United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
EPA/625/R-99/010
September 2000
http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL
&EPA Manual
Constructed Wetlands
Treatment of Municipal
Wastewaters
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EPA/625/R-99/010
September 1999
Manual
Constructed Wetlands Treatment of
Municipal Waste waters
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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Notice
This document has been reviewed in accordance with the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's peer and administrative review policies and approved for publication. Mention of trade
names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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Foreword
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with protecting the
Nation's land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national environmental laws, the
Agency strives to formulate and implement actions leading to a compatible balance between
human activities and the ability of natural systems to support and nurture life. To meet this
mandate, EPAs research program is providing data and technical support for solving environ-
mental prob-lems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage our eco-
logical re-sources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and prevent or reduce
environmen-tal risks in the future.
The National Risk Management Research Laboratory is the Agency's center for investiga-
tion of technicological and management approaches for reducing risks from threats to human
health and the environment. The focus of the Laboratory's research program is on methods for
the prevention and control of pollution to air, land, water and subsurface resources; protection
of water quality in public water systems; remediation of contaminated sites and ground water;
and prevention and control of indoor air pollution. The goal of this research effort is to catalyze
development and implementation of innovative, cost-effective environmental technologies; de-
velop scientific and engineering information needed by EPA to support regulatory and policy
decisions; and provide technical support and information transferto ensure effective implemen-
tation of environmental regulations and strategies.
This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory's strategic long-term research
plan. It is published and made available by EPAs Office of Research and Development to assist
the user community and to link researchers with their clients.
E. Timothy Oppelt, Director
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
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Abstract
This manual discusses the capabilities of constructed wetlands, a functional design ap-
proach, and the management requirements to achieve the designed purpose. The manual also
attempts to put the proper perspective on the appropriate use, design and performance of con-
structed wetlands. For some applications, they are an excellent option because they are low in
cost and in maintenance requirements, offer good performance, and provide a natural appear-
ance, if not more beneficial ecological benefits. In other applications, such as large urban areas
with large wastewater flows, they may not be at all appropriate owing to their land requirements.
Constructed wetlands are especially well suited for wastewater treatment in small communities
where inexpensive land is available and skilled operators hard to find and keep.
Primary customers will be engineers who service small communities, state regulators, and
planning professionals. Secondary users will be environmental groups and the academics.
IV
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Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1. Scope 1
1.2. Terminology 1
1.3. Relationship to Previous EPA Documents 2
1.4. Wetlands Treatment Database 2
1.5. History 4
1.6. Common Misperceptions 4
1.7. When to Use Constructed Wetlands 5
1.8 Use of This Manual 8
1.9 References 8
Chapter2 Introduction to Constructed Wetlands 10
2.1 Understanding Constructed Wetlands 10
2.2 Ecology of Constructed Wetlands 12
2.3 Botany of Constructed Wetlands 12
2.4 Fauna of Constructed Wetlands 16
2.5 Ecological Concerns for Constructed Wetland Designers 16
2.6 Human Health Concerns 18
2.7 Onsite System Applications 19
2.8 Related Aquatic Treatment Systems 19
2.9 Frequently Asked Questions 20
2.10 Glossary 23
2.11 References 27
Chapter 3 Removal Mechanisms and Modeling Performance of Constructed Wetlands 30
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Mechanisms of Suspended Solids Separations and Transformations 30
3.3 Mechanisms for Organic Matter Separations and Transformations 35
3.4 Mechanisms of Nitrogen Separations and Transformations 42
3.5 Mechanisms of Phosphorus Separations and Transformations 46
3.6 Mechanisms of Pathogen Separations and Transformations 48
3.7 Mechanisms of Other Contaminant Separations and Transformations 49
3.8 Constructed Wetland Modeling 50
3.9 References 52
Chapter4 Free Water Surface Wetlands 55
4.1 Performance Expectations 55
4.2 Wetland Hydrology 64
4.3 Wetland Hydraulics 65
4.4 Wetland System Design and Sizing Rationale 68
4.5 Design 69
4.6 Design Issues 78
4.7 Construction/Civil Engineering Issues 81
4.8 Summary of Design Recommendations 83
4.9 References 83
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Contents (cont.)
Chapters Vegetated Submerged Beds 86
5.1 Introduction 86
5.2 Theoretical Considerations 86
5.3 Hydrology 91
5.4 Basis of Design 93
5.5 Design Considerations 101
5.6 Design Example fora VSB Treating Septic Tank or Primary Effluent 103
5.7 On-site Applications 106
5.8 Alternative VSB Systems 106
5.9 References 107
Chapter6 Construction, Start-Up, Operation, and Maintenance 111
6.1 Introduction 111
6.2 Construction 111
6.3 Start-Up 117
6.4 Operation and Maintenance 118
6.5 Monitoring 119
6.6 References 119
Chapter7 Capital and Recurring Costs of Constructed Wetlands 120
7.1 Introduction 120
7.2 Construction Costs 120
7.3 Operation and Maintenance Costs 125
7.4 References 127
Chapters Case Studies 128
8.1 Free Water Surface (FWS) Constructed Wetlands 128
8.2 Vegetated Submerged Bed (VSB) Systems 141
8.3 Lessons Learned 152
VI
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List of Figures
2-1 Constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment train 11
2-2 Elements of a free water surface (FWS) constructed wetland 11
2-3 Elements of a vegetated submerged bed (VSB) system 11
2-4 Profile of a 3-zone FWS constructed wetland cell 18
3-1 Mechanisms which dominate FWS systems 32
3-2 Weekly transect TSS concentration for Arcata cell 8 pilot receiving oxidation pond effluent 34
3-3 Variation in effluent BOD at the Arcata enhancement marsh 36
3-4 Carbon transformations in an FWS wetland 37
3-5 Dissolved oxygen distribution in emergent and submergent zones of a tertiary FWS 40
3-6 Nitrogen transformations in FWS wetlands 43
3-7 Phosphorus cycling in an FWS wetland 47
3-8 Phosphorus pulsing in pilot cells in Arcata 48
3-9 Influent versus effluent FC for the TADB systems 49
3-10 Adaptive model building 51
4-1 Effluent BOD vs areal loading 57
4-2 Internal release of soluble BOD during treatment 57
4-3 Annual detritus BOD load from Scirpus &Typha 58
4-4 TSS loading vs TSS in effluent 58
4-5 Effluent TKN vs TKN loading 59
4-6 Effluent TP vs TP areal loading 61
4-7 Total phosphorus loading versus effluent concentration for TADB systems 61
4-8 Hydraulic retention time vs orthophosphate removal 62
4-9 Influent versus effluent FC concentration for TADB systems 63
4-10 TSS, BOD and FC removals for Arcata Pilot Cell 8 63
4-11 Tracer response curve for Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant Demonstration
Wetlands Project Cell 7 67
4-12 Transect BOD data for Arcata Pilot Cell 8 71
4-13 Elements of a free water surface (FWS) constructed wetland 71
4-14 Generic removal of pollutants in a 3-zone FWS system 72
5-1 Seasonal cycle in a VSB 90
5-2 Preferential flow in a VSB 93
5-3 Lithium chloride tracer studies in a VSB system 94
5-4 Effluent TSS vs areal loading rate 95
5-5 Effluent TSS vs volumetric loading rate 95
5-6 Effluent BOD vs areal loading rate 96
5-7 Effluent BOD vs volumetric loading rate 96
5-8 Effluent TKN vs areal loading rate 98
5-9 Effluent TP vs areal loading rate 99
5-10 NADB VSBs treating pond effluent 100
5-11 Proposed Zones in a VSB 102
6-1 Examples of constructed wetland berm construction 112
6-2 Examples of constructed wetland inlet designs 114
vii
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List of Figures (cont.)
6-3 Outlet devices 115
8-1 Schematic diagram of wetland system atArcata, CA 129
8-2 Schematic diagram of Phase 1&2 wetland systems at West Jackson County, MS 132
8-3 Schematic diagram of Phase 3 wetland expansion at West Jackson County, MS 132
8-4 Schematic diagrams of the wetland system at Gustine, CA 136
8-5 Schematic diagram of the wetland system at Ouray, CO 140
8-6 Schematic of Minoa, NY, VSB system 142
8-7 Schematic diagram of typical VSB (one of three) at Mesquite, NV 145
8-8 Schematic of VSB system at Mandeville, LA 147
8-9 Schematic of VSB system at Sorrento, LA 151
VIM
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List of Tables
1-1. Types of Wetlands in the NADB 3
1-2. Types of Wastewater Treated and Level of Pretreatment for NADB Wetlands 3
1-3. Size Distribution of Wetlands in the NADB 4
1-4. Distribution of Wetlands in the NADB by State/Province 4
1-5. Start Date of Treatment Wetlands in the NADB 4
2-1 Characteristics of Plants for Constructed Wetlands 14
2-2 Factors to Consider in Plant Selection 15
2-3 Characteristics of Animals Found in Constructed Wetlands 16
3-1 Typical Constructed Wetland Influent Wastewater 30
3-2 Size Distributions for Solids in Municipal Wastewater 31
3-3 Size Distribution for Organic and Phosphorus Solids in Municipal Wastewater 31
3-4 Fractional Distribution of BOD, COD, Turbidity and TSS in the Oxidation Pond Effluent and
Effluent from Marsh Cell 5 34
3-5 Background Concentrations of Contaminants of Concern in FWS Wetland Treatment System Effluents 35
3-6 Wetland Oxygen Sources and Sinks 41
4-1 Loading and Performance Data for Systems Analyzed in This Document 56
4-2 Trace Metal Concentrations and Removal Rates, Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant 63
4-3 Fractional Distribution of BOD, COD and TSS in the Oxidation Pond Effluent and Effluent from
Marsh Cell 5 64
4-4 Background Concentrations of Water Quality Constituents of Concern in FWS Constructed Wetlands 70
4-5 Examples of Change in Wetland Volume Due to Deposition of Non-Degradable TSS (Vss) and
Plant Detritus (Vd) Based on 100 Percent Emergent Plant Coverage !! 74
4-6 Lagoon Influent and Effluent Quality Assumptions 77
4-7 Recommended Design Criteria for FWS Constructed Wetlands 83
5-1 Hydraulic Conductivity Values Reported in the Literature 92
5-2 Comparison of VSB Areas Required for BOD Removal Using Common Design Approaches 97
5-3 Data from Las Animas, CO VSB Treating Pond Effluent 100
5-4 Summary of VSB Design Guidance 106
7-1 Cost Comparison of 4,645m2 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetland and Vegetated Submerged Bed 121
7-2 Technical and Cost Data for Wetland Systems Included in 1997 Case Study Visitations 121
7-3 Clearing and Grubbing Costs for EPA Survey Sites 122
7-4 Excavation and Earthwork Costs for EPA Survey Sites 122
7-5 Liner Costs for EPA Survey Sites 123
7-6 Typical Installed Liner Costs for 9,300m2 Minimum Area 123
7-7 Media Costs for VSBs from EPA Survey Sites 124
7-8 Costs for Wetland Vegetation and Planting from EPA Survey Sites 124
7-9 Costs for Inlet and Outlet Structures from EPA Sites 124
7-10 Range of Capital Costs for a 0.4 ha Membrane-Lined VSB and FWS Wetland 126
7-11 Annual O&M Costs at Carville, LA (570m3/d) Vegetated Submerged Bed 127
7-12 Annual O&M Costs for Constructed Wetlands, Including All Treatment Costs 127
IX
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List of Tables (cont.)
8-1 Summary of Results, Phase 1 Pilot Testing, Arcata, CA 130
8-2 Long-Term Average Performance, Arcata WWTP 131
8-3 Wetland Water Quality, West Jackson County, MS 134
8-4 Performance Results in Mature Vegetated vs Immature Vegetated FWS Cells, Gustine, CA 138
8-5 Wetland Effluent Characteristics, Gustine, CA 139
8-6 BOD &TSS Removal forOuray, CO 141
8-7 Village of Minoa VSB Construction Costs 143
8-8 Summary Performance, Mesquite, NV, VSB Component 146
8-9 Monthly Effluent Characteristics, Mesquite, NV, VSB Component 146
8-10 Water Quality Performance, Mandeville, LA, Treatment System (June - Sept., 1991) 149
8-11 Water Quality Performance, Mandeville, LA, Treatment System (Jan. 1996-July 1997) 150
8-12 VSB Effluent Water Quality, Sorrento, LA 152
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Acknowledgments
Many people participated in the creation of this manual. Technical direction throughout the
multi-year production process was provided by USEPA's National Risk Management Research
Laboratory (NRMRL). Technical writing was carried out in several stages, but culminated into a
final product as a cooperative effort between the NRMRL and the contractors named below.
Significant technical reviews and contributions based on extensive experience with constructed
wetlands were made by a number of prominent practitioners. Technical review was provided by
a group of professionals with extensive experience with the problems specific to small commu-
nity wastewater treatment systems. The production of the document was also a joint effort by
NRMRL and contractual personnel. All of these people are listed below:
Primary Authors and Oversight Committee
Donald S. Brown, Water Supply and Water Resources Division, NRMRL, Cincinnati, OH
James F. Kreissl, Technology Transfer and Support Division, NRMRL, Cincinnati, OH
Robert A. Gearheart, Humboldt University, Arcata, CA
Andrew P. Kruzic, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX
William C. Boyle, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wl
Richard J. Otis, Ayres Associates, Madison, Wl
Major Contributors/Authors
Sherwood C. Reed, Environmental Engineering Consultants, Norwich, VT
Richard Moen, Ayres Associates, Madison, Wl
Robert Knight, Consultant, Gainesville, FL
Dennis George, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN
Brad Finney, Humboldt University, Arcata, CA
Jeff Anderson, Humboldt University, Arcata, CA
Margaret Lang, Humboldt University, Arcata, CA
Michael Ogden, Southwest Wetlands Group, Inc., Santa Fe, NM
Ronald Crites, Brown and Caldwell, Sacramento, CA
George Tchobanoglons, Consultant, Davis, CA
Contributing Writers/Production Specialists
Ian Clavey, CEP Inc., Cincinnati, OH
Vince lacobucci, CEP Inc., Cincinnati, OH
Julie Hotchkiss, CEP Inc., Cincinnati, OH
Peggy Heimbrock, TTSD - NRMRL, Cincinnati, OH
Stephen E. Wilson, TTSD - NRMRL, Cincinnati, OH
Denise Ratliff, TTSD - NRMRL, Cincinnati, OH
Betty Kampsen, STD - NRMRL, Cincinnati, OH
Technical Reviewers
Arthur H. Benedict, EES Consulting, Inc., Bellevue, WA
Pio Lombardo, Lombardo Associates, Inc., Newton, MA
Rao Surampalli, USEPA- Region VII, Kansas City, KS
Robert K. Bastian, USEPA- Office of Wastewater Management, Washington, DC
XI
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Chapter 1
Introduction to the Manual
1.1. Scope
Constructed wetlands are artificial wastewater treatment
systems consisting of shallow (usually less than 1 m deep)
ponds or channels which have been planted with aquatic
plants, and which rely upon natural microbial, biological,
physical and chemical processes to treat wastewater. They
typically have impervious clay or synthetic liners, and en-
gineered structures to control the flow direction, liquid de-
tention time and water level. Depending on the type of sys-
tem, they may or may not contain an inert porous media
such as rock, gravel or sand.
Constructed wetlands have been used to treat a variety
of wastewaters including urban runoff, municipal, indus-
trial, agricultural and acid mine drainage. However, the
scope of this manual is limited to constructed wetlands
that are the major unit process in a system to treat munici-
pal wastewater. While some degree of pre- or post- treat-
ment will be required in conjunction with the wetland to
treat wastewater to meet stream discharge or reuse re-
quirements, the wetland will be the central treatment com-
ponent.
This manual discusses the capabilities of constructed
wetlands, a functional design approach, and the manage-
ment requirements to achieve the designed purpose. This
manual also attempts to put the proper perspective on the
appropriate use of constructed wetlands. For some appli-
cations, they are an excellent option because they are low
in cost and in maintenance requirements, offer good per-
formance, and provide a natural appearance, if not more
beneficial ecological benefits. However, because they re-
quire large land areas, 4 to 25 acres per million gallons of
flow per day, they are not appropriate for some applica-
tions. Constructed wetlands are especially well suited for
wastewater treatment in small communities where inex-
pensive land is available and skilled operators are hard to
find.
1.2 Terminology
A brief discussion of terminology will help the reader dif-
ferentiate between the constructed wetlands discussed in
this manual and other types of wetlands. Wetlands are
defined in Federal regulations as "those areas that are in-
undated or saturated by surface or ground water at a fre-
quency and duration sufficient to support, and that under
normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of veg-
etation typically adapted for life in saturated soil condi-
tions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs
and similar areas." (40 CFR 230.3(t)) Artificial wetlands
are wetlands that have been built or extensively modified
by humans, as opposed to natural wetlands which are
existing wetlands that have had little or no modification by
humans, such as filling, draining, or altering the flow pat-
terns or physical properties of the wetland. The modifica-
tion ordirect use of natural wetlands for wastewater treat-
ment is discouraged and natural wetlands are not dis-
cussed in this manual (see discussion of policy issues in
Section 1.7.2).
As previously defined, constructed wetlands are artifi-
cial wetlands built to provide wastewater treatment. They
are typically constructed with uniform depths and regular
shapes near the source of the wastewater and often in
upland areas where no wetlands have historically existed.
Constructed wetlands are almost always regulated as
wastewater treatment facilities and cannot be used for
compensatory mitigation (see Section 1.7.2). Some EPA
documents refer to constructed wetlands as constructed
treatment wetlands to avoid any confusion about their pri-
mary use as a wastewater treatment facility (USEPA,
1999). Constructed wetlands which provide advanced
treatment to wastewater that has been pretreated to sec-
ondary levels, and also provide other benefits such as
wildlife habitat, research laboratories, or recreational uses
are sometimes called enhancement wetlands.
Constructed wetlands have been classified by the lit-
erature and practitioners into two types. Free water sur-
face (FWS) wetlands (also known as surface flow wet-
lands) closely resemble natural wetlands in appearance
because they contain aquatic plants that are rooted in a
soil layer on the bottom of the wetland and water flows
through the leaves and stems of plants. Vegetated sub-
merged bed (VSB) systems (also known as subsurface
flow wetlands) do not resemble natural wetlands because
they have no standing water. They contain a bed of media
(such as crushed rock, small stones, gravel, sand or soil)
which has been planted with aquatic plants. When prop-
erly designed and operated, wastewater stays beneath
the surface of the media, flows in contact with the roots
and rhizomes of the plants, and is not visible or available
to wildlife.
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The term "vegetated submerged bed" is used in this manual
instead of subsurface flow wetland because it is a more ac-
curate and descriptive term. The term has been used previ-
ously to describe these units (WPCF, 1990; USEPA, 1994).
Some VSBs may meet the strict definition of a wetland, but a
VSB does not support aquatic wildlife because the water
level stays below the surface of the media, and is not condu-
cive to many of the biological and chemical interactions that
occur in the water and sediments of a wetland with an open
watercolumn. VSBs have historically been characterized as
constructed wetlands in the literature, and so they are in-
cluded in this manual.
Constructed wetlands should not be confused with cre-
ated or restored wetlands, which have the primary function
of wildlife habitat. In an effort to mimic natural wetlands, the
latter often have a combination of features such as varying
water depths, open water and dense vegetation zones, veg-
etation types ranging from submerged aquatic plants to
shrubs and trees, nesting islands, and irregular shorelines.
They are frequently built in or near places that have histori-
cally had wetlands, and are often built as compensatory miti-
gation. Created and restored wetlands for habitat or com-
pensatory mitigation are not discussed in this manual.
Finally, the term vertical flow wetland is used to describe a
typical vertical flow sand or gravel filter which has been
planted with aquatic plants. Because successful operation
of this type of system depends on its operation as a filter (i.e.
frequent dosing and draining cycles), this manual does not
discuss this type of system.
1.3 Relationship to Previous EPA
Documents
Several Offices or Programs within USEPA have published
documents in recent years on the subject of constructed
wetlands. Some examples of publications and their USEPA
sponsors are:
• Design Manual: Constructed Wetlands and Aquatic Plant
Systems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment (1988)
(Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH,
EPA 625-1-88-022)
• Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands for Wastewa-
ter Treatment: A Technology Assessment (1993) (Office
of Wastewater Management, Washington, DC, EPA832-
R-93-008)
• Habitat Quality Assessment of Wetland Treatment Sys-
tems (3 studies in 1992 and 1993) (Environmental Re-
search Lab, Corvallis, OR, EPA600-R-92-229, EPA 600-
R-93-117, EPA600-R-93-222)
• Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment and
Wildlife Habitat: 17 Case Studies (1993) (Office of Waste-
water Management, Washington, DC, EPA 832-R-93-
005)
• Guidance for Design and Construction of a Subsur-
face Flow Constructed Wetland (August 1993) (USEPA
Region VI, Municipal Facilities Branch)
• A Handbook of Constructed Wetlands (5 volumes,
1995) (USEPA Region III with USDA, NRCS, ISBN 0-
16-052999-9)
• Constructed Wetlands for Animal Waste Treatment: A
Manual on Performance, Design, and Operation With
Cases Histories (1997) (USEPA Gulf of Mexico Pro-
gram)
• Free Water Surface Wetlands for Wastewater Treat-
ment: A Technology Assessment (1999) (Office of
Wastewater Management, Washington, DC, EPA/832/
R-99/002)
Some information presented in this manual may contra-
dict information presented in these other documents. Some
contradictions are the result of new information and un-
derstanding developed since the publication of earlierdocu-
ments; some contradictions are the result of earlier mis-
conceptions about the mechanisms at work within con-
structed wetlands; and some contradictions are the result
of differing opinions among experts when insufficient in-
formation exists to present a clear answer to issues sur-
rounded by disagreement. As stated previously, this manual
attempts to put an environmental engineering perspective
on the use, design and performance of constructed wet-
lands as reflected by the highest quality data available at
this time. In areas where there is some disagreement
among experts, this manual assumes a conservative ap-
proach based on known treatment mechanisms which fit
existing valid data.
1.4 Wetlands Treatment Database
Through a series of efforts funded by the USEPA, a
Wetlands Treatment Database, "North American Wetlands
for Water Quality Treatment Database or NADB" (USEPA,
1994) has been compiled which provides information about
natural and constructed wetlands used for wastewater
treatment in North America. Version 1 of the NADB was
released in 1994 and contains information for treatment
wetlands at 174 locations in over 30 US states and Cana-
dian provinces. Information includes general site informa-
tion, system specific information (e.g., flow, dimensions,
plant species), contact people with addresses and phone
numbers, literature references, and permit information. It
also contains some water quality data (BOD, TSS, N-se-
ries, P, DO, and fecal conforms), but the data is not of uni-
form quantity and quality, which makes it inappropriate for
design or modeling purposes.
Version 2 of the NADB is currently undergoing Agency
review and contains information on treatment wetlands at
245 locations in the US and Canada. Because each loca-
tion may have multiple wetland cells, there are over 800
individual wetland cells identified in Version 2. Besides
expanding the number of wetland locations from Version
1, Version 2 also contains information regarding vegeta-
tion, wildlife, human use, biomonitoring and additional water
quality data. As with Version 1, the data is not adequate
for design or modeling.
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Data did not exist or were incomplete for many of the
wetlands included in the NADB. Only existing informa-
tion was collected for the NADB; no new measurements
were made. Therefore, the NADB is very useful for ob-
taining general information about the status of con-
structed wetlands usage, as well as the locations of
operating systems and people to contact. However, it is
not useful as a source of water quality data for wetland
design or prediction of treatment performance.
Tables 1.1 through 1.4 give an overview of Version 2 of
the NADB. The size range and median size are shown in
several tables to give the reader a feel for the size of each
type of wetland. The median size is shown because there
are a few very large wetlands in some of the groups, which
makes the median size more characteristic of the group
than the mean size.
Tables 1.1 and 1.2 group the wetlands by type of wet-
land and type of wastewater being treated, respectively. In
general FWSs are larger than VSBs, with the median size
of FWS wetlands being twice that of VSBs. The summary
statistics for "other water" wetlands in Table 1.2 are some-
what misleading because they are influenced by the large
Everglades Nutrient Removal project in Florida.
Table 1-1. Types of Wetlands in the NADB
Type of Wetland
Constructed Wetlands
Free Water Surface
Marsh*
Other
Vegetated Submerged Bed (all Marsh)
Combined FWS & VSB (all Marsh)
Other or Not Classified
Natural Wetlands (all Free Water Surface)
Forest
Marsh
Other or Not Classified
Not Classified 2
Qty.
205
138
125
13
49
8
10
38
18
16
4
Min.
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.08
0.004
0.1
0.01
0.2
1
0.2
6
Size (hectares)
Median
0.8
1
1
3
0.5
0.4
1
40
40
33
64
Max.
1406
1406
1406
188
498
17
14
1093
204
1093
494
'Marshes are characterized by soft-stemmed herbaceous plants, including emergent species, such as cattails, floating species, such as water lilies,
and submerged species, such as pondweeds. (Niering, 1985)
Table 1-2. Types of Wastewater Treated and Level of Pretreatment for NADB Wetlands
Wastewater Type Pretreatment
Agricultural
None
Primary
Facultative
Not classified
Industrial
Primary
Facultative
Secondary
Advanced Secondary
Not classified
Municipal
Primary
Facultative
Secondary
Advanced Secondary
Tertiary
Other
Not classified
Stormwater
None
Secondary
Other
Other Water
None
Primary
Facultative
Secondary
Not classified
Qty.
