vvEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development Washington, DC 20460 EP A/625/7-90/008 August 1990 Guides to Pollution Prevention The Commercial Printing Industry ------- ------- EPA/625#-90/008 August 1990 GUIDES TO POLLUTION PREVENTION: THE COMMERCIAL PRINTING INDUSTRY RISK REDUCTION ENGINEERING LABORATORY AND CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INFORMATION OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268 ------- NOTICE This guide has been subjected to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer and administrative review and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement of recommendation for use. This document is intended as advisory guidance only to the commercial printing industry in develop- ing approaches for pollution prevention. Compliance with environmental and occupational safety and health laws is the responsibility of each individual business and is not the focus of this document. Worksheets are provided for conducting waste minimization assessments of commercial printing industry manufacturing facilities. Users are encouraged to duplicate portions of this publication as needed to implement a waste minimization program. ------- FOREWORD This guide identifies and analyzes waste minimization methodologies appropri- ate for commercial printers, who include lithographers, gravure printers, flexogra- phers, and letterpress and screen printers. This information largely addresses the wastes and waste minimization options for offset lithographers. A variety of wastes are generated during the printing operation. Waste that can be disposed of in trash include some waste paper; film; empty containers; used blankets; and damaged products and other items. These wastes result from image processing, plate making, proof making, printing, and finishing processes. Another form of waste -waste water- results from image processing, plate making, and printing processes. Equipment cleaning wastes and air emissions are other categories of waste. Much of the waste paper generated can be recycled. Reducing the generation of these wastes at the source, or recycling the wastes on or off site, will benefit commercial printers by reducing raw material needs, reducing disposal costs, and lowering the liabilities associated with hazardous waste disposal. 111 ------- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This guide is based in part on waste minimization assessments conducted by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. Pasadena, California for the California Department of Health Services (DHS). Contributors to these assessments include: David Leu, Benjamin Fries, Kim Wilhelm, and Jan Radimsky of the Alternative Technology Section of DHS. Much of. the information in this guide that provides a national perspective on the issues of waste generation and minimization for commercial printers was provided originally to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by Versar, Inc. and Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. in "Waste Minimization-Issues and Options, Volume II," report no. PB87-114369 (1986). Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. edited and developed this version of the waste minimization assessment guide, under subcontract to Radian Corporation (USEPA contract 68-02-4286). Lisa M. Brown of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, was the project officier responsible for the preparation and review of this document. Other contributors and reviewers include: Dr. William D. Schaeffer, Executive Director of the Environmental Conservative Board, Graphic Arts Technical Foundation; Gary A. Jones, Environmental Chemist, Graphic Arts Technical Foundation. IV ------- CONTENTS Section Notice jj Foreword jjj Acknowledgments iv 1. Introduction 1 2. Commercial Printing Industry Profile ....5 3. Waste Minimization Options for Commercial Printers 14 4. Guidelines for Using the Waste Minimization Assessment Worksheets ..23 APPENDIX A: Case Studies of Commercial Printing Plants 37 APPENDIX B: Where to Get Help: Further Information on Waste Minimization 41 ------- ------- Section 1 INTRODUCTION This guide was prepared to provide commercial print- ers with guidelines and options to minimize both hazard- ous and non-hazardous wastes. It includes worksheets to be used in developing waste minimization options for an individual facility. The worksheets and the list of waste minimization options were developed through assessments of two Los Angeles area firms commissioned by the California Department of Health Services (Calif. DHS 1988). The two firms' operations, manufacturing proc- esses, and waste generation and management practices were surveyed, and their existing and potential waste minimization options were characterized. Economic analy- ses were performed on selected options. Inks and paper are the primary raw materials used in printing. Other input materials include photoprocessing and platemaking materials, fountain solutions, cleaning solvents and solutions, and lubricating oils. Solvents and some waste inks represent hazardous materials. Because of the variety of processes and printing substrates used and differences in the final product desired, many different inks are used. Some inks may contain flammable and toxic solvents and/or toxic heavy metals. On the other hand, many inks are claimed to be non-hazardous. The printing industry has made substantial progress toward the use of less hazardous and non-hazardous materials. Waste minimization is a policy specifically mandated by the U.S. Congress in the 1984 Hazardous and Solid Wastes Amendments to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). As the federal agency responsible for writing regulations under RCRA, the U.S Environ- mental Protection Agency (EPA) has an interest in ensur- ing that new methods and approaches are developed for minimizing hazardous waste and that such information is made available to the industries concerned. This guide is one of the approaches EPA is using to provide industry- specific information about hazardous waste minimization. EPA has also developed a general manual for waste minimization in industry. The Waste Minimization Oppor- tunity Assessment Manual (USEPA 1988) tells how to conduct a waste minimization assessment and develop options for reducing hazardous waste generation at a facility. It explains the management strategies needed to incorporate waste minimization into company policies and structure, how to establish a company-wide waste minimi- zation program, conduct assessments, implement options, and make the program an on-going one. The elements of waste minimization assessment are explained in the Over- view, next section. In the following sections of this manual you will find: • An overview of the commercial printing industryand the processes used by the industry (Section Two); • Waste minimization options for commercial printers (Section Three); • Waste Minimization Assessment Guidelines andWorksheets (Section Four) • An Appendix, containing: - Case studies of waste generation and waste minimization practices of two commercial printers; - Whereto gethelp: Sources of useful technical and regulatory information Overview of Waste Minimization Assessment In the working definition used by EPA, waste minimi- zation consists of source reduction and recycling. Of the two approaches, source reduction is usually considered preferable to recycling from an environmental perspective. Treatment of hazardous waste is considered an approach to waste minimization by some states but not by others, and thus is not addressed in this guide. A Waste Minimization Opportunity Assessment (WMOA), sometimes called a waste minimization audit, is a systematic procedure for identifying ways to reduce or eliminate waste. The steps involved in conducting a waste minimization assessment are outlined in Figure 1 and presented in moredetail in thenextparagraphs. Briefly, the assessment consists of a careful review of a plant's opera- tions and waste streams and the selection of specific areas to assess. After a particular waste stream or area is estab- lished as the WMOA focus, a number of options with the potential to minimize waste are developed and screened. The technical and economic feasibility of the selected options are then evaluated. Finally, the most promising options are selected for implementation. ------- Figure 1. The Waste Minimization Assessment Procedure The Recognized Need to Minimize Waste PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION > Get management commitment 1 Set overall assessment program goals > Organize assessment program task force Assessment Organization & Commitment ta Proceed ASSESSMENT PHASE ' Collect process and facility data ' Prioritize and select assessment targets • Select people for assessment teams > Review data and inspect site > Generate options • Screen and select options for further study Select New Assessment Targets and Reevaluate Previous Options Assessment Report of Selected Options FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS PHASE »Technical evaluation > Economic evaluation »Select options for Implementation Final Report, Including Recommended Options IMPLEMENTATION • Justify projects and obtain funding • Installation (equipment) • Implementation (procedure) Evaluate performance Repeat the Process Successfully Implemented Waste Minimization Projects, ------- To determine whether a WMOA would be useful in your circumstances, you should first read this section describing the aims and essentials of the WMOA process. For more detailed information on conducting a WMOA, consult The Waste Minimization Opportunity Assessment Manual. The four phases of a waste minimization opportunity assessment are: • Planning and organization • Assessment phase • Feasibility analysis phase • Implementation PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION Essential elements of planning and organization for a waste minimization program are getting management commitment for the program; setting waste minimization goals; and organizing an assessment program task force. ASSESSMENT PHASE The assessment phase involves a number of steps: • Collect process and facility data • Prioritize and select assessment targets • Select assessment team • Review data and inspect site • Generate options • Screen and select options for feasibility study Collect process and facility data. The waste streams at a facility should be identified and characterized. Infor- mation about waste streams may be available on hazardous waste manifests, National Pollutant Discharge Elimina- tion System (NPDES) reports, routine sampling programs and other sources. Develop a basic understanding of the processes that generate waste at a facility is essential to the WMOA process. Flow diagrams should be prepared to identify the quantity, types and rates of waste generating processes. Also, preparing material balances for various processes can be useful in tracking various process components and identifying losses or emissions that may have been unac- counted for previously. Prioritize and select assessment targets. Ideally, all waste streams in a facility should be evaluated for potential waste minimization opportunities. With limited resources, however, a plant manager may need to concentrate waste minimization efforts in a specific area. Such considera- tions as quantity of waste, hazardous properties of the waste, regulations, safety of employees, economics, and other characteristics need to be 'evaluated in selecting a target stream. Select assessment team. The team should include people with direct responsibility and knowledge of the particular waste stream or area of the plant. Review data and inspect site. The assessment team evaluates process data in advance of the inspection. The inspection should follow the target process from the point where raw materials enter the facility to the points where products and wastes leave. The team should identify the suspected sources of waste. This may include the produc- tion process; maintenance operations; and storage areas for raw materials, finished product, and. work in progress. The inspection may result in the formation of preliminary conclusions about waste minimization opportunities. Full confirmation of these conclusions may require additional data collection, analysis, and/or site visits. Generate options. The objective of this step is to generate a comprehensive set of waste minimization op- tions for further consideration. Since technical and eco- nomic concerns will be considered in the later feasibility step, no options are ruled out at this time. Information from the site inspection, as well as trade associations, govern- ment agencies, technical and trade reports, equipment vendors, consultants, and plant engineers and operators may serve as sources of ideas for waste minimization options. Both source reduction and recycling options should be considered. Source reduction may be accomplished through: • Good operating practices • Technology changes • Input material changes • Product changs Recycling includes: • Use and reuse of waste • Reclamation Screen and select options for further study. This screening process is intended to select the most promising options for full technical and economic feasibility study. Through either an informal review or a quantitative deci- sion-making process, options that appear marginal, im- practical or inferior are eliminated from consideration. FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS An option must be shown to be technically and eco- nomically feasible in order to merit serious consideration for adoption at a facility. A technical evaluation deter- mines whether a proposed option will work in a specific application. Both process and equipment changes need to be assessed for their overall effects on waste quantity and productquality. Also.anynewproductsdevelopedthrough process and/or raw material changes need to be tested for market acceptance. ------- An economic evaluation is carried out using standard measures of profitability, such as paybackperiod, return on investment, and net present value. As in any project, the cost elements of a waste minimization project can be broken down into capital costs and economic costs. Sav- ings and changes in revenue also need to be considered. IMPLEMENTATION An option that passes both technical and economic feasibility reviews should then be implemented at a facil- ity. It is then up to the WMOA team, with management support, to continue the process of tracking wastes and identifyingopportunities forwaste minimization, through- outa facility and by way of periodic reassessments. Either such ongoing reassessments or an initial investigation of waste minimization opportunities can be conducted using this manual. References Calif. DHS. 1988. Waste Audit Study: CommerdalPrinting 7«rft«/ry.ReportpreparedbyJacobsEngineeringGroup Inc., Pasadena, Calif., for the California Department of Health Services, Alternative Technology Section, Toxic Substances Control Division, May 1988. USEPA. 1988. The EPA Manual for Waste Minimization Opportunity Assessments. Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, EPA/600/2-88-025. ------- Section! COMMERCIAL PRINTING INDUSTRY PROFILE Industry Description As defined in the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) 27 - the printing, publishing, and allied industries include "establishments engaged in printing by one or more of the common processes, such as letterpress, lithog- raphy, gravure, or screen; and those establishments which perform services for the printing trade, such as bookbind- ing, typesetting, engraving, photoengraving, and electro- typing. This major group also includes establishments engaged in publishing newspapers, books, and periodicals, regardless of whether or not they do their own printing." Of the seventeen SIC subgroups under major group 27, about fifteen involve substantial printing operation activities. SIC 275 involves commercial printing operations. Printing £or graphic arts) establishments are scattered all over the United States, with the largest concentrations in California and New York. These two states share about 12 and 11 percent of the industry, respectively. Illinois, Texas, Florida, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ohio each share about 5 percent of the total. As of 1982, there were approximately 53,500 facilities located in the U.S. (USDC 1985a, 1985b, 1985c). ' Printing Processes and Products The five most common printing processes in order of their market share are lithography, gravure, flexography, letterpress, and screen (see Figures 2 and 3). Presses are also categorized by the form of paper or other substrate used. Web presses, which are used for larger printing runs, print the image onto a continuous roll (web) of paper. After printing, the paper is then slit (cut) and trimmed to the preferred size. Sheet-fed presses print on individual sheets of paper or other substrate. The products associated with each printing process are discussed in the section below. Lithography is the predominant printing process. Its growth is expected to continue into the 1990s and then stabilize at just under 50% of all printing applications. Sheet-fed lithography is used for printing books, posters, greeting cards, labels, packaging, advertising flyers and brochures, periodicals, and for reproducing artwork. Web offset lithography is used for periodicals, newspapers, advertising, books, catalogs, and business forms. However, sheetfed offset still predominates in numbers of establishments, with 16, 112 nationwide compared with 1,840 heatset web offset printers (Schaeffer, personal communication.) Gravure printing is usedfor large volume runs and high speed runs for printing high-quality publications, magazines, catalogs, and advertising. It also has large volume applications in the printing of flexible packaging (polyolefin packaging), paperboard boxes, and labels. It can print glossy ink films effectively. Flexography, a form of letterpress that uses a flexible plastic or rubber plate in a rotary web press, is used primarily for packaging, such as plastic wrappers, corru- gated boxes, milk cartons, shower curtains, foil, and paper , bags. Flexography works well when printing a large solid surface area and with appropriate substrate can achieve glossy colors. Because of the growth of packaging, the use of flexography has shown a steady increase. Web letterpress is currently us«xl for printing newspa- pers and magazines. However, its: use is declining with greater use of lithography. Sheet-fed letterpress is used for books, printed stationery, announcements, business cards, and advertising brochures. Because individual changes can be made on a plate without having to redo the entire plate, letterpress is particularly useful for price lists, parts lists, and directories. In this case, however, computerized image making is replacing the practice of having standing typeset plates upon which small changes are made. Screen printing can print on virtually any substrate, including wood, glass, fabrics, plastics, and metals. It is used for specialty printing, T-shirts, posters and banners, decals, and wallpapers. This type of printing makes up a smallbutgrowingsegmentoftheprintingindustry. Screen printing is also used to print patterns on electronic circuit boards prior to etching. Raw Materials The principal raw materials used by the graphic arts industry are inks and substrates. A substrate is any material upon which ink is impressed, such as paper, plastic, wood, or metal. Table 1 shows relative usage of ink and paper by the industry. Other raw materials used by the industry include gravure cylinders, photographic films, photoprocessing ------- chemicals (developers, fixers, wash baths, reducers, inten- sifiers), printing plates, plate processing chemicals, foun- tain solutions, cleaning solvents, and rags. Many of the chemicals employed are discussed under process descrip- tion. Process Description Figure 4 illustrates a typical commercial offset litho- graphic printing operation. Printing begins with the prepa- ration of artwork or copy, which is photographed to pro- duce an image. A proof is made which will be used to compare with the printed product and make adjustments to the press. The photographic image is transferred to a plate. In the platemaking step, the image areas of the plate are made receptive to the ink. In the printing step, ink is applied to theplate, then transferred toarubberblanketand then to the substrate. The substrate accepts the ink, reproducing the image. The substrate is then cut, folded, and bound to produce the final product. Printing can be divided into four separate steps: (1) image processing, (2) platemaking, (3) printing, and (4) finishing. The operations involved in these steps arc detailed below. Table 1. Paper and Printing Ink Used by the Graphic Arts Industry Annual Volume Material (short tons) Paper Commercial printers 5,300,000 Magazines and other periodicals (other periodicals include catalogs and directories) 4,000,000 Books 900,000 Printing Ink Lithog raphic and offset 190,150 Gravure , 179,750 Letterpress 119,250 Flexographic 91,150 Source: 1984 U.S. Industrial Outlook (USDC1984); American Paper Institute 1985: Personal communication. IMAGE PROCESSING Most printing operations begin with art and copy (or text) preparation. Once the material is properly arranged, it is photographed to produce transparencies. If an image is to be printed as a full color reproduction, then color separations are made to provide a single-color image or record which can then be used to produce the single-color printing plate for lithography or the cylinder for gravure. (Multi-color printing is done by passing the substrate through several single-color printing operations.) Once the film has been developed, checked, and rephotographed (if necessary), it is sent on to the plate- or cylinder-making operation. The printing industry employs graphic arts photogra- phy in the reproduction of both artwork and copy, using materials similar to those in other fields of photography. The materials include a paper, plastic film, or glass base covered with a light-sensitive coating called a photo- graphic emulsion. This emulsion is usually composed of silver halide salts in gelatin. Silver halides include silver chloride, silver bromide and silver iodide. Most photo- graphic films are made of polyester, although some cellu- lose acetate films are still in use. A photographic process generally produces a negative in which light parts of the copy that was photographed are represented by heavy deposits of silver, causing them to appear dark. Dark parts of the copy are represented by little or no deposits of silver, causing them to appear light or transparent Some processes such as letterpress or lithog- raphy use the photographic negative to transfer an image to the plate. Gravure, screen printing, and other lithographic processes require positives. These are produced by print- ing negatives onto paper or film. The resulting images have tone values similar to the object or copy that was photographed. A photograph or other image made up of a gradation of shades is called continuous tone. Gravure, collotype and screenless Lithography produce continuous tone pictures by varying the print density. However, in offset lithogra- phy or letterpress continuous tones cannot be reproduced by varying the ink density. These processes print either a solid density of color, or none at all. To approximate the tones of the image, these processes employ a halftone screen, which converts a continuous tone image into a pattern of dots of different sizes. Areas meant to appear dark have larger dots .while light areas use small dots. Due to the limited resolvingpower of the human eye, the overall effect is very similar to a continuous-tone photograph. Developing Oxidation and reduction reactions develop an exposed photographic emulsion. The exposed film or plates is first immersed in a developer. This converts the silver halide in the photographic emulsion to metallic silver, in proportion to the amount of exposure it has received. Developers typically contain benzene derivatives. These include py- rogallol, hydroquinone, catechol, p-phenylene diamine, p- aminophenol, metol (or elon), amidol, and pyramidol. These compounds contain two -OH (hydroxyl) groups, two -NH2(amino) groups, or one of each: The two most common developing agents are hydroquinone and metol. ------- In general the developer solution also contains an accelerator, preservative, and restrainer. The accelerator is an alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, or sodium tetraborate (borax), which increases the activity of the developer by neutralizing the acid formed during the development process. The preservative, typically sodium sulfite, reduces oxidation damage to the developing agent The restrainer, potassium bromide, reduces the formation of "fog" on the images. An all-purpose developer might contain the two de- veloping agents, such as metol and hydroquinone, a so- dium carbonate accelerator, a sodium sulfite preservative and a potassium bromide accelerator. A low-contrast developer frequently employs borax instead of sodium carbonate as the accelerator, and uses no potassium bro- mide. The introduction of automatic film processors has resulted in different developer formulas. One type is spe- cifically for rapid-access processing. The developer is a low-contrast type employing a special restrainer to reduce fogging of films at the high developer temperatures. The developer also has a high concentration of sodium sulfite. In rapid-access processing, films develop in 60 to 90 seconds in a developer bath that exceeds 100°F (Hartsuch 1983). Fixing The developing action is stopped by immersing the film in a fixing bath of sodium thiosulfate ("hypo"), ammonium thiosulfate, or sodium hyposulfite. These chemicals convert the silver halides from the photographic emulsion to soluble complexes. This prevents them from turning to metallic silver, which would make the image in the emulsion black. Hypo is typically the major ingredient of a fixing bath. Acetic acid, sodium sulfite, potassium alum, and boric acid are also usually present. Potassium alum, which prevents excess swelling of the photo emulsion gelatin, is not stable in a neutral or alkaline solute; precipitation of aluminum hydroxide will result unless an agent such as acetic acid is added to keep thepH low. The major reason for the low pH is to neutralize the alkalinity of any developing solution remaining on the film and thus stop the developing action. Hypo will decompose in an acid solution, forming elementary sulfur as a precipitate. Sodium sulfite is added to combine with the sulfur precipitate and form more sodium thiosulfate. Thus, the sodium sulfite stabilizes the fixing solution. Boric acid is added to buffer the fixing solution and limit pH changes. This helps to prevent precipitation of aluminum compounds (aluminum is a constituent of potassium alum). Each time photographic film or paper is immersed in the fixing bath, a small amount of silver enters the bath from the photographic emulsion. Insoluble compounds that are formed after the silver concentration reaches a certain level cannot be removed from the photographic emulsion. The bath should be recycled before this point is reached. The critical silver concentration for fixing baths is 0.27 ounces per gallon (2 gramsAiter), while that for films is 0.8 ounces/gallon (6 gm/1) when hypo is the fixing agent Use of ammonium thiosulfate doubles the maxi- mum allowable concentrations of silver. The amount of silver present in a fixing bath can be determined with silver test papers available from most graphic arts suppliers. A fresh fixing bath typically has a pH of 4.1 (Hartsuch 1983). Films and prints immersed in the fixer carry some alkaline developing bath with them. This raises the pHof the fixing bath slightly. When the pH reaches 5.5, the potassium alum is less effective. The bath is then either changed, or the pH is lowered by adding more acetic acid. Sometimes an acid stop bath is used prior to the fixing bath to stop the action of the developing solution. The stop bath prevents most of the pH rise of the fixing bath. Wash Bath After a negative or positive is fixed, some of the fixing bath chemicals remain in the gelatin emulsion layer. One of the chemicals present is hypo. If it is not removed from the emulsion, it can react with the silver to form yellowish- brown silver sulfide, which impairs the quality of the image. Complex silver salts will also react with the hypo to form silver sulfide. To prevent sulfide formation, fixing chemicals are washed from the emulsion. Films are washed in a water bath that dissolves the hypo from the emulsion until an equilibrium is reached between the hypo in the water and that in the emulsion, at which point the water is changed, and more hypo is dissolvisd out of the emulsion. Alternatively, films can be washed in running water. The flow of water into the wash tray is adjusted to typically give a complete water change every five minutes. Washwater at about 80°F increases the efficiency of hypo removal. The pH of most washes is kept above 4.9. This prevents the gelatin of the photographic emulsion from absorbing thio- sulfate ions. Photographic Reducers and Intensiflers Chemicals are sometimes used to reduce or increase the density of the metallic deposit on the film, in order to change the image contrast. Reducers act by oxidizing some of the metallic silver in the emulsion to a soluble salt. Reducers include ferric ammonium sulfate, sulfuric acid, and potassium ferricyanide. Intensifies increase the black- ness of a silver deposit by adding silver or mercury to the developed silver grains in the emulsion. One common ------- intensifier contains silver nitrate, pyrogallol and citric acid; another contains a mercury salt, metal and citric acid. PROOF Aproof is produced after the image processing step as part of internal job control, and it may also serve as a communication tool between printer and client It is used for both single-color and multi-color printing. In the case of color periodicals, the proof step may occur outside the commercial printer's facility, at a color separation house. The proof shows whether all the elements fit, whether the color is right, and how the job will look when it is printed. For multicolor work, both press proofs and off-press (or prepress) proofs are in use. Press proofs are more expen- sive because they require a press and printing plates or cylinders, however, letterpress and gravure generally use pressproofs because theplatemakingandcylinder-making steps affect tone reproduction. In press proofs, the actual printing inks and paper to be used can be employed, although usually a special (non-production) press is used to print the proof. Off-press proofs are produced directly, usually photo- graphically, and these serve as a quality control check of camera and scanner separation and corrections (Bruno 1983). The waste associated with the proof is film and paper. While electronic imaging may in the future make it pos- sible to eliminate the proof, it is currently an indispensable step in commercial printing. PLATE PROCESSING Theprintingprocess revolves around the intermediate image carrier.aplateor cylinder thatacceptsinkoffaroller and transfers the image to the rubber blanket. The blanket, in turn, transfers it to the paper. Each printing process uses a different type of image carrier. The type of ink and press used, the number of impressions that can be printed, the speed with which they are printed, and the characteristics of the imageareall determined by the type of imagecarrier. The four different types of image carriers generally used are manual, mechanical, electrostatic, and photome- chanical. Manual image carriers consist of hand-set composi- tion, wood cuts, linoleum blocks, copperplate or steel-die engravings. Manually made images are seldom used now except for commercial use in screen printing. Mechanical image carriers are produced mainly for relief printing. There are two categories: (1) hot metal machine composition and (2) duplicate printing plates. In taglioprintingalsousesmechanicallymadeplates. These include pantograph engravings, used for steel-die engrav- ing, and engravings made with geometric lathes, which produce scrolls for stock and bond certificates and paper currency. Mechanically-made gravure cylinders are also used for printing textiles, wrapping papers, wallpapers, and plastics. Electrostatic plates are popular in reprography (offset duplicating) where electrophotographic cameras convert original images or pasteups to lithographic plates used on copier/duplicators. Electrostatically produced plates are also usedforimagingfrom pasteups andforlaserplatemak- ing used in newspaper printing. Photomechanicalplatemaking is the common method of platemaking. These image carriers use light sensitive coatings on which images are produced photographically. Photomechanics is capable of reproducing photographs and other pictorial subjects. This overcomes the limita- tions of manually and mechanically produced plates. Production of the Image Carrier The photomechanical process uses light sensitive coatings whose physical properties change after exposure to light. The exposed coating areas become insoluble in water or other solutions, such as diazo solutions. The unexposed areas dissolve, leaving the exposed portion as an image or as a stencil to form an image. Natural organic substances such as asphalt, shellac, albumin, and gum arabic have been used as photomechani- cal coatings. New coatings include polyvinyl alcohol, diazo compounds, and synthetic photopolymer resins. Bichromates, which were used as a sensitizing agent until the diazo coatings were introduced, are now becoming obsolete because of their toxicity. However they are still used in bichromated gelatin for gravure carbon tissue and collotype and in bichromated gum arabic for deep etch and bimetal plates (Bruno 1983). Two common coatings are diazo and photopolymer. Diazo coatings are used for presensitized wipe-on alumi- num lithographic