
field.

Iron Oxides (ferruginous)
       Goethite  and   hematite  commonly  occur  as
segregated  bodies in  soils. Hematite is red; solid bodies,
such as nodules or sheets may be dark brown or almost
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       89

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       90
 black but have a red streak if rubbed on a rough porcelain
 surface or a tough paper.  Goethite bodies commonly are
 red but may be yellow or brown and are generally softer
 than  hematite bodies. In  an  ignition test (see Section
 3.1.3), hematite  will show little color change; the duller
 colors of  goethite  will brighten  when  it  changes  to
 hematite. If gray, blue, or  green materials turn  red when
 ignited, ferrous iron is present.

 Manganese Oxide (manganiferous)
       Black and very dark brown concretions and coat-
 ings on cleavage planes are likely to  be the manganese
 oxide pyrolusite or a closely related mineral. It has a dark
 brown streak and is very soft,  producing the streak even
 on paper. A procedure similar to the carbonate test using
 a dilute (5 percent) solution of  hydrogen peroxide instead
 of HCI will result in the  rapid  evolution of small bubbles
 with a usually rapid consumption of the hydrogen peroxide
 if manganese oxides are present. See Section 3.3.1 for
 further guidance  in differentiating  possible reactions with
 organic matter.
       SCS (1971, Section I7.2) discusses in more detail
 the identification of minerals and mineral groups in the
 field.

 3.3.9   Fertility Potential
       Soil fertility is the ability  or status of a soil to supply
 water and nutrients necessary for plant  growth. Inherent
 physical characteristics, such as soil  structure and avail-
 able water capacity, provide the basic  elements  of fertility
 potential, and are not easily modified.  The nutrient status
 of  a  soil, on the  other  hand,  can  be improved by
fertilization.
       Nutrient status is evaluated by  analyzing samples
 in  the  laboratory for nutrients  essential  for plant growth
 such as nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus.  Soil reac-
tion (pH) is an important chemical parameter, because it
 strongly influences the availability of nutrients.
       The  key  physical  parameters affecting  fertility
potential are aeration and water availability, because plant
 roots require both air and a ready supply of moisture for
optimum  growth.  These factors can be evaluated  by ob-
serving soil properties such as soil texture (Section 3.1.2),

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depth  to  water  table  (Section  3.2.2),  available water
capacity (Section 3.2.3), and soil drainage class (Section
3.2.4). Deep, well-drained soils with a high available water
capacity have the  greatest  fertility potential,  provided
nutrient status is favorable. Shallow soils with low avail-
able water  capacity  have low  fertility potential even if
nutrient status is favorable.
       EPA's ESES defines the  following  soil  fertility
potential or status classes:
       High: Nutrients necessary for plant growth readily
       supplied.
       Moderate: Nutrients necessary for plant growth in
       moderate supply.
       Low: Nutrients necessary for plant growth in low
       supply.

3.3.10 Soil Microbiota
       Microorganisms  in soil and ground water are now
recognized as being of major importance in affecting the
transformation and fate of many organic contaminants and
heavy  metals. The study of soil microbiota from  soil
samples requires carefully controlled laboratory  condi-
tions. The major concern in the field  is that procedures
used to collect soil samples do not allow contamination by
microorganisms from other sources. Soil samples must be
collected using sterilized tools and placed in sterilized con-
tainers. Samples of near-surface soils for microbiological
study should be taken from a soil pit.  Scoops or trowels
used to collect samples from each soil horizon should go
through usual  decontamination  procedures.  As a final
step, they should be heated with a blow torch and cooled
by being stuck into the horizon to be sampled before soil
material is dug out and placed into containers.
       Samples  for  microbiological  study taken from
greater depths where oxygen is  low require special asep-
tic handling  procedures to prevent oxygen from harming
anaerobic microorganisms. Leach et al. (1988) describes
in detail procedures for collecting such  samples, which in-
volve preparing nitrogen-filled sampling containers in the
laboratory, and using a  field sampling glove box that has
been purged with nitrogen gas to reduce the oxygen level
below detectable limits.
Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       91

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 Field Description and Analysis of Soils                       92
       EPA's  ESES  defines  the following  abundance
classes for soil microorganisms  (as number per gram of
soil):  abundant  (>1,000,000),   common  (10,000-
1,000,000), few (100-10,000), none (<100).

3.4   Soil Contaminants
       Visual identification of zones of soil contamination
is sometimes possible when the contaminants are in an
immiscible liquid phase or a solid phase. Iridescence of an
oily phase in water may indicate contamination from syn-
thetic organics. Solid phases should be described by color
and  consistency  (granular, tarry, etc.). Possible  con-
tamination by heavy metals from artificial pigments is evi-
dent from bright colors. Toxic effects of contaminants on
surface vegetation also may be evident. In any event, the
presence  of  contaminants  must  be  confirmed  by
laboratory analysis of samples.
       Organic vapor detectors  are relatively simple in-
struments that are used to identify the presence of volatile
organics. The way in which  readings are taken (distance
from sample being checked, location in borehole, length of
reading) should be recorded along with the readings them-
selves. Procedures should be performed consistently, and
any departures from usual procedures noted.
       Increasingly sophisticated  field  equipment in
mobile laboratories is being used for onsite contaminant
analysis.  Use  of  such equipment is  not covered in this
guide.  Ford et  al. (1984) describe methods for monitoring
toxic gases and vapors with portable field instruments.

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Chapter 4
Soil  Sampling
and
Quality Assurance
   Sample design, sample  location,  equipment and sam-
   pling methods, and quality assurance/quality control
(QA/QC)  procedures  should  all be determined before
sampling begins and be recorded in the Soil Sampling and
Quality Assurance Plans for the site. Mason (1983) and
Barth et al. (1989) provide  detailed guidance on statistical
aspects of sampling design and quality assurance. These
documents will outline the  specific procedures that will be
required during field sampling.
      This  chapter has   two purposes:  (1) to  provide
information that may be useful  if unforeseen conditions
require modification of the procedures specified in the
sampling plan, and (2) to provide forms that may be useful
in carrying out QA/QC procedures.

