vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Washington, DC 20460
EP A/625/7-90/008
August 1990
Guides to Pollution
Prevention
The Commercial Printing
Industry
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EPA/625#-90/008
August 1990
GUIDES TO POLLUTION PREVENTION:
THE COMMERCIAL PRINTING INDUSTRY
RISK REDUCTION ENGINEERING LABORATORY
AND
CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INFORMATION
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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NOTICE
This guide has been subjected to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's
peer and administrative review and approved for publication. Approval does not
signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial
products constitute endorsement of recommendation for use. This document is
intended as advisory guidance only to the commercial printing industry in develop-
ing approaches for pollution prevention. Compliance with environmental and
occupational safety and health laws is the responsibility of each individual business
and is not the focus of this document.
Worksheets are provided for conducting waste minimization assessments of
commercial printing industry manufacturing facilities. Users are encouraged to
duplicate portions of this publication as needed to implement a waste minimization
program.
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FOREWORD
This guide identifies and analyzes waste minimization methodologies appropri-
ate for commercial printers, who include lithographers, gravure printers, flexogra-
phers, and letterpress and screen printers. This information largely addresses the
wastes and waste minimization options for offset lithographers.
A variety of wastes are generated during the printing operation. Waste that can
be disposed of in trash include some waste paper; film; empty containers; used
blankets; and damaged products and other items. These wastes result from image
processing, plate making, proof making, printing, and finishing processes. Another
form of waste -waste water- results from image processing, plate making, and
printing processes. Equipment cleaning wastes and air emissions are other
categories of waste. Much of the waste paper generated can be recycled.
Reducing the generation of these wastes at the source, or recycling the wastes
on or off site, will benefit commercial printers by reducing raw material needs,
reducing disposal costs, and lowering the liabilities associated with hazardous
waste disposal.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This guide is based in part on waste minimization assessments conducted by
Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. Pasadena, California for the California Department
of Health Services (DHS). Contributors to these assessments include: David Leu,
Benjamin Fries, Kim Wilhelm, and Jan Radimsky of the Alternative Technology
Section of DHS. Much of. the information in this guide that provides a national
perspective on the issues of waste generation and minimization for commercial
printers was provided originally to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by
Versar, Inc. and Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. in "Waste Minimization-Issues and
Options, Volume II," report no. PB87-114369 (1986). Jacobs Engineering Group
Inc. edited and developed this version of the waste minimization assessment guide,
under subcontract to Radian Corporation (USEPA contract 68-02-4286).
Lisa M. Brown of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Development, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, was the
project officier responsible for the preparation and review of this document. Other
contributors and reviewers include: Dr. William D. Schaeffer, Executive Director
of the Environmental Conservative Board, Graphic Arts Technical Foundation;
Gary A. Jones, Environmental Chemist, Graphic Arts Technical Foundation.
IV
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CONTENTS
Section
Notice jj
Foreword jjj
Acknowledgments iv
1. Introduction 1
2. Commercial Printing Industry Profile ....5
3. Waste Minimization Options for Commercial Printers 14
4. Guidelines for Using the Waste
Minimization Assessment Worksheets ..23
APPENDIX A:
Case Studies of Commercial Printing Plants 37
APPENDIX B:
Where to Get Help: Further Information on
Waste Minimization 41
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Section 1
INTRODUCTION
This guide was prepared to provide commercial print-
ers with guidelines and options to minimize both hazard-
ous and non-hazardous wastes. It includes worksheets to
be used in developing waste minimization options for an
individual facility. The worksheets and the list of waste
minimization options were developed through assessments
of two Los Angeles area firms commissioned by the
California Department of Health Services (Calif. DHS
1988). The two firms' operations, manufacturing proc-
esses, and waste generation and management practices
were surveyed, and their existing and potential waste
minimization options were characterized. Economic analy-
ses were performed on selected options.
Inks and paper are the primary raw materials used in
printing. Other input materials include photoprocessing
and platemaking materials, fountain solutions, cleaning
solvents and solutions, and lubricating oils. Solvents and
some waste inks represent hazardous materials. Because of
the variety of processes and printing substrates used and
differences in the final product desired, many different inks
are used. Some inks may contain flammable and toxic
solvents and/or toxic heavy metals. On the other hand,
many inks are claimed to be non-hazardous. The printing
industry has made substantial progress toward the use of
less hazardous and non-hazardous materials.
Waste minimization is a policy specifically mandated
by the U.S. Congress in the 1984 Hazardous and Solid
Wastes Amendments to the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA). As the federal agency responsible
for writing regulations under RCRA, the U.S Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) has an interest in ensur-
ing that new methods and approaches are developed for
minimizing hazardous waste and that such information is
made available to the industries concerned. This guide is
one of the approaches EPA is using to provide industry-
specific information about hazardous waste minimization.
EPA has also developed a general manual for waste
minimization in industry. The Waste Minimization Oppor-
tunity Assessment Manual (USEPA 1988) tells how to
conduct a waste minimization assessment and develop
options for reducing hazardous waste generation at a
facility. It explains the management strategies needed to
incorporate waste minimization into company policies and
structure, how to establish a company-wide waste minimi-
zation program, conduct assessments, implement options,
and make the program an on-going one. The elements of
waste minimization assessment are explained in the Over-
view, next section.
In the following sections of this manual you will find:
• An overview of the commercial printing
industryand the processes used by the industry
(Section Two);
• Waste minimization options for commercial
printers (Section Three);
• Waste Minimization Assessment Guidelines
andWorksheets (Section Four)
• An Appendix, containing:
- Case studies of waste generation and waste
minimization practices of two
commercial printers;
- Whereto gethelp: Sources of useful technical
and regulatory information
Overview of Waste Minimization Assessment
In the working definition used by EPA, waste minimi-
zation consists of source reduction and recycling. Of the
two approaches, source reduction is usually considered
preferable to recycling from an environmental perspective.
Treatment of hazardous waste is considered an approach
to waste minimization by some states but not by others, and
thus is not addressed in this guide.
A Waste Minimization Opportunity Assessment
(WMOA), sometimes called a waste minimization audit, is
a systematic procedure for identifying ways to reduce or
eliminate waste. The steps involved in conducting a waste
minimization assessment are outlined in Figure 1 and
presented in moredetail in thenextparagraphs. Briefly, the
assessment consists of a careful review of a plant's opera-
tions and waste streams and the selection of specific areas
to assess. After a particular waste stream or area is estab-
lished as the WMOA focus, a number of options with the
potential to minimize waste are developed and screened.
The technical and economic feasibility of the selected
options are then evaluated. Finally, the most promising
options are selected for implementation.
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Figure 1. The Waste Minimization Assessment Procedure
The Recognized Need to Minimize Waste
PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION
> Get management commitment
1 Set overall assessment program goals
> Organize assessment program task force
Assessment Organization &
Commitment ta Proceed
ASSESSMENT PHASE
' Collect process and facility data
' Prioritize and select assessment targets
• Select people for assessment teams
> Review data and inspect site
> Generate options
• Screen and select options for further study
Select New Assessment
Targets and Reevaluate
Previous Options
Assessment Report of
Selected Options
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS PHASE
»Technical evaluation
> Economic evaluation
»Select options for Implementation
Final Report, Including
Recommended Options
IMPLEMENTATION
• Justify projects and obtain funding
• Installation (equipment)
• Implementation (procedure)
Evaluate performance
Repeat the Process
Successfully Implemented
Waste Minimization Projects,
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To determine whether a WMOA would be useful in
your circumstances, you should first read this section
describing the aims and essentials of the WMOA process.
For more detailed information on conducting a WMOA,
consult The Waste Minimization Opportunity Assessment
Manual.
The four phases of a waste minimization opportunity
assessment are:
• Planning and organization
• Assessment phase
• Feasibility analysis phase
• Implementation
PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION
Essential elements of planning and organization for a
waste minimization program are getting management
commitment for the program; setting waste minimization
goals; and organizing an assessment program task force.
ASSESSMENT PHASE
The assessment phase involves a number of steps:
• Collect process and facility data
• Prioritize and select assessment targets
• Select assessment team
• Review data and inspect site
• Generate options
• Screen and select options for feasibility study
Collect process and facility data. The waste streams
at a facility should be identified and characterized. Infor-
mation about waste streams may be available on hazardous
waste manifests, National Pollutant Discharge Elimina-
tion System (NPDES) reports, routine sampling programs
and other sources.
Develop a basic understanding of the processes that
generate waste at a facility is essential to the WMOA
process. Flow diagrams should be prepared to identify the
quantity, types and rates of waste generating processes.
Also, preparing material balances for various processes
can be useful in tracking various process components and
identifying losses or emissions that may have been unac-
counted for previously.
Prioritize and select assessment targets. Ideally, all
waste streams in a facility should be evaluated for potential
waste minimization opportunities. With limited resources,
however, a plant manager may need to concentrate waste
minimization efforts in a specific area. Such considera-
tions as quantity of waste, hazardous properties of the
waste, regulations, safety of employees, economics, and
other characteristics need to be 'evaluated in selecting a
target stream.
Select assessment team. The team should include
people with direct responsibility and knowledge of the
particular waste stream or area of the plant.
Review data and inspect site. The assessment team
evaluates process data in advance of the inspection. The
inspection should follow the target process from the point
where raw materials enter the facility to the points where
products and wastes leave. The team should identify the
suspected sources of waste. This may include the produc-
tion process; maintenance operations; and storage areas for
raw materials, finished product, and. work in progress. The
inspection may result in the formation of preliminary
conclusions about waste minimization opportunities. Full
confirmation of these conclusions may require additional
data collection, analysis, and/or site visits.
Generate options. The objective of this step is to
generate a comprehensive set of waste minimization op-
tions for further consideration. Since technical and eco-
nomic concerns will be considered in the later feasibility
step, no options are ruled out at this time. Information from
the site inspection, as well as trade associations, govern-
ment agencies, technical and trade reports, equipment
vendors, consultants, and plant engineers and operators
may serve as sources of ideas for waste minimization
options.
Both source reduction and recycling options should be
considered. Source reduction may be accomplished through:
• Good operating practices
• Technology changes
• Input material changes
• Product changs
Recycling includes:
• Use and reuse of waste
• Reclamation
Screen and select options for further study. This
screening process is intended to select the most promising
options for full technical and economic feasibility study.
Through either an informal review or a quantitative deci-
sion-making process, options that appear marginal, im-
practical or inferior are eliminated from consideration.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
An option must be shown to be technically and eco-
nomically feasible in order to merit serious consideration
for adoption at a facility. A technical evaluation deter-
mines whether a proposed option will work in a specific
application. Both process and equipment changes need to
be assessed for their overall effects on waste quantity and
productquality. Also.anynewproductsdevelopedthrough
process and/or raw material changes need to be tested for
market acceptance.
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An economic evaluation is carried out using standard
measures of profitability, such as paybackperiod, return on
investment, and net present value. As in any project, the
cost elements of a waste minimization project can be
broken down into capital costs and economic costs. Sav-
ings and changes in revenue also need to be considered.
IMPLEMENTATION
An option that passes both technical and economic
feasibility reviews should then be implemented at a facil-
ity. It is then up to the WMOA team, with management
support, to continue the process of tracking wastes and
identifyingopportunities forwaste minimization, through-
outa facility and by way of periodic reassessments. Either
such ongoing reassessments or an initial investigation of
waste minimization opportunities can be conducted using
this manual.
References
Calif. DHS. 1988. Waste Audit Study: CommerdalPrinting
7«rft«/ry.ReportpreparedbyJacobsEngineeringGroup
Inc., Pasadena, Calif., for the California Department
of Health Services, Alternative Technology Section,
Toxic Substances Control Division, May 1988.
USEPA. 1988. The EPA Manual for Waste Minimization
Opportunity Assessments. Hazardous Waste
Engineering Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio,
EPA/600/2-88-025.
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Section!
COMMERCIAL PRINTING INDUSTRY PROFILE
Industry Description
As defined in the Standard Industrial Classification
(SIC) 27 - the printing, publishing, and allied industries
include "establishments engaged in printing by one or
more of the common processes, such as letterpress, lithog-
raphy, gravure, or screen; and those establishments which
perform services for the printing trade, such as bookbind-
ing, typesetting, engraving, photoengraving, and electro-
typing. This major group also includes establishments
engaged in publishing newspapers, books, and periodicals,
regardless of whether or not they do their own printing." Of
the seventeen SIC subgroups under major group 27, about
fifteen involve substantial printing operation activities.
SIC 275 involves commercial printing operations.
Printing £or graphic arts) establishments are scattered
all over the United States, with the largest concentrations
in California and New York. These two states share about
12 and 11 percent of the industry, respectively. Illinois,
Texas, Florida, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ohio each
share about 5 percent of the total. As of 1982, there were
approximately 53,500 facilities located in the U.S. (USDC
1985a, 1985b, 1985c). '
Printing Processes and Products
The five most common printing processes in order of
their market share are lithography, gravure, flexography,
letterpress, and screen (see Figures 2 and 3). Presses are
also categorized by the form of paper or other substrate
used. Web presses, which are used for larger printing runs,
print the image onto a continuous roll (web) of paper. After
printing, the paper is then slit (cut) and trimmed to the
preferred size. Sheet-fed presses print on individual sheets
of paper or other substrate. The products associated with
each printing process are discussed in the section below.
Lithography is the predominant printing process. Its
growth is expected to continue into the 1990s and then
stabilize at just under 50% of all printing applications.
Sheet-fed lithography is used for printing books, posters,
greeting cards, labels, packaging, advertising flyers and
brochures, periodicals, and for reproducing artwork. Web
offset lithography is used for periodicals, newspapers,
advertising, books, catalogs, and business forms. However,
sheetfed offset still predominates in numbers of
establishments, with 16, 112 nationwide compared with
1,840 heatset web offset printers (Schaeffer, personal
communication.) Gravure printing is usedfor large volume
runs and high speed runs for printing high-quality
publications, magazines, catalogs, and advertising. It also
has large volume applications in the printing of flexible
packaging (polyolefin packaging), paperboard boxes, and
labels. It can print glossy ink films effectively.
Flexography, a form of letterpress that uses a flexible
plastic or rubber plate in a rotary web press, is used
primarily for packaging, such as plastic wrappers, corru-
gated boxes, milk cartons, shower curtains, foil, and paper ,
bags. Flexography works well when printing a large solid
surface area and with appropriate substrate can achieve
glossy colors. Because of the growth of packaging, the use
of flexography has shown a steady increase.
Web letterpress is currently us«xl for printing newspa-
pers and magazines. However, its: use is declining with
greater use of lithography. Sheet-fed letterpress is used for
books, printed stationery, announcements, business cards,
and advertising brochures. Because individual changes
can be made on a plate without having to redo the entire
plate, letterpress is particularly useful for price lists, parts
lists, and directories. In this case, however, computerized
image making is replacing the practice of having standing
typeset plates upon which small changes are made.