58
8
35
14
1
13
1
2
6
1
3
159
9
78
49
9
4
4
6
6
4
1
1
7
4
1
1
1
2
Size (hectares)
Min. Median Max.
0.0004 0.1 47
0.03 10 1093
0.004 2 500
0.2 8 42
3 376 1 406
14
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Table 1.3 groups all the wetlands, regardless of type of
wetland or wastewater being treated, by size. In terms of
area, the majority of the wetlands are less than 10 hect-
ares (25 acres), and almost 90% are less than 100 hect-
ares (250 acres). In terms of design flow rate, the majority
are less than 1000 m3/d (about 0.25 mgd), and 82% are
less than 4060 m3/d (1 mgd).
Table 1.4 groups all the wetlands, regardless of type of
wetland or wastewater being treated, by location. Treat-
ment wetlands are located in 34 US states and 6 Cana-
dian provinces. The number of wetlands per state is prob-
ably more a function of having an advocate for treatment
wetlands in the state than climate or some other favorable
condition.
Table 1-3. Size Distribution of Wetlands in the NADB
Area (hectares)
Size Cumulative
Range Percentage
less than 1
less than 10
less than 1 00
less than 1 000
46
75
93
99
Design
Size
Range
less than 10
less than 100
less than 1000
less than 10,000
Flow (m3/d)
Cumulative
Percentage
19
31
62
93
Table 1-4. Distribution of Wetlands in the NADB by State/Province
1.5 History
Kadlec and Knight (1996) give a good historical account
of the use of natural and constructed wetlands for waste-
water treatment and disposal. As they point out, natural
wetlands have probably been used forwastewaterdisposal
for as long as wastewater has been collected, with docu-
mented discharges dating back to 1912. Some early con-
structed wetlands researchers probably began their efforts
based on observations of the apparent treatment capacity
of natural wetlands. Others saw wastewater as a source
of water and nutrients for wetland restoration or creation.
Research studies on the use of constructed wetlands for
wastewater treatment began in Europe in the 1950's, and
in the US in the late 1960's. Research efforts in the US
increased throughout the 1970's and 1980's, with signifi-
cant Federal involvement by the Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the late
1980's and early 1990's. USEPA has had a limited role in
constructed wetlands research which might explain the
dearth of useful, quality-assured data.
Start dates for constructed wetlands in the NADB are
shown in Table 1.5, with the start dates for natural wet-
lands used fortreatment included for comparison. The table
shows that the use of FWS wetlands and VSBs in North
America really began in the early and Iate1980's, respec-
tively, and the number continues to increase. No new natu-
ral wetland treatment systems have begun since 1990, and
at least one-third of the natural wetland treatment systems
included in the NADB are no longer operating.
State or Province*
SD
FL
AR
KY
LA
MS
PA
OM
AL
ONT
MD
OR
SC
IN
Ml
MO
NY
DA
rrt
TX
AZ
GA
ND
NVS
TN
Wl
ALB, IA, ME, MN,
NC, NM, NV, QUE
CT, IL, MA, NJ, NWT,
PEI, VA, WA
Number of
Wetlands
42
24
21
19
15
11
q
y
8
8
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
1
Size (hectares)
Min.
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.01
0.02
0.02
n 1
\j . i
0.04
0.02
0.1
0.1
20
0.002
5
0.04
0.03
Oni
.U I
0.1
2
0.01
14
0.1
0.1
0.01
Median
2
44.5
0.8
0.1
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.09
0.2
4
36
0.12
56.5
0.25
0.25
Once
.UOO
0.2
38
0.3
17
0.1
0.2
6
Max.
134
1406
4
5
17
101
^Q
\ji?
6
0.4
2
36
185
1
110
37
2
OO
.Z
0.5
54
0.4
33
0.4
0.3
156
Many texts and design guidelines for constructed wet-
lands, in addition to those listed above sponsored by the
various offices of USEPA, have been published since
USEPAs 1 988 design manual (EC/EWPCA (1 990); WPCF
(1 990); Tennessee Valley Authority (1 993); USDA (1 993);
Reed, et al (1995); Kadlec and Knight (1996); Campbell
and Ogden (1999)). Also, a number of international con-
ferences have been convened to present the findings of
constructed wetlands research from almost every conti-
nent (Hammer (1 989); Cooper and Findlater (1 990); Moshiri
Table 1-5. Start Date of Treatment Wetlands in the NADB
before 1950's& 1990's
Type 1950 60's 1970's '80-'84 '85-'89 (latest*)
Constructed, 103 8 33 85
FWS ('96)
Constructed, 000 0 21 31
VSB ('94)
Constructed, 0001 46
hybrid ('94)
Natural, 4395 81
FWS ('90)
'Two-letter abbreviations are states; three-letter abbreviations are
provinces.
*Year of last wetland included in database for this type of wetland - other
wetlands may have started after this date, but are not in the database.
15
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(1993); IAWQ (1994)(1995) (1997)). However, in spite of
the great amount of resources devoted to constructed wet-
lands, questions and misconceptions remain about their ap-
plication, design, and performance. This section briefly de-
scribes four common misconceptions; further discussion of
these items is found in other chapters.
Misconception #1: Wetland design has been well-charac-
terized by published design equations. Constructed wetlands
are complex systems in terms of biology, hydraulics and water
chemistry. Furthermore, there is a lack of quality data of suf-
ficient detail, both temporally and spatially, on full-scale con-
structed wetlands. Due to the lack of data, designers have
been forced to derive design parameters by aggregating per-
formance data from a variety of wetlands, which leads to
uncertainties about the validity of the parameters. Data from
wetlands with detailed research studies with rigorous quality
control (QC) might be combined with data from wetlands
with randomly collected data with little QC. Data from small
wetlands with minimal pretreatment might be combined with
data from large wetlands used for polishing secondary efflu-
ent. Additional problems with constructed wetlands data in-
clude: lack of paired influent-effluent samples; grab samples
instead of composited samples; lack of reliable flow or de-
tention time information; and lack of important incidental in-
formation such as temperature and precipitation. The result-
ing data combinations, completed to obtain larger data sets,
have sometimes been used to create regression equations
of questionable value for use in design. Finally, data from
constructed wetlands treating relatively high quality (but in-
adequately characterized) wastewater has sometimes been
used to derive design parameters for more concentrated
municipal treatment applications, which is less than assur-
ing for any designer.
Misconception #2: Constructed wetlands have aerobic as
well as anaerobic treatment zones. Probably the most com-
mon misconception concerns the ability of emergent wet-
land plants to transfer oxygen to their roots. Emergent aquatic
plants are uniquely suited to the anaerobic environment of
wetlands because they can move oxygen from the atmo-
sphere to their roots. Research has shown that some oxy-
gen "leaks" from the roots into the surrounding soils (Brix,
1997). This phenomenon, and early work with natural and
constructed wetlands that treated wastewater with a low
oxygen demand, has led to the assumption that significant
aerobic micro-sites exist in all wetland systems. Some con-
structed wetlands literature states or implies that aerobic bio-
degradation is a significant treatment mechanism in fully
vegetated systems, which has led some practitioners to be-
lieve that wetlands with dense vegetation, or many sources
of "leaking" oxygen, are in fact aerobic systems. However,
the early work with tertiary or polishing wetlands is not di-
rectly applicable to wetlands treating higher strength waste-
water because it fails to account forthe impacts of the waste-
wateron the characteristics of the wetland. Treatment mecha-
nisms that function under light loads are impaired or over-
whelmed due to changes imparted by the large oxygen de-
mand of more contaminated municipal wastewater. Field
experience and research have shown that the small amount
of oxygen leaked from plant roots is insignificant compared
to the oxygen demand of municipal wastewater applied at
practical loading rates.
Misconception #3: Constructed wetlands can remove sig-
nificant amounts of nitrogen. Related to the misconception
about the availability of oxygen in constructed wetlands is
the misconception about the ability of constructed wetlands
to remove significant amounts of nitrogen. Harvesting re-
moves less than 20% of influent nitrogen (Reed, et al,1995)
at conventional loading rates. This leaves nitrification and
denitrification as the primary removal mechanisms. If it is
assumed that wetlands have aerobic zones, it then follows
that nitrification of ammonia to nitrate should occur. Further-
more, if the aerobic zone surrounds only the roots of the
plants, it then follows that anaerobic zones dominate, and
denitrification of nitrate to nitrogen gas should also occur.
Unfortunately, the nitrogen-related misconceptions have been
responsible for the failure of several constructed wetlands
that were built to remove or oxidize nitrogen. Because anaero-
bic processes dominate in both VSBs and fully vegetated
FWS wetlands, nitrification of ammonia is unlikely to occur
in the former and will occur only if open water zones are
introduced to the latter. Constructed wetlands can be de-
signed to remove nitrogen, if sufficient aerobic (open water)
and anaerobic (vegetated) zones are provided. Otherwise,
constructed wetlands should be used in conjunction with other
aerobic treatment processes that can nitrify to remove nitro-
gen.
Misconception #4: Constructed wetlands can remove sig-
nificant amounts of phosphorus. Phosphorus removal in con-
structed wetlands is limited to seasonal uptake by the plants,
which is not only minor compared to the phosphorus load in
municipal wastewater, but is negated during the plants' se-
nescence, and to sorption to influent solids which are cap-
tured, soils or plant detritus, all of which have a limited ca-
pacity. Two problems have been associated with phospho-
rus data in the literature. First, some phosphorus removal
data has been reported in terms of percent removal. How-
ever, many of the early phosphorus studies were for natural
wetlands or constructed wetlands that received wastewater
with a low phosphorus concentration. Because of low influ-
ent concentrations, removal of only a single mg/L of phos-
phorus was reported as a large percent removal. Second,
for studies evaluating the performance of newly constructed
wetlands, phosphorus removal data will be uncharacteristic
of long-term performance. New plants growing in a freshly
planted wetland will uptake more phosphorus than a mature
wetland, which will have phosphorus leaching from dying
(senescent) plants as well as uptake by growing plants. Also,
newly placed soils or media will have a greater phosphorus
sorption capacity than a mature system which will have most
sorption sites already saturated.
1.7 When to Use Constructed Wetlands
1.7.1 Appropriate Technology for Small
Communities
Appropriate technology is defined as a treatment sys-
tem which meets the following key criteria:
16
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Affordable - Total annual costs, including capital, op-
eration, maintenance and depreciation are within the
user's ability to pay.
Operable - Operation of the system is possible with
locally available labor and support.
Reliable - Effluent quality requirements can be con-
sistently meet.
Unfortunately, many rural areas of the U.S. with small
treatment plants (usually defined as treating less than 3,800
m3/d (1 mgd)) have failed to considerthis appropriate tech-
nology definition, and have often adopted inappropriate
technologies such as activated sludge. In 1980, small,
activated sludge systems constituted 39% of the small
publicly owned treatment facilities (GAO, 1980). Recent
information from one state showed that 73% of all treat-
ment plants of less than 3,800m3/d capacity used some
form of the activated sludge process. Unfortunately, the
activated sludge process is considered by almost all U.S.
and international experts to be the most difficult to operate
and maintain of the various wastewater treatment concepts.
Presently, small treatment plants constitute more than 90%
of the violations of U.S. discharge standards. At least one
U.S. state, Tennessee, has required justification forthe use
of activated sludge package plants for very small treat-
ment plant applications (Tennessee Department of Public
Health, 1977).
Small community budgets become severely strained by
the costs of their wastewater collection and treatment fa-
cilities. Inadequate budgets and poor access to equipment,
supplies and repair facilities preclude proper operation and
maintenance (O&M). Unaffordable capital costs and the
inability to reliably meet effluent quality requirements add
up to a prime example of violating the prior criteria for ap-
propriate technology. Unfortunately, no consideration for
reuse, groundwater recharge, or other alternatives to
stream discharge has heretofore been common, except in
a few states where water shortages exist.
Presently there are a limited number of appropriate tech-
nologies for small communities which should be immedi-
ately considered by a community and their designer. These
include stabilization ponds or lagoons, slow sand filters,
land treatment systems, and constructed wetlands. All of
these technologies fit the operability criterion, and to vary-
ing degrees, are affordable to build and reliable in their
treatment performance. Because each of these technolo-
gies has certain characteristics dNd requirements for pre-
and post- treatment to meet a certain effluent quality, they
may be used alone or in series with others depending on
the treatment goals.
For example, the designer may wish to supplement sta-
bilization ponds with a tertiary system to meet reuse or
discharge criteria consistently. Appropriate stabilization
pond upgrading methods to meet effluent standards in-
clude FWS wetlands, which can provide the conditions for
enhanced settling to attain further reduction of fecal
conforms and removal of the excess algal growth which
characterizes pond system effluents. FWS wetlands are
normally used after ponds because of their ability to handle
the excess algal solids generated in the ponds. Although
VSBs have been employed after ponds, excess algal sol-
ids have caused problems at some locations, thus defeat-
ing the operability factor in the appropriate technology defi-
nition. VSBs are more appropriately applied behind a pro-
cess designed to minimize suspended and settleable sol-
ids, such as a septic or Imhoff tank or anaerobic lagoon.
Constructed wetlands may also require post-treatment
processes, depending on the ultimate goals of the treat-
ment system. More demanding effluent requirements may
require additional processes in the treatment train or may
dictate the use of other processes altogether. For example,
the ability of constructed wetlands to remove nitrogen and
phosphorus has frequently been overestimated. Two ap-
propriate technologies that readily accomplish ammonium
oxidation are intermittent and recirculating sand filters.
There is at least one case study of the successful use of a
recirculating gravel filter in conjunction with a VSB (Reed,
et al, 1995 ). FWS systems can both nitrify and denitrify,
thus removing significant portions of nitrogen from the
wastewater, by alternating fully vegetated and open water
zones in proper proportions. If the municipal facility is re-
quired to have significant phosphorus removal (e.g., to at-
tain 1 mg/L from a typical influent value of 6 to 7 mg/L),
constructed wetlands will need to be accompanied by some
process or processes that can remove the phosphorus.
In conclusion, constructed wetlands are an appropriate
technology for areas where inexpensive land is generally
available and skilled labor is less available. Whether they
can be used essentially alone or in series with other ap-
propriate technologies depends on the required treatment
goals. Additionally, they can be appropriate for onsite sys-
tems where local regulators call for and allow systems other
than conventional septic tank- soil absorption systems.
1.7.2 Policy and Permitting Issues
An interagency workgroup, including representatives
from several Federal agencies, is presently developing
Guiding Principles for Constructed Treatment Wetlands:
Providing Water Quality and Wildlife Habitat (USEPA,
1999). The essence of the current draft of the guidelines is
that constructed treatment wetlands will:
— receive no credit as mitigation wetlands;
— be subject to the same rules as treatment lagoons
regarding liner requirements;
— be subject to the same monitoring requirements as
treatment lagoons;
— should not be constructed in the waters of the United
States, including existing natural wetlands; and
— will not be considered Waters of the United States
upon abandonment if the first and the fourth condi-
tions are met.
17
-------
The guidance encourages use of local plant species and
expresses concern about permit compliance during lengthy
startup periods and vector attraction and control issues.
To avoid additional permitting and regulatory require-
ments, constructed wetlands should be designed as a treat-
ment process and built in uplands as opposed to wetlands
orflood plains, i.e., outside ofwaters of the U.S.. Consider
the following from the draft guidelines.
If your constructed treatment wetland is constructed
in an existing water of the U.S., it will remain a water
of the U.S. unless an individual CWA section 404 per-
mit is issued which explicitly authorizes it as an ex-
cluded waste treatment system designed to meet the
requirements of the CWA.... Once constructed, if your
treatment wetland is a water of the U.S., you will need
a NPDES permit for the discharge of pollutants... into
the wetland. ... [Additionally,] if you wish to use a de-
graded wetland for wastewater treatment and plan to
construct water control structures, such as berms or
levees, this construction will... require a Section 404
permit. Subsequent maintenance may also require a
permit.
As stated in the guidelines:
If the constructed wetland is abandoned or is no longer
being used as a treatment system, it may revert to a
water of the U.S. if... the following conditions exist:
the system has wetland characteristics (i.e., hydrol-
ogy, soils, vegetation) and it is either (1) an interstate
wetland, (2) is adjacent to another water of the U.S.
(other than waters which are themselves wetlands),
or (3) if it is an isolated intrastate water which has a
nexus to interstate commerce (e.g., it provides habitat
for migratory birds).
None of preceding discussion precludes designing and
building a wetland which provides water reuse, habitat or
public use benefits in addition to wastewater treatment.
Constructed wetlands built primarily for treatment will gen-
erally not be given credit as compensatory mitigation to
replace wetland losses. However, in limited cases, some
parts of a constructed wetland system may be given credit,
especially if additional wetland area is created beyond that
needed for treatment purposes. Also, current policy en-
courages the use of properly treated wastewater to restore
degraded wetlands. For example, restoration might be
possible if:
1 the source water meets all applicable water qual
ity standards and criteria, (2) its use would result in a net
environmental benefit to the aquatic system's natural
functions and values, and if applicable, (3) it would help
restore the aquatic system to its historical condition.
Prime candidates for restoration may include wetlands
that were degraded or destroyed through the diversion
of water supplies,... For example, in the arid west, there
are often historic wetlands that no longer have a reliable
water source due to upstream water allocations or sink-
ing groundwater tables. Pre-treated effluent may be the
only source of water available for these areas and their
dependent ecosystems.... EPA has developed regional
guidance to assist dischargers and regulators in dem-
onstrating a net ecological benefit from maintenance of
a wastewater discharge to a waterbody.
This discussion of policy and permitting issues is very
general and regulatory decisions regarding these issues
are made on a case-by-case basis. Planners and design-
ers should seek guidance from State and Regional regu-
lators about site specific constructed wetland criteria in-
cluding location, discharge requirements, and possible
long-term monitoring requirements.
17.3 Other Factors
Probably the most important factor which impacts all
aspects of constructed wetlands is their inherent aesthetic
appeal to the general public. The desire of people to have
such an attractive landscape enhancement treat their
wastewater and become a valuable addition to the com-
munity is a powerful argument when the need for waste-
water treatment upgrading becomes a matter of public
debate. The appeal of constructed wetlands makes the
need to accurately assess the capability of the technology
so important and so difficult. The engineering community
often fails to appreciate this inherent appeal, while the
environmental community often lacks the understanding
of treatment mechanisms to appreciate the limitations of
the technology. The natural attraction of constructed wet-
lands and the potential for other aesthetic benefits may
sometimes offset the treatment or cost advantages of other
treatment options, and public opinion may dictate that a
constructed wetland is the preferred option. In other situa-
tions, constructed wetlands will be too costly or unable to
produce the required effluent water quality, and the de-
signer will have to convince the public that wetlands are
not a viable option, in spite of their inherent appeal.
The use of constructed wetlands as a treatment tech-
nology carries some degree of risk for several reasons.
First, as noted in a review of constructed wetlands for
wastewater treatment by Cole (1998), constructed wetlands
are not uniformly accepted by all state regulators or EPA
regions. Some authorities encourage the use of constructed
wetlands as a proven treatment technology, due in part to
the misconceptions noted in Section 1.6. Others still con-
sider them to be an emerging technology. As with any new
treatment technology, uniform acceptance of constructed
wetlands will take some time. Other natural treatment pro-
cesses which are now generally accepted, such as slow
rate or overland flow land treatment systems, went through
a similar course of variable acceptance.
Second, although there is no evidence of harm to wild-
life using constructed wetlands, some regulators have ex-
pressed concern about constructing a system which will
treat wastewater while it attracts wildlife. Unfortunately,
there has not been any significant research conducted on
the risks to wildlife using constructed wetlands. Although
18
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they are a distinctly different type of habitat, the lack of
evidence of risks to wildlife using treatment lagoon sys-
tems for many years suggests that there may not be a
serious risk for wetlands treating municipal wastewater.
Of course, if a wetland is going to treat wastewater with
high concentrations of known toxic compounds, the de-
signer will need to use a VSB system or incorporate fea-
tures in a FWS wetland which restrict access by wildlife.
Finally, as noted earlier, due to the lack of a large body
of scientifically valid data, the design process is still em-
pirical, that is, based upon observational data rather than
scientific theories. Due to the variability of many factors at
constructed wetlands being observed by researchers (e.g.,
climatic effects, influent wastewater characteristics, design
configurations, construction techniques, and O&M prac-
tices), there will continue to be disagreement about some
design and performance issues for some period of time.
1.8 Use of This Manual
Chapters 1,2,7 and 8 provide information for non-tech-
nical readers, such as decision-makers and stakeholders,
to understand the capabilities and limitations of constructed
wetlands. These chapters provide the type of information
required to question designers and regulators in the pro-
cess of determining how constructed wetlands may be used
to expand, upgrade or develop wastewater treatment in-
frastructure.
Chapters 3 through 6 provide information for technical
readers, such as design engineers, regulators and plan-
ners, to plan, design, build and manage constructed wet-
lands as part of a comprehensive plan for local and re-
gional management of municipal wastewater collection,
treatment, and reuse.
Chapter 2 describes constructed wetland treatment sys-
tems and their identifiable features. It answers the most
frequently asked questions about these systems and in-
cludes a glossary of terms which are used in this manual
and generally in discussion of constructed wetland sys-
tems. There are brief discussions of other aquatic treat-
ment systems that are in use or are commercially avail-
able and an annotated introduction to specific uses for
constructed wetlands outside the purview of this manual.
Chapter 3 discusses the treatment mechanisms occur-
ring in a constructed wetland to help the reader under-
stand the most important processes and what climatic con-
ditions and other physical phenomena most affect these
processes. A basic understanding of the mechanisms in-
volved will allow the reader to more intelligently interpret
information from other literature sources as well as infor-
mation in chapters 4 and 5 of this manual.
Chapters 4, 5, and 6 describe the design, construction,
startup and operational issues of constructed wetlands in
some detail. It will be apparent to the reader that there are
presently insufficient data to create treatment models in
which there can be great confidence. Most data in the lit-
erature has been generated with inadequate quality as-
surance and control (Qa/Qc), and most research studies
have not measured or focused on documentation of key
variables which could explain certain performance char-
acteristics. Chapters 4 and 5 use the existing data of suffi-
cient quality to create a viable approach to applicability
and design of both FWS and VSB systems and sets prac-
tical limits on their performance capabilities. Chapter 6
deals with the practical issues of construction and start-up
of these systems which have been experienced to date.
Chapter? contains cost information for constructed wet-
lands. Subsequent to standardizing the costs to a specific
time, it becomes clear that local conditions and require-
ments can dominate the costs. However, the chapter does
provide a reasonable range of expected costs which can
be used to evaluate constructed wetlands against other
alternatives in the facility planning stage. Also, there is
sufficient information presented to provide the user with a
range of unit costs for certain components and to indicate
those components that dominate system costs and those
that are relatively inconsequential.
Chapter 8 presents eight case studies to allow readers
to become familiar with sites that have used constructed
wetlands and their experiences. The systems in this chap-
ter are not ones which are superior to other existing facili-
ties, but they are those which have been observed and
from which lessons can be learned by the reader about
either successful or unsuccessful design practices.
1.9 References
Brix, H. 1997. Do Macrophytes Play a Role in Constructed
Treatment Wetlands?. Water Science & Technology,
Vol35, No. 5, pp.11-17.
Campbell, C.S. and M.H. Ogden. 1999. Constructed Wet-
lands in the Sustainable Landscape. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York.
Cole, Stephen. 1998. The Emergence of Treatment Wet-
lands. Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 3,
No.5, pp218A-223A.
Cooper, P.F., and B.C. Findlater, eds. 1990. Constructed
Wetlands in Water Pollution Control. Pergamon Press,
New York, New York.
EC/EWPCA. 1990. European Design and Operations
Guidelines for Reed Bed Treatment Systems. Prepared
for the EC/EWPCA Expert Contact Group on Emer-
gent Hydrophyte Treatment Systems. P.F. Cooper, ed.,
European Community/European Water Pollution Con-
trol Association.
Government Accounting Office. 1980. Costly wastewater
treatment plants fail to perform as expected. CED-81-
9. Washington, D.C.
Hammer, D.A., ed. 1989. Constructed Wetlands for Waste-
water Treatment. Lewis Publishers, Inc. Chelsea,
Michigan.
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IAWQ. 1992. Proceedings of international conference on
treatment wetlands, Sydney, Australia. Water Science
& Technology. Vol. 29, No. 4.
IAWQ. 1995. Proceedings of international conference on
treatment wetlands, Guangzhou, China. Water Science
& Technology. Vol. 32, No. 3.
IAWQ. 1997. Proceedings of international conference on
treatment wetlands, Vienna, Austria. Water Science &
Technology. Vol. 35, No. 5.
Kadlec, R.H. and R.L. Knight. 1996. Treatment Wetlands.
CRC Press LLC. Boca Raton, FL.
Moshiri,L.,ed. 1993. Constructed Wetlands for Water Qual-
ity Improvement. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, Ml.
Niering, WA. 1985. Wetlands. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New
York, NY.
Reed, S.C., R.W Crites, and J.E. Middlebrooks. 1995.
Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treat-
ment. Second edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
NY.
Tennessee Department of Public Health. 1977. Regula-
tions for plans, submittal, and approval; Control of con-
struction; Control of operation. Chapter 1200-4-2, State
of Tennessee Administrative Rules. Knoxville, TN.
Tennessee Valley Authority. 1993. General Design, Con-
struction, and Operation Guidelines: Constructed Wet-
lands Wastewater Treatment Systems for Small Us-
ers Including Individual Residences. G.R. Steinerand
J.T. Watson, eds. 2nd edition. TVA Water Management
Resources Group. TVA/WM-93/10. Chattanooga, TN.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1995. Handbook of Con-
structed Wetlands. 5volumes. USDA-Natural Re-
sources Conservation Service/US EPA-Region III/
Pennsylvania Department of Natural Resources.