4.1   Changes in Soil  Sampling Procedures
      Soil description, use of field  analytical equipment,
and soil sampling should be conducted in a uniform and
consistent manner, following procedures specified in the
Soil Sampling and Quality Assurance Plans. If unforeseen
conditions arise at the site during the field investigation
and sampling that prevent  carrying out the specified pro-
cedures, it may be  necessary to develop alternative ap-
proaches at  the  site.  Any  such  changes must  be
documented and approved  (see Section 4.2).
      One  situation requiring departure  from specified
procedures is when soil conditions are unfavorable for the
equipment being used to collect  samples.  If this situation
occurs, the following tables may help identify  alternative
sampling tools:
Soil Sampling and Quality Assurance                      93

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 So/7 Sampling and Quality Assurance                        94
       Table 4-1 summarizes information on applications
       and  limitations for use of 15  types of  hand-
       operated soil sampling devices.
       Table 4-2 summarizes information on applications
       and  limitations for use  of  10 common types of
       power-driven tube samplers.
       Appendix B provides the names and addresses of
       24  manufacturers  and  distributors of  manually
       operated   and   power-driven   soil    sampling
       equipment.
       If the use of different sampling equipment requires
altering the standard sampling protocol, the new protocol
should be clearly specified. Appendices A.2 to A.4 provide
some general soil handling and sampling protocols that
can be used for guidance if revised  protocols must be
developed at the site.

4.2   Quality Assurance/Quality Control
       Any change in  standard procedures for field collec-
tion of soil samples must be justified, described, and ap-
proved  by the  appropriate project personnel.  Form 4-1
(Sample Alteration) can be used for this purpose. Multiple
copies of this form should be available for use.
       Soil sampling personnel should be aware that their
work may be subject  to a field audit to ensure that soil
sampling and other QA/QC  procedures  are  being  fol-
lowed. Form 4-2 contains  a checklist of  major  items that
should be covered in  a field audit.  Field  personnel would
do well to review this  checklist periodically as a reminder
of areas in which they would be held  accountable in the
event of a field audit.
       The results of a field audit, or review of analytical
results,  may identify problems areas requiring  corrective
action. If the need  for  corrective action is identified during
a  field  audit,  it should  be  implemented immediately.
Resampling may be required if  analytical results fall out-
side the acceptable  limits specified in  the Quality As-
surance  Plan.  Form 4-3 (Soil Sample Corrective  Action
Form) can be used to identify problem areas and specify
measures required to correct the problems. When resam-
pling is  required, this form should be taken into the field
and the specified procedures carefully followed.

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Table 4-1.  Summary of Hand-Held Soil Sampling Devices
Sampling
Device
Applications
Limitations
Spoons and
Scoops
Shovels and
Picks
Augers*
Screw Auger
Standard
Bucket Auger

Sand Bucket
Auger
Mud Bucket
Auger
Dutch Auger
In Situ Soil
Recovery
Auger
Eijkelcamp
Stoney Soil
Auger
Planer Auger
Surface soil
samples or the
sides of pits or
trenches
A wide variety
of soil conditions
Cohesive, soft, or
hard soils or
residue
General soil or
residue

Bit designed to
retain dry, loose,
or granular
material (silt, sand,
and gravel)
Bit and bucket
designed for wet
silt and clay soil
or residue
Designed specifically
for wet, fibrous, or
rooted soils
(marshes)
Collection of soil
samples in
reusable liners;
closed top reduces
contamination from
caving sidewalls
Stoney soils and
asphalt

Clean out and flatten
the bottom of
predrilled holes
Limited to relatively
shallow depths;
distributed samples

Limited to relatively
shallow depths

Will not retain dry,
loose, or granular,
material
May not retain dry,
loose, or granular
material
Difficult to advance
boring in cohesive
soils
Will not retain dry,
loose, or granular
material
Similar to
standard bucket
auger
                                                (Continued)
Soil Sampling and Quality Assurance
                                      95

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Soil Sampling and Quality Assurance
                                      96
Table 4-1. (Continued)
Sampling
Device
Applications
                                       Limitations
Tube Samplers**
Soil Probe
Thin-Walled
Tubes
Soil Recovery
Probe
Veihmeyer
Tube
Peat Sampler
Cohesive, soft
soils or residue;
representative
samples in soft to
medium cohesive
soils and silts
Cohesive, soft soils
or residue; special
tips for wet or
dry soils available
Similar to
thin-walled tube;
cores are collected
in reusable liners,
minimizing contact
with the air
Cohesive soils or
residue to depth of
3 meters
Wet, fibrous,
organic soils
                                       Sampling depth
                                       generally limited
                                       to less than 1 meter
                                       Similar to
                                       Veihmeyer tube
                                       Similar to
                                       Veihmeyer tube
                                       Difficult to drive into
                                       dense or hard
                                       material; will not
                                       retain dry, loose, or
                                       granular material;
                                       may be difficult to
                                       pull from ground
'Suitable for soils with limited coarse fragments; only the
stoney soil auger will work well in very gravelly soil.
"Not suitable for soils with coarse fragments.
Source: Adapted from Brown et al. (1991) and Rehm et al.
(1985).

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Table 4-2.
Samplers
Summary of Major Types of Power-Driven Tube
Sampling
Device
     Applications
Limitations
Split Spoon
Sampler
     Disturbed samples
     from cohesive soils
Thin-Walled Samplers
Fixed-Piston    Undisturbed
Sampler        samples in cohesive
                soils, silt, and sand
                above or below
                water table
Hydraulic
Piston
Sampler
(Osterberg)
Stationary
Piston
Sampler
Wireline Piston
Sampler
Free Piston
Sampler
Open Drive
Sampler
     Similar to
     fixed-piston
     sampler
     Undisturbed
     samples in stiff,
     cohesive soils;
     representative
     samples in soft to
     medium cohesive
     soils, silts, and
     some sands
     Undisturbed
     samples in
     cohesive soils and
     noncohesive sands;
     used with clamshell
     device on
     hollow-stem auger
     Similar to stationary
     piston sampler
     Similar to stationary
     piston sampler
Ineffective in
cohesionless sands;
not suitable for
collection of samples
for laboratory tests
requiring undisturbed
soil
                           Ineffective
                           in cohesionless
                           sands
Not possible to limit
the length of push or
to determine amount
of partial sampler
penetration during
push
In heaving sands only
one sample per
borehole can be
collected because
clamshell remains
open after sampling

