United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Cincinnati, OH 45268
EPA/625/R-98/003
September 2000
Technology Transfer
&EPA
Environmental Planning for
Communities
* * A Guide to the Environmental
.Visioning Process Utilizing a
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EPA/625/R-98/003
September 2000
Environmental Planning for
Communities
A Guide to the Environmental Visioning Process
Utilizing a Geographic Information System (CIS)
Technology Transfer and Support Division
Office of Research and Development
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH
Printed on Recycled Paper
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Notice
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through its Office of Research and
Development funded and managed the research described here under contract
#7CR388NTSX to Global Quality Corp. It has been subjected to the Agency's peer and
administrative review and has been approved for publication as an EPA document.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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Contents
1 Introduction/Purpose of This Guide 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 The CBEP Approach 1
1.1.2 Evolution of Media-Based/Command-Control Approach to CBEP 2
1.1.3 Environmental Visioning as It Relates to CBEP 2
1.1.4 CIS as aToolto Support Environmental Visioning 2
1.2 Purpose of This Guide 3
1.2.1 Where Does This Guide Fit Into EPA Programs? 3
1.2.2 Relationship of This Guide to Other CBEP and Environmental Visioning Products 3
1.2.3 Audience forThis Guide 3
1.3 Organization of This Guide 3
1.3.1 Overview of CBEP (Chapter 2) 3
1.3.2 Overview of Environmental Visioning (Chapters) 3
1.3.3 CIS-Based Environmental Visioning (Chapter 4) 4
1.3.4 Creating a CIS to Support Environmental Visioning (Chapters) 4
1.3.5 Appendices 4
1.4 Reference 4
2 Overview of Community-Based Environmental Protection (CBEP) 5
2.1 Introduction 5
2.1.1 History of CBEP 5
2.2 Key Components of CBEP 7
2.2.1 Establishing Partnerships 7
2.2.2. Defining Geographic Boundaries 8
2.2.3 Achieving Environmental Results 9
2.3 References 11
3 Overview of Environmental Visioning 12
3.1 Introduction 12
3.2 Evolution of Environmental Visioning 12
3.3 Key Features of Environmental Visioning in the CBEP Context 12
3.4 Environmental Visioning Tools 13
3.4.1 GraphicTools 13
3.4.2 Software Tools 14
3.5 Steinitz Framework for Environmental Planning and Evaluating Alternative Futures.. 14
3.6 References 18
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Contents (continued)
4 CIS-Based Environmental Visioning 19
4.1 Introduction 19
4.1.1 Definition of a CIS 19
4.1.2 History of a CIS 19
4.1.3 Organization of This Chapter 19
4.2 Components of a CIS 20
4.2.1 CIS Data 20
4.2.1.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) Data 20
4.2.1.2 Remote Sensing Data 20
4.2.2 CIS Hardware 21
4.2.3 CIS Software 21
4.2.3.1 CIS Database Software 22
4.2.4 Models 22
4.2.5 Outputs 23
4.3 Benefits/Pitfalls of GIS Applications 23
4.3.1 Benefits 23
4.3.2 Pitfalls 23
4.4 Existing Approaches to CIS-Based Environmental Visioning 25
4.4.1 Quantitative 25
4.4.2 Qualitative 26
4.4.3 Advanced vs. Basic 26
4.5 Case Studies 26
4.5.1 West Muddy Creek, Benton County, Oregon 26
4.5.2 Monroe County, Pennsylvania 28
4.5.3 Camp Pendleton, California 33
4.6 References 36
5 Creating a GIS to Support Environmental Visioning 38
5.1 Introduction 38
5.1.1 Importance of a GIS in Environmental Visioning 38
5.1.2 Organization of This Chapter 38
5.2 Groundwork for a Successful GIS Application 38
5.2.1 GIS Tools 38
5.2.2 Issues to Be Addressed 38
5.2.3 Size of Study Area 39
5.2.4 Range of Analyses to Be Completed 39
5.2.5 Definition of Desired Data Resolution 39
5.2.6 Available Data 39
5.2.7 Available Hardware 39
5.2.8 Available Software 39
5.2.9 Available Support/Resources 39
5.3 GIS Outputs 40
5.3.1 Basic Output 40
5.3.2 Advanced Outputs 40
5.4 Developing the GIS for Environmental Visioning 40
5.4.1 Road Map for Building a GIS 40
IV
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Contents (continued)
5.4.2 CIS operations 41
5.4.3 Resource Planning 42
5.4.4 Data Acquisition 43
5.4.5 Personnel Requirement 44
5.4.6 System Integration 44
5.5 How to Create an Environmental Vision Using the GIS 44
5.6 References 45
Appendix A: Bibliography 46
Appendix B: Glossary of Terms 48
Appendix C: List of Abbreviations 49
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Figures
Figure 2-1. Community-based environmental planning 6
Figure 3 -1. Green community flow chart (source: http://www.epa.gov/region03/greenkit) 16
Figure 3-2. Steinitz's framework for landscape planning
(source: http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/brc/maps/fig_5.html. 17
Figure 4 -1. Changes in habitat areas resulting from the alternative futures
relative to 1990 conditions (source: Hulse etal., 1997) 27
Figure 4-2. Changes in species richness resulting from the alternative futures
relative to 1990 conditions (source: Hulse etal., 1997) 29
Figure 4-3. Impacts on water quality resulting from the alternative futures
relative to 1990 conditions (source: Hulse etal., 1997) 30
Figure 4-4. Erosion and total suspended solids (metric tons/hectare) by sub-basins resulting
from the alternative futures compared to 1990 and 1850 conditions (source: Hulse etal., 1997)... 31
Figure 4-5. Impact on natural and cultural systems resulting from the alternative futures
(source: Steinitz(ed.) etal., 1994) 34
Figure 4 -6. Map of the study area (source: Steinitz (ed.) etal., 1996) 35
Figure 4-7. Comparative impacts of the alternative futures (source: Steinitz (ed.) et al. 1996). .. 37
VI
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Acknowledgments
Many people contributed their expertise to the preparation and review of this
publication. Overall technical guidance was provided by Susan Schock and Daniel
Murray of U.S. EPA's National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL).
The document was prepared by Global Quality Corp., who was assisted by Pacific
Environment Services, Inc. The following people provided guidance and review:
Dr. James Good rich
Dr. WalterGrayman
James Kreissl
Richard Sumner
Ronald Landy
Dr. David Hulse
Dr. Carl Steinitz
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Walter M. Grayman Consulting Engineer
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
Office of Research and Development
University of Oregon
Harvard University
VII
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1 Introduction/Purpose of this Guide
1.1 Introduction
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
shifted the focus of many of its ecosystem protection pro-
grams from command-and-control to the Community-Based
Environmental Protection (CBEP) approach. In contrast
to the previous regulatory approach, the CBEP approach
emphasizes decision making by local stakeholders to ad-
dress community-wide environmental issues. As an es-
sential step in the CBEP approach, community leaders,
citizens, and planners develop an environmental vision of
their preferred "green" community. An environmental vision
in its simplest form is a picture or a description of a pre-
ferred future state of the community, chosen from several
alternative futures. The entire process of generation and
selection of alternative landscape futures will be referred
to as environmental visioning in this Guide. One of the
important tools that can be used to develop and support
such a vision is the geographic information system (CIS)
technology.
A CIS, in its simplest form, is common off-the-shelf (COTS)
computer software that can be run on desktop personal
computers to produce simple maps. A complex CIS can
support scientific what-if analysis and modeling, and has
the power to depict environmental data in relation to the
geography and the capacity to model the landscape as it
may evolve over time. This guide explains how a CIS can
be used for environmental visioning.
1.1.1 The CBEP Approach
CBEP is a comprehensive ecosystem management and
planning approach promoted by EPA, to assess and man-
age the quality of air, water, land and living resources in
an area in a "holistic context." The CBEP approach has
been developed and employed to better reflect the unique
needs and requirements of regional and local conditions
and to stimulate and promote a more effective partnership
with local communities.
The Key CBEP Steps
Establish Partnerships and Develop an EnvironmentalVision: Ecosystem protection projects often
start at a grass roots level with small groups sharing a common interest in protecting or restoring their
local environment. Ultimately, the small groups expand and align into largergroups of stakeholders, who
develop partnerships by coming to agreement on issues, vision, and information. This naturally leads to
the development of a set of community-derived goals and actions.
.Assess Ecosystem: Once an organization has been developed and goals have been established, the
next task is to assess the current condition of the local ecosystem. This can be achieved by defining the
indicators of ecosystem such as human health, natural habitat and creating links between ecosystem,
local economy, and quality of life.
Develop Ecosystem Strategies: After developing ecosystem indicators and environmental trends,
strategies for ecosystem protection can be evaluated and implemented. The strategies usually involve
voluntary initiatives, such as volunteer cleanups, land acquisition, or education programs. Legal strate-
gies can also be considered, including local laws, zoning ordinances, property taxes and municipal fees,
performance standards, and transfer of development rights and growth planning, in addition to enforce-
ment of state and federal environmental laws. The selection of appropriate strategies includes the analy-
sis of socioeconomic impacts and the ability to adapt the selected strategies to changing conditions and
new information.
EPA has published a guide to the CBEP process (Community Based Environmental Protection: A
Resource Book for Protecting Ecosystems and Communities, EPA 230-B-96-003), which contains
detailed guidance on the implementation of CBEP initiatives.
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CBEP emphasizes a collaborative approach to environ-
mental protection instead of the traditional "end-of-pipe"
approach EPA has employed historically. The CBEP ap-
proach tailors environmental programs to address the par-
ticular needs of individual communities, watersheds or other
planning units. In some cases, CBEP activities may go
beyond achieving national environmental standards by
enacting more strict standards and policies that reflect
local concerns.
CBEP is designed to maximize the use of scarce re-
sources, encourage local support, considerthe economic
well being of communities, and allow EPA to work in part-
nership with residents to solve environmental problems.
CBEP partnerships may include representatives from all
levels of government, public interest groups, industry, aca-
demia, private landowners, concerned citizens and oth-
ers. The active integration of all of these interest groups
fosters a better understanding of environmental problems,
as well as producing more achievable, effective, and popular
solutions. Improved environmental protection results are
achieved by focusing activities on issues unique to spe-
cific geographic boundaries, and by identifying overall en-
vironmental improvements and trends. CBEP success is
measured by examining environmental improvement over
an entire area of concern, instead of looking atfacility-by-
facility progress.
1.1.2 Evolution of Media-Based/
Command-Control Approach to CBEP
The traditional approach to pollution control has been a
media-based, command-control process, where air, water
and land resources have been addressed separately
through regulations, criteria and standards.This process
has been effective in significantly reducing the release of
pollutants to the environment from point sources. A point
source, such as combined sewer discharge, is a discharge
whose location can be exactly pinpointed on a map. In
contrast, a non-point source (NPS) of pollution, such as
agricultural runoff, occurs over an entire geographic area.
The reductions have been accomplished through the de-
velopment of regulations, criteria, and standards, directed
largely at point sources, which can be easily identified
and regulated.
The environmental problems that many communities now
face are more complex and difficult to define. In order to
deal with these environmental problems, EPA is promot-
ing the CBEP approach.The CBEP approach proactively
involves all social, economic, and political issues from
different interest groups into the environmental decision-
making process. CBEP recognizes that environmental
decisions cannot be made in a vacuum, independent from
the other societal demands—jobs, fire protection, educa-
tion, etc.—that impact the use of the communities'mate-
rial, financial, and human resources. When environmental
issues are openly addressed in a CBEP process, local
constituents have an opportunity to take a more active
role. If the process includes consensus and negotiation,
the local constituents can extend theirsupport forthe imple-
mentation of the selected environmental management strat-
egies more aggressively.
1.1.3 Environmental Visioning as It Relates
to CBEP
Environmental visioning is a step in the CBEP process
that develops a picture of a preferred future environment.
The question "Where do we want to be" is the central theme
of any visioning process and the environmental vision state-
ment for the community becomes the driving force for
implementation of CBEP efforts. Preferred communities
often are called "Green Communities," and the term refers
to sustainable communities with healthy environments,
vibrant economies and a high quality of life for residents
(http://www.epa.gov/region03/greenkit) Sustainable com-
munities combine residential, commercial and industrial
development while maintaining local ecosystems.
1.1.4 GIS as a Tool to Support
Environmental Visioning
A GIS is a computer software tool that supports a variety
of purposes, including map-making and scientific analy-
sis. A GIS has the inherent ability to generate graphical
and tabular displays, and the capacity to support "what-if"
analyses by modeling different scenarios that are impor-
tant building an environmental vision. Color-coded GIS
maps can either be viewed on a computer screen, or printed
as hard copy.
Several vendors provide off-the-shelf GIS software that
can run on a variety of platforms, ranging from desktop
personal computers to high-powered computer worksta-
tions. GIS data generally consist of two components:
graphical data about the geography, and tabulardata about
each feature in the geography. For example, the graphical
component may include display of county boundaries on
the screen, whereas the tabular database component keeps
track of the county population, average income, and other
relevant attributes. The values from the database can be
used to color-code the geographic areas, thereby provid-
ing a visual representation of the conditions. A GIS can
also be used to display and manipulate satellite images of
a geographic area to perform analyses of the environment.
GIS capabilities can be applied no matter what the size of
the geographic area under consideration. In addition, the
geography being depicted, as well as the database values
used for color-coding the maps, can be based on reality or
imagination (e.g., the environmental vision).Therefore, a
GIS becomes an ideal tool to support the environmental
visioning step of the CBEP process. In addition, a GIS
can be used as valuable tool for ongoing ecosystem man-
agement (Sumner and Kapuscinski, 1998). By using a GIS,
community members become familiar with the mapped
information and gain an appreciation of the community's
dependence on the ecosystem. This process is fueled by
the availability of relevant knowledge bases on the Internet.
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1.2 Purpose of This Guide
The purpose of this Guide is to explain how a CIS can be
used by communities as a tool to support environmental
visioning as part of the CBEP process. Although signifi-
cant reference material exists on CBEP and on CIS appli-
cations, the use of CIS in the CBEP process has not been
presented in a comprehensive document. A few case stud-
ies have shown how a CIS can be used effectively during
environmental visioning, but a general discussion of that
theme has not been prepared.
This Guide to the Environmental Visioning Process Utiliz-
ing a Geographic Information System (CIS) has been de-
veloped consistent with the requirements of CBEP. In this
framework, the guide can be utilized to meet the needs of
individual media issues (e.g., the watershed management
approach to waterquality issues) and to support integrated
ecosystem analyses, embodying the multiple impacts on
air, water, and land resources.
1.2.1 Where Does This Guide Fit Into EPA
Programs?
For more than 25 years, EPA and its associated state and
local agencies have achieved significant strides in pro-
tecting all aspects of our environment. The air, water, and
land resources, which have supported the social and eco-
nomic growth of this nation, have been reasonably pro-
tected and preserved for future generations through the
application of national, technology-based standards. While
these technology-based standards for individual media
have been successful, new approaches, such as CBEP,
are now required to ensure the long-term health and wel-
fare of ecosystems and the population.
In this process, the singular objectives of environmental
control and management cannot be viewed exclusive of
the other societal demands, such as police and fire pro-
tection, and schools. Planning processes require a bal-
anced approach to community, environmental, and eco-
system management within an open, public decision-mak-
ing framework.
The ability to effectively and efficiently address and dis-
play these complex issues requires utilization of tools,
such as CIS technology. A CIS integrated with models
and otherdisplay software, allows the evaluation of a myriad
of alternative management strategies and presents them
in a manner in which community stakeholders can evalu-
ate them in decision-making processes. Use of CIS in
this mannerwill permit a more inclusive decision-making
process, conducted in a rational, objective, meaningful,
and understandable way to all participants.
1.2.2 Relationship of This Guide to Other
CBEP and Environmental Visioning
Products
EPA has produced several products relating to environ-
mental visioning and CBEP, including a "Storefront of Com-
munity Environmental Tools" on the EPA home page on
the Internet (www.epa.gov). Many of these products refer-
ence the value of CIS in environmental visioning and CBEP
but do not include any details on how to develop a CIS or
what to include in an effective CIS program.
The Environmental Protection Agencies in several states
have published guidebooks for environmental planning,
although focused more towards water quality. For example,
the Ohio EPA (OEPA) has published a guide for water-
shed-based approach to the development of a waterqual-
ity protection plan (OEPA, 1997).
This Guide supplements the above products by address-
ing the technical and organizational aspects of CIS. For
example, the guide discusses what type of data should be
collected, and how to arrange the data into map layers
that can be used to envision future environmental condi-
tions. References to data and tools available through EPA
are provided throughout this Guide, which also discusses
previous studies on evaluating alternative futures.
1.2.3 Audience for This Guide
This Guide is meant for everyone who is interested and
wants to participate in the CBEP process.The Guide pro-
vides introductory material for newcomers to the CIS tech-
nology and advanced material forthe more technically ori-
ented CIS users. Although not targeted as a'how to'manual
forthe sophisticated CIS professional, the Guide discusses
both the technical and nontechnical issues involved in using
a CIS for environmental visioning that should address the
needs of a broad audience.
1.3 Organization of This Guide
Following this Introduction (Chapter 1), the Guide has been
organized to provide users with a framework for incorpo-
rating a CIS into the CBEP process and for initiating ef-
forts to implement such an approach for their area. Ex-
amples are provided to gain a better understanding of the
'real world' applications.
1.3.10verview of CBEP (Chapter 2)
The details of the components of CBEP programs are dis-
cussed in Chapter 2. Topics addressed include how to or-
ganize community groups, how to set goals for CBEP
projects, how to assess community conditions, and how
to define, evaluate and choose strategies for ecosystem
protection and restoration.The Steinitzframework (Steinitz,
1990) for landscape planning is also discussed.
1.3.2 Overview of Environmental Visioning
(Chapters)
Chapter 3 presents the history of environmental visioning;
its advantages as a guide for setting goals in ecosystem
management and the processes that affect it. Examples
of recent visioning activities are also presented.
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1.3.3 GIS-Based Environmental Visioning
(Chapter 4)
An overview of CIS and a discussion of its primary com-
ponents (e.g.software, hardware, and databases) are pre-
sented in Chapter 4. Also CIS-based environmental vi-
sioning and the advantages and limitations of CIS appli-
cations are discussed.
1.3.4 Creating a GIS to Support
Environmental Visioning (Chapter 5)
Chapter 5 provides guidance on how to establish a GIS for
environmental visioning. GIS data needs emphasizing the
scope and usage of data (extent, type, quality, resolution
and accuracy) for environmental visioning are discussed.
Some basic GIS products used for effective communica-
tion are also presented. Helpful information on what to
considerwhen establishing a GIS is presented along with
methods for acquiring GIS data.
1.3.5 Appendices
A bibliography of referenced material is attached as
Appendix A, followed by glossary of terms (Appendix B).
1.4 Reference
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, A Guide to
Developing Local\Afetershed Action Plans in Ohio, Ohio
EPA, 1997.
Steinitz, Carl; A Framework for Theory Applicable to
the Education of Landscape Architects (and Other En-
vironmental Design Professionals), Landscape Jour-
nal, October 1990, pp. 136-143.