Washington, D.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1988. Design
Manual: Constructed Wetlands and Aquatic Plant Sys-
tems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment. EPA/625/
1-88/022. US EPA Office of Research and Develop-
ment, Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Subsurface
Flow Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment:
A Technology Assessment. S.C. Reed, ed., EPA/832/
R-93/008. US EPA Office of Water, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Wetlands
Treatment Database (North American Wetlands for
Water Quality Treatment Database). R.H. Kadlec, R.L.
Knight, S.C. Reed, and R.W. Ruble eds., EPA/600/C-
94/002. US EPA Office of Research and Development,
Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Final Draft-
Guiding Principles for Constructed Treatment Wetlands:
Providing Water Quality and Wildlife Habitat. Developed
by the Interagency Workgroup on Constructed Wetlands
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Army Corps of
Engineers, Fish and Wildlife Service, Natural Resources
Conservation Services, National Marine Fisheries Ser-
vice, and Bureau of Reclamation). Final Draft 6/8/1999.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/constructed/
guide.html
Water Pollution Control Federation. 1990. Natural Systems
for Wastewater Treatment. Manual of Practice FD-16,
S.C. Reed, ed., Water Pollution Control Federation,
Alexandria, VA.
20
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Chapter 2
Introduction to Constructed Wetlands
2.1 Understanding Constructed Wetlands
Constructed wetlands are wastewater treatment systems
composed of one or more treatment cells in a built and
partially controlled environment designed and constructed
to provide wastewater treatment. While constructed wet-
lands have been used to treat many types of wastewater
at various levels of treatment, the constructed wetlands
described in this manual provide secondary treatment to
municipal wastewater. These are treatment systems that
receive primary effluent and treat it to secondary effluent
standards and better, in contrast to enhancement systems
or polishing wetlands, which receive secondary effluent
and treat it further prior to discharge to the environment.
This distinction emphasizes the degree of treatment more
than the means of treatment, because the constructed
wetlands described in this manual receive higher-strength
wastewater than the polishing wetlands that have been
widely used as wastewater treatment systems for the last
20 years.
While constructed wetlands discussed in this manual
provide secondary treatment in a community's wastewa-
ter treatment system, this technology also can be used in
combination with other secondary treatment technologies.
For example, a constructed wetland could be placed up-
stream in the treatment train from an infiltration system to
optimize the cost of secondary treatment. In other uses,
constructed wetlands could discharge secondary effluent
to enhancement wetlands for polishing. Constructed wet-
lands are not recommended for treatment of raw waste-
water. Figure 2-1 portrays a hypothetical wastewater treat-
ment train utilizing constructed wetlands in series.
The distinction between constructed wetlands for sec-
ondary treatment and enhancement systems for tertiary
treatment is critical in understanding the limitations of ear-
lier accounts of wetland-based treatment systems and
databases of system performance. Most of the commonly
available information on constructed wetland treatment
systems is derived from data gathered at many larger pol-
ishing wetlands and a relatively few smaller constructed
wetlands for secondary treatment. In the past, largely un-
verified data from these disparate sources has been ag-
gregated, statistically rendered, and then applied as guid-
ance for constructed wetland systems, with predictably
inconsistent results. In contrast, guidance offered in this
manual is drawn from reliable research data and practical
application in constructed wetlands for secondary treat-
ment of higher-strength municipal wastewater.
Constructed wetlands comprise two types of systems
that share many characteristics but are distinguished by
the location of the hydraulic grade line. Design variations
for both types principally affect shapes and sizes to fit site-
specific characteristics and optimize construction, opera-
tion, and performance. Both types of constructed wetlands
typically may be fitted with liners to prevent infiltration,
depending on local soil conditions and regulatory require-
ments.
Free water surface (FWS) constructed wetlands closely
resemble natural wetlands in appearance and function, with
a combination of open-water areas, emergent vegetation,
varying water depths, and other typical wetland features.
Figure 2-2 illustrates the main components of a FWS con-
structed wetland. Atypical FWS constructed wetland con-
sists of several components that may be modified among
various applications but retain essentially the same fea-
tures. These components include berms to enclose the
treatment cells, inlet structures that regulate and distribute
influent wastewater evenly for optimum treatment, various
combinations of open-water areas and fully vegetated sur-
face areas, and outlet structures that complement the even
distribution provided by inlet structures and allow adjust-
ment of water levels within the treatment cell. Shape, size,
and complexity of design often are functions of site char-
acteristics rather than preconceived design criteria.
Vegetated submerged bed (VSB) wetlands consist of
gravel beds that may be planted with wetland vegetation.
Figure 2-3 provides a schematic drawing of a VSB sys-
tem. Atypical VSB system, like the FWS systems described
above, contains berms and inlet and outlet structures for
regulation and distribution of wastewater flow. In addition
to shape and size, other variable factors are choice of treat-
ment media (gravel shape and size, for example) as an
economic factor, and selection of vegetation as an optional
feature that affects wetland aesthetics more than perfor-
mance.
The apparent simplicity and natural function of con-
structed wetlands may obscure the complexity of interac-
21
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Raw
Wastewater
Primary
Treatment
Primary
Effluent
Constructed
Wetlands
Secondary
Treatment
Secondary
Effluent
Disinfection
or
Tertiary
Treatment
Final
Discharge
Figure 2-1. Constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment train
Pretreated
(Lagoon)
Floating and
Inlet Settling Zone Emergent Plants
Submerged
Growth Plants
Floating and Emergent
Plants
Outlet
Zone
m/im,
f tl !
0
/ /
/ Variable
Level
Outlet
Zone 1
Fully Vegetated
D.O. (-)
H < 0.75 m
Zone 2
Open-Water Surface
D.O. (+)
H>1.2m
ZoneS
Fully Vegetated
D.O. (-)
H < 0.75 m
Figure 2-2. Elements of a free water surface (FWS) constructed wetland
Pretreated
(Settled)
Influent
Liner
Bottom Slope (<1%)
Effluent
Figure 2-3. Elements of a vegetated submerged bed (VSB) system
22
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tions required for effective wastewater treatment. Unlike
natural wetlands, constructed wetlands are designed and
operated to meet certain performance standards. Once a
constructed wetland is designed and becomes operational,
the system requires regular monitoring to ensure proper
operation. Based on monitoring results, these systems may
need minor modifications, in addition to routine manage-
ment, to maintain optimum performance.
In this chapter, a basic understanding of constructed
wetland ecology is presented for planners, policy makers,
local government officials, and others involved in the ap-
plication of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment.
Basic ecological components and functions of wetlands
are briefly described to bring readers to a common level of
understanding, but detailed descriptions are purposely
omitted for the sake of focus and relative correlation to
treatment performance. To enhance one's knowledge of
wetland ecology, many publications are commonly avail-
able. For designers and operators, general knowledge of
wetland ecology is assumed, and detailed information on
constructed wetlands is offered in succeeding chapters.
While municipal wastewater treatment systems utilizing
constructed wetlands modeled on the functions of natural
wetlands systems are the focus of this manual, related
systems utilizing components of natural wetland systems
also are briefly described. In addition, constructed wetlands
foron-site domestic wastewater systems and non-munici-
pal wastewater treatment are introduced.
Because VSB wetlands are not dependent on wetland
vegetation for treatment performance and do not require
open-water areas, portions of this chapter describe de-
sign and management considerations that pertain only to
FWS wetlands. For reference purposes, important terms
are highlighted in bold type and are explained in a glos-
sary at the end of the chapter.
2.2 Ecology of Constructed Wetlands
Constructed wetlands are ecological systems that com-
bine physical, chemical, and biological processes in an
engineered and managed system. Successful construc-
tion and operation of an ecological system for wastewater
treatment requires a basic knowledge and understanding
of the components and the interrelationships that compose
the system.
The treatment systems of constructed wetlands are
based on ecological systems found in natural wetlands. A
main distinction between constructed wetlands and natu-
ral wetlands is the degree of control over natural processes.
For example, a constructed wetland operates with a rela-
tively stable flow of water through the system, in contrast
to the highly variable water balance of natural wetlands,
mostly due to the effects of variable precipitation. As a re-
sult, wetland ecology in constructed wetlands is affected
by continuous flooding and concentrations of total sus-
pended solids (TSS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
and other wastewater constituents at consistently higher
levels than would otherwise occur in nature.
In a constructed wetland, most of the inflow is a predict-
able volume of wastewater discharged through sewers.
Lesser volumes of precipitation and surface runoff are sub-
ject to seasonal and annual variations. Losses from these
systems can be calculated by measuring outflow and esti-
mating evapotranspiration as well as by accounting for
seepage in unlined systems. Even with predictable inflow
rates, however, modeling the water balance of constructed
wetlands must comprehend weekly and monthly variations
in precipitation and runoff and the effects of these vari-
ables on wetland hydraulics, especially detention time re-
quired for treatment. See Chapter 3 for a more thorough
discussion of modeling concerns.
Temperature variations also affect the treatment perfor-
mance of constructed wetlands, although not consistently
for all wastewater constituents. Treatment performance for
some constituents tends to decrease with colder tempera-
tures, but BOD and TSS removal through flocculation, sedi-
mentation, and other physical mechanisms is less affected.
In colder months, the absence of plant cover would allow
atmospheric reaeration and solar insolation to occur with-
out the shading and surface covering that plant cover pro-
vides during the growing season. Ice cover is anothersea-
sonal variable that affects constructed wetlands by alter-
ing wetland hydraulics and restricting solar insolation, at-
mospheric reaeration, and biological activity; however, the
insulating layer provided by ice cover would slow down
the rate and degree of cooling in the water column but
would not affect physical processes such as settling, filtra-
tion, and flocculation. Plant senescence and decay also
decreases under ice cover, with a corresponding decrease
in effluent BOD.
2.3 Botany of Constructed Wetlands
Successful performance of constructed wetlands de-
pends on ecological functions that are similar to those of
natural wetlands, which are based largely on interactions
within plant communities. Research has confirmed that
treatment of typical wastewater pollutants (TSS and BOD)
in FWS constructed wetlands generally is better in cells
with plants than in adjoining cells without plants (Bavor et
al., 1989; Burgoon et al., 1989; Gearheart et al., 1989;
Thut, 1989). However, the mechanisms by which plant
populations enhance treatment performance have yet to
be determined fully. Some authors have hypothesized a
relationship between plant surface area and the density
and functional performance of attached microbial popula-
tions (EPA, 1988; Reed et al., 1995), but demonstrations
of this relationship have yet to be proven.
Plant communities in constructed wetlands undergo sig-
nificant changes following initial planting. Very few con-
structed wetlands maintain the species composition and
density distributions envisioned by their designers. Many
of these changes are foreseeable, and many have little
apparent effect on treatment performance. Other changes,
however, may result in poor performance and the conse-
quent need for increased management. The following sec-
tions summarize basic principles of plant ecology that may
aid in understanding of constructed wetlands.
23
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2.3.1 Wetland Microbial Ecology
In any wetland, the ecological food web requires micro-
scopic bacteria, or microbes, to function in all of its com-
plex transformations of energy. In a constructed wetland,
the food web is fueled by influent wastewater, which pro-
vides energy stored in organic molecules. Microbial activ-
ity is particularly important in the transformations of nitro-
gen into varying biologically useful forms. In the various
phases of the nitrogen cycle, for example, different forms
of nitrogen are made available for plant metabolism, and
oxygen may be either released or consumed. Phosphorus
uptake by plants also is dependent in part on microbial
activity, which converts insoluble forms of phosphorus into
soluble forms that are available to plants. Microbes also
process the organic (carbon) compounds, and release
carbon dioxide in the aerobic areas of a constructed wet-
land and a variety of gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen sul-
fide, and methane) in the anaerobic areas. Plants, plant
litter, and sediments provide solid surfaces where micro-
bial activity may be concentrated.
Microbial activity varies seasonally in cold regions, with
lesser activity in colder months, although the performance
differential in warm versus cold climates is less in full-scale
constructed wetlands than in small-scale, controlled ex-
periments (Wittgren and Maehlum, 1996), apparently be-
cause of the multiplicity of physical, chemical, and biologi-
cal transformations taking place simultaneously over a
larger contiguous area.
2.3.2 Algae
Algae are ubiquitous in wet habitats, and they inevitably
become components of FWS systems. While algae are a
major component in certain treatment systems (for ex-
ample, lagoons), algae can affect treatment performance
of FWS constructed wetlands significantly. As a result, the
presence of algae must be anticipated in the design stage.
Algae in open areas, especially in areas of submergent
vegetation, can form a living canopy that blocks sunlight
from penetrating the water column to that vegetation, which
results in reduced dissolved oxygen (DO) levels. The pres-
ence of open, unshaded water near the outlet of a con-
structed wetland typically promotes seasonal blooms of
phytoplanktonic algal species, which results in elevated
concentrations of suspended solids and particulate nutri-
ent forms in the effluent.
Several floating aquatic plant species, especially duck-
weed, have very high rates of primary production, which
result in large quantities of biomass and trapped nonliving
elements accumulating within the fully vegetated portion
of the FWS wetland and pond systems (Table 2-1). Water
hyacinth can also perform well in pond systems in tropical
climates to enhance TSS and algal removal. However, both
species block sunlight and lower DO levels by eliminating
atmospheric reaeration at the water/air interface.
High growth rates of these plants have led to special-
ized wastewater treatment systems that use these plants
for harvesting nutrients from wastewater. The disadvan-
tages of harvesting these plants arise from their low %
solids (typically less than 5% on a wet-weight basis) and
the consequent need for drying prior to disposal, which
simultaneously creates secondary odor and water-quality
problems. Fordisposal, harvested duckweed, which has a
high protein content, typically has been incorporated into
agricultural soils as green manure, and water hyacinths
have been partially dried and landfilled or allowed to de-
compose in a controlled environment to produce methane
as a useful by-product. However, numerous attempts to
demonstrate beneficial and cost-effective by-product re-
covery have been mostly unsuccessful under North Ameri-
can social and economic conditions.
2.3.3 Emergent Herbaceous Plants
Emergent herbaceous wetland plants are very impor-
tant structural components of wetlands. Their various ad-
aptations allow competitive growth in saturated or flooded
soils. These adaptations include one or more of the fol-
lowing traits: lenticels (small openings through leaves and
stems) that allow air to flow into the plants; aerenchymous
tissues that allow gaseous convection throughout the length
of the plant, which provides air to plant roots; special mor-
phological growth structures, such as buttresses, knees,
or pneumatophores, that provide additional root aeration;
adventitious roots for absorption of gases and plant nutri-
ents directly from the water column; and extra physiologi-
cal tolerance to chemical by-products resulting from growth
in anaerobic soil conditions.
The primary role of emergent vegetation in FWS sys-
tems is providing structure for enhancing flocculation, sedi-
mentation, and filtration of suspended solids through ide-
alized hydrodynamic conditions. Emergent wetland plant
species also play a role in winter performance of FWS
constructed wetlands by insulating the water surface from
cold temperatures, trapping falling and drifting snow, and
reducing the heat-loss effects of wind (Wittgren and
Maehlum, 1996).
Limited information is available to demonstrate signifi-
cant or consistent effects of plant species selection on
constructed wetland performance. For example, in two simi-
lar FWS treatment cells at the Iron Bridge Wetland in
Florida, the major difference between the cells was the
dominant plant species. Bulrush appeared to perform
nearly the same as cattail in treatment of BOD, TSS, total
nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP). As research and
application of constructed wetlands have expanded, docu-
mentation of actual performance differences between
emergent marsh plant species in constructed wetlands has
become increasingly less valuable to constructed wetland
designers.
The wetland designer is strongly encouraged to seek
information from experienced local wetland practitioners
when selecting emergent herbaceous species to ensure
selection of locally successful species. Table 2-2 provides
guidelines for initial selection and establishment of plant
species adapted to wetland environments.
24
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Table 2.1 Characteristics of plants for constructed wetlands
General Types
of Plants
General Characteristics
and Common Examples
Function or Importance
to Treatment Process
Function or Importance
for Habitat
Design & Operational
Considerations
Free-Floating
Aquatic
Rooted Floating
Aquatic
Submerged
Aquatic
Roots or root-like structures
suspended from floating
leaves. Will move about with
water currents. Will not stand
erect out of the water.
Common duckweed (Lemna),
Big duckweed (Spirodela).
Usually with floating leaves,
but may have submerged
leaves. Rooted to bottom.
Will not stand erect out of the
water. Water lily (Nymphea),
Pennywort (Hydrocotyle).
Usually totally submerged;
may have floating leaves.
Rooted to bottom. Will not
stand erect in air. Pondweed
(Potamogeton), Water weed
(Elodea).
Primary purposes are nutrient
uptake and shading to retard
algal growth. Dense floating mats
limit oxygen diffusion from the
atmosphere. Duckweed will be
present as an invasive species.
Primary purposes are providing
structure for microbial attachment
and releasing oxygen to the water
column during daylight hours.
Dense floating mats limit oxygen
diffusion from the atmosphere.
Primary purposes are providing
structure for microbial attachment.
and providing oxygen to the water
column during daylight hours.
Dense floating mats limit
oxygen diffusion from the
atmosphere and block
sunlight from submerged
plants. Plants provide shelter
and food for animals.
Dense floating mats limit
oxygen diffusion from the
atmosphere and block
sunlight from submerged
plants. Plants provide
shelter and food for animals.
Plants provide shelter and
food for animals (especially
fish).
Duckwood is a natural
invasive species in
North America. No
specific design is
required.
Water depth must be
designed to promote
the type of plant (i.e.
floating, submerged,
emergent) desired
while hindering other
types of plants.
Retention time in open
water zone should be
less than necessary
to promote algal
growth which can
destroy these plants
through sunlight
blockage.
Emergent
Aquatic
Shrubs
Trees
Herbaceous (i.e. non-woody).
Rooted to the bottom. Stand
erect out of the water. Tolerate
flooded or saturated conditions.
Cattail (Typha), Bulrush
(Scirpus), Common Reed
(Phragmites).
Woody, less than 6 m tall.
Tolerate flooded or saturated
soil conditions. Dogwood
(Cornus), Holly (Ilex).
Woody, greater than 6 m tall.
Tolerate flooded or saturated
soil conditions. Maple (Acer).
Willow (Salix).
Primary purpose is providing
structure to induce enhanced
flocculation and sedimentation.
Secondary purposes are shading
to retard algal growth, windbreak
to promote quiescent conditions for
settling, and insulation during winter
months.
Treatment function is not defined:
it is not known if treatment data
from unsaturated or occasionally
saturated phytoremediation sites
in upland areas is applicable to
continuously saturated wetland
sites.
(same as for shrubs)
Plants provide shelter and
food for animals. Plants
provide aesthetic beauty for
humans.
Plants provide shelter and
food for animals (especially
birds). Plants provide aesthetic
beauty for humans.
(same as for shrubs)
Water depths must be
in the range that is
optimum for the
specific species
chosen (planted).
Possible perforation of
liners by roots.
(same as for shrubs)
2.3.4 Plant Nutrition and Growth Cycles
Wetland plants require optimum environmental condi-
tions in each phase of their life cycles, including germina-
tion and initial plant growth, adequate nutrition, normal
seasonal growth patterns, and rates of plant senescence
and decay. For more detailed information on wetland plant
ecology, the nonbiologist is referred to the wetland ecol-
ogy text by Mitsch and Gosselink (1993) and portions of
the constructed wetland text by Kadlec and Knight (1996).
A wide variety of references describe growth cycles, tim-
ing of seed release, overwintering ability, energy cycling,
and other characteristics and processes that provide wet-
land plant species with a competitive advantage in their
natural habitats; the reader is referred to other sources for
detailed information. An overview of important character-
istics follows.
Emergent herbaceous wetland species planted early in
the growing season in temperate climates generally multi-
ply by vegetative reproduction to a maximum total stand-
ing biomass in late summer or early fall within a single
growing season. This biomass may represent multiple
growth and death periods for individual plants during the
course of the growing season, or it may represent a single
emergence of plant structures, depending on the species.
For many species, seeds are produced along with maxi-
mum standing crop and released with maturation in the
fall for early germination in the spring.
25
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Table 2.2 Factors to Consider in Plant Selection (adapted from Thunhorst, 1993)
Factors Comments
Consult local experts
Native species
Invasive or aggressive
species
Tolerant of high
nutrient load
Tolerant of continuous
flooding
Growth characteristics
Available form for planting
Rate of growth
Wildlife benefits
Plant diversity
The number of professional wetland scientists, practitioners, and plant nurseries has increased dramatically in the
past 10 years. Help from an experienced, local person should be available from a variety of sources, including
government agencies and private companies.
Using plants that grow locally increases the likelihood of plant survival and acceptance by local officials.
Plants that have extremely rapid growth, lack natural competitors, or are allelopathic* can crowd out all other spe-
cies and destroy species diversity. State or local agencies may ban the use of some species.
Unlike natural wetlands, constructed wetlands will receive a continuous inflow of wastewater with high nutrient
concentrations. Plants that can not tolerate this condition will not survive.
Unlike natural wetlands, which may experience periodic or occasional dry periods, constructed wetlands will
receive a continuous inflow of wastewater. Plants that require periodic or occasional drying as part of their
reproductive cycle will not survive.
Perennial plants are generally preferred over annual plants because plants will continue growing in the same area
and there is no concern about seeds being washed or carried away. For emergent species, persistent plants are
generally preferred over semi- or non-persistent plants because the standing plant material provides added
shelter and insulation during the winter season.!
Costs of obtaining and planting the plants will vary depending on the form of planting material, which may be
available in a variety of forms depending on the plant species. Entire plant forms (e.g. bare root plants or plugs) will
usually cost more than partial plant material (e.g. seeds or rootstock), but the plant supplier may guarantee a
higher survival rate.f
Slower growing plants will require a greater number of plants, planted closer together, at start-up to obtain the
same density of plant coverage in the initial growing season.
If the wetland is to be used for habitat, plants that provide food, shelter/cover and nesting/nursery for the desired
animals should be chosen.
Mono-cultures of plants are more susceptible to decimation by insect or disease infestations; catastrophic
infestations will temporarily affect treatment performance. Greater plant diversity will also tend to encourage a
greater diversity of animals.
Allelopathic - plants that have harmful effects on other plants by secreting toxic chemicals
Perennial - aboveground portion dies, but below-ground portion remains dormant and sprouts in the next growing season.
Annual - entire plant dies and reproduction is only by seed produced before the plant dies.
Persistent - aboveground dead portions remain upright through the dormant season.
Semi-persistent - aboveground dead portions may remain standing for some part of the dormant season before falling into clumps.
Non-persistent - aboveground dead portions decay and wash away at the end of the growing season.
Bare root plant - seedling with soil washed from roots. Plug - seedling with soil still on roots. Rootstock - piece of underground stem (rhizome).
For some species with high lignin content, particularly
cattail, bulrush, and common reed, much of the plant re-
mains standing as dead biomass that slowly decays dur-
ing the winter season. In FWS systems, this standing dead
biomass provides additional structure for enhanced floc-
culation and sedimentation that is important in wetland
treatment performance throughout the annual cycle. Dead
biomass, both standing and fallen, also is important to root
viability under flooded, winter conditions because of the
insulating layer it provides, in addition to its contribution to
the internal load on the system.
Like all plants, wetland plants require many macro- and
micronutrients in proper proportions for healthy growth.
While municipal wastewater can supply adequate quanti-
ties of these limiting nutrients, other types of wastewater,
including industrial wastewater, acid mine drainage, and
stormwater, may not.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are key nutrients in the life
cycles of wetland plants. However, plant uptake of nitro-
gen and phosphorus is not a significant mechanism for
removal of these elements in most wetlands receiving par-
tially treated municipal wastewater because nitrogen and
phosphorus are taken up and released in the cycle of plant
growth and death. Nonetheless, undecomposed litterfrom
dead biomass provides storage for phosphorus, metals,
and other relatively conservative elements (Kadlec and
Knight, 1996).
While uptake rates of nitrogen and phosphorus are po-
tentially high, harvesting plant biomass to remove these
nutrients has been limited to floating aquatic plant com-
munities, in which the plants can be harvested with only
brief altering of system performance. Although common
reed is harvested annually from certain European con-
structed wetlands as a by-product (and not for nutrient re-
duction), full-scale constructed wetlands where plants are
26
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routinely harvested have not been documented in the
United States.
2.4 Fauna of Constructed Wetlands
The role that animal species may play in constructed
wetlands is a consideration for management of FWS wet-
lands. Animals typically compose less biomass than do
wetland plants, but animals are able to alter energy and
mass flows disproportionately to their biomass contribu-
tion. During outbreaks of insect pests in constructed wet-
lands, for example, entire marshes and floating aquatic
plant systems can be defoliated, which interrupts mineral
cycles and upsets water-quality treatment performance.
In another example, the rooting action of bottom-feeding
fish (primarily carp) causes sediment resuspension, which
affects performance of constructed wetlands in removing
suspended solids and associated pollutants. The presence
of large seasonal waterfowl populations has had similar
results in constructed wetlands at Columbia, Missouri, and
elsewhere. In VSB wetlands, only avian species play a
significant role.
While wildlife species play generally positive, second-
ary roles in constructed wetlands, their presence also may
generate unintended consequences. Bird species common
to wetland environments, for example, typically attract
birdwatchers, who may provide public support for munici-
palities and industries employing this treatment technol-
ogy. The presence of the public at constructed wetlands
for secondary treatment, however, necessitates manage-
ment efforts to ensure adequate protection from human
health and safety risks presented by exposure to primary
effluent (see also section 2.6). Conversely, regulatory con-
cern for potentially vulnerable wildlife species has impeded
plans for constructed wetlands at certain sites and for cer-
tain wastewaters with toxic constituents.