Not suitable for
cohesionless soils
Not suitable for
cohesionless soils

         (Continued)
:*B*:*:*s*B*s*^
Soil Sampling and Quality Assurance
                                            97

-------
So/7 Sampling and Quality Assurance                          98
         X'XtoKW^
Table 4-2.  (Continued)
Sampling
Device
Applications
Limitations
Pitcher         Undisturbed samples
Sampler        in hard, brittle,
                cohesive soils and
                cemented sands;
                representative
                samples in soft to
                medium cohesive
                soils, silts, and some
                sands; variable
                success with
                cohesionless soils
Denison        Undisturbed samples
Sampler        in stiff to hard
                cohesive soils,
                cemented sands, and
                soft rocks; variable
                success with
                cohesionless materials
Vicksburg       Similar to Denison
Sampler        sampler except takes
                wider diameter samples
                       Frequently ineffective
                       in cohesionless soils
                       Not suitable for
                       undisturbed sampling
                       of loose, cohesionless
                       soils or soft
                       cohesive soils
Source: Adapted from Rehm et al. (1985) and Aller et al. (1989).

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Form 4-1.  Sample Alteration Form
Project Name and Number:_
Material to Be Sampled:
Measurement Parameter:
Standard Procedure for Field Collection and Laboratory Analysis
(cite references):
Reason for Change in Field Procedure:
Variation for Field Procedure:
Special Equipment, Materials, or Personnel Required:
Initiator's Name:	Date:
Project Approval	Date:
Laboratory Approval:	Date:
QA Officer/Reviewer:	Date:
Sample Control Center:	Date:
:*y*:*:*:::*:*&::S::^^
Soil Sampling and Quality Assurance                          99

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So/7 Sampling and Quality Assurance                        100
KoX'XvX'i'XW'WX':*:-:*:^^
Form 4-2.  Field Audit Checklist
Records to Inspect
	  Chain-of-custody forms
	  Analytical analysis request forms
         (if different from chain-of-custody forms)
	  Sample tags
	  Site description forms
	  Log books
Sampling Procedures to Inspect
	  Equipment
	  Techniques
	  Decontamination
	  Collection of duplicate and field blank samples
	Security
	  Sample storage and transportation
	  Containers
	  Contaminated waste storage and disposal
	  Site description form entries

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Form 4-3.  Sample Corrective Action Form

Project Name and Number:	
Sample Data Involved:
Measurement Parameter(s):
Acceptable Data Range:
Problem Areas Requiring Corrective Action:
Measures Required to Correct Problems:
Means of Delecting Problems and Verifying Correction:
Initiator's Name: 	Date:
Project Approval:	Date:
Laboratory Approval:	Date:
QA Officer/Reviewer:	Date:
Sample Control Center:	Date:
Soil Sampling and Quality Assurance                        101

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 References                                        102
 References
Aller, L, et al. 1991. Handbook of Suggested Practices for
the Design and Installation  of Ground-Water Monitoring
Wells.  EPA/600/4-89/034. Available from ORD Publica-
tions, U.S. EPA/CERI, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cin-
cinnati, OH, 45268,  221 pp. Also  published in 1989 by
National  Water Well  Association, Dublin, OH,   in its
NWWA/EPA series, 398 pp.
Barrett,  J.  et al.  1980.  Procedures  Recommended for
Overburden and Hydrologic Studies of Surface  Mines.
GTR-INT-71.  U.S. Forest Service, Intermountain  Forest
and Experiment Station, Ogden, UT, 106 pp.
Barth, D.S., B.J. Mason, T.H.  Starks, and K.W. Brown.
1989. Soil Sampling Quality Assurance User's Guide, 2nd
ed. EPA 600/8-89/046 (NTIS PB89-189864). Environmen-
tal  Monitoring Systems Laboratory,  Las Vegas,  NV,
89193-3478, 225+pp.
Blake,  G.R. and K.H.  Hartge. 1986. Bulk Density. In:
Methods of Soil Analysis, Part  1, 2nd ed., A. Klute (ed.),
Agronomy  Monograph  No. 9.  American Society of
Agronomy, Madison, Wl, pp. 363-275.

Bradford, J.M. 1986. Penetrability. In:  Methods of Soil
Analysis,  Part 1,  2nd  ed., A.  Klute  (ed.), Agronomy
Monograph  No.  9.  American Society of Agronomy,
Madison, Wl, pp. 463-478.

Breckenridge, R.P., J.R. Williams,  and J.F. Keck. 1991.
Characterizing Soils  for Hazardous Waste Site Assess-
ments. Superfund Ground-Water Issue Paper. EPA/600/8-
91/008.  Environmental  Monitoring  Systems Laboratory,
Las Vegas, NV, 89193-3478.

-------
 Brown, K.W.,  R.P. Breckenridge, and R.C. Rope. 1991.
 Soil Sampling Reference  Field Methods. U.S. Fish and
 Wildlife Service Lands Contaminant Monitoring Operations
 Manual, Appendix J.  Prepared by Center for Environmen-
 tal Monitoring  and Assessment, Idaho National Engineer-
 ing Laboratory, Idaho Falls,  ID, 83415. [Final  publication
 pending revisions resulting from field testing of manual.]

 Cameron, R.E. 1991. Guide to Site and Soil Description
 for Hazardous Waste Site Characterization, Vol. 1,  Metals.
 EPA  600/4-91/029.  Environmental  Monitoring Systems
 Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV, 89193-3478.

 Cameron, R.E., G.B.  Blank, and D.R. Gensel. 1966. Sam-
 pling  and  Handling  of Desert  Soils.  NASA Technical
 Report No. 32-908. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California
 Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr.,  Pasadena,
 CA, 91109.
 Follmer, L.R., E.D. McKay, J.A. Lineback, and D.L. Gross.
 1979.  Wisconsinan,  Sangamonian, and Illinoian  Stratig-
 raphy in Central Illinois. ISGS Guidebook 13, Appendix 3.
 Illinois State Geological Survey, Champaign, IL.