plates. The coatings are thin and are generally used for press runs under 100,000 impressions, although some pre-lacquered plates can run for up to twice as many impressions. Diazo coatings have the advantage of not being affected by changes in temperature and rela- tive humidity. Photopolymer coatings are inert and abra- sion resistant, which allows for press runs longer than a diazo-coated plate. The photopolymer coatings also have a low sensitivity to changes in temperature and relative humidity. The polymerization reaction occurs underaUV light ....... Lithographic Printing Plates. In lithographic print- ing, both the image and non-image areas are on the same ------- plane. Lithographic plates have the image areas ink- receptive and non-image areas water-receptive. This is achieved through a chemical change on the coated plate surface, which is typically brought about through a photo- chemical process in the light sensitive coating. Litho- graphic plates can be either negative or positive working. With the negative the image area reacts and becomes hard, making the area ink receptive. The non-image unexposed area does not react, but remains water receptive and repels ink. Exposure through a positive yields the inverse effect. The majority of the printing industry uses pre-sensitized plates, where the light sensitive coatingahave been applied by the manufacturer. There are three types of methods used to make lithographic plates: surface, deep-etch and bi- metal. • Surface plates have a light-sensitive coating which becomes ink receptive when exposed. Most surface plates are made from negatives. The types of surface plates are additive and subtractive. With additive plates the hardened image areas are made ink receptive. This is done by adding an oleophilic resin contained in a one-step emulsion developer. Most coatings for additive-type plates contain a diazo compound. Other organic compounds are used as light sensitive materials. These include azide compounds, hydrazine derivatives, quinone diazides, and quinone esters. The emulsion developer consists of two phases: a solvent phase containing an oleophilic resin and pigment, and a water phase containing gum arabic and acid. When an emulsion between these two phases is formed and spreads on the plate, the emulsion breaks. The resin and pigment are deposited on the hardened image areas while the water phase dissolves the unexposed non-image area. Subtractive plates usually have an oleophilic resin incorporatedinto the coating or applied as a lacquer over the coating. Once the plate is exposed, the coated image areas harden. When the plate is placed in the developer solution, the non-image coated area dissolves. The plate is then gummed and is ready for the press. The waste from surface plate processors is a mildly acidic solution of organic compounds in water. Aluminum or anodized aluminum is used extensively for surface lithographic plates. The advantages of aluminum are reasonable cost, availability in uniform thicknesses, and tensile strength. It does not stretch when mounted on the press. Aluminum is also lightweight, weighing 38% as much as zinc. It does not corrode easily, allowing the non-image areas to be water-receptive. • Deep-etch plates are made from positives. When the plate is exposed the coating in the exposed non-image areas hardens. The unexposed image areas are soft. Then the developing solution washes the image area away and the stencil remains. The developing solution is typically calcium, 2inc, or magnesium chloridecombinedwithamildacid. Theimage area is then plated with copper and/or coated with lacquer, which makes it inkreceptive. The lacquer is a combination of poly vinyl chloride, poly vinyl acetate, and a small percent of malic acid. The non-image areas are treated with a desensitizing etch and finally gummed with gum arabic solution. Procedures for making deep-etch plates are long and involved. The wastewater from deep etch plate processing is acidic and contains copper or other heavy metal compounds. This process is quickly becoming obsolete because of cost, heavy metal toxicity, and water pollution problems. • Bimetal plates can be exposed through either a negative or positive. These plates are capable of printing several million impressions. The lifetime of these plates is long because the image and non-image areas are established by two different metals. Therefore, the holding of the image areas is not entirely dependent on a hardened coating or lacquer, The wastewater from bimetal plate processing contains heavy metal compounds. Bimetal plates are also becoming obsolete because of the heavy metal toxicity and water pollution problems. Gravure Printing Cylinders. Cylinder making begins with a steel cylinder plated with copper. The cylinder is machined and polished so as to rem ove any imperfections in the copper plating. Next, the surface is either engraved using a diamond stylus or chemically etched using ferric chloride. Use of ferric chloride requires that a resist (in the form of the negative image) be transferred to the cylinder before etching. The resist protects the non-image areas of the cylinder from the etchant After etching, the resist may be subsequently stripped off. This operation is analagous to the manufacturing of printed circuit boards. Following this operation, the cylinder is proofed or tested, reworked if required, and then chrome plated. ------- Letterpress and Flexography Relief Plates. Letter- press and flexography both employ plates with raised images; only the raised areas come into contact with the ink rollers. Generally these plates are exposed through a negative. The developing process is similar to that of lithographic plates. However, one extra step is used to etch the non-image areas with an acid solution. Zinc, magne- sium, and copper are the metals typically used for relief plates. Zinc plates have a light-sensitive coating, typically polyvinyl alcohol. This is sensitized with dichromate. It can be developed with water, however chromic acid is used to harden the coating. The plate is then baked at 350°F and . etched with a solution of nitric acid. Magnesium plates are usually presensitized with a substance like polyvinyl inna- mate. After exposure to light, the unexposed part is removed by a trichloroethylene vapor degreaser, and then etched with nitric acid. Copper relief plates use a light sensitive coating of fish glue and egg albumin. This is sensitized with potassium dichromate. The plate can be developed in water and is typically baked at 600°F to harden the image areas. Baths used for developing these plates eventually build up a high concentration of heavy metals. These solutions cannot be discharged to most sewer systems unless the metals are precipitated out or recovered by ion exchange. Platemaking with etching processes is dimin- ishing because of the hazardous waste problems. Photosensitive plastic plates are used mostly for commercial magazine printing and newspapers. Someare used in an offset letterpress system called "dry offset or lettersct". Plastic plates have an advantage over metal plates because no etching solution is needed. When the plate is exposed the image area and all the plastic under- neath the area harden. A typical photosensitizer for these plates is benzophenone, which accelerates the polymeriza- tion process carried out under UV light An alkaline aqueous solution is used to wash the unexposed areas off. MAKEREADY Makeready is the procedure in which all the adjust- ments are made on the press, including proper registration and ink density, to achieve a reproduction equivalent to or comparable to the proof or acceptable to the pressman or customer's representative. This step may be the major sourceof waste from theprinter'spointof view. Makeready timescanlastfromafewminutes to many hours. Makeready can be conducted at low speeds or at press production speeds. The printer's objective is to minimizeboth the time involved in madeready and the number of waste sheets or signatures coming off the press (GATF1989). The makeready step is more complex for perfecting web offset presses than for sheetfed offset, because eight press units are involved and must be adjusted properly: there are units on top of and beneath the web, two for each of the four process colors. The major wastes associated with makeready are paper and air emissions. PRINTING Once the plates are prepared, the actual printing can begin. The printing operations are generally the same for each of the major processes, with the exception of screen printing. The two common types of presses are sheet-fed presses and web presses. Sheet-fed presses can print up to 3 impressions per second. Web presses typically print at a rate of 1000 to 1600 feet per minute. Preparation for printing begins by attaching the plate to the plate cylinder of the press. Since litho plates are typically made of thin flat aluminum sheets, they can be wrapped around and attached to the plate cylinder. Virtu- ally all presses print from a plate cylinder, as opposed to a flat plate. Each unit of a printing press prints a single color. To print a full color illustration, four separate units are typically required, one unit each for magenta, cyan, yel- low, and black. In lithographic printing, the plate is mounted to a rotating cylinder. As the cylinder rotates, a water-based dampening solution followed by an oil-based ink is trans- ferred to the plate's image area. The inked image repels the solution and accepts the printing ink, while the non-image area accepts the dampening solution and repels the ink. As the cylinder continues to rotate, the inked image is trans- ferred to a blanket and then onto the substrate. The two major forms of substrates used in lithography are single sheets of paper (sheet-fed lithography) and continuous rolls of paper (web lithography). In gravure printing, the cylinder is placed in the press and partially immersed in an ink bath or fountain. Solvent is added to the ink to maintain the proper level and viscosity of the bath. As the cylinder is rotated, ink coats the entire surface. Next, a metal wiper(doctor blade) presses against the surface of the cylinder and removes ink from the non- etched (non-image) areas. The substrate is then pressed against the rotating cylinder and the ink is transferred. After printing, the substrate may pass through a drying operation depending on the type of ink used. Lithography can use heat-set and non-heat-set inks. In heat-set lithogra- phy, the substrate is passed through a tunnel or floater dryer which utilizes hot air or direct flame or combination. With non-heat-sef lithography, the ink normally dries by absorp- tion. .Gravure printing utilizes inks that dry by solvent evaporation. 10 ------- FINISHING The term "finishing" refers to final trimming, folding, collating, binding, laminating, and/or embossing opera- tions. A variety of binding methods are used for books, periodicals, and pamphlets. These include stitching (sta- pling), gluing, and mechanical binding. These finishing operations are frequently accomplished by an outside service organization. Waste Description Listed in Table 2 are the principal wastes associated with lithographic printing operations and most other print- ing activities. Gravure printing operations have been excluded since the major difference between the two processes, from a waste generation viewpoint, is in the plate- and cylinder-making operation. Gravure cylinder making is very similar to other metal processing opera- tions; therefore, the reader is referred to the waste minimi- zation guides for metal fabrication and printed circuit board manufacturers that are part of this EPA series. Paper is the major wastestream encountered in the lithographic industry. Almost98 percent of the total waste generated by this segment of the industry is spoiled paper and paper wrap. Waste paper comes from rejected print runs, scraps from the start and end of runs, paper at the end of the web, and overruns. Overruns are the excess number of copies mat a printer makes to ensure that he has enough acceptable copies. Other paper includes the paper wrap- pings, cardboard cores, and scrap from finishing opera- tions. Most paper is recycled, incinerated, or disposed of as trash. Scrap photographic material and aluminum plates are sold for metal recovery. Empty ink containers are nor- mally scraped clean of ink and discarded. Damaged or worn rubber blankets are also discarded with the trash. Spentphotoprocessing chemicals are generally biode- gradable and are discharged into sanitary sewers. Sanita- tion districts require permits to discharge the chemicals into the sewer. The chemicals have a significant biochemi- cal oxygen demand (BOD). Printing shops that use very large quantities of photographic chemicals may find it necessary to install package biological treatment systems to reduce BOD before disposal into the sewer. Larger printers may find it both necessaiy and economical to recover the silver from the spent solutions before discharge to the sewer. Solutions that contain hazardous compounds, such as mercury compounds, may require special han- dling. Plate-mating wastes, such as acids and alkalis used to clean or develop the plates, must be either sent to wastewa- ter treatment or drummed for disposal. For facilities that use pre-sensitized plates, this waste is avoided (although the supplier of the presensitized plates would be producing Table 2. Offset Lithography Printing Process Wastes Waste Waste Stream Description No. 1. Trash 4. 5. 6. 7. Wastewater Recovered Silver Empty Ink Containers Paper (recycled) Equipment Cleaning Wastes Air emissions Process Origin Image Processing, Proof Plate Making Printing Image Processing Plate Making Printing Image Processing, Plate Making Printing Makeready Printing Printing, Proof Makeready, Printing Composition Empty containers, packages, used film, out-dated materials. Damaged plates, developed film, out-dated materials. Ink containers (if not recycled), used blankets used plates, unacceptable printings, paper wrappings. Photographic chemicals, silver (if not recovered). Acids, alkali, solvents, plate coatings (may contain dyes, photopolymers, binders, resins, pigments, organic acids), . developers (may contain isopropanol, gum arabic, lacquers, caustics), and rinsewater. Spent fountain solutions (may contain chromium). As described. As described. If not recycled, these go to trash. Inked and clean sheets. Inked sheets. Lubricating oils, waste ink, clean up solvent (halogenated and non-halogenated), rags. Solvent from heat-set inks, isopropyl alcohol (fountain solution), and cleaning solvents. 11 ------- Figure 2. General Flowsheet for Lithographic Printing Artwork, Copy, or Other Image Used Rim Wastewater Silver Recovery Film ^- Photoprocessing ^ Chemicals (concentrate & water) i Image Processing ~T i Image on Film Proof No Plates from Storage or Plate Manufacturer ^ Plate Processing Chemicals ~ Yes Y Platemaking ^ irasn ^" Wastewater ^ Trash X Image on Plate Paper ^ Paper ^ Fountain Solution — — ^ Cleaning Solvent ^ Rags ^ Untrir Unbound Pr Makeready y Printing and Drying nmed, ^ oduct V Finishing ^ Paper to Recycling ^" Air Emissions ^- Paper Wrap to Trash ^- Paper to Recycling • - — ^. Air Emissions/Emission Controls _ — ^- Waste Ink ^ Dirty Rags ^. Used Plates Final Product 12 ------- this waste). Currently, only large-volume users of plates (i.e. newspapers) still produce their own plates. Photo- chemical wastes would be handled in the same manner as image processing wastes. Fountain solutions used in lithography start with a concentrated dilute solution of gum arable, phosphoric acid, defoamers, and fungicide, which is added to water. To this mixture is added enough isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to bring the concentration of IPA up to a range of 5 to 15%. The IPA is used to reduce the surface tension of the solution. IPA allows the solution to adhere more easily to the non-image area of the plate cylinder. Most of the IPA evaporates along with the water. The other compounds remain on the paper. Virtually none of the fountain solution goes to the sewer as wastewater. Some printing chemical manufacturers now offer fountain solution concentrates that do not use IPA or other volatile compounds. The low- volatility concentrates use soaps or detergents in place of IPA. These are marketed in areas that have stringent air quality controls. Equipment cleaning wastes consist of spent lubri- cants, waste inks, clean up solvent, and rags. Waste ink is defined as the ink removed from the ink fountain at the end of a run or following its contamination. Most of the ink used by a printer ends up on the product. Other losses include ink printed on waste paper and spills. Most waste inks are either incinerated (if hazardous) or discarded with the trash. Volatile organic compounds (air emissions). Depend- ing on the printing process and the substrate, inks may contain solvents (e.g. xylenes, ketones, alcohols, or al- iphatics) that are evaporated immediately after printing. This is particularly appropriate for gravure applications in commercial printing. Inks for offset lithography are prin- cipally sheetfed inks which dry by oxidative polymeriza- tion; heatset inks, which dry by evaporation of the aliphatic ink oils; and nonheatset web inks, which dry by absorption of the ink vehicle in the newsprint substrate. There is no significant VOC emission from the inkswhen either sheetfed or nonheatset web inks are used. In the case of web offset heatset printing, the printed web passes through a dryer which evaporates the ink oils. The resulting prints fre- quently have a glossy finish when imprinted on coated papers. The resulting VOC emissions can be controlled by catalytic or thermal incineration, or cooler/condenser sys- tems. In the case of VOC emissions from gravure printing, carbon absorption is the most commonly applied emission control method. In addition to the solvents and ink oils used in the printing inks, common VOCs include isopropyl alcohol (from fountain solutions), toluene,kerosene, metha- nol and some chlorinated solvents (found in type washes, roller, blanket, and press washes). Cleaning solvents are used to clean the presses. The rubber blankets are cleaned once or twice per eight-hour shift to reduce or eliminate imperfections resulting from dust, particles, or dried ink. When lower quality paper is used, cleaning is required more frequently. A variety of solvents and cleaning solutions is used in the industry. Solvents include methanol, toluene, naphtha, trichlo- roethane, methylene chloride, and specially formulated blanket washes. Most cleanup is done with rags wetted with the solvent or by pouring solvent over the equipment and then wiping it off with a rag. The dirty rags contain solvent, waste ink, oil, dust, dirt, and other contaminants. Clean rags are generally supplied by industrial laundries, which also pick up the dirty rags. The laundries generally dry clean the rags and produce a sludge comprised of the materials that were present on the rags. The sludge may require management as hazardous waste. References American Paper Institute. 