Free water surface wetlands closely resemble the ecol-
ogy of natural wetlands and aquatic habitats, and they in-
evitably attract animal species that rely on wet environ-
ments during some or all of their life history. All animal
groups are represented in constructed wetlands: protozo-
ans, insects, mollusks, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals. Table 2-3 summarizes animal species that may
be found in constructed wetlands.
2.5 Ecological Concerns for Constructed
Wetland Designers
Wetland ecology is integral to the success of constructed
wetlands because of their complexity and their accessibil-
ity to wildlife. While the ecology of VSB systems relates
more to its subsurface than its surface environment, wet-
land plants and other surface features that are character-
istic of VSB wetlands also require consideration.
Table 2.3 Characteristics of Animals Found in Constructed Wetlands
Animal Group
Members of Group Commonly Found in
Treatment Wetlands
Function or Importance to Treatment
Process
Design & Operational Considerations
Invertebrates,
including
protozoa,
insects, spiders,
and crustaceans
Fish
Amphibians and
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
A wide variety will be present, but diversity
and populations will vary seasonally and
spatially.
Species adapted to living at or near the
surface (mosquitofish, mudminnow);
species adapted to living in polluted
waters (bowfin, catfish, killifish, carp).
Frogs, alligators, snakes, turtles
A wide variety (35-63 species*) are
present, including forest and prairie
species as well as waterfowl, but
diversity and populations vary
seasonally and spatially.
Small rodents (shrews, mice, voles);
large rodents (rabbits, nutria, muskrats,
beaver); large grazers (deer); large
carnivores (opossums, raccoons, foxes).
Undoubtedly play a role in
chemical and biological cycling and
transformations and in supporting food
web for higher organisms, but exact
functions have not been defined
Consumers of insects and decaying
material (e.g. mosquitofish eat
mosquito larvae).
Consumers of lower organisms
Consumers of lower organisms
Consumers of plants and lower
organisms
Mosquito control must be considered;
mono-cultures of plants are more
susceptible to decimation by insect
infestations.
Anaerobic conditions will limit
populations; nesting areas required;
bottom-feeders can uproot plants and
resuspend sediments.
Turtles have an uncanny ability to fall
into water control structures and to
get caught in pipes, so turtle exclusion
devices are needed; monitoring of
control structures and levees for
damage or obstruction is needed.
Heavy use, especially by migratory
waterfowl, can contribute to pollutant
load on a seasonal basis.
Nutria and muskrat populations can
reach nuisance levels, removing
vegetation and destroying levees;
structural controls and animal
removal may be required.
' McAllister, 1992, 1993a, 1993b
27
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Constructed wetlands invariably attract wildlife, a factor
that must be considered in the design and management of
constructed wetlands. As components of an ecological
community, animals in general perform vital ecological func-
tions in constructed wetlands. Specific roles of animals in
the development and operation of constructed wetlands,
however, are not well researched. Experience has shown
that many animals are beneficial elements in constructed
wetlands, but many other are nuisance species. Proper
attention to desirable and undesirable wildlife species, as
well as primary and ancillary functions of constructed wet-
lands, will aid the success of a constructed wetland.
2.5.1 Primary and Ancillary Functions of
Constructed Wetlands
Primary functions of most constructed wetlands include
water storage and water-quality improvement. Some of
these constructed wetlands are designed intentionally for
ground water recharge. Numerous other functions attrib-
uted to natural wetlands are important in constructed wet-
lands and are described in succeeding chapters.
Ancillary functions include primary production of organic
carbon by plants; oxygen production through photosyn-
thesis; production of wetland herbivores, as well as preda-
tor species that range beyond the wetland boundaries;
reduction of export of organic matter and nutrients to down-
stream ecosystems; and creation of cultural values in terms
of educational and recreational resources. One or more of
these ancillary functions may be an important goal in some
constructed wetland projects. For detailed descriptions of
ancillary functions, the reader is referred to information
presented elsewhere (Feierabend, 1989; Sather, 1989;
Knight, 1992).
2.5.2 Wildlife Access Controls
Successful wildlife management in FWS wetlands re-
quires maintaining a balance between attracting benefi-
cial species and controlling pest species (EPA, 1993a).
While most wildlife species in wetlands are attractive but
often unnoticed, many species are attractive for aesthetic
reasons but are impediments to the success of constructed
wetlands. Nuisance species in constructed wetlands in-
clude burrowing rodents, especially beavers, nutria, and
muskrats, which burrow through berms and levees and
consume beneficial emergent vegetation; mosquitoes,
which cause annoyance and health concerns; and certain
bottom-feeding fish, such as carp, which uproot aquatic
vegetation and cause increases in effluent TSS and asso-
ciated pollutants by stirring up sediments and resuspend-
ing them in the water column. Waterfowl in large numbers
also may be undesirable because they cause similar prob-
lems, and their nutrient-rich droppings place additional
demands on the water-quality performance of constructed
wetlands.
Control of wildlife access in constructed wetlands is highly
site-specific; as a result, control measures must be based
on geographic location, nuisance species, wetland design,
and preferred levels of management. Control methods are
applied throughout the planning, construction, and opera-
tion of constructed wetland projects. Control of carp, for
example, can be anticipated during design and managed
with winter drawdown of water levels and subsequent in-
depth freezing in northern climates. Also effective is draw-
down and physical removal of stranded individuals, but
this method is more labor intensive and less effective in
eradicating carp populations. Large rodents can be
screened out of culverts to limit access and prevent dam-
ming; however, trapping and physical removal may be
needed to prevent burrowing and subsequent undermin-
ing of banks and other damage. For waterfowl control, lim-
ited open-water areas will discourage many species, but
treatment requirements will dictate the size and use of these
zones. Netting suspended over unavoidable open-water
areas can prevent their use for feeding, but this method
deviates from the intent to incorporate natural methods of
wildlife control.
Wetland wildlife species frequently have home ranges
well outside the borders of an individual constructed wet-
land cell; consequently, they can become a public resource
that may need to be protected and promoted for reasons
unrelated to their perceived value to constructed wetlands.
Although the values of constructed wetlands for wildlife
habitat may be subject to public and scientific debate, this
topic nonetheless must be considered in all project phases
to determine optimum design and management features
to promote or discourage the presence of wildlife (Knight,
1997; Worralletal., 1996).
2.5.3 Mosquito Habitat Controls
Mosquitoes may be integral components of the ecologi-
cal food web, but mosquitoes generally are considered a
pest species. While a constructed wetland's attractiveness
to wildlife may be regarded as a benefit to the human com-
munity, the potential for breeding mosquitoes can be an
obstacle to permitting, funding, and other steps essential
to the siting of a constructed wetland.
Several methods of mosquito control can be employed
in the planning, construction, and operation of constructed
wetlands. Predation is one means. Mosquito fish have been
found to be effective in reducing mosquito populations when
habitat conditions are optimized by manipulating water lev-
els and when channels are kept free of dead vegetation.
Drawdown of water levels aids mosquito fish spawning in
spring and provides the fish with better access to mos-
quito larvae during mosquito breeding season (Dill, 1989).
In warm climates, mosquito fish habitat must be monitored
for excessive water temperatures and fluctuations in efflu-
ent strength and content. Bats and several avian species
also are effective predators, but planning and managing
optimum conditions have yet to be standardized.
In the planning and construction stages, management
of mosquito habitat can be enabled with steep slopes on
water channels that reduce standing water area in shallow
areas. In contrast to this design is the use of more natural,
undulating banks that have been popular in polishing wet-
28
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lands. This natural appearance is more visually appealing
but is ineffective for mosquito-control purposes. A channel
profile that has been effective in mosquito control is a steep-
sided channel flanked by relatively flat aprons leading out-
ward to steep-sided banks (Dill, 1989). This profile allows
the facility operatorto draw down water levels to the lower
channel during the mosquito-breeding season. Figure 2-4
illustrates this design. With standing water eliminated from
emergent vegetation in the shallow flanks of the channel,
deeper water in the lower channel provides an environ-
ment more conducive to mosquito predation by fish spe-
cies. Flexible drainage capability is essential to this means
of control.
Water spray systems also have been used for mosquito
control, but such mechanical systems are inconsistent with
the passive nature of constructed wetlands, which utilize
natural systems to accomplish wastewater treatment and
manage ancillary concerns.
Vegetation management is another approach to mos-
quito control, especially in the absence of water-level con-
trol features (Dill, 1989). Taller vegetation especially needs
management. Cattails and bulrushes, for example, tend to
fall over late in the growing season, which creates condi-
tions favorable for mosquito reproduction in the following
growing season, as well as unfavorable conditions for pre-
dation by mosquito fish (Martin and Eldridge, 1989). Chan-
nels planted with lower-growing vegetation and cleared
annually of dead standing stock can reduce mosquito popu-
lations and optimize predation, providing that this vegeta-
tion imparts the same structural role beneath the water
surface.
Larvicide is a proven means of active mosquito control
when employed in conjunction with other management
techniques. A bacterium (Bacillus sphaericus) has been
found effective in reducing culex mosquitoes, one of the
most common species in the United States. Tests have
indicated that a commercial larvicide containing the bacte-
ria may be capable of eliminating most of the populations
of culex in treatment lagoons (WaterWorld, 1996). The
concentrated bacteria in powdered form is applied to stand-
ing water as a coating on granulated corncobs, which
quickly releases protein crystals and bacteria spores to
the water surface. Upon ingestion,the bacteria enter mos-
quito larvae tissues through pores in the gut wall and mul-
tiply rapidly, and the infected larvae typically die within two
days. However, fully vegetated zones are more difficult to
treat than open water zones or lagoons.
2.6 Human Health Concerns
Many studies of constructed wetlands' biological effec-
tiveness and attractiveness to humans for aesthetic and
cultural reasons have focused on polishing wetlands that
receive secondary effluent, which are outside the focus of
this manual. At many of these successful polishing wet-
lands for tertiary treatment, interpretive centers and signage
invite visitors, and boardwalks and naturalists guide them
through the outdoor experience. Constructed wetlands that
receive primary effluent for secondary treatment, on the
other hand, may not be visitor-friendly places, and human
visitors may best enjoy them from the periphery for sev-
eral reasons.
Partially treated wastewater in a constructed wetland for
secondary treatment, despite the proven effectiveness of
this ecological approach to treatment, presents essentially
the same risks to human health as wastewater in primary
treatment and lagoons. Risk of dermal contact and pos-
sible transmission of disease is equally unappealing in FWS
wetlands for secondary treatment as it is in open lagoons.
This concern is distinguished from human interaction with
Emergent Plants
I
Floating Plants
Inlet
_. ... .. rff'ffF\ I
Distribution A \_
Pipe Vegetated 'A >-v
Zone 0'
(1)
Variable-
Level
Outlet
Vegetated
Zone
(3)
v Outlet
Collector
Pipe
Submerged Plants
Figure 2-4. Profile of a three-zone FWS constructed wetland cell
29
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polishing systems, where influent wastewater has already
met effluent quality requirements which are set by regula-
tory authorities.
In constructed wetlands receiving primary effluent, hu-
man exposure to wastewater is a greater concern at the
inlet end of the system, where influent has achieved pri-
mary treatment only. Lesser concern for human exposure
is warranted at the outlet end, where wastewater has been
treated to the quality of secondary treatment or better, which
is the quality of wastewater entering the polishing wetlands
that have been popular for environmental awareness and
education activities.
As a result, humans must be considered an unwanted
species in most areas of FWS wetlands treating municipal
wastewater to meet secondary treatment (defined as 30
mg/L of BOD and TSS). Nonetheless, constructed wet-
lands can serve as recreational areas and outdoor labora-
tories, especially at the outlet end where wastewater has
been treated to secondary effluent standards. Management
considerations may include the public's access, percep-
tions, and exposure to health threats (Knight, 1997). To
effectively address these concerns, fencing, signage, and
other controls must be considered in the proposal stage
as well as in design and operation of the system.
Mosquito populations may represent merely an annoy-
ance factorto be managed, as described above, but some
species of mosquitoes also carry a health risk that must
be addressed. In warmer climates, including the southern
United States, the encephalitis mosquito (Culex tarsalis)
thrives in the extended breeding season provided by con-
structed wetlands, but water-level manipulation and mos-
quito fish predation in the two-tiered pond design described
previously have been effective in controlling these mos-
quito populations (Dill, 1989). The two-tiered design allows
water levels to be drawn down to concentrate prey spe-
cies (mosquitoes) in smaller areas for more efficient con-
sumption by predators (mosquito fish).
Most of the health concerns described above do not apply
to VSB systems, in which wastewater typically is not ex-
posed at the land surface.
2.7 On-site System Applications
On-site constructed wetland systems may also be ap-
plied to wastewater treatment and disposal at individual
properties. On-site constructed wetlands generally utilize
the same technologies as the municipal VSB systems de-
scribed in this manual, and they share with municipal sys-
tems the advantages of cost-effectiveness and low-main-
tenance requirements. However, on-site constructed wet-
lands are distinguished typically by final effluent discharge
to soils instead of surface water. For purposes of this dis-
cussion, on-site constructed wetland systems treat septic
tank effluent, or primary effluent, in small-scale VSB sys-
tems for subsurface disposal to soils.
On-site constructed wetlands also differ from municipal
systems in scale. On-site constructed wetlands typically
occupy only a few hundred square feet. Municipal VSB
systems may serve hundreds of residential, commercial,
and industrial properties, while on-site systems would serve
a single home or several residences in a cluster.
An on-site VSB system typically consists of a lined VSB
that receives primary effluent from a septic tank, and in
some designs, a second VSB that receives effluent from
the upstream VSB system. The second VSB can be un-
lined to allow treated wastewater to infiltrate to soil for dis-
posal. Variations of this treatment train include use of
supplemental absorption trenches to facilitate soil absorp-
tion and direct surface discharge with or without subse-
quent disinfection. Each VSB typically is planted with wet-
land vegetation.
Applied studies and research experiments of on-site
constructed wetland systems have shown adequate treat-
ment performance for most wastewater constituents, in-
cluding BOD, TSS, and fecal conforms, with variations in
performance for removal of ammonia nitrogen (Burgan and
Sievers, 1994; Huang et al., 1994; Johns et al., 1998;
Mankin and Powell, 1998; Neralla et al., 1998; White and
Shirk, 1998).
2.8 Related Aquatic Treatment Systems
Several types of aquatic treatment systems have been
constructed to treat municipal and other waste waters, and
most of these systems fall outside the definition of con-
structed wetlands discussed in this manual. These other
types of systems are briefly described to provide the reader
with additional background and references to source ma-
terial.
Polishing wetlands have been used also to remove trace
metals, including cadmium, chromium, iron, lead, manga-
nese, selenium, and zinc in a variety of situations. The
primary removal mechanism for metals in wastewater ap-
pears to be sedimentation. Plant uptake results in deposi-
tion of metals to soil via plant roots and requires harvest of
plants to partially remove metals from the system. In some
cases, however, effluent concentrations of metals have
exceeded influent levels, apparently due to evaporation of
wastewater.
One proprietary treatment system, which among its many
manifestations has used both FWS-like and VSB-like treat-
ment units as part of its treatment train, is known as the
Advanced Ecologically Engineered System (AEES), or
"Living Machine." This system incorporates conventional
treatment system components, including sedimentation/
anaerobic bioreactors, extended aeration, clarifiers, fixed-
film reactors, and a final clarifier, sometimes with a VSB
for polishing, in a greenhouse setting. The AEES was ap-
plied to four demonstration projects funded with federal
grants. The four projects underwent evaluation of treat-
ment performance for various wastewater types and set-
tings (e.g., raw wastewater in a moderate climate, raw
wastewater at higher flow rates in a colder climate, in situ
water-quality improvements to pond water, and polishing
30
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of secondary effluent). One of the demonstration projects
also was evaluated by an independent firm under contract
to the U.S. EPA (EPA, 1997b). Results of performance
evaluations indicated that wastewater treatment met per-
formance goals for certain wastewater constituents; other
goals were unmet. Although this technology is presented
by its developers as a type of natural system, the use of
wetland plants appears to influence aesthetics more than
treatment performance. The reader is directed to other
sources for further information (EPA, 1993b; EPA, 1997b;
Living Technologies, 1996; Reed et al., 1995; Todd and
Josephson, 1994).
Floating macrophyte systems rely only partially on treat-
ment processes provided by wetlands and require mecha-
nized components to achieve the intended treatment per-
formance. Larger duckweed systems and water hyacinth
systems utilize mechanical systems to remove floating
macrophytes. Both have been employed to treat waste-
water by removing some of the wastewater constituents,
primarily BOD and TSS. In both systems, removal of plants
usually requires additional mechanical systems for drying,
disposal, and other residuals handling (Zirschky and Reed,
1988).
2.9 Frequently Asked Questions
1. What are constructed wetlands?
The term "constructed wetlands" refers to a technol-
ogy designed to employ ecological processes found
in natural wetland ecosystems. These systems uti-
lize wetland plants, soils, and associated microorgan-
isms to remove contaminants from wastewater. As
with other natural biological treatment technologies,
wetland treatment systems are capable of providing
additional benefits. They are generally reliable sys-
tems with no anthropogenic energy sources or chemi-
cal requirements, a minimum of operational require-
ments, and large land requirements. The treatment
of wastewater using constructed wetland technology
also provides an opportunity to create or restore wet-
lands for environmental enhancement, such as wild-
life habitat, greenbelts, passive recreation associated
with ponds, and other environmental amenities.
2. What are wetland treatment systems?
The term "wetland treatment system" generally re-
fers to two types of passive treatment systems. One
type of system is a free water surface (FWS) con-
structed wetland, which is a shallow wetland with a
combination of emergent aquatic plants (cattail, bul-
rush, reeds, and others), floating plants (duckweed,
water hyacinth, and others), and submergent aquatic
plants (sago pondweed, widgeon grass, and others).
A FWS wetland may have open-water areas domi-
nated by submergent and floating plants, or it may
contain islands for habitat purposes. It may be lined
or unlined, depending on regulatory and/or perfor-
mance requirements. These systems exhibit com-
5.
plex aquatic ecology, including habitat for aquatic
and wetland birds.
A second type of system is termed "vegetated sub-
merged bed (VSB)" and is known to many as a sub-
surface flow wetland. A VSB is not an actual wet-
land because it does not have hydric soils. Emer-
gent wetland plants are rooted in gravel, but waste-
water flows through the gravel and not over the
surface. This system is also shallow and contains
sufficiently large gravel to permit long-term subsur-
face flow without clogging. Roots and tubers (rhi-
zomes) of the plants grow into pore spaces in the
gravel. Most current data indicate that these sys-
tems perform as well without plants as with plants;
as a result, wetland ecology is not a critical factor
in VSB systems.
Are constructed wetlands reliable? What do they
treat?
Constructed wetlands are an effective and reliable
water reclamation technology if they are properly
designed, constructed, operated, and maintained.
They can remove most pollutants associated with
municipal and industrial wastewater and stormwater
and are usually designed to remove contaminants
such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and
suspended solids. Constructed wetlands also have
been used to remove metals, including cadmium,
chromium, iron, lead, manganese, selenium, zinc,
and toxic organics from wastewater.
How does a constructed wetland treat wastewa-
ter?
A natural wetland acts as a watershed filter, a sink
for sediments and precipitates, and a biogeochemi-
cal engine that recycles and transforms some of
the nutrients. A constructed wetland performs the
same functions for wastewater, and a constructed
wetland can perform many of the functions of con-
ventional wastewater treatment trains (sedimenta-
tion, filtration, digestion, oxidation, reduction, ad-
sorption, and precipitation). These processes oc-
cur sequentially as wastewater moves through the
wetland, with wastewater constituents becoming
comingled with detritus of marsh plants.
What is the difference between treatment and en-
hancement wetlands?
Constructed wetlands generally are designed to
treat municipal or industrial effluents as well as
stormwater runoff. Enhancement marshes, or pol-
ishing wetlands, are designed to benefit the com-
munity with multiple uses, such as water reclama-
tion, wildlife habitat, waterstorage, mitigation banks,
and opportunities for passive recreation and envi-
ronmental education. Both types of wetland sys-
tems can be designed as separate systems, or
31
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important attributes of each can be integrated into
a single design with multiple treatment and en-
hancement objectives.
6. Can a constructed wetland be used to meet a sec-
ondary effluent standard?
Both FWS and VSB constructed wetlands can be
used to meet a 30/30 mg/L BOD and TSS discharge
standard. It is not advisable to put raw wastewater
into a constructed wetland.
7. Can a constructed wetland be used to meet an
advanced secondary/tertiary discharge standard?
With sufficient pretreatment and wetland area, FWS
constructed wetlands can meet discharge standards
of less than 10 mg/L BOD, TSS, and TN on a
monthly average basis. Many examples of FWS
wetland systems meeting these standards on a
monthly average basis can be found in the United
States (EPA, 1999). VSB systems have been used
extensively in England for polishing secondary ef-
fluents and treating effluent from combined sani-
tary and storm sewers. In the U.S., they have gen-
erally not performed well in consistently reaching
advanced treatment goals with primary treatment
influent.
8. How much area is required for constructed wet-
lands?
As a general rule, a constructed wetland receiving
wastewater with greater degrees of pretreatment
(for example, primary clarification, oxidation pond,
trickling filter, etc.) requires less area than a con-
structed wetland receiving higher-strength waste-
water. Historically, constructed wetlands designers
have employed from <2 to over 200 acres/MGD (4
to 530 L/m2-d). However, there is no generic an-
swer to the question since it depends on the efflu-
ent criteria to be met and buffer areas required.
9. Do these systems have to be lined?
The requirement for liners in constructed wetlands
depends on each state's regulatory requirements
and/or the characteristics of surface and subsur-
face soils. In a general sense, if soils are porous
(e.g., sands), well-drained, and contain small
amounts of loams, clays, and silts, lining is likely to
be a requirement for constructed wetlands. On the
other hand, if soils are poorly drained and composed
mostly of clays, then lining might not be required.
These systems would tend to produce a layer of
peat on the bottom that would reduce infiltration with
time. The concept of a "leaky wetland," which may
take advantage of natural processes to purify waste-
water as it moves downward through soil to re-
charge the ground water, may be considered a po-
tential benefit in certain areas.
10. What is the role of the plants in constructed wet-
lands?
In FWS constructed wetlands, plants play several
essential roles. The most important function of
emergent and floating aquatic plants is providing a
canopy overthe water column, which limits produc-
tion of phytoplankton and increases the potential
for accumulation of free-floating aquatic plants (e.g.,
duckweed) that restrict atmospheric reaeration.
These conditions also enhance reduction of sus-
pended solids within the FWS constructed wetland.
Emergent plants play a minor role in taking up ni-
trogen and phosphorus. The effect of litter fall from
previous growing seasons as it moves through the
water column and eventually decomposes into hu-
mic soil and lignin particles may be significant in
terms of effluent quality.
The role of plants in VSB systems is not clear. Ini-
tially it was believed that translocation of oxygen
by plants was a major source of oxygen to microbes
growing in the VSB media, and therefore plants
were critical components in the process. However,
side-by-side comparisons of planted and unplanted
systems have not confirmed this belief. Neverthe-
less, planted VSB systems are more desirable aes-
thetically than unplanted horizontal rock-filter sys-
tems, and plants do not appear to hinder perfor-
mance of VSB systems.
11. How much time is needed for a constructed wet-
land to become fully operational and meet discharge
requirements?
For FWS wetland systems, several growing sea-
sons may be needed to obtain the optimum veg-
etative density necessary for treatment processes.
The length of this period is somewhat dependent
on the original planting density and the season of
the initial planting. Effluent quality has been ob-
served to improve with time, suggesting that veg-
etation density and accumulated plant litter play an
important role in treatment effectiveness.
VSB systems also require more than one growing
season to achieve normal wetland plant densities.
However, the time required for VSB systems to
become fully operational is considerably less than
FWS systems because of the minor role of plants
in the treatment process. Development of the mi-
crobial biomass in the media of a VSB system typi-
cally requires from three to six months.
12. How long can a FWS wetland operate before ac-
cumulated plant material and settled solids need to
be removed?
FWS wetland systems receiving oxidation pond
effluent may operate for 10 to 15 years without the
need to remove accumulated litter and settled
32
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nondegradable influent solids. Treatment capaci-
ties of these wetlands have not shown a decrease
in treatment effectiveness with time. However, it is
assumed that further experience will reveal that
there is a finite period of accumulation that will re-
sult in the need to remove solids. In both types of
systems, the bulk of the solids accumulation oc-
curs at the influent end of the system. As a result,
solids may need to be removed from only a portion
of the system that may be as small as 10 to 25% of
the surface area.
13. How much effort is required to operate and main-
tain a constructed wetland?
These systems require a minimum of operational
control. Monthly or weekly inspection of weirs and
weekly sampling typically are required at the efflu-
ent end, and periodic sampling between multiple
cells is recommended.
Maintenance of constructed wetlands generally is
limited to the control of unwanted aquatic plants
and control of disease vectors, especially mosqui-
toes. Harvesting of plants generally is not required,
but annual removal or thinning of vegetation or re-
planting of vegetation may be needed to maintain
flow patterns and treatment functions.
Effective vector control can be achieved by appro-
priately applying integrated pest management prac-
tices, such as introducing mosquito fish or provid-
ing habitat for mosquito-eating birds and bats. Bi-
monthly monitoring of mosquito larvae and pupae
and applications of larvacides may be required on
an as-needed basis.