 Ford, P.J., P.J.  Turina, and  D.E. Seely. 1984. Charac-
 terization of Hazardous Waste Sites—A Methods Manual:
 Vol. II. Available Sampling Methods, 2nd ed. EPA 600/4-
 84-076 (NTIS PB85-521596). Environmental  Monitoring
 Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV, 89193-3478.
 Guthrie, R.L. and J.E. Witty.  1982. New  Designations for
 Soil Horizons and  Layers  and the  New Soil  Survey
 Manual. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.  46:443-444.

 Indiana  Department  of  Environmental  Management
 (IDEM).  1988.  Requirements  for Describing   Uncon-
 solidated  Deposits (draft  revised  11/18/88).  IDEM, In-
 dianapolis, IN.

 Johnson, W.M., J.E. McClelland, S.B. McCaleb, R. Ulrich,
 W.G. Hoper, and T.B. Hutchings. 1960. Classification and
 Description of Soil Pores. Soil Science 89:319-321.

 Leach, L.E., F.P. Beck, J.T.  Wilson, and D.H.  Kampbell.
 1988. Aseptic  Subsurface Sampling Techniques for Hol-
 low-Stem Auger Drilling. In: Proc. Third Nat. Outdoor Ac-
tion  Conf.  on   Aquifer  Restoration,  Ground  Water
Monitoring and Geophysical Methods. National Water Well
Association, Dublin, OH, pp. 31-51.
ycKyftK£^i^&wy&&y^y&sfc^
References                                         103

-------
References                                         104

Lynn, W.C., W.E.  McKinzie, and R.B. Grossman. 1974.
Field Laboratory Tests for Characterization of Histosols.
In: Histosols: Their Characterization, Use and Classifica-
tion. Soil Science  Society of America, Madison, Wl, pp.
11-20.
Mason, B.J. 1983.  Preparation of Soil Sampling Protocol:
Techniques and  Strategies.  EPA-600/4-03-020  (NTIS
PB83-206979).  Environmental   Monitoring   Systems
Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV, 89193-3478,102 pp.
O'Neal, A.M. 1952. A Key for Evaluating Soil Permeability
by Means of Certain Field Clues. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc.
16:312-315.

Portland Cement Association. 1973. PCA Soil Primer. En-
gineering Bulletin EB007.045. Portland Cement Associa-
tion, Skokie, IL, 39  pp.

Rehm, B.W., T.R.  Stolzenburg, and D.G. Nichols. 1985.
Field Measurement Methods for Hydrogeologic Investiga-
tions: A Critical Review of the Literature. EPRI EA-4301.
Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.

Rhoades,  J.D. and J.D. Oster. 1986. Solute Content. In:
Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1, 2nd ed., A. Klute (ed.),
Agronomy  Monograph  No.  9.  American  Society  of
Agronomy, Madison, Wl, pp. 985-1006.

Richards, L.A.  (ed.). 1954. Diagnosis and Improvement of
Saline and Alkali Soils. U.S.  Department of Agriculture
Handbook No.  60,160 pp.

Richards, L.A., C.A. Bower, and M.  Fireman. 1956. Tests
for Salinity and Sodium Status of Soil and Irrigation Water.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Circular 982.

Smith, G.D., F. Newhall, and L.H. Robinson. 1960. Soil-
Temperature Regimes—Their Characterization and Pre-
dictability. SCS-TP-144. USDA Soil Conservation Service,
14pp.
Soil Conservation Service (SCS). 1971. Handbook of Soil
Survey Investigations Procedures. SCS, Washington, DC,
98pp.
Soil Conservation  Service (SCS).  1983.  National Soils
Handbook. [Available for inspection in SCS County, Area,
or State Offices. A revised handbook was in preparation at
the time this pocket guide was completed.]

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Soil Conservation Service (SCS). 1984. Procedures for Col-
lecting Soil Samples and Methods of Analysis for Soil Survey.
Soil Survey  Investigations Report No. 1. U.S. Government
Printing Office.

Soil Conservation Service (SCS). 1990. Elementary Soil
Engineering, Chapter 4. In: Engineering Field Manual for
Conservation Practices. SCS, Washington, DC.

Soil Science Society of America. 1987. Glossary of Soil
Science Terms. SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin.

Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil
Classification for Making and  Interpreting Soil  Surveys. U.S.
Department of Agriculture Agricultural Handbook No. 436.

Soil Survey  Staff. 1990. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 4th ed.
SMSS Technical Monograph No. 6. Dept. Crop and Soil
Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA,
24061-0404, 422 pp ($12.00).

Soil Survey Staff. 1991. Examination and Description of Soils,
Chapter 3. In: Soil Survey Manual (new edition). Agricultural
Handbook No. 18. Soil  Conservation Service, Washington,
DC. [Note that this supercedes  the 1951 handbook by the
same title, and the 1962 supplement. This manual was at the
publisher at the time this pocket guide was completed.]

Taylor, S.A. and  R.D.  Jackson. 1986. Temperature. In:
Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1, 2nd ed., A. Klute  (ed.),
Agronomy   Monograph   No. 9.  American  Society of
Agronomy, Madison, Wl, pp. 927-940.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1986. Test
Methods for Evaluating Solid  Waste. SW-846  (NTIS
PB88-239223 and PB89-148076).

van Ee, J.J., L.J. Blume, and T.H. Starks. 1990. A Ration-
ale for the Assessment  of Errors  in the Sampling of Soils.
EPA/600/4-90/013.  Environmental   Monitoring  Systems
Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV, 57 pp.

Vogel, W.G. 1987. A Manual for Training Reclamation In-
spectors  in the Fundamentals of Soils and Revegetation.
Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, IA, 178 pp.