1985. Personal communication. Bruno, Michael H. (editor). 1983 .Pocket Pal - A Graphic ArtsProductionHandbook, 13fJi edition, International Paper Company, New York. Campbell, M.E., and W.M. Glenn. 1982. Profit from Pollution Prevention; A Guide to Industrial Waste Reduction andRecycling. Toronto, Canada: Pollution Probe Foundation. GATF. 1989. Personal communication with William Schaeffer, Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, March 1989. Hartsuch, Paul J. 1983. Chemistry for the Graphic Arts, Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, Pittsburgh. USDC. 1985a. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Commercial Printing and Manifold Business Forms. In 1982 Census of Manufacturers. MC82-I-27B. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. . 1985b. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Greeting Cards, Bookbinding, Printing Trade Services. In 1982 Census of Manufacturers. MC82-I-27C. Washington, D..C.: U-S. Government Printing Office. 13 ------- Section 3 WASTE MINIMIZATION OPTIONS FOR COMMERCIAL PRINTERS Introduction The list of individual primary lithographic waste streams and their sources along with a list of source reduction methods is presented in Table 3. Recommended waste reduction methods and identified procedures are discussed in the following sections. These methods came from published accounts in the open literature and industry contacts. In addition to the waste reduction measures that are classified as process changes or material/product substitu- tions, a variety of waste reducing measures labeled as "good operating practices" has also been included. Good operating practices are defined as procedures or institu- tional policies that result in a reduction of waste. The following describes the scope of good operating practices: Waste stream segregation • Personnel practices - Management initiatives - Employee training • Procedural measures - Documentation - Material handling and storage - Material tracking and inventory control - Scheduling * Loss prevention practices - Spill prevention - Preventive maintenance - Emergency preparedness Good operating practices apply to all waste streams. Waste Minimization Options MATERIAL HANDLING AND STORAGE Improper storage and handling can result in spoilage and obsolescence of the raw materials. Good operating practices can reduce or eliminate waste resulting from obsolescence and improper storage. Material Preinspection Materials should be inspected before being accepted, and unacceptable or damaged materials should be returned to the manufacturer or supplier. This avoids both disposal of a nearly full container of unusable material and printing an unacceptable product. Proper Storage of Materials Many photoprocessing and plate developing chemi- cals are sensitive to temperature and light. Photosensitive film and paper storage areas should be designed for eco- nomical and efficient use. Some shops waste up to one- fourth of these materials due to improper storage (Campbell and Glenn 1982). The chemical containers list the recom- mended storage conditions. Meeting the recommended conditions will increase their shelf life. Even more impor- tant to the efficient use of paper is proper handling to avoid damage. Paper waste can also be reduced through proper han- dling and storage of rolls or packages of paper. Webs need to be handled so that the outer paper wrapper is not damaged. Paper should be stored in a space having proper temperature and humidity, since it can easily absorb mois- ture; sheetfed paper should be conditioned to the tempera- ture and humidity of the press room for one day before printing; this requires additional space in the press room. Restrict Traffic through Storage Area To prevent raw material contamination, the storage area should be kept clean. Also, the storage area should not be open to through traffic. Through traffic will increase dust and dirt in the storage area, increasing possible con- tamination. In addition, spills in the storage area will be easier to contain if traffic is restricted. Inventory Control Inventories should be kept using the "first-in, first- out" practice. This will reduce the possibility of expired shelf life. This practice may not work for specialty materi- als that are seldom used. Computerized inventory systems can track the amounts and ages of the raw materials. Purchase Quantities According to Needs Raw material order quantities should be matched to usage. Small printers should order ink in smaller contain- ers according to use. This avoids having a large, partly used container of ink going bad in storage because it wasn' t properly sealed. Residual ink in sheetfed ink cans should be smoothed and covered in order to prevent loss by skinning. Large printers should order materials in large containers, which may be returnable, thereby eliminating 14 ------- Table 3. Waste Minimization Methods for the Commercial Printing Industry Operation Waste Minimization Methods Material Handling and Storage Image Processing Plate Processing Makeready Printing Finishing or reducing the need to clean them. It takes less time to scrape out the large single container than several small ones. Ordering materials in returnable tote bins may maximize these advantages. However, the size of con- tainer chosen by the printer is determined by economics of volume as well as consideration of waste minimization. Recycle Empty Containers Most ink containers are scraped free of ink and discarded in the trash. Since the degree of cleanliness is a function of operator effort, the amount of ink discarded can Material pre-inspection Proper storage of materials Restrict traffic through area Inventory control Purchase quantities according to needs Recycle empty containers Recycle photographic film and paper Electronic imaging and laser platemaking Material substitution Extend bath life Use of squeegees Employ countercurrent washing r Recover silver and recycle chemicals Reduce solution loss Replace metal etching/plating operations Use non-hazardous developers and finishers Implement accurate counting methods Automated plate benders, scanners Automatic ink key setting s;ystem Computerized registration Ink/water ratio sensor Install web break detectors Automatic web splicers Use automatic ink levelers Store ink properly Use less hazardous inks Standard ink sequence Recycle waste ink Use alternative fountain solutions Use alternative cleaning solvents Automatic blanket cleaners Reduce the need to clean Improve cleaning efficiency Collect and reuse solvent Recycle lube oils Alternative printing techniques Reduce paper use and recycle waste paper vary widely. By purchasing ink in recyclable bulk containers, the container can be returned to the ink supplier for refilling instead of being thrown away. In addition, the use of bulk containers also cuts down on the amount of cleaning required since the surface area of the container per unit volume of ink stored is reduced. Recycle S poiled Photographic Film and Paper It is a current practice in the industry to send used and/ or spoiled film to professional recyclers for recovery of silver (USEPA 1986). However, this option might not be IS ------- practical to small scale producers or available to facilities located far away from recyclers. Test Expired Material for Usefulness Materials having expired shelf-life should not auto- matically be thrown out. Instead, this material should be tested for effectiveness. The material may be usable, rather than becoming a waste. A recycling outlet should be found for left over raw material that is no longer wanted. IMAGE PROCESSING The major wastestream associated with image proc- essing is wastewater that contains photographic chemicals and silver removed from film. Much work has been done by the printing and photographic industries to abate this waste. Electronic Imaging and Laser Platemaking A recent advance in image processing is the use of computerized "electronic pre-press systems" for typeset- ting and copy preparation. Text, photos, graphics, and layout are fed into the system through an electronic scan- ner. The copy is edited on a display monitorrather than on paper. This reduces the quantity of film, developing chemi- cals, andpaper used. Only the final edited versionis printed out. Electronic pre-press systems were initially restricted to largeprinters, such as major newspapers, because of the high initial equipment expenses. As the prices of computer hardware and software drop, smaller printing operations are beginning to use them. Electronic pre-press systems should reduce waste and improve productivity. Material Substitution Non-hazardous chemicals and films can be substi- tuted for hazardous ones. This can reduce hazardous waste generation at the image processing step. In particular, the wastes from photoprocessing using silver films are occa- sionally hazardous due to silver compounds in the waste- water. Somesanitationdistrictswillacceptphotoprocessing wastewater with silver, if the silver concentration is low enough. Photographic materials are available that do not con- tain silver, but these are slower in speed than silver halide films. Diazo and vesicular films have been used for many years. Vesicular films have a honeycomb-like cross-sec- tion and are constructed of a polyester base coated with a thermoplastic resin and a light-sensitive diazonium salt. Photopolymer films contain carbon black as a substitute for silver. These films are processed in a weak alkaline solution that is neutralized prior disposal. As such, they produce a non-hazardous waste. More recently, photopolymer and electrostatic films are being used. Electrostatic films are non-silver films having speeds comparable to silver films and having high resolution as well. An electrostatic charge makes them light sensitive, after which a liquid toner brings out the image. Some photographic intensifiers and reducers contain hazardous compounds, such as mercury or cyanide salts. Non-hazardous substitutes are available. Extended Bath Life Wastes from photographic processing can be reduced by extending the life of fixing baths. Techniques include (1) adding ammonium thiosulfate, which doubles the al- lowable concentration of silver buildup in the bath; (2) using an acid stop bath prior to the fixing bath; and (3) adding acetic acid to the fixing bath as needed to keep the pH low. Accurately adding and monitoring chemical replen- ishment of process baths will cut down chemical wastage. Stored process bath chemicals should be protected from oxidation by reducing exposure to air. Some smaller photo developers store chemicals in closed plastic containers. Glass marbles are added to bring the liquid level to the brim each time liquid is used. In this way, the amount of chemical subject to degradation by exposure to air is reduced, thereby extending the chemical's useful life and the life of the bath. Squeegees Squeegees can be used in non-automated processing systems to wipe excess liquid from the film andpaper. This can reduce chemical carryover from oneprocess bath to the next by 50 percent (Campbell and Glenn 1982). Minimiz- ing chemical contamination of process baths increases recyclability, enhances the lifetime of the process baths, and reduces the amount of replenisher chemicals required. Most firms, however, use automated processors. Also, using squeegees may damage the film image if it has not fully hardened, so a squeegee should be used after the film image has hardened. Countercurrent Washing In photographic processors, countercurrent washing can replace the commonly used parallel tank system. This can reduce the amount of wastewater generated. In a parallel system, fresh water enters each wash tank and effluent leaves each wash tank. In countercurrent rinsing, the water from previous rinsings is used in the initial film- washing stage. Fresh water enters the process only at the final rinse stage, at which point much of the contamination has already been rinsed of the film. However, acountercur- rent system requires more space and equipment 16 ------- Recovery of Silver and Recycling of Spent Chemicals Basically, photoprocessing chemicals consist of de- veloper, fixer, and rinse water. Keeping the individual process baths as uncontaminated as possible is a prerequi- site to the successful recycling of these chemicals. Silver is a component in most photographic films and paper and is present in the wastewaters produced. Various economi- cal methods of recovering silver are available (e.g. metallic replacement, chemical precipitation, electrolytic recov- ery), and a number of companies market equipment that will suit the needs of even the smallest printing shop. The mostpopular method of silver recovery is electro- lytic deposition. In an electrolytic recovery unit, a low voltage direct current is created between a carbon anode and stainless steel cathode. Metallic silver plates onto the cathode. Once the silver is removed, the fixing bath may be able to be reused in the photographic development process by mixing the desilvered solution with fresh solution. Recovered silver is worth about 80% of its commodity price. Another method of silver recovery is metallic replace- ment The spent fixing bath is pumped into a cartridge containing steel wool. An oxidation-reduction reaction occurs and the iron in the wool replaces the silver in solution. The silver settles to the bottom of the cartridge as a sludge. Some of the companies that buy used film or car- tridges containing recovered silver can be located under "Gold and Silver Refiners and Dealers" in a business telephone directory. These firms may pick up directly or may purchase through dealers. To recycle used film, it may be worthwhile to sort the film into "largely black" versus "largely clear" segments, since the rate of payment for mostly black film may be twice that for mostly clear. Technologies for reuse of developer and fixer are available and include ozone oxidation, electrolysis, and ion exchange. PLATE PROCESSING Recent advances inplate processing techniques, some made specifically to reduce the quantity and/or toxicity of hazardous wastes and to improve worker safety, have reduced waste generation. In addition to the methods discussed below, the reader is referred to the companion EPA guides to waste minimization in parts cleaning and metal fabrication. Many of the wastes associated with plate processing are similar to wastes produced by these opera- tions. This is especially true for gravure printing where the cylinders are chrome plated. Reducing Solution Loss In gravure printing, metal etching and metal plating operations typically involve chemical compounds that are deemed hazardous. Waste solutions from metal etching or metal plating operations usually require treatment before discharge to the municipal sewer. The same is true for all wastewater used in rinsing operations. The amount of wastewater generated by rinsing plates can be reduced by using multiple qountercurrent rinse tanks. The toxicity of wastewater from plating operations can be reduced by reducing dragout from plating tanks. Examples