Sumner, R. and J. Kapuscinski. Building the Vision for
Ecosystem Management. U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, National Health and Environmental Ef-
fects Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon (submit-
ted for publication).
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2 Overview of Community-Based Environmental Protection (CBEP)
2.1 Introduction
Since EPA was formed over twenty-five years ago, its regu-
latory focus has emphasized a media-based approach to-
wards pollution control. However, EPA is now in the pro-
cess of shifting the focus of its regulatory program to CBEP
CBEP emphasizes a geographic focus, development of
partnerships among stakeholders within the ecosystem,
and a focus on environmental results (EPA, 1997b). An
important step in this process for a community is the de-
velopment of its vision of a preferred environmental state
(Figure 2-1).This preferred environmental state has been
defined by EPA as a "green community." Figure 2-1 illus-
trates an example of a CBEP progression. A small group
alerts potential stakeholders about their concerns; the
stakeholders discuss the issues and develop their vision
of preferred community; goals and strategies are set for
achieving the vision; and the strategies are implemented.
2.1.1 History of CBEP
In a sense, environmental protection has its roots in a
community-based movement. On the first Earth Day (April
22,1970), 20 million people turned out to show support for
environmental causes. The momentum of Earth Day and
other influences led to the formation of EPA. As discussed
earlier, EPA subsequently developed regulatory programs,
which have significantly reduced the effects of pollution.
However, the work is ongoing and the efforts are far from
complete.
EPA is emphasizing a CBEP approach to improve the ef-
fectiveness of federal environmental regulations and pro-
grams. The CBEP approach tailors programs to address
the environmental conditions of a particular watershed,
ecosystem or other area of concern. The goal of CBEP
programs is to assess and manage the quality of air, wa-
ter, land, and living resources in a place as a whole. In this
manner, environmental management strategies will better
reflect local conditions and will more effectively promote
and establish partnerships for environmental protection.
However, CBEP does not represent the only approach to
the integrated evaluation of environmental issues. A strong
watershed management context was established for wa-
ter quality issues in the Clean Water Act of 1972 (as em-
bodied in the 303(e), 208, and 201 water quality planning
processes). A new initiative of ecosystem and watershed
management has been proposed, recognizing the contin-
ued need to reevaluate and manage the allocation of wa-
ter resources to competing environmental demands. On-
going efforts to manage the impact of pollution from point
sources and non-point sources including, combined sewer
overflows, storm water discharges, and agricultural runoff
have been reinitialized and reemphasized.
The requirements for high-quality water that can support
aquatic life and human uses have become increasingly
more stringent. Similarly, increased emphasis on risk analy-
sis techniques that require integration of many environ-
mental factors, pollutant sources, costs, and economic
variables, demands a more sophisticated and complete
approach in evaluating environmental impacts and asso-
ciated management strategies.
Commensurate with the above programs, it is essential to
have interactive, public, decision-making processes that
integrate all aspects of a community into environmental
decisions, and that consider the environmental impacts of
all activities in a community. For example, consider the
following problems:
Polluted runoff from non-point sources in areas
that lack vegetation to absorb heavy rainfall or
snowmelt. These sources include parking lots,
streets and highways, heavily tilled farm fields,
and clear-cut forest areas.
Difficult-to-control environmental problems created
by urban sprawl, including polluted runoff caused
by the replacement of vegetation with paved sur-
faces, poor air quality from increased vehicle miles
per person due to longer commutes, and habitat
fragmentation for animals and plants.
To address these complex issues, CBEP has been em-
ployed as a holistic approach to environmental protection
that is sensitive to local conditions and employs multi-
level, cross-sector partnerships to achieve results. CBEP
efforts sometimes go by other names, such as ecosys-
tem management or place-based and/or geographically
targeted environmental protection. An important factor in
these efforts is that the people who live and/or work in the
community (the local stakeholders) have a common inter-
est in protecting an identifiable, shared environment and
quality of life.
The role of EPA in the implementation of the CBEP will
vary from place to place and from one issue to another. In
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Sense of Place
Sense of Conditions
Involve Stakeholders
React to
New Information
Re-evaluate
XIX
Goals for Goals for Goals for
Sustainable Quality Sustainable
Ecosystems of Life Local Economy
Assess Progress
Information on:
Ecosystem
Health
Local
Economy
Local Quality
of Life
\ I /
Mission
Organize
Enact Strategies
Figure 2-1. Community-based environmental planning (source: USEPA, 1997b).
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many places, EPA will be an active partner in designing
and implementing effective environmental solutions. In
most places, EPA will support and assist the efforts of
others by providing environmental information, monitoring
systems, scientific analyses and othertypes of assistance.
2.2 Key Components of CBEP
While there are no prescriptions for CBEP, EPA has de-
fined the following key components of an effective CBEP
program: (http://www.epa.gov/reinvent/notebook/)
Partnerships and stakeholder involvement from all
levels of government, public interest groups, in-
dustry, academia, private landowners, concerned
citizens, and others. EPA anticipates that these
relationships established with regional and com-
munity organizations will bring about a better un-
derstanding of environmental problems and effec-
tive solutions.
A geographic focus, which allows for a more com-
prehensive approach to environmental protection.
Environmental protection efforts become more
effective when they are directed towards specific
watersheds or other ecosystems.
A focus on environmental results over an entire
area of concern, looking beyond facility-by-facil-
ity progress. Environmental programs that have
integrated multimedia approaches, are now em-
phasized over the traditional end-of-pipe regula-
tory approach.
Some examples of CBEP Projects that include these com-
ponents and are already underway include:
Clear Creek, Colorado—A partnership of local organi-
zations, private citizens, industry and several agen-
cies to protect the Clear Creek Watershed which cov-
ers roughly 600 square miles. Actions taken to restore
the river include:
Superfund remedial actions
Voluntary cleanups
Wetlands planning
Mapping of endangered species
Land use plans
Water quality projects
An emergency dial-down system to inform water
users when spills have occurred in the creek.
St. Louis, Missouri, and East St. Louis, Illinois—An
effort to enhance communication and coordination
among the many agencies involved in environmental
issues in the St. Louis Metropolitan area. The goal is
to promote creative solutions to environmental prob-
lems such as hazardous and radioactive waste sites,
poor air quality, wetland and riparian management is-
sues. Actions taken include creating multimedia teams
within EPA to work on issues in the area, as well as
hiring an on-site liaison in response to community re-
quests for more regular contact.
Brunswick, Georgia—An initiative to use regulatory
and non-regulatory approaches to assess the envi-
ronmental condition of the area and respond to envi-
ronmental problems. Issues include mercury and poly-
chlorinated biphenyl contamination in creeks, hazard-
ous waste and potential problems in air quality. Ac-
tions taken include a strategy to reach across media-
specific programs in a coordinated ecosystem pro-
tection manner; expanded site assessments; and sam-
pling of surface water, sediments, fish tissue, private
wells, and marshes in the area.
Henryetta, Oklahoma—A partnership with city and
state agencies and a citizens' advisory group to ad-
dress concerns about: the redevelopment of an aban-
doned mining and smelter site owned by the city; solid
waste collection and recycling issues; and drinking
water and wastewater delivery systems.
2.2.1 Establishing Partnerships
The first step in any CBEP initiative is to develop partner-
ships that include as many community stakeholders as
possible. CBEP initiatives often begin at the grassroots
level, when friends and neighbors share a common inter-
est in protecting or restoring the local environment. These
initiatives may be spurred by noticeable air or water pollu-
tion, a development that causes ecosystem damage, some
obvious ecological effect such as a fish-kill, or some other
symptom of an underlying ecological problem. Ideally, a
community might come together to protect local ecosys-
tems before they become threatened.
A concerned citizen, local official, or other project initiator
may have some idea of desired outcomes or may have
identified ecosystems or ecosystem components to im-
prove or protect. Project initiators in other communities
have found it useful to reach out early to other stakehold-
ers. Potential stakeholders include anyone with an inter-
est in what the initiator is thinking about—to begin an ex-
change of ideas about the desired outcomes or conditions
that sparked their interest. Ultimately, stakeholders develop
partnerships by coming to agreement on issues, vision,
and information, leading to the development of a set of
community goals and actions.
Possible stakeholders include anyone in the community
who takes a natural interest in environmental protection.
Groups that might be affected by changes in commercial
activity resulting from ecosystem protection strategies are
also potential stakeholders. Other stakeholders include
businesses or labor unions. Local elected officials and
-------
How to Establish Partnerships
Start at a grass roots level with friends and neighbors as initiators.
Identify stakeholders - anyone with a natural interest in the environment is a potential stakeholder.
Involve key decision makers from local government, environmental regulatory agencies, industry, and
local citizens groups.
Develop partnerships by agreeing on issues, which lead to a set of community goals.
Communication is vital to maximizing stakeholder involvement - such as public presentations to local
community groups or publishing newsletters.
community leaders can help identify potential stakehold-
ers, in addition to participating themselves.
Potential stakeholders might include the following organi-
zations and individuals.
1. Members of existing organizations that use or are
concerned with the environment or land-use is-
sues, such as the Audubon Society (http://
www.audubon.org) and the Sierra Club (http://
www.sierraclub. org).
2. Private landowners whose property includes habi-
tat areas that the community wants to protect,
including farmers, ranchers, timber companies,
and private residents.
3. Local chapters of relevant national professional
organizations, including ecologists, biologists and
landscape architects.
4. Local governments, including, local watershed or-
ganizations and conservation districts, local parks
and recreation departments, and state depart-
ments of environmental protection, agriculture, fish
and game, transportation, and commerce.
Many diverse ethnic, religious, or other groups might be
interested in sharing their points of view and participating.
Often, a community's ecosystem protection effort will in-
terest people who live in distant places. For example, en-
vironmental projects in rural vacation areas often draw the
interest of city-dwellers that visit them. Similarly, a river
restoration effort may affect many downstream communi-
ties.
Engaging people from all key stakeholder groups as soon
as possible produces many benefits. People are much more
likely to work together successfully if they are involved
from the beginning rather than after decisions are made.
For example, developers may be more willing to discuss
alternative development schemes if they are invited to help
plan ecosystem protection strategies. Many community
members gain a sense of well being from volunteering their
time to create a better community; involvement in the ef-
fort can be a source of personal enrichment.
Most communities have found that communication is vital
in getting stakeholder involvement. For example, visiting
some of the groups noted above at one of their meetings
and speaking for five minutes might successfully draw
stakeholder participation. Likewise, establishing a name
for the group and developing a newsletter to document
decisions made and activities undertaken, keeps every-
one engaged and keeps the public abreast of the latest
developments.
2.2.2. Defining Geographic Boundaries
As CBEP partnerships evolve, theirgeographic boundaries
will evolve as well. A key step in the CBEP process is
clearly defining the geographic boundaries of the effort.
Determining these boundaries isn't always straightforward.
In particular, it involves an understanding of the complex
interactions between people and their environment.
The boundary-drawing exercise is complicated by the fact
that most ecosystems are not wholly self-contained. A
lake, for example, may be a component of a larger natural
system of rivers and streams within a watershed. There-
fore, runoff, spills, flooding, and other problems affecting
related water bodies might affect the lake. Some ecosys-
tems are so complicated that it may be difficult to address
the entire system. River deltas, with their networks of fresh
and saltwater marshland and rivers and lakes, and large
urban airsheds are examples of such a system. Further-
more, most communities and their attendant ecosystems,
such as forests or lakes, do not coincide with city, county,
and even state boundaries.
These considerations may tend to discourage communi-
ties from going forward with ecosystem protection plans.
The community may feel that its ecosystems are so inter-
connected with the larger environment that whatever small
steps it takes locally will be overwhelmed by events oc-
curring in related ecosystems in other towns or states.
Alternatively, the community may keep increasing the area
of interest to incorporate as many ecosystem features as
8
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possible, then realize that it will need to reach out to other
communities fortheir cooperation.
Some communities have found it useful to start small.
Considering ecosystems in the context of the larger envi-
ronment of which they are a part, doesn't require tackling
the entire system at once.
Sometimes, however, retaining a small geographic scope
may not be feasible or desirable. For example, expanding
the scope could help to include the following:
A Critical Locale—A project may be more effec-
tive if it covers an important tributary to a river or
woodland that contains a crucial nesting site for
birds.
A Critical Stakeholder—A large landowner may
be able to make a significant contribution to the
health of local ecosystems through land manage-
ment techniques.
Special Skills or Resources—The community
may want to expand boundaries, for example, to
make the project relevant to a nearby university
orto include endangered species habitat that will
capture the interest of federal agencies.
Special Constituencies—The community may
want to expand boundaries in an explicit effort to
include, for example, groups who historically have
been overburdened by environmental degradation
or have been systematically left out of other com-
munity decisions. One community can use the
boundary-drawing exercise to help in thinking about
other communities with which to cooperate. If a
community is considering making a river swim-
mable, for example, the effort will be affected by
what goes on upstream. Forthis reason, commu-
nities often work closely with the watershed as-
sociation and state entities, and may involve other
towns.
Communities often start with the most obvious ecosys-
tem unit and enlarge the area of interest by considering
How to Define a Geographic Boundary
Start small and progress to larger and more
complex ecosystems
Define critical locale, stakeholders, resources,
or special constituencies
Select an area which has achievable goals
As partnerships overlap with other communi-
ties, boundaries should overlap as well
related ecosystems. If a community is focusing on a small
pond, for example, it may also consider including wetlands,
marsh, or wooded areas around the pond. Outlining the
area on maps clearly shows topography (e.g., elevation
and water bodies), as well as political features (e.g., roads
and state, county, and city boundary lines).
One way to define natural ecosystem boundaries is to
define watersheds. A watershed is an area where rain and
other water drain to a common location such as a river,
lake, or wetland. This collection of water may occur natu-
rally (as with rain running down a hillside) or with the influ-
ence of drainage infrastructure such as ditches and storm
sewers. Watersheds range in size from a few acres that
drain to a farm pond to thousands of square miles. Land-
scapes such as watersheds may contain many different
and interrelated ecosystems (such as forests, streams,
urban areas, and wetlands).
Ecosystem managers often use watersheds as a mean-
ingful way to define areas of concern. Watersheds typi-
cally cut across political boundaries like neighborhoods,
subdivisions, city limits, and state lines. Since watersheds
are often drawn around sloping geographic features such
as valleys and mountains, they are also meaningful with
regard to air and land issues. Thus, watershed manage-
ment often requires coordination among different govern-
ments and organizations. While such coordination can
prove challenging, watershed-based efforts can ultimately
establish a seamless network of environmental protection
across large regions.
In drawing boundaries, projects may considerwhetherto
include a buffer zone around special features in the eco-
system. Such a zone absorbs the effects of human activ-
ity around the core of the ecosystem, preventing damage
to the system itself. For example, for a seacoast, a zone
of non-marsh, non-sandy terrain between the water's edge
and development can prevent erosion and protect delicate
tidal ecosystems.
2.2.3 Achieving Environmental Results
An essential step in the CBEP process is forthe region of
concern to develop an environmental vision.This environ-
mental vision will address the current condition of the lo-
cal environment; will address all of the actions and issues
that will affect the environment in the future; and will de-
fine the community environmental goals in the future. En-
vironmental visioning can be thought of as the pic-
ture of where the community wants to be, and CBEP
is the overall process of developing and implement-
ing that vision and moving the community towards
the preferred state.
Various methods of goal setting such as visioning—form-
ing a concept of what the preferred state of the community's
ecosystems should be—can help a community develop
goals. The environmental visioning process involves all
interested community members from the start. Using en-
vironmental visioning as a means to develop community
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Geographic Boundary and Partnerships
A group of individuals becomes organized around a perceived problem or issue (e.g., deteriorating water
quality or lost fishery). On further examination, the group assesses the appropriate geographical boundaries
within which ecological and social processes affect that issue (watershed). Given the chosen boundary, the
group may need to increase or otherwise adjust its membership to generate sufficient capacity for addressing
the stated issue. After further consideration, the group can decide the efficacy of the originally perceived
problem. In the esoteric terms of "risk assessment," the group moves from problem recognition" to "risk
definition." This point is important because the group may originally perceive a problem, e.g., a fishery
problem, only to later realize that the real issue is water supply. They may not be able to fix the local fishery
problem until they fix, or concurrently work on, the broader water supply problem.
goals takes advantage of the breadth and depth of ideas
within the community and ensures that all affected mem-
bers shape the initial proposals.
The question "Where do we want to be?" is the central
theme of the environmental visioning process. Environ-
mental visioning enables community members to express
their shared values to invoke an image of the future. Envi-
ronmental visioning is the process which focuses on where
a community wants to be within a specified timeframe,
whether it be 5,10 or 20 years into the future. The environ-
mental visioning process will result in an environmental
vision statement with one or more alternative futures pro-
posed. These futures should represent variations on a
theme aimed at achieving sustainable solutions for the
environment, economy and social well being. It has been
suggested that a community should develop a set of rigor-
ous measures for evaluating its commitment to the future
(Sumner, 1998). These benchmarks can be a set of com-
munity attributes, such as number of viable businesses,
school class size, and amount of steam bank vegetation.
With regard to environmental visioning, EPA Region III
has introduced the concept of "green communities". Green
communities are sustainable communities that integrate
a healthy environment, a vibrant economy, and a high qual-
ity of life. EPA Region III has developed a green communi-
ties checklist which is presented below—(http://
www. epa.gov/region03/greenkit).
How to Achieve Results through
Environmental Visioning
Establish an environmental vision
Establish goals with sustainable economics
Tie goals to specific indicators of progress
Redefine goals and environmental vision as
progress continues
When thinking about environmental goals and visions,
many communities have considered not only ecological
protection, but also the ways in which the environment
interacts with quality of life and the local economy. These
three endpoints can guide goal setting. For example, your
primary ecological protection goal might be protecting
streamside or woodland habitat. An associated "sustain-
able economy" goal might be working with landowners to
preserve their woodlands by carefully planning and select-
ing the timber harvest to protect tree age, size, and spe-
cies diversity, and replanting species native to the area.
Improving the quality of life might combine protecting wild-
life habitat with construction of nature trails to provide hik-
ing and walking benefits. Goals to improve ecosystems
can include both present and future generations—that is,
the ecological legacy the community wants to leave its
children and grandchildren.
Tying goals to indicators, or specific measures of how well
the community is achieving its goals, is a concrete way to
determine progress and to modify and adjust the process
overtime. For example, measuring community progress
in protecting aquatic species might involve counting the
number of wading birds in the area. Specifically, the com-
munity could seek to double the wading bird population by
the year 2000. Measuring the economic health of the com-
munity might involve tracking employment in eco-tourism
businesses with a goal such as 50 percent growth in local
eco-tourist business by the year 2000.
By stating goals in concrete, measurable terms, the com-
munity ensures that it can objectively assess the project's
progress. The use of such indicators is discussed in more
detail in Chapters 3 and 5.
As more and more stakeholders join the effort, the com-
munity may need to go through the goal development pro-
cess more than once. The period after the assessment,
planning, and execution of a particular ecosystem protec-
tion project provides an opportunity to reevaluate whether
the community is meeting goals, using indicators, and
whetherthese goals indeed represent the priorities of the
community. If not, then the strategies chosen may not be
effective and the underlying goals may not be relevant
10
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and realistic. Ultimately, the community may want to un-
dertake anothergoals development session.