Witty, J.E. and E.G. Knox. 1989. Identification, Role in Soil
Taxonomy, and Worldwide Distribution of Fragipans. In:
Fragipans: Their Occurrence, Classification, and Genesis,
N.E. Smeck and E.J. Ciolkosz (eds.), SSSA Sp. Pub. No.
24. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wl, pp. 1-9.
References                                         105

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 Description of Soil Cores                              106
 Appendix A.1
 General  Protocol for
 Description of Soil  Cores
    Careful description of soil conditions at sampling loca-
    tions can provide valuable information for interpreting
soil analyses. Soil cores, which provide relatively  undis-
turbed cross sections of the soil, are best for soil descrip-
tion. A few major features like texture, color  (but not
accurate description of mottling or variations in color), and
potential zones of contamination can  be described from
auger samples, but not much more.
       At the outset, it should be decided whether soil
descriptions will be made from the actual samples to be
analyzed or from separate  cores taken  at  the site.
Describing actual  samples has the advantage of allowing
direct correlation of analyses with observed features, but
will result  in longer exposure of the  sample to the air
before it is  placed in the sample container. This may not
be desirable, even for samples taken for analysis of semi-
volatiles and metals. Table 1-1 contains an abbreviated
list  of suggested features  to be described from soil
samples.
       Taking separate cores  allows more  leisurely and
detailed observation of soil features. The soil can also be
handled as necessary without  concern about affecting its
integrity for analyses. When equipment is being used just
to describe soil features, decontamination procedures
between locations also may be less  rigorous, provided
that there is no danger that contaminants with very low
detection limits could be spread to uncontaminated areas.
       The  upper 1.5 to 2 meters, which have been af-
fected  by soil weathering processes,  should receive the
most  careful attention  for description because this  is
where  the  most  complex features are likely to be en-

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countered. Weathering  may  extend below 2 m  in older
landscapes formed in temperate to humid climates. Below
the zone of weathering, the  more simplified descriptions
typical of geologic drill logs are appropriate. General pro-
cedures for describing  both  types of cores are  outlined
below.

Soil Cores (weathered zone, usually 1.5 to 2 m)
1.     Near the location where the core is to be taken,
       spread a plastic sheet about 30 cm wide and 2
       meters long on the ground, and place on  it a fully
       extended carpenters  rule  or range pole  marked
       with gradations that match the depth increments on
       the  tube  sampler  to  be  used  (i.e.,  in./ft  or
       cm/meter).
2.     Clear any litter away from the ground surface and
       take the first core. An open tube sampler that ex-
       poses most of the core when it is pulled out is
       easiest to use for this purpose. Remove the core
       and place it on the sheet at the zero end of the
       rule. If the presence  of volatile contaminants  is
       suspected, take the reading of the core as soon as
       it is brought to the surface with field instrumenta-
       tion (photoionization or flame ionization detector).
       Also take a reading near the top of the core hole
       and record the measurements.
3.     Repeat coring process trying to take equal incre-
       ments (12-in. increments are usually  possible  in
       the upper 2 or 3 ft; 6-in. increments when the soil is
       very dry and in deeper, denser horizons), placing
       each core on the sheet at the appropriate depth in-
       terval until the desired maximum depth has been
       reached. If the presence of volatile contaminants is
       suspected,  readings with field instruments should
       be  made of each core as soon as it is brought to
       the  surface, and near the top of the hole before
       taking the next increment.
4.     If penetration is difficult in  very dense or very dry
       soils, a  weighted plastic mallet  can be used  to
       drive a sampler with a T-handle into the ground. If
       such  conditions  are   typical,  consider using
       samplers with specially designed weighted drivers.
Description of Soil Cores                                107

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 Description of Soil Cores                                108

 5.     !f rock fragments prevent further penetration of the
       tube sampler before the desired depth has been
       obtained, an auger (screw or bucket) can be used.
       If the diameter of  the auger is larger than that of
       the tube sampler  (usually  the  case), discard the
       soil material brought up by  the auger for the depth
       increments already sampled.
 6.     When the depth of interest is reached, pull up the
       auger at  regular intervals and place soil by the rule
       on the sheet at the appropriate depth location. To
       prevent mixing of loose soil material from different
       depth increments,  place material at chosen incre-
       ments (e.g., 12 in.) on opposite sides of the rule.
 7.     Once the complete soil is  laid out on the sheet,
       visually examine the cores and place nails or some
       other kind  of marker at the places where color
       changes  indicate transitions between horizons.
 8.     Carefully split the  cores. A knife may be used to
       create a shallow groove, but the core should not be
       sliced all  the way through because this will disturb
       structural features. Place one-half with the interior
       side facing up, and the  other half with the interior
       side facing down (exposing the surface that  was
       used for the initial visual inspection).
 9.     Visually examine the interior face of the cores for
       transitions in structural  units, texture, or other fea-
       tures. Adjust the  locations of initially placed horizon
       markers on the sheet, if appropriate, and add addi-
       tional markers for subhorizons, if required.
 10.    Describe  each soil horizon  using Form 3-1. Refer
       to the appropriate sections of Chapter 3 for proce-
       dures and abbreviated codes for descriptors of soil
       parameters.

 Cores below Weathered Zone  (usually 1.5 to 2 m)
       Cores from greater depths can be described using
 essentially the same procedures as described above, ex-
 cept that the greater length requires placement of cores in
 holders where depth increments are side-by-side rather
than end-on-end, and that generally fewer features are
described.  Most  drillers and consultants have their own
drill  log forms. At  a minimum, the following information

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should  be recorded  when describing  cores  below the
weathering horizon:
1.      Type of sample (split spoon, shelby tube, etc.)
2.      Thickness driven/thickness recovered
3.      Blow count (per 6 in.), if driven
4.      Depth interval
       Descriptions of depth intervals tend to be more ab-
breviated than near-surface  soil profile descriptions and
apply to  regular depth intervals rather than  transitions
between  horizons (although such transitions  should be
noted and described). Features should be described in a
consistent sequence.  The following   features,  when
present, should be described:
1.      Texture (USDA  and  Unified estimated textures,
       coarse fragments)
2.      Sorting and roundness
3.      Moisture condition  (moist, wet,  dry, presence of
       water table)
4.      Color and mottling
5.      Consistency (rupture resistance, cementation)
6.      Secondary porosity features
7.      Sedimentary structures
8.      Presence of organic matter
9.      Effervescence in dilute,  10 percent  cold HCI (cal-
       careous parent material)
10.    Visible  presence   of  synthetic  chemicals  (oil,
       gasoline, solvents)
11.    Reading from field instrumentation (photoionization
       or flame ionization detector)
Description of Soil Cores                                109

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 So/7 Sample Handling and Preparation                     110
 Appendix A.2
 General Protocol for Soil
 Sample Handling and
 Preparation
 If questions arise in the field concerning sample handling
 and preparation procedures as specified in the Soil Sam-
pling Plan for the site, this general protocol can be used.
Any departures from procedures contained in the site Soil
Sampling Plan  should be documented and justified (see
Form 4-1). The procedures described here generally apply
to any type of  soil sampling. They have been compiled
primarily  from  procedures described in  Brown  et  al.
(1991). Specific procedures for different types of sampling
tools are described in Appendices A.3 and A.4.