of dragout reduction techniques include (1) positioning the part on the rack to drain more easily, (2) using drain boards to collect dragout and return it to the plating tank, and (3) raising the temperature to reduce the surface tension of the solution. Replacement of Metal Etching/Plating Operations Because of increasing environmental regulations and higher costs of hazardous waste treatment and disposal, the printer should replace metal etching or plating processes wherever possible. Alternative processes include presen- sitized lithographic, plastic or photopoly mer, and hot metal which do not present the hazardous material problems associated with metal etching and plating operations. The wastes generated by using presensitized litho- graphic plates are (1) wastewater from developing and finishing baths, (2) used plates, and (3) trash, such as plate wrappers and empty plate processing chemical containers. Chemicals consumption can be reduced by frequently monitoring the bath for pH, temperature, and solution strength. This can extend the bath life, and solution change-outs can be reduced to several times a year. Auto- matic plate processors can maintain bath conditions. Pre- sensitized plates should be stored at the recommended conditions to maintain effectiveness. The used plates are nota hazardous waste and they shot Id be collected and sold to an aluminum recycler. Non-Hazardous Developers and Finishers Non-hazardous developers and finishers are available. For example, one company's developer and finisher are considered non-toxic and have a flash point of 213°F, which is non-flammable by California Title 22 standards (WesternLithotechl987).Presensi1izedplatesareavailable that are processed with water only. A company makes plates thatare water-resistantuntilexposed; upon exposure, the coating of the non-image becomes watersoluble. The samecompany markets aplatemaking system thatproduces offset lithography plates directly from copy or artwork, 17 ------- eliminating the need for photoprocessing. The system is economical for large printing operations (Campbell and Glenn 1982). MAKEREADY Paper represents the largest supply item that a printer buys and is probably the most expensive component of his work. The printed paper produced in makeready is fre- quently the largest waste a printer generates and is nonhaz- ardous. Paper waste at this step is determined by the efficiency of the quality control press adjustments needed to achieve the desired print quality, specifically through proper ink density and accurate registration. This discus- sion focuses on approaches.!© reducing paper waste. Both in makeready and printing operations, printers need to know how much waste paper is generated relative to the quantity of acceptable pieces. One method that can be used by both sheetfed and offset printers is to weigh discarded paper and discarded product signatures and express the weight of waste as apercent of total paper used. Press counters are available, but under some circum- stances, such as when a jam occurs on the press and the counter is not turned off, the count may be inaccurate. A number of specific devices have been developed to automate press adjustments. With proper use, most of these are promoted by manufacturers as speeding up the makeready step and thus saving paper and ink. However, their direct benefit is to increase quality control. We describe briefly below the use of automated plate benders; automated plate scanners; automatic ink key setting sys- tem; computerized registration; and ink/water ratio sen- sors. More detailed information, including costs, can be obtained by consulting product manufacturers and manu- facturers' representations. Also, the Graphic Arts Techni- cal Foundation in Pittsburgh can provide additional infor- mation about these products. Each printer must weigh the costof these items against the potential increases in quality and reduced paper and ink waste that may result. Automated Plate Benders Automatedplatebenders are designed to prevent all or some of the problems that occur in fitting a plate to a cylinder: plate cracking; non-straight plate bending along the length of the bend; curvature of the plate differing from that of the cylinder; and other plate fitting parameters that affect proper registration. Automated Plate Scanners Automated plate scanners have been developed for both web and sheetfed offset presses that take advantage of microprocessor technology and high quality optics. Fin- ished plates are scanned to determine the relative density of the printing image across the plate's surface. This informa- tion is then used to set the ink fountain keys — in some systems by a press operator in others using remote" con- trolled ink keys (see next) that are automatically pre-set to compensate for variations in image density. Automatic Ink Key Setting System Automatic ink key setting is usually accomplished as part of a system that includes scanning densitometry to determine ink density. Information about the ink density is then transmitted to a computer controlled inking system, so that automatic adjustments are made to the ink profile for each ink slide position. Automated Registration Optical scanners and microprocessors also form the basis for automated registration systems. One manufac- turer's system employs motorized scanners that move laterally in search of registration marks and lock in to the marks for the entire press run. These systems have been developed for gravure, web offset, and other printing processes. Ink/Water Sensors Press operators need to know whether ink flow or water flow needs to be adjusted to result in proper ink/water ratio. This ratio must be optimal to produce a sharp dot and strong contrast without the risk of tinting. One manufac- turer has developed an ink/water sensor that is part of an automated press control system. An optical system detects light reflected from the ink form roller and measures the surface water and the amount of water emulsified in the ink. Both water feeds and ink keys are linked to the system, so both can be modified and any deviation in the ink/water ratio can be corrected at once. PRINTING AND FINISHING The major wastes associated with printing and finish- ing are scrap paper, waste ink, and cleaning solvents. The clean-up solvent waste stream consists of waste ink, ink solvents, lubricating oil, and solvent. In many printing establishments, excess ink and solvent is collected in a drip pan underneath the press. This waste is typically drummed and hauled away to a landfill area. The following para- graphs describe waste reduction methods. Standard Ink Sequence Adopting a standard ink sequence can reduce the amounts of waste ink and waste cleaning solution: if a standard ink sequence is employed, the ink rotation is not 18 ------- changed with the job and you do not have to clean out the fountains in order to change the ink rotation. Installation of Web Break Detectors This device detects tears in the web as it passes through a high speed web press. It automatically shuts down the press to prevent damage to the press. Otherwise the broken web begins to wrap around the rollers and forces them out of the bearings. Web break detectors are primar- ily used to avoid severe damage to the presses. However, they also reduce the waste that would otherwise be gener- ated if a web break damaged a machine. Electronic systems are available for detecting web breaks in a non-contact fashion that will neither smear ink nor crease the web, thereby reducing waste from these sources. Both McGraw-Hill Publications in New York City and the St Petersburg Times in St. Petersburg, Florida have installed web break detection systems and have reduced waste. Automatic Web Splicers Automatic web splicers have become almost standard on web offset presses. The splice can be made while the paper is running at operating speed (flying web splicer) or while the paper is stationary (zero-speed splicer). Either option can result in significant savings in time and paper waste reduction. Use of an Automatic Ink Leveller Ink waste and spoilage is reduced by maintaining the desired ink level in the fountain for optimum inking con- ditions. Automatic ink levellers are commercially avail- able. Proper Ink Storage Ink containers should be resealed after using. Open containers are subject to contamination with paper dust and dirt, as well as forming a "skin" on the surface, loss of solvent, or eventual hardening. It was noted previously that sheetfed offset lithographic inks should be levelled in the can before placing a liner over the ink. Other offset lithographic inks may have low enough viscosity to level themselves. Ink should be scraped from emptied contain- ers with a spatula or knife to get as much of the ink out as practical. This prevents the empty containers from becom- ing a hazardous waste. New Ink Systems Currently-used heatset offset lithographic inks con- tain: pigments used as colorants; resins; film formers; and 25 percent to 45 percent ink oils. Most of the ink oil is removed during heating while passing through a dryer and is either incinerated, recovered and recycled, or emitted to the air. New types of inks are described below. These were formulated with pollution reduction and energy conserva- tion in mind. Water-base or water-borne inks are usually composed of pigmented suspensions in water and film formers. These inks find their greatest application in flexographic printing on paper substrates and their use has been recom- mended for gravure. One factor stifling the development of water-base inks is that they require more energy to dry than do solvent- borne inks. Another difficulty resulls from the necessity to shut presses down for short periods of time. When water base ink dries, water is not a solvent for the dried ink; therefore more frequent equipment cleaning is required. Other problems besetting water-borne inks are low gloss and paper curl. UV inks consist of one or more monomers and a photosynthesizer that selectively absorbs energy. Benefits of using UV inks are that the inks contain no solvent. The paper is not heated above 50°C, and a minimum of moisture is lost in the process. Since the inks do not "cure" until exposed to UV light, and may therefore be allowed to remain in the ink fountains (and plates) for long periods of time, the need for clean-up is reduced. U V inks are particu- larly recommended for letterpress and lithography. The following have been cited as advantages of using UV inks for sheet-fed lithography (Carpenter and Hilliard 1976): • Elimination of "set-off, the unintentional transfer of ink to adjacent sheets before the ink has dried up completely. • Elimination of the use of powders that are applied to protect an ink film that is "set" but not "dry". • Elimination of the storage of printed sheets for ventilation required in oxidative drying processes. Disadvantages that should be considered include: • Cost (75 to 100 percent moire expensive than conventional heat-set inks). • Hazards of UV to operating personnel. • Formation of ozone by the action of UV light on oxygen. • Conventional commercial paper recycling procedures will not de-ink papers printed by this process. Therefore, this is a potential source of non-recyclable paper. • Some of the chemicals in the inks are toxic. Electron-beam-dried (EB) inks are similar in concept to UV inks, offer the same operational advantages as UV 19 ------- inks, and have no solvents. However, the EB systems require operator protection from X-rays created by the process. Also, the system often degrades the paper. Automatic Blanket Cleaners Automatic blanketcleaners, which consistofacontrol box, a solvent metering box for each press unit, and a cloth handlingunit,haveincreasedpressefficiencyforanumber of printers that have installed them. They are available for many types of presses, including both web and sheetfed offset The increased speed of automated washing com- pared with manual cleaning results in fewer wasted im- pressions during the shorter timeperiodneededfor washup. Oneprinternotedadifferenceof250-3501ostimpressions using the automated cleaner compared with 1,200 - 3,000 lost using manual washes (Graphic Arts Monthly, May, 1986 pp. 62-68). There is an added benefit of increased safety. Using the automatic cleaning system eliminates the risk of bodily injury to employees holding a rag against a running blan- ket; also the amount of solvent used in cleaning is con- trolled, so the possibility of ignition in the dryer of paper soaked with solvent is less likely. Recycling of Waste Inks Most waste inks can be recycled. One recycling technique relies on blending waste inks of different colors together to make black ink. Small amounts of certain colors or black toner may be needed to obtain an acceptable black color. Recycling to get black ink is generally more practical than recycling to get the original color. This reformulated black ink is comparable to some lower qual- ity new black inks, such as newspaper ink. For this reason, much of the black ink for newspaper printing contains recycled ink (Woodhouse 1984). Waste ink recycling equipment is available and advertised in the printing trade magazines. Off-site ink recycling, either by ink manufacturers or by large printers, may be more economical for smaller printers. The waste ink is reformulated into black ink and soldback to theprinter. The small printer canavoid landfill disposal of the ink and the large printer can reduce pur- chases of new black inks. Labor time necessary to fill, operate, and empty the ink recycler is about the same as labor required to pack waste ink into drums with vermiculite adsorbent, and to manifest it. Therefore, the labor savings is not significant The major operating cost savings are the reductions in raw materials costs and waste disposal costs. (See case study - Plant A, Appendix). Alternative Fountain Solutions The fountain solution contains water, isopropyl alco- hol (IPA), gum arabic, and phosphoric acid, all of which end up on the paper or evaporate; they do not become hazardous waste. However, the evaporation of the IPA may create an emission problem. In states or regions with stringent air quality limits on VOCs, this may result in a requirement for air pollution control equipment Alterna- tively, fountain solution concentrates are available that contain no VOC or very small amounts of VOC. Alternative Cleaning Solvents Dangerous chemicals such as benzene, carbon tetra- chloride, trichloroethylene, and methanol have been used as components of cleaning solutions. Specially made blanket washes are now available thatare less toxic and less flammable. These blanket washes typically contain mix- tures of glycol ethers and other heavier hydrocarbons that have ahighflashpointandlow toxicity. Many printers feel that these solvents do not work as well as the solvents mentioned above. However, because of the less hazardous natureof thematerial.theyaregaininginpopularity. These blanket washes are typically used for all cleaning opera- tions in the printing step. General cleanup should be done with detergents or soap solutions wherever possible. Sol- vent cleanup should be used only for cleaning up inks and oils. Reducing the Need to Clean Most presses are cleaned by hand with a rag wetted with cleaning solvent. The dirty solventremains on the rag. A separate waste solvent is not produced. To reduce the amount of solvent and the number of rags used, ink fountains should be cleaned only when a different color ink is used or when the ink might dry out between runs. Aerosol spray materials are available to spray onto ink fountains to prevent overnight drying, so that the inkcan be left in the fountain without cleaning at the end of the day. This reduces the amount of waste ink produced and the amount of cleaning solvent and rags used. For example, a protective film was sprayed over each of four ink fountains on a small offset printing press at the end of each work day. The waste ink was reduced by 5 pounds per day. Based on a disposal cost of 70 cents per pound and 250 operating days per year, the savings in disposal costs are $875 per year. The need for new ink was reduced by 5 pounds per day. At a cost of $2.00 per pound, the savings in raw material costs are $2,500 per year. The total operating cost savings are $3,375 per year. The cost of the spray is relatively low. Also, less labor is needed to spray the fountains than is needed to drain and clean out the fountains and dispose of the waste ink. This labor savings would improve the source reduction economics. 