Screen printing can print on virtually any substrate,
including wood, glass, fabrics, plastics, and metals. It is
used for specialty printing, T-shirts, posters and banners,
decals, and wallpapers. This type of printing makes up a
smallbutgrowingsegmentoftheprintingindustry. Screen
printing is also used to print patterns on electronic circuit
boards prior to etching.
Raw Materials
The principal raw materials used by the graphic arts
industry are inks and substrates. A substrate is any material
upon which ink is impressed, such as paper, plastic, wood,
or metal. Table 1 shows relative usage of ink and paper by
the industry.
Other raw materials used by the industry include
gravure cylinders, photographic films, photoprocessing
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chemicals (developers, fixers, wash baths, reducers, inten-
sifiers), printing plates, plate processing chemicals, foun-
tain solutions, cleaning solvents, and rags. Many of the
chemicals employed are discussed under process descrip-
tion.
Process Description
Figure 4 illustrates a typical commercial offset litho-
graphic printing operation. Printing begins with the prepa-
ration of artwork or copy, which is photographed to pro-
duce an image. A proof is made which will be used to
compare with the printed product and make adjustments to
the press. The photographic image is transferred to a plate.
In the platemaking step, the image areas of the plate are
made receptive to the ink. In the printing step, ink is
applied to theplate, then transferred toarubberblanketand
then to the substrate.
The substrate accepts the ink, reproducing the image.
The substrate is then cut, folded, and bound to produce the
final product. Printing can be divided into four separate
steps: (1) image processing, (2) platemaking, (3) printing,
and (4) finishing. The operations involved in these steps
arc detailed below.
Table 1. Paper and Printing Ink Used by the
Graphic Arts Industry
Annual
Volume
Material (short tons)
Paper
Commercial printers 5,300,000
Magazines and other periodicals
(other periodicals include
catalogs and directories) 4,000,000
Books 900,000
Printing Ink
Lithog raphic and offset 190,150
Gravure , 179,750
Letterpress 119,250
Flexographic 91,150
Source: 1984 U.S. Industrial Outlook (USDC1984);
American Paper Institute 1985: Personal communication.
IMAGE PROCESSING
Most printing operations begin with art and copy (or
text) preparation. Once the material is properly arranged,
it is photographed to produce transparencies. If an image
is to be printed as a full color reproduction, then color
separations are made to provide a single-color image or
record which can then be used to produce the single-color
printing plate for lithography or the cylinder for gravure.
(Multi-color printing is done by passing the substrate
through several single-color printing operations.) Once
the film has been developed, checked, and rephotographed
(if necessary), it is sent on to the plate- or cylinder-making
operation.
The printing industry employs graphic arts photogra-
phy in the reproduction of both artwork and copy, using
materials similar to those in other fields of photography.
The materials include a paper, plastic film, or glass base
covered with a light-sensitive coating called a photo-
graphic emulsion. This emulsion is usually composed of
silver halide salts in gelatin. Silver halides include silver
chloride, silver bromide and silver iodide. Most photo-
graphic films are made of polyester, although some cellu-
lose acetate films are still in use.
A photographic process generally produces a negative
in which light parts of the copy that was photographed are
represented by heavy deposits of silver, causing them to
appear dark. Dark parts of the copy are represented by little
or no deposits of silver, causing them to appear light or
transparent Some processes such as letterpress or lithog-
raphy use the photographic negative to transfer an image to
the plate. Gravure, screen printing, and other lithographic
processes require positives. These are produced by print-
ing negatives onto paper or film. The resulting images
have tone values similar to the object or copy that was
photographed.
A photograph or other image made up of a gradation
of shades is called continuous tone. Gravure, collotype and
screenless Lithography produce continuous tone pictures
by varying the print density. However, in offset lithogra-
phy or letterpress continuous tones cannot be reproduced
by varying the ink density. These processes print either a
solid density of color, or none at all. To approximate the
tones of the image, these processes employ a halftone
screen, which converts a continuous tone image into a
pattern of dots of different sizes. Areas meant to appear
dark have larger dots .while light areas use small dots. Due
to the limited resolvingpower of the human eye, the overall
effect is very similar to a continuous-tone photograph.
Developing
Oxidation and reduction reactions develop an exposed
photographic emulsion. The exposed film or plates is first
immersed in a developer. This converts the silver halide in
the photographic emulsion to metallic silver, in proportion
to the amount of exposure it has received. Developers
typically contain benzene derivatives. These include py-
rogallol, hydroquinone, catechol, p-phenylene diamine, p-
aminophenol, metol (or elon), amidol, and pyramidol.
These compounds contain two -OH (hydroxyl) groups,
two -NH2(amino) groups, or one of each: The two most
common developing agents are hydroquinone and metol.
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In general the developer solution also contains an
accelerator, preservative, and restrainer. The accelerator is
an alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide, sodium
carbonate, or sodium tetraborate (borax), which increases
the activity of the developer by neutralizing the acid
formed during the development process. The preservative,
typically sodium sulfite, reduces oxidation damage to the
developing agent The restrainer, potassium bromide,
reduces the formation of "fog" on the images.
An all-purpose developer might contain the two de-
veloping agents, such as metol and hydroquinone, a so-
dium carbonate accelerator, a sodium sulfite preservative
and a potassium bromide accelerator. A low-contrast
developer frequently employs borax instead of sodium
carbonate as the accelerator, and uses no potassium bro-
mide.
The introduction of automatic film processors has
resulted in different developer formulas. One type is spe-
cifically for rapid-access processing. The developer is a
low-contrast type employing a special restrainer to reduce
fogging of films at the high developer temperatures. The
developer also has a high concentration of sodium sulfite.
In rapid-access processing, films develop in 60 to 90
seconds in a developer bath that exceeds 100°F (Hartsuch
1983).
Fixing
The developing action is stopped by immersing the
film in a fixing bath of sodium thiosulfate ("hypo"),
ammonium thiosulfate, or sodium hyposulfite. These
chemicals convert the silver halides from the photographic
emulsion to soluble complexes. This prevents them from
turning to metallic silver, which would make the image in
the emulsion black.
Hypo is typically the major ingredient of a fixing bath.
Acetic acid, sodium sulfite, potassium alum, and boric acid
are also usually present. Potassium alum, which prevents
excess swelling of the photo emulsion gelatin, is not stable
in a neutral or alkaline solute; precipitation of aluminum
hydroxide will result unless an agent such as acetic acid is
added to keep thepH low. The major reason for the low pH
is to neutralize the alkalinity of any developing solution
remaining on the film and thus stop the developing action.
Hypo will decompose in an acid solution, forming
elementary sulfur as a precipitate. Sodium sulfite is added
to combine with the sulfur precipitate and form more
sodium thiosulfate. Thus, the sodium sulfite stabilizes the
fixing solution. Boric acid is added to buffer the fixing
solution and limit pH changes. This helps to prevent
precipitation of aluminum compounds (aluminum is a
constituent of potassium alum).
Each time photographic film or paper is immersed in
the fixing bath, a small amount of silver enters the bath
from the photographic emulsion. Insoluble compounds
that are formed after the silver concentration reaches a
certain level cannot be removed from the photographic
emulsion. The bath should be recycled before this point is
reached. The critical silver concentration for fixing baths
is 0.27 ounces per gallon (2 gramsAiter), while that for
films is 0.8 ounces/gallon (6 gm/1) when hypo is the fixing
agent Use of ammonium thiosulfate doubles the maxi-
mum allowable concentrations of silver. The amount of
silver present in a fixing bath can be determined with silver
test papers available from most graphic arts suppliers.
A fresh fixing bath typically has a pH of 4.1 (Hartsuch
1983). Films and prints immersed in the fixer carry some
alkaline developing bath with them. This raises the pHof
the fixing bath slightly. When the pH reaches 5.5, the
potassium alum is less effective. The bath is then either
changed, or the pH is lowered by adding more acetic acid.
Sometimes an acid stop bath is used prior to the fixing bath
to stop the action of the developing solution. The stop bath
prevents most of the pH rise of the fixing bath.
Wash Bath
After a negative or positive is fixed, some of the fixing
bath chemicals remain in the gelatin emulsion layer. One
of the chemicals present is hypo. If it is not removed from
the emulsion, it can react with the silver to form yellowish-
brown silver sulfide, which impairs the quality of the
image. Complex silver salts will also react with the hypo
to form silver sulfide. To prevent sulfide formation, fixing
chemicals are washed from the emulsion. Films are washed
in a water bath that dissolves the hypo from the emulsion
until an equilibrium is reached between the hypo in the
water and that in the emulsion, at which point the water is
changed, and more hypo is dissolvisd out of the emulsion.
Alternatively, films can be washed in running water. The
flow of water into the wash tray is adjusted to typically give
a complete water change every five minutes. Washwater at
about 80°F increases the efficiency of hypo removal. The
pH of most washes is kept above 4.9. This prevents the
gelatin of the photographic emulsion from absorbing thio-
sulfate ions.
Photographic Reducers and Intensiflers
Chemicals are sometimes used to reduce or increase
the density of the metallic deposit on the film, in order to
change the image contrast. Reducers act by oxidizing
some of the metallic silver in the emulsion to a soluble salt.
Reducers include ferric ammonium sulfate, sulfuric acid,
and potassium ferricyanide. Intensifies increase the black-
ness of a silver deposit by adding silver or mercury to the
developed silver grains in the emulsion. One common
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intensifier contains silver nitrate, pyrogallol and citric
acid; another contains a mercury salt, metal and citric acid.
PROOF
Aproof is produced after the image processing step as
part of internal job control, and it may also serve as a
communication tool between printer and client It is used
for both single-color and multi-color printing. In the case
of color periodicals, the proof step may occur outside the
commercial printer's facility, at a color separation house.
The proof shows whether all the elements fit, whether the
color is right, and how the job will look when it is printed.
For multicolor work, both press proofs and off-press (or
prepress) proofs are in use. Press proofs are more expen-
sive because they require a press and printing plates or
cylinders, however, letterpress and gravure generally use
pressproofs because theplatemakingandcylinder-making
steps affect tone reproduction. In press proofs, the actual
printing inks and paper to be used can be employed,
although usually a special (non-production) press is used to
print the proof.
Off-press proofs are produced directly, usually photo-
graphically, and these serve as a quality control check of
camera and scanner separation and corrections (Bruno
1983).
The waste associated with the proof is film and paper.
While electronic imaging may in the future make it pos-
sible to eliminate the proof, it is currently an indispensable
step in commercial printing.
PLATE PROCESSING
Theprintingprocess revolves around the intermediate
image carrier.aplateor cylinder thatacceptsinkoffaroller
and transfers the image to the rubber blanket. The blanket,
in turn, transfers it to the paper. Each printing process uses
a different type of image carrier. The type of ink and press
used, the number of impressions that can be printed, the
speed with which they are printed, and the characteristics
of the imageareall determined by the type of imagecarrier.
The four different types of image carriers generally
used are manual, mechanical, electrostatic, and photome-
chanical.
Manual image carriers consist of hand-set composi-
tion, wood cuts, linoleum blocks, copperplate or steel-die
engravings. Manually made images are seldom used now
except for commercial use in screen printing.
Mechanical image carriers are produced mainly for
relief printing. There are two categories: (1) hot metal
machine composition and (2) duplicate printing plates.
In taglioprintingalsousesmechanicallymadeplates. These
include pantograph engravings, used for steel-die engrav-
ing, and engravings made with geometric lathes, which
produce scrolls for stock and bond certificates and paper
currency. Mechanically-made gravure cylinders are also
used for printing textiles, wrapping papers, wallpapers,
and plastics.
Electrostatic plates are popular in reprography (offset
duplicating) where electrophotographic cameras convert
original images or pasteups to lithographic plates used on
copier/duplicators. Electrostatically produced plates are
also usedforimagingfrom pasteups andforlaserplatemak-
ing used in newspaper printing.
Photomechanicalplatemaking is the common method
of platemaking. These image carriers use light sensitive
coatings on which images are produced photographically.
Photomechanics is capable of reproducing photographs
and other pictorial subjects. This overcomes the limita-
tions of manually and mechanically produced plates.
Production of the Image Carrier
The photomechanical process uses light sensitive
coatings whose physical properties change after exposure
to light. The exposed coating areas become insoluble in
water or other solutions, such as diazo solutions. The
unexposed areas dissolve, leaving the exposed portion as
an image or as a stencil to form an image.
Natural organic substances such as asphalt, shellac,
albumin, and gum arabic have been used as photomechani-
cal coatings. New coatings include polyvinyl alcohol,
diazo compounds, and synthetic photopolymer resins.
Bichromates, which were used as a sensitizing agent until
the diazo coatings were introduced, are now becoming
obsolete because of their toxicity. However they are still
used in bichromated gelatin for gravure carbon tissue and
collotype and in bichromated gum arabic for deep etch and
bimetal plates (Bruno 1983).
Two common coatings are diazo and photopolymer.
Diazo coatings are used for presensitized wipe-on alumi-
num lithographic plates. The coatings are thin and are
generally used for press runs under 100,000 impressions,
although some pre-lacquered plates can run for up to twice
as many impressions. Diazo coatings have the advantage
of not being affected by changes in temperature and rela-
tive humidity. Photopolymer coatings are inert and abra-
sion resistant, which allows for press runs longer than a
diazo-coated plate. The photopolymer coatings also have
a low sensitivity to changes in temperature and relative
humidity. The polymerization reaction occurs underaUV
light .......
Lithographic Printing Plates. In lithographic print-
ing, both the image and non-image areas are on the same
-------
plane. Lithographic plates have the image areas ink-
receptive and non-image areas water-receptive. This is
achieved through a chemical change on the coated plate
surface, which is typically brought about through a photo-
chemical process in the light sensitive coating. Litho-
graphic plates can be either negative or positive working.
With the negative the image area reacts and becomes hard,
making the area ink receptive. The non-image unexposed
area does not react, but remains water receptive and repels
ink. Exposure through a positive yields the inverse effect.
The majority of the printing industry uses pre-sensitized
plates, where the light sensitive coatingahave been applied
by the manufacturer. There are three types of methods used
to make lithographic plates: surface, deep-etch and bi-
metal.
• Surface plates have a light-sensitive coating
which becomes ink receptive when exposed.
Most surface plates are made from negatives.
The types of surface plates are additive and
subtractive. With additive plates the hardened
image areas are made ink receptive. This is
done by adding an oleophilic resin contained in
a one-step emulsion developer. Most coatings
for additive-type plates contain a diazo
compound. Other organic compounds are used
as light sensitive materials. These include
azide compounds, hydrazine derivatives,
quinone diazides, and quinone esters. The
emulsion developer consists of two phases: a
solvent phase containing an oleophilic resin
and pigment, and a water phase containing gum
arabic and acid. When an emulsion between
these two phases is formed and spreads on the
plate, the emulsion breaks. The resin and
pigment are deposited on the hardened image
areas while the water phase dissolves the
unexposed non-image area.
Subtractive plates usually have an oleophilic
resin incorporatedinto the coating or applied as
a lacquer over the coating. Once the plate is
exposed, the coated image areas harden. When
the plate is placed in the developer solution, the
non-image coated area dissolves. The plate is
then gummed and is ready for the press. The
waste from surface plate processors is a mildly
acidic solution of organic compounds in water.