A.2.1 Soil Sample Collection Procedures for
       Volatiles
1.     Tube samplers are  preferred when collecting  for
      volatiles. Augers should be used only if soil condi-
      tions make collection of undisturbed cores impos-
      sible. Soil recovery probes  and  augers, with
      dedicated or  reusable liners (see Table 4-1), will
      minimize  contact  of  the  sample  with  the
      atmosphere.
2.     Place the first adequate grab sample, maintaining
      and handling the sample in as undisturbed a state
      as possible, in 40-mL septum vials or in a 1 -L glass
      wide mouth bottle with a Teflon®-lined cap. Do not
      mix or sieve soil samples.
3.     Ensure the 40-mL  containers are filled to the top to
      minimize volatile loss. Secure the cap tightly.
4.     Examine the  hole from which the sample was
      taken with an organic vapor instrument  after each

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       sample   increment.   Record   any   instrument
       readings.
5.     Label and tag sample containers, and record ap-
       propriate data on soil sample data sheets (depth,
       location, etc.).
6.     Place glass sample containers in  scalable plastic
       bags, if required, and place containers in iced ship-
       ping container. Samples should be cooled to 4°C
       as soon as possible.
7.     Complete chain-of-custody forms and ship as soon
       as possible to minimize sample holding time (see
       Table A.1 for maximum  holding times for various
       constituents).
8.     Follow required decontamination and disposal pro-
       cedures (see A.2.3).

A.2.2  Soil Sample Collection and Mixing
„      Procedures for Semivolatiles and
       Metals
1.     Collect  samples.
2.     If required, composite the grab samples, or use
       discrete grab samples.
3.     If possible, screen the soils in  the field through a
       precleaned O-mesh (No. 10, 2 mm) stainless steel
       screen  for semivolatiles, or Teflon®-lined screen
       for metals (some  metals in  stainless steel could
       contaminate the sample).
4.     Mix the sample in a stainless steel, aluminum (not
       suitable when testing for Al), or glass mixing con-
       tainer using the appropriate tool  (stainless  steel
       spoon, trowel, or pestle).
5.     After thorough mixing, place the sample in the mid-
       dle of a relatively inexpensive 1-m  square piece of
       suitable plastic, canvas, or rubber sheeting.
6.     Roll the  sample backward and forward  on the
       sheet while alternately lifting  and releasing op-
       posite sides or corners of the sheet.
7.     After thorough mixing, spread the soil out evenly
       on the  sheet with a stainless steel spoon, trowel,
       spatula, or large knife.
Soil Sample Handling and Preparation                      111

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 So/7 Sample Handling and Preparation                       112

 8.     Take sample container and check that a Teflon®
       liner is present in the cap, if required (see Table
       A-1 for recommended  sample containers for dif-
       ferent contaminants).
 9.     Divide the sample into quarters, and take samples
       from each quarter in a consecutive manner  until
       appropriate sampling volume is collected for each
       required  container.  Separate  sample containers
       would be required for semivolatiles,  metals, dupli-
       cate samples, triplicate samples (split), and spiked
       samples.
 10.    Secure the cap tightly. The chemical preservation
       of solids is generally not recommended.
 11.    Label and tag sample containers, and record ap-
       propriate data on soil sample data sheets (depth,
       location, other observations).
 12.    Place glass  sample containers in scalable plastic
       bags, if required, and place containers in  an  iced
       shipping container. Samples  should  be cooled to
       4°C as soon as possible.
 13.    Complete chain-of-custody forms and ship as soon
       as possible to minimize sample holding time (see
       Table A-1  for maximum holding times  for various
       constituents). Scheduled arrival time at the analyti-
       cal laboratory srfould give as much holding time as
       possible for scheduling of sample analyses.
 14.    Follow required decontamination and disposal  pro-
       cedures (see A.2.3).

 A.2.3  Equipment Decontamination/Disposal
       Decontamination procedures may vary from state
to state and site to site. Detailed procedures should be
specified in the Soil Sampling Plan. A very general proce-
dure is outlined here:
 1.     Any  disposable  solid  contaminated  equipment
       (plastic sheets, screens, etc.) should be placed in
       plastic bags  for temporary storage and sealed in
       metal barrels for final transport/disposal.
2.     Reusable equipment should be washed and rinsed
       using decontamination procedures specified in the
       Soil Sampling Plan.

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3.     Collect  swipes  and  decontamination  blanks,  if
       required,   to   evaluate   the   possibility   of
       cross-contamination.

A.2.4  Air Drying
       Samples collected  for chemical  analysis in the
laboratory do not normally need  to be air dried. However,
air drying may be desired in the  field for evaluation of soil
physical and hydrologic properties. In some instances, air
drying of contaminated  samples involving semivolatiles
and metals may be desired before sending samples to the
analytical laboratory.
1.     Weigh sample and record weight if percent mois-
       ture is required.
2.     Spread  out the  soil  sample on  a stainless  steel
       sheet and allow to air dry. This may take 3 days or
       more. If samples are to be analyzed for possible
       contaminants, samples should be placed so as to
       prevent possible cross-contamination. If they are to
       be analyzed  for microbiological  activity, samples
       should  be placed in  containers through which fil-
       tered air can be passed.
3.     When dry, weigh and record weight  if  percent
       moisture is required.
4.     Break up soil aggregates  and pull apart vegetation
       and root mat, if present. Weigh nonsoil vegetation
       fraction, and archive or discard, as required.
5.     Remove large rocks and weigh. Archive for  pos-
       sible analysis.
6.     Crush the  entire soil sample with  a rolling  pin,
       stainless steel spoon, or  some similar tool. Blend
       with stainless steel spoon  for 30 minutes.
7.     Sieve through an O-mesh (No. 10, 2 mm) screen.
       Any type of screen  is acceptable, if soils are not
       contaminated.  Use  disposable  stainless  steel
       (semivolatile contamination) or Teflon® (metal con-
       tamination) if soil samples are contaminated and
       the  chemical  integrity of the sample must be
       maintained.
8.     Spread out the sample, mark off quarters, and take
       sample from each quarter in a consecutive manner
       until  appropriate sample  volume  is  collected.
Soil Sample Handling and Preparation                       113