Sediment accumulation typically is not a problem
in a well-designed and properly operated con-
structed wetland, thus partial dredging is required
only rarely.
These tasks would require approximately one day
per week of labor for a wetland system treating a
flow of one million gallons per day (MGD) (3,880
m3/d) or less, and monitoring may be the most de-
manding task.
14. Do constructed wetlands produce odors?
Conventional wastewatertreatment processes pro-
duce odors mostly associated with anaerobic de-
composition of human waste and food waste found
in sewage. These odors usually are concentrated
in areas of small confinement and point discharges,
like influent pump stations, anaerobic digesters, and
sludge-handling processes. Wetlands, in contrast,
incorporate normal processes of decomposition
over a relatively large area, potentially diluting odors
associated with the natural decomposition of plant
material, algae, and other biological solids. How-
ever, wetland treatment systems receiving septic
tank and primary effluents can release anaerobic
odors around the inlet piping, and both types are
generally anaerobic, which makes odor generation
a major operational concern.
15. Are mosquitoes a potential problem with con-
structed wetlands? If so, how are they managed?
Mosquitoes generally are not a problem in properly
designed and operated VSB systems. However,
mosquitoes can be a problem in FWS constructed
wetlands. If a FWS wetland is designed with suffi-
cient open water (40 to 60% of the surface area) to
permit effective control with mosquito fish, and in-
let and outlet weirs are placed to allow level control
and drainage of wetland cells, the potential for
mosquito populations to thrive is reduced. This lat-
ter concept provides for isolation of various wet-
land cells to allow them to be drained and/or to al-
low predators and mosquitoes to become concen-
trated in pools and channels.
Along with these physical factors, the development
of a balanced ecosystem that includes other aquatic
invertebrates (beetles), aquatic insects (dragon flies
and damsel flies), fish (top-feeding minnows, stick-
lebacks, gobis, and others), birds (swallows, ducks,
and others), and mammals (bats) will help main-
tain acceptable levels of mosquitoes. Under these
conditions, the mosquito is simply a component in
a balanced food web. If an imbalance develops,
then intervention with certain biological and chemi-
cal agents may be required.
A successful intervention method has been the use
of Bti, a bacterium spore that interferes with devel-
opment of the adult. In essence, Bti kills the larva
via physical actions. Several applications over the
mosquito season are needed to interfere with the
mosquito's natural growth cycle, which may be three
to four months in length. Other larvacides, such as
methoprene, are chemicals that are not selective
for certain stages of mosquitoes' life cycle.
Adulticides also are not selective for life cycles but
could be used at critical times.
In general, proper design that supports a healthy
wetland ecosystem produces conditions that main-
tain sufficiently low mosquito populations.
16. What is the present level of application of this tech-
nology?
As of late 1999, more than 200 communities in the
United States were reported to be utilizing con-
structed wetlands for wastewater treatment. Most
of these communities use wetlands for polishing
lagoon effluent. In addition, communities in a wide
range of sizes use this technology, including large
cities such as Phoenix, Arizona, and Orange
33
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County, Florida. For the most part, however, FWS
technology has been utilized by small- to medium-
sized communities ranging from 5,000 to 50,000 in
population.
Even though constructed wetlands for municipal
wastewater treatment have been around for as long
as 40 years, there have been widespread problems
in their performance with respect to nitrogen trans-
formations and removal as well as phosphorus re-
moval (WRC, 2000). This manual has been cre-
ated to help future owners and designers avoid
unrealistic expectations from these systems.
17. Can these systems operate at elevations otherthan
sea level?
FWS and VSB systems are found in a wide range
of elevations extending, for example, from the
desert Southwest to New England, and from the
southeast United States to the Rocky Mountains
and Pacific coast regions. The common wetland
plants used in these systems are found in all areas
of the United States and Canada. There is no in-
herent biological or ecological basis for these types
of systems to not work in the normal range of physi-
ographic conditions in the United States, Canada,
and Mexico.
18. Can constructed wetlands work in cold tempera-
tures?
Constructed wetlands are found in a wide range of
climatological settings, including cold climates
where ice forms on the surface forfourto six months
of the year. For example, these systems are found
in Canada, North Dakota, Montana, Vermont, Colo-
rado, and other cold-climate areas. Special con-
siderations must be included in the design of these
systems for the formation of an ice layer and the
effect of cold temperatures on mechanical systems,
such as the influent and effluent works. The ab-
sence of living plants that have died back for the
winter and the presence of a layer of ice approxi-
mately 0.5 to 1.0 ft. thick have not been shown to
severely affect the secondary treatment capabili-
ties of these systems. Nitrogen transformation and
removal is, however, impaired during very cold pe-
riods.
19. Can you receive full treatment benefits from a con-
structed wetland that also provides ancillary ben-
efits such as wildlife habitat?
Multiple benefits can accrue from a FWS con-
structed wetland if it is properly sited and designed.
For example, FWS wetlands that have a significant
portion of surface area occupied by submergent
aquatic plants and deeper water have been found
to produce higher-quality effluent and provide
greater habitat value than other configurations. This
open space is used by aquatic fowl for feeding,
access to refugia, and as a source of fresh water.
The same submerged aquatic plants that provide
wastewater treatment also serve as a food source
for aquatic birds and mammals.
Because reduced human health risk is associated
with tertiary treatment or "polishing" wetlands, they
have commonly enjoyed full recreational access to
the FWS systems, but they provide minimal removal
of several key pollutants in comparison to the treat-
ment wetlands that are the focus of this manual.
Therefore, human access to these systems entails
greater health risks because the wastewater is ac-
tively being treated. The wildlife and other natural
ecological populations may be equally abundant in
these systems as in the polishing systems, but hu-
man access may be restricted, at least in the inlet
environs.
The potential for ancillary benefits is reduced with
VSB systems. Depending on its size and degree of
vegetation, a VSB system could provide wildlife
habitat. VSB wetlands also can be used for envi-
ronmental education and awareness activities.
2.10 Glossary
Abiotic Nonbiological processes ortreatment mechanisms
in a constructed wetland.
Adsorption Adherence by chemical or physical bonding
of a pollutant to a solid surface.
Adventitious roots provide a competitive advantage to a
plant by growing from stems into the surrounding air
(around terrestrial plants) or water (around aquatic plants)
before entering the soil substrate to provide additional up-
take or absorption directly from the surrounding medium.
Aerenchymous tissues in aquatic plants provide fortrans-
fer of gases within a plant. In wastewater treatment sys-
tems, emergent aquatic plants rely on aerenchymous tis-
sues for transfer of oxygen to their roots.
Aerobic processes in wastewater treatment systems take
place in the presence of dissolved oxygen.
Algae are single-celled to multicelled organisms that rely
on photosynthesis for growth. Most algae are classified as
plants.
Anaerobic processes in wastewater treatment systems
take place in the absence of dissolved oxygen and instead
rely on molecular oxygen available in decomposing com-
pounds.
Aspect ratio The length of a constructed wetland divided
by its width (L/W).
Atmospheric reaeration introduces atmospheric oxygen
into the water at the water's surface, which provides dis-
solved oxygen to the aquatic environment.
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Autotrophic Types of reactions that generally require only
inorganic reactants; for example, nitrification.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the demand for
dissolved oxygen that decomposition of organic matter
places on a wastewater treatment process. BOD as ex-
pressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) is used as a mea-
sure of wastewater organic strength and as a measure of
treatment performance. This constituent is represented
throughout the text of this manual as "BOD," which stands
for the U.S. standard 5-day BOD test result.
Biomass is the total amount of living material, including
plants and animals, in a unit volume.
Biotic is a term which implies microbiological or biological
mechanisms of treatment.
BOD removal is the lowering of demand for dissolved oxy-
gen required for biological decomposition processes in the
water column; hence, BOD removal can be accomplished
by biological decomposition in open-water zones and by
flocculation and sedimentation in fully vegetated zones and
in VSBs.
Bulrush is the common name for a number of plants of
the genus Scirpus found in wetlands. Several species of
bulrush commonly used in constructed wetlands thrive in
the wide range of environmental conditions in constructed
wetlands, including varying levels of water depth and qual-
ity. The large, terete bulrush species include S. validus, S.
californicus, and S. acutus, all of which form dense stands
with large numbers of round-sectioned stems that main-
tain an upright posture for one or more years. Other spe-
cies of Scirpus include the three-square varieties, such as
S. americanus (olynei), S. fluviatilis, and S. robustus, which
offer tolerance to salinity, a variety of color shades, and
attractiveness to various animal species.
Canopy Uppermost or tallest vegetation in a plant com-
munity.
Cattail is the common name fora number of plants of the
genus Typftathat are common in constructed wetlands in
the United States, with at least three species predominant:
T. latifolia, T. domingensis, and T. angustifolia. Along with
their hybridized forms, these species occupy numerous
water-depth and water-quality niches within constructed
wetlands. The wetland designer is advised to consult local
botanists and geographic references to determine which
local cattail species or hybrid is best adapted to the spe-
cific water quality, water depth, and substrate planned for
a constructed wetland.
Common reed (Phragmites) probably is the most widely
used plant in constructed wetlands on a worldwide basis,
but it typically is not used in the United States. Although
this plant has excellent growth characteristics in very shal-
low constructed wetlands, it is an invasive species in some
natural wetlands, and its transport and intentional intro-
duction to some localities are discouraged. Common reed
is considered to offer little value as food or habitat for wet-
land wildlife species (Thunhorst, 1993).
Constructed wetlands are wastewater treatment systems
that rely on physical, chemical, and biological processes
typically found in natural wetlands to treat a relatively con-
stant flow of pretreated wastewater.
Deciduous Woody plants that shed their leaves in cold
seasons.
Dentrification Biotic conversion of nitrate-nitrogen to ni-
trogen gases.
Detritus Loose, dead leaves and stems from dead veg-
etation.
Dike A wall of mounded soil that contains or separates
constructed wetlands from surrounding areas. Dissolved
oxygen (DO) is required in the water column of a waste-
water treatment system for aerobic biochemical processes
that take place in constructed wetlands.
Dominant plant species The plant species that exerts a
controlling influence on the function of the entire plant com-
munity.
Duckweed Duckweed naturally moves on a large water
surface by movement induced by wind action unless it is
protected from the wind and held in place by dense stands
of emergent plants (e.g., macrophytes) or artificial barri-
ers. In FWS systems, this results in dense growths of duck-
weed within the fully vegetated zones. Duckweed effec-
tively seals the water surface and prevents atmospheric
reaeration. This action combined with the inherent oxygen
demand of the incompletely treated municipal wastewater
results in anaerobic conditions in these fully vegetated
zones.
Emergent herbaceous wetland plants grow rooted in the
soil, with plant structures extending above the surface of
the water. These plants are herbaceous by virtue of their
relatively decomposable (leafy) plant structures, but they
also have sufficient internal structure to maintain their up-
right growth, even without the support of surrounding wa-
ters. Most emergent wetland plants grow with or without
the presence of surface water; however, they generally
grow in shallow water near the banks of a water body.
Emergent vegetation (see macrophytes).
Evapotranspiration Loss of water to the atmosphere
through water surface and vegetation.
Exotic species A plant not indigenous to the region.
Fecal coliform A common measure for pathogenicity of
wastewater. This analytical test reveals the number of these
types of organisms in counts/100 milliliters (#/100mL)
Filtration is the process of filtering influent solids from the
wastewater and typically is provided by plant stems and
leaves and other vegetation in the water column.
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Floating aquatic plants are commonly found in FWS sys-
tems, including water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes),
duckweed (Lemnaspp., Spirodelaspp., and Wolffiaspp.),
water fern (Azolla caroliniana and Salvinia rotundifolia),
and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes). Also common are
rooted plants growing in a floating form, including penny-
wort (Hydrocotlyle spp.), water lily (Nymphaea spp.), frog's
bit (Limnobium spongia), spatterdock (Nuphar spp.), and
pondweed (Potemogeton spp.).
Floating aquatic systems are in essence shallow basins
covered with floating aquatic plants. One type of plant that
can remain in place is the water hyacinth, but it is very
sensitive to other than tropical temperatures and is con-
sidered to be an invasive species. Duckweed has been
held in place with artificial barriers in these types of sys-
tems.
Flocculation is the process of very small particles of mat-
ter clumping together to reach a collectively larger size. In
wastewater treatment processes, flocculation typically ag-
glomerates colloidal particulates into larger, settleable sol-
ids that are then removed by sedimentation processes.
Free water surface (FWS) wetlands are constructed wet-
lands that provide wastewater treatment through floccula-
tion and sedimentation during the flow of wastewater
through stands of aquatic plants growing in shallow water.
In some FWS wetlands, there are also open areas where
aerobic bio-oxidation complements the physical removal
processes. FWS systems resemble natural wetlands in
function and appearance. FWS systems have also been
termed "surface flow systems."
Function refers to the purpose, role, or actions expected
of constructed wetlands in the process of wastewater treat-
ment. Function is expressed in terms of expected results,
such as nutrient uptake, removal of TSS and BOD, main-
tenance of dissolved oxygen in open water zones, and
reduction of wastewater constituents to acceptable levels,
waterfowl habitat, and water storage.
Habitat value The suitability of an area to support a given
species.
Herbaceous Plant material that has no woody parts.
Herbivores are members of the animal kingdom that con-
sume plant matter.
Hydric soils, or wetland soils, exhibit distinct chemical and
physical changes that result from periodic inundation and
saturation. Flooding and subsequent decomposition and
oxidation of soil chemicals typically result in anaerobic soil
conditions.
Hydrophyte Any plant growing in a soil that is deficient in
oxygen.
Indigenous species Species of plants that are native to
an area.
Inorganics Compounds that do not contain organic car-
bon.
Lagoons are also called stabilization ponds, oxidation
ponds, etc. In conventional wastewater treatment systems,
they typically are used to provide intermediate treatment
of wastewater through a variety of physical, chemical, and
biological processes.
Limiting nutrient is the nutrient that controls a particular
plant's growth. When present in insufficient amounts rela-
tive to a given plant's needs, a limiting nutrient limits that
plant's growth.
Limnetic The open water zone of a FWS system where
light can penetrate to induce photosynthesis.
Macrophytes are plants that are readily visible to the un-
aided eye and include vascular or higher plants. Vascular
plants include mosses, ferns, conifers, monocots, and di-
cots. Macrophytes also may be categorized by a variety of
ecological growth forms.
Marsh A common term applied to treeless wetlands.
Microbes or microorganisms are microscopic organisms
(only viewed with a microscope), such as bacteria, proto-
zoans, and certain species of algae, which are respon-
sible for many of the biochemical transformations neces-
sary in wastewater treatment processes.
Nitrification Biotic conversion of ammonium nitrogen to
nitrite and nitrate-nitrogen.
Nuisance species Plants that detract from or interfere with
the designated purpose(s) of constructed wetlands.
On-site constructed wetland systems are wastewater
systems fortreatment and disposal at the site where waste-
water is generated. For example, a residential septic sys-
tem is an on-site system.
Organics Compounds that contain organic carbon (also
volatile solids).
Oxygen demand Generally expressed through relatively
high BOD concentrations, the property of municipal waste-
water that removes dissolved oxygen from the water col-
umn.
Photosynthesis is the conversion of sunlight into organic
matter by plants through a process of combining carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and light,
which releases oxygen as a by-product.
Phytoplankton are algae that are microscopic in size
which float or drift in the upper layer of the water column
and depend on photosynthesis and the presence of phos-
phorus and nitrogen in the water.
Pneumatophores are structures that provide air channels
for emergent plants growing in water environments.
Polishing wetlands are designed to provide tertiary treat-
ment to secondary effluent to meet performance standards
36
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required by National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Sys-
tem (NPDES) permits. Design considerations for polish-
ing wetlands are outside the scope of this manual.
Primary effluent is the product of primary treatment of
wastewater that typically involves settling of solids in a
containment structure, such as a septic tank, settling pond,
or lagoon.
Primary production is the production of biomass (organic
carbon) by plants and microscopic algae, typically through
photosynthesis, as the first link in the food chain.
Primary treatment of wastewater is a settling process for
removal of settleable solids from wastewaters.
Rhizome Root-like stem that produces roots and stems to
propogate itself in a surrounding zone.
Secondary effluent is wastewater that has undergone sec-
ondary treatment and is discharged to the environment or
receives further treatment in tertiary treatment processes.
Secondary treatment continues the process begun in pri-
mary treatment by removing certain constituents, such as
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended
solids (TSS) from primary effluent to prescribed treatment
levels; typically, 30 mg/L in the United States.
Sediment Organic and mineral particulates that have
settled from the overlying water column (also sludge).
Seepage Loss of water from a constructed wetland to the
soil through infiltration below the system. Senescence is
the phase at the end of a plant's life that leads to death
and, finally, decay.
Solar insolation refers to the amount of solar radiation
that reaches the constructed wetland. Solar radiation in
the summer months may play an important role in photo-
synthesis in open-water zones of a FWS system.
Standing biomass in a constructed wetland is the total
amount of plant material that stands erect. This term typi-
cally is used as "dead standing biomass" to refer to dead,
standing plants, in contrast to green plants and plant litter
composed of broken and fallen dead plant parts.
Structure refers to the form and amount of living and
nonliving components of an ecosystem. For example,
emergent vegetation provides the structure to perform
wetland functions. Wetland structure is expressed in
qualitative terms such as species of flora and fauna, or
type of wetland such as marsh, bog, or bottomland for-
est.
Submerged aquatic plants or submergent vegetation
are rooted plants that grow in open water zones within
the water column of an aquatic environment (compare to
emergent aquatic plants) and provide dissolved oxygen
for aerobic biochemical reactions. They lie below the wa-
ter surface, except for flowering parts in some species.
Subsurface flow (SF) wetlands (see vegetated sub-
merged bed (VSB) systems).
Tertiary treatment (see polishing wetlands).
Total nitrogen (TN) is the sum of all the forms of nitrogen,
including nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen in
wastewater, and is typically expressed in milligrams per
liter (mg/L).
Total phosphorus (TP) is a measure of all forms of phos-
phorus in wastewater, typically expressed in milligrams per
liter (mg/L).
Total suspended solids (TSS) are particulate matter in
wastewater consisting of organic and inorganic matterthat
is suspended in the water column. The numeric value is
provided by specific analytical test. Typically, municipal
wastewaters include the settleable solids and some por-
tion of the colloidal fraction.
Vascular plant Plant that readily conducts water, miner-
als and foods throughout its boundaries.
Vegetated submerged bed (VSB) systems provide waste-
water treatment in filter media that is not directly exposed
to the atmosphere but may be slightly influenced by the
roots of surface vegetation. VSB systems also have been
termed subsurface flow (SF) wetlands, rock reed filters,
submerged filters, root zone method, reed bed treatment
systems, and microbial rock plant filters. In this manual,
the term "vegetated submerged bed systems" is used be-
cause gravel beds rather than hydric soils are the support
media for wetland plants; as a result, the systems are not
truly wetlands.
Vegetative reproduction is the process of asexual repro-
duction, in which new plants develop from roots, stems,
and leaves of the parent plant.
Wastewater treatment is the process of improving the
quality of wastewater. The term can refer to any parts
or all parts of the process by which raw wastewater is
transformed through biological, biochemical, and physi-
cal means to reduce contaminant concentrations to pre-
scribed levels prior to release to the environment. A
wastewater treatment process typically consists of pri-
mary, secondary, and tertiary treatment.
Wetland hydraulics refers to movement of water
through constructed wetlands, including volumes,
forces, velocities, rates, flow patterns, and other char-
acteristics.
Woody plants are plants that produce bark and vascu-
lar structures that are not leafy in nature. Woody plants
have trunks, stems, branches, and twigs that allow them
to occupy a greater variety of available niches than her-
baceous plants can occupy. General terms that describe
categories of woody plants found in wetlands are shrubs,
trees (canopy or subcanopy), and woody vines.
37
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Wrack Plant debris carried by water.
Zooplankton Microscopic and small animals that live in
the water column.
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Perfler, J. Laber, and P. Cooper (eds.) Water Science &
Technology 35(5), Wetland systems for water pollution
control 1996. Oxford, UK: ElsevierScience Ltd., pp. 45-
53.
Wolverton, B.C. 1987. Aquatic plants for wastewater treat-
ment: An overview. In: K.R. Reddy and WH. Smith (eds.)
Aquatic plants for water treatment and resource recov-
ery. Orlando, FL: Magnolia Publishing, pp. 3-15.
Worrall, P., K.J. Peberdy, and M.C. Millett. 1996. Constructed
wetlands and nature conservation. In: R. Haberl, R.
Perfler, J. Laber, and P. Cooper (eds.) Water Science &
Technology 35(5), Wetland systems for water pollution
control 1996. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science Ltd., pp. 205-
213.
Zirschky, J. and S.C. Reed. 1988. The use of duckweed for
wastewater treatment. Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Foundation, 60:1253-1258.
40
-------
Chapter 3
Removal Mechanisms and Modeling Performance of
Constructed Wetlands
3.1 Introduction
Constructed wetlands are highly complex systems that
separate and transform contaminants by physical, chemi-
cal, and biological mechanisms that may occur simulta-
neously or sequentially as the wastewater flows through
the system. In a qualitative sense, the processes that oc-
cur are known, but in only a few cases have they been
adequately measured to provide a more quantitative as-
sessment. The predominant mechanisms and their se-
quence of reaction are dependent on the external input
parameters to the system, the internal interactions, and
the characteristics of the wetland. The external input pa-
rameters most often of concern include the wastewater
quality and quantity and the system hydrological cycle.
Typical characteristics of municipal wastewaters most
often treated in constructed wetlands are described in Table
3-1. The emphasis of this manual is on the treatment of
municipal wastewater with the objectives of achieving tar-
get levels of suspended solids, organic matter, pathogens,
and in some instances, nutrients (specifically total nitro-
gen) and heavy metals. Wastewaters that will be consid-
ered include septic tank effluent, primary effluent, pond
effluents, and some secondary effluents from overloaded
or poorly controlled systems. Table 3-1 shows that the char-
acter of the wastewater is dependent on pretreatment and
Table 3-1. Typical Constructed Wetland Influents
Constituent
(mg/L)
BOD
Sol. BOD
COD
TSS
VSS
TN
NH3
N03
TP
OrthoP
Fecal coli (log/1 00ml)
Septic Tank
Effluent1
129-147
100-118
31 0-344
44-54
32-39
41-49
28-34
0-0.9
12-14
10-12
5.4-6.0
Primary
Effluent2
40-200
35-1 60
90-400
55-230
45-1 80
20-85
15-40
0
4-15
3-10
5.0-7.0
Pond
Effluent3
11-35
7-17
60-100
20-80
25-65
8-22
0.6-16
0.1-0.8
3-4
2-3
0.8-5.6
1EPA (1978), 95% confidence interval. Prior to major detergent
reformulations which reduce P species by ~50%.
2Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy, (1991) assuming typical removal by
primary sedimentation-soluble BOD = 35 to 45% total.
3EPA(1980).
may contain both soluble and particulate fractions of or-
ganic and inorganic constituents in reduced or oxidized
forms. As will be seen later, these characteristics play an
important role in the major mechanisms of removal.
The two major mechanisms at work in most treatment
systems are liquid/solid separations and constituent trans-
formations. Separations typically include gravity separa-
tion, filtration, absorption, adsorption, ion exchange, strip-
ping, and leaching. Transformations may be chemical, in-
cluding oxidation/reduction reactions, flocculation, acid/
base reactions, precipitation, or a host of biochemical re-
actions occurring under aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic con-
ditions. Both separations and transformations may lead to
contaminant removal in wetlands but often only result in
the detention of the contaminant in the wetland for a pe-
riod of time. There may be changes in the contaminant
composition that will effectively achieve treatment objec-
tives, such as the biochemical transformation of organic
compounds to gases such as CO2 or CH4. A biochemical
transformation, however, may produce biomass or organic
acids that may not achieve the treatment objective if these
materials escape in the effluent. In the case of biomass, it
may escape as volatile suspended solids, or it may un-
dergo further bacterial reaction, which may result in the
leaching of a soluble carbon compound back into the wa-
ter column.
The remainder of this chapter will review potential mecha-
nisms that may be at work in constructed wetlands. These
reactions may occur in the water column, on the surfaces
of plants, within the litter and detritus accumulating at the
wetland surface or on the bottom, or within the root zone
of the system. The reactions unique to the wetland type
will also be delineated.
3.2 Mechanisms of Suspended Solids
Separations and Transformations
3.2.1 Description and Measurement
Suspended solids in waters are defined by the method
of analysis. Standard Methods (1998) defines total sus-
pended solids as those solids retained on a standard glass
fiber filter that typically has a nominal pore size of 1.2um.
The type of filter holder, the pore size, porosity, area and
thickness of the filter, and the amount of material depos-
41
-------
ited on the filter are the principal factors affecting the sepa-
ration of suspended from dissolved solids. As a result, the
measurement reported for total suspended solids may in-
clude particle sizes ranging from greaterthan 100u,m to about
1um Soluble (dissolved) solids would therefore include col-
loidal solids smaller than 1um and molecules in true solu-
tion. A classical method of solids classification by size would
include the following:
Settleable Solids
Supracolloidal Solids
Colloidal Solids
Soluble Solids
>100u,m
1-100u,m
10-3-1 u,m
<10-3u,m
Solids are also classified as volatile or fixed, again based
on the method of analysis. Standard Methods (1998) de-
fines a volatile solid as one that ignites at 550°C. Although
the method is intended to distinguish between organic sol-
ids and inorganic solids, it is not precise since volatile solids
will include losses due to the decomposition or volatilization
of some mineral salts depending on the time of exposure to
the ignition temperature.