Aluminum or anodized aluminum is used
extensively for surface lithographic plates. The
advantages of aluminum are reasonable cost,
availability in uniform thicknesses, and tensile
strength. It does not stretch when mounted on
the press. Aluminum is also lightweight,
weighing 38% as much as zinc. It does not
corrode easily, allowing the non-image areas to
be water-receptive.
• Deep-etch plates are made from positives.
When the plate is exposed the coating in the
exposed non-image areas hardens. The
unexposed image areas are soft. Then the
developing solution washes the image area
away and the stencil remains. The developing
solution is typically calcium, 2inc, or magnesium
chloridecombinedwithamildacid. Theimage
area is then plated with copper and/or coated
with lacquer, which makes it inkreceptive. The
lacquer is a combination of poly vinyl chloride,
poly vinyl acetate, and a small percent of malic
acid. The non-image areas are treated with a
desensitizing etch and finally gummed with
gum arabic solution. Procedures for making
deep-etch plates are long and involved. The
wastewater from deep etch plate processing is
acidic and contains copper or other heavy metal
compounds. This process is quickly becoming
obsolete because of cost, heavy metal toxicity,
and water pollution problems.
• Bimetal plates can be exposed through either a
negative or positive. These plates are capable
of printing several million impressions. The
lifetime of these plates is long because the
image and non-image areas are established by
two different metals. Therefore, the holding of
the image areas is not entirely dependent on a
hardened coating or lacquer, The wastewater
from bimetal plate processing contains heavy
metal compounds. Bimetal plates are also
becoming obsolete because of the heavy metal
toxicity and water pollution problems.
Gravure Printing Cylinders. Cylinder making begins
with a steel cylinder plated with copper. The cylinder is
machined and polished so as to rem ove any imperfections
in the copper plating. Next, the surface is either engraved
using a diamond stylus or chemically etched using ferric
chloride. Use of ferric chloride requires that a resist (in the
form of the negative image) be transferred to the cylinder
before etching. The resist protects the non-image areas of
the cylinder from the etchant After etching, the resist may
be subsequently stripped off. This operation is analagous
to the manufacturing of printed circuit boards. Following
this operation, the cylinder is proofed or tested, reworked
if required, and then chrome plated.
-------
Letterpress and Flexography Relief Plates. Letter-
press and flexography both employ plates with raised
images; only the raised areas come into contact with the ink
rollers. Generally these plates are exposed through a
negative. The developing process is similar to that of
lithographic plates. However, one extra step is used to etch
the non-image areas with an acid solution. Zinc, magne-
sium, and copper are the metals typically used for relief
plates.
Zinc plates have a light-sensitive coating, typically
polyvinyl alcohol. This is sensitized with dichromate. It
can be developed with water, however chromic acid is used
to harden the coating. The plate is then baked at 350°F and .
etched with a solution of nitric acid. Magnesium plates are
usually presensitized with a substance like polyvinyl inna-
mate. After exposure to light, the unexposed part is
removed by a trichloroethylene vapor degreaser, and then
etched with nitric acid. Copper relief plates use a light
sensitive coating of fish glue and egg albumin. This is
sensitized with potassium dichromate. The plate can be
developed in water and is typically baked at 600°F to
harden the image areas.
Baths used for developing these plates eventually
build up a high concentration of heavy metals. These
solutions cannot be discharged to most sewer systems
unless the metals are precipitated out or recovered by ion
exchange. Platemaking with etching processes is dimin-
ishing because of the hazardous waste problems.
Photosensitive plastic plates are used mostly for
commercial magazine printing and newspapers. Someare
used in an offset letterpress system called "dry offset or
lettersct". Plastic plates have an advantage over metal
plates because no etching solution is needed. When the
plate is exposed the image area and all the plastic under-
neath the area harden. A typical photosensitizer for these
plates is benzophenone, which accelerates the polymeriza-
tion process carried out under UV light An alkaline
aqueous solution is used to wash the unexposed areas off.
MAKEREADY
Makeready is the procedure in which all the adjust-
ments are made on the press, including proper registration
and ink density, to achieve a reproduction equivalent to or
comparable to the proof or acceptable to the pressman or
customer's representative. This step may be the major
sourceof waste from theprinter'spointof view. Makeready
timescanlastfromafewminutes to many hours. Makeready
can be conducted at low speeds or at press production
speeds. The printer's objective is to minimizeboth the time
involved in madeready and the number of waste sheets or
signatures coming off the press (GATF1989).
The makeready step is more complex for perfecting
web offset presses than for sheetfed offset, because eight
press units are involved and must be adjusted properly:
there are units on top of and beneath the web, two for each
of the four process colors. The major wastes associated
with makeready are paper and air emissions.
PRINTING
Once the plates are prepared, the actual printing can
begin. The printing operations are generally the same for
each of the major processes, with the exception of screen
printing. The two common types of presses are sheet-fed
presses and web presses. Sheet-fed presses can print up to
3 impressions per second. Web presses typically print at a
rate of 1000 to 1600 feet per minute.
Preparation for printing begins by attaching the plate
to the plate cylinder of the press. Since litho plates are
typically made of thin flat aluminum sheets, they can be
wrapped around and attached to the plate cylinder. Virtu-
ally all presses print from a plate cylinder, as opposed to a
flat plate. Each unit of a printing press prints a single color.
To print a full color illustration, four separate units are
typically required, one unit each for magenta, cyan, yel-
low, and black.
In lithographic printing, the plate is mounted to a
rotating cylinder. As the cylinder rotates, a water-based
dampening solution followed by an oil-based ink is trans-
ferred to the plate's image area. The inked image repels the
solution and accepts the printing ink, while the non-image
area accepts the dampening solution and repels the ink. As
the cylinder continues to rotate, the inked image is trans-
ferred to a blanket and then onto the substrate. The two
major forms of substrates used in lithography are single
sheets of paper (sheet-fed lithography) and continuous
rolls of paper (web lithography).
In gravure printing, the cylinder is placed in the press
and partially immersed in an ink bath or fountain. Solvent
is added to the ink to maintain the proper level and viscosity
of the bath. As the cylinder is rotated, ink coats the entire
surface. Next, a metal wiper(doctor blade) presses against
the surface of the cylinder and removes ink from the non-
etched (non-image) areas. The substrate is then pressed
against the rotating cylinder and the ink is transferred.
After printing, the substrate may pass through a drying
operation depending on the type of ink used. Lithography
can use heat-set and non-heat-set inks. In heat-set lithogra-
phy, the substrate is passed through a tunnel or floater dryer
which utilizes hot air or direct flame or combination. With
non-heat-sef lithography, the ink normally dries by absorp-
tion. .Gravure printing utilizes inks that dry by solvent
evaporation.
10
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FINISHING
The term "finishing" refers to final trimming, folding,
collating, binding, laminating, and/or embossing opera-
tions. A variety of binding methods are used for books,
periodicals, and pamphlets. These include stitching (sta-
pling), gluing, and mechanical binding. These finishing
operations are frequently accomplished by an outside
service organization.
Waste Description
Listed in Table 2 are the principal wastes associated
with lithographic printing operations and most other print-
ing activities. Gravure printing operations have been
excluded since the major difference between the two
processes, from a waste generation viewpoint, is in the
plate- and cylinder-making operation. Gravure cylinder
making is very similar to other metal processing opera-
tions; therefore, the reader is referred to the waste minimi-
zation guides for metal fabrication and printed circuit
board manufacturers that are part of this EPA series.
Paper is the major wastestream encountered in the
lithographic industry. Almost98 percent of the total waste
generated by this segment of the industry is spoiled paper
and paper wrap. Waste paper comes from rejected print
runs, scraps from the start and end of runs, paper at the end
of the web, and overruns. Overruns are the excess number
of copies mat a printer makes to ensure that he has enough
acceptable copies. Other paper includes the paper wrap-
pings, cardboard cores, and scrap from finishing opera-
tions. Most paper is recycled, incinerated, or disposed of
as trash.
Scrap photographic material and aluminum plates are
sold for metal recovery. Empty ink containers are nor-
mally scraped clean of ink and discarded. Damaged or
worn rubber blankets are also discarded with the trash.
Spentphotoprocessing chemicals are generally biode-
gradable and are discharged into sanitary sewers. Sanita-
tion districts require permits to discharge the chemicals
into the sewer. The chemicals have a significant biochemi-
cal oxygen demand (BOD). Printing shops that use very
large quantities of photographic chemicals may find it
necessary to install package biological treatment systems
to reduce BOD before disposal into the sewer. Larger
printers may find it both necessaiy and economical to
recover the silver from the spent solutions before discharge
to the sewer. Solutions that contain hazardous compounds,
such as mercury compounds, may require special han-
dling.
Plate-mating wastes, such as acids and alkalis used to
clean or develop the plates, must be either sent to wastewa-
ter treatment or drummed for disposal. For facilities that
use pre-sensitized plates, this waste is avoided (although
the supplier of the presensitized plates would be producing
Table 2. Offset Lithography Printing Process Wastes
Waste Waste
Stream Description
No.
1. Trash
4.
5.
6.
7.
Wastewater
Recovered Silver
Empty Ink Containers
Paper (recycled)
Equipment
Cleaning Wastes
Air emissions
Process Origin
Image Processing,
Proof
Plate Making
Printing
Image Processing
Plate Making
Printing
Image Processing,
Plate Making
Printing
Makeready
Printing
Printing, Proof
Makeready, Printing
Composition
Empty containers, packages,
used film, out-dated materials.
Damaged plates, developed film,
out-dated materials.
Ink containers (if not recycled), used blankets
used plates, unacceptable printings, paper wrappings.
Photographic chemicals, silver (if not recovered).
Acids, alkali, solvents, plate coatings (may contain dyes,
photopolymers, binders, resins, pigments, organic acids),
. developers (may contain isopropanol, gum arabic,
lacquers, caustics), and rinsewater.
Spent fountain solutions (may contain chromium).
As described.
As described. If not recycled, these go to trash.
Inked and clean sheets.
Inked sheets.
Lubricating oils, waste ink, clean up solvent
(halogenated and non-halogenated), rags.
Solvent from heat-set inks, isopropyl alcohol
(fountain solution), and cleaning solvents.
11
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Figure 2. General Flowsheet for Lithographic Printing
Artwork, Copy, or Other Image
Used Rim
Wastewater
Silver Recovery
Film ^-
Photoprocessing ^
Chemicals
(concentrate
& water)
i
Image
Processing
~T
i Image on Film
Proof
No
Plates from Storage or
Plate Manufacturer ^
Plate Processing Chemicals ~
Yes Y
Platemaking
^ irasn
^" Wastewater
^ Trash
X Image on Plate
Paper ^
Paper ^
Fountain Solution — — ^
Cleaning Solvent ^
Rags ^
Untrir
Unbound Pr
Makeready
y
Printing
and Drying
nmed, ^
oduct V
Finishing
^ Paper to Recycling
^" Air Emissions
^- Paper Wrap to Trash
^- Paper to Recycling •
- — ^. Air Emissions/Emission Controls
_ — ^- Waste Ink
^ Dirty Rags
^. Used Plates
Final Product
12
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this waste). Currently, only large-volume users of plates
(i.e. newspapers) still produce their own plates. Photo-
chemical wastes would be handled in the same manner as
image processing wastes.
Fountain solutions used in lithography start with a
concentrated dilute solution of gum arable, phosphoric
acid, defoamers, and fungicide, which is added to water.
To this mixture is added enough isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to
bring the concentration of IPA up to a range of 5 to 15%.
The IPA is used to reduce the surface tension of the
solution. IPA allows the solution to adhere more easily to
the non-image area of the plate cylinder. Most of the IPA
evaporates along with the water. The other compounds
remain on the paper. Virtually none of the fountain solution
goes to the sewer as wastewater. Some printing chemical
manufacturers now offer fountain solution concentrates
that do not use IPA or other volatile compounds. The low-
volatility concentrates use soaps or detergents in place of
IPA. These are marketed in areas that have stringent air
quality controls.
Equipment cleaning wastes consist of spent lubri-
cants, waste inks, clean up solvent, and rags. Waste ink is
defined as the ink removed from the ink fountain at the end
of a run or following its contamination. Most of the ink
used by a printer ends up on the product. Other losses
include ink printed on waste paper and spills. Most waste
inks are either incinerated (if hazardous) or discarded with
the trash.
Volatile organic compounds (air emissions). Depend-
ing on the printing process and the substrate, inks may
contain solvents (e.g. xylenes, ketones, alcohols, or al-
iphatics) that are evaporated immediately after printing.
This is particularly appropriate for gravure applications in
commercial printing. Inks for offset lithography are prin-
cipally sheetfed inks which dry by oxidative polymeriza-
tion; heatset inks, which dry by evaporation of the aliphatic
ink oils; and nonheatset web inks, which dry by absorption
of the ink vehicle in the newsprint substrate. There is no
significant VOC emission from the inkswhen either sheetfed
or nonheatset web inks are used. In the case of web offset
heatset printing, the printed web passes through a dryer
which evaporates the ink oils. The resulting prints fre-
quently have a glossy finish when imprinted on coated
papers. The resulting VOC emissions can be controlled by
catalytic or thermal incineration, or cooler/condenser sys-
tems. In the case of VOC emissions from gravure printing,
carbon absorption is the most commonly applied emission
control method. In addition to the solvents and ink oils
used in the printing inks, common VOCs include isopropyl
alcohol (from fountain solutions), toluene,kerosene, metha-
nol and some chlorinated solvents (found in type washes,
roller, blanket, and press washes).
Cleaning solvents are used to clean the presses. The
rubber blankets are cleaned once or twice per eight-hour
shift to reduce or eliminate imperfections resulting from
dust, particles, or dried ink. When lower quality paper is
used, cleaning is required more frequently. A variety of
solvents and cleaning solutions is used in the industry.
Solvents include methanol, toluene, naphtha, trichlo-
roethane, methylene chloride, and specially formulated
blanket washes.
Most cleanup is done with rags wetted with the solvent
or by pouring solvent over the equipment and then wiping
it off with a rag. The dirty rags contain solvent, waste ink,
oil, dust, dirt, and other contaminants. Clean rags are
generally supplied by industrial laundries, which also pick
up the dirty rags. The laundries generally dry clean the rags
and produce a sludge comprised of the materials that were
present on the rags. The sludge may require management
as hazardous waste.
References
American Paper Institute. 1985. Personal communication.
Bruno, Michael H. (editor). 1983 .Pocket Pal - A Graphic
ArtsProductionHandbook, 13fJi edition, International
Paper Company, New York.
Campbell, M.E., and W.M. Glenn. 1982. Profit from
Pollution Prevention; A Guide to Industrial Waste
Reduction andRecycling. Toronto, Canada: Pollution
Probe Foundation.
GATF. 1989. Personal communication with William
Schaeffer, Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, March
1989.