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Soil Sample Handling and Preparation                       114
x*K*:*K'>:*:*X'K'X*K*:'Xw

       Archive remaining sample for future  analysis,  if
       needed.
9.     When  ready  for  shipment  to  the  analytical
       laboratory, shake the sample to mix thoroughly.
10.    Follow required  decontamination  and  disposal
       procedures (see A.2.3).
Table A-1.  EPA Recommended Sampling Containers,
Preservation Requirements, and Holding Times for Soil
Samples
Contaminant
Acidity
Alkalinity
Ammonia
Sulfate
Sulfide
Sulfite
Nitrate
Nitrate-Nitrite
Nitrite
Oil and Grease
Organic Carbon
Metals
Chromium VI
Mercury
Other Metals
Cyanide
Organic Compounds
Extractables
Including Phthalates,
Nitrosamines, Organo-
chlorine Pesticides,
PCBs, Nitroaromatics,
Isophorone, Polynuclear
Aromatic Hydrocarbons,
Haloethers, Chlorinated
Hydrocarbons, and
TCDD
Container*
Preservation**
P,G
P,G
P,G
P,G
P,G
P,G
P,G
P,G
P.G
G
P.G

P,G
P.G
P,G
P,G
G, Teflon®-
lined cap



Holding
Time***
1 4 days
1 4 days
28 days
28 days
28 days
48 hours
48 hours
28 days
48 hours
28 days
28 days

48 hours
28 days
6 months
28 days
7 days until
extraction
30 days after
extraction



                                            (Continued)

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Table A-1. (Continued)
Contaminant
Container*
Preservation*
Holding
Time***
Extractables (Phenols)
Purgables
   Halocarbons and
   Aromatics
   Acrolein and
   Acrylonitrate
Orthophosphate
Pesticides
Phenols
Phosphorus
Phosphorus, Total
Chlorinated Organic
   Compounds
G, Teflon®-
lined cap
G, Teflon®-
lined septum
G, Teflon®-
lined septum
P,G
G, Teflon®-
lined cap
G
G
P,G
G, Teflon®-
lined cap
7 days until
 extraction
30 days after
 extraction

14 days

3 days

48 hours
7 days until
 extraction
30 days after
 extraction
28 days
48 hours
28 days
7 days
*P = polyethylene, G = glass.
"All samples cooled to 4°C. Sample preservation should be per-
formed immediately upon sample collection. For composite
samples, each aliquot should be preserved at the time of collec-
tion. When impossible to preserve each aliquot, then samples
may be preserved by maintaining 4°C until compositing and
sample splitting is completed.
'"Samples should be analyzed as soon as possible after collec-
tion. The times listed are the maximum times that samples may
be held before analysis and still be considered valid. Samples
may be held for longer periods only if the analytical  laboratory
has data on file to show that the specific types of samples under
study are stable for the longer time.
Source: Barth et al., (1989); for additional information, see
Mason (1983).
So/7 Sample Handling and Preparation
                            115

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So/7 Sampling with a Spade and Scoop                     116
:*K*:!:!:::::':*H*:*:W^^^
Appendix A.3
General Protocol for Soil
Sampling with a Spade
and Scoop
      The simplest and most direct method of collecting
soil samples for subsequent analysis is with a spade and
scoop.  A normal lawn or garden spade can be  used to
remove the top cover of soil to the required depth, and
then a smaller stainless steel scoop can be used to collect
the sample.
      This method can be used in most soil types, but is
limited to sampling the near surface. Samples from depths
greater than 50 cm become extremely labor intensive in
most soil types.  Very accurate, representative samples
can be collected with this procedure depending on the
care and precision demonstrated by the sampler. A flat,
pointed mason trowel can be used to cut a block of soil
when relatively undisturbed samples are desired. A stain-
less steel scoop or lab spoon will suffice in most other ap-
plications. Chrome-plating on instruments,  common with
garden implements such as potting trowels, should  be
avoided.

Procedure (drawn from Ford et al., 1984)
1.     Clear the area to be sampled of any surface debris
      (twigs, rocks, litter). It may be advisable to remove
      the first 8 to 15 cm of surface soil for an area ap-
      proximately  15 cm in radius around the drilling
      location to prevent near-surface soil particles from
      falling down the hole.
2.     Carefully remove the top layer of soil to the desired
      sample depth with a precleaned spade.

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3.     Using a precleaned stainless steel scoop or trowel,
       remove and discard a thin layer of soil from the
       area which came in contact with the shovel.
4.     Collect  and  handle  sample using  procedures
       described in A.2.1  (Soil Sample  Collection Proce-
       dures for Volatiles) and A.2.2 (Soil Sample Collec-
       tion and  Mixing Procedures for Semivolatiles and
       Metals).
So/7 Sampling with a Spade and Scoop                      117

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 So/7 Sampling with Augers and Thin-Walled Tube Samplers      118
        KW
 Appendix A.4

 General Protocol for
 Soil Sampling with
 Augers and Thin-Walled
 Tube Samplers
   Hand-held augers and thin-walled tube samplers can be
   used separately or in combination. Where rocky soils
do not limit the use of tube samplers, a combination of
augers to remove soil material to the depth of interest and
tube samplers for actual sample collection allows the most
precise control of sample collection. Depths to 2 meters
can be readily sampled and up to 6 meters where condi-
tions are favorable. Tables 4-1 and 4-2 provide informa-
tion on the advantages  and disadvantages of different
types of augers and tube samplers for sampling under dif-
ferent soil conditions.
      The recently developed in situ soil recovery auger
and probe allow collection  of samples in dedicated or
reusable  liners  that  reduce  cross-contamination of
samples and minimize contact with the atmosphere (see
Table 4-1 and Appendix B).
      Specific sampling tools may require slightly dif-
ferent handling methods. For example, if sampling devices
and drill rod extensions do not have quick connect fittings,
crescent or pipe wrenches  may be required to change
equipment configurations. The procedure described below
is for hand-held equipment.  Procedures for power-driven
augers or tube samplers are essentially the same (drawn
from Ford et al., 1984, and Brown et al., 1991).
1.     Attach the auger bit to a drill rod extension and fur-
      ther attach the "T" handle to the drill rod.
2.     Clear the area to be sampled of any surface debris
      (twigs, rocks, litter). It may be advisable to remove