20 ------- Increasing Gleaning Efficiency Where cleaning of rollers is accomplished with sol- vent and roller wash-up blade, several factors affect clean- ing efficiency: condition of the rollers; condition of the blade; the blade's angle of attack against the roller; and press speed during washup. Both rollers and blade should be in good condition. The blade's angle of attack shouldbe adjusted so that sufficient pressure is exerted on the roller, but the angle should not be so coarse that the blade can be "grabbed" and "pulled under" the roller. Too slow a press speed means long wash up times, and generally increased solvent use. Collect and Reuse Solvent In this practice, solvent is poured over the equipment and then wiped clean with a rag. The solvent is collected in drip pans under the equipment and becomes waste solvent which can be reused. If one container of solvent is used for each color printing unit, the solvents can be reused without cross-contaminating the inks. Used solvent can be reused in cleaning most of the ink from the rollers and blankets, with only a small amount of fresh solvent needed for the final cleanup. Small solvents stills can be used to reclaim the solvent. In some cases, used solvents having one particular ink color can be used to make up the solvent content of new inks of the same color. This has been done at a company in North Carolina using alcohol/acetate formulations in its flexographic printing process (North Carolina 1987). At Rexham Corporation in Mattews, N.C., toluene is used to clean the ink from the press, and runoff toluene is collected as waste. Rexham has nearly eliminated its toluene waste by segregating used clean-up toluene according to the color and type of ink contaminant and then reusing the collected wastes to thin future batches of the same ink. The procedure has no effect on product quality and has resulted in almost 100% reuse of the toluene solvent (Huisingh et al. 1985). However, solubility characteristics are critical to some types of flexographic printing plates and this ap- proach should be investigated carefully. Recycle Lube Oils If the printing presses are lubricated with oil, the used oil should be collected and turned over to a recycler. The recycler can either re-refine the oil into new lubricating oil, create fuel grade oil, or use it for blending into asphalt. Alternative Printing Techniques An electrostatic screen printing process, also known as pressureless printing, was developed by the Electro- static Printing Corporation of America and therefore is called the EPC process (USEPA 1979). A thin, flexible printing element, with a finely screened opening defining the image to be printed, is used. An electric field is established between the image element and the surface to be printed. Finely divided "electroscopic" ink particles, metered through the image openings, are attracted to the printing surface, where they are firmly held by electrostatic forces until they have been fixed by heat or by chemical means. Reduce Paper Use and Recycle Waste Paper Because paper is the largest supply item a printer buys and it may be the most expensive component of his work, paper use and the disposition of waste paper is a critical concern. Many printers segregate and recycle paper ac- cording to grade: inked paper is one grade and is recycled separately; unprinted white paper is sent separately to recycling; and wrappers for paper, which are a lower grade, are disposed of in trash. References Anonymous. 1975. Curing Ink with Electron Beams. Business Week. March 24,1975. . 1973. UV Cure Cuts Pollution, Energy Use. Envr. Sci. Tech. 7(6). Campbell, M.E., and Glenn, W.M. 1982. Profit From Pollution Prevention; A Guide to Industrial Waste Reduction andRecyding. Toronto, Canada: Pollution Probe Foundation. Carpenter,B.H.,andHiUiard,G. 1976. Overview ofPrinting Processes and Chemicals Used. In Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Printing Operations. EPA-560-1-75-005. Washington D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Huisingh, D., et al. 1985. Proven Profit From Pollution Prevention. Washington, D.C.: the Institute for Local Self-Reliance. KMI Marketing, Inc. 1987. Personal communication and advertising literature on ink: recycling equipment. September 1987. Irvine, CaliiF. North Carolina Pollution Prevention Pays Program, Accomplishments of North Carolina Industries-Case Summaries, North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of Environmental Management,. Raleigh, NC, January 1987. Ryerson, Robert. 1987. Technical Director of Printing Industries Association, Inc. of Southern California, Personal communication, November 1987. Shahidi,I.K.,andPowanda,T.M. 1975. UltravioletCuring: A Review of the Technology. Amer. Ink. Maker. January 1975. USEPA. 1986. Waste Minimization-Issues and Options. Volumel-III. EPA/530-SW-86-041 through043. U.S. 21 ------- Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. . 1979. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Graphic Arts: an AP-42 Update. EPA-450-4-79-014. Research Triangle Park, N.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. . 1976. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Printing Operations. EPA-560-1-75-005. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Western Lithotech. 1987. Personal communication and advertising literature on photoprocessing chemicals and equipment. St. Louis, MO, August 1987; Woodhouse, C. 1984. Waste Ink Reclamation Project. Alternative Technology and Policy Development Section, California Department of Health Services. August 17,1984. 22 ------- Section 4 GUIDELINES FOR USING THE WASTE MINIMIZATION ASSESSMENT WORKSHEETS Waste minimization assessments were conducted at several commercial printers in the Los Angeles area. The assessments were used to develop the waste minimization questionnaire and worksheets that are provided in the following section. A comprehensive waste minimization assessment in- cludes a planning and organizational step, an assessment step that includes gathering background information and development of waste minimization options, a feasibility study on specific waste minimization options, and an im- plementation phased CONDUCTING YOUR OWN ASSESSMENT The worksheets provided in this section are intended to assist printers in systematically evaluating waste gener- ating processes and in identifying waste minimization opportunities. These worksheets include only the assess- ment phase of the procedure described in the Waste Mini- mization Opportunity Assessment Manual (U.S. EPA 1988). For a full description of waste minimization assess- ment procedures, refer to the EPA Manual. Table 4 lists the worksheets mat are provided in this section. Table 4. List of Waste Minimization Assessment Worksheets Number Title 1. Waste Sources 2A. Waste Minimization: Material Handling 2B. Waste Minimization: Material Handling 3. Option Generation: Material Handling 4. Waste Minimization: Material Substitution Image Processing 5. Option Generation: Material Substitution Image Processing 6. Waste Minimization: Plate Processing 7. Option Generation: . Plate Processing/Makeready 8. Waste Minimization: Printing and Finishing 9. Option Generation: Printing and Finishing 10. Waste Minimization: Good Operating Practices 11. Option Generation: Good Operating Practices 12. Waste Minimization: Reuse and Recovery Description Typical wastes generated at commercial printing plants. Questionnaire on general handling techniques for raw material handling. Questionnaire on procedures used for handling drums, containers and packages. Waste minimization options for material handling operations. Questionnaire on material substitution and on image processing operations. Waste minimization options for material substitution and options for image processing. Questionnaire on plates processing. Waste minimization opportunities for plate processing. Questionnaire on printing and finishing. Printing and finishing waste minimization options. Questionnaire on use of good operating practices. Waste minimization options for good operating practices. Questionnaire on opportunities for reuse and recovery of wastes. 23 ------- Firm Wast* Minimization Assessment prepared By fi»a Chocked By naia proj NO Sheet of Page of WORKSHEET WAST£ SQURCES Wast* Source: Material Handling Off-spec materials Obsolete raw materials Damaged paper Spills & leaks (liquids) Spills (powders) Empty container cleaning Container disposal (metal) Container disposal (paper) Pipeline/tank drainage Laboratory wastes Evaporative losses Trash Other Wast* Source: Process Operations Used film Image processing baths Etching and plating baths Wastewater from rinsing Damagod/used plates Fountain solutions Waste ink Cleaning solvents Cleaning rags Lube oik Other Significance at Plant LOW Medium High • 24 ------- Firm . Site . Date. Wast* Minimization Assessment Proj. No. Prepared By Checked By Sheet of. Page of _ WORKSHEET 2A WASTE MINIMIZATION: Material Handling A. GENERAL HANDLING TECHNIQUES .Are all raw materials tested for quality before being accepted from suppliers? Are expired age-dated materials tested for effectiveness before being disposed of? Is obsolete raw material returned to the supplier? Is paper stored in a humidity and temperature-controlled area? Describe safeguards to prevent damage to paper in handling and storage: D yes Dyes Dyes Dno Dno Dno Describe safeguards to prevent the use of materials that may generate off-spec product:. Is inventory used in first-ln first-out order? Is the inventory system computerized? Does the current Inventory control system adequately prevent waste generation? D yes. Dyes Dyes Dno Dno Dno What information does the system track?- Is there a formal personnel training program on raw material handling, spill prevention, proper storage techniques, and waste handling procedures? Dyes. Does the program include information on the safe handling of the types of drums, containers and packages received? Dyes How often Is training given and by whom? Dno Dno 25 ------- Firm Wast* Minimization Assessment i fiila < Dal» ' pfAJ No i WORKSHEET WASTE MINIMIZATION: 2B Material Handling ^repared By Checked By Sheet of Page of B. DRUMS, CONTAINERS, AND PACKAGES Are drums, packages, and containers inspected for damage before being accepted? G yes G no Are employees trained in ways to safely handle the types of drums & packages received? D yes G no Are stored items protected from damage, contamination, or exposure to rain, snow, sun & heat? G yes G no Does the layout of the facility result in heavy traffic through the raw material storage area? G yes G no (Heavy traffic increases the potential for contaminating raw materials with dirt or dust and for causing spilled materials to become dispersed throughout the facility.) Can traffic through the storage area be reduced? G yes G no Are employees property trained in handling of spilled raw materials? G yes G no Dflscribfl handfing procedures for damaged items: What measures are employed to prevent the spillage of Squids being dispensed? When a spill of liquid occurs in the facility, what cleanup methods are employed (e.g., wet or (fry)? A'SO diSCUSS the way in which |hft resulting waStf?S fl'e hflrxllfld: ., Would different cleaning methods allow for direct reuse or recycling of the waste' f (explain): Do you try to order smaller containers of infrequently used materials to avoid disposing of large quantities of unused obsolete materials? O yes G no Have you tried to order larger containers of frequently used materials to reduce the number of small containers that must be cleaned and disposed of? G yes O no Are all empty bags, packages, and containers that contained hazardous materials segregated from those that contained non-hazardous wastes? G yes G no PflSCriljfl th& method Cl'nflntly used to dispose Of th'S w3St' 26 ------- Firm Waste Minimization Assessment Prepared By Silo Pmr Ilnil/Opar Checked Bv naw p«%j NO Sheet of Pago of WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION: O Material Handling MMtlng Format (e.g., brainstormlng, nominal group technique Mtetlng CoQnftnW ' Meeting Participant? SuggtMad Wasta Minimization Option* A. General Handling Techniques Quality Control Check Test Age-Dated Material (if expired) for Effectiveness Return Obsolete Material to Supplier Minimize Inventory Computerize Inventory •Formal Training B. Drums, Containers, and Packages Raw Material Inspection Proper Storage/Handling Reduced Traffic Spilled Material Reuse Cleanup Methods to Promote Recyclng Appropriate Purchase Sizes Waste Segregation Currently Done Y/N? Rationale/Remarks on Option 27 ------- Firm Waste Minimization Ass«ssm«nt p SitB C Data prnj N0 S WORKSHEET WASTE MINIMIZATION: A Material Substitution ^ Image Processing A. MATERIAL SUBSTITUTION Do any of the inks or thinners used contain hazardous materials (i.e., chlorinated solvents, lead or chrome pigments, mercury, etc.)? If yes, has material substitution been tried? repared By hecked Bv heet of Page dyes dyes of dno dno B. IMAGE PROCESSING Are electronic pre-press systems used to prepare copy? If not, has their use been considered? Is silver removed and recovered from photoprocessing waste streams? Is silver recovery done onsite? Has reuse of photoprocessing chemicals been attempted (after silver removal)? dyes dyes dyes dyes Dyes dno dno dno dno dno What other photographic wastes are recycled or recovered in some manner? Are any of the following techniques used to increase the life of the fixing bath? Add ammonium thiosulfate Add acetic acid Use an acid stop bath Monitor temperature and pH Other dyes dyes dyes dyes Dyes Ono dno dno Dno dno Is countercurrent rinsing used to reduce wastewater volume? Can processing equipment be modified to incorporate these features? Dyes Dyes dno Dno 28 ------- Km Waste Minimization Assessment Prepared By Rita ' pnv? Unit/Ope Checked Bv Data pmj No Sheet Of Pa 08 Of WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION: c Material Substitution *•* Image Processing Meeting Format (e.g., bralnstormlng, nominal group technique] Meeting Coor4'n'|nr Meeting Participant! Suggested Waste Minimization Options A. Substitution/Reformulation Options Ink Substitution Solvent Substitution Film Substitution Other Raw Material Substitution B. Image Processing Use Electronic Pre-press System Collect and Reclaim Film Recover Silver From Baths Reuse/Recycle Chemicals Increase Fixing Bath life Use Countercurrent Film Rinse Currently Dona Y/N? Rationale/Remark* on Option 29 ------- Firm Watt* Minimization AsMscnwnt • RU» ' ' Dale pmj KI« WORKSHEET WASTE MINIMIZATION: O Plate Processing/Makeready Prepared By Checked By Sheet of Rape ETCHING/PLATING " Are metal etching/plating operations performed at your plant? n yes (If yes, please see other EPA Waste Minimization Guides for metal parts cleaning, metal fabrication, and printed circuit board manufacturing for additional options.) Are metals recovered from solution bath dumps or waste streams? Dyes If y«s, describe the procedure: of Dno ,Dno Describe how etching/plating wastes are handled, treated, and disposed of: PROCESSING Do you use presensttized plates? Q yes Does the plate processor have an automatic replenishment system for developer/finisher? O yes Are plate processor conditions frequently monitored? Dyes Are spent plates recycled? dyes Have water-based plate development systems been used or tested? a yes Does the plant use a laser platemaking system? D yes Dno Dno Dno Ono Dno Dno MAKEREADY Which of the following press automation features have you added to reduce makeready times, improve quality control,' and r aduce paper waste? D automated plate bender D automated plate scanner O automated ink key setting system • D computerized registration , O Ink/water ratio sensor 30 ------- Pirm Waate Minimization Aaaaaament • Prepared By Silo Pf^ I,lnit/Oper Checked Bv rcrto Dmj Nn Sheet of Pagei of WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION: 7 Plate Processing MMtlng format (e.g., bralnatormlng, nominal group technique) Meeting Coordinator Moating Participant! Suggested Waal* Minimization Optlona Etching/Plating* Non-chromate Etchant Alternative Plating Baths Drag-out Reduction Bath-Ufo Extension Metal Recovery Store Plates at Recommended Condttions Maintain Plate Processing Baths Recycle Spent Plates Use Water-Based Developers Use User Platemaking System Procasalng Presensitized Plates Maktready Automated plate bender Automated plate scanner Automated ink key setting system Computerized registration Ink/water ratio sensor Currently DorwY/N? Rationale/Remark* on Option , - . Additional information useful for minimizing waste in plate processing operations can be found (n EPA's waste minimization guides for metal fabricators, metal parts cleaning, and printed circuit board manufactunng operations. 