Unless key community members participate in setting
goals, the goals produced won't legitimately reflect the
wishes of the community as a whole. Goal setting works
best when participants are an inclusive group.
2.3 References
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, People,
Places, and Partnerships: A Progress Report on Com-
munity Based Environmental Protection, EPA-100-R-
97-003, Office of the Administrator, Washington, DC
July, 1997a.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Community-
Based Environmental Protection: A Resource Book
for Protecting Ecosystems and Communities, EPA
230-B-96-003 Office of Policy, Planning, and Evalua-
tion, Washington, DC, September 1997b.
U.S. EPA Home page: http://www.epa.gov/epahome/
general.htm
Checklist for a Green Community
A Green Community Strives to:
Environmentally
Comply with environmental regulations
Practice waste minimization and pollution prevention
Conserve Natural Resources through sustainable land use
Economically
• Promote diverse, locally owned and operated sustainable businesses (profitable, nonpolluting, socially
responsible)
• Provide adequate affordable housing
• Promote mixed-use residential areas which provide for open space
• Promote economic equity
Socially
Actively involve citizens from all sectors of the community through open, inclusive public outreach
efforts
Ensure that public actions are sustainable, while incorporating local values and historical and cultural
considerations
Create and maintain safe, clean neighborhoods and recreational facilities for all
Provide adequate and efficient infrastructure (such as land, water, sewers, ... communication and en-
ergy systems) that protects public health and the environment, and transportation systems that accom-
modate broad public access including bike and pedestrian paths.
Ensure equitable and effective educational and health-care systems.
Source: www.epa.gov/region03/greenkit/indicator.htm
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3 Overview of Environmental Visioning
3.1 Introduction
Environmental visioning is a set of steps by which mem-
bers of a group or community gather their ideas about a
preferred condition (e.g. environmental health), formulate
goals and come up with strategies for achieving the goals.
These steps are a part of the overall Community-Based
Environmental Planning (CBEP), discussed in Chapter2,
that builds the environmental vision and takes the actions
necessary to move the community towards its preferred
state.The environmental visioning process brings together
community stakeholders from public, private and civic
sectors to discuss local concerns, layout alternative fu-
tures, and draw short and long term plans for the commu-
nity. The success of environmental visioning projects de-
pends on the participation and commitment of stakeholder.
Environmental visioning engages community members in
assessing the current state of the environment, in visual-
izing a preferred state, and in proposing a practical meth-
odology for moving towards the preferred state. A number
of community meetings may be used for brainstorming,
shaping ideas into goals, and setting strategies (EPA,
1994).
3.2 Evolution of Environmental Visioning
In many ways communities have always practiced some
sort of forecasting to predict future trends and to allocate
future resources such as demand for utilities.Traditionally,
this process has been implemented by local government
agencies, but it did not often reflect the context of prob-
lems across the entire community. With communities be-
coming increasingly diverse in every way and the deci-
sion-making power being more widely and thinly distrib-
uted, communities will be forced to employ inclusive ap-
proaches such as the process of environmental visioning.
The concept of environmental visioning is often thought of
as relatively a new idea. However, one of the most suc-
cessful environmental visioning projects was started in
Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1969. In 1969, Chattanooga
was named the most polluted city in the country with air
pollution reducing visibility and increasing rates of respira-
tory illness.To address the problem, local leaders formed
the Chattanooga-Hamilton County Air Pollution Control
Board. The Board set pollution reduction goals and en-
sured that they were met. In 1990, Chattanooga was one
of the few cities across the country in compliance with all
national ambient air quality standards and on Earth Day
was named "the best turnaround story" in the nation.The
Chattanooga story is told in further detail in the "Chatta-
nooga: A Sustainable Community" case study presented
in this chapter.
More and more communities are employing environmen-
tal visioning to achieve a sustainable mix of residential,
commercial and industrial development that ensures the
long-term well-being of their communities. EPA has docu-
mented several case studies of ongoing community-based
visioning efforts to support sustainable development.These
studies include:
The Franklin Land Trust (Ashfield, Massachusetts)
has protected 11 rural and farmland sites through
innovative partnerships with farmers, state agen-
cies, and other farmland preservation groups.
Sustainable Urban/Rural Enterprise (SURE) is a
civic nonprofit corporation promoting the dual goals
of economic development and environmental stew-
ardship for the City of Richmond, Indiana and
Wayne County.
Dunn, Wisconsin implemented a land use plan in
orderto preserve the town's rural integrity, protect
natural habitat, conserve resources, preserve open
space and maintain farming as the town's primary
economic activity. The plan included growth con-
trol measures through zoning restrictions, lot size
limits, conservation easements and the purchase
of development rights.
• The Groundwater Guardian Program is a project
started by the Groundwater Foundation (Lincoln,
Nebraska), which helps communities promote
knowledge about groundwater issues and institute
local groundwater protection programs.
These and other case studies are presented in furtherdetail
on EPA "Green Communities website" on the Internet
(www. epa.gov/region03/greenkit).
3.3 Key Features of Environmental
Visioning in the CBEP Context
A healthy environment, vibrant economy, and high quality
of life are desirable goals. However, communities often
approach these three goals separately. The CBEP pro-
12
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cess emphasizes all three simultaneously and addresses
the following questions:
1. Where are we now?
Before goals and objectives can be set, a com-
munity must assess its current condition.The first
question in CBEP process—"Where are we
now?"—is geared towards characterizing the cur-
rent condition of the community and assessing
its strengths and weaknesses. When reviewing the
current condition of the community, it is impor-
tant to look at economic, environmental and so-
cial conditions. Once an assessment is complete,
community members can then rank the problem
areas based on risk to the environment, quality of
life, and economic sustainability.
As discussed previously, the key to success in
the community assessment phase is involving the
right people.This effort will start small, as a plan-
ning team that seeks out local experts. The team
leading the assessment should be representative
of the entire community at large and include per-
sonnel knowledgeable on a variety of topics. In-
formation on involving the entire community in the
assessment phase is available in the CBEP re-
source book published by EPA on the Internet.
The boundaries of the study area can be defined
in several fashions. It can be defined in terms of
the problems to be addressed, a watershed bound-
ary or municipal limits.The boundaries of the study
are most critical in the data gathering process. If
the area is too small, problems which affect the
entire community may not be realized. Economic
and environmental problems often don't lend them-
selves to political boundaries.Therefore, the study
area should be chosen carefully so that issues to
be dealt with are clear.
2. Where are we going?
After completing the community assessment, the
baseline knowledge necessary to evaluate trends
and predict what is in store for the area of con-
cern in the near future should be available. The
task is to project the baseline data into the future
and learn "Where are we going?" This projection
includes evaluating socioeconomic trends, envi-
ronmental trends, civic participation trends, and
sustainability trends. Several case studies that
explain trend analysis are available from EPA in
the "Green Communities Tool Kit" on the Internet
(http://www. epa.gov/region03/greenkit/2tools. htm).
3. Where do we want to be?
Afterthe community assessment has been com-
pleted and current trends have been established,
the vision statement is established by answering
the question "where do we want to be?" By pro-
posing alternative futures and models of where
the community wants to be in 5, 10, 20 or more
years, the community can highlight its strengths
and weaknesses.This process can promote ideas
which will result in a vision statement. CIS is an
effective tool, particularly, for its use in this phase
of the environmental visioning process.
4. How do we get there?
Once action plans have been developed that will
direct the community towards a sustainable fu-
ture, the momentum should be maintained by
implementing 1 or 2 projects which will illustrate
that all this time and effort was not wasted. Early
success will bring long-term commitments and par-
ticipation necessary to sustain more difficult and
time-consuming projects.
5. How do we know that it works?
Benchmark may be established as indicators of
progress. They can be defined using the same
information compiled for environmental visioning.
For example, if the environmental vision includes
cleaning stream banks in few phases, these
phases would become benchmarks. Achieving one
benchmark at a time is indication of progress. The
environmental visioning process is summarized
in EPA Region Ill's "Green Community Flowchart"
as shown in Figure 3-1.
3.4 Environmental Visioning Tools
Environmental visioning is a process of expressing a pre-
ferred state that a community hopes to attain. Some of
the visual tools that are available to community members
for illustrating their vision, as well as other future alterna-
tives, are discussed below.
3.4.1 Graphic Tools
General data display methods, such as graphs,
charts, and tables, show trends and valuable sta-
tistical information. Also they are easily developed
using personal computers.
Maps of local cultural and natural resources. For
example, land use maps provide information on
current land use, which is basis for identifying
potentially developable areas, and for estimating
development impacts.
Regional and local planning maps, such as site
plans, renderings, and panoramas provide two- or
three-dimensional perspectives on current and
future landscapes.
Drawings and illustrations.This tool is particularly
useful for interactively changing illustrations and
can be used to visualize a particular feature for
discussion.
Photographs such as digital mapping. For ex-
ample, photographic images can be manipulated
13
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Chattanooga: A Sustainable Community
Chattanooga, Tennessee, a mid-sized city located along the Tennessee River just north of the Georgia
border, was not only voted the most polluted city in the United States in 1969, but faced the label of an
"invisible" city with no real image. Job layoffs, deteriorating city infrastructure, racial tensions, and social
division only compounded the pollution problems. Recognizing these serious problems, a few visionary
community leaders created Chattanooga Venture - a nonprofit organization with the goal of full participation
from the community in cleaning up their city environmentally, socially, and economically.
Chattanooga Venture designed and implemented a project called "Vision 2000" which brought together over
1700 people to take part in city planning over a four month period. The community participants were encour-
aged to dream of what they wanted their community to be and to organize these dreams into a formal list.
Diverse groups of community members united and literally used brown paper and markers as they brainstormed,
debated, categorized and organized their concerns.
The result was a set of 40 goals for the city to achieve by the year 2000. The goals were categorized
according to future alternatives, places, people, work, play and government. The action led to 223 projects
and programs with an investment in the community of over $800 million, that varied in scope but all worked
to create a sustainable community. Chattanooga Venture has also compiled a step-by-step guide for other
communities to use in the visioning process.
Environmental problems were the impetus forthe community-wide actions that led to the creation of several
public/private partnerships.
The Environmental City Project-working for expansion or relocation of nonpolluting industries, retention
of sound environmental businesses, and fostering environmental awareness.
The Chattanooga Environmental Initiative - strives to make the city a national center for environmental
information and business and create a zero emissions industrial park.
The Tennessee River Gorge Trust- protects 25,000 acres of land.
Electric bus technology-Chattanooga maintains the largest fleet of free electric buses in the country.
The Greenways Planning Project, which is creating a network of protected space and linear parkways
through eight counties.
More information is available on the Internet at www.Chattanooga.net
to show different design features or alternative • Multimedia software uses a combination of corn-
developments in an urban (town center) orsubur- puter animation, video, and audio data, to create
ban setting These provide a means for highlight- a highly sophisticated, computer presentation
ing features of interest in a community vision. Digi- stored on a compact disc.
tal imaging, which combines emerging photo-
graphic technology with manipulations by com- • Virtual Reality provides a visual experience using
puters, is a great tool for communities wishing to imaginary data, by using computer software, a
visualize alternative futures. head-mounted display with miniature screens, and
movement-sensitive gloves.
3.4.2 Software Tools
• Geographic Information Systems (CIS) software 3.5 Steinitz Framework for Environmental
is a powerful tool that can gather, analyze, and Planning and Evaluating Alternative
integrate nearly any combination of data (e.g., Futures
census tract information, natural resources, and Overview
infrastructure) and print the data in maps or dis- ~ ,. , . . ^ * u ^
play them on computer screens. °ver the Past decadf'a "umbfr ° researfers and prac~
^ * ^ titioners have established protocols and frameworks for
14
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conducting ecosystem planning efforts. A large portion of
the research has been devoted to the representation of
the problem as a multi-objective mathematical optimiza-
tion model, and the application of efficient solution tech-
niques to obtain an optimal solution (Gershon and
Duckstein, 1983). Instead of looking for an optimal solu-
tion, another body of research has focused on generating
diverse alternatives within the planning constraints (Brill,
1979; Kshirsagar, 1983). An application of such techniques
to land use planning has been discussed by Kshirsagar
and Brill (1984).
Steinitz (1993) has developed and employed a technique,
referred to as the 'Steinitz Framework,'which has proven
successful in instituting the visioning process.The Steinitz
Framework is provided here as a guide for structuring an
environmental visioning effort. A similar framework in the
context of watershed analysis has been proposed by Mont-
gomery etal., (1995).
There are structural similarities among critical phases and
milestones addressed in designing environmental, land-
scape, and ecological projects (Steinitz, 1993). Based on
these similarities, Steinitz presented six project phases,
known as the "Steinitz Framework" (Steinitz, 1993), through
which ecological projects pass both during early stages in
defining the project scope and methodology, and later to-
wards implementation and project conclusion (Figure 3-2).
The six phases of the Steinitz Framework are discussed
below in the context of environmental planning.The name
of each phase includes the word "models" to emphasize
the fact that a variety of models (methods) is available to
achieve the end-result of that phase. One or more of these
models can be used in each phase.These phases together
address the basic questions raised by the CBEP in Sec-
tion 3.3.
Basic Questions Addressed in Community-
Based Environmental Planning (CBEP)
Where are we now? - Develop a community
profile based on a self-assessment.
Where are we going? - Formulate a trend
statement based on important economic, so-
cial and environmental trends.
Where do we want to be? - Develop a com-
munity vision statement.
How do we get there? - Develop community
action plans.
How do we know if it is working? - Estab-
lish benchmarks as indicators of progress
Advantages of CBEP-based
Environmental Visioning
The primary advantages are:
Greater depth and breadth of issues that are
addressed
Involvement of the full community
Fostering of environmental stewardship in all
local decisions
As communities work toward sustainable solu-
tions, they realize that they can achieve a mix of
residential, commercial, and industrial develop-
ment that ensures the long-term well being of
the community - both economically and envi-
ronmentally. The environmental visioning process
strives to be non-adversarial, to build construc-
tively on differences, and to achieve a strong
community-based consensus.
Representation Models
The first step in any environmental planning project is to
characterize the initial or current state in content, bound-
ary, space, and time. All natural and cultural systems are
characterized during this phase. These include, but are
not limited to, hydrology, geology, land cover/use, topog-
raphy, biodiversity, fires, roads and public ownership. Rep-
resentation of landscape is best done with visualization
techniques. For example, maps and pictures give good
visual sense of the landscape. CIS provides tools for put-
ting together layers of information about the landscape's
natural and cultural systems, and for displaying them vi-
sually on computer screens or on printed maps.
Process Models
Once the pertinent elements of landscape are character-
ized, their structural and functional relationships can be
studied to describe how the landscape operates.This phase
includes modeling key processes and their relationship
with other interacting processes. Typical processes include
physical, such as hydrology and geology; biological, such
as vegetation and wild life; and cultural, such as land use
and management practices.
Evaluation Models
This phase evaluates how well the current landscape is
functioning. First, some measures of judgement are es-
tablished for rating performance from least to most desir-
able, based on the benefits and pitfalls of each scenario.
Then the current landscape and the state of its elements
are evaluated using the performance standards. For ex-
ample, a survey on visual preference could indicate how
well the visual landscape is functioning. Alternatively, a
study on the patterns of precipitation, stream hydrographs
15
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A Green Community
Where are we
now?
Community
Profile
i
r
: Environmental
Self
Assessment
Where are we
going?
Trend
Statement
Where do we
want to be?
Vision
Statement
I—f Visioning J—I
How do we
get there?
Action
Plan
Action Plan
Let's Go!
Implementation
Plan
How are we doing?
Measures of Success
Public Economic
Participation Profile
Trends
i Environmental
i Socio-Economic
i Demographic
I
Alternate
Futures
i Keep Simple
i Graphics
i Flexible
Planned Full
Build-Out
Probable
Scenarios
I
Risk Management
Environmental
Solution
Projects/
Planned Activities
(Incremental Success)
Community
Participation
and
Feedback
Community
Participation
Case
Studies
Celebrate
Completion •*-
of
Visioning
Economic
Community Involvement
Portions reprinted with permission of the Oregon Visions Project.
Figure 3-1. Green community flow chart (source: http://www.epa.gov/region03/greenkit).
and flooding, could be used to evaluate stream performance
related to flooding.
Change Models
Predictable changes in landscape are based on current
trends, such as demographic changes, urban development,
and deforestation. Changes may also be proposed to re-
flect community needs. These changes can be modeled
using cultural parameters, such as, growth and develop-
ment plans; or natural process, such as hydrologic and
drought cycles. Using several scenarios of land develop-
ment policies, as well as other cultural and natural changes,
produces a number of alternative scenarios.
Impact Models
Process models are used to simulate changes and pre-
dict the impacts resulting from such changes. This phase
provides information about the alternative futures of the
landscape. In any given area, the physical processes (e.g.,
hydrology, biology, and geology) affect each other. For
example, high-density land developments traditionally in-
crease pavements and contiguous hard surfaces resulting
in high runoff from precipitation and less infiltration. This
process results in a reduction of soil moisture, erosion of
stream banks, and decline in vegetation growth.Thus, tra-
ditional land developments not only affect the hydrologic
process, but also impact some biological processes that
thrive on soil moisture and vegetation health. Thus, the
impacts of land development and deforestation on
biodiversity or hydrologic processes may constitute one
aspect of the study. At this stage, the impacts from sev-
eral change scenarios are studied to yield a number of
alternative futures.
Decision Models
A comparative analysis of the predicted changes and their
impacts on the landscape presents decision makers with
the opportunity to make informed decisions on what
changes should (not) happen in order to reach the pre-
ferred alternative future. Adequate information is required
in orderto reach healthy decisions.
16
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I \
*
Reeogni ze
Context
Fferfonri
Study
Time (-)
How should the
landscape be
described?
How does the
landscape
operate?
ts the landscape
working well?
How might the
landscape be
altered?
What differences
might the changes
cause?
Should the landscape
be changed? How is
the decision to be
made?
REPRESENTATION
MODELS
II PROCESS
MODELS
II EVALUATION
MODELS
IV CHANGE
MODELS
V IMPACT
MODELS
VI DECISION
MODELS
Specify
Method
Changej
Scde
Figure 3-2. Steinitz's framework for landscape planning (source: http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/brc/maps/fig_5.html).
17
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3.6 References
Brill, E.D., Jr., The Use of Optimization Models in
Public Sector Planning, Management Science 25(5),
1979.
Gershon, M. and L. Duckstein, Multiobjective Ap-
proaches to River Basin Planning, Journal of Water
Resources Planning and Management, American So-
ciety of Civil Engineers, 109(1): 13-28,1983.
Kshirsagar, S.R., Ideation and Evaluation in Environ-
mental Planning, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Illi-
nois, Urbana, 1983.
Kshirsagar, S.R. and E.D. Brill Jr., Ideation and Evalu-
ation Methods Applied to Landuse Planning, Environ-
ment and Planning B, 11:313,1984.