Wastewater influents to wetlands may contain significant
quantities of suspended solids (Table 3-1). The composition
of these solids is quite different, however. Septic tank and
primary effluents will normally contain neutral density colloi-
dal and supracolloidal solids emanating from food wastes,
fecal materials, and paper products. Pond effluent suspended
solids are likely to be predominantly algal cells. All three will
be high in organic content. Size distribution is also different
among the waste streams. Tables 3-2 and 3-3 present infor-
mation on size distributions of suspended solids, organic
matter, and phosphorus in domestic wastewaters with vari-
ous levels of pretreatment. It should be noted that methods
differed between investigators on estimating size ranges.
High settleable fractions are not surprising for raw wastewa-
ter samples or for the pond effluent containing algal cells. It
is important to note the association of organic matter and
phosphorus with the various solid fractions.
Table 3-2. Size Distributions for Solids in Municipal Wastewater
Type of Sample
(% by Weight)
Size Range
(urn)
<10-3
10-3-1.0
1.0-12
>12
1.0-100
>100
Primary Eff.1
.
20
54
26
-
Primary Eff.2
.
22(1 0-30)
35(24-51)
43(30-60)
-
Primary Eff.3
.
81
19
Raw Sewage4
31
14
24
31
Raw Sewage5
48
9
18
23
1Levineetal. (1984).
2Tchobanoglouset al. (1983).
3Gearheart, etal. (1993).
4Heukelekian and Balmat (1959).
5Rickertand Hunter ((1972).
Table 3-3. Size Distribution for Organic and Phosphorus Solids in Municipal Wastewater
Size Range
(urn)
<10-3
<0.1
10-3-1.0
0.1-1.0
1.0-12
>12
1.0-100
>100
Organic
Solids1
(primary
effluent)
9
_
?
-
-
-
15
28
Organic
Solids2
(primary
effluent)
.
51
-
8
34
7
-
-
Organic
Solids2
(primary
effluent)
.
50
-
19
26
5
-
-
Organic
Solids2
(primary
effluent)
.
25
-
2
13
60
-
-
Type of Solids
(% by Weight)
Organic
Solids2
(primary
effluent)
.
35
-
1
13
41
-
-
Organic
Solids3
(raw
sewage)
42
_
11
-
-
-
20
27
Total
Phos.4
(primary
effluent)
.
17.2
-
54.6
7.15
21 .06
-
-
Total
Phos.4
(primary
effluent)
.
15.7
-
67.0
6.7*
8.5"
-
-
1 Munch etal. (1980).
2Levineetal. (1991).
3Rickertand Hunter (1972).
4Levineetal. (1984).
5 Range: 1-5 ,um
6Range: >5 /im
42
-------
3.2.2 Suspended Solids in Free Water
Surface Wetlands
Total suspended solids are both removed and produced
by natural wetland processes. The predominant physical
mechanisms for suspended solids removal are flocculation/
sedimentation and filtration/interception, whereas suspended
solids production within the wetland may occur due to death
of invertebrates, fragmentation of detritus from plants, pro-
duction of plankton and microbes within the water column or
attached to plant surfaces, and formation of chemical pre-
cipitates such as iron sulfide. Figure 3-1 illustrates the most
important of these processes as they occur in a FWS sys-
tem. Resuspension of solids may occur due primarily to tur-
bulence created by animals, high inflows, or winds. A brief
discussion of some of these processes and how they may
affect free water surface systems follows.
3.2.2.1 Discrete and Flocculant Settling
Typically, particulate settling produced by gravity may
be categorized as discrete orflocculant settling. Both sepa-
ration processes exploit the properties of particle size, spe-
cific gravity, shape, and fluid specific gravity and viscosity.
Discrete settling implies that the particle settles indepen-
dently and is not influenced by other particles or changes
in particle size or density. A mathematical expression for
the terminal settling velocity of the discrete particle may
be derived from Newton's Law. Under laminar flow condi-
tions, which exist in fully vegetated zones of a FWS and in
VSBs, the velocity of a spherical particle can be estimated
by Stokes' Law, which states that the settling velocity is
directly proportional to the square of the nominal diameter
and the difference in particle and fluid densities and is in-
versely proportional to fluid viscosity. Drag on the particle
that influences settling velocity is affected by particle shape,
fluid/particle turbulence, and fluid viscosity.
Whereas discrete settling can be estimated given the
independent variables discussed previously, flocculant
settling cannot be so easily determined, requiring experi-
mental measurement. It occurs as the result of particle
growth and, perhaps, change in characteristics overtime.
As a result, particle settling velocity typically increases with
time. Flocculent settling is promoted by the relative move-
ment of target particles in such a fashion as to cause an
effective collision. This relative velocity (velocity gradient)
is often calculated as G, the mean velocity gradient, which
is a function of power input, dynamic viscosity, and system
volume (Camp and Stein, 1943). Effective velocity gradi-
• Duckweed, Floating Litter & Detritus
Solar
Radiation
Atmospheric
Reaeration
\
BOD Oxidation
NH4-N->NO3-N
Submerged Vegetation
Settled TSS & Detritus from Plants
Dissolved Oxygen vsO (Anoxic)
Fully Vegetated Zone
Removals due to Flocculation,
Sedimentation, Adsorption and
Anaerobic Reactions, Primarily
Dissolved Oxygen +++(Aerobic)
Open Water Zone
Transformations by Aerobic Biological
Treatment, Primarily
Pathogen Kill by Sunlight & Time
Figure 3-1. Mechanisms that dominate FWS systems
43
-------
ents for flocculation range from 10 to 75 sec-1. Floccula-
tion may occur naturally, as when fresh water flows into
saline water forming a delta, or it may require chemical
(coagulant) addition. It may affect large particles (100u,m
to 1000u,m) of low to moderate specific gravity (1.001 to
1.01) and small particles (LOurnto 10u,m) with high spe-
cific gravity (1.5 to 2.5). The formation of larger flocculant
particles is dependent on the electric charge on the par-
ticle surface. Like electrical charges on the double layer
surrounding particles may produce particle stability that
hinders attachment even if collisions take place. This
charge is sensitive to the composition of the fluid. Adsorp-
tion of solutes to the surface occurs as a result of a variety
of binding mechanisms, which may eventually result in the
destabilization of the particles and result in particle adhe-
sion. There has been little work done on the evaluation of
natural flocculation phenomena with primary effluent or
algal cells. The existence of emergent plant stems in FWS
wetlands will promote effective velocity gradients for par-
ticle collisions, but the adhesion of these particles would
be dependent on surface properties that would be influ-
enced by water column quality.
In wetland systems treating primary or septic tank efflu-
ents (or secondary effluents), particle sizes are mostly in
the colloidal to low supracolloidal range (Table 3-2). Typi-
cally sedimentation processes will remove material larger
than about 50u,m with specific gravity of about 1.20. The
remaining particles are normally the lower density materi-
als. Using Stokes' Law to approximate discrete settling
velocity, particles ranging from 1 .Ou,m to 10u,m with a spe-
cific gravity ranging from 1.01 to 1.10 will settle at a rate of
from 0.3 to 4 x 10'4m/d. Typical hydraulic loads to FWS
wetlands are in the range of 0.01 to 0.5 m/d (note that the
hydraulic load is equivalent to the mean settling velocity of
a particle that will be removed exactly at that loading). As-
suming the higher settling velocity of 0.3 m/d and atypical
FWS system velocity of 50 m/d and depth of 0.8m, the
larger particles would settle by gravity in approximately
2.7 days, or 133 m along the wetland longitudinal axis.
The smaller, less dense particles would require over 200
days and a length of over 11,000 m. Therefore it can be
concluded that the larger, denser particles could be re-
moved in the primary zone of a wetland based on simple
discrete settling theory (see Chapter 4 for more details on
design). The smaller, neutral-density particles, which make
up a significant fraction of septic tank and primary effluent,
are not likely removed in this primary zone by simple dis-
crete sedimentation, but may be flocculated due to the
velocity gradients imposed by emergent plant stems in the
water column. It is also possible that some particles may
be intercepted by angular emergent plant tissue as would
occur in settling basins equipped with plate or tube set-
tlers. Clearly, removal of TSS by a FWS wetland is more
complex than predicted by discrete settling theory. There
is currently insufficient transect data available on waste-
water influents of interest to develop a rational separation
model, either qualitatively or quantitatively, forTSS removal
from primary or septic tank effluents in FWS systems.
For wetland systems receiving pond effluents, the pri-
mary source of suspended solids for much of the season
is algal cells. These cells include green algae, pigmented
flagellates, blue-greens, and diatoms. Sizes range from
1u,to 100u,m, and shapes may range from coccoid to fila-
mentous. Specific gravity of actively growing algal cells
may be close to that of water insofar as they must remain
suspended high up within the water column in order to
survive. Flotation may be accomplished by gas vacuoles
(blue-green algae), gelatinous sheathes, or shapes that
increase particle drag. It is believed that wind-induced tur-
bulence and vertical water motion greatly influence algae
distribution in ponds (Bella, 1970). Motile algae are not
typically predominant in wastewater pond systems. Once
algal cells die for lack of nutrients and/or sunlight, they
lose this flotation characteristic and will settle. Settling ve-
locities range from 0.0 to 1.0 m/s (typically, 0.1 to 0.3 m/s)
depending on species and physiological condition
(Hutchinson, 1967). It is likely that many of these cells will
be removed by sedimentation in wetlands covered by
emergent vegetation providing shading and reducing wind
action. Flocculation of the cells within the wetland is also
possible although little experimental evidence has been
presented to date. Table 3-4 was generated by Gearheart
and Finney (1996), and it represents the only known appli-
cation of the particle-size theory to show that colloidal frac-
tions are flocculated in FWS systems (see Chapter 4 for
further explanation). Figure 3-2 illustrates the removal of
TSS observed for a fully vegetated FWS wetland treating
pond effluent. Attempts to settle algae from ponds in open
settling basins have not been successful, however, likely
due to the presence of light and wind action.
3.2.2.2 Filtration/Interception
Filtration, in the usual sense of this unit process, is not
likely to be significant in surface wetlands. Stems from
emergent plants are too far apart to effect significant en-
trapment of the particle sizes found in influent to these
wetlands. Furthermore, plant litter and detritus at the sur-
face and bottom of the wetland are high in void fraction
such that filtration is not likely an important mechanism.
On the other hand, interception and adhesion of particles
on plant surfaces could be significant mechanisms for re-
moval. The efficiency of particle collection would be de-
pendent on particle size, velocity, and characteristics of
the particle and the plant surfaces that are impacted. In
wetlands, plant surfaces in the water column are coated
with an active biofilm of periphyton. This biofilm can ad-
sorb colloidal and supracolloidal particles as well as ab-
sorb soluble molecules. Depending on the nature of the
suspended solids, they may be metabolized and converted
to soluble compounds, gases, and biomass or may physi-
cally adhere to the biofilm surfaces to eventually be
sloughed off into the surrounding water column. Similar
reactions may occur in the surface detritus or at the surficial
bottom sediment. To date, there have been no definitive
studies reported on the importance of this mechanism in
suspended solids removal in free surface wetlands.
3.2.2.3 Resuspension
In FWS wetlands, velocity induced resuspension is mini-
mal. Water velocities are too low to resuspend settled par-
44
-------
Table 3-4. Fractional Distribution of Bod, COD, Turbidity, and SS in the Oxidation Pond Effluent and Effluent from Marsh Cell 5 (Gearheart and
Finney, 1996)
Marsh Fraction
BOD
COD
mg/l
mg/l
NTU
Turbidity
SS
MG/L
Oxidation Pond
Fraction
Total
Settleable
Supracolloidal
Colloidal, soluble
27.5
3.7
13.7
10.1
100
13
50
37
80
5
23
52
100
6
29
65
11.0
2.5
5.3
3.2
100
23
48
29
31.0
5.8
25.2
100
19
81
Total
Settleable
Supracolloidal
Colloidal, soluble
4.8
0
1.2
3.6
100
0
24
76
50
0
4
46
100
0
8
92
3.9
0.6
1.6
1.7
100
15
42
43
2.3
0.3
2.0
-
100
13
87
-
0)
E,
w
w
Detention Time
Figure 3-2. Weekly transect TSS concentration for Arcata cell 8 pilot receiving oxidation pond effluent (EPA, 1999)
tides from bottom sediments or from plant surfaces. Fur-
thermore, fully vegetated wetlands provide excellent sta-
bilization of sediments by virtue of sediment detritus and
root mats. The reintroduction of settled solids in wetlands
is most likely due to gas-lift in vegetated areas or
bioturbation or wind-induced turbulence in open water ar-
eas. Wetland sediments and microdetritus are typically near
neutral buoyancy, flocculant, and easily disturbed.
Bioturbation by fish, mammals, and birds can resuspend
these materials and lead to increases in wetland suspended
solids. The oxygen generated by algae and submerged
plants, nitrogen oxides and nitrogen gas from denitrifica-
tion, or methane formed in anaerobic process may cause
flotation of particulates (Kadlec and Knight, 1996).
As discussed previously, the generation of new biom-
ass by primary production or through the metabolism of
influent wastewater constituents will eventually result in
the return of some suspended materials back into the wa-
ter column. The magnitude of wetland particulate cycling
is large, with high internal levels of gross sedimentation
and resuspension, and almost always overshadows influ-
ent TSS loading in natural or tertiary treatment wetlands.
The effluent TSS from a wetland rarely results directly from
nonremovable TSS in the influent wastewater and is often
dictated by the wetland processes that generate TSS in
the wetland. Typical background TSS concentrations ex-
pected in FWS wetlands appear in Table 3-5. It should be
noted that large expanses of open wetland prior to dis-
45
-------
charge structures could result in unusually high effluent
TSS concentrations due to the production of excessive
amounts of algae and induced high levels of wildlife activi-
ties that could produce effluent variations as typified in Fig-
ure 3-3.
High incoming TSS or organic loading will result in a
measurable increase in bottom sediments near the inlet
structure (Van Oostrom and Cooper, 1990; EPA, 1999).
However, no FWS treatment wetland has yet required
maintenance because of sediment accumulation, includ-
ing some that have been in service for over 20 years.
3.2.3 Suspended Solids in Vegetated
Submerged Beds
One of the primary intermediate mechanisms in the re-
moval of suspended solids by VSB systems is the floccu-
lation and settling of colloidal and supracolloidal particu-
lates. These systems are relatively effective in TSS removal
because of the relatively low velocity and high surface area
in the VSB media. VSBs act like horizontal gravel filters
and thereby provide opportunities for TSS separations by
gravity sedimentation (discrete and flocculant), straining
and physical capture, and adsorption on biomass film at-
tached to gravel and root systems. Clogging of the filter
media has been of some concern especially with high TSS
loading, but documentation of this phenomenon has not
been forthcoming. The accumulation of recalcitrant or
slowly degradable solids may eventually lead to increased
headlosses near the influent end of the system. Design
features to overcome this are described in Chapter 5.
The importance of vegetation in VSB systems has been
debated for some time. Several recent studies have com-
pared pollutant removal performance of planted and
unplanted VSB systems and have shown no significant dif-
ference in performance (Liehr, 2000; Young et al., 2000).
The importance of plant type has also been evaluated
(Gersberg et al., 1986; Young et al., 2000). Maximum root
length and growth rates have been reported. Although some
investigators claimed that certain treatment goals are likely
to benefit from certain plants, these claims have not been
sustained by others (Young et al., 2000). The extension of
root system within the gravel bed is dependent on system
loading, plant type, climate, and wastewater characteristics,
among other variables. It appears that a dominant fraction
of the flow passes below the root system in VSB facilities.
The role of root surfaces in TSS removal has not been proven
experimentally.
The contributions of internal biological processes to ef-
fluent TSS is likely similar to that found in FWS systems,
although algal contributions should be negligible.
Resuspension of separated solids is not likely since sys-
tem velocities are low and scouring should not be signifi-
cant. Furthermore, bioturbation in these systems should
be minimal. Background concentrations for VSB systems
have not yet been definitively documented with reliable
information.
3.3 Mechanisms for Organic Matter
Separations and Transformations
3.3.1 Description and Measurement
Organic matter in wastewater has been measured in a
number of ways over the years. Because the organic frac-
tion in wastewater is often complex and the concentra-
tions of the individual components relatively low, analyses
Table 3-5. Background Concentrations of Contaminants of Concern in FWS Wetland Treatment System Effluents
Constituent Range (mg/L) Typical (mg/L) Factors Governing Value
1Wetland system with significant open water and submergent vegetation
2Wetland system fully covered by emergent vegetation
Reference
TSS
BOD51
BOD52
TN
NH4-N
TP
FecalColiCFU/IOOml
2-5
2-8
5-12
1-3
0.2-1.5
0.1-0.5
50-5,000
3
5
10
2
1.0
0.3
200
Plant types, coverage,
Climate, wildlife
Plant types, coverage,
Climate, plant density
Plant types, coverage,
Climate, plant density
Plant types, coverage,
Climate, oxic/anoxic
Plant types, coverage,
Climate, oxic/anoxic
Plant types, coverage,
Climate, soil type
Plant types, coverage,
Climate, wildlife
Reed etal., 1995;
Kadlec and Knight, 1996
Reed etal., 1995
Gearheart, 1992
Kadlec and Knight, 1996
Kadlec and Knight, 1996;
Reed etal., 1995
Kadlec and Knight, 1996;
Reed etal., 1995
Kadlec and Knight, 1996;
Reed etal., 1995
Watson etal, 1987;
Gearheart et al., 1989
46
-------
July-91 July-92 July-93
July-94
Date
July-95 July-96 July-97
Figure 3-3. Variation in effluent BOD at the Arcata enhancement marsh (EPA, 1999)
are often performed on the aggregate amount of organic
matter comprising organic constituents with common char-
acteristics. Methods for total organic carbon (TOC) and
volatile solids (VS) measure the total amount of organic
matter present. Chemically oxidizable organic matter is
often measured as Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),
expressed in units of oxygen, and biodegradable organic
matter is determined by the Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) procedure. All of these aggregate methods have a
place in assessing pollutant levels in water, but none will
provide information on specific organic molecules or their
fate in treatment processes. As a result, any qualitative or
quantitative model attempting to express mechanistic be-
havior of organic matter in a system is an empirical model
based on observation of the parameter of interest. In wet-
lands, physical, chemical, and biochemical reactions will
transform and/or separate organic matter, often leading to
different species of organic molecules. Thus the BOD (or
COD, or TOC) of the influent to a wetland does not mea-
sure the same organic constituents that appear in the ef-
fluent. This phenomenon is no different than what has al-
ready been discussed forTSS.
Most regulatory agencies today establish wastewater
discharge permit limits based on BOD values; thus much
of the data available is expressed as that parameter. It is
difficult to use BOD in mass balance calculations insofar
as it is a dynamic measure conducted over a finite time
(usually five days) and at a specified temperature (usually
20°C). One can use it to estimate roughly the oxygen re-
quirements for aerobic systems if the rate of oxygen de-
mand exertion (expressed by the biodegradation constant,
k) is known. To further complicate the use of this param-
eter, the analysis of BOD may or may not include the ni-
trogenous oxygen demand (NOD), which may be ex-
pressed concurrently or simultaneously with the carbon-
aceous oxygen demand. Thus primary influent BOD5 may
measure carbonaceous organic matter, whereas effluent
from the wetland may include both carbonaceous and ni-
trogenous (ammonia) matter depending on the system.
Table 3-1 presents typical values of total and soluble BOD
for primary and septic tank effluents as well as lagoon ef-
fluents. Values of COD and VSS (volatile suspended sol-
ids) are also provided. There is no simple way to relate
BOD and COD values for wastewater insofar as the differ-
ences that exist between degradable and chemically oxi-
dizable fractions.
3.3.2 Organic Matter in Free Water
Surface Wetlands
3.3.2.1 Physical Separations of Organic Matter
Table 3-4 illustrates that influents typically received by
FWS systems contain some particulate organic matter. A
significant amount of the influent from septic and primary
effluents is in the dissolved and colloidal fraction as would
be expected, whereas pond effluents may contain a size-
able fraction of supracolloidal material represented by al-
gal cells. Separation of particulate organic matter would
occur by the same mechanisms as those described for
TSS. It is not uncommon to find organic matter removal in
the influent end of a FWS system that parallels TSS re-
moval. Figure 3-4 illustrates predominant organic matter
separations and transformations that occur in FWS sys-
tems. As noted in section 3.3.2.2, biochemical transforma-
tions of the entrapped and settled organic matterwill greatly
influence the apparent removal of total organic matterwithin
the water column.
Soluble organic matter may also be removed by a num-
ber of separation processes. Adsorption/absorption (the
movement of contaminants from one phase to another) is
an important process affecting some organic molecules.
The process is often referred to as sorption to cover both
adsorption and absorption processes in natural systems
because the exact manner in which partitioning to the sol-
ids occurs is often not known. Partitioning of organic mat-
ter between solids can be understood and predicted to
47
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some degree using physiochemical properties of the or-
ganic (e.g., water solubility, octanol-water partition coeffi-
cient). Sorption is often described by an isotherm
(Freundlich) relationship. The degree of sorption and its
rate are dependent on the characteristics of both the or-
ganic and the solid. In wetlands, the important solid sur-
faces would include the plant litter and detritus occurring
at the wetland surface or on the bottom and plant stems
and leaves often covered by a periphyton biofilm. The sorp-
tion process may be reversible or irreversible depending
on the organic and solid. Sorbents may eventually become
"saturated" with sorbate although often the sorbed organic
is biochemically transformed, renewing the sorbent capac-
ity. Many of the wetland solid surfaces are also renewed
by continuous turnover of biomass that makes up the ma-
jor component of the sorbent. It is believed that sorption
processes play an important role in organic separation in
wetlands, but the processes have not been adequately
quantified at this time.
Volatilization may also account for loss of certain organ-
ics. In this reaction, the organic partitions to the air. The
propensity for a given compound to move from liquid to
gaseous phase is measured by Henry's constant. The
higherthe value for a compound, the more likely it will par-
tition to the gaseous phase. Generally, organic matter en-
tering a wetland receiving pretreatment will not contain sig-
nificant quantities of volatile compounds (VOCs). Faculta-
tive lagoons have been shown to remove 80 to 96% of
volatile organics from municipal wastewater (Hannah et
al., 1986). However, some of these organic materials may
be produced by biological transformations. Precipitation
reactions with organic matter found in wetland influents
have not been documented for municipal wastewater.
3.3.2.2 Biological Conversions of Organic
Matter
The Biochemistry
Biochemical conversions are important mechanisms
accounting for changes in concentration and composition
of biodegradable organic matter in wetlands. They may
account for removal of some organic constituents by vir-
tue of mineralization or gasification and the production of
organic matter through synthesis of new biomass. Organ-
isms will consume organic matter (and inorganic matter
as well) in order to sustain life and to reproduce. The or-
ganic matter in wastewater serves as an energy source as
well as a source of molecular building blocks for biomass
synthesis. The reactions occurring therefore are ones that
prepare the molecule for use by the organism or are di-
rectly involved in the extraction of energy or incorporation
of building blocks in the synthesis reaction. End products
of the reaction are waste products of the system. These
O2 Macrophytes
Air
VOC
A
CH4 CO2
H2
t
1
Emergent
Water
•VOC'
>
Submergent
LU
Litter/Detritus
Roots
- poc
Root Zone/Pore Water
Peat
Sediment
POC - Participate Organic Carbon
DOC - Dissolved Organic Carbon
DIG - Dissolved Inorganic Carbon
VOC - Volatile Organic Carbon
PIC - Particulate Inorganic Carbon
Figure 3-4. Carbon transformations in a FWS wetland
48
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reactions include oxidation/reduction processes, hydroly-
sis, and photolysis.
Since energy is a key element in the biochemical sys-
tem, the reaction is classified as chemotrophic or pho-
totrophic depending on whether the reaction utilizes a
chemical source of energy or light energy. The environ-
ment greatly influences the energetics of the reaction that
is driven by electron transfers. If the element at the end of
this set of transfers is oxygen, the reaction is referred to as
an aerobic reaction. Aerobic metabolism requires dissolved
oxygen and results in the most efficient conversion of bio-
degradable materials to mineralized end products, gases,
and biomass. Anoxic (anaerobic respiration) reactions use
nitrates, carbonates, or sulfates as terminal electron ac-
ceptors (in place of oxygen). Terminal electron acceptors
are subsequently reduced in these reactions, producing
end products such as nitrogen oxides, free nitrogen, sul-
fur, thiosulfate, and so forth. These reactions are typically
less efficient (biomass produced per unit substrate utilized)
than aerobic reactions and produce mineralized end prod-
ucts and gases, but less biomass per unit of substrate con-
verted. Anaerobic metabolism takes place in the absence
of dissolved oxygen and uses organic matter as the termi-
nal electron acceptor as well as the electron donor. These
transformations are the least efficient of the biochemical
reactions and will not result in the reduction in BOD (or
COD) unless hydrogen or methane is produced, since elec-
trons released in the oxidation of the organic are passed
to electron acceptors (reduced products such as alcohols
and organic acids) that remain in the medium. The only
energy loss in the system is that due to microbial ineffi-
ciencies.
The transformations described previously rely on chemi-
cal energy to drive them. A very important transformation
that takes place in open water areas of FWS wetlands uses
sunlight energy to drive the reaction (photosynthesis). In
these reactions, inorganic carbon (CO2 and carbonates) is
synthesized to form biomass (primary production), releas-
ing oxygen. Thus both oxygen and organic matter are pro-
duced within the system.
The previous reactions and their stoichiometry, equilib-
rium, and rates are dependent on environmental variables
including dissolved oxygen, temperature, oxidation/reduc-
tion potential, and chemical characteristics, to name a few.