Hartsuch, Paul J. 1983. Chemistry for the Graphic Arts,
Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, Pittsburgh.
USDC. 1985a. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of
the Census. Commercial Printing and Manifold
Business Forms. In 1982 Census of Manufacturers.
MC82-I-27B. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
. 1985b. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of
the Census. Greeting Cards, Bookbinding, Printing
Trade Services. In 1982 Census of Manufacturers.
MC82-I-27C. Washington, D..C.: U-S. Government
Printing Office.
13
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Section 3
WASTE MINIMIZATION OPTIONS FOR COMMERCIAL PRINTERS
Introduction
The list of individual primary lithographic waste
streams and their sources along with a list of source
reduction methods is presented in Table 3. Recommended
waste reduction methods and identified procedures are
discussed in the following sections. These methods came
from published accounts in the open literature and industry
contacts.
In addition to the waste reduction measures that are
classified as process changes or material/product substitu-
tions, a variety of waste reducing measures labeled as
"good operating practices" has also been included. Good
operating practices are defined as procedures or institu-
tional policies that result in a reduction of waste. The
following describes the scope of good operating practices:
Waste stream segregation
• Personnel practices
- Management initiatives
- Employee training
• Procedural measures
- Documentation
- Material handling and storage
- Material tracking and inventory control
- Scheduling
* Loss prevention practices
- Spill prevention
- Preventive maintenance
- Emergency preparedness
Good operating practices apply to all waste streams.
Waste Minimization Options
MATERIAL HANDLING AND STORAGE
Improper storage and handling can result in spoilage
and obsolescence of the raw materials. Good operating
practices can reduce or eliminate waste resulting from
obsolescence and improper storage.
Material Preinspection
Materials should be inspected before being accepted,
and unacceptable or damaged materials should be returned
to the manufacturer or supplier. This avoids both disposal
of a nearly full container of unusable material and printing
an unacceptable product.
Proper Storage of Materials
Many photoprocessing and plate developing chemi-
cals are sensitive to temperature and light. Photosensitive
film and paper storage areas should be designed for eco-
nomical and efficient use. Some shops waste up to one-
fourth of these materials due to improper storage (Campbell
and Glenn 1982). The chemical containers list the recom-
mended storage conditions. Meeting the recommended
conditions will increase their shelf life. Even more impor-
tant to the efficient use of paper is proper handling to avoid
damage.
Paper waste can also be reduced through proper han-
dling and storage of rolls or packages of paper. Webs need
to be handled so that the outer paper wrapper is not
damaged. Paper should be stored in a space having proper
temperature and humidity, since it can easily absorb mois-
ture; sheetfed paper should be conditioned to the tempera-
ture and humidity of the press room for one day before
printing; this requires additional space in the press room.
Restrict Traffic through Storage Area
To prevent raw material contamination, the storage
area should be kept clean. Also, the storage area should not
be open to through traffic. Through traffic will increase
dust and dirt in the storage area, increasing possible con-
tamination. In addition, spills in the storage area will be
easier to contain if traffic is restricted.
Inventory Control
Inventories should be kept using the "first-in, first-
out" practice. This will reduce the possibility of expired
shelf life. This practice may not work for specialty materi-
als that are seldom used. Computerized inventory systems
can track the amounts and ages of the raw materials.
Purchase Quantities According to Needs
Raw material order quantities should be matched to
usage. Small printers should order ink in smaller contain-
ers according to use. This avoids having a large, partly
used container of ink going bad in storage because it wasn' t
properly sealed. Residual ink in sheetfed ink cans should
be smoothed and covered in order to prevent loss by
skinning. Large printers should order materials in large
containers, which may be returnable, thereby eliminating
14
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Table 3. Waste Minimization Methods for the Commercial Printing Industry
Operation Waste Minimization Methods
Material Handling and Storage
Image Processing
Plate Processing
Makeready
Printing
Finishing
or reducing the need to clean them. It takes less time to
scrape out the large single container than several small
ones. Ordering materials in returnable tote bins may
maximize these advantages. However, the size of con-
tainer chosen by the printer is determined by economics of
volume as well as consideration of waste minimization.
Recycle Empty Containers
Most ink containers are scraped free of ink and
discarded in the trash. Since the degree of cleanliness is a
function of operator effort, the amount of ink discarded can
Material pre-inspection
Proper storage of materials
Restrict traffic through area
Inventory control
Purchase quantities according to needs
Recycle empty containers
Recycle photographic film and paper
Electronic imaging and laser platemaking
Material substitution
Extend bath life
Use of squeegees
Employ countercurrent washing
r Recover silver and recycle chemicals
Reduce solution loss
Replace metal etching/plating operations
Use non-hazardous developers and finishers
Implement accurate counting methods
Automated plate benders, scanners
Automatic ink key setting s;ystem
Computerized registration
Ink/water ratio sensor
Install web break detectors
Automatic web splicers
Use automatic ink levelers
Store ink properly
Use less hazardous inks
Standard ink sequence
Recycle waste ink
Use alternative fountain solutions
Use alternative cleaning solvents
Automatic blanket cleaners
Reduce the need to clean
Improve cleaning efficiency
Collect and reuse solvent
Recycle lube oils
Alternative printing techniques
Reduce paper use and recycle waste paper
vary widely. By purchasing ink in recyclable bulk
containers, the container can be returned to the ink supplier
for refilling instead of being thrown away. In addition, the
use of bulk containers also cuts down on the amount of
cleaning required since the surface area of the container per
unit volume of ink stored is reduced.
Recycle S poiled Photographic Film and Paper
It is a current practice in the industry to send used and/
or spoiled film to professional recyclers for recovery of
silver (USEPA 1986). However, this option might not be
IS
-------
practical to small scale producers or available to facilities
located far away from recyclers.
Test Expired Material for Usefulness
Materials having expired shelf-life should not auto-
matically be thrown out. Instead, this material should be
tested for effectiveness. The material may be usable, rather
than becoming a waste. A recycling outlet should be found
for left over raw material that is no longer wanted.
IMAGE PROCESSING
The major wastestream associated with image proc-
essing is wastewater that contains photographic chemicals
and silver removed from film. Much work has been done
by the printing and photographic industries to abate this
waste.
Electronic Imaging and Laser Platemaking
A recent advance in image processing is the use of
computerized "electronic pre-press systems" for typeset-
ting and copy preparation. Text, photos, graphics, and
layout are fed into the system through an electronic scan-
ner. The copy is edited on a display monitorrather than on
paper. This reduces the quantity of film, developing chemi-
cals, andpaper used. Only the final edited versionis printed
out.
Electronic pre-press systems were initially restricted
to largeprinters, such as major newspapers, because of the
high initial equipment expenses. As the prices of computer
hardware and software drop, smaller printing operations
are beginning to use them. Electronic pre-press systems
should reduce waste and improve productivity.
Material Substitution
Non-hazardous chemicals and films can be substi-
tuted for hazardous ones. This can reduce hazardous waste
generation at the image processing step. In particular, the
wastes from photoprocessing using silver films are occa-
sionally hazardous due to silver compounds in the waste-
water. Somesanitationdistrictswillacceptphotoprocessing
wastewater with silver, if the silver concentration is low
enough.
Photographic materials are available that do not con-
tain silver, but these are slower in speed than silver halide
films. Diazo and vesicular films have been used for many
years. Vesicular films have a honeycomb-like cross-sec-
tion and are constructed of a polyester base coated with a
thermoplastic resin and a light-sensitive diazonium salt.
Photopolymer films contain carbon black as a substitute
for silver. These films are processed in a weak alkaline
solution that is neutralized prior disposal. As such, they
produce a non-hazardous waste.
More recently, photopolymer and electrostatic films
are being used. Electrostatic films are non-silver films
having speeds comparable to silver films and having high
resolution as well. An electrostatic charge makes them
light sensitive, after which a liquid toner brings out the
image.
Some photographic intensifiers and reducers contain
hazardous compounds, such as mercury or cyanide salts.
Non-hazardous substitutes are available.
Extended Bath Life
Wastes from photographic processing can be reduced
by extending the life of fixing baths. Techniques include
(1) adding ammonium thiosulfate, which doubles the al-
lowable concentration of silver buildup in the bath; (2)
using an acid stop bath prior to the fixing bath; and (3)
adding acetic acid to the fixing bath as needed to keep the
pH low.
Accurately adding and monitoring chemical replen-
ishment of process baths will cut down chemical wastage.
Stored process bath chemicals should be protected from
oxidation by reducing exposure to air. Some smaller photo
developers store chemicals in closed plastic containers.
Glass marbles are added to bring the liquid level to the brim
each time liquid is used. In this way, the amount of
chemical subject to degradation by exposure to air is
reduced, thereby extending the chemical's useful life and
the life of the bath.
Squeegees
Squeegees can be used in non-automated processing
systems to wipe excess liquid from the film andpaper. This
can reduce chemical carryover from oneprocess bath to the
next by 50 percent (Campbell and Glenn 1982). Minimiz-
ing chemical contamination of process baths increases
recyclability, enhances the lifetime of the process baths,
and reduces the amount of replenisher chemicals required.
Most firms, however, use automated processors. Also,
using squeegees may damage the film image if it has not
fully hardened, so a squeegee should be used after the film
image has hardened.
Countercurrent Washing
In photographic processors, countercurrent washing
can replace the commonly used parallel tank system. This
can reduce the amount of wastewater generated. In a
parallel system, fresh water enters each wash tank and
effluent leaves each wash tank. In countercurrent rinsing,
the water from previous rinsings is used in the initial film-
washing stage. Fresh water enters the process only at the
final rinse stage, at which point much of the contamination
has already been rinsed of the film. However, acountercur-
rent system requires more space and equipment
16
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Recovery of Silver and Recycling of Spent
Chemicals
Basically, photoprocessing chemicals consist of de-
veloper, fixer, and rinse water. Keeping the individual
process baths as uncontaminated as possible is a prerequi-
site to the successful recycling of these chemicals. Silver
is a component in most photographic films and paper and
is present in the wastewaters produced. Various economi-
cal methods of recovering silver are available (e.g. metallic
replacement, chemical precipitation, electrolytic recov-
ery), and a number of companies market equipment that
will suit the needs of even the smallest printing shop.
The mostpopular method of silver recovery is electro-
lytic deposition. In an electrolytic recovery unit, a low
voltage direct current is created between a carbon anode
and stainless steel cathode. Metallic silver plates onto the
cathode. Once the silver is removed, the fixing bath may be
able to be reused in the photographic development process
by mixing the desilvered solution with fresh solution.
Recovered silver is worth about 80% of its commodity
price.
Another method of silver recovery is metallic replace-
ment The spent fixing bath is pumped into a cartridge
containing steel wool. An oxidation-reduction reaction
occurs and the iron in the wool replaces the silver in
solution. The silver settles to the bottom of the cartridge as
a sludge.
Some of the companies that buy used film or car-
tridges containing recovered silver can be located under
"Gold and Silver Refiners and Dealers" in a business
telephone directory. These firms may pick up directly or
may purchase through dealers. To recycle used film, it may
be worthwhile to sort the film into "largely black" versus
"largely clear" segments, since the rate of payment for
mostly black film may be twice that for mostly clear.
Technologies for reuse of developer and fixer are
available and include ozone oxidation, electrolysis, and
ion exchange.
PLATE PROCESSING
Recent advances inplate processing techniques, some
made specifically to reduce the quantity and/or toxicity of
hazardous wastes and to improve worker safety, have
reduced waste generation. In addition to the methods
discussed below, the reader is referred to the companion
EPA guides to waste minimization in parts cleaning and
metal fabrication. Many of the wastes associated with plate
processing are similar to wastes produced by these opera-
tions. This is especially true for gravure printing where the
cylinders are chrome plated.
Reducing Solution Loss
In gravure printing, metal etching and metal plating
operations typically involve chemical compounds that are
deemed hazardous. Waste solutions from metal etching or
metal plating operations usually require treatment before
discharge to the municipal sewer. The same is true for all
wastewater used in rinsing operations.
The amount of wastewater generated by rinsing plates
can be reduced by using multiple qountercurrent rinse
tanks. The toxicity of wastewater from plating operations
can be reduced by reducing dragout from plating tanks.
Examples of dragout reduction techniques include (1)
positioning the part on the rack to drain more easily, (2)
using drain boards to collect dragout and return it to the
plating tank, and (3) raising the temperature to reduce the
surface tension of the solution.
Replacement of Metal Etching/Plating
Operations
Because of increasing environmental regulations and
higher costs of hazardous waste treatment and disposal, the
printer should replace metal etching or plating processes
wherever possible. Alternative processes include presen-
sitized lithographic, plastic or photopoly mer, and hot metal
which do not present the hazardous material problems
associated with metal etching and plating operations.
The wastes generated by using presensitized litho-
graphic plates are (1) wastewater from developing and
finishing baths, (2) used plates, and (3) trash, such as plate
wrappers and empty plate processing chemical containers.
Chemicals consumption can be reduced by frequently
monitoring the bath for pH, temperature, and solution
strength. This can extend the bath life, and solution
change-outs can be reduced to several times a year. Auto-
matic plate processors can maintain bath conditions. Pre-
sensitized plates should be stored at the recommended
conditions to maintain effectiveness. The used plates are
nota hazardous waste and they shot Id be collected and sold
to an aluminum recycler.
Non-Hazardous Developers and Finishers
Non-hazardous developers and finishers are available.
For example, one company's developer and finisher are
considered non-toxic and have a flash point of 213°F,
which is non-flammable by California Title 22 standards
(WesternLithotechl987).Presensi1izedplatesareavailable
that are processed with water only. A company makes
plates thatare water-resistantuntilexposed; upon exposure,
the coating of the non-image becomes watersoluble. The
samecompany markets aplatemaking system thatproduces
offset lithography plates directly from copy or artwork,
17
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eliminating the need for photoprocessing. The system is
economical for large printing operations (Campbell and
Glenn 1982).
MAKEREADY
Paper represents the largest supply item that a printer
buys and is probably the most expensive component of his
work. The printed paper produced in makeready is fre-
quently the largest waste a printer generates and is nonhaz-
ardous. Paper waste at this step is determined by the
efficiency of the quality control press adjustments needed
to achieve the desired print quality, specifically through
proper ink density and accurate registration. This discus-
sion focuses on approaches.!© reducing paper waste.
Both in makeready and printing operations, printers
need to know how much waste paper is generated relative
to the quantity of acceptable pieces. One method that can
be used by both sheetfed and offset printers is to weigh
discarded paper and discarded product signatures and
express the weight of waste as apercent of total paper used.
Press counters are available, but under some circum-
stances, such as when a jam occurs on the press and the
counter is not turned off, the count may be inaccurate.