Montgomery, D.R., G.E. Grant, and K. Sullivan, Wa-
tershed Analysis as a Framework for Implementing
Ecosystem Management, Water Resources Bulletin,
American Water Resources Association, 31(3):369-
386,1995.
National Civic League, The Community Visioning and
Strategic Planning Handbook, NCL Press, Denver,
Colorado, 1997.
Steinitz, Carl, Geographical Information Systems: A
Personal Historical Perspective, The Framework For
A Recent Project, (And Some Questions For The Fu-
ture); European Conference on Geographic Informa-
tion Systems, Genoa, Italy, March 30,1993.
Sumner, Richard, and David Hulse, EPA Research is
Helping Communities Achieve Their Desired Vision of
the Future, Watershed Management CouncilNetworker,
Fall 1997, 7(3): 10-11,19.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmen-
tal Planning for Small Communities: A Guide for Local
Decision-Makers, EPA/625/R-94/009, Washington, DC,
1994.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Con-
ference on Environmental Problem-Solving with Geo-
graphic Information Systems, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, DC, September 1995.
Application of the Steinitz Framework in the Snyderville Basin, Utah
The Snyderville Basin, Utah, is located east of the highly developed Great Salt Lake Valley. The population
in the area is approximately 10,000, who depend on agriculture and recreation as major economic activities.
With world class ski resorts, such as Park City and Deer Valley, one of the most valued attributes of the
county is its open landscape. Population growth in the Salt Lake Valley is expected to expand to the Snyderville
area, threatening the environmental quality of the county.
In orderto understand the extent of the problem, a CIS representation of the area was established. It included
digital representation of terrain elevations, land cover, and land ownership.The CIS data, in addition to other
non-GIS information, made a basis for evaluation of the current state of the ecosystem. Potential changes in
the environment were simulated using current growth and development trends, and their impacts on the
natural resources were estimated.The CIS provided tools for integrating geographic and descriptive informa-
tion, and for presenting changes and their impacts in visual outputs, such as maps.
Five alternative futures were considered forthe basin, in orderto minimize infrastructure developments and
their impact on the environment. All of the futures require public management of growth and development in
the area.
Source: http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/brc/framework/snyderville_basin.html
18
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4 CIS-Based Environmental Visioning
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Definition of a GIS
A GIS is a computerized, integrated system used to com-
pile store, manipulate, and output mapped spatial data
associated with a particular geographic area or region.The
incorporation of geographic information into a GIS sup-
ports a wide range of analyses and promotes the use of
these data to better understand the characteristics of the
region under a wide range of management and/or develop-
ment scenarios.
Although a GIS can be used to create maps, it is impor-
tant to recognize that a GIS in itself is not just a map-
making system, nor does it always attempt to provide an
exact replication of all mapped data. A GIS contains ana-
lytical tools that also allow the user to identify the spatial
relationships between map features. It utilizes the com-
puterized representation of these features to provide the
input data to a wide range of process, impact, and evalua-
tion models. It also serves as the receptor for the output
of these models and analytical tools to display impacts
and results of development/management scenarios in both
a graphical and tabular fashion.
4.1.2 History of a GIS
Engineers, landscape architects, and planners have long
utilized some of the fundamental techniques such as manu-
ally created overlays, embodied within a GIS, long before
the advent of computerized capabilities and data manage-
ment systems. The advent of computers has increased
the ease, complexity, and speed of completing such analy-
ses.
Much in the evolution of GIS can be traced to the early to
mid 1960s. For example, Howard Fisher at Harvard Uni-
versity invented two early GIS tools, SYMAP and SYMVU,
which combined early data storage techniques in asso-
ciation with chloropleth plotting (SYMAP) and vector plot-
ting techniques (SYMVU). These systems were used to
display individual and combined characteristics stored in
a digital database to better understand the interaction and
consequences of various terrestrial parameters.
Significant increase in the use of GIS techniques began in
the early 1970s, improving upon the capabilities inherent
in SYMAP/SYMVU.The PIOS system in San Diego (which
became the forerunner of ESRI's ARC/INFO technology),
Maryland's 'MAC1'system, efforts by Dr. RogerTomlinson
in Canada, and the application of the Aerial Design and
Planning Tool (ADAPT) System statewide in Kentucky and
Ohio are examples of some of these pioneering efforts.
In the United States, major environmental programs were
often drivers forthe development and implementation of a
GIS. For example, the Clean Water Act Amendments re-
quired the completion of basin-wide planning efforts under
Section 303(e), area wide waste water management and
planning under Section 208, and local facilities' plans un-
der Section 201 .The GIS capabilities, developed and ap-
plied in response to these needs, incorporated spatial da-
tabase elements and integrated analytical models for rain-
fall runoff modeling, sewer design and costing, and water
quality impact analysis.
In addition, GIS graphical display capabilities were used
to show the impact of alternative development and man-
agement scenarios. Similarly, the programs and regula-
tions developed in response to Section 502 of the Surface
Mining Control Act required the development of land use
plans associated with surface mining activities. This act
also provided funding for regional and statewide planning
efforts that was used to develop GIS capabilities to sup-
port the needs of sound environmental development and
management of our nation's coal resources.
Although the application of GIS for environmental prob-
lems and issues has spanned at least 30 years, it was not
until the 1980s, with the advent and broad utilization of
microcomputer capabilities, that GIS technology and ap-
plications have accelerated.The rapid and expanded use
of GIS is stimulated by a wide range of issues supported,
both by the public and private sector due to:
• Reductions in the cost of hardware and software
• Efficiency in the development of the spatial data-
base component (generally the most expensive
element) in the application of GIS technology)
Several processes within CBEP and environmental vision-
ing are very important from the perspective that they can,
will, and do benefit from GIS applications.
4.1.3 Organization of This Chapter
The advent of environmental visioning, CBEP, watershed
analysis, risk management and analysis, and related ac-
tivities, have made comprehensive and efficient use of
19
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GIS in the efforts to reduce the synergistic impacts of
pollutants, and adopt pollutant management strategies.To
illustrate the use of CIS in supporting these efforts, this
chapter:
Provides an overview of the various CIS compo-
nents
Identifies some of the benefits/pitfalls of CIS ap-
plications
Summarizes existing approaches to CIS-based
environmental visioning and highlights such ap-
proaches in several example case studies.
4.2 Components of a GIS
The three components of a GIS from a systems perspec-
tive are: (1) data, (2) hardware and, (3) software.
4.2.1 GIS Data
GIS data are stored in two complementary forms: geo-
graphic and descriptive. Geographic data include the ge-
ometry of physical features, such as sizes and shapes,
and include such elements as political boundaries, soil
boundary, roads, rivers, and buildings. Descriptive data
are typically stored in tabular forms and contain informa-
tion about physical features and their relationships. For
example, when representing a lake, the boundaries of the
lake are stored with geographic reference, such as lati-
tude and longitude. Descriptive data about the lake, such
as name, water quality, list of recreational activities, and
standards and regulatory policies are stored in tabular
forms. Descriptive data are usually coded so that they
can be linked to the corresponding physical features.There-
fore, a mouse click on a lake brings to the screen tabular
information on the physical characteristics of the lake.
Common suppliers of data are local, state, and federal
government agencies and private suppliers. The typical
data sources are global positioning system (GPS) data
and remote-sensing data, which are discussed in further
detail in the following subsections.
4.2.1.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) Data
The Global Positioning System (GPS) provides the means
to determine the latitude and the longitude of any position
on the earth using a GPS receiver. The GPS is a set of
satellites that transmit radio signals to GPS receivers for
locating the position of the receiver. (Diggelen, 1994).The
GPS technology is increasingly used for obtaining geo-
graphically referenced data in many applications, includ-
ing GIS.
A GPS signal is a code modulated in a carrier radio wave.
Each satellite transmits the signal in two frequencies so
that errors introduced in the signal as it passes through
the ionosphere are corrected. In order to determine the
latitude, longitude, altitude, and time, a receiver should
get signals from at least four satellites. The more signals
received and processed the better the accuracy.
GPS receivers have a wide range of accuracy. The U.S.
Air Force, which controls the GPS satellites, deliberately
introduces noise, known as Selective Availability (SA), to
GPS signals so that a single receiver (field) for civilian
use has a positional accuracy of 100 meters. Using a sec-
ond GPS receiver (reference), located at a position with
known geographic coordinates, can significantly reduce
SA. The reference GPS receiver uses the knowledge of
its position to correct not only SA, but also other errors
related to the atmosphere, clock, and orbit of the satel-
lites.This correction method called differential GPS (DGPS)
results in sub-meter accuracy. DGPS can be made in real-
time through radio communication between the reference
and field receivers. Alternatively, corrections can be made
after data collection through a process known as post-
processing. The prices of GPS receivers and their func-
tional capabilities change with the intended use. For ex-
ample, a recreational GPS costs a few hundred dollars, a
GPS/GIS may cost several thousand dollars, and a Sur-
vey/GPS can cost up to $50,000. The following categories
are common uses and characteristics of GPS receivers:
Recreation—Portable, stand-alone, few channels,
no data logging, 100-meter accuracy
Navigation—Differential, 1-meter accuracy, spe-
cialized navigation features
GIS—Portable, differential, 1-meter accuracy, data
logging capability, software interface
Survey/Geodesy—Portable, differential, dual fre-
quency, centimeter accuracy, data logging capa-
bility
Military applications require receivers with high
accuracy
GPS/GIS receivers are generally portable weighing one
kilogram (hand-held units) or 3 kilograms (backpack units).
Some receivers store only coordinates of positions, while
others can also record attributes in 3-level hierarchical
structures.
4.2.1.2 Remote Sensing Data
Remote sensing is a method of gathering information about
an object without physical contact (Campbell, 1987). The
information is obtained by recording the electromagnetic
radiation reflected or emitted by the object. Some remote
sensors, such as radiometers, produce data points while
others scan a surface (e.g., earth) and produce images.
The latter group is referred to as imaging sensors. Satel-
lite images and aerial photographs are examples of com-
monly used data from imaging sensors.
The most commonly used remote sensing data comes
from satellite systems, airborne systems, and ground-
based systems. Each system has advantages and short-
comings in the following areas:
20
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Spatial resolution
Spatial resolution is defined as the smallest ob-
ject that can be identified in an image. Generally,
it depends on the sensor altitude and field of view
(FOV). Satellite data has low resolutions varying
from five meters to kilometers, although efforts
are directed towards achieving higher resolutions.
Airborne systems offer higher resolution since air-
craft altitude is lower. Spatial resolutions in the
order of centimeters can be obtained with airborne
sensors.
Spectral channels
Remote sensors use filters that are sensitive to
narrow bands of the radiation spectrum.The break-
down of the total radiation into small bands is im-
portant for studying different types of objects.
Some bands are useful for studying water, others
provide information about air, vegetation, soils,
rocks, etc. For example, combinations of some
bands, known as vegetation indices, provide valu-
able information about vegetation health, plant
stress, and potential yield of a crop. Sensors that
measure radiation in a number of fine bands are
useful for a wide range of studies.
Radiometric quality
The quality of radiometric data gathered by a sen-
sor is affected by several factors. Radiometric
resolution is the detail in radiometric values (digi-
tal numbers) and depends on the sensortype. For
example, a 7-bit system has a range of 128 val-
ues (shades) for each pixel (unit of image), while
an 8-bit system provides 256 values forthe same
pixel.
Another factor that affects the radiometric quality
is the atmosphere. Atmospheric material (e.g.,
gases, clouds, and water vapor) between a satel-
lite sensor and the surface of the earth can affect
the quality of the satellite image by attenuating
radiation or reflecting and emitting into the sen-
sor.
Ground coverage
Ground coverage is the geographic area that an
image covers. For example, a satellite image may
cover a large area of 100 kilometers by 60 kilo-
meters, while a typical image from an airborne
system would cover an area of 3 kilometers by 2
kilometers. A large number of images may be pro-
cessed if an airborne system is used for studies
covering large areas.
Flexibility
Flexibility in timing and location of data acquisi-
tion is important for many projects. For example,
with airborne systems, you can decide where,
when and how often to collect data, and at what
altitudes (with limitations). Satellite systems do
not offer such flexibility.
4.2.2 GIS Hardware
Computer hardware used to support GIS is a highly vari-
able part of the overall system. A fully functional GIS must
contain hardware to support data input, output, storage,
retrieval, display, and analysis.
GIS data and databases are sometimes so huge that it
takes minutes just to display, and hours to make an analy-
sis. Users should customize their hardware environment
to best meet their own individual needs.
A typical GIS unit is composed of a computer worksta-
tion, printer, plotter, and digitizing table.The workstation is
desirably equipped with a high-speed processor, large stor-
age capacity, and a high-resolution color monitor. Getting
high-speed processors and high-resolution monitors can
improve the efficiency of the presentations. However, high-
end products cost more than low-end products and a bal-
ance between cost and performance should be consid-
ered. In addition, simplified fast GIS products are far more
effective with local organizations.
4.2.3 GIS Software
Software is a combination of computer programs, routines,
and symbolic languages that control and operate computer
hardware, or manipulate data. There are two classes of
software in a GIS environment. The first is the operating
system software, which is designed to allow communica-
tion between the computer and the user. The operating
system controls the flow of data, the application of other
How to Detect Environmental Changes Using
Remote Sensing
• Define scope of change detection
- Study area
- Frequency of change (e.g., seasonal, year)
- Change indicators (classes of vegetation, soil,
etc.)
• Process and classify multiple-date digital images
of the area with similar
- Spatial resolution
- Spectral channels
- Radiometric quality
- Atmospheric conditions
- Phenological considerations
• Perform CIS-based analysis
- Change detection
- Statistical analysis
More information is available on the Internet site:
http://www.geog.nottingham.ac.uk/~dee/ceo/
chdetect/rssec.html
21
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How to Map Industrial and Urban Air Pollution Using Remote Sensing
Air pollutants released by industrial and urban sites may be mapped by using the Light Detection and Range
(LIDAR) finding technology. LIDAR is an instrument that measures the reflection and scattering of infrared
pulses aimed at an object (e.g., clouds, gases).
Fluxes of SO2, NO2, and Hg released into the atmosphere by industrial plants can be measured using the
differential absorption LIDAR (DIAL). The concentrations of these gases can be shown both vertically and
horizontally, to identify the most vulnerable areas.
For more information, visit the Internet site:
http://atompc2.fysik.lth.se/AFDOCS/progrep/html/30.htm
programs, the organization and management of files, and
the display of information.
The second class of software is the CIS software, which
includes programs and tools that provide an interface be-
tween users and their geographic data. These tools in-
clude those used for entering, manipulating, analyzing, and
displaying CIS data. As a user submits a request by click-
ing on a mouse, or entering a command on a keyboard,
CIS software interprets the request and executes a set of
commands to produce the results.The unique method of
storing and manipulating data differentiates CIS from other
drafting or cartographic software.
4.2.3.1 GIS Database Software
A GIS must allow the operator to: (1) incorporate (import)
data from outside sources, (2) easily update and alter data,
and (3) ask data-related questions of (or query) the data-
base. The database management system (DBMS) soft-
ware, that is a part of a typical GIS, provides these capa-
bilities. In orderto store and manipulate data, DBMS uses
a data model, such as the hierarchical, network, and rela-
tional data models. The hierarchical data model consists
of an ordered set of trees, organizing the data into child-
parent structures.The network model is based on two sets
of data, a set of records and a set of links. Network data-
bases are complex, and can be regarded as an extended
form of the hierarchical databases, since they use mul-
tiple child-parent relationship structures.
The relational model, which is the most widely used data
model, is based on the mathematics of set theory. The
basic model consists of three parts: data structures, known
as tables or relations, rules for data integrity, and data
manipulation operators. A relational DBMS (RDBMS) al-
lows for easy data entry and manipulation, provides fast
query and display, and maintains data integrity and secu-
rity. All GIS packages use some type of database forstor-
ing and maintaining data.
4.2.4 Models
A model is an abstraction of reality designed to achieve a
specific goal. Models can be classified into conceptual
models and mathematical/computer models. "There are
some very generic, conceptual models that will help kindle
the visioning process. One such model is rooted in con-
servation biology. It depicts the importance of conserving
those landscape patches that are relatively intact and en-
vironmentally significant (e.g., refugia). Another concep-
tual model of great importance is rooted in landscape ecol-
ogy. It depicts landscapes as being comprised of various
pathways for the movement of energy and materials (e.g.,
source areas, channels, and sinks).Therefore, in orderto
conserve our valued, ecologically significant patches, we
must protect other patches and corridors that serve as
their source, channel, and sink areas. Landscape design
and environmental visioning can proceed using these
models as initial assumptions." (Sumner, 1998).
Mathematical models use equations and formulas for es-
timating results.They are useful in simulating various sce-
narios and events and in predicting current and future im-
pacts. A GIS provides tools for developing models or cre-
ating interface for existing models. For example, existing
hydrologic, hydraulicand waterquality models can enhance
a GIS by increasing its capacity to simulate flooding, to
estimate stream bank erosion, and to predict pollutant load-
ing.
The broad categorization of models is presented to dispel
the notion that models are necessarily complex "things"
that are implemented in computer software. This categori-
zation of models into conceptual and mathematical is not
the only one. For example, Steinitz (1993) classified mod-
els into six groups, according to their use in landscape
planning. McAllister et al., (1996) provide a conceptual
framework for synoptic assessment of the Prairie Pothole
Region (PPR) as a rapid assessment technique for cases
in which time, resources, and information are limited. An-
other conceptual framework adopted by public agencies
across the Northwest for watershed management and na-
tive fish recovery has been published by the Pacific Riv-
ers Council (1996).
22
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How to Create Process Models
The "process models" used in evaluating the ecological effects of "alternative futures" often are associational.
Many vision ing projects start with a classification and characterization of land cover within a study area (e.g.,
forest, agriculture, high-density urban, low density urban).
Environmental attributes then are assigned to each class. The level of effort afforded to characterization can
range from using the best professional judgement (BPJ) to empirically derived data. When following the simple
BPJ or rule-based approach, for example, land cover can be simply associated with higher versus lower
wildlife function. Likewise, some classes can be associated with high and low water quality. Each alternative
future represents a relative change (acreage) in the various patches of land cover, with corresponding (shift)
effect on a given assessment endpoint (wildlife, water quality) - and from there we get into the "evaluation" and
"change" models"( Sumner, 1998).
4.2.5 Outputs
Output data from CIS can be presented in several forms
including maps, graphs, tables and animated displays.
Maps are usually paper-based medium on which images
are drawn. Examples of CIS maps include topographic
maps, road maps, and land cover/land use maps. Graphs
are charts used to compare data elements or show tem-
poral or spatial trends. CIS provides methods for summa-
rizing data into graphs. Tables are the basis of a database,
and illustrate information in columns and rows. They can
be used for creating graphs. CIS products outputs can
also be displayed in an animated manner. For example, a
set of digital maps or graphs can be "set in motion" to
display temporal changes.
4.3 Benefits/Pitfalls of GIS Applications
This section will highlight some of the benefits and pitfalls
with a GIS application, particularly as they relate to the
environmental visioning process. This list is not meant to
be all-inclusive but does identify the key elements of GIS
application that need to be considered by all users. Users
must be aware of the full range of benefits and opportuni-
ties that can be realized through the application of this
technology, to reap the maximum benefits.