An excellent reference on microbial metabolism in waste-
water systems can be found in Grady and Lim (1980).
The Organisms
Biochemical reactions of importance in FWS constructed
wetlands are carried out by a large number of organism
classes. They may be classified based on their position in
the energy or food chain (producers, consumers, or de-
composers) or on their life form or habitat. A classical de-
scription relative to a wetland habitat would include
• Benthos—organisms attached or resting on the bot-
tom within the plant litter and detritus or living within
the sediments
• Periphyton—both plants and animals attached to stems
and leaves of rooted plants
• Plankton—floating plants or animals whose move-
ments are generally dictated by currents
• Neuston—plants or animals resting or swimming on
the wetland surface
• Nekton—swimming organisms able to navigate at will
Although no quantitative assessments have been re-
ported, it is believed that the decomposers (bacteria, acti-
nomycetes, and fungi) play the most important role in wet-
lands relative to the removal of organic matter by way of
mineralization and gasification. They are associated with
all habitats listed. They are also responsible for the syn-
thesis of biomass and the production of organic metabolic
end products that may leach into the water column. These
organisms are often classified as aerobic, facultative, or
anaerobic, depending on the type of reactions that they
perform. They may also be classified with respect to their
source of energy and the type of chemical compound that
they use as a source of carbon.
The primary producers generate organic residues within
the wetland and add dissolved oxygen to the system. They
also play an important role in the removal and recycling of
nutrients in the wetland. The macrophytes will also pre-
vent incoming radiation from entering the water column.
This shading will affect the growth of plant periphyton, phy-
toplankton, and submerged macrophytes, will interfere with
surface mass transfer of oxygen, and will moderate wet-
land water temperatures. These rooted plants provide sig-
nificant submerged surfaces for growth of periphyton. The
submerged surface area provided by selected FWS veg-
etation varies from 2.2 to 6.5 m2/m2 for a wetland 0.5 m
deep, depending on plant species and coverage (EPA,
1999).
Oxygen Transfer to FWS Wetlands
Oxygen is a critical element in the biochemical transfor-
mation of organic matter (as well as other compounds to
be described later). As briefly discussed previously, bio-
chemical reactions that use dissolved oxygen (DO) are
efficient processes and yield mineralized end products. An
aerobic environment is highly desirable in wastewater treat-
ment systems in which the target is effective removal of
BOD. There are three possible sources of DO in wetland
systems—surface aeration, photosynthesis, and plant oxy-
gen transfer.
When a gas is dissolved in water, the process is gener-
ally treated as a mass transfer occurring over four steps
(two-film theory). It presumes a thin but finite gaseous and
liquid film at the air-water interface. The gas must pass
through the bulk gas phase, then through the gas film, to
the liquid film, and then into the bulk liquid. For oxygen,
the liquid film is the rate-limiting step and controls the rate
of mass transfer, although for a quiescent water body, the
bulk liquid transport may control the process. By use of
Fick's Law, the diffusional process can be modeled pro-
49
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ducing the commonly used oxygen mass transfer relation-
ship:
dC/dt = KLa (Cs-Co)
(3-1)
Where C = concentration of oxygen in water (M/L3)
t = time (T)
KLa = overall mass transfer coefficient for oxy-
gen in water (1/T)
Cs = steady-state oxygen saturation concentra-
tion in water (M/L3)
Co = the dissolved oxygen concentration in the
bulk water (M/L3)
This equation indicates that the rate of oxygenation is
dependent on the overall mass transfer coefficient, the
steady-state DO saturation concentration for oxygen in
water, and the bulk water DO. Generic symbols for mass
(M), time (T), and length (L) are employed for units. The
value of KLa is a function of the physical characteristics of
the wetland. Fortypical FWS systems, isotropic turbulence
would occur whereby there is neither a significant velocity
gradient nor shearing stress. For this system, the value of
KLa would be a direct function of wetland velocity and the
oxygen molecular diffusion coefficient and an indirect func-
tion of system depth (O'Connor and Dobbins, 1958) ac-
cording to the following equation:
= [DLU]1'2/ H3
(3-2)
Where K2 = surface reaeration coefficient (1/T)
DL = oxygen molecular diffusion coefficient (L2/T)
U = velocity of flow (L/T)
H = depth (L)
An estimate of surface aeration in an open water zone
of a FWS system can be made assuming a typical wet-
land water velocity of 30 m/d and a depth of 0.3 m. At
20°C, the mass transfer coefficient would be approximately
0.43/d. Assuming a bulk wetland water DO of 0 mg/L, the
mass transfer of oxygen would be about 3.9 mg/L/d or 1.2
g/m2/d. For more realistic values of the water DO, the trans-
fer would range from 0.5 to 0.9 g/m2/d. These numbers
compare favorably with values reported by the TVA, which
range from 0.50 to 1.0 g/m2/d (Watson et al., 1987). These
open water-zone values will be higher than would be ob-
served in wetlands with plant cover because plant debris,
floating plants, and emergent plant surfaces impede mass
transfer across the surface. In the open zones, the bulk
water DO (which might approach 0 mg/L) would not be the
same as the DO near the water surface (which might ap-
proach saturation during the daylight hours). See Figure
3-5 for a submergent plant (open water) zone, which illus-
trates the inaccuracy that would result in assuming a DO
of 0 mg/L in the bulk water column. The actual DO values
in Figure 3-5 are from polishing FWS applications and are
therefore higher than would be expected in a treatment
FWS system. Actually, a value near zero DO is normal in
fully vegetated or emergent zones (Figure 3-5b) of these
latter systems.
Oxygen will also be transferred to the wetland by virtue
of photosynthesis carried out by phytoplankton, periphy-
ton, and submerged plants. The general relationship for
photosynthesis of green plants implies that approximately
2.5 g of oxygen would be evolved perg of carbon fixed as
cell mass. In the absence of sunlight energy, oxygen would
be consumed by these plants in respiration. Presuming
highly productive conditions, about 1.0 g C/m2/d may be
produced during daylight hours resulting in a generation
of2.5g O2/m2/d (Lewin, 1962). One may deduce a some-
what larger value presuming typical net primary produc-
tion of a wetland to be about 4.0 g total biomass/m2/d
(Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993) and about 1.0 g O2/g net
biomass produced by photosynthesis. These numbers
imply that in open areas where sufficient photosynthesis
might occur, oxygen should be available for aerobic oxi-
dation within the water column, at least during part of the
day. Active plant respiration during the evening may com-
pletely negate the oxygenation estimated during daylight
hours, however. The DO concentrations have been docu-
mented for both emergent and submergent plant zones in
the Arcata tertiary/polishing/enhancement marsh system
(Figure 3-5). Clearly, the submergent plant zone provided
more DO by virtue of greater photosynthesis and surface
aeration. This figure also clearly demonstrates that the
bulk water column is not mixed with respect to DO, being
highest at the surface where atmospheric reaeration and
photosynthesis are predominant. Rose and Crumpton
(1996) have demonstrated the effects of emergent mac-
rophyte stands and open water in a prairie wetland. They
found that the emergent sites had low DO concentrations
and were almost always anoxic, whereas sites at the edge
of the stand had higher DO concentrations, with signifi-
cant increases in DO during the daylight hours. The open
water areas consistently exhibited higher values of DO
with diurnal changes up to 10 mg/L. These results are
consistent with the presumption that emergent stands pro-
vided a heavy canopy cover, along with small floating
plants and plant litter that obscured light penetration and
subsequent photsynthesis and also affected surface aera-
tion. The plant litter stands at the margin were open and
allowed light penetration, encouraging photosynthesis by
periphyton, phytoplankton, and submerged plants. Open
areas allowed even more opportunity for photosynthesis
as well as surface aeration.
The role of rooted, emergent plants on oxygen transfer
to the wetland system is subject to controversy. Because
these wetland plants are typically rooted in soils that are
anaerobic, they have evolved special airways to allow the
efficient movement of atmospheric oxygen to the root sys-
tem. Dead and broken plant shoots may also allow for trans-
port of some oxygen to the root zone. There is a sufficient
body of evidence to show that significant amounts of oxy-
gen are transported down these passages and that other
gases, such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane,
may pass upward through these same channels. Gas trans-
fer is the result of humidity-, thermally-, and/or Venturi-in-
duced convective flow as well as diffusion. Gas exchange
through the root surface is by diffusion. Although photo-
50
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O)
E.
O
Q
Gearheart-5
Gearheart-3
Gearheart-1
top
middle
bottom
a) Vertical distribution of DO in a submergent
plant zone of the Arcata Enhancement Marsh
Gearheart-6
Gearheart-4
Gearheart-2
middle
bottom
b) Vertical distribution of DO in an emergent
plant zone of the Arcata Enhancement Marsh
Figure 3-5. Dissolved oxygen distribution in emergent and submergent zones of a tertiary FWS (EPA, 1999)
synthesis does not seem to enhance the concentration of
oxygen in the shoots, sunlight can cause convection to
increase because light amplifies the degree of stomatal
openings in the leaves, and higher temperatures cause
steeper diffusion gradients for gases (Armstrong and
Armstrong, 1990). A large proportion of the oxygen enter-
ing the plant is vented to the atmosphere instead of being
used in plant respiration or effluxed to the root system.
A number of studies have been made on the transport of
oxygen by plants. Only one field study has been reported
on an operating wetland (Brixand Schierup, 1990). They
found that for Phragmites in both FWS and VSB systems,
the oxygen transported almost exactly balanced respira-
tion by the plants. The range of values reported by other
investigators is 0 to 28.6 g O2/m2/d, whereas rates of 0 to 3
g O2/m2/d were found in 15 of the 23 studies. Kadlec and
Knight (1996) pointed out that studies to date infer that
oxygen transfer measurements made from BOD and am-
monium losses are not accurate. At present, it seems rea-
sonable to presume that plant oxygen transfer is not an
important source of oxygen in most wetland systems.
The DO concentration found in FWS systems is depen-
dent on the rate of oxygen transfer and the rate of oxygen
uptake. If one equals the other, system DO will remain
constant. If respiration exceeds transfer, DO values will
fall to zero and anaerobic conditions will prevail. The prin-
ciple consumers of oxygen (respiration) in wetlands include
microorganisms that consume oxygen during normal ex-
ogenous and endogenous respiration and plants that carry
out respiration when sunlight energy is unavailable as an
energy source. Sources of oxygen requirements will in-
clude those from influent organic matter, stored organic
matter in living biomass (endogenous respiration), dead
plant litter at the surface and bottom of the wetland, dead
periphyton and plankton suspended in the water column
or residing at the wetland surface or within the benthal
deposits, and influent ammonium nitrogen. Onefactorthat
should be considered in wetland design is the determina-
tion of an oxygen balance. A mass balance on oxygen is
difficult to perform in FWS systems owing to the highly
complex and dynamic characteristics of the system. An
estimate of influent oxygen demand (carbonaceous and
nitrogenous) is possible, but uptake due to plant respira-
tion and decomposition of plant carbon is more difficult to
predict (Table 3-6). The sources of oxygen are also diffi-
cult to quantify as discussed previously. Total coverage of
wetlands by emergent plants results in little reliable oxy-
genation (some oxygen will likely be produced by periphy-
ton near the water surface, but quantification of this is un-
reliable at the present time). Use of open areas to pro-
mote photosynthesis by submerged plant and plankton
appears to be a logical approach, but again, quantitative
estimates of transfer are difficult to assess based on cur-
rent data. It should be emphasized that DO is not a steady
value in wetlands but will vary in a diurnal fashion with
photosynthesis. It is not unrealistic to presume that wide
fluctuations in DO will occur, especially in active systems.
As will be described later, the DO concentration will also
change along the wetland length as demands and sup-
plies change.
FWS Biological Reactions
Influent particulate organic matter may be entrapped
within biofilms attached to emergent plant surfaces or ac-
cumulated on the wetland floor within the plant litter and
sediments (Figure 3-4). Experience suggests that much of
this material is accumulated very close to the influent struc-
51
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Table 3-6. Wetland Oxygen Sources and Sinks
Process
FWS
Source Sink
VSB
Source Sink
Reaeration
Photosynthesis
Plant O2 Transpiration
Influent BOD lt; (oxid./endog.)
Influent NH4
Plant Respiration
Plant Decomposition
(*) may be estimated in some instances
(t) May be calculated for wetland system
ture. In addition, particulate organic matter deriving from
dead plant litter accumulates on the floor of the wetland as
well as in surface mats. The quantity of this material is
dependent on the species of plants growing in the area
and their coverage. Emergent plant communities have
higher potential production rates than submerged commu-
nities (Wetzel, 1983). The accumulated organic debris at
the wetland floor degrades at different rates depending on
the composition of the organic matter. Influent particulate
organic matter from primary settling or septic tank efflu-
ents is easily degradable in most environments. Algal cells
from pond effluents are biologically less available. Emer-
gent macrophytes produce much more structural material
(lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose) than do submerged
and floating leafed plants, and this material degrades rela-
tively slowly (Godschalk and Wetzel, 1978).
Much of the particulate organic matter would be hydro-
lyzed, producing lower molecular weight organic com-
pounds that are more soluble in water, which leach back
into the water column and contribute to the soluble BOD
downstream. In the presence of oxygen, these compounds
would be oxidized by microbes to CO2, oxidized forms of
nitrogen and sulfur, and water. Under anaerobic conditions,
these compounds may be converted to low molecular
weight organic acids and alcohols. Under strict anaerobic
conditions, methanogenesis may occur whereby these
compounds are converted to gaseous end products of CH4,
CO2, and H2. In the presence of sulfates, sulfur-reducing
microbes will convert these low molecular weight organic
compounds to CO2 and sulfide. Either of these anaerobic
reactions will essentially remove organic matter from the
system. As the degradability of the material decreases,
the decomposition rates slow and the nature of the meta-
bolic end products change. It has been suggested that
soluble organic matter has a half-life of about three days
while organic sediment may exhibit a half-life on the order
of four months (EPA, 1999). The rates of degradation are
also temperature dependent. Thus sediment organic mat-
ter may accumulate during the colder months and be more
rapidly degraded in the spring when water temperatures
rise. This increase in degradation will result in an increase
in soluble organic matter released to the water column and
a concomitant increase in oxygen demand, a phenomenon
that has also been observed in facultative ponds for nearly
a century.
The result of these metabolic activities is that (1) organic
matter concentrations (and oxygen demand) may increase
downstream as particulate organic material is solubilized,
(2) the effect of temperature on observed organic matter
removal may not be as significant in wetlands as would be
predicted by typical temperature correction relationships
for biochemical reactions, and (3) the organic matter re-
sidual downstream is a combination of recalcitrant organic
matter in the influent, likely very small, soluble organic
compounds released from plant decomposition and par-
ticulate organic matter released from dead plant and mi-
crobial materials.
The source of the soluble fraction of organic matter in
the wetland is, as has been stated, influent to the system
and soluble material released from the decomposition of
influent particulate matter and dead plant and microbial
tissue. This soluble material is most likely sorbed onto plant
surface biofilms, although a fraction may be sorbed onto
biomass suspended in the water column, and still another
fraction will diffuse to the debris at the wetland floor or
surface. The sorbed organic matterwill be metabolized by
organisms associated with the biofilms. The metabolic
pathway and the end products of this metabolism will be
dependent on the presence or absence of oxygen. As pre-
viously described, areas of the wetland populated with
dense emergent macrophytes can supply only a small frac-
tion of the oxygen necessary to satisfy demand. Typical
wetland profiles in these areas suggest that most of the
water column isanoxic, as are the sediments below (small
microsites containing oxygen may be found adjacent to
active plant roots). The degree of anoxia would be depen-
dent on the organic and nutrient load to the wetland area.
Open areas of wetland (containing submerged plants) and
the margins adjacent to emergent macrophyte coverage
do demonstrate aerobic conditions throughout the wetland
depth (again, dependent on organic and nutrient load and
type of vegetation).
As described previously, the mechanisms that regulate
dissolved organic matter removal in wetlands include bio-
degradation, sorption, and photolysis. Different operative
mechanisms may act on different types of organic matter.
As a result, fundamental mechanisms should be consid-
ered in wetland designs and operation to enhance removal
processes. Wetlands receiving municipal wastewater pond
effluents may, for example, produce a net increase in dis-
solved organic matter (Barber et al., 1999). Details of de-
sign strategies for FWS systems based on these observa-
tions are found in Chapter 4.
3.3.3 Organic Matter in Vegetated
Submerged Beds
Vegetative submerged beds act as fixed-film bioreactors.
As described in section 3.2.3, the actual role of plants in
these beds is controversial. Some research (Gersberg et
al., 1986) has claimed effective results with selected spe-
cies, but these claims have not been substantiated by oth-
ers. The presence of a root structure would provide addi-
52
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tional surface for biofilm attachment. Macrophytes may also
contribute some oxygen to the granular bed as previously
described. Based on that review, rates of oxygen trans-
port by macrophytes range from 0 to 3 g 02/m2/d. How-
ever, it has been found that root penetration in the bed is
only partial, and there is a significant amount of flow under
the root zone. Furthermore, plant oxygen transfer would
be unreliable for a significant portion of the year due to
plant senescence.
Particulate organic matter is removed in VSB systems
by mechanisms similar to suspended solids separation in
horizontal gravel beds with the same media size. The sepa-
rated solids from the influent wastewater and plant litter
would undergo decomposition much the same way as oc-
curs in FWS systems. Hydrolysis will generate soluble
compounds. Those compounds and soluble organic mat-
ter from the influent to the system or cycled from solids
decomposition will most likely sorb to biofilm surfaces at-
tached to the media, plant roots, and plant litter accumu-
lated at the bed surface or within the interstices of the
media. Oxygen sources to the VSB would be limited to
some small amount of surface aeration and plant-medi-
ated transport. The thatch that accumulates at the bed
surface would inhibit or at least slow down surface trans-
port. It is possible that some aerobic metabolism would
occur in these beds, but the predominant biological mecha-
nism is likely to be facultative/anaerobic. Typical values of
DO in VSB systems are very low (<0.1 mg/L). In VSB sys-
tems where ORP has been measured, values were typi-
cally quite low, indicating strong reducing conditions
(Lienard, 1987). Thus the predominant metabolic pathways
are most likely anaerobic. As described previously, the
anaerobic pathways leading to BOD removal from the sys-
tem would be methanogenesis, sulfate reduction, ordeni-
trification, all yielding gaseous end products. These reac-
tions are temperature dependent and therefore are likely
to slow down or cease in winter months. As discussed pre-
viously, the processes will resume as the water warms up,
and high releases of gaseous end products and soluble
organic matter may occur. Some clogging of the bed may
occur due to accumulation of slowly degradable and re-
calcitrant solids. Low-loaded systems may exhibit some
aerobic reactions, especially near the effluent end of the
process. Residual effluent BOD from VSB systems is likely
to be somewhat more consistent than that from FWS sys-
tems because of the presence of less plant matter in the
water column.
3.4 Mechanisms of Nitrogen Separations
and Transformations
3.4.1 Description and Measurement
In waters and wastewater, the forms of nitrogen of great-
est interest are, in order of decreasing oxidation state, ni-
trate, nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen. All nitrogen
forms are reported in wastewater as nitrogen, N. All of these
forms, including nitrogen gas (N2), are biochemically
interconvertible and are components of the nitrogen cycle.
Analytically, organic nitrogen and ammonia can be deter-
mined together, and are termed "Total Kjeldahl nitrogen"
(TKN). Organic nitrogen in wastewater includes proteins,
peptides, nucleic acids, and urea. Organic nitrogen may
be found in both soluble and particulate forms. The other
nitrogen species are water soluble. Ammonia nitrogen may
be found in the un-ionized form, NH3, or the ionized form,
NH4+, depending on water temperature and pH. The ion-
ized form is predominant in wetlands. At 25°C and a pH of
7.0, the % un-ionized ammonia is approximately 0.6%.
The discharge of nitrogen to receiving surface and
ground water sources is of concern for a number of rea-
sons. Excessive accumulation of nitrogen in surface wa-
ters can lead to ecological imbalances that may cause
overgrowth of plants and animals, leading to water quality
degradation (eutrophication). High concentration of the un-
ionized ammonia species are toxic to fish and other aquatic
life. Nitrate and nitrite nitrogen constitute a public health
concern, primarily related to methemoglobinemia and car-
cinogenesis. Ammonia nitrogen may deplete dissolved
oxygen in natural waters by way of microbial nitrification
reactions. As a result, discharge permits may be written to
control any or all species of nitrogen. Most commonly,
ammonia or total nitrogen are the target pollutants speci-
fied depending on the receiving stream. Typical concen-
trations of the nitrogen species found in primary, septic
tank, and treatment pond effluents are shown in Table 3-1.
It should be noted that whereas primary and septic tank
effluents would contain organic nitrogen and ammonia,
treatment ponds may contain either reduced or oxidized
forms of nitrogen depending on loading and season of the
year. Organic nitrogen in the latter systems would be pri-
marily associated with algal cells. It is important to note
that when evaluating the performance of wetlands relative
to nitrogen, both total nitrogen and the species of nitrogen
are important. Mass balances must be conducted on total
nitrogen species, not on just one or two forms, to generate
meaningful data.
3.4.2 Nitrogen in Free Water Surface
Systems
3.4.2.1 Physical Separation of Nitrogen
Species
There are a number of separation processes that will
affect nitrogen species in wetlands. Nitrogen associated
with suspended solids (organic nitrogen) may be removed
by many of the processes described earlierforthe removal
of TSS including flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and
interception processes (Figure 3-6). Sorption of both par-
ticulate and soluble organic nitrogen may occur on biofilms
associated with emergent macrophytes, plant litter, or other
detritus at the FWS surface or on the bottom. Ion exchange
of ammonium (NH4+) by clay minerals in the wetland soils
may play a role in nitrogen separation if this species either
diffuses into the soil layer or is biologically produced by
the ammonification of organic nitrogen solids located in
the benthal layer. The exchange capacity of the clay min-
erals would be important in this assessment. It must be
emphasized that the exchange mineral would have limited
53
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Air
Sediment
Figure 3-6. Nitrogen transformations in FWS wetlands
PON - Particulate Organic Nitrogen
DON - Dissolved Organic Nitrogen
long-term capacity unless regeneration by chemical or bio-
chemical action takes place. It is not likely that ion exchange
would play an important or dependable role in nitrogen
removal after a start-up period in most wetland systems.
Furthermore, the native soil layer is buried under detritus
and plant litter within a period of time, thereby isolating
these clay minerals from the wetland system. Ammonia
(NH3) gas may also be removed from the system by strip-
ping. As discussed previously, the quantity of un-ionized
ammonia at neutral pH values is low, but during active
photosynthesis in open water zones, pH values may rise
to values as high as 8.0 to 8.5 depending on water alkalin-
ity. At that pH, the fraction of NH3 (NH3/NH4+) may increase
to 20 to 25% at 20°C. If surface turbulence is high due to
wind action, significant losses of nitrogen may occur in
these open water areas if ammonia concentrations are
high. Few, if any, well-controlled studies have been con-
ducted to examine the importance of volatilization losses
in FWS systems with open areas.
3.4.2.2 Biologically Mediated Transformations
of Nitrogen Species
Ammonification
Almost half of the municipal wastewater nitrogen con-
tent, as received at the treatment facility, is in the organic
nitrogen form. The rest has usually already been converted
to ammonium-nitrogen (EPA, 1993) in the sewer. The bio-
logical transformation of organically combined nitrogen to
ammonium nitrogen during organic matter degradation is
referred to as ammonification, hydrolysis, or mineraliza-
tion. The process occurs under aerobic and anaerobic
conditions, but has been described as slower for the latter
by Mitsch and Gosselink (1993). Other environmental en-
gineering literature, however, does not support any differ-
ence in rates undervaluing oxygen states because of their
primary dependence on enzymatic pathways. The rate of
this process is primarily dependent on pH and tempera-
ture, increasing with increased temperatures. Municipal
wastewaters have been demonstrated to be fully hydro-
lyzed in 19 hours at temperatures of 11° to 14°C (Bayley
et al., 1973). Once the ammonium is formed, it can be
absorbed by plants through their root systems, immobi-
lized by ion exchange in the sediments, solubilized and
returned to the water column, volatilized as gaseous am-
monia, anaerobically converted back to organic matter by
microbes, absorbed by phytoplankton/floating aquatic
macrophytes in the water column, or aerobically nitrified
by aerobic microorganisms.
Nitrification
In the presence of dissolved oxygen, microbes in the
water column or within the biofilms may convert ammo-
nium to nitrite and nitrate nitrogen in a two-step process.
In this process about 4.3g of 02 are required perg ammo-
nium nitrogen oxidized to nitrate and 7.14 g of alkalinity as
CaCO3 are consumed. The process is temperature and
pH dependent (EPA, 1993). The reaction may take place
in an aerobic water column by suspended bacteria and
54
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within any aerobic biofilms. Nitrate is not immobilized by
soil minerals and remains in the water column or pore water
of the sediments. It may be absorbed by plants or microbes
in assimilatory nitrate reduction (converted to biomass via
ammonium) or may undergo dissimilatory nitrogenous ox-
ide reduction (nitrate reduction pathways referred to as
denitrification).