A number of specific devices have been developed to
automate press adjustments. With proper use, most of
these are promoted by manufacturers as speeding up the
makeready step and thus saving paper and ink. However,
their direct benefit is to increase quality control. We
describe briefly below the use of automated plate benders;
automated plate scanners; automatic ink key setting sys-
tem; computerized registration; and ink/water ratio sen-
sors. More detailed information, including costs, can be
obtained by consulting product manufacturers and manu-
facturers' representations. Also, the Graphic Arts Techni-
cal Foundation in Pittsburgh can provide additional infor-
mation about these products. Each printer must weigh the
costof these items against the potential increases in quality
and reduced paper and ink waste that may result.
Automated Plate Benders
Automatedplatebenders are designed to prevent all or
some of the problems that occur in fitting a plate to a
cylinder: plate cracking; non-straight plate bending along
the length of the bend; curvature of the plate differing from
that of the cylinder; and other plate fitting parameters that
affect proper registration.
Automated Plate Scanners
Automated plate scanners have been developed for
both web and sheetfed offset presses that take advantage of
microprocessor technology and high quality optics. Fin-
ished plates are scanned to determine the relative density of
the printing image across the plate's surface. This informa-
tion is then used to set the ink fountain keys — in some
systems by a press operator in others using remote" con-
trolled ink keys (see next) that are automatically pre-set to
compensate for variations in image density.
Automatic Ink Key Setting System
Automatic ink key setting is usually accomplished as
part of a system that includes scanning densitometry to
determine ink density. Information about the ink density
is then transmitted to a computer controlled inking system,
so that automatic adjustments are made to the ink profile
for each ink slide position.
Automated Registration
Optical scanners and microprocessors also form the
basis for automated registration systems. One manufac-
turer's system employs motorized scanners that move
laterally in search of registration marks and lock in to the
marks for the entire press run. These systems have been
developed for gravure, web offset, and other printing
processes.
Ink/Water Sensors
Press operators need to know whether ink flow or
water flow needs to be adjusted to result in proper ink/water
ratio. This ratio must be optimal to produce a sharp dot and
strong contrast without the risk of tinting. One manufac-
turer has developed an ink/water sensor that is part of an
automated press control system. An optical system detects
light reflected from the ink form roller and measures the
surface water and the amount of water emulsified in the
ink. Both water feeds and ink keys are linked to the system,
so both can be modified and any deviation in the ink/water
ratio can be corrected at once.
PRINTING AND FINISHING
The major wastes associated with printing and finish-
ing are scrap paper, waste ink, and cleaning solvents. The
clean-up solvent waste stream consists of waste ink, ink
solvents, lubricating oil, and solvent. In many printing
establishments, excess ink and solvent is collected in a drip
pan underneath the press. This waste is typically drummed
and hauled away to a landfill area. The following para-
graphs describe waste reduction methods.
Standard Ink Sequence
Adopting a standard ink sequence can reduce the
amounts of waste ink and waste cleaning solution: if a
standard ink sequence is employed, the ink rotation is not
18
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changed with the job and you do not have to clean out the
fountains in order to change the ink rotation.
Installation of Web Break Detectors
This device detects tears in the web as it passes
through a high speed web press. It automatically shuts
down the press to prevent damage to the press. Otherwise
the broken web begins to wrap around the rollers and forces
them out of the bearings. Web break detectors are primar-
ily used to avoid severe damage to the presses. However,
they also reduce the waste that would otherwise be gener-
ated if a web break damaged a machine.
Electronic systems are available for detecting web
breaks in a non-contact fashion that will neither smear ink
nor crease the web, thereby reducing waste from these
sources. Both McGraw-Hill Publications in New York
City and the St Petersburg Times in St. Petersburg, Florida
have installed web break detection systems and have
reduced waste.
Automatic Web Splicers
Automatic web splicers have become almost standard
on web offset presses. The splice can be made while the
paper is running at operating speed (flying web splicer) or
while the paper is stationary (zero-speed splicer). Either
option can result in significant savings in time and paper
waste reduction.
Use of an Automatic Ink Leveller
Ink waste and spoilage is reduced by maintaining the
desired ink level in the fountain for optimum inking con-
ditions. Automatic ink levellers are commercially avail-
able.
Proper Ink Storage
Ink containers should be resealed after using. Open
containers are subject to contamination with paper dust and
dirt, as well as forming a "skin" on the surface, loss of
solvent, or eventual hardening. It was noted previously
that sheetfed offset lithographic inks should be levelled in
the can before placing a liner over the ink. Other offset
lithographic inks may have low enough viscosity to level
themselves. Ink should be scraped from emptied contain-
ers with a spatula or knife to get as much of the ink out as
practical. This prevents the empty containers from becom-
ing a hazardous waste.
New Ink Systems
Currently-used heatset offset lithographic inks con-
tain: pigments used as colorants; resins; film formers; and
25 percent to 45 percent ink oils. Most of the ink oil is
removed during heating while passing through a dryer and
is either incinerated, recovered and recycled, or emitted to
the air. New types of inks are described below. These were
formulated with pollution reduction and energy conserva-
tion in mind.
Water-base or water-borne inks are usually composed
of pigmented suspensions in water and film formers.
These inks find their greatest application in flexographic
printing on paper substrates and their use has been recom-
mended for gravure.
One factor stifling the development of water-base inks
is that they require more energy to dry than do solvent-
borne inks. Another difficulty resulls from the necessity to
shut presses down for short periods of time. When water
base ink dries, water is not a solvent for the dried ink;
therefore more frequent equipment cleaning is required.
Other problems besetting water-borne inks are low gloss
and paper curl.
UV inks consist of one or more monomers and a
photosynthesizer that selectively absorbs energy. Benefits
of using UV inks are that the inks contain no solvent. The
paper is not heated above 50°C, and a minimum of moisture
is lost in the process. Since the inks do not "cure" until
exposed to UV light, and may therefore be allowed to
remain in the ink fountains (and plates) for long periods of
time, the need for clean-up is reduced. U V inks are particu-
larly recommended for letterpress and lithography. The
following have been cited as advantages of using UV inks
for sheet-fed lithography (Carpenter and Hilliard 1976):
• Elimination of "set-off, the unintentional
transfer of ink to adjacent sheets before
the ink has dried up completely.
• Elimination of the use of powders that are
applied to protect an ink film that is "set" but
not "dry".
• Elimination of the storage of printed sheets for
ventilation required in oxidative drying
processes.
Disadvantages that should be considered include:
• Cost (75 to 100 percent moire expensive than
conventional heat-set inks).
• Hazards of UV to operating personnel.
• Formation of ozone by the action of UV light on
oxygen.
• Conventional commercial paper recycling
procedures will not de-ink papers printed
by this process. Therefore, this is a potential
source of non-recyclable paper.
• Some of the chemicals in the inks are toxic.
Electron-beam-dried (EB) inks are similar in concept
to UV inks, offer the same operational advantages as UV
19
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inks, and have no solvents. However, the EB systems
require operator protection from X-rays created by the
process. Also, the system often degrades the paper.
Automatic Blanket Cleaners
Automatic blanketcleaners, which consistofacontrol
box, a solvent metering box for each press unit, and a cloth
handlingunit,haveincreasedpressefficiencyforanumber
of printers that have installed them. They are available for
many types of presses, including both web and sheetfed
offset The increased speed of automated washing com-
pared with manual cleaning results in fewer wasted im-
pressions during the shorter timeperiodneededfor washup.
Oneprinternotedadifferenceof250-3501ostimpressions
using the automated cleaner compared with 1,200 - 3,000
lost using manual washes (Graphic Arts Monthly, May,
1986 pp. 62-68).
There is an added benefit of increased safety. Using
the automatic cleaning system eliminates the risk of bodily
injury to employees holding a rag against a running blan-
ket; also the amount of solvent used in cleaning is con-
trolled, so the possibility of ignition in the dryer of paper
soaked with solvent is less likely.
Recycling of Waste Inks
Most waste inks can be recycled. One recycling
technique relies on blending waste inks of different colors
together to make black ink. Small amounts of certain
colors or black toner may be needed to obtain an acceptable
black color. Recycling to get black ink is generally more
practical than recycling to get the original color. This
reformulated black ink is comparable to some lower qual-
ity new black inks, such as newspaper ink. For this reason,
much of the black ink for newspaper printing contains
recycled ink (Woodhouse 1984). Waste ink recycling
equipment is available and advertised in the printing trade
magazines.
Off-site ink recycling, either by ink manufacturers or
by large printers, may be more economical for smaller
printers. The waste ink is reformulated into black ink and
soldback to theprinter. The small printer canavoid landfill
disposal of the ink and the large printer can reduce pur-
chases of new black inks.
Labor time necessary to fill, operate, and empty the
ink recycler is about the same as labor required to pack
waste ink into drums with vermiculite adsorbent, and to
manifest it.
Therefore, the labor savings is not significant The
major operating cost savings are the reductions in raw
materials costs and waste disposal costs. (See case study
- Plant A, Appendix).
Alternative Fountain Solutions
The fountain solution contains water, isopropyl alco-
hol (IPA), gum arabic, and phosphoric acid, all of which
end up on the paper or evaporate; they do not become
hazardous waste. However, the evaporation of the IPA
may create an emission problem. In states or regions with
stringent air quality limits on VOCs, this may result in a
requirement for air pollution control equipment Alterna-
tively, fountain solution concentrates are available that
contain no VOC or very small amounts of VOC.
Alternative Cleaning Solvents
Dangerous chemicals such as benzene, carbon tetra-
chloride, trichloroethylene, and methanol have been used
as components of cleaning solutions. Specially made
blanket washes are now available thatare less toxic and less
flammable. These blanket washes typically contain mix-
tures of glycol ethers and other heavier hydrocarbons that
have ahighflashpointandlow toxicity. Many printers feel
that these solvents do not work as well as the solvents
mentioned above. However, because of the less hazardous
natureof thematerial.theyaregaininginpopularity. These
blanket washes are typically used for all cleaning opera-
tions in the printing step. General cleanup should be done
with detergents or soap solutions wherever possible. Sol-
vent cleanup should be used only for cleaning up inks and
oils.
Reducing the Need to Clean
Most presses are cleaned by hand with a rag wetted
with cleaning solvent. The dirty solventremains on the rag.
A separate waste solvent is not produced. To reduce the
amount of solvent and the number of rags used, ink
fountains should be cleaned only when a different color ink
is used or when the ink might dry out between runs.
Aerosol spray materials are available to spray onto ink
fountains to prevent overnight drying, so that the inkcan be
left in the fountain without cleaning at the end of the day.
This reduces the amount of waste ink produced and the
amount of cleaning solvent and rags used.
For example, a protective film was sprayed over each
of four ink fountains on a small offset printing press at the
end of each work day. The waste ink was reduced by 5
pounds per day. Based on a disposal cost of 70 cents per
pound and 250 operating days per year, the savings in
disposal costs are $875 per year. The need for new ink was
reduced by 5 pounds per day. At a cost of $2.00 per pound,
the savings in raw material costs are $2,500 per year. The
total operating cost savings are $3,375 per year. The cost
of the spray is relatively low. Also, less labor is needed to
spray the fountains than is needed to drain and clean out the
fountains and dispose of the waste ink. This labor savings
would improve the source reduction economics.
20
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Increasing Gleaning Efficiency
Where cleaning of rollers is accomplished with sol-
vent and roller wash-up blade, several factors affect clean-
ing efficiency: condition of the rollers; condition of the
blade; the blade's angle of attack against the roller; and
press speed during washup. Both rollers and blade should
be in good condition. The blade's angle of attack shouldbe
adjusted so that sufficient pressure is exerted on the roller,
but the angle should not be so coarse that the blade can be
"grabbed" and "pulled under" the roller. Too slow a press
speed means long wash up times, and generally increased
solvent use.
Collect and Reuse Solvent
In this practice, solvent is poured over the equipment
and then wiped clean with a rag. The solvent is collected
in drip pans under the equipment and becomes waste
solvent which can be reused. If one container of solvent is
used for each color printing unit, the solvents can be reused
without cross-contaminating the inks. Used solvent can be
reused in cleaning most of the ink from the rollers and
blankets, with only a small amount of fresh solvent needed
for the final cleanup. Small solvents stills can be used to
reclaim the solvent.
In some cases, used solvents having one particular ink
color can be used to make up the solvent content of new
inks of the same color. This has been done at a company
in North Carolina using alcohol/acetate formulations in its
flexographic printing process (North Carolina 1987). At
Rexham Corporation in Mattews, N.C., toluene is used to
clean the ink from the press, and runoff toluene is collected
as waste. Rexham has nearly eliminated its toluene waste
by segregating used clean-up toluene according to the
color and type of ink contaminant and then reusing the
collected wastes to thin future batches of the same ink. The
procedure has no effect on product quality and has resulted
in almost 100% reuse of the toluene solvent (Huisingh et al.
1985). However, solubility characteristics are critical to
some types of flexographic printing plates and this ap-
proach should be investigated carefully.
Recycle Lube Oils
If the printing presses are lubricated with oil, the used
oil should be collected and turned over to a recycler. The
recycler can either re-refine the oil into new lubricating oil,
create fuel grade oil, or use it for blending into asphalt.
Alternative Printing Techniques
An electrostatic screen printing process, also known
as pressureless printing, was developed by the Electro-
static Printing Corporation of America and therefore is
called the EPC process (USEPA 1979). A thin, flexible
printing element, with a finely screened opening defining
the image to be printed, is used. An electric field is
established between the image element and the surface to
be printed. Finely divided "electroscopic" ink particles,
metered through the image openings, are attracted to the
printing surface, where they are firmly held by electrostatic
forces until they have been fixed by heat or by chemical
means.
Reduce Paper Use and Recycle Waste Paper
Because paper is the largest supply item a printer buys
and it may be the most expensive component of his work,
paper use and the disposition of waste paper is a critical
concern. Many printers segregate and recycle paper ac-
cording to grade: inked paper is one grade and is recycled
separately; unprinted white paper is sent separately to
recycling; and wrappers for paper, which are a lower grade,
are disposed of in trash.
References
Anonymous. 1975. Curing Ink with Electron Beams.
Business Week. March 24,1975.
. 1973. UV Cure Cuts Pollution, Energy Use. Envr.
Sci. Tech. 7(6).
Campbell, M.E., and Glenn, W.M. 1982. Profit From
Pollution Prevention; A Guide to Industrial Waste
Reduction andRecyding. Toronto, Canada: Pollution
Probe Foundation.
Carpenter,B.H.,andHiUiard,G. 1976. Overview ofPrinting
Processes and Chemicals Used. In Environmental
Aspects of Chemical Use in Printing Operations.
EPA-560-1-75-005. Washington D.C.: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Huisingh, D., et al. 1985. Proven Profit From Pollution
Prevention. Washington, D.C.: the Institute for Local
Self-Reliance.
KMI Marketing, Inc. 1987. Personal communication and
advertising literature on ink: recycling equipment.
September 1987. Irvine, CaliiF.
North Carolina Pollution Prevention Pays Program,
Accomplishments of North Carolina Industries-Case
Summaries, North Carolina Department of Natural
Resources and Community Development, Division of
Environmental Management,. Raleigh, NC, January
1987.
Ryerson, Robert. 1987. Technical Director of Printing
Industries Association, Inc. of Southern California,
Personal communication, November 1987.