4.3.1 Benefits
The important benefit of a GIS application to environmen-
tal visioning is its inherent ability to support the incorpora-
tion and analysis of all spatial data essential to the com-
plete integrated environmental decision-making process.
The integration of data, models and perspectives for rep-
resentation of a desired community is inherent in the envi-
ronmental visioning and CBEP approach.
A GIS provides the uniformity of data usage and the flex-
ibility to test and evaluate multiple scenarios that will pre-
clude these arguments from interfering with the decision-
making process. Use of a common database takes out
the differences in presentation, evaluation, and decision
making, based on using different forms and types of data.
A GIS provides the opportunity to conduct sensitivity analy-
ses appropriate for the level of accuracy of the input data.
This allows the engineers, planners, elected officials, and
the public in general to focus on the impacts and analysis
of alternatives, as opposed to arguments over the accu-
racy of the data being utilized in the analysis. Visual out-
puts, available through use of GIS technology, can be used
to present maps, overlays, and three-dimensional depic-
tions of alternative environmental and ecosystem man-
agement scenarios.
Clearly, one of the decided benefits and advantages of the
GIS technology is to enhance the communication of infor-
mation, outputs, and decision-making materials to a wide
range of decision-makers. Application of a GIS can sig-
nificantly reduce time and monetary constraints, and the
complexities associated with traditional, analytical, and
evaluation methodologies.
After the planning process and decision-making efforts
have been moved onto the implementation phase, the GIS
can continue to support the process by tracking the suc-
cess and/or failures associated with alternative strategies.
A GIS permits the tracking of plan performance and the
testing of new approaches, based on new parameters, new
information, and/or new conditions within or outside the
study area. Supporting the implementation process en-
hances the environmental visioning and CBEP process
and ensures a continually evolving ecosystem and envi-
ronmental management approach.
Thus, it is essential, when developing and applying a GIS,
that the capabilities for ongoing application and utilization
are incorporated within the decision-making group/organi-
zation. Such an ongoing staff/personnel commitment will
be required to take full advantage of the efforts initiated in
the initial visioning efforts.
4.3.2Pitfalls
Application of GIS technology has not been without its
stumbles, falls, and, unfortunately, some significant col-
lapses.The current stand-alone and various loose ortight
coupling approaches for integrating GIS with environmen-
tal modeling are essentially technology driven without ad-
23
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Delineate Effective Riparian Buffers Using GIS-based Models
CIS can be used to delineate an effective riparian buffer for protecting stream water quality from agricultural
chemicals and sediment loading. A riparian buffer is a vegetated patch along a stream or lakeshore. It has the
following advantages:
Protects stream/lake water quality by reducing direct sediment and chemical loading
Maintains stream bank integrity by reducing precipitation runoff and erosion
Enhances biodiversity and aquatic life
Buffer widths can either be assigned (e.g., 50-200 meters) or determined from Riparian Buffer Delineation
Equations (RBDE). Effective solutions can be obtained by using RBDE in a CIS environment.
More information can be obtained on the Internet at: (http:www.grida.no/prog/global/cgair/awpack/water.htm)
equately addressing the conceptual problems involved in
the integration (Sui, 1999).
Instead of being dictated by CIS technology, it is impera-
tive to evaluate the necessity for a CIS based on the size
of the study area as well as the nature of the solutions
that are required. For example, a small community of 5000
people may be interested in implementing CIS software to
integrate theirgeographic and local information, as well as
to serve as a platform for spatial visualization and analy-
sis for better community services, within a limited budget
and time frame. CIS application, for such a project, can
be out of reach due to constrained resources such as data,
software, time and staff expertise, unless help from exter-
nal agents such as federal and/orstate governments, aca-
demic and/or local institutions for hardware and human
resources is obtained.
The first issue faced for setting up a CIS is the substan-
tial time and cost required to compile the necessary data
and analyze the system's data. Improper applications of
CIS will result in costly time-consuming efforts of imple-
menting the CIS and training the personnel to operate it.
High initial costs will be incurred in purchasing the neces-
sary hardware, software, and for constant maintenance,
leading to difficulty in complying with the stringent time
and budget constraints.
CIS applications are disadvantageous when one fails to
1. Understand the requirements forthe vision in mind.
2. Define the tools (such as the extent of spatial vi-
sualization, the need of external models) that
would be required in orderto attain the vision. For
instance, if people fail to look carefully at the data
and explore the cartographic alternatives, they can
easily overlook interesting spatial trends or regional
groupings (Monmonier, 1996).
3. Select the right technology that would integrate
the required tools for better decision making. With
powerful computers and "user friendly" mapping
software, unintentional cartographic self decep-
tion can be inevitable (Monmonier, 1996).
Another major pitfall in developing a CIS relates to the
development of the database. The cost to develop a CIS
database rapidly accelerates with the application of the
CIS, thus exceeding the requirements of the problem(s)
at hand. Often this means capturing "potential"data, larger
than needed, resulting in the development of an extensive
CIS database, leading to tremendous expenditures that
may not be required. The "potential" data may not be con-
sistent with the modeling and analytical tools to be em-
ployed. Such an approach used is called a 'data-driven, or
bottom-up approach.
For example, in early CIS applications associated with
non-point source analysis, some CIS efforts stressed in-
corporation of soils series survey data from the U.S. Natu-
ral Resources Conservation Service, because soil series
maps were deemed to be "the best data available." As
soon as the data were encoded, after laborious and time-
consuming efforts, applications of erosion modeling based
on the Universal Soil Loss Equation immediately aggre-
gated the detailed information from the soils series into
data organized by soils association.
The 'bottom-up' approach caused large expenditure of
money to incorporate data into a format that was not used
in the analysis. Considerable money could have been saved
if soils'associations had been incorporated; recognizing
this level of detail was most appropriate to support the
analysis tools and the questions to be answered.
A more appropriate approach to selection and develop-
ment of a CIS database is a 'top-down'approach, based
on the following scenario:
24
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1) Define the problem that needs to be solved and
addressed.
2) Identify and select the tools (i.e., models, analyti-
cal capabilities) that will be used to generate the
alternative management scenarios for environmen-
tal visioning. The choice of development tools
strongly influences the user interface (Moser et
al.,1999).
3) Define the levels and types of data necessary to
support these tools and address the problem.
4) Incorporate these data into the CIS, and integrate
the CIS with the models.
This top-down approach, as opposed to the data-driven
bottom-up approach, is the most cost-effective and mean-
ingful way to establish a CIS to meet the needs of each
specific visioning application. However, this does lead to
a chicken and egg problem, where it is necessary to un-
derstand the details to select a "right" CIS tool, but the
detail requirements can be rapidly developed with a CIS.
This problem can be defused by developing a pre-imple-
mentation plan such as to
(i) Hold discussions with people who have been in
similar situations, and learn from their experience.
(ii) Hire CIS and planning experts who can draw upon
their experiences to recommend ways to build the
CIS or to select better CIS visioning tool.
(iii) Conduct a pilot plan study to carry out a cost analy-
sis to evaluate the time required to build the sys-
tem, cost of operating the system over an ex-
tended period, time savings using the system and
non-quantifiable benefits of CIS.
CIS capabilities greatly enhance the amount of informa-
tion, data, and analytical capabilities available to the deci-
sion-making group(s). In doing so, there is always the pos-
sibility that the capabilities of the CIS can create a sense
of'information overload'on the decision makers. The use
of a CIS must be tailored and targeted to the needs of
each decision-making group, so that the appropriate infor-
mation is presented in an understandable and meaningful
way.
Similarly, the technical complexity of using a CIS can
sometimes intimidate and confuse some of the stakehold-
ers and, thus, delay the decision-making process. Fortu-
nately, the application and acceptance of computer tools
has greatly increased in the last decade, and the histori-
cal fear of computers or misunderstanding of their appli-
cation has diminished.
The construction of a database, the application of model-
ing tools, and the acquisition of hardware and software to
support these efforts can be an expensive process. Im-
proper planning of a CIS application can result in expen-
sive investments, with little or no tangible outputs to con-
tribute to the environmental visioning and decision-mak-
ing process.
In the worst circumstances, the misapplication of a CIS
can frustrate and/or preclude the successful completion
of the process itself. The demands and capabilities of the
latest technology can hide the inadequacies and complexi-
ties of the simulation models. Hence, it is necessary to
hold a series of negotiations involving trade-offs between
clarity and capabilities of the interface, features of the simu-
lation model, and the time and effort required to develop a
good interface between the developers and client/users
(Moser etal., 1999).
One of the key detriments to the effective use of CIS tech-
nology is lack of adequately trained in-house human re-
sources. This issue has to be addressed early, and proper
measures, such as employee training, hiring experts, and
outsourcing, must be undertaken.
The final and important aspect of CIS application is bud-
getary control. Unfortunately, the 'bells and whistles of new
technology,'the temptation to incorporate more data and
information, and the ability to generate a wide range of
outputs can yield significant overruns in the proposed bud-
get. Thus, it is imperative that the top-down approach to
CIS development be employed and that only the required
data, models, and display tools be selected to meet the
specific problems and issues being addressed by the vi-
sioning process.
4.4 Existing Approaches to CIS-Based
Environmental Visioning
4.4.1 Quantitative
Quantitative analysis involves numerical measurement to
analyze a phenomenon. It is the most common approach
for studying directly observable processes. Some of the
issues addressed during an environmental visioning pro-
cess require some degree of measurement, what their
current state is, and what it should be. For example, the
boundary of a watershed basin marked in a CIS layer in-
volves a quantitative analysis. The process requires the
terrain elevations of the area, so that the high points are
linked together to form the boundary of the watershed.
Quantitative approaches use clearly defined methodology
and provide objective scientific results that are generally
acceptable.
Most physical processes discussed during environmental
visioning require quantitative analysis. For example, hy-
drologic studies involving estimation of runoff from pre-
cipitation or simulation of groundwater flow; vegetation
mapping used for assessing forest stand; and land cover
analysis used for estimating agricultural production all use
quantitative analyses. Performance standards (e.g., ratio
of impervious to pervious surfaces) used in zoning and
land management are also quantitative. However, some
25
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social and cultural processes cannot be analyzed with
quantitative approaches.
4.4.2 Qualitative
Qualitative approaches are used for processes that do not
require numerical measurements. Observations on some
natural phenomena can be recorded in word categories
that describe the processes involved or state the condi-
tion of a system. For example, in order to evaluate the
visual preference of a community, a set of photographs
representing different scenes of an area may be used
(Steinitz et al., 1996). A response from visual observation
of the photographs can be categorized from worst to best.
Although qualitative analysis is subjective, some pro-
cesses that are important for decision making require it.
Qualitative data should be tackled with caution when de-
signing a study orwhen interpreting the results of the study.
4.4.3 Advanced vs. Basic
A very basic environmental visioning approach can start
with a description of the preferred state, requiring a pen
and paper, as tools, but no more. An artist's rendition of
the preferred state, either using paint on a canvas or by
digitally manipulating photographs, can also fall into the
basic category.
CIS technology can also be used in the basic approach.
Visual technology that manipulates digital images (images
captured by video camera or other scanning device) can
also be used to produce alternative scenarios. This ap-
proach was effectively used in the Mill Creek Project in
Moab, Utah (Natural Resources Conservation Service,
1995). For example, current CIS maps may be edited to
depict desired environmental conditions, such as location
of new riparian zones. Basic environmental visioning ap-
proaches do not engage in advanced modeling or signifi-
cant analytical computations.
Advanced environmental visioning involves studying the
key variables that affect environmental processes and of-
ten requires analytical modeling. For example, the interac-
tion between physical, biological, and cultural processes
may be modeled to depict how predictable changes affect
the whole landscape. Such comprehensive analyses lead
to realistic visions by providing the likely alternative fu-
tures.
The advances in computer software, hardware and graphic
presentation have made it possible to use CIS to read-
dress the environmental issues and provide a better means
to better understand and manage the growth, environmen-
tal quality, and economic vitality of the communities. Smith
(1999) introduced a new suite of software with a core CIS
program designed to involve people in the decision-mak-
ing process, evaluate different scenarios and policy deci-
sions, and present the result in a fully interactive 3-D envi-
ronment. Examples of CIS-based advanced environmen-
tal visioning are discussed in the next section.
4.5 Case Studies
This section presents the summary of three case studies
that used CIS for environmental planning. The studies
depict the likely landscape futures for their communities
by using advanced, CIS-based environmental visioning.
The first study actively involved community members in
determining the alternative futures, whereas the othertwo
studies were primarily conducted with the help of area plan-
ners and designers.
4.5.1 West Muddy Creek, Benton County,
Oregon
Note: This review summarizes the document "Possible
Futures for the Muddy Creek Watershed, Benton County,
Oregon" by Hulse (ed.) et al., (1997). Reference to the
document is listed at the end of the chapter and in the
bibliography in Appendix A. Further information can be
obtained at: http://ise.uoregon.edu/Muddy/
Muddy_abstract.html
Introduction
Oregon's Willamette River Basin encompasses an area of
approximately 12,000 square miles in thirteen counties.
The basin provides rich and diverse landscapes including
high mountains, wilderness areas, productive agricultural
lowlands, and large urban centers. Forests cover 75% of
the basin's area. The population in the Willamette River
Basin is expected to double early in the 21st century. Growth
and development for accommodating the anticipated de-
mographic change pose threats to the health and preser-
vation of the current ecosystem.
To learn about the possible futures of the Willamette River
Basin, a representative area that would reflect impacts
from growth and development was studied. The West
Muddy Creek Watershed has high-quality natural resources
and is located in an area that has potential for growth and
development. The watershed is large enough to capture
important hydrologic processes and is representative of
the Willamette River Basin in terms of biodiversity and
land use practices.
Recognizing the importance of local stakeholders' partici-
pation in defining the important issues that affect both
development and conservation of the environment, com-
munity involvement was pivotal in depicting plausible al-
ternative futures. A series of public meetings were held,
followed by intensive discussions in small groups.The lead-
ing community concerns were related to watershed health
and included maintaining rural character, reducing land use
regulations, and improving summer stream flow and fish
habitat. Two indicators of watershed health, terrestrial
biodiversity and water quality, were studied to assess the
current state and possible futures of the ecosystem.
Ecosystem Health and Indicators
Biodiversity, defined as richness of life processes, is im-
portant for the health and stability of ecosystems. Gener-
ally, there is a complex interdependence among species,
such that a change in some species or their habitat af-
26
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fects other species to a varying degree. Hence, a study
on biodiversity in the West Muddy Creek Watershed would
provide information useful in tracking environmental health
of the Willamette River Basin. The study took two ap-
proaches to assessing biodiversity: one focused on the
well being of a few species (single species approach), and
the other addressed a variety of species (multi-species
approach). Human beings benefit from biodiversity in a
number of ways. For example, supply of vital resources,
such as food and water, depends on the quality of
biodiversity. Yet, human actions, which cause loss of wild-
life habitat, are the biggest threat to biodiversity (National
Research Council, 1992).
The study on the water quality of the watershed identified
sources of non-point source (NPS) pollution, including
sediment and nutrient transport processes, such as the
total phosphorous, nitrate, and suspended solids in runoff
waters. The land use practices and hydrologic processes
were modeled to assess pollution contributions from sub-
basins. Information on dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform,
stream temperature, and water flow modifications were
obtained from the Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality. A CIS hydrologic model used these data, in addi-
tion to climatic and land cover data, to simulate possible
changes and predict impacts. The model was calibrated
with field data from the Muddy Creek and its tributaries.
Conservation and Development
Residential development, agriculture, and forestry will ac-
count for most of the anticipated changes in the West
Muddy CreekWatershed ecosystem. Through an environ-
mental visioning process, stakeholders and researchers
identified a range of possible futures for the watershed.
The future alternatives were based on the degree of devel-
opment and conservation adopted during the period be-
tween 1990 and 2025. The number and distribution of new
residents, timber harvesting, and agricultural management
in the watershed will define the patterns of landscape. For
example, low-density residential areas may require less
development in infrastructure, while high-density areas
would require improved water supply, sewer system, and
transportation infrastructures.
Anticipated changes in the agricultural landscape come
from the introduction of new crops, such as hybrid poplar,
and the degree of replacement of old crops.These changes
will vary with the various development plans.
Forest management policies also vary with ownership (e.g.,
private, public), and size (e.g., small, large industrial), at
least for privately owned areas. Changes in forested lands
are based on the different management guidelines on har-
vest cycles, harvest cuts (location, type, size, distribu-
tion), treatment of riparian zones, and replanting proce-
dures.
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GIS used for Identifying & Evaluating Alternative Futures for Muddy Creek, Oregon
A research project on the possible futures for Muddy Creek, Oregon, was carried out in areas west of the
Willamette River. The goals of the study included describing land use impacts on the ecology and quality of
life, and identifying alternative futures forthe area. Water quality and biodiversity were considered indicators of
ecosystem health. Scenarios of possible future changes including the current development plans, moderate
and high development, and moderate and high conservation, as well as their impact on the two indicators were
studied.
The landscape changes were evaluated using CIS-based simulations.The biodiversity model estimated the
change in potential habitat areas for 234 species of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, while the water
quality model simulated pollutant loads under the five development scenarios. The results illustrated on GIS
simulated perspectives indicated a high ecological risk if moderate or high development occurs. On the other
hand, the ecological response indicates a lower risk if moderate or high conservation alternatives are adopted.
of the trajectories helped the researchers to characterize
how the area had changed, and to examine how the change
agents interacted to result in diverse landscapes overtime.
Alternative Futures for Muddy Creek
Five alternative futures for the Muddy Creek Watershed
were considered: high and medium conservation, high and
medium development, and Plan Trend, which is projection
of the current development plans. Each alternative future
is based on a set of scenarios representing possible
changes in demography, urban development, agriculture,
and forestry.
The Plan Trend Alternative Future is based on projection
of current land use and zoning trends. This alternative
assumes accommodation of new residents in existing ru-
ral residential zones. No major changes are expected in
current agricultural lands, however, small pasture areas
will be taken over by hybrid poplar. Public forests will fol-
low current guidelines, including 300-foot buffers for ripar-
ian zones. Rotation schedules will be 80 years for public
forest and 50 years for private forests of all ages.
The High Development Future assumes that the popula-
tion would double by the year2025. High development strat-
egies will be employed in order to accommodate such a
large number of people and to generate revenues. While
no significant change is anticipated in the agricultural land-
scape, the High Development Future recognizes a change
in forest management. For example, all public and private
forests will be managed under a 40-year rotation cycle,
compared to the 80-year cycle in the Plan Trend. Smaller
riparian buffers (40 feet) will be used.
The High Conservation Future is based on an extensive
conservation effort and a small population growth that is
accommodated within the existing rural residential areas.
A 100-foot buffer zone along streams, and additional 100
feet of cover crops or secondary forest products are intro-
duced. Moreover, a 200-foot wide hedgerow/windbreak will
be established along all paved roads. Wetlands are con-
nected by hedgerows, which also line the edges of all grass
seed fields. Under this future, public forests are carefully
managed to simulate pre-settlement conditions, and old
growth patches in private forests are purchased.