31 ------- Finn Wast* Minimization Assessment SHa « Data prej NO WORKSHEET WASTE MINIMIZATION: O Printing & Finishing 'reparedBy Shocked Bv Sheet of Page PRINTING & FINISHING Are ink containers properly reseated after use? O yes Do any of the inks contain hazardous materials such as solvents or heavy metals? O yes Has the use of less hazardous inks been attempted? O yes nitrms thn msiitts- of Ono Ono Ono Are Ink fountains filled according to expected need as opposed to routine filling? O yes Are automatic ink levelers employed? O yes Are ink fountains cleaned between runs? O yes Is a standard Ink sequence used to reduce cleaning? O yes Are measures employed to prevent drying ink or formation of skins inside the founta n? O yes Are waste inks recycled or returned to the manufacturer? O yes Have alternative fountain solutions been tried? O yes Explain any measures employed or problems encountered with these options* Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono • Ono Has the use of an automatic blanket cleaner been attempted? O yes Has the use of less hazardous cleaning solvent been attempted? O yes Can the waste solvent be collected and used as thinner? O yes Can the cleaning solvent be recycled? O yes Can soaps and detergents be used for cleaning? O yes Is the roller blade kept in good condition and its angle checked for most effective cleaning? O yes Ono One One Ono Ono Ono Is an automatic web splicer used to save time and paper waste? O yes Do the presses employ web break detectors to prevent damage to the press (tear-down and repair of equipment can produce large quantities of cleaning waste as compared to waste * produced during normal operation)? Oyes Is waste kjbe-oN sent to a recycter? O yes Is paper use minimized by proper pre-production planning and lay-out? Dyes Is waste paper and trash sent to a recyder? O yes DHcim these optiorf?' Ono Ono Ono Ono Ono 32 ------- Fim, Waste Minimization Assessment Preoared Bv SB* Pffbf. UnH/Opn Checked Bv nut* Proj MB Sheet of Page of WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION: y Printing & Finishing Meeting format (e.g., bralnstormlng, nominal group technique) Meeting Cw""""1' Meeting Pirtlelpf "tt Suggested Waste Minimization Options Reseal Containers Properly Use Alternative Inks Fill Fountains According to Need Use Automatic Levelers Standard Ink Sequence Prevent Ink Drying Recycle Waste Ink Return Waste Ink to Manufacturer Use Alternative Fountain Solutions Use Automatic Blanket Cleaner Use Alternative Cleaning Solvents Collect and Reuse Solvent Recycle Waste Solvent Use Soap and Detergent Check Roller Blade Condition and Angle Use Automatic Web Splicer install Web Break Detectors Recycle Lube-OBs Plan Production/Lay-out Recycle Waste Paper/Trash Currently DoneY/N? Rationale/Remarks on Option - 33 ------- Firm . Site . Date. Wast* Minimization Assessment Proj. No. Prepared By Checked By Sheet of Page of WORKSHEET 10 WASTE MINIMIZATION: Good Operating Practices GOOD OPERATING PRACTICES Are plant material balances routinely performed? O yes G no Are they performed for each material of concern (e.g. solvent) separately? Dyes Gno Are records kept of individual wastes with their sources of origin and eventual disposal? O yes G no (This can aid in pinpointing large waste streams and focus reuse efforts.) Are the operators provided with detailed operating manuals or instruction sets? D yes G no Are all operator job functions well defined? Q yes D no Are regularly scheduled training programs offered to operators? G yes G no Are there employee incentive programs related to waste minimization? G yes Gno Does the facility have an established waste minimization program in place? • • G yes G no If yes, is a specific person assigned to oversee the success of the program? G yes Gno Discuss goals of the program and results:. Has a waste minimization assessment been performed at the facility in the past? If yes. discuss: Gyes Gno 34 ------- Firm - Wa*t« Minimization Assessment 'Prepared By ' SitA prp* Urtt/Dpor Checked Bv Data Pmj NO, Sheet of Paati of WORKSHEET OPTION GENERATION: 1 I Good Operating Practices MMtlng format («.g.t braln»tormlng, nominal group technique) M^Ung Coordinator Mating Participant* Suggested Wast* Minimization Options • Perform Material Balances Keep Records of Waste Sources & Disposition Waste/Materials Documentation Provide Operating Manuals/Instructions Employee Training Increased Supervision Provide Employee Incentives Increase Plant Sanitation Establish Waste Minimization Policy Set Goals for Source Reduction Set Goals for Recycling Conduct Annual Assessments Currently Done Y/N? Rationale/Remarks on Option ... . .... .... 35 ------- Firm RM« Date WORKSHEET 12 Waste Minimization Assessment Proj No WASTE MINIMIZATION: Reuse and Recovery Prepared By Checked By Sheet of A. SEGREGATION Segregation of wastes reduces the amount of unknown material In waste and improves prospects for reuse & recovery. Are spent processing baths segregated from wastewater streams? Are different solvent wastes due to equipment dean-up segregated? Are aqueous wastes from equipment dean-up segregated from solvent wastes? Are different types of paper (colored paper vs. white) segregated to increase their resale value? Are different grades of paper (inked vs. dean, high quality vs. paper wrap) kept segregated for more effective recycling? Is general trash segregated to maximize the amount of recyclable paper, film, aluminum, pallets, etc.? If no explain; Page D yes _ Dyes Dyes Dyes Dyes Dyes of Dno Dno D no Dno Dno Dno B. CONSOUDATION/REUSE/RECOVERY Do you return waste ink to the manufacturer for recycling? Do you recycle the Ink onsite? Have you contacted any large printers in your area to see if they want your ink for recycling? Have you contacted waste exchange services or commercial brokerage firms regarding waste ink or other wastes? Are many different solvents used for cleaning? If too many small-volume solvent waste streams are generated to justify on-site distillation, can the solvent used for equipment cleaning be standardized? Is spent cleaning solvent reused as thinner or initial wash? Has on-site distillation of the spent solvent ever been attempted? (On-site recovery of sol- vents by distillation Es economically feasible for as little as 8 gallons of solvent waste per day.) II yes, is distillation still being performed? If no, explain? Gyes Dyes dyes Dyes O yes Oyes Dyes Dyes D yes Q no Dno Dno Dno Ono Dno Dno Dno Dno DfecuM other wastes (lube oils, films, paper, etc.) that you are currently recycling and by which FTOfinff; 36 ------- Appendix A CASE STUDIES OF COMMERCIAL PRINTING PLANTS In 1986 the California Department of Health Services commissioned a waste minimization study (DHS 1988) of two commercial printing firms, called Plants A and B in this guide. The results of the two waste assessments were used to prepare waste minimization assessment work- sheets to be completed by other commercial printers in a self-audit process. The companies selected as assessment sites were chosen primarily for their willingness to participate in the study, applicability to the study objectives, and the ability to apply the information to the commercial printing indus- try as a whole. Plant A was a medium-size commercial printer handling a wide variety of printing products. Plant B was one of several plants owned by a large printer specializing in newspaper advertising inserts and circulars. The assessments consisted of two visits each to Plants A and B. The initial visits included examination of plant operations, waste handling and disposal, discussion of potential waste minimization techniques, and included a tour of all plant operations. The second visit was used to answer follow-up questions. This Appendix section presents the results of the assessments of Plants A and B and potentially useful waste minimization options identified through the assessments. Also included are the practices already in use at the plant that have successfully reduced waste generation from past levels. The waste minimization assessments were conducted according to the description of such assessments found in the "Introduction: Overview of Waste Minimization," in this guide. The steps involved in the assessments were (see also Figure 1 of this guide): • Planning and organization • Assessment phase , • - «y • . • Feasibility analysis phase The fourth phase, implementation, was left to the commercial printers themselves. WASTE MINIMIZATION ASSESSMENT OF PLANT "A" Plant A is a medium-sized commercial printer located in the metropolitan Los Angeles area. The company employs about 60 people, of whom 43 are involved in production and the remainder are administrative and staff employees. The company handles a wide range of com- mercial printing, including advertising inserts, business forms, brochures and pamphlets, and circulars. Corporate sales for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1987 totalled approximately $6 million. Plant A performs its own photoprocessing. Thepho- toprocessing and plate processing chemicals are received in five gallon containers, referred to as "cubes." Approxi- mately 1-1/2 cubes of developer and 1 cube of fixer are used per month for film processing. For platemaking, pre- sensitized aluminum plates are used,, The average monthly usage of plate processing developer and fixer is 2 cubes per month each. All of the developers and fixers are diluted with water at a ratio of 4:1 (water to chemical) before being used. Presensitized aluminum plates and all pho- toprocessing and plate processing chemicals are manufac- tured by Kodak. The plant also uses two gallons per month of gum arabic, which is applied to the plates to reduce oxidation. Automatic processors are used for photoprocessing and plate processing. Fresh developer and fixer are added automatically, and an equivalent volume of solution from the baths is simultaneously removed by overflow to pre- vent the buildup of impurities in the baths. The spent solution goes to the sewer. Also, the.processing baths are dumped and fresh new baths are made up every six to eight weeks. These dumped baths also go to the sewer. Kodak claims that these chemicals are non-hazardous and biode- gradable. The local sanitation district accepts the wastewa- ter from Plant A and charges an annual permit fee of $50. Silver recovery from the spent fixinjg solutions is not felt to be economical and, therefore, is not practiced. The silver concentration in the wastewater is within the acceptable limits set by the sanitation district. The printing operation at Plant A consists of four web press lines and two sheet-fed units. Three of the web press lines use four color printing units, and the fourth line uses six color printing units. About 95% of Plant A's produc- tion is printed using the web presses, and the remaining 5% using the sheet-fed presses. 37 ------- The plant uses non-heatset inks exclusively. The inks used are manufactured by Inkmakers, Inc., U.S. Printing Ink, and United Printing Ink. Approximately 1500 pounds of ink in 17 different colors are used per month. The inks are ordered in 30-pound kits. Fresh black inks cost from S1.50 to $3.50 per pound; colored inks from $3.50 to $7.50 per pound. Plant A has an arrangement with its ink suppliers in which all of the waste inks are returned to the supplier to be reformulated into black ink. The supplier mixes fresh black ink into the waste ink to obtain an acceptableblackcolor. Typically 50 to 100 pounds of fresh ink is added to each 100 pounds of waste ink. Plant A then buys back the reformulated black ink at a price of $3.00 per pound. Plant A is now looking into purchasing a small ink recycling unit Approximately 20 gallons per month of Rosos "Foun- tain Soup" is used to make fountain solution for the web presses. The Fountain Soup is a concentrate that includes phosphoric acid, gum arabic, a defoamer, and a fungicide. The fountain solution is made up by adding 1 to 4 ounces of concentrate to each gallon of water. This concentrate is formulated for use in areas where there are stringent controls on volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. (Plant A is located within the jurisdiction of the South Coast Air Quality Management District.) The concentrate contains high-boiling-point surfactants that help to wet the non-image areas of the plate, without the need for isopro- pyl alcohol. The Rosos Fountain Soup was found to not work effectively on the sheet-fed units. Therefore, a different fountain solution concentrate (also supplied by Rosos) is used with the sheet-fed units, which requires the addition of sufficient isopropyl alcohol so that the fountain solution contains between 5 to 15% isopropyl alcohol. The average usage of isopropyl alcohol is 10 gallons per month. Since the sheet-fed units only account for 5% of the company's overall business, the VOC emissions from theplant are low enough to be within the prescribed limits. The fountain solution is never drained from the print- ing unit reservoirs, but is either applied to the paper or is lost through evaporation. Of the solution that ends up on the paper, most of the water and isopropyl alcohol evapo- rates, while the other components are absorbed into the paper. Approximately 230,000 pounds of paper are used per month, on average. Of the sheet-fed paper, approximately 2 to 6% ends up as waste. Of the web-fed paper, approxi- mately 2% of the gross weight of the paper ends up as wrapper slab and core waste, and 6 to 7% as other waste. All waste paper is collected and sold to a paper recycler. All used and spoiled film is processed by a recycler to reclaim silver and all used aluminum plates are sold to an aluminum recycler. Ink containers are Scraped out when empty and then thrown in the trash, along with pho- toprocessing and plate processing chemical containers. Worn rubber blankets from the presses are also thrown in the trash. An average of 16 blankets are replaced each month on the web presses, and one blanket per month on the sheet-fed units. Pacific Blanket Wash, manufactured by Shell Chemi- cal', is used for cleaning the presses and for dther general cleanup uses. According to the supplier, this wash is formulated to be exempt from California hazardous waste regulations. Cleanup is done with a rag wetted with the blanket wash. Virtually all of the blanket wash ends up on the rags; there is no waste solvent collected. For $40 a week, a local industrial laundry provides about 2000 rags per week, picks up dirty rags and dry cleans them. Plant A has yet to send out any hazardous wastes under manifest They have an arrangement with the ink manufac- turer who picks up the waste inks and reformulates black ink from it. Under current federal guidelines, offset lithog- raphy paste inks are not hazardous. Ink Recycler Option Under the current arrangement, the ink manufacturer picks up all of the waste ink from Plant A. This waste ink is blended with enough fresh ink to produce an acceptable black color. Approximately 200 to 300 pounds of waste ink are returned each month to the manufacturer. After blending with fresh ink, Plant A buys back 300 to 500 pounds per month of black ink at a cost or $3.00 per pound. This price for the reformulated ink is relatively high based on the relatively low quality of the ink. Fresh ink of comparable quality typically costs $ 1.55 per pound. Plant A can obtain a potentially quick payback on its investment by purchasing an ink recycler. KMI Marketing, Inc. sells a small recycler which blends 60 pounds of waste ink with 120 pounds of fresh ink to produce a 180-pound batch of reformulated black ink. The complete batch is then filtered and is ready for use. One batch can be processed in one hour. The following economic comparison is made on a conservative set of assumptions. These assumptions are listed below. • 200 pounds of waste ink are produced per month. • Labor and utility costs are negligible. Case A: Buy a new ink recycler The recycler blends in 400 pounds of fresh 38 ------- ink to produce 600 pounds of reformulated ink. The fresh ink costs $1.55 per pound. • The ink recycler costs $5,900. CaseB: Keep the existing arrangement with the ink manufacturer. • The ink manufacturer blends in 100 pounds of fresh ink to produce 300poundsof reformulated ink per month. Thecostof this reformulated ink is $3.00 per pound. • Plant A buys an additional 300 pounds of fresh ink. The cost of this ink is $ 1.55 per pound. By buying this additional ink, both cases produce a total quantity of black ink of 600 pounds per month. Table A-l presents the economic comparison. The payback of just under 8 months makes the on-site recycler look very attractive. WASTE MINIMIZATION ASSESSMENT OF PLANT «B" Plant B is a large printing operation in Southern California. The company owns several plants in the state and prints circulars and advertising inserts for many of the major and minor newspapers in Southern California. On occasion, they have printed publications, however, this is not a substantial percentage of this overall business. Plant B includesimageprocessing.plateprocessing, lithographic printing, and finishing operations. At the time of the audit, the company had been in its current location for about 15 months. The plant operates 7 days peir week, 24 hours per day, 360 days per year. The plant employs modem image processing technol- ogy, including computerized pre-press-systems for copy preparation. All photoprocessing is accomplished with automatic processing equipment Automatic replenishers minimize photoprocessing wastes by adding enough de- veloper or fixer to keep the bath concentrations within a range that allows optimal performance. Photoprocessing is done with Polychrome "Lith" developer and fixer, and Hunt's Rapid Access developer and fixer. Approximately 55 gallons of developer and 55 gallons of fixer are used per month. The spent pho- toprocessing solution passes through a two-stage silver recovery system. The firststageconsists of areclaimer that electrolytically deposits the silver onto electrodes. The second stage recovers the remaining silver using steel wool. Approximately three pounds of silver per month are reclaimed this way. The plant uses approximately 10 gallons per month each of Copykwik photographic developer and fixer manufactured by Olin Hunt in its typesetting operations. The developer is a mixture of hydroquinone, potassium hydroxide, and sodium sulfite. The fixer is a mixture of ammonium thiosulfate and acetic acid. An Enco color proofing machine is used to check the copy for appearance and accuracy. Naps developer and TABLE A-l. ECONOMIC COMPARISON OF ON-SITE VERSUS OFF-SITE INK RECYCLING Case A. (On-site Ink Recycling) Buy an ink recycler to convert all waste ink into reformulated black ink. The capital cost of the ink recycler is $5,900. Case B. (Off-site Ink Recycling) Continue to return waste ink to the manufacturer, who blends it with fresh ink and sells it back to Plant A. In both cases, the waste ink is available without cost. Case A CaseB Material Balance, (pounds per month) Wasteink . 