Shahidi,I.K.,andPowanda,T.M. 1975. UltravioletCuring:
A Review of the Technology. Amer. Ink. Maker.
January 1975.
USEPA. 1986. Waste Minimization-Issues and Options.
Volumel-III. EPA/530-SW-86-041 through043. U.S.
21
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Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C.
. 1979. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Graphic Arts: an AP-42 Update. EPA-450-4-79-014.
Research Triangle Park, N.C.: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
. 1976. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Printing
Operations. EPA-560-1-75-005. Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Western Lithotech. 1987. Personal communication and
advertising literature on photoprocessing chemicals
and equipment. St. Louis, MO, August 1987;
Woodhouse, C. 1984. Waste Ink Reclamation Project.
Alternative Technology and Policy Development
Section, California Department of Health Services.
August 17,1984.
22
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Section 4
GUIDELINES FOR USING THE WASTE
MINIMIZATION ASSESSMENT WORKSHEETS
Waste minimization assessments were conducted at
several commercial printers in the Los Angeles area. The
assessments were used to develop the waste minimization
questionnaire and worksheets that are provided in the
following section.
A comprehensive waste minimization assessment in-
cludes a planning and organizational step, an assessment
step that includes gathering background information and
development of waste minimization options, a feasibility
study on specific waste minimization options, and an im-
plementation phased
CONDUCTING YOUR OWN ASSESSMENT
The worksheets provided in this section are intended
to assist printers in systematically evaluating waste gener-
ating processes and in identifying waste minimization
opportunities. These worksheets include only the assess-
ment phase of the procedure described in the Waste Mini-
mization Opportunity Assessment Manual (U.S. EPA
1988). For a full description of waste minimization assess-
ment procedures, refer to the EPA Manual.
Table 4 lists the worksheets mat are provided in this
section.
Table 4. List of Waste Minimization Assessment Worksheets
Number Title
1. Waste Sources
2A. Waste Minimization:
Material Handling
2B. Waste Minimization:
Material Handling
3. Option Generation:
Material Handling
4. Waste Minimization:
Material Substitution
Image Processing
5. Option Generation:
Material Substitution
Image Processing
6. Waste Minimization:
Plate Processing
7. Option Generation:
. Plate Processing/Makeready
8. Waste Minimization:
Printing and Finishing
9. Option Generation:
Printing and Finishing
10. Waste Minimization:
Good Operating Practices
11. Option Generation:
Good Operating Practices
12. Waste Minimization:
Reuse and Recovery
Description
Typical wastes generated at
commercial printing plants.
Questionnaire on general
handling techniques for raw
material handling.
Questionnaire on procedures used
for handling drums, containers
and packages.
Waste minimization options for
material handling operations.
Questionnaire on material
substitution and on image
processing operations.
Waste minimization options for
material substitution and options
for image processing.
Questionnaire on plates processing.
Waste minimization opportunities
for plate processing.
Questionnaire on printing
and finishing.
Printing and finishing waste
minimization options.
Questionnaire on use of good
operating practices.
Waste minimization options for
good operating practices.
Questionnaire on opportunities
for reuse and recovery of wastes.
23
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Firm Wast* Minimization Assessment prepared By
fi»a Chocked By
naia proj NO Sheet of Page of
WORKSHEET WAST£ SQURCES
Wast* Source: Material Handling
Off-spec materials
Obsolete raw materials
Damaged paper
Spills & leaks (liquids)
Spills (powders)
Empty container cleaning
Container disposal (metal)
Container disposal (paper)
Pipeline/tank drainage
Laboratory wastes
Evaporative losses
Trash
Other
Wast* Source: Process Operations
Used film
Image processing baths
Etching and plating baths
Wastewater from rinsing
Damagod/used plates
Fountain solutions
Waste ink
Cleaning solvents
Cleaning rags
Lube oik
Other
Significance at Plant
LOW
Medium
High
•
24
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Firm .
Site .
Date.
Wast* Minimization Assessment
Proj. No.
Prepared By
Checked By
Sheet of. Page of _
WORKSHEET
2A
WASTE MINIMIZATION:
Material Handling
A. GENERAL HANDLING TECHNIQUES
.Are all raw materials tested for quality before being accepted from suppliers?
Are expired age-dated materials tested for effectiveness before being disposed of?
Is obsolete raw material returned to the supplier?
Is paper stored in a humidity and temperature-controlled area?
Describe safeguards to prevent damage to paper in handling and storage:
D yes
Dyes
Dyes
Dno
Dno
Dno
Describe safeguards to prevent the use of materials that may generate off-spec product:.
Is inventory used in first-ln first-out order?
Is the inventory system computerized?
Does the current Inventory control system adequately prevent waste generation?
D yes.
Dyes
Dyes
Dno
Dno
Dno
What information does the system track?-
Is there a formal personnel training program on raw material handling, spill prevention,
proper storage techniques, and waste handling procedures? Dyes.
Does the program include information on the safe handling of the types of drums, containers
and packages received? Dyes
How often Is training given and by whom?
Dno
Dno
25
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Firm Wast* Minimization Assessment i
fiila <
Dal» ' pfAJ No i
WORKSHEET WASTE MINIMIZATION:
2B Material Handling
^repared By
Checked By
Sheet of Page of
B. DRUMS, CONTAINERS, AND PACKAGES
Are drums, packages, and containers inspected for damage before being accepted? G yes G no
Are employees trained in ways to safely handle the types of drums & packages received? D yes G no
Are stored items protected from damage, contamination, or exposure to rain, snow, sun & heat? G yes G no
Does the layout of the facility result in heavy traffic through the raw material storage area? G yes G no
(Heavy traffic increases the potential for contaminating raw materials with dirt or dust
and for causing spilled materials to become dispersed throughout the facility.)
Can traffic through the storage area be reduced? G yes G no
Are employees property trained in handling of spilled raw materials? G yes G no
Dflscribfl handfing procedures for damaged items:
What measures are employed to prevent the spillage of Squids being dispensed?
When a spill of liquid occurs in the facility, what cleanup methods are employed (e.g., wet or
(fry)? A'SO diSCUSS the way in which |hft resulting waStf?S fl'e hflrxllfld: .,
Would different cleaning methods allow for direct reuse or recycling of the waste'
f (explain):
Do you try to order smaller containers of infrequently used materials to avoid disposing of
large quantities of unused obsolete materials? O yes G no
Have you tried to order larger containers of frequently used materials to reduce the number
of small containers that must be cleaned and disposed of? G yes O no
Are all empty bags, packages, and containers that contained hazardous materials segregated
from those that contained non-hazardous wastes? G yes G no
PflSCriljfl th& method Cl'nflntly used to dispose Of th'S w3St
-------
Firm Waste Minimization Assessment Prepared By
Silo Pmr Ilnil/Opar
Checked Bv
naw p«%j NO Sheet of Pago of
WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION:
O Material Handling
MMtlng Format (e.g., brainstormlng, nominal group technique
Mtetlng CoQnftnW
'
Meeting Participant?
SuggtMad Wasta Minimization Option*
A. General Handling Techniques
Quality Control Check
Test Age-Dated Material (if expired)
for Effectiveness
Return Obsolete Material to Supplier
Minimize Inventory
Computerize Inventory
•Formal Training
B. Drums, Containers, and Packages
Raw Material Inspection
Proper Storage/Handling
Reduced Traffic
Spilled Material Reuse
Cleanup Methods to Promote Recyclng
Appropriate Purchase Sizes
Waste Segregation
Currently
Done Y/N?
Rationale/Remarks on Option
27
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Firm Waste Minimization Ass«ssm«nt p
SitB C
Data prnj N0 S
WORKSHEET WASTE MINIMIZATION:
A Material Substitution
^ Image Processing
A. MATERIAL SUBSTITUTION
Do any of the inks or thinners used contain hazardous materials (i.e., chlorinated
solvents, lead or chrome pigments, mercury, etc.)?
If yes, has material substitution been tried?
repared By
hecked Bv
heet of Page
dyes
dyes
of
dno
dno
B. IMAGE PROCESSING
Are electronic pre-press systems used to prepare copy?
If not, has their use been considered?
Is silver removed and recovered from photoprocessing waste streams?
Is silver recovery done onsite?
Has reuse of photoprocessing chemicals been attempted (after silver removal)?
dyes
dyes
dyes
dyes
Dyes
dno
dno
dno
dno
dno
What other photographic wastes are recycled or recovered in some manner?
Are any of the following techniques used to increase the life of the fixing bath?
Add ammonium thiosulfate
Add acetic acid
Use an acid stop bath
Monitor temperature and pH
Other
dyes
dyes
dyes
dyes
Dyes
Ono
dno
dno
Dno
dno
Is countercurrent rinsing used to reduce wastewater volume?
Can processing equipment be modified to incorporate these features?
Dyes
Dyes
dno
Dno
28
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Km Waste Minimization Assessment Prepared By
Rita ' pnv? Unit/Ope
Checked Bv
Data pmj No Sheet Of Pa 08 Of
WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION:
c Material Substitution
*•* Image Processing
Meeting Format (e.g., bralnstormlng, nominal group technique]
Meeting Coor4'n'|nr
Meeting Participant!
Suggested Waste Minimization Options
A. Substitution/Reformulation Options
Ink Substitution
Solvent Substitution
Film Substitution
Other Raw Material Substitution
B. Image Processing
Use Electronic Pre-press System
Collect and Reclaim Film
Recover Silver From Baths
Reuse/Recycle Chemicals
Increase Fixing Bath life
Use Countercurrent Film Rinse
Currently
Dona Y/N?
Rationale/Remark* on Option
29
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Firm Watt* Minimization AsMscnwnt •
RU» ' '
Dale pmj KI«
WORKSHEET WASTE MINIMIZATION:
O Plate Processing/Makeready
Prepared By
Checked By
Sheet of Rape
ETCHING/PLATING "
Are metal etching/plating operations performed at your plant? n yes
(If yes, please see other EPA Waste Minimization Guides for metal parts cleaning,
metal fabrication, and printed circuit board manufacturing for additional options.)
Are metals recovered from solution bath dumps or waste streams? Dyes
If y«s, describe the procedure:
of
Dno
,Dno
Describe how etching/plating wastes are handled, treated, and disposed of:
PROCESSING
Do you use presensttized plates? Q yes
Does the plate processor have an automatic replenishment system for developer/finisher? O yes
Are plate processor conditions frequently monitored? Dyes
Are spent plates recycled? dyes
Have water-based plate development systems been used or tested? a yes
Does the plant use a laser platemaking system? D yes
Dno
Dno
Dno
Ono
Dno
Dno
MAKEREADY
Which of the following press automation features have you added to reduce makeready times,
improve quality control,' and r aduce paper waste?
D automated plate bender
D automated plate scanner
O automated ink key setting system •
D computerized registration ,
O Ink/water ratio sensor
30
-------
Pirm Waate Minimization Aaaaaament • Prepared By
Silo Pf^ I,lnit/Oper
Checked Bv
rcrto Dmj Nn Sheet of Pagei of
WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION:
7 Plate Processing
MMtlng format (e.g., bralnatormlng, nominal group technique)
Meeting Coordinator
Moating Participant!
Suggested Waal* Minimization Optlona
Etching/Plating*
Non-chromate Etchant
Alternative Plating Baths
Drag-out Reduction
Bath-Ufo Extension
Metal Recovery
Store Plates at Recommended Condttions
Maintain Plate Processing Baths
Recycle Spent Plates
Use Water-Based Developers
Use User Platemaking System
Procasalng
Presensitized Plates
Maktready
Automated plate bender
Automated plate scanner
Automated ink key setting system
Computerized registration
Ink/water ratio sensor
Currently
DorwY/N?
Rationale/Remark* on Option
, - .
Additional information useful for minimizing waste in plate processing operations can be found (n EPA's waste
minimization guides for metal fabricators, metal parts cleaning, and printed circuit board manufactunng operations.
31
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Finn Wast* Minimization Assessment
SHa «
Data prej NO
WORKSHEET WASTE MINIMIZATION:
O Printing & Finishing
'reparedBy
Shocked Bv
Sheet of Page
PRINTING & FINISHING
Are ink containers properly reseated after use? O yes
Do any of the inks contain hazardous materials such as solvents or heavy metals? O yes
Has the use of less hazardous inks been attempted? O yes
nitrms thn msiitts-
of
Ono
Ono
Ono
Are Ink fountains filled according to expected need as opposed to routine filling? O yes
Are automatic ink levelers employed? O yes
Are ink fountains cleaned between runs? O yes
Is a standard Ink sequence used to reduce cleaning? O yes
Are measures employed to prevent drying ink or formation of skins inside the founta n? O yes
Are waste inks recycled or returned to the manufacturer? O yes
Have alternative fountain solutions been tried? O yes
Explain any measures employed or problems encountered with these options*
Ono
Ono
Ono
Ono
Ono
Ono
• Ono
Has the use of an automatic blanket cleaner been attempted? O yes
Has the use of less hazardous cleaning solvent been attempted? O yes
Can the waste solvent be collected and used as thinner? O yes
Can the cleaning solvent be recycled? O yes
Can soaps and detergents be used for cleaning? O yes
Is the roller blade kept in good condition and its angle checked for most effective cleaning? O yes
Ono
One
One
Ono
Ono
Ono
Is an automatic web splicer used to save time and paper waste? O yes
Do the presses employ web break detectors to prevent damage to the press (tear-down and
repair of equipment can produce large quantities of cleaning waste as compared to waste
* produced during normal operation)? Oyes
Is waste kjbe-oN sent to a recycter? O yes
Is paper use minimized by proper pre-production planning and lay-out? Dyes
Is waste paper and trash sent to a recyder? O yes
DHcim these optiorf?'
Ono
Ono
Ono
Ono
Ono
32
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Fim, Waste Minimization Assessment Preoared Bv
SB* Pffbf. UnH/Opn
Checked Bv
nut* Proj MB Sheet of Page of
WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION:
y Printing & Finishing
Meeting format (e.g., bralnstormlng, nominal group technique)
Meeting Cw""""1'
Meeting Pirtlelpf "tt
Suggested Waste Minimization Options
Reseal Containers Properly
Use Alternative Inks
Fill Fountains According to Need
Use Automatic Levelers
Standard Ink Sequence
Prevent Ink Drying
Recycle Waste Ink
Return Waste Ink to Manufacturer
Use Alternative Fountain Solutions
Use Automatic Blanket Cleaner
Use Alternative Cleaning Solvents
Collect and Reuse Solvent
Recycle Waste Solvent
Use Soap and Detergent
Check Roller Blade Condition and Angle
Use Automatic Web Splicer
install Web Break Detectors
Recycle Lube-OBs
Plan Production/Lay-out
Recycle Waste Paper/Trash
Currently
DoneY/N?
Rationale/Remarks on Option
-
33
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Firm .
Site .
Date.
Wast* Minimization Assessment
Proj. No.