The Moderate Development and Moderate Conservation
Futures are middle grounds between High Development
and Plan Trend, and High Conservation and Plan Trend,
respectively. Hence, the impact on agricultural and forest
areas will be intermediate between the corresponding fu-
tures.
Comparison of the Alternative Futures
Maps representing the response of the ecosystem to the
alternative futures relative to the status in 1990 were cre-
ated using the biodiversity model. Figures 4-1 and 4-2 il-
lustrate the results.The Moderate and High Conservation
Futures are the only options that maintain the conditions
of 1990. The other futures, including the Plan Trend, result
in a higher risk to biodiversity and environmental health.
Similarly, the water quality will deteriorate if Plan Trend or
any of the Development Futures are employed. The two
Conservation Futures slightly improve water quality (Fig-
ures 4-3, and 4-4).Therefore, a Future Alternative between
Plan Trend and Moderate Conservation seems to provide
a good balance between conservation and development.
4.5.2 Monroe County, Pennsylvania
Note: This review summarizes the document "Alternative
Futures for Monroe County, Pennsylvania" by Steinitz (ed.)
et al., (1997). Reference to the document is listed at the
end of the chapter and in the bibliography in Appendix A.
Further information can be obtained at: http://
www.gsd.harvard.edu/depts/larchdep/research/monroe
Introduction
Monroe County has traditionally enjoyed good water qual-
ity, diverse landscape scenery, and year-round recreational
opportunities. The County's local economy also benefits
28
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Change in Habitat Area from Present to Future or Past for
Native Species - Muddy Creek Study Area
CO
ce
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
All Vertebrates
High Moderate Plan
Develop- Develop- Trend
ment 2025 ment 2025 2025
Moderate High
Conserva- Conserva-
tion 2025 tion 2025
1850
Future or Past Landscape
Figure 4-2. Changes in species richness resulting from the alternative futures relative to 1990 conditions (source: Hulse et al., 1997).
from the quality of natural resources. For example, recre-
ational activities such as fishing, boating, and swimming
are all too common in the streams and lakes. Continuation
of these benefits depends on preservation of the ecosys-
tem. Today, Monroe County is one of the fastest growing
areas in Pennsylvania.The current growth trend indicates
that the County's population will nearly double by the year
2020. Urban development associated with this demographic
change is expected to affect Monroe County's ecosystem
and quality of life.
In light of these concerns, a study on the possible futures
of the County was conducted using the "Steinitz Frame-
work" (Section 3.5). In order to evaluate the current state
of the County and compare it to the alternative futures, a
number of processes, grouped into six major categories,
we re selected for evaluation.These were:
Geology (surface water quality, ground water re-
charge area, and agricultural soils)
Biology (biodiversity, bear habitat, and special
natural areas)
Visual landscape (scenic landscape elements and
view quality)
Demography (projected population change)
Economy (land value, cost of public actions, and
employment)
Politics (private role, township role, county role).
Ecosystem Health and Indicators
The county's drinking water comes from underground wells
and is rated as high quality. However, the groundwater is
vulnerable to contamination from some development ar-
eas that lack proper sewage system. Surface waters are
also of high quality supporting a variety of recreational
activities. Current regulations require a vegetation buffer
along streams, preserving stream bank integrity and re-
ducing soil erosion and pollutant loading.The risk of over-
use and new developments associated with population
growth threatens the ecosystem.The county also has large
areas of highly productive agricultural soils. These soils
are expected to be the first victims of urban development.
29
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0.80
Risks to Water Quality by
Scenario
-0.80
U Surface Runoff
| Total Phosphorus
Q Total Suspended Solids
Figure 4-3. Impacts on water quality resulting from the alternative futures relative to 1990 conditions (source: Hulse et al., 1997).
Monroe County has a high biodiversity in a valuable land-
scape that has been a center for studies for a long time.
EPA has recognized the risk to biodiversity and has con-
ducted research on preservation methods. Interpreted sat-
ellite images of the county provided information on the
vegetation types, which was used for estimating the num-
ber of species that potentially use them for habitat. There-
fore, biodiversity density maps of the area were gener-
ated. In addition to species richness and biodiversity, sev-
eral endangered plants and animals are also found in the
county. For example, the world's only mesic pine barren is
found on the Pocono Plateau. Another example is the black
bear, which is the symbol of choice for Monroe County.
The wetlands and low shrub areas that provide habitat for
the black bear are currently regulated. However, most cor-
ridors that link these wetland patches are threatened by
urban development.
The visual landscape of Monroe County has a high aes-
thetic value. The scenic landscape of lakes, streams,
wetlands, and agricultural lands attracts many visitors and
tourists each year. It also attracts new residents, whose
arrival threatens the very ecosystem that brought them to
Monroe County. While improvements in the current infra-
structure may add value to the visual landscape, any en-
deavor to increase its capacity (e.g., enlarging roads) or
to establish new developments poses a threat to the eco-
system.
Monroe County has seen a sharp demographic change
during the past few decades. The county's population
doubled in the last twenty years. Current forecasts show
that the population will also double during the next two
decades. Most of the new residents are expected to relo-
cate from metropolitan New York and New Jersey. The
challenge in Monroe County is how to accommodate such
population increase while preserving its high quality eco-
system and unique identity.
The natural landscape has economic value related to tour-
ism and recreational activities. However, future investments
and policies, in addition to efforts in natural conservation
and infrastructure development, will affect land values.The
land values are based on accessibility, such as vicinity to
interstate highways or state and county roads, services,
such as water supply and sewage system, and access to
scenic views and water bodies. Much of the recent devel-
opments are on areas with high land values.
Townships provide government services for most of the
residents in Pennsylvania. For example, planning, zoning,
and wastewater management activities are in the jurisdic-
tion of townships. Township programs affect areas beyond
their boundaries, burdening the county to coordinate among
township plans, policies and decisions that affect the natu-
ral resources.
30
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Figure 4-4. Erosion and total suspended solids (metric tons/hectare), by sub-basins, resulting from the alternative futures compared to
1990 and 1850 conditions (source: Hulse et al., 1997).
Urban Development and Conservation
The interaction between policies and actions of the County
and Townships towards conservation and development will
shape the future patterns of urban development and will
shape the landscape. The major projects that make the
basis for future alternatives are related to conservation,
recreation, sewage, railroad, zoning, development guide-
lines, Pocono raceway, and billboards.
Two levels of conservation were considered. The first as-
sumes that future developments will not affect all public
lands owned by the U.S. orthe Common Wealth, or regu-
lated by government. These include lakes, streams, and
wetlands. The second conservation plan is based on pres-
ervation of ecologically essential lands. These include ar-
eas of importance to the geologic landscape (surface wa-
ter, groundwater, wetlands, and agriculturally productive
soils), biologic landscape (biodiversity and bear habitat),
and visual landscape (water bodies, agricultural lands, and
other scenic areas). Currently, most of these areas are
privately owned. Hence, acquisition of conservation rights
through purchase or other means is necessary.
Recreation (e.g., tourism, resort hotels) is a leading in-
dustry in Monroe County's economy. Some of the mea-
sures the county may take in order to keep this industry
healthy include preservation of the landscape and devel-
opment of additional public and commercial recreation
services.
The TunkhannockTownship has the Pocono raceway, which
provides a unique recreational service to the Mid-Atlantic
States. Expansion of the raceway and development of rec-
reational services (e.g., hotel, indoorsports coliseum) are
desired for accommodating more people. On the other hand,
conservation of the ecologically rich Long Pond is a prior-
ity. A number of alternative designs were considered for
expanding the raceway and for developing additional rec-
reational services. A design plan that would have least
31
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impact on the ecology, while providing major access to
the raceway and its recreational facilities, was proposed.
tial (one residential per 20 acres) and mixed residential-
commercial.
Railroad services are important for Monroe County in or-
der to improve business with the metropolitan areas of
New York and New Jersey. In addition, most of the new
residents are expected to keep their jobs in these metro-
politan areas.The desired rail service includes high-speed
commuting and slower freight and tourism services. A new
alignment, capable of supporting state of the art high-speed
trains, was proposed. This alignment would use several
existing right-of-ways, in addition to acquiring right-of-way
for some sections. Construction of railroad stations was
also proposed on flat areas where commercial develop-
ment around the station would be feasible. The services
accompanying the proposed railroad station include park-
ing lots, and commercial and retail. Also proposed near
the railroad station is a recreational area. Other actions
that will affect the future alternatives include improving
road conditions and reorganizing road signs.
Most of the soils in Monroe County do not support septic
discharges. Despite this fact, residential septic tanks are
commonly used in most of the County's townships. Only
the four Boroughs have sewer treatment systems. Any
new development should include a sewer service. One
option is to increase the capacity of the existing sewer
treatment facilities, and to link sewer lines from newly de-
veloped areas to these facilities. A less expensive alter-
native is to use greenhouses and constructed wetlands
for processing waste.Though environmentally sound, these
methods are less efficient and have limited capacity. In
any case, groundwater quality will be affected if waste is
not properly treated.
Monroe County has zoning codes that reflect population
density and type of activity. There are three categories of
residential codes: high density (one residential per unit
acre or less), medium density (one residential per one to
two acres), and low density (one residential on more than
two acres). Another two classes are commercial and in-
dustrial zones.Two additional zones were proposed to pro-
vide a greater zoning flexibility: very low density residen-
Alternative Futures for Monroe County
The future of Monroe County is determined by the set of
choices made from the above-mentioned alternative
change. Six possible alternatives are presented in this
study. The first alternative, the Plan Trend, is a projection
of the Monroe County Comprehensive Plan.The assump-
tions in the alternative were that only the public lands that
are currently owned or regulated will be conserved. Infra-
structure developments will include wastewater manage-
ment, while current railroad alignments will be used.
Another alternative, the Build-out, assumes that the mar-
ket will determine development and conservation actions.
This alternative will yield results similar to the other subur-
ban developments in the region (e.g., Connecticut, New
Jersey). Low-density population is considered, with no
major infrastructure developments, such as sewer man-
agement, roads, or railroad services.
Four other alternative futures were proposed, namely, Town-
ship, Southern, Spine, and Park. These were generated
by simulating landscape changes that could result in a
more favorable conservation based on the County's physi-
cal landscape characteristics.
The Township Alternative proposes high-density urban
development in existing subdivisions, and mixed residen-
tial-commercial development near town centers. Thus it
provides conservation for open spaces and maintains tra-
ditional Township political structures. New railway align-
ment and alternative sewer technology make part of the
infrastructure development.
Based on two distinct characters of the county, the South-
ern Alternative envisions conservation for the north and
its wilderness, and development for the south. This en-
sures that both areas maintain their unique landscape. In
orderto extend conservation efforts in the north, develop-
ment rights may be transferred to southern areas. Improve-
ments in roads and adoption of alternative sewer systems
are proposed. However, development in the south will fol-
GIS Used for Studying Possible Futures in Monroe County, Pennsylvania
Monroe County, Pennsylvania, faced problems rooted in population growth and suburban land development. A
CIS was used to put together data gathered from various sources in orderto assess the current state of the
landscape. The data included interpreted satellite images, infrastructure plans, and field notes. CIS maps
illustrating the current condition of the ecosystem were produced. These base maps were used for simulating
the possible development changes, and comparing impacts from the changes. Six possible futures for the
County were based on several scenarios of land development practices and their impacts on the landscape.
The results were illustrated in number of CIS maps and other governmental images. Further information is
available at:
http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/depts/larchdep/research/monroe
32
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low strict guideline for protecting agriculturally productive
soils and othervaluable landscape.
To accommodate the anticipated population growth, while
minimizing impacts on the landscape, the Spine Alterna-
tive proposes that, urban development be planned between
Mount Pocono and Stroudsburg.This alternative will also
promote tourism. Fast access to employment centers in
metropolitan areas of New York, Philadelphia, and New
Jersey will be made possible by high-speed commuter-
trains. This requires new railway alignment and develop-
ment of several railroad stations. The plan includes sewer
treatment in high-density areas and improvements in roads.
Finally, the Park Alternative proposes that all undeveloped
lands be conserved.This alternative recognizes the nega-
tive impact of urban development on the environment, and
envisions preservation of the county's high quality land-
scape by concentrating new developments in and around
existing centers, perhaps at high densities. A new railroad
and sewer system will include infrastructure services.
Comparison of Alternative Futures
Maps representing each of the alternative futures were
compared to a map illustrating the current state of the
ecosystem.The evaluation focused on the relative changes
in natural resources (geologic, biologic, and visual land-
scapes), as well as changes in the demography, economy
and politics of the county. The results are summarized in
Figure 4-5. The proposed four alternative futures provide
better results than the projection of current plans.
4.5.3 Camp Pendleton, California
Note: This review summarizes the document "Biodiversity
and Landscape Planning Alternative Futures for the Re-
gion of Camp Pendleton, California" by the Steinitz (ed.) et
al., (1996). Reference to the document is listed at the end
of the chapter and in the bibliography in Appendix A. Fur-
ther information can be obtained at: http://
www.gsd.harvard.edu/brc/brc.html
Introduction
Camp Pendleton is located in one of the country's most
desirable areas that is experiencing growth and develop-
ment. Its unique location provides scenic landscapes and
wilderness, and a fast access to the metropolitan centers
of Los Angeles and San Diego (Figure 4-6). The region
surrounding Camp Pendleton is one of the most biologi-
cally diverse ecosystems in the country, ranging from
coastal lagoons and estuaries, to oak woodlands and co-
niferous mountains, to hot and dry deserts. The region
provides habitat for more than 200 species listed as en-
dangered, threatened, or rare.
The study was conducted to investigate how population
growth and subsequent developments would change the
landscape ecosystem in the region of Camp Pendleton.
To capture the physical processes, such as the hydro-
logic regimes, the five drainage basins surrounding Camp
Pendleton were included in the study. These are the San
Juan, San Mateo, San Onofre, San Luis Rey, and Santa
Margarita watersheds. A number of processes that reflect
the health of the ecosystem were studied. These include
physical processes, such as soils, fires, and hydrology;
visual preference; and biodiversity, which was assessed
by three models based on landscape patterns, single spe-
cies and species richness approaches. Analytical models
representing the above processes and a CIS were used
for simulating changes for the alternative futures.
Ecosystem Health and Indicators
The current land uses and management practices were
studied to identify potential development areas and to evalu-
ate the current and future protection efforts.The most pro-
tected areas in the region are the biological reserves, which
are managed to maintain natural conditions. National for-
ests, BLM lands, and State, County and local parks also
provide habitat for many species, enriching the ecosys-
tem, but they are not managed to conserve biodiversity.
Other lands, including agricultural areas, military zones,
Indian reservations, private holdings, and urban areas have
potential for development.
There are several classes of soils in the region, varying in
appearance, texture, productivity, and management require-
ments. Generally speaking, coastal plains have well drained
sandy-clay-loam soils that are highly fertile, and suitable
for agricultural crop production. Foothills are covered with
moderately drained soils that support citrus, avocados,
and other irrigated crops. Mountain soils, on the other hand,
are generally excessively drained and are unsuitable for
crops. Urban development is expected to take over some
of the rich agricultural soils. Hydrologic processes have
direct relationship with biodiversity and environmental qual-
ity. A hydrologic regime also responds to changes in land
cover. For example, developments in an area generally
increase the impervious surface resulting in low infiltration
and high runoffs. This results in flooding if stream channel
capacities are exceeded. Future developments in the Camp
Pendleton region are expected to increase the volume and
velocity of runoffs, possibly resulting in major floods. Physi-
cal damages caused by floods and loss of water to the
ocean are among the disadvantages of developments.
The major vegetation types in the area include herbaceous,
hardwood and conifertrees, and shrubs, including chapar-
ral, desert, coastal sage, and great basin shrubs. Varied
vegetation is important for biodiversity, and survival of
endangered species. Vegetation growth and health is af-
fected by a set of processes, including hydrology, soils,
and land management.
Survival of native plants in the area is also affected by the
fire regime. While fire poses threat to life and property of
residents, periodic fires are needed to enhance native plant
communities. However, the fire regime responds to hydro-
logic conditions and land management practices. For ex-
ample, there is high potential for fire during dry and hot
weather.
33
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Existing
Plan Trend
Build-Out
Township
Southern
Spine
Park
Geologic Landscape
Surface Water +
Water Recharge
Agricultural Soils +
Biological Landscape
Biodiversity + +
Bear Habitat + +
Spec. Nat. Areas +
VisualLandscape
Scenic Elements + -
View Quality + -
Demographics
Pop. Capacity +
Economics
Cost Public Action $20m $20m
Annual Cost of — $1m
20yr. Bond @4%
Overall + +
Politics
Private Roles + + +
Township Roles + +
County Roles 0
0 + 0 + +
0 + - + +
0 + + + +
$20m $1733m $1854m $1996m $2072m
$1m $104m $120m $106m $135m
0 + + + + +
Legend
Most Positive
Positive
Neutral
Negative
Most Negative
+ +
+
0
Figure 4-5. Impact on natural and cultural systems resulting from the alternative futures (source: Steinitz (ed.) et al., 1994).
34
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--
' '"''
S *v." -!4
Figure 4-6. Map of the study area (source: Steinitz (ed.) et al., 1996).
GIS Used for Envisioning the Future for the Camp Pendleton Region
Located between San Diego and Los Angeles, Camp Pendleton is surrounded by the largest undeveloped area
in southern California. A number of species, listed as endangered or of concern, use this area as habitat.
Current growth trends indicate that land developments will alter the landscape ecosystem. Steinitz et al.,
(1996) conducted research to investigate the possible futures for this area and their impact on biodiversity.
The tools used in the study included GIS aided with analytical models for simulation of the processes involv-
ing hydrology, soils, fire, visual preference, and biodiversity. The Steinitz Framework was used to study six
alternative projected developments and their impacts on biodiversity, landscape ecology, agricultural soils, fire
risk, hydrologic regime, and visual preference. The considered alternative developments included the current
local and regional plans, two futures with low-density growth, one of which introduces conservation strategies
in the year 2010, large-lot ownership with conservation of biodiversity, multi-center development, and a single
new city. The results were summarized in a table rating the impacts from these alternatives into five catego-
ries, from the worst to the best (Figure 4-7).
35
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Alternative Futures of Camp Pendleton, California
The Plans Build-Out Future is a projection of the regional
land use plans, which are coordinated at county and re-
gional levels.This future alternative assumes no changes
in current urban infrastructures and considers continued
protection for biological reserves, national forests, BLM
lands, and state and county parks. Urban development
will take over all developable and unprotected lands. High
development is anticipated on slopes between 0% and
5%, while orchard may take over some of the slopes higher
than 25%, on which developments are restricted.
The Spread Alternative is a continuation of the current
development patterns in Southern California. It is based
on medium density single-family-residence in the valleys
and extensive rural residence throughout the landscape.
No major changes are anticipated in conservation lands
ortransportation infrastructure development. Developments
are assumed to continue without regard to environmental
programs such as biodiversity, erosion control, flooding,
and water quality. Another alternative, Spread with Con-
servation, assumes that by the year 2010, conservation
projects will start to save the then fragmented ecological
patches and critical vegetation.