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       the first 8 to 15 cm of surface soil for an area ap-
       proximately  15 cm in  radius around the drilling
       location to prevent near-surface soil particles from
       falling down the hole.
3.     Begin drilling,  periodically removing  accumulated
       soils.  This  prevents accidentally brushing loose
       material back  down the borehole when removing
       the auger or adding drill rods.
4.     After reaching the desired depth, slowly and care-
       fully  remove  auger from boring. When sampling
       directly from auger, collect sample after auger  is
       removed from boring. Discard the upper portion of
       the sample, which  may contain soil that has fallen
       to  the bottom of  the hole  from  the sidewalls.
       Proceed  to  sample handling and mixing proce-
       dures (see A.2.1 and A.2.2).
5.     If taking a core sample, remove auger tip from drill
       rods  and replace  with  a precleaned  thin-walled
       tube sampler. Install proper cutting tip. (An optional
       step  is to first replace the auger tip with a planer
       auger to clean out and flatten the bottom of the
       hole before using the thin-walled tube sampler.)
6.     Carefully lower corer down  borehole. Gradually
       force corer into soil. Care should be taken to avoid
       scraping the borehole sides. Hammering of the drill
       rods to facilitate coring should be avoided, as the
       vibrations may cause the bore walls to collapse.
7.     Remove corer and unscrew drill rods.
8.     Remove core from device (this may require remov-
       ing cutting  tip) and  discard top  of  core  (ap-
       proximately 2.5 cm),  to  eliminate soil that  may
       have fallen down from higher horizons.
9.     Handle  sample using procedures  described in
       A.2.1 andA.2.2.
So/7 Sampling with Augers and Thin-Walled Tube Samplers       119

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Manufacturers and Distributors of Soil Sampling Equipment       12°
W&S8$!$^^
Appendix B
xmv&»Z'»&;&s*x»Kmi&»x>z!:

Manufacturers and
Distributors of Soil
Sampling Equipment
Table B-1.  Manufacturers and Distributors of Soil
Sampling Equipment (Compiled from Barrett et al., 1980;
Ford et al., 1984; Rehm et al., 1985; SCS, 1983)
Supplier
Types of Samplers
Acker Drill Company
P.O. Box 830
Scranton, PA 18501

Art's Manufacturing and
Supply (AMS)
105 Harrison
American Falls, ID 83211
1/800/635-7330

Boyle Brothers
P.O. Box 25068
1624 Pioneer Road
Salt Lake City, UT 84125

Carl's Machine Shop and
Supply Co.
1202 ^ainSt.
Woodward, OK 73801

Mining Products Division
Christensen Diamond Products
Company
1937 S. 300 West
Salt Lake City, UT 84115
Power-driven samplers
Manual samplers
In situ soil recovery
auger and probe
Planer auger
Power-driven samplers
Power-driven samplers
Power-driven samplers
                                       (Continued)

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Table B-1.  (Continued)
Supplier
Types of Samplers
Clements Associates, Inc.
RR1 Box 186
Newton, IA 50208
515/792-8285

Forestry Suppliers
P.O. Box 8397
Jackson, MS 39284-8397

Gidding Machine Company
401 Pine Street
P.O. Box 406
Fort Collins, CO 80521

Hansen Machine Works
1628 North C Street
Sacramento, CA 95814

Joy Manufacturing Company
Montgomery Industrial Center
Montgomeryville, PA 19936

Longyear Company
925 Delaware Street, SE
Minneapolis, MN 55414

Mobile Drilling Company
3807 Madison Ave.
Indianapolis, IN 46227

Oakfield Apparatus Company
P.O. Box 65
Oakfield, Wl 53065

Odgers Drilling, Inc.
Ice Lake Road
Iron River, Ml 49935

Penndrill Manufacturing Div.
Pennsylvania Drilling Co.
P.O. Box 8562
Pittsburgh, PA 15220
Manual samplers
Manual samplers
Clinometer
Power-driven samplers
Veihmeyer probe
Power-driven samplers
Power-driven samplers
Power-driven samplers
Manual samplers
Power-driven samplers
Power-driven samplers
                                             (Continued)
 Manufacturers and Distributors of Soil Sampling Equipment
                      121

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 Manufacturers and Distributors of Soil Sampling Equipment       122
 SSSSgS/imSSSSilXSSISSISagmmsmxmKK

 Table B-1. (Continued)
 Supplier
Types of Samplers
 Pitcher Drilling Company
 75 Allemany Street
 Daly City, CA 94014

 Reed Tool Company
 105 Allen Street
 P.O. Box 3641
 San Angelo, TX 76901

 Reese Sale Company
 P.O. Box 645
 2301 Gibson St.
 Bakersfield, CA 93302

 Sauze Technical Products
 Corp.
 345 Cornelia St.
 Plattsburgh, NY 12901
 518/561-6440

 Service Truck Body Shop
 1259 Murray
 Alexandria, LA 71301

 Soilmoisture Equipment Corp.
 P.O. Box 30025
 Santa Barbara, CA 93105
 805/964-3525

 Soiltest, Inc.
 P.O. Box 931
 2205 Lee Street
 Evanston, IL 60202
312/869-5500

Sprague and Henwood, Inc.
221 West Olive Street
Scranton, PA 18501

Wildco
301 Cass Street
Sag in aw, Ml 48602
517/799-8100
 Power-driven samplers
Power-driven samplers
Power-driven samplers
Eijkelcamp stoney soil
auger
Manual samplers
Manual samplers
Power-driven samplers
Penetrometer
Selves
Power-driven samplers
Manual samplers

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