Prepared By
Checked By
Sheet of Page of
WORKSHEET
10
WASTE MINIMIZATION:
Good Operating Practices
GOOD OPERATING PRACTICES
Are plant material balances routinely performed? O yes G no
Are they performed for each material of concern (e.g. solvent) separately? Dyes Gno
Are records kept of individual wastes with their sources of origin and eventual disposal? O yes G no
(This can aid in pinpointing large waste streams and focus reuse efforts.)
Are the operators provided with detailed operating manuals or instruction sets? D yes G no
Are all operator job functions well defined? Q yes D no
Are regularly scheduled training programs offered to operators? G yes G no
Are there employee incentive programs related to waste minimization? G yes Gno
Does the facility have an established waste minimization program in place? • • G yes G no
If yes, is a specific person assigned to oversee the success of the program? G yes Gno
Discuss goals of the program and results:.
Has a waste minimization assessment been performed at the facility in the past?
If yes. discuss:
Gyes
Gno
34
-------
Firm - Wa*t« Minimization Assessment 'Prepared By '
SitA prp* Urtt/Dpor
Checked Bv
Data Pmj NO, Sheet of Paati of
WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION:
1 I Good Operating Practices
MMtlng format («.g.t braln»tormlng, nominal group technique)
M^Ung Coordinator
Mating Participant*
Suggested Wast* Minimization Options
• Perform Material Balances
Keep Records of Waste Sources & Disposition
Waste/Materials Documentation
Provide Operating Manuals/Instructions
Employee Training
Increased Supervision
Provide Employee Incentives
Increase Plant Sanitation
Establish Waste Minimization Policy
Set Goals for Source Reduction
Set Goals for Recycling
Conduct Annual Assessments
Currently
Done Y/N?
Rationale/Remarks on Option
... . .... ....
35
-------
Firm
RM«
Date
WORKSHEET
12
Waste Minimization Assessment
Proj No
WASTE MINIMIZATION:
Reuse and Recovery
Prepared By
Checked By
Sheet of
A. SEGREGATION
Segregation of wastes reduces the amount of unknown material In waste and improves
prospects for reuse & recovery.
Are spent processing baths segregated from wastewater streams?
Are different solvent wastes due to equipment dean-up segregated?
Are aqueous wastes from equipment dean-up segregated from solvent wastes?
Are different types of paper (colored paper vs. white) segregated to increase their resale value?
Are different grades of paper (inked vs. dean, high quality vs. paper wrap) kept segregated
for more effective recycling?
Is general trash segregated to maximize the amount of recyclable paper, film, aluminum,
pallets, etc.?
If no explain;
Page
D yes _
Dyes
Dyes
Dyes
Dyes
Dyes
of
Dno
Dno
D no
Dno
Dno
Dno
B. CONSOUDATION/REUSE/RECOVERY
Do you return waste ink to the manufacturer for recycling?
Do you recycle the Ink onsite?
Have you contacted any large printers in your area to see if they want your ink for recycling?
Have you contacted waste exchange services or commercial brokerage firms regarding waste
ink or other wastes?
Are many different solvents used for cleaning?
If too many small-volume solvent waste streams are generated to justify on-site distillation,
can the solvent used for equipment cleaning be standardized?
Is spent cleaning solvent reused as thinner or initial wash?
Has on-site distillation of the spent solvent ever been attempted? (On-site recovery of sol-
vents by distillation Es economically feasible for as little as 8 gallons of solvent waste per day.)
II yes, is distillation still being performed?
If no, explain?
Gyes
Dyes
dyes
Dyes
O yes
Oyes
Dyes
Dyes
D yes
Q no
Dno
Dno
Dno
Ono
Dno
Dno
Dno
Dno
DfecuM other wastes (lube oils, films, paper, etc.) that you are currently recycling and by which
FTOfinff;
36
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Appendix A
CASE STUDIES OF COMMERCIAL PRINTING PLANTS
In 1986 the California Department of Health Services
commissioned a waste minimization study (DHS 1988) of
two commercial printing firms, called Plants A and B in
this guide. The results of the two waste assessments were
used to prepare waste minimization assessment work-
sheets to be completed by other commercial printers in a
self-audit process.
The companies selected as assessment sites were
chosen primarily for their willingness to participate in the
study, applicability to the study objectives, and the ability
to apply the information to the commercial printing indus-
try as a whole. Plant A was a medium-size commercial
printer handling a wide variety of printing products. Plant
B was one of several plants owned by a large printer
specializing in newspaper advertising inserts and circulars.
The assessments consisted of two visits each to Plants
A and B. The initial visits included examination of plant
operations, waste handling and disposal, discussion of
potential waste minimization techniques, and included a
tour of all plant operations. The second visit was used to
answer follow-up questions.
This Appendix section presents the results of the
assessments of Plants A and B and potentially useful waste
minimization options identified through the assessments.
Also included are the practices already in use at the plant
that have successfully reduced waste generation from past
levels.
The waste minimization assessments were conducted
according to the description of such assessments found in
the "Introduction: Overview of Waste Minimization," in
this guide. The steps involved in the assessments were (see
also Figure 1 of this guide):
• Planning and organization
• Assessment phase , • - «y • .
• Feasibility analysis phase
The fourth phase, implementation, was left to the
commercial printers themselves.
WASTE MINIMIZATION ASSESSMENT OF
PLANT "A"
Plant A is a medium-sized commercial printer located
in the metropolitan Los Angeles area. The company
employs about 60 people, of whom 43 are involved in
production and the remainder are administrative and staff
employees. The company handles a wide range of com-
mercial printing, including advertising inserts, business
forms, brochures and pamphlets, and circulars. Corporate
sales for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1987 totalled
approximately $6 million.
Plant A performs its own photoprocessing. Thepho-
toprocessing and plate processing chemicals are received
in five gallon containers, referred to as "cubes." Approxi-
mately 1-1/2 cubes of developer and 1 cube of fixer are
used per month for film processing. For platemaking, pre-
sensitized aluminum plates are used,, The average monthly
usage of plate processing developer and fixer is 2 cubes per
month each. All of the developers and fixers are diluted
with water at a ratio of 4:1 (water to chemical) before being
used. Presensitized aluminum plates and all pho-
toprocessing and plate processing chemicals are manufac-
tured by Kodak. The plant also uses two gallons per month
of gum arabic, which is applied to the plates to reduce
oxidation.
Automatic processors are used for photoprocessing
and plate processing. Fresh developer and fixer are added
automatically, and an equivalent volume of solution from
the baths is simultaneously removed by overflow to pre-
vent the buildup of impurities in the baths. The spent
solution goes to the sewer. Also, the.processing baths are
dumped and fresh new baths are made up every six to eight
weeks. These dumped baths also go to the sewer. Kodak
claims that these chemicals are non-hazardous and biode-
gradable. The local sanitation district accepts the wastewa-
ter from Plant A and charges an annual permit fee of $50.
Silver recovery from the spent fixinjg solutions is not felt to
be economical and, therefore, is not practiced. The silver
concentration in the wastewater is within the acceptable
limits set by the sanitation district.
The printing operation at Plant A consists of four web
press lines and two sheet-fed units. Three of the web press
lines use four color printing units, and the fourth line uses
six color printing units. About 95% of Plant A's produc-
tion is printed using the web presses, and the remaining 5%
using the sheet-fed presses.
37
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The plant uses non-heatset inks exclusively. The inks
used are manufactured by Inkmakers, Inc., U.S. Printing
Ink, and United Printing Ink. Approximately 1500 pounds
of ink in 17 different colors are used per month. The inks
are ordered in 30-pound kits. Fresh black inks cost from
S1.50 to $3.50 per pound; colored inks from $3.50 to $7.50
per pound. Plant A has an arrangement with its ink
suppliers in which all of the waste inks are returned to the
supplier to be reformulated into black ink. The supplier
mixes fresh black ink into the waste ink to obtain an
acceptableblackcolor. Typically 50 to 100 pounds of fresh
ink is added to each 100 pounds of waste ink. Plant A then
buys back the reformulated black ink at a price of $3.00 per
pound. Plant A is now looking into purchasing a small ink
recycling unit
Approximately 20 gallons per month of Rosos "Foun-
tain Soup" is used to make fountain solution for the web
presses. The Fountain Soup is a concentrate that includes
phosphoric acid, gum arabic, a defoamer, and a fungicide.
The fountain solution is made up by adding 1 to 4 ounces
of concentrate to each gallon of water. This concentrate is
formulated for use in areas where there are stringent
controls on volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions.
(Plant A is located within the jurisdiction of the South
Coast Air Quality Management District.) The concentrate
contains high-boiling-point surfactants that help to wet the
non-image areas of the plate, without the need for isopro-
pyl alcohol.
The Rosos Fountain Soup was found to not work
effectively on the sheet-fed units. Therefore, a different
fountain solution concentrate (also supplied by Rosos) is
used with the sheet-fed units, which requires the addition
of sufficient isopropyl alcohol so that the fountain solution
contains between 5 to 15% isopropyl alcohol. The average
usage of isopropyl alcohol is 10 gallons per month. Since
the sheet-fed units only account for 5% of the company's
overall business, the VOC emissions from theplant are low
enough to be within the prescribed limits.
The fountain solution is never drained from the print-
ing unit reservoirs, but is either applied to the paper or is
lost through evaporation. Of the solution that ends up on
the paper, most of the water and isopropyl alcohol evapo-
rates, while the other components are absorbed into the
paper.
Approximately 230,000 pounds of paper are used per
month, on average. Of the sheet-fed paper, approximately
2 to 6% ends up as waste. Of the web-fed paper, approxi-
mately 2% of the gross weight of the paper ends up as
wrapper slab and core waste, and 6 to 7% as other waste.
All waste paper is collected and sold to a paper recycler.
All used and spoiled film is processed by a recycler to
reclaim silver and all used aluminum plates are sold to an
aluminum recycler. Ink containers are Scraped out when
empty and then thrown in the trash, along with pho-
toprocessing and plate processing chemical containers.
Worn rubber blankets from the presses are also thrown in
the trash. An average of 16 blankets are replaced each
month on the web presses, and one blanket per month on
the sheet-fed units.
Pacific Blanket Wash, manufactured by Shell Chemi-
cal', is used for cleaning the presses and for dther general
cleanup uses. According to the supplier, this wash is
formulated to be exempt from California hazardous waste
regulations. Cleanup is done with a rag wetted with the
blanket wash. Virtually all of the blanket wash ends up on
the rags; there is no waste solvent collected. For $40 a
week, a local industrial laundry provides about 2000 rags
per week, picks up dirty rags and dry cleans them.
Plant A has yet to send out any hazardous wastes under
manifest They have an arrangement with the ink manufac-
turer who picks up the waste inks and reformulates black
ink from it. Under current federal guidelines, offset lithog-
raphy paste inks are not hazardous.
Ink Recycler Option
Under the current arrangement, the ink manufacturer
picks up all of the waste ink from Plant A. This waste ink
is blended with enough fresh ink to produce an acceptable
black color. Approximately 200 to 300 pounds of waste
ink are returned each month to the manufacturer. After
blending with fresh ink, Plant A buys back 300 to 500
pounds per month of black ink at a cost or $3.00 per pound.
This price for the reformulated ink is relatively high
based on the relatively low quality of the ink. Fresh ink of
comparable quality typically costs $ 1.55 per pound. Plant
A can obtain a potentially quick payback on its investment
by purchasing an ink recycler.
KMI Marketing, Inc. sells a small recycler which
blends 60 pounds of waste ink with 120 pounds of fresh ink
to produce a 180-pound batch of reformulated black ink.
The complete batch is then filtered and is ready for use.
One batch can be processed in one hour.
The following economic comparison is made on a
conservative set of assumptions. These assumptions are
listed below.
• 200 pounds of waste ink are produced per
month.
• Labor and utility costs are negligible.
Case A: Buy a new ink recycler
The recycler blends in 400 pounds of fresh
38
-------
ink to produce 600 pounds of reformulated ink.
The fresh ink costs $1.55 per pound.
• The ink recycler costs $5,900.
CaseB: Keep the existing arrangement with the
ink manufacturer.
• The ink manufacturer blends in 100 pounds of
fresh ink to produce 300poundsof reformulated
ink per month. Thecostof this reformulated ink
is $3.00 per pound.
• Plant A buys an additional 300 pounds of fresh
ink. The cost of this ink is $ 1.55 per pound. By
buying this additional ink, both cases produce
a total quantity of black ink of 600 pounds per
month.
Table A-l presents the economic comparison. The
payback of just under 8 months makes the on-site recycler
look very attractive.
WASTE MINIMIZATION ASSESSMENT OF
PLANT «B"
Plant B is a large printing operation in Southern
California. The company owns several plants in the state
and prints circulars and advertising inserts for many of the
major and minor newspapers in Southern California. On
occasion, they have printed publications, however, this is
not a substantial percentage of this overall business. Plant
B includesimageprocessing.plateprocessing, lithographic
printing, and finishing operations. At the time of the audit,
the company had been in its current location for about 15
months. The plant operates 7 days peir week, 24 hours per
day, 360 days per year.
The plant employs modem image processing technol-
ogy, including computerized pre-press-systems for copy
preparation. All photoprocessing is accomplished with
automatic processing equipment Automatic replenishers
minimize photoprocessing wastes by adding enough de-
veloper or fixer to keep the bath concentrations within a
range that allows optimal performance.
Photoprocessing is done with Polychrome "Lith"
developer and fixer, and Hunt's Rapid Access developer
and fixer. Approximately 55 gallons of developer and 55
gallons of fixer are used per month. The spent pho-
toprocessing solution passes through a two-stage silver
recovery system. The firststageconsists of areclaimer that
electrolytically deposits the silver onto electrodes. The
second stage recovers the remaining silver using steel
wool. Approximately three pounds of silver per month are
reclaimed this way.
The plant uses approximately 10 gallons per month
each of Copykwik photographic developer and fixer
manufactured by Olin Hunt in its typesetting operations.
The developer is a mixture of hydroquinone, potassium
hydroxide, and sodium sulfite. The fixer is a mixture of
ammonium thiosulfate and acetic acid.
An Enco color proofing machine is used to check the
copy for appearance and accuracy. Naps developer and
TABLE A-l. ECONOMIC COMPARISON OF ON-SITE VERSUS OFF-SITE INK RECYCLING
Case A. (On-site Ink Recycling) Buy an ink recycler to convert all waste ink into reformulated black ink. The capital
cost of the ink recycler is $5,900.
Case B. (Off-site Ink Recycling) Continue to return waste ink to the manufacturer, who blends it with fresh ink and sells
it back to Plant A.
In both cases, the waste ink is available without cost.
Case A CaseB
Material Balance, (pounds per month)
Wasteink . 200 200
Fresh ink for blending 400 _1QQ
Reformulated ink 600 300
Additional fresh ink Q 300
Total available ink . • 600 600
Operating Cost, (dollars per month)
Wasteink $ 0 $ 0
Fresh ink for blending (@$1.55/lb) 620 0
Buy back reformulated ink (@$3.00/lb) 0 900
Buy additional fresh ink (@ $1.55/lb) Q 465
Total Operating Cost to recycle ink $ 620 $1,365
Savings in operating cost with on-site ink recycler $745/month
Payback periods = $5.900 =7.9 months
$745/month
39
-------
fixer are used in this system. Typically 5 to 6 gallons per
month of developer and fixer are used.