The Private Conservation Alternative Future is based on
private ownership of environmentally sensitive areas, and
a low-density residential development in ecologically im-
portant areas. Developments in these areas will be con-
servation oriented, while the current development plans
will be followed on other developable lands.
The Multi-Center Future Alternative envisions accommo-
dation of population growth by developing small number of
centers with a high residential density, and commercial
services. Lands that are critical for habitat continuity are
purchased for conservation. Also protected are fertile ag-
ricultural soils, wetlands and riparian vegetation, coastal
estuaries and scrubs, and scenic landscapes.
Finally, the New City Alternative Future proposes develop-
ment of an urban center in the Temecula Valley. New resi-
dences in this area will be encouraged to protect environ-
mentally sensitive areas. Urban communities in coastal
areas will be satellites for the New City. In this alternative,
currently protected areas and other environmentally im-
portant locations will be protected, and sound environmen-
tal programs will be adopted.
Comparison of the Alternative Futures
Impacts from the Alternative Futures were compared as
indicated by such process as soils, hydrology, fire,
biodiversity, and visual preference. For example, the Multi-
center and Private Conservation Futures result in the least
amount of loss in agricultural soils, while the Plan Build-
out has the biggest impact by loosing half of these fertile
soils. Similar comparisons based on the other processes
were made ranking the Alternative Futures from worst to
best for each process. The results are illustrated in Figure
4-7.
Related Studies
San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG) has
successfully created CIS databases with biological infor-
mation, such as vegetation and the location of certain
plants, soils, and vernal pools, covering the Southwest-
ern, Northwestern and Eastern portion of the San Diego
region (SANDAG, Info, 1998). The information is used by
the decision makers to assess and rank land based on
biological factors. CIS is successfully used for conduct-
ing gap analysis (i.e., examining land use management
layers along with biological information) to connect and
develop separate areas for healthier habitats for wildlife,
as well as estimating land value information necessary to
create the habitat preserves (Miller, 1994).
4.6 References
Campbell, J.B., Introduction to Remote Sensing,
Guildford Press, New York, 1987.
Diggelen, Frank Van, GPS for CIS - A Comparative
Survey, GIS World, October 1994, pp. 34-40.
Smith, S.G., "Three Dimensional Visualization forCom-
munity Planning, Impact Analysis, and Policy Simu-
lation", Presented at the ESRI User Conference, July
1999.
Hulse, David (ed.), Lisa Goorjin, David Richey, Michael
Flaxman, Cheryl Hummon, Denis White, Katheryn
Freemark, Joseph Eilers, Joseph Bernert, Kellie
Vache, Jolie Kaytes, and David Diethelm. Possible
Futures for the Muddy Creek Watershed, Benton
County, Oregon, The University of Oregon, 1997.
McAllister, L.S., B.E. Peniston, J. Hyman, and B.
Abbruzzese, Conceptual Framework for a Synoptic As-
sessment of the Prairie Pothole Region, EPA/600/R-
96/061, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Na-
tional Health and Environmental Effects Research
Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, OR
1996.
Miller, B., "An Ounce of Prevention is worth a Pound
of Gnatcatchers", Government Technology, November
1994.
MonmonierMark, How to Lie with Maps, University of
Chicago Press, Second Edition 1996.
Moser, D, Walsh, M, and Rogers, C, "Negotiating a
User Interface", 26th Annual Water Resources Plan-
ning and Management (ASCE) Panel Discussion, June
1999.
National Research Council, Restoration of Ecosys-
tems, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.,
1992.
36
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Spread
Private
Conser-
vation
Multi-
Centers
New
City
A
Visual
Pref-
erence
A
Agricultural
Productive
Soils
A
Runoff
Curve
Number
A
Flood
1 Hydro-
graph
A
Water
Discharge
A
Fire
Risk
A
Landscape
Ecological
Pattern
A
Single
Species
Potential
A
Species
Richness
1 A
Bpecieswitr
|500+ Home
5 Ranges :
. (via GAP)
Best
Figure 4-7. Comparative impacts of the alternative futures (source: Steinitz (ed.) et al. 1996).
Natural Resource Conservation Service, 1995. Man-
aging Change in Rural Communities:The Role of Plan-
ning and Design, 1995.
The Pacific Rivers Council, Inc., Healing the Water-
shed: A Guide to the Restoration of Watershed and
Native Fish in the West, Pacific Rivers Council, Inc.
2nd Edition, Eugene, OR, 1996.
SANDAG, "Vegetation in the San Diego Region",
SANDAG Info, January-February 1998.
Steinitz, Carl, (ed.), Douglas Olson, Elke Bilda, John
Ellis,Torgen Johnson, Ying-Yu Hung, Edith Katz, Paula
Meijerink, Allan Shearer, H. Roger Smith, and Avital
Sternberg. Alternative Futures For Monroe County,
Pennsylvania, The Harvard University Graduate School
of Design, 1994.
Steinitz, Carl, (ed.), Michael Binford, Paul Cote, Tho-
mas Edwards Jr., Stephen Ervin, Richard Forman,
Craig Johnson, Ross Kiester, David Mouat, Douglas
Olson, Allan Shearer, Richard Toth, and Robin Wills.
Biodiversity and Landscape Planning: Alternative fu-
tures for the region of Camp Pendleton, CA, The
Harvard Graduate School of Design, Cambridge, MA,
1996.
Sumner, Richard, Personal communication, 1998.
Sumner, Richard, and David Hulse, EPA Research is
Helping Communities Achieve Their Desired Vision of
the Future, \Afatershed Management CouncilNetworker,
Fall 1997, 7(3): 10-11,19.
37
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5 Creating a GIS to Support Environmental Visioning
5.1 Introduction
5.1.11mportance of a GIS in Environmental
Visioning
To illustrate the significance of a GIS in environmental
visioning, consider the following scenario. The town plan-
ners of a developing area are faced with the problem of an
increase in the traffic flow due to the population growth
and suburban land development.Theirgoal is to build high-
ways in order to improve the transit accessibility over the
next 15 years, within the geographic boundary of concern.
A GIS provides tools to put together the data gathered
from various sources (such as population density, trans-
portation routing, business areas) in orderto compare and
assess the existing route accessibility. A GIS is then used
in analyzing, and visualizing the population trend and eco-
nomic growth, travel behavior (tendency of the people in
using the routes) overtime as well as existing land use to
correlate it with the demographic pattern. The GIS tools,
with or without the aid of other analytical models, help in
the study of the alternative futures for the area. The visu-
alization of the generated GIS maps allows the user to
emphasize, generalize, and omit certain features (routes)
from the display, to meet the design objectives (improving
the accessibility of highly congested areas). The results
that are obtained from the GIS analysis can be printed on
maps or other visual material. This would allow the town
planners to make informed decisions on the implementa-
tion of an optimal number of highways at feasible loca-
tions.
Thus, understanding the interaction among several pro-
cesses, natural or cultural, and the environmental impact
from changes made in one or more of these processes is
required for envisioning a path to a preferred future. An
accurate representation of the natural and cultural entities
is a prerequisite for understanding and evaluating the cur-
rent conditions of an ecosystem. Chapter 4 discussed the
functional capabilities of GIS components that could be
used for environmental visioning and this chapter deals
with how to select and use GIS tools for environmental
visioning.
5.1.2 Organization of This Chapter
This chapter includes five sections that describe the ele-
ments of GIS used for environmental visioning. This sec-
tion provides a brief introduction on the importance of GIS,
and the organization of the chapter. Section 5.2 discusses
the groundwork that is involved in selecting a GIS applica-
tion. A description of the various types of GIS output is
given in Section 5.3, and Section 5.4 provides guidance
on how to adapt the selected GIS for environmental vi-
sioning. Section 5.5 delineates the steps to be conducted
for evaluating and comparing possible future scenarios for
the community.
5.2 Groundwork for a Successful GIS
Application
5.2.1 GIS Tools
Currently, there are four different types of GIS tools in the
market, categorized based on increasing cost and func-
tionality (ESRI, 1996).
1. Consumer GIS represents the low cost products
available at retail computer stores. These trans-
form the information from databases, spread-
sheets to color-filled maps.
2. Desktop mapping represents the next step in pro-
viding simple tools to explore digital maps.
3. Desktop GIS provides more functionality. It can
create, edit, display, and manage spatial data, and
can also analyze and model geographic relation-
ships.
4. Professional GIS packages offer the most ad-
vanced spatial and preprocessing tools available.
The decision makers must choose the most appropriate
GIS they require fortheir application. By following a series
of logical steps (discussed in the following sections), the
selection and successful application of a GIS in environ-
mental visioning can be achieved.
5.2.2 Issues to Be Addressed
The first step involved in the selection and development
of a GIS, is to explicitly define the following:
Goal for the environmental visioning project and
issues concerned with planning, land development,
conservation of ecology, transportation, and envi-
ronmental management.
Needs and requirements forthe particular project.
38
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The tools to be employed such as the hardware
requirements against the computer capabilities
available to the decision-making group, range of
public and commercially software packages that
could meet the needs.
Extent of the data required.
5.2.3 Size of Study Area
The second step in the selection and development of a
CIS is size of the study area. It is important to clearly
identify all the areas that are included in and/or impacted
by the decision-making process, so that the information
can be collected, stored, and analyzed overthe appropri-
ate area. Larger areas contribute more data, leading to
large data sets, thus requiring a more powerful CIS tech-
nology, which creates higher costs.
5.2.4 Range of Analyses to Be Completed
After delineating the tasks that are to be accomplished in
a defined area of study, the third step is to consider the
range of analyses that needs to be completed in the CIS-
based project. In a multimedia environmental analysis,
such as environmental visioning, information and model-
ing tools on air, water, land, and other environmental im-
pacts, such as noise, may need to be incorporated into
the analytical process. Some expensive CIS products pro-
vide built-in support for models, such as network routing,
but may incur more costs.
5.2.5 Definition of Desired Data Resolution
The fourth step in the decision of a CIS application is to
determine the degree of accuracy that is required for a
good data representation.
For example, to study the nature of the water quality in a
watershed, a hydrologic model can be generated using
the information based on stream temperature, water flow
modifications, dissolved oxygen, climatic and land cover
data. If the study of the water quality isfocussed on iden-
tifying specific sources of pollutants in the runoff waters,
detailed information on sediment and nutrient transport
processes such as total phosphorus, nitrate, and sus-
pended solids, will be required. Thus, it is important to
understand the nature and the complexity of the problems
to be addressed, the tools to be used, and, therefore, the
desired resolution and confidence in the data required in
generating the appropriate outputs.
5.2.6 Available Data
The next important task, after doing a thoughtful analysis
on what type of data is required, how the data will be used,
and what analyses are to be performed at what resolution
and scale, is the acquisition of CIS data. If information is
already available in a digitized format, selection of a CIS
should be based on the one that can accept this informa-
tion in a short time, thus expediting the process of devel-
oping the database for specific applications. The feasibil-
ity of obtaining such information should be investigated
(discussed in Section 5.4) soon afterthe decision is made
to utilize a CIS.
5.2.7Available Hardware
The selection of an appropriate CIS hardware depends on
the scope of the environmental visioning project as well
as on the available resources. The CIS hardware can be
setup in a stand-alone or in a networked configuration.
Stand-alone configuration uses one or more workstations
operating independently. In a networked configuration, two
or more workstations are linked together, or to a central
computer called server, so that their data and software
can be shared.
The typical requirements for a stand-alone CIS unit are
listed below.
Computer workstation
High-speed processor, large memory and disk
space
High resolution color monitor
Keyboard
Mouse
- CD-ROM
Tape drive
Map input devices
Digitizing table
Scanner
GPS receivers
Portability
Numberofchannels
Differential accuracy
Memory
Software (DOS/Windows)
Data dictionary levels
Plotter
Printer
Screen copy devices
Additional hardware that is usually needed, depending on
the scale of the environmental visioning project, includes
computer servers, which provide high computational power,
large storage space, and a file-sharing capacity in net-
worked configurations.
5.2.8Available Software
After deciding the hardware, the next step is choosing the
CIS software. Several commercial CIS packages avail-
able in the market can be readily installed and operated.
They provide a separate version for each operating plat-
form (e.g., UNIX, Windows). However, there are some pack-
ages that operate only under a particular system. Section
4.2.3 gives further details on the types of software and
database.
5.2.9 Available Support/Resources
Last is to consider the elements that aid in the successful
performance of a CIS application. These include:
39
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Training: If the people involved are technically ori-
ented, with prior CIS experience, this can enhance
the capabilities and utilization of the technology.
Those who do not have CIS experience should
be trained to acquire a basic understanding of the
CIS.
Technical support: Some members of the envi-
ronmental visioning team should be designated
to work with consulting firms, local universities,
government staff, or others who are going to sup-
port the CIS application.
Good product documentation: This may enrich the
contribution of the members to the development
and implementation of the technology.
5.3 GIS Outputs
Having made the decision on the GIS application that is to
be utilized for analysis, the next stage in the process of
planning is to explore the ways to transferthe spatial GIS
results from screen to print. Two types of output can be
generated:
5.3.1 Basic Output
Base Maps
A base map, typically, has general information that covers
the study area and illustrates major infrastructures (such
as roads and buildings), and natural land covers (such as
streams and water bodies). In a GIS environment, base
maps are used as sources of geographic reference for other
maps or layers of information.The USGS topographic maps
are good sources of base maps.
Other Maps and Overlays
A GIS generally stores physical information in thematic
layers ordigital maps.The layers are geographically refer-
enced so that overlaying information matches. Examples
of thematic maps are hydrographic maps, vegetation maps,
and land cover/land use maps. Information from more than
one GIS layer may be printed on a single map sheet, re-
sulting in mapped overlays.These maps are generally pro-
duced to display information of interest, by eliminating ir-
relevant material.
5.3.2 Advanced Outputs
Landscape Scenarios
A GIS provides tools for generating landscape scenarios
by modeling and projecting existing information. For ex-
ample, a number of scenarios may be generated to illus-
trate how the landscape will look, say in 10 years, based
on different land development and conservation practices.
These alternatives are important in the prediction and vi-
sualization of the environmental impacts. Some GIS pack-
ages provide additional tools for interactively querying en-
vironmental effects in an ecosystem.
Animation
Animation provides enhanced visual sensing fortemporal
changes or trends in some processes. For example,
changes in a forestland over the past decades can be
shown by animation.This provides a focus on the dynamic
changes for the visual observer. Some GIS packages dis-
play 3-dimensional elements, such as the landscape of a
canyon, which allows the viewerto "walkthrough" or"navi-
gate" through space, looking at scenes from different
angles.
5.4 Developing the GIS for Environmental
Visioning
5.4.1 Road Map for Building a GIS
Typical environmental visioning projects, that involve bal-
ancing between development and conservation, go through
several phases of increasing value and complexity. The
first and most widely used phase is representation, which
involves inventory of resources and production of maps
based on known information requirements. The second
phase is building an information management system for
improving data access and manipulation.The third phase
is advanced GIS, which provides additional modeling and
simulation capabilities, acquired by incorporating analyti-
cal models into the GIS (Klimas, 1998).
Phase 1: Representation of the geographic area involves
creation, georeferencing, and arranging the geographic data
for the natural and cultural systems and infrastructures,
within the area of concern. It is also termed base data,
which is representation of features (as indicated below) in
the GIS database.
Hydrology
Rivers
Lakes
Water bodies
Geology
Soil types
Hydrogeology
Groundwater
Surface water
Biology
Vegetation classes
Wetland species
Fish and important species
- Wildlife
Topography
Terrain elevations
Land use
Agricultural
Industrial
Residential
Infrastructures
Transportation
Energy and powergrids
Buildings
Communication Systems
Navigable waterways
Sewer and water installation
Demography
Census data
40
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Some of the base data are processed to yield meaningful
derived data. Examples of derived data include slope and
aspect acquired from elevation data, stream buffers based
on streams, and vegetation classes (e.g., forest, wetland,
and riparian) from vegetation and otherthemes. Both base
and derived data are usually manipulated to generate in-
terpreted maps. For example, Elk habitat—an interpreted
data set—can be mapped using vegetation maps as well
as slope and aspect data.
Phase 2: An information management system The CIS
data structure can be improved for bettersecurity and easy
accessibility, by integrating the CIS database with the other
databases. Using this database, the CIS can produce maps
that provide valuable information related to the geographic
data. Examples of such databases include records of air
and water quality, pollution history, and regulatory policies.
A hydrologic map can show not only the locations of
streams, but also the water quality, sampling locations,
and sources of contamination.
Phase 3: Enhanced modeling and analysis Most CIS
packages can characterize the environmental setting and
simulate the spatial changes, but they require external
models for solving complex scientific and engineering prob-
lems. For instance, a study is conducted in an area to
predict the fate of contaminants in groundwater. CIS soft-
ware can create a three dimensional terrain representa-
tion, but hydraulic and hydrologic models have to be used
to simulate complex groundwater flow and predict subsur-
face contaminant fate.
The enhanced CIS (a combination of the CIS and other
analytical models) has the functional capabilities to:
Simulate possible future changes
Predict impact from a set of scenarios
Evaluate resulting future conditions
The advantages of using a GIS include:
Shortened turn around time for creating 'what
if scenarios
Enhanced flexibility in type and format for pre-
sentation of data and information necessary
to evaluate such scenarios
Provides a common information framework with
which disparate stakeholder groups can
achieve similar understanding of landscape
status and trends
5.4.2 GIS operations
The previous section gave an outline on collecting, ma-
nipulating, analyzing, and presenting the GIS data. This
section describes these operations in detail.
Data input
Manual digitizing. Hardcopy map can be digi-
tized manually by using a special digitizing
tablet over a digitizing table that is configured
to record tablet movement overthe table. For
example, moving the tablet over a stream on
the paper map generates a series of points
making a line representing the stream.
Scanning. Hardcopy maps can also be
scanned to produce a raster image of the map.
Scanning is more suited to raster GIS. How-
ever, special software is commercially avail-
able that can convert raster data into vector.
Keyboard entry. This method involves enter-
ing data through a computer keyboard. It is
labor intensive and not practical for large data
sets.
File Loading. Data obtained from GPS and other survey
instruments, or generated by a cartographic software, can
be loaded into GIS using interfaces provided in the GIS
package.
Data manipulation (conversion, validation, rectifi-
cation)
Raster-to-Vector. This process converts ras-
ter data (e.g., scanned maps, interpreted sat-
ellite images) to vector format using either a
single batch process, or a semiautomatic
operation of line-following.
Vector-to-Raster. This process converts the
geometric features of a database to a raster
grid of cells or pixels, usually allowing the user
to specify the resolution and number of rows
and columns of the raster map.
Identification and correction of graphical er-
rors.This process involves several commands
or functions for identifying, displaying, and
correcting overshoots, undershoots, open
polygons, and similar errors manually.
Identification and correction of attribute errors.
Attribute tabular data describing the graphi-
cal data are often not in the desired format or
structure. Based on the required geographic
model, the attributes tables are joined or split,
or new relations between tables are created.
In addition to tabular relationships, the at-
tributes usually need cleaning and corrections.