200 200 Fresh ink for blending 400 _1QQ Reformulated ink 600 300 Additional fresh ink Q 300 Total available ink . • 600 600 Operating Cost, (dollars per month) Wasteink $ 0 $ 0 Fresh ink for blending (@$1.55/lb) 620 0 Buy back reformulated ink (@$3.00/lb) 0 900 Buy additional fresh ink (@ $1.55/lb) Q 465 Total Operating Cost to recycle ink $ 620 $1,365 Savings in operating cost with on-site ink recycler $745/month Payback periods = $5.900 =7.9 months $745/month 39 ------- fixer are used in this system. Typically 5 to 6 gallons per month of developer and fixer are used. The plant uses presensitized aluminum plates. Poly- clirome chemistry is used for plate processing. In particu- lar, the plate developer is a solution of hydroquinone and sodium formaldehyde bisulfite. Approximately 20 gallons per month of the finisher are used, and about 30 gallons per month of developer are used. The spent solutions from plate processing and pho- toprocessingaredischargedto thesewer. PlantB is permit- ted by the local county wastewater treatment district to discharge the waste solutions from image processing and plate processing. Used and spoiled films are collected and sold to a recycler. Used aluminum plates are sold to an aluminum recycler. The major materials and supplies used in the press- room are paper, ink, blanket wash, fountain solution, and small quantities of silicone and lubricating oil. Approxi- mately 500 tons of paper are used per month. All excess and waste paper, wrappers, and web cores are segregated into three categories (Kraft paper, clean white paper, and mixed news waste paper) for sale to a recycler. The plant has four large web printing lines. Three of the lines are open web presses which use non-heatset inks. The fourth line uses heatset inks. All lines print four colors (yellow, blue, red, and black). Table A-2 shows amounts of fresh ink used on an average monthly basis. Table A-2. Average Ink Usage, Pounds per Month Non-heatset Heatset Black 90,000 11,000 Yellow 25,000 20,000 Blue Red 10,000 20,000 11,000 16,000 The heatset inks are manufactured by Waseca, a division of Brown Printing. The non-heatset inks are manufactured by U.S. Printing Ink. Waste ink is recycled onsite into black ink. The recycler was installed at an estimated cost of $15,000 to $20,000. Approximately 3% of the black ink used is recycled from the plant's waste ink. By recycling waste ink, the plant can reduce its purchases of newsprint-quality open web black ink, priced at 34 cents per pound, by about 2,700 pounds per month. The savings in new ink alone results in a payback period of 16 to 22 months (based on the installed cost range of $15,000 to $20,000). If the disposal cost of the waste ink as a hazard- ous waste were to be considered, the payback would be shorter and even more attractive. Approximately 600 gallons per month of fountain solution concentrate is used. The brand name of the con- centrate is "Super Lo-Rub", manufactured by Quality Control Litho. The concentrate contains phosphoricacid, gum arable, defoamer, and fungicide. The fountain solu- tion is made up by adding 3 ounces of concentrate to each gallon of water. All of the fountain solution is used up in the printing process, either absorbed into the paper or evaporated. The heatset printing line is equipped with hoods over the heaters to collect the solvents and other vapors. A catalytic combustor, manufactured by Thermoelectron, incinerates these vapors at a temperature of about 650°F. The use of a catalytic combustor is designated as the best available control technology by the South Coast Air Qual- ity Management District A blanket wash, manufactured by Quality Control Litho ("One Step Wash Up"), is used for blanket and roller cleaning on the presses. This solvent is composed of a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons (7.5%), aromatic hydro- carbons (6%), chlorinated hydrocarbons (4%), and other compounds (15%). Approximately 300 gallons per month of blanket wash are used. Cleaning is done by wetting arag with the blanket wash and then wiping the equipment clean. In this way, most of the blanket wash remains on the rag. General cleaning is done using rags and concentrated soap solutions. Rags are supplied by an industrial towel service, which picks up dirty rags (containing blanket wash, ink, soap, dust, and dirt) weekly. Oil is used for lubricating the presses at Plant B. Used oil is collected atarate of several drums peryear and turned over to a nearby recycler. During the audit, it was mentioned that the small printing firms in the area do not have ink recyclers and do not have arrangements to return waste ink to the manufac- turers. These small printers probably put their waste ink back into containers and throw it into the trash. The representative from Plant B who assisted in the audit suggested that it might be mutually beneficial to both the small printers and Plant B for the plant to accept waste inks from small printers as a feedstock. The plant would use its ink recycler to blend the small printer's waste ink with the plant's waste ink and fresh ink. This would provide a more acceptable means of disposing of waste ink for the small printer, and would slightly reduce Plant B' s use of new ink. 40 ------- Appendix B WHERE TO GET HELP FURTHER INFORMATION ON WASTE MINIMIZATION Additional information on source reduction, reuse and recycling approaches to waste minimization is available in EPA reports listed in this section, and through state pro- grams (listed below) that offer technical and/or financial assistance in the areas of waste minimization and treat- ment In addition, waste exchanges have been established in some areas of the U.S. to put waste generators in contact with potential users of the waste. Four waste exchanges are listed below. Finally, EPA's regional offices are listed. EPA REPORTS ON WASTE MINIMIZATION U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Waste Minimization AuditReport: Case Studies of Corrosive and Heavy Metal Waste Minimization Audit at a Specialty Steel Manufacturing Complex." Executive Summary.* . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Waste Minimization Audit Report: Case Studies of Minimization of Solvent Waste for Parts Cleaning and from Electronic Capacitor Manufacturing Operation." Executive Summary.* U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Waste Minimization Audit Report: Case Studies of Minimization of Cyanide Wastes from Electroplating Operations." Executive Summary.* U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report to Congress: Waste Minimization, Vols. I and II. EPA/ 530-SW-86-033 and -034 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1986).** U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Waste Minimization - Issues and Options, Vols. I-in EPA/ 530-SW-86-041 through -043. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, 1986).** * Executive Summary available from EPA, WMDDRD, RREL,26West Martin Luther KingDrive, Cincinnati, OH, 45268; full report available from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA 22161. ** Available from the National Technical Information Service as a five-volume set, NTIS No. PB-87-114- 328. WASTE REDUCTION TECHNICAL/ FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS The EPA's Office of Solid Waste andEmergency Re- sponse has set up a telephone call-in service to answer questions regarding RCRA and Superfund (CERCLA): (800) 242-9346 (outside the District of Columbia) (202)382-3000 (in the District of Columbia) The following states have programs that offer technical and/or financial assistance in the areas of waste minimiza- tion and treatment Alabama Hazardous Material Management and Resources Recov- ery Program University of Alabama P.O. Box 6373 Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-6373 (205) 348-8401 Alaska Alaska Health Project Waste Reduction Assistance Program 431 West Seventh Avenue, Suite 101 Anchorage, AK 99501 (907)276-2864 Arkansas Arkansas Industrial Development Commission One State Capitol Mall > Little Rock, AR 72201 (501)371-1370 California Alternative Technology Section Toxic Substances Control Division California State Department of Health Service 714/744 P Street Sacramento, CA 94234-7320 (916) 324-1807 , Connecticut Connecticut Hazardous Waste Management Service Suite 360 : 900 Asylum Avenue Hartford, CT 06105 (203)244-2007 41 ------- Connecticut Department of Economic Development 210 Washington Street Hartford, CT 06106 (203) 566-7196 Georgia Hazardous Waste Technical Assistance Program Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Technical Research Institute Environmental Health and Safety Division O'Keefe Building, Room 027 Atlanta, GA 30332 (404) 894-3806 Environmental Protection Division Georgia Department of Natural Resources Floyd Towers East, Suite 1154 205 Butler Street Atlanta, GA 30334 (404) 656-2833 Illinois Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center Illinois Department of Energy of Energy and Natural Resources 1808 Woodfield Drive Savoy, IL 61874 (217) 333-8940 Illinois Waste Elimination Research Center Pritzker Department of Environmental Engineering Alumni Building, Room 102 Illinois Institute of Technology 3200 South Federal Street Chicago, IL 60616 (313) 567-3535 Indiana Environmental Management and Education Program Young Graduate House, Room 120 Purdue University West Lafayette, IN 47907 (317)494-5036 Indiana Department of Environmental Management Office of Technical Assistance P.O. Box 6015 105 South Meridian Street Indianapolis, IN 46206-6015 (317) 232-8172 Iowa Center for Industrial Research and Service 205.Engineering Annex Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011 (515) 294-3420 Iowa Department of Natural Resources Air Quality and Solid Waste Protection Bureau Wallace State Office Building 900 East Grand Avenue Des Moines, IA 50319-0034 (515)281-8690 Kansas Bureau of Waste Management Department of Health and Environment Forbes Field, Building 730 Topeka, KS 66620 (913) 269-1607 Kentucky Division of Waste Management Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet ISReillyRoad Frankfort, KY 40601 (502) 564-6716 Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality Office of Solid and Hazardous Waste P.O. Box 44307 Baton Rouge, LA 70804 (504) 342-1354 Maryland Maryland Hazardous Waste Facilities Siting Board 60 West Street, Suite 200 A Annapolis, MD 21401 (301) 974-3432 Maryland Environmental Service 2020 Industrial Drive Annapolis, MD 21401 (301)269-3291 (800) 492-9188 (in Maryland) Massachusetts Office of Safe Waste Management Department of Environmental Management 100 Cambridge Street, Room 1094 Boston, MA 02202 (617) 727-3260 Source Reduction Program Massachusetts Department of Environmental Quality En- gineering 1 Winter Street Boston, MA 02108 (617)292-5982 42 ------- Michigan Resource Recovery Section Department of Natural Resources P.O. Box 30028 Lansing, MI 48909 (517) 373-0540 Minnesota Minnesota Pollution Control Agency Solid and Hazardous Waste Division 520 Lafayette Road St. Paul, MN 55155 (612)296-6300 Minnesota Technical Assistance Program W-140 Boynton Health Service University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN 55455 (612) 625-9677 (800) 247-0015 (in Minnesota) Minnesota Waste Management Board 123 Thorson Center 7323 Fifty-Eighth Avenue North Crystal, MN 55428 (612)536-0816 Missouri State Environmental Improvement and Energy Resources Agency P.O. Box 744 Jefferson City, MO 65102 (314) 751-4919 New Jersey New Jersey Hazardous Waste Facilities Siting Commission Room 614 28 West State Street Trenton, NJ 08608 (609) 292-1459 (609) 292-1026 Hazardous Waste Advisement Program Bureau of Regulation and Classification New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection 401 East State Street Trenton, NJ 08625 Risk Reduction Unit Office of Science and Research New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection 401 East State Street Trenton, NJ 08625 New York New York State Environmental Facipties Corporation 50 Wolf Road Albany, NY 12205 (518)457-3273 North Carolina Pollution Prevention Pays Program Department of Natural Resources and; Community Development P.O. Box 27687 512 North Salisbury Street Raleigh, NC 27611 (919)733-7015 Governor's Waste Management Board 325 North Salisbury Street Raleigh, NC 27611 (919) 733-9020 Technical Assistance Unit Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Branch North Carolina Department of Human Resources P.O. Box 2091 306 North Wilmington Street : Releigh,NC 27602 (919) 733-2178 Ohio Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Ohio Environmental Protection Agency P.O. Box 1049 1800 WaterMark Drive Columbus, OH 43266-1049 (614)481-7200 Ohio Technology Transfer Organization Suite 200 65 East State Street Columbus, OH 43266-0330 (614)466-4286 Oklahoma Industrial Waste Elimination Program Oklahoma State Department of Health P.O. Box 53551 Oklahoma City, OK 73152 (405) 271-7353 Oregon Oregon Hazardous Waste Reduction Program Department of Environmental Quality 811 Southwest Sixth Avenue Portland, OR 97204 (503)229-5913 43 ------- Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Technical Assistance Program 501F. Orvis Keller Building University Park, PA 16802 (814) 865-0427 Center of Hazardous Material Research 320 William Pitt Way Pittsburgh, PA 15238 (412)826-5320 Bureau of Waste Management Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources P.O. Box 2063 Fulton Building 3rd and Locust Streets Harrisburg, PA 17120 (717) 787-6239 Rhode Island Ocean State Cleanup and Recycling Program Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management 9 Hayes Street Providence, RI02908-5003 (401) 277-3434 (800) 253-2674 (in Rhode Island) Center for Environmental Studies Brown University P.O. Box 1943 135 Angell Street Providence, RI 02912 (401) 863-3449 Tennessee Center for Industrial Services 102 Alumni Hall University of Tennessee Knoxville,TN 37996 (615)974-2456 Virginia Office of Policy and Planning Virginia Department of Waste Management llth Floor, Monroe Building 101 North 14th Street Richmond,'V A 23219 (804)225-2667 Washington Hazardous Waste Section Mail Stop PV-11 Washington Department of Ecology Olympia, WA 98504-8711 (206) 459-6322 Wisconsin Bureau of Solid Waste Management Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources P.O. Box 7921 101 South Webster Street Madison, WI53707 (608) 267-3763 Wyoming Solid Waste Management Program Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality Herchler Building, 4th Floor, West Wing , ' 122 West 25th Street Cheyenne, WY 82002 (307) 777-7752 WASTE EXCHANGES Northeast Industrial Exchange 90 Presidential Plaza, Syracuse, NY 13202 (315)422-6572 Southern Waste Information Exchange P.O. Box 6487, Tallahassee, FL 32313 (904) 644-5516 California Waste Exchange Department of Health Services Toxic Substances Control Division Alternative Technology & Policy Development Section 714 P Street Sacramento, C A 95814 (916)324-1807 U.S. EPA REGIONAL OFFICES Region 1 (VT, NH, ME, MA, CT, RI) John F. Kennedy Federal Building Boston, MA 02203 (617)565-3715 ' ". Region 2 (NY, NJ) 26 Federal Plaza -New York, NY 10278 (212)264-2525 Region 3 (PA, DE, MD, WV, VA) 841 Chestnut Street Philadelphia, PA 19107 (215) 597-9800 Region 4 (KY, TN, NC, SC, GA, FL, AL, MS) 345 Courtland Street, NE Atlanta, GA 30365 (404)347-4727 44 ------- Region 5 (WI, MN, MI, IL, IN, OH) 230 South Dearborn Street Chicago, IL 60604 (312) 353-2000 Region 6 (NM, OK, AR, LA, TX) 1445 Ross Avenue JDallas, TX 75202 (214) 655-6444 Region 7 (NE, KS, MO, IA) 756 Minnesota Avenue Kansas City, KS 66101 (913) 236-2800 Region 8 (MT, ND, SD, WY, UT, CO) 999 18th Stteet Denver, CO 80202-2405 (303) 293-1603 Region 9 (CA, NV, AZ, HI) 215 Fremont Street San Francisco, CA 94105 (415) 974-8071 Region 10 (AK, WA, OR, ID) 1200 Sixth Avenue Seattle, WA 98101 (206) 442-5810 TftTU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1995 - 65O-O06/Z2008 ------- ------- ------- 0) O m NJ tn 00 III II &r > mcl O O Q.I S CO o 5- ol 5- 5. m o S 5 ='3 " I §.- to S si m O> > CO m -a' m m ------- |