The plant uses presensitized aluminum plates. Poly-
clirome chemistry is used for plate processing. In particu-
lar, the plate developer is a solution of hydroquinone and
sodium formaldehyde bisulfite. Approximately 20 gallons
per month of the finisher are used, and about 30 gallons per
month of developer are used.
The spent solutions from plate processing and pho-
toprocessingaredischargedto thesewer. PlantB is permit-
ted by the local county wastewater treatment district to
discharge the waste solutions from image processing and
plate processing. Used and spoiled films are collected and
sold to a recycler. Used aluminum plates are sold to an
aluminum recycler.
The major materials and supplies used in the press-
room are paper, ink, blanket wash, fountain solution, and
small quantities of silicone and lubricating oil. Approxi-
mately 500 tons of paper are used per month. All excess
and waste paper, wrappers, and web cores are segregated
into three categories (Kraft paper, clean white paper, and
mixed news waste paper) for sale to a recycler.
The plant has four large web printing lines. Three of
the lines are open web presses which use non-heatset inks.
The fourth line uses heatset inks. All lines print four colors
(yellow, blue, red, and black). Table A-2 shows amounts
of fresh ink used on an average monthly basis.
Table A-2. Average Ink Usage, Pounds per
Month
Non-heatset
Heatset
Black
90,000
11,000
Yellow
25,000
20,000
Blue Red
10,000 20,000
11,000 16,000
The heatset inks are manufactured by Waseca, a
division of Brown Printing. The non-heatset inks are
manufactured by U.S. Printing Ink. Waste ink is recycled
onsite into black ink. The recycler was installed at an
estimated cost of $15,000 to $20,000. Approximately 3%
of the black ink used is recycled from the plant's waste ink.
By recycling waste ink, the plant can reduce its purchases
of newsprint-quality open web black ink, priced at 34 cents
per pound, by about 2,700 pounds per month. The savings
in new ink alone results in a payback period of 16 to 22
months (based on the installed cost range of $15,000 to
$20,000). If the disposal cost of the waste ink as a hazard-
ous waste were to be considered, the payback would be
shorter and even more attractive.
Approximately 600 gallons per month of fountain
solution concentrate is used. The brand name of the con-
centrate is "Super Lo-Rub", manufactured by Quality
Control Litho. The concentrate contains phosphoricacid,
gum arable, defoamer, and fungicide. The fountain solu-
tion is made up by adding 3 ounces of concentrate to each
gallon of water. All of the fountain solution is used up in
the printing process, either absorbed into the paper or
evaporated.
The heatset printing line is equipped with hoods over
the heaters to collect the solvents and other vapors. A
catalytic combustor, manufactured by Thermoelectron,
incinerates these vapors at a temperature of about 650°F.
The use of a catalytic combustor is designated as the best
available control technology by the South Coast Air Qual-
ity Management District
A blanket wash, manufactured by Quality Control
Litho ("One Step Wash Up"), is used for blanket and roller
cleaning on the presses. This solvent is composed of a
mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons (7.5%), aromatic hydro-
carbons (6%), chlorinated hydrocarbons (4%), and other
compounds (15%). Approximately 300 gallons per month
of blanket wash are used. Cleaning is done by wetting arag
with the blanket wash and then wiping the equipment
clean. In this way, most of the blanket wash remains on the
rag. General cleaning is done using rags and concentrated
soap solutions. Rags are supplied by an industrial towel
service, which picks up dirty rags (containing blanket
wash, ink, soap, dust, and dirt) weekly.
Oil is used for lubricating the presses at Plant B. Used
oil is collected atarate of several drums peryear and turned
over to a nearby recycler.
During the audit, it was mentioned that the small
printing firms in the area do not have ink recyclers and do
not have arrangements to return waste ink to the manufac-
turers. These small printers probably put their waste ink
back into containers and throw it into the trash. The
representative from Plant B who assisted in the audit
suggested that it might be mutually beneficial to both the
small printers and Plant B for the plant to accept waste inks
from small printers as a feedstock. The plant would use its
ink recycler to blend the small printer's waste ink with the
plant's waste ink and fresh ink. This would provide a more
acceptable means of disposing of waste ink for the small
printer, and would slightly reduce Plant B' s use of new ink.
40
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Appendix B
WHERE TO GET HELP
FURTHER INFORMATION ON WASTE MINIMIZATION
Additional information on source reduction, reuse and
recycling approaches to waste minimization is available in
EPA reports listed in this section, and through state pro-
grams (listed below) that offer technical and/or financial
assistance in the areas of waste minimization and treat-
ment
In addition, waste exchanges have been established in
some areas of the U.S. to put waste generators in contact
with potential users of the waste. Four waste exchanges are
listed below. Finally, EPA's regional offices are listed.
EPA REPORTS ON WASTE
MINIMIZATION
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Waste
Minimization AuditReport: Case Studies of Corrosive
and Heavy Metal Waste Minimization Audit at a
Specialty Steel Manufacturing Complex." Executive
Summary.* .
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Waste
Minimization Audit Report: Case Studies of
Minimization of Solvent Waste for Parts Cleaning and
from Electronic Capacitor Manufacturing Operation."
Executive Summary.*
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Waste
Minimization Audit Report: Case Studies of
Minimization of Cyanide Wastes from Electroplating
Operations." Executive Summary.*
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report to
Congress: Waste Minimization, Vols. I and II. EPA/
530-SW-86-033 and -034 (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
EPA, 1986).**
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Waste
Minimization - Issues and Options, Vols. I-in EPA/
530-SW-86-041 through -043. (Washington, D.C.:
U.S. EPA, 1986).**
* Executive Summary available from EPA, WMDDRD,
RREL,26West Martin Luther KingDrive, Cincinnati,
OH, 45268; full report available from the National
Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S.
Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA 22161.
** Available from the National Technical Information
Service as a five-volume set, NTIS No. PB-87-114-
328.
WASTE REDUCTION TECHNICAL/
FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS
The EPA's Office of Solid Waste andEmergency Re-
sponse has set up a telephone call-in service to answer
questions regarding RCRA and Superfund (CERCLA):
(800) 242-9346 (outside the District of Columbia)
(202)382-3000 (in the District of Columbia)
The following states have programs that offer technical
and/or financial assistance in the areas of waste minimiza-
tion and treatment
Alabama
Hazardous Material Management and Resources Recov-
ery Program
University of Alabama
P.O. Box 6373
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-6373
(205) 348-8401
Alaska
Alaska Health Project
Waste Reduction Assistance Program
431 West Seventh Avenue, Suite 101
Anchorage, AK 99501
(907)276-2864
Arkansas
Arkansas Industrial Development Commission
One State Capitol Mall >
Little Rock, AR 72201
(501)371-1370
California
Alternative Technology Section
Toxic Substances Control Division
California State Department of Health Service
714/744 P Street
Sacramento, CA 94234-7320
(916) 324-1807 ,
Connecticut
Connecticut Hazardous Waste Management Service
Suite 360 :
900 Asylum Avenue
Hartford, CT 06105
(203)244-2007
41
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Connecticut Department of Economic Development
210 Washington Street
Hartford, CT 06106
(203) 566-7196
Georgia
Hazardous Waste Technical Assistance Program
Georgia Institute of Technology
Georgia Technical Research Institute
Environmental Health and Safety Division
O'Keefe Building, Room 027
Atlanta, GA 30332
(404) 894-3806
Environmental Protection Division
Georgia Department of Natural Resources
Floyd Towers East, Suite 1154
205 Butler Street
Atlanta, GA 30334
(404) 656-2833
Illinois
Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center
Illinois Department of Energy of Energy and Natural
Resources
1808 Woodfield Drive
Savoy, IL 61874
(217) 333-8940
Illinois Waste Elimination Research Center
Pritzker Department of Environmental Engineering
Alumni Building, Room 102
Illinois Institute of Technology
3200 South Federal Street
Chicago, IL 60616
(313) 567-3535
Indiana
Environmental Management and Education Program
Young Graduate House, Room 120
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN 47907
(317)494-5036
Indiana Department of Environmental Management
Office of Technical Assistance
P.O. Box 6015
105 South Meridian Street
Indianapolis, IN 46206-6015
(317) 232-8172
Iowa
Center for Industrial Research and Service
205.Engineering Annex
Iowa State University
Ames, IA 50011
(515) 294-3420
Iowa Department of Natural Resources
Air Quality and Solid Waste Protection Bureau
Wallace State Office Building
900 East Grand Avenue
Des Moines, IA 50319-0034
(515)281-8690
Kansas
Bureau of Waste Management
Department of Health and Environment
Forbes Field, Building 730
Topeka, KS 66620
(913) 269-1607
Kentucky
Division of Waste Management
Natural Resources and Environmental
Protection Cabinet
ISReillyRoad
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502) 564-6716
Louisiana
Department of Environmental Quality
Office of Solid and Hazardous Waste
P.O. Box 44307
Baton Rouge, LA 70804
(504) 342-1354
Maryland
Maryland Hazardous Waste Facilities Siting Board
60 West Street, Suite 200 A
Annapolis, MD 21401
(301) 974-3432
Maryland Environmental Service
2020 Industrial Drive
Annapolis, MD 21401
(301)269-3291
(800) 492-9188 (in Maryland)
Massachusetts
Office of Safe Waste Management
Department of Environmental Management
100 Cambridge Street, Room 1094
Boston, MA 02202
(617) 727-3260
Source Reduction Program
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Quality En-
gineering
1 Winter Street
Boston, MA 02108
(617)292-5982
42
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Michigan
Resource Recovery Section
Department of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 30028
Lansing, MI 48909
(517) 373-0540
Minnesota
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
Solid and Hazardous Waste Division
520 Lafayette Road
St. Paul, MN 55155
(612)296-6300
Minnesota Technical Assistance Program
W-140 Boynton Health Service
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
(612) 625-9677
(800) 247-0015 (in Minnesota)
Minnesota Waste Management Board
123 Thorson Center
7323 Fifty-Eighth Avenue North
Crystal, MN 55428
(612)536-0816
Missouri
State Environmental Improvement and Energy
Resources Agency
P.O. Box 744
Jefferson City, MO 65102
(314) 751-4919
New Jersey
New Jersey Hazardous Waste Facilities Siting
Commission
Room 614
28 West State Street
Trenton, NJ 08608
(609) 292-1459
(609) 292-1026
Hazardous Waste Advisement Program
Bureau of Regulation and Classification
New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection
401 East State Street
Trenton, NJ 08625
Risk Reduction Unit
Office of Science and Research
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection
401 East State Street
Trenton, NJ 08625
New York
New York State Environmental Facipties
Corporation
50 Wolf Road
Albany, NY 12205
(518)457-3273
North Carolina
Pollution Prevention Pays Program
Department of Natural Resources and;
Community Development
P.O. Box 27687
512 North Salisbury Street
Raleigh, NC 27611
(919)733-7015
Governor's Waste Management Board
325 North Salisbury Street
Raleigh, NC 27611
(919) 733-9020
Technical Assistance Unit
Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Branch
North Carolina Department of Human Resources
P.O. Box 2091
306 North Wilmington Street :
Releigh,NC 27602
(919) 733-2178
Ohio
Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
P.O. Box 1049
1800 WaterMark Drive
Columbus, OH 43266-1049
(614)481-7200
Ohio Technology Transfer Organization
Suite 200
65 East State Street
Columbus, OH 43266-0330
(614)466-4286
Oklahoma
Industrial Waste Elimination Program
Oklahoma State Department of Health
P.O. Box 53551
Oklahoma City, OK 73152
(405) 271-7353
Oregon
Oregon Hazardous Waste Reduction Program
Department of Environmental Quality
811 Southwest Sixth Avenue
Portland, OR 97204
(503)229-5913
43
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Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Technical Assistance Program
501F. Orvis Keller Building
University Park, PA 16802
(814) 865-0427
Center of Hazardous Material Research
320 William Pitt Way
Pittsburgh, PA 15238
(412)826-5320
Bureau of Waste Management
Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources
P.O. Box 2063
Fulton Building
3rd and Locust Streets
Harrisburg, PA 17120
(717) 787-6239
Rhode Island
Ocean State Cleanup and Recycling Program
Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management
9 Hayes Street
Providence, RI02908-5003
(401) 277-3434
(800) 253-2674 (in Rhode Island)
Center for Environmental Studies
Brown University
P.O. Box 1943
135 Angell Street
Providence, RI 02912
(401) 863-3449
Tennessee
Center for Industrial Services
102 Alumni Hall
University of Tennessee
Knoxville,TN 37996
(615)974-2456
Virginia
Office of Policy and Planning
Virginia Department of Waste Management
llth Floor, Monroe Building
101 North 14th Street
Richmond,'V A 23219
(804)225-2667
Washington
Hazardous Waste Section
Mail Stop PV-11
Washington Department of Ecology
Olympia, WA 98504-8711
(206) 459-6322
Wisconsin
Bureau of Solid Waste Management
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 7921
101 South Webster Street
Madison, WI53707
(608) 267-3763
Wyoming
Solid Waste Management Program
Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality
Herchler Building, 4th Floor, West Wing , '
122 West 25th Street
Cheyenne, WY 82002
(307) 777-7752
WASTE EXCHANGES
Northeast Industrial Exchange
90 Presidential Plaza, Syracuse, NY 13202
(315)422-6572
Southern Waste Information Exchange
P.O. Box 6487, Tallahassee, FL 32313
(904) 644-5516
California Waste Exchange
Department of Health Services
Toxic Substances Control Division
Alternative Technology & Policy Development Section
714 P Street
Sacramento, C A 95814
(916)324-1807
U.S. EPA REGIONAL OFFICES
Region 1 (VT, NH, ME, MA, CT, RI)
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Boston, MA 02203
(617)565-3715 ' ".
Region 2 (NY, NJ)
26 Federal Plaza
-New York, NY 10278
(212)264-2525
Region 3 (PA, DE, MD, WV, VA)
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
(215) 597-9800
Region 4 (KY, TN, NC, SC, GA, FL, AL, MS)
345 Courtland Street, NE
Atlanta, GA 30365
(404)347-4727
44
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Region 5 (WI, MN, MI, IL, IN, OH)
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
(312) 353-2000
Region 6 (NM, OK, AR, LA, TX)
1445 Ross Avenue
JDallas, TX 75202
(214) 655-6444
Region 7 (NE, KS, MO, IA)
756 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City, KS 66101
(913) 236-2800
Region 8 (MT, ND, SD, WY, UT, CO)
999 18th Stteet
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(303) 293-1603
Region 9 (CA, NV, AZ, HI)
215 Fremont Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
(415) 974-8071
Region 10 (AK, WA, OR, ID)
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
(206) 442-5810
TftTU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1995 - 65O-O06/Z2008
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