41
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Geo-referencing.This process assigns known
geographic coordinates (e.g., latitude and lon-
gitude) to the CIS data. Examples of geo-ref-
erencing uses include spatial analyses (e.g.,
distance measurements) and network mod-
eling.
Transform map projections. CIS maps are
often transformed from one map projection
(digitized map) to another in orderto conform
to data standards.
Merge data and map joining. Digital maps
separately digitized from different paper maps
are merged to form a large mosaic map of an
area of interest.
Data analysis
Compute buffers. A buffer is a zone of a speci-
fied distance around a feature. For example,
to determine the number of hospitals that are
located within a distance of 2 miles around a
particular residence, a buffer zone for the
specified distance (2 miles), is created around
the feature (the residence).
Analyze point, line, and polygon overlays.
These help in describing the relationship be-
tween the features. For example, in a
biodiversity model, one can determine what
features (animals, human beings, plants etc.,)
affect another feature (e.g., food) or what do
the features have in common.
Perform proximity analysis. This analysis is
used to determine which features are near
others. For instance, identifying the location
of the nearest fire station to a residential
colony and computing the distance.
Query spatial and attribute data. Queries are
questions sent to the CIS database that re-
turn requested information if available. For
example, a query on the number of facilities
that discharge contaminants into a water sys-
tem returns count of facilities in that category
and highlights the selected facilities on the
computer display.
Model digital terrain elevations.Terrain eleva-
tions are modeled to produce surface maps
with slopes and aspects for studying., For
example, hydrologic processes such as pre-
cipitation runoff and snow melting.
Perform network analysis. This analysis is
used to model flow (such as water, traffic)
through a linear feature (e.g., road, stream).
Interface with external models. External mod-
els are sometimes needed to provide func-
tionality that is not available in the CIS pack-
age. For example, hydrologic models may be
interfaced with the CIS software to provide
more analytical capabilities.
Data output and presentation. One of the final CIS
output operations is map making. However, for
printing purposes, the maps are usually created,
edited, and displayed several times.The following
activities include the output operations:
Generate symbols and legends for maps. The
process of associating certain graphic or la-
bel features with selected symbols, patterns,
and colors may require creating reference look-
up tables.
Display spatial/attribute data. Data display in-
volves zooming (magnifying or reducing the
scale of a map, or image displayed on the
monitor), panning (changing the position at
which the view is displayed, without modify-
ing the scale), and refreshing display.
Generate reports.This process involves gen-
erating statistical summaries of spatial fea-
tures as well as their attributes in the tabular
data. Additional reporting capabilities, come
at varying degrees with the relational data-
base management system (RDBMS) used.
Print maps. This process is accomplished in
two steps: create a digital map and plot (print)
the map. The main features of a map are spa-
tial data (polygons, lines, and points) repre-
senting physical features (e.g., roads, houses)
supported by explanatory text (e.g., names),
symbols (e.g., north, scale), and legends.
5.4.3 Resource Planning
The costs incurred in the development of a CIS, includes
initial investment costs, and the maintenance cost.
Purchasing cost constitutes a large portion of a
CIS system.
Hardware: High-powered networked systems
provide greater efficiency and high perfor-
mance. They are sometimes too costly for
small projects, and require highly skilled op-
erators.
Software: Public domain CIS packages can
be obtained either free of charge orwith nomi-
nal fees.
Data acquisition (discussed in Section 5.4.4).
42
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Maintenance cost
Usertraining
System management
Database maintenance
Data conversion
Hardware/software upgrades
Supplies
Internal staff
Today, the price of a CIS software and hardware package,
vary from a few hundred dollars to thousands of dollars.
How much should you pay? The value of any CIS compo-
nent is not reflected by an affordable price but, more im-
portantly, by its functional capabilities. Inappropriate se-
lection and utilization of a CIS can lead to significant over-
runs and expenditures in the project. Cost-related issues
of data acquisition, personnel requirements, and system
management are addressed in the following sections.
5.4.4 Data Acquisition
The following three approaches are commonly used to
obtain data (Ossenholler, 1997).
Existing data
This is the easiest and often the least expensive,
data acquisition method. A number of CIS institu-
tions provide data either free of charge or for a
small fee. The following are a few available
sources:
National sources, such as the U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey, the National Weather Service, and
the National Spatial Data Infrastructure
(www.fgdc.gov)
State and regional agencies
Local planning commissions
Other organizations, such as educational in-
stitutions, and nonprofit organizations that
make use of spatial databases for their op-
erations and activities.
Data can also be purchased from commer-
cial companies. Some software vendors pro-
vide data or links to data sources.
Also check the value of the existing data to your projects
and examine the following.
Extent: Do the data cover the area under in-
vestigation? How much information is avail-
able?
Quality of data: Are the data geo-referenced?
What is the scale and resolution of data?
Availability and timeliness: How and when can
you obtain the data?
In addition to these concerns, consider the following if
purchasing data:
Make sure the vendor knows what you ex-
pect
Examine the data before purchasing
Obtain licensing agreement and review for re-
strictions on data use
Get metadata for evaluating the data
Field collection
Field acquisition is used if data is not available at
the desired quality, coverage or price. Intensive
field campaigns can be expensive and require
human and financial resources.The following tips
may useful for collecting data:
Assemble base-line data. Examples of commonly
used base-line maps include:
Topographic maps
Road maps
Soil surveys
Aerial photographs
Satellite images
Census data
These base-line data provide understanding of the
project area and help in designing a data collec-
tion strategy.
Plan data collection strategy
Windshield surveys provide fast results and
better understanding of the study area.
Field sampling may be considered since a
thorough collection of data in large project
areas is expensive. However, sampling should
be repeatable, representative and unbiased.
43
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Contracting data acquisition
A contractor may be paid to gather the required
data if qualified staff members are not available
and existing data is not adequate.
Make sure the contractor knows what is ex-
pected by arranging meetings between the
contractor and data users
Examine the data before purchasing
Obtain contract agreements and review for re-
strictions on data use
Get metadata for evaluating the data
5.4.5 Personnel Requirement
The number of trained personnel and the required CIS
experience depend on the complexity of the environmen-
tal visioning project. Three classes of skilled personnel
are needed:
CIS manager who runs overall management and
maintenance of the CIS
CIS analyst who is responsible for project level
analysis and research
CIS technician who assists in data acquisition,
data input, and data output
The CIS technician should have basic computer knowl-
edge, and should be trained for handling data input and
output devices, such as digitizing tables, scanners, and
plotters. The CIS manager and CIS analyst require ad-
vanced training and experience to do their tasks. Several
CIS analysts may be needed fordemanding projects, while
a single CIS analyst may be able to perform all three cat-
egories for small projects.
5.4.6 System Integration
It is important to integrate the CIS into existing informa-
tion architecture. Whether such integration can be
seamlessly achieved depends on the heterogeneity of the
hardware in place. Existence of multitude of computer plat-
forms and their diverse operating systems can make the
job of intersystem linkage quite difficult. Lack of well-linked
architecture can raise significant barriers to efficient infor-
mation transfer.
5.5 How to Create an Environmental Vision
Using the GIS
At this stage, you must have a vision in mind, a trend
plan, and have made the decision on the GIS application
that you are going to implement to attain that vision. This
section describes the steps that should be considered to
achieve the desired results using the GIS application:
1. GIS database: The first step is to create a data-
base containing both map data (depicting loca-
tion of geographical objects) and attribute data
(describing physical characteristics of each ob-
ject). Physical characteristics (such as agricul-
tural yield, soil types, annual precipitation) and/or
nonphysical characteristics (such as, soil mois-
ture conditions, water availability) are examples
of attribute data.
2. Representation: In orderto understand the extent
of the problem, a GIS representation (2-D or 3-D
visualization) of the study area is established, like
an architect's blueprint representation of a build-
ing. It is important to be aware that sometimes
the GIS may use a geographic boundary slightly
different than that defined in the CBEP for varied
reasons.
For example, if a stream extends beyond the
project boundary, activities upstream of the project
boundary will have impact on both water quality
and quantity. Consequently, some major upstream
activities have to be included in the study. Alter-
natively, partnerships may be extended to the
upstream communities in a watershed. (Refer to
Chapter 2, Section 2.2 for partnerships and geo-
graphic boundaries.)
Steps for the application of a GIS in environ-
mental visioning:
1. Database: Create a GIS database with the geo-
graphic and descriptive data of the study area.
2. Representation: Spatial representation of the
data using GIS tools, by generating maps and
pictures.
3. Processing: Simulate the current scenario
using GIS tools with or without the aid of ex-
ternal models.
4. Evaluating: Based on certain tradeoffs, the fea-
sibility of the current scenario is assessed.
5. Scenario building:The changes with the perti-
nent parameters in the current scenario are
constructed, simulated and evaluated, in or-
derto achieve the vision in mind.
6. Decision making: Comparison of the different
scenarios and a visual representation of their
impacts leads you to make informed decisions
on the implementation of the best scenario.
44
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3. Processing: Mapped data indicates where the
objects are located. For example, an aerial photo
may show that there is land development in cer-
tain sections of a county but cannot explain why
there isn't in other areas. Using the tools provided
by the CIS, a relational link between the tabular
data, describing the physical and nonphysical
characteristics of the pertinent parameters of the
project, can be created. CIS analysis can show
the connection between land use, population
growth, and economic effects.
If the project requires the functions of external
models, then CIS can be interfaced with those
models to provide a better analysis. For instance,
during a spill management study, in orderto trace
the pollutant in a water body, a hydraulic model is
used to determine the temporal change of pollut-
ant concentrations in the water body.The solution
obtained from the hydraulic model can then be
used in CIS to do a spatial and temporal study on
the patterns of the pollutant travel in the water
body. Refer section 4.2.5 fora broad categoriza-
tion of the models.
4. Evaluation: Sometimes a change in the assump-
tions made in a process model results in a fore-
cast different than expected. It is important to test
the model's assumptions through sensitivity analy-
sis and determine how much the solution depends
on the assumptions used by the model. The evalu-
ation step is to establish certain measures of
judgement, to rate the effect of the changes in
the scenario from the least to most desirable. For
example, if you are faced with the question of
setting a speed limit along roads to decrease the
traffic fatalities occurring, it would be necessary
to compare and assess the traffic trend with vary-
ing posted speeds to come up with a viable solu-
tion.
5. Scenario building: This step should lead you to
answers, to questions of the type "What would
happen if...."You can create a hypothetical situa-
tion, and different model designs can be con-
structed, processed and evaluated by following
steps 2, 3,4. The CIS provides tools for depicting
different perspectives on how the landscape will/
should look in the future. Digital images or photo-
graphs of the area may be manipulated to reflect
changes and illustrate a future environmental vi-
sion.
6. Decision making: The final step is to make the
decision. The problem has been assessed and
you have come up with either different solutions
to solve the problem, or created situations to
achieve your vision. A comparative analysis on
the alternative future scenarios based on current
regional plans as well as other possible options,
predicted changes, and their visual impacts al-
lows you to make informed decisions on what
changes, should or should not be made to achieve
your vision.
5.6 References
Culpepper, R. Brian and Shelby D. Johnson, Desktop
CIS for Business Geographies, Business Geographies,
May 1998, pp.32-38.
ESRI, "Enterprise CIS in the 90s", Arc News Summer
1996, vol. 18 no.2, pp.38.
Klimas, Paul J., Five Stages of CIS Development,
CE News, July 1998, pp. 48.
Korte, George B.,The CIS Book, Onword Press, Santa
Fe, New Mexico, 1994.
Montgomery, Glenn E. and Harold C. Schuch, CIS
Data Conversion Handbook, World Books, Fort Collins,
Colorado, 1993.
Ossenholler, Jeff, Find the Right Fit: How to Select
the Best Data Collection Strategy, CIS World, July
1997, pp.52.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Con-
ference on Environmental Problem-Solving with Geo-
graphic Information Systems, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, DC, September 1995.
45
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Appendix A: Bibliography
Brown, Terry; Conceptualizing Smoothness and Density
as Landscape Elements in Visual Resource Management;
Landscape and Urban Planning, 1994,30:49-58
Business Geographies, 1998 Buyers Guide: Data, Hard-
ware, Software, Mapping/Analysis Software, Business
Geographies, December 1997.
Community Environmental Council, Sustainable Commu-
nityIndicators: Guideposts for Local Planning, CEC, 1995.
Culpepper, R. Brian and Shelby D.Johnson, Desktop CIS
for Business Geographies, Business Geographies, May
1998,pp.32-38.
Diggelen, Frank Van, GPS forGIS-A Comparative Sur-
vey, CIS World, October 1994, pp. 34-40.
Gimblett, Randy H., Ball, George L, and Guisse, Amadou
W.; Autonomous Rule Generation and Assessment for
Complex Spatial Modeling; Landscape and Urban Plan-
ning, 1994,30:13-26
Gladchild, Pat, Neighborhood Planning for Community
Revitalization^QQA.
Hart, Maureen, Guide to Sustainable Community Indica-
tors, QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment, Ipswich,
Massachusetts, May 1995.
Hulse, David (ed.), Lisa Goorjin, David Richey, Michael
Flaxman, Cheryl Hummon, Denis White, Katheryn
Freemark, Joseph Eilers, Joseph Bernert, Kellie Vache,
Jolie Kaytes, and David Diethelm. Possible Futures for
the Muddy Creek Watershed, Benton County, Oregon, The
University of Oregon, 1997.
Interagency Ecosystem Management Task Force, The
Ecosystem Approach: Healthy Ecosystems and Sustain-
able Economies, Report of The Interagency Ecosystem
Management Task Force, Volume 1, June 1995.
Klimas, Paul J., Five Stages of CIS Development, CE
News, July 1998, pp.48.
Korte, George B., The CIS Book, Onword Press, Santa
Fe, New Mexico, 1994.
Kshirsagar, S.R. and E.D. Brill Jr., Ideation and Evaluation
Methods Applied to Landuse Planning, Environment and
Planning B, 11:313,1984.
McAllister, L.S., B.E. Peniston, J. Hyman, and B.
Abbruzzese, Conceptual Framework for a Synoptic As-
sessment of the Prairie Pothole Region, EPA/600/R-96/
061, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National
Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory,
Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, Oregon 1996
Montgomery, Glenn E. and Harold C. Schuch, CIS Data
Conversion Handbook, CIS World Books, Fort Collins, Colo-
rado, 1993.
Montgomery, D.R., G.E. Grant, and K. Sullivan, Water-
shed Analysis as a Framework for Implementing Ecosys-
tem Management, Water Resources Bulletin, American
Water Resources Association 31 (3):369-386,1995
National Civic League, The Community Visioning and Stra-
tegic Planning Handbook, NCL Press, Denver, Colorado,
1997.
National Research Council, Restoration of Aquatic Eco-
systems, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1992
Ossenholler, Jeff, Find the Right Fit: How to Select the
Best Data Collection Strategy, CIS World, July 1997, pp.
52.
The Pacific Rivers Council, Inc., Healing the Watershed:
A Guide to the Restoration of Watershed and Native Fish
in the West, Pacific Rivers Council, Inc. 2nd Edition, Eu-
gene, Oregon, 1996.
Rajani, Purvi, Compatibility, Functionality Top Software
User Wish Lists, CIS World, July 1996, pp.94.
Steinitz, Carl; A Framework for Theory Applicable to the
Education of Landscape Architects (and Other Environ-
mental Design Professionals), Landscape Journal, Octo-
ber 1990, pp. 136-143.
Steinitz, C. (ed.), et. al. "Alternative Futures for the
Snyderville Basin, Summit County, Utah." Graduate School
of Design, Harvard University, 1992.
46
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Steinitz, Carl; Geographical Information Systems: A Per-
sonal Historical Perspective, The Framework For A Re-
cent Project, (And Some Questions For The Future); Eu-
ropean Conference on Geographic Information Systems,
Genoa, Italy, March 30,1993.
Steinitz, Carl, (ed.), Douglas Olson, Elke Bilda, John Ellis,
Torgen Johnson,Ying-Yu Hung, Edith Katz, Paula Meijerink,
Allan Shearer, H. Roger Smith, and Avital Sternberg./4/-
ternative Futures For Monroe County, Pennsylvania, The
Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 1994.
Steinitz, Carl, (ed.), Michael Binford, Paul Cote, Thomas
Edwards Jr., Stephen Ervin, Richard Forman, Craig
Johnson, Ross Kiester, David Mouat, Douglas Olson, Allan
Shearer, Richard Toth, and Robin Wills. Biodiversity and
Landscape Planning: Alternative futures for the region of
Camp Pendleton, CA, The Harvard Graduate School of
Design, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1996.
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, A Guide to Devel-
oping Local Watershed Action Plans in Ohio, Ohio EPA,
1997
Sumner, Richard, and David Hulse, EPA Research is Help-
ing Communities Achieve Their Desired Vision of the Fu-
ture, \Afatershed Management Council Networker, Fall 1997,
Sumner, R. and J. Kapuscinski. Building the Vision for
Ecosystem Management. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Re-
search Laboratory, Corvallis, OR. (submitted for publica-
tion)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Community-Based
Environmental Protection: A Resource Book for Protect-
ing Ecosystems and Communities, Office of Policy, Plan-
ning, and Evaluation, Washington, DC, September 1997.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental
Planning for Small Communities: A Guide for Local Deci-
sion-Makers, EPA/625/R-94/009, Washington, DC, 1994.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Confer-
ence on Environmental Problem-Solving with Geographic
Information Systems, Office of Research and Develop-
ment, Washington, DC, September 1 995.
47
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Appendix B: Glossary of Terms
Attribute
Biodiversity
Buffer
Data model
Digitizing
Ecosystem
Georeferencing, geocoding
Global Positioning Systems
Habitat
Indicators
Operating System
Peripheral
Raster
Relational Database
Resolution
Scanning
Vector
\AMershed
an item of text, a numeric value or an image that is a characteristic
of a spatial entity
the number and variety of different species
user-specified distance around a point, line or area
a view of data for representing the real world
conversion of existing maps from paper or film into digital form
a physical environment and its community of plants and animals
assigning geographic coordinates to physical structures
a system that receives radio signals from satellites and identifies
the location of the signal receiver
an environment that supports plant and animal species
specific measures of progress or condition
computer programs which control the operation of the computer
itself
a hardware component connected to a computerto perform special
functions
a data structure composed of a grid of cells
a database which arranges data in the form of tables
the size of the smallest object which can be represented
conversion of data from analog (paper orfilm) into digital rasterform
a data structure composed of points and lines
an area where rain and other water drain into a common location
such as a river or lake
48
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Appendix C: List of Abbreviations
BPJ Best Professional Judgement
CBEP Community-Based Environmental Protection
COTS Common off the Shelf
DBMS Database Management System
DGPS Differential Global Positioning System
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FOV Field of View
CIS Geographic Information System
GPS Global Positioning System
LIDAR Light Detection and Range
NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service
NPS Non-point Source
OEPA Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
OSEC Office of Sustainable Ecosystems and Communities
PCSD President's Council on Sustainable Development
RBDE Riparian Buffer Delineation Equations
ROMS Relational Database Management System
SA Selective Availability
USGS United States Geologic Survey
49
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United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use
$300
EPA/625/R-98/003
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