Denitrification
Dissimilatory nitrate reduction or denitrification is car-
ried out by microorganisms under anaerobic (anoxic) con-
ditions, with nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor and
organic carbon as the electron donor (EPA, 1993). That is
to say, the reaction occurs in the absence of oxygen and
requires an organic carbon source. The products of deni-
trification are N2 and N2O gases that will readily exit the
wetlands. The denitrification reaction occurs primarily in
the wetland sediments and in the periphyton films in the
water column below fully vegetated growth where DO is
low and available carbon is high. The minimum carbon to
nitrate-nitrogen ratio for denitrification would be about 1 g
C/g NO3-N. Decomposing wetland plants and plant root
exudates are potential sources of biodegradable organic
carbon for this purpose. These sources are most readily
available at the beginning of senescence. Organic carbon
will be consumed (satisfying some oxygen demand: ap-
proximately 2.86 g O2 perg nitrate nitrogen reduced) and
alkalinity is produced (approximately 3.0 g CaCO3 alkalin-
ity per g nitrate nitrogen reduced). The process is tem-
perature and pH dependent. Denitrification in the sediments
may supply N2 for fixation by bacteria and for plant uptake
in the root zone (nitrogen fixation) if the system is nitro-
gen-poor. The remainderwill remain in equilibrium with N2
in the water column. The nitrogen gas in the water phase
may be available for nitrogen fixation by some periphyton
and phytoplankton. There will also be an air-water inter-
change of N2. The losses to the air represent nitrogen
losses from the system, and these are greater in open water
than in fully vegetated zones.
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen gas may be converted to organic nitrogen by
way of selected organisms that contain the enzyme nitro-
genase. The reaction may be carried out aerobically or
anaerobically by bacteria and blue-green algae. Nitrogen
fixation occurs in the overlying water in FWS open water
zones, in the sediment, in the oxidized rhizosphere of the
plants, and on the leaf and stem surfaces of plants (Reddy
and Graetz, 1988). It may be a significant source of nitro-
gen in natural wetlands but is not important in systems
treating wastewater in which nitrogen is plentiful.
Plant Uptake (Assimilation)
Wetland plants will assimilate nitrogen as an important
part of their metabolism. Inorganic nitrogen forms are re-
duced by the plant to organic nitrogen compounds used
for plant structure. During the growing season, there is a
high rate of uptake of nitrogen by emergent and submerged
vegetation from the water and sediments. Increased im-
mobilization of nutrients by microbes and uptake by algae
and epiphytes also lead to a retention of inorganic forms
of nitrogen in the wetland. Estimates of net annual nitro-
gen uptake by emergent wetland plant species vary from
0.5 to 3.3 gN/m2/yr (Burgoon et al., 1991). Reeds and bul-
rushes are at the lower end of this range, whereas cattails
are at the higher end. Estimates for epiphytes and microbes
in wetland systems have not been found. During the ac-
tive growth period, a significant amount of the total plant
nitrogen is in the stems and leaves above the sediments.
During senescence, the nitrogen translocates back to the
roots and rhizomes for storage. However, a substantial
portion of the nitrogen is lost to the water column through
litter fall and subsequent leaching. This generally leads to
a net export of nitrogen in the fall and early spring. The
extent of recycling of nitrogen within the wetland is depen-
dent on nitrogen loading to the system. Treatment wetland
systems are considered as eutrophic wetlands with ex-
cessive nutrient levels. As a result, intrasystem cycling is
less important to the treatment process than it would be if
the hydrologic regime were more varied (Twinch and
Ashton, 1983).
3.4.2.3 Nitrogen in Free Water Surface
Wetlands
Figure 3-6 illustrates the highly complex series of reac-
tions for nitrogen in FWS systems. Particulate organic ni-
trogen entering the wetland as wastewater influent or pro-
duced in the wetland by plants is separated. It may be
found associated with biofilms attached to plant structures
in the water column, the wetland sediment, or in floating
litter and detritus. The biodegradable compounds will be
ammonified by aerobic or anaerobic organisms associated
with the biofilms and sediment surfaces. The recalcitrant
organic nitrogen will accumulate and eventually become a
part of the deep sediments.
Ammonium released from the particulate organic nitro-
gen in the sediments is available to the emergent and sub-
merged macrophytes as an important nutrient. Uptake
occurs during the growing season, which increases the
concentration gradient and the release of more ammonium.
Excess ammonia may remain in reserve in the sediment
and leach from the sediment into the water column, where
it may undergo biological oxidation (nitrification) under
aerobic conditions. Release of ammonium into the water
column in the fall and early spring is not an unusual phe-
nomenon in wetlands. The leached ammonium may be
taken up by epiphytes or plankton found in the water col-
umn or be attached to emergent and floating plants. Nitri-
fication of ammonium requires DO and is therefore limited
to areas of the wetland where oxygen is available. There
may be some nitrification occurring adjacent to plant rhi-
zomes where oxygen leaks from the plant. The relative
importance of this pathway in wetlands is minor in treat-
ment wetlands because most sediments below emergent
canopies are anaerobic. Little nitrification would be ex-
pected in these regions of the wetland. In the water col-
55
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umn near the surface in open areas, oxygenation may be
sufficient to ensure significant nitrification. The important
variable in sizing an open water zone of a FWS system for
nitrification is organic plus nitrogenous loading. More pre-
cisely, it is the oxygen demand loading (carbonaceous plus
nitrogenous oxygen demand [CBOD + NOD]) to each wet-
land zone that will dictate whether oxygen is present. Typi-
cally, nitrification will not be initiated until a majority of the
organic compounds have been removed. Thus, nitrifica-
tion in the water column would not be expected in the ini-
tial settling zone, but could occur in subsequent open wa-
ter/aerobic zones.
The nitrate produced by nitrification or introduced with
the system influent (e.g., from oxidation ponds achieving
nitrification) may be taken up by periphyton or plankton.
Small amounts produced within any aerobic sediments
would be taken up by plant roots or may diffuse upward
into the water phase. Under anaerobic conditions and in
the presence of organic matter, microbes associated with
attached biofilms or suspended in the water column may
convert nitrate to nitrogen gases (NO2, N2) via denitrifica-
tion. Some nitrate will also diffuse into the sediments where
it is available for plant uptake or can be denitrified as well.
Moving downstream from the wetland influent, the reac-
tions of nitrogen could be expected to occur sequentially
such that total nitrogen levels should drop in the settling
zone (owing to separation of organic nitrogen), followed
by ammonia release, nitrification, and denitrification. Plants
will attenuate this sequence by releases and uptake
throughout the annual growth/senescence cycle. Systems
loaded at a level such that oxygen demand exceeds oxy-
gen supply will not exhibit significant nitrification. Seasonal
change as well as influent variability will greatly impact
system performance. Highly nitrified influent from pretreat-
ment systems may provide excellent nitrogen removal
during warm seasons when sufficient organic matter is
available (primarily from plant decomposition) for denitrifi-
cation. Nitrogen release may be significant in fall and early
spring seasons during plant senescence and death. The
background nitrogen values found in Table 3-5 reflect con-
tributions by internal recycling of nitrogen within the sys-
tem.
In open water zones of FWS systems, elevated pH and
water temperature may enhance NH3-N volatization to the
degree that it becomes a significant removal mechanism.
This mechanism has been shown to reach levels as high
as 50% or more under optimum conditions in stabilization
ponds, but FWS open water zones are smaller in size,
therefore minimizing this pathway under normal conditions
(EPA, 1983).
Wastewater discharge permits are normally written so
as to limit effluent ammonia concentrations (either sea-
sonally or all year) or total nitrogen concentrations. For
ammonia removal, the processes that will achieve effec-
tive removal include plant uptake, nitrification, volatiliza-
tion, and ion exchange. The latter two typically have only
minor impact in most FWS systems. Plant uptake is sea-
sonal and requires harvesting prior to plant senescence.
Fortunately, seasonal nitrogen uptakes may parallel am-
monia restrictions in those cases in which these restric-
tions are based on summer oxygen demands and/or cer-
tain game fish maximization. Generally, the designer must
be concerned with achieving reliable ammonia removal by
means of nitrification. This may be achieved at low load-
ing (oxygen demand) with sequencing closed and open
wetland areas (See Chapter 4). It should be noted that
nitrification is temperature dependent, so that rates will sig-
nificantly slow in winter months, especially in colder cli-
mates.
Nitrogen removal may be achieved by plant uptake/har-
vesting, nitrification/denitrification, volatilization, and ion
exchange. Again, the latter two are considered to be of
minor consequence in most FWS systems. Plant uptake
and harvesting requires careful system management and
can be costly. The requirement for denitrification requires
nitrification as explained previously plus adequate decay-
ing plant organic carbon in a region free of dissolved oxy-
gen. Sequential designs are also best to achieve this goal
(See Chapter 4). Note that temperature affects both nitrifi-
cation and denitrification so that rates can be significantly
reduced during the colder months, which may control de-
sign requirements.
3.4.3 Nitrogen in Vegetated Submerged
Beds
As described in section 3.3.3, VSB systems incorporate
anaerobic fixed-film biological reactions. Organic nitrogen
trapped within the bed will undergo ammonification. The
released ammonia may be available for plant uptake de-
pending on the location of plant roots. Flow below the plant
roots will carry ammonium downstream. Plant uptake (0.03
to 0.3 g/m2/d) of nitrogen is low compared to typical nitro-
gen loading to VSB systems. As described previously, de-
pendence on plant uptake for nitrogen removal requires
harvesting and is not effective during plant senescence
and death.
Oxygen sources in VSB systems are negligible, and it is
most likely there will be insufficient oxygen to promote re-
liable nitrification in all but the most lowly loaded systems.
Any nitrification occurring may be found in the root zone
adjacent to rhizomes or near the bed surface where some
surface oxygen transfer might occur. If nitrification occurs,
it would occur downstream where oxygen demand is low-
est.
Conventional VSB systems would seem to be well suited
for denitrification of nitrified influents. These beds are
anaerobic. However, they require a supply of organic car-
bon from decomposing plant residue entrapped within the
bed or aerobically decomposed products of plant biomass
at the bed surface, which may also leach into the anaero-
bic zones during rainfall events. The supply of carbon is
seasonal, however, since it would be highest after plant
senescence. Low temperature will slow the process dur-
ing the winter months.
56
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From this discussion, it is clear that conventional VSB
systems do not represent reliable, cost-effective systems
for ammonia removal. To improve, the loading to the sys-
tem would necessarily have to be low. Nitrogen removal
from well-nitrified influents to the system may be possible,
but seasonal availability of carbon may create carbon limi-
tations that should be considered in the design (See Chap-
ter 5).
3.5 Mechanisms of Phosphorus
Separations and Transformations
3.5.1 Description and Measurement
Phosphorus occurs in natural waters and wastewater
primarily as phosphates. They are classified as orthophos-
phates, condensed (pyro-, meta-, and poly-) phosphates,
and organically bound phosphates. They may be in solu-
tion or particulate form. Organic phosphates are formed
primarily by biological processes and are found in raw
wastewater as food residues and body wastes and in
treated wastewater as living or nonliving biota (e.g., algae
and bacteria from treatment ponds). Inorganic phospho-
rus found in wastewater most often comes from various
forms of personal and commercial cleaning solutions or
from the treatment of boiler waters. Storm waters carry
inorganic forms of phosphorus from fertilizers into com-
bined sewers. Classification of phosphorus is based on a
variety of analytical methods. The typical concentrations
of phosphates in influent wastewaters to a treatment wet-
land appear in Table 3-1. Modern P concentrations are
~50% of those shown for septic tank effluent in this table.
Table 3-3 indicates that the major fraction of these phos-
phate forms are in the colloidal range, and Munch et al.
(1980) indicated that 80% of the phosphate was split al-
most equally between colloidal and supracolloidal fractions.
Phosphorus is one of the most important elements in
ecosystems. It is often the major limiting nutrient in fresh-
water systems. Since there is no important gaseous com-
ponent in the biogeochemical cycle, phosphorus tends to
move to the sediment sink in natural systems and become
scarce in the ecosystem. In fact, it is the accretion of min-
eral phosphates and biomass in the sediment that is the
primary mechanism for phosphorus removal in the wet-
land environment.
3.5.2 Phosphorus in Free Water Surface
Systems
3.5.2.1 Physical/Chemical Separations of
Phosphorus
Particulate phosphate may be deposited onto the FWS
system sediment by sedimentation or entrapped within the
emergent macrophyte stem matrix and attached (sorbed)
onto biofilms (Figure 3-7). Soluble phosphate may be
sorbed onto plant biofilms in the water column, onto biofilms
in the floating plant litter, or onto the wetland sediments.
The exchange of soluble phosphate between sediment
pore water and the overlying water column by diffusion
and sorption/desorption processes is a major pathway for
soluble phosphates in wetlands. In the sediment pore wa-
ter, these phosphates may be precipitated as the insoluble
ferric, calcium, and aluminum phosphates or adsorbed onto
clay particles, organic peat, and ferric and aluminum ox-
ides and hydroxides. The precipitation as calcium phos-
phates occurs at pH values above 7 and may occur within
the sediment pore water or in the water column near ac-
tive phytoplankton growth where pH values may rise well
above 7. The sorption of phosphorus on clays involves
both the chemical bonding of the negatively charged phos-
phates with positively charged clay and the substitution of
phosphates for silicates in the clay matrix (Stumm and
Morgan, 1970). Phosphate can be released (desorbed)
from the metal complexes depending on the redox poten-
tial of the sediment. Under anoxic conditions, for example,
the ferric compound is reduced to the more soluble fer-
rous compound and phosphate is released. Phosphates
may also be released from ferric and aluminum phosphates
under anoxic conditions by hydrolysis. Phosphate sorbed
to clays and hydrous oxides may also be resolubilized
through the exchange of anions. The release of phosphate
from insoluble salts will also occur if the pH decreases as
a result of the biological formation of organic acids, nitrates,
or sulfates. Over time, however, a significant fraction of
the initially removed phosphate will become bound within
the sediments and lost to the system. At the start-up of a
FWS system (possibly for more than one year), the phos-
phorus removal will be abnormally high owing to the initial
reactions with the soils of the wetland. This removal mecha-
nism is finite and essentially disappears after this period.
3.5.2.2 Biological Transformations of
Phosphates
Dissolved organic phosphate and insoluble inorganic and
organic phosphate are not usually available to plants until
transformed to a soluble inorganic form. These transfor-
mations may take place in the water column by way of
suspended microbes and in the biofilms on the emergent
plant surfaces and in the sediments. Uptake of phosphates
by microorganisms, including bacteria, algae, and duck-
weed, acts as a short-term, rapid-cycling mechanism for
soluble and insoluble forms. Cycling through the growth,
death, and decomposition process returns most of the
phosphate back into the water column. Some phosphate
is lost in the process due to long-term accretion in newly
formed sediments. Uptake by the macrophytes occurs in
the sediment pore water by the plant root system. The
estimate of net annual phosphorus uptake by emergent
wetland species varies from 1.8 to 18 g P/m2/y (Burgoon
et al., 1991). The cycle of uptake and release is similar to
that of the microbes, but these reactions operate over a
longer time scale of months to years. Uptake occurs dur-
ing the growth phase of the plant and release occurs dur-
ing plant senescence and death in the late summer and
fall, followed by decomposition in the plant litter. Again,
some phosphate is lost to the system through accretion
processes within the sediments.
3.5.2.3 FWS System Reactions—Phosphate
Sustainable phosphate removal in a FWS system in-
volves the accretion and burial of phosphate within the
57
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Floating
Plants
Macrophytes
Air
Sediment
Litter/Detritus/
Microbial Compartment
Figure 3-7. Phosphorus cycling in a FWS wetland (adapted from Twinch and Ashton, 1983)
wetland sediments (Figure 3-7). Phosphate cycling and
storage involves a complex set of processes with a num-
ber of forms of phosphate. Insoluble organic and inorganic
phosphates are settled or captured on solid surfaces within
the water column or in the wetland sediments or floating
litter. Many of these insoluble forms may be chemically
and biologically transformed to available forms of phos-
phate for uptake by macrophytes, epiphytes, and floating
plants. The phosphate taken up by these biological sys-
tems is recycled back into the system and is subsequently
available for other organisms or may leave the system
through the water column. The undecomposed portion of
the biological growths may accumulate and thereby be
removed from the system as accreted sediment. This ma-
terial along with any recalcitrant phosphate separated from
the water column and accumulated within the sediment
represents the total net phosphate removal from the sys-
tem.
Phosphate removal in FWS systems follows a seasonal
pattern in most temperate climate conditions. The form of
phosphate, the type and density of the aquatic plants, the
phosphate loading rate, and the climate determine the
pattern and amount of phosphate removed from the wet-
land over any given time period. Aquatic plants serve as
the seasonal reservoir for phosphate as they take up
soluble reactive phosphate (SRP) during the growing sea-
son. There is a finite amount of SRP that can be incorpo-
rated in the aquatic plants, epiphytes, and plankton in the
water column. In climates where senescing of plants oc-
curs in the fall, the majority of the phosphorus taken up will
be released back into the water column (Figure 3-8). In
this figure, during the second year Marsh 1 received tap
water without phosphorus, whereas Marsh 3 received
wastewater at a loading rate of 0.15 kg P/ha/d throughout.
Release in excess of influent phosphorus is noted in the
Marsh 3 effluent in the fall. The effluent phosphorus exhib-
ited for Marsh 1 is the result of release from the standing
crop developed the year before. Note a background re-
sidual phosphorus concentration of about 0.5 mg/L SRP
for this system. Maximum removal of phosphate was found
to be about 1.5 mg/L at a loading of less than 1.5 kg PO4/
ha/d and reduced to negligible (<0.2 mg/L) at loadings
above 5 (Gearheart, 1993). This maximum is consistent
with the theory of Stumm (1975), which suggested approxi-
mately 20% of influent P could be removed under an equi-
librium condition in a lake.
3.5.3 Phosphorus in Vegetative
Submerged Beds
The removal of phosphate from VSB systems relies on
accretion of phosphorus from decomposing plants and from
separated, recalcitrant phosphate from the influent to the
process. Phosphate loading to these systems is large rela-
tive to plant uptake, and reliable sustained removal by har-
vesting of plants prior to senescence would not provide
significant removal. Accretion of partially decomposed plant
tissue may provide some additional removal of phospho-
rus. Cycling of phosphorus will produce seasonal effluent
variations similar to those seen for FWS systems. Some
minerals associated with the media can provide tempo-
58
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rary removal by means of precipitation/exchange/sorption
mechanisms, but these effects would be short term (<1
year) and dependent on the source of the granular materi-
als.
3.6 Mechanisms of Pathogen Separations
and Transformations
3.6.1 Description and Measurement
Waterborne pathogens including helminthes, protozoans,
fungi, bacteria, and viruses are of great concern in assess-
ing water quality. Since routine examination for pathogenic
organisms is not recommended because of cost and the
low numbers of a specific pathogen present at any given
time, indicator organisms are used. The most common in-
dicators of the level of waterborne pathogen contamina-
tion in water are the coliform group. Today, the fecal coliform
test is considered to be a better indicator of human fecal
contamination than the more general total coliform proce-
dure. Even so, the fecal coliform test is not specific and
can produce false positive results for human contamina-
tion, since these organisms are excreted by a number of
warm-blooded animals including those residing in wetland
environments. Fecal streptococci analysis may also be
used as an additional indicator of fecal pollution. Together
with the fecal coliform test, these two procedures are some-
times used to discriminate between human and other warm-
blooded animals. Table 3-1 indicates typical ranges of the
indicator organisms in typical influents to treatment wet-
land systems.
Separation of pathogens (and indicators) from the water
column does not in itself mean that the organisms are no
longer viable. They may be released from the matrix to
which they are attached and become available again in
the water column as infectious agents. The true removal
of pathogens is only achieved by rendering them nonvi-
able.
3.6.2 Fate in Constructed Wetlands
Pathogens (and indicators) entering wetlands may be
incorporated within the TSS or may be found as suspen-
sions in the influent wastewater. Those associated with
TSS would be separated from the water column by the
same mechanisms as discussed for TSS (sedimentation,
interception, and sorption). Once separated, the viable
organisms may be released from the solid matrix and be
retained within the biofilm or sediment pore-water, or they
may be reentrained into the water column. Regardless of
their location, they must compete with the consortium of
organisms surrounding them. As intestinal organisms, they
will normally require a rich substrate and high temperature
to favorably compete. Most will not survive in this compe-
tition. They will also be destroyed by predation or, if near
the open water surface, by UV irradiation.
Removal of pathogens (indicators) in wetlands appears
to be correlated with TSS removal and hydraulic residence
times (Gearheart et al., 1999; Gersberg et al., 1989). Few
studies have been performed on the effect of wetlands on
specific pathogens, but Gearheart has found similar re-
movals to FC with Salmonella and MS2 coliphage. Many
pathogens are more sensitive to the wetland environment
than indicators, but some viruses and protozoans (spores)
may be more resistant. Erratic results have been reported
on viruses, and mechanisms affecting their removal may
be different than those that destroy indicators.
in
o.
(0
o
0
12/1/81
3/2/82
6/2/82
9/1/82
Date
Figure 3-8. Phosphorus pulsing in pilot cells in Arcata; Marsh 1 received tap water until June 1982 (no phosphorus load), while Marsh 3 received
oxidation pond effluent (Gearheart, 1993)
59
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It is significant to note that indicator organisms and per-
haps pathogens may be generated within the wetland. Thus
background levels of indicators will be found even in natu-
ral wetland systems (see Table 3-5). These background
levels are variable, influenced by season and other opera-
tional parameters of the system (Figure 3-9). It should be
noted that in general these indicator organisms are not
from human sources. However, constructed wetlands are
unlikely to consistently meet stringent effluent fecal coliform
permit levels. Therefore, regulators may require disinfec-
tion of treatment wetland effluents prior to discharge.
Gearheart (1998) consistently attained an FC count of less
than 2/100 ml with UV disinfection of FWS effluent.
3.7 Mechanisms of Other Contaminant
Separations and Transformations
3.7.1 Metals
While some metals are required for plant and animal
growth in trace quantities (barium, beryllium, boron, chro-
mium, cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, magnesium, manga-
nese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, sulfur, and zinc),
these same metals may be toxic at higher concentrations.
Other metals have no known biological role and may be
toxic at even very low concentrations (e.g., arsenic, cad-
mium, lead, mercury, and silver) (Gersberg et al., 1984;
Crites et al., 1997). Influent wastewater to wetlands may
carry metals as soluble or insoluble species.
Metals entering wetlands as insoluble suspended solids
are separated from the water column in a manner similar
to TSS. Depending on pH and redox potential, these in-
soluble species may be resolubilized and returned to the
liquid phase. Important removal mechanisms for metals
include cation exchange and chelation with wetland soils
and sediments, binding with humic materials, precipitation
as insoluble salts of sulfides, carbonates, and
oxyhydroxides, and uptake by plants, algae, and bacteria.
The chemically bound metals may eventually become bur-
ied in the anoxic sediments where sulfides occur. These
bound metals are often not bio-available and remain re-
moved from the system. If sediments are disturbed or re-
suspended and moved to oxic regions of the wetland, se-
questered metals may resolubilize.
Metals may be incorporated into the wetland biomass
by way of the primary production process. For macro-
phytes, metals are taken up through the root system and
distributed through the plant. The extent of uptake is de-
pendent on the metal species and plant type. Gersberg et
al. (1984), found only minor uptake by plants in VSB sys-
tems, while others claim that metals can be found on root
surfaces due to precipitation and adsorption. The accu-
mulation of heavy metals was found to be variable in a
marsh in New Jersey receiving wastewater (Simpson et
al., 1981; 1983). Cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc
had accumulated in the litter at the end of the growing sea-
son in much higher concentrations than in the live vegeta-
tion. Other studies have shown that metals like cadmium,
chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc can be
sequestered by wetland soils and biota or both (Mitsch
and Gosselink, 1993). The high uptake of selenium by biota
in a wetland marsh receiving irrigation waters was dis-
cussed in Hammer (1992), but some could have been vola-
tilized. Studies have shown that some algae will seques-
ter selected metals (Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Floating
plants such as duckweed have been shown to be excel-
lent accumulators of cadmium, copper, and selenium, but
only moderate accumulators for chromium and poor accu-
mulators for nickel and lead (Zayed et al., 1998). A review
of metal removal in wetlands is found in Kadlec and Knight
(1996).
~ 10,000 n
E
o
o
5 1,000-
E
o
it
LU
100-
10
10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Influent FC (number/100 ml_)
Figure 3-9. Influent versus effluent FC for the TADB systems (EPA, 1999)
60
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At the present time there is insufficient long-term data
on full-scale constructed wetlands to provide a reliable
estimate of performance on the removal of metals from
wastewater. However, in VSBs and in fully vegetated FWS
systems, the anaerobic conditions are conducive to retain-
ing most metals with the settled TSS and minimizing
resolubilization. Similarly, the actual removals will be af-
fected by the speciation of the influent metals.
3.7.2 Other Organic Compounds
There is concern about the fate of many trace organic
compounds in the environment. These include pesticides,
fertilizers, process chemicals, and others that fall under
the category of priority pollutants. The fate of these com-
pounds in wetlands is dependent on the properties of the
compound, the characteristics of the wetland, the species
of plants, and other environmental factors. The most im-
portant separation and transformation mechanisms in-
volved include volatilization, sedimentation/interception,
biodegradation, adsorption, and uptake. These mecha-
nisms have been discussed previously. Recalcitrant organ-
ics that have been separated may accumulate in the wet-
land sediments. Some may be taken up by plants and be
returned to the system upon plant decomposition. Biodeg-
radation of some organic compounds may result in com-
pletely mineralized end products, or the process may pro-
duce end products that may be more toxic than the parent
compound. At this time, there is insufficient data available
on full-scale wetland systems to evaluate how effective
they are in the long-term removal and destruction of most
priority pollutants. Based on pretreatment performance,
oxidation or facultative lagoons remove a high %age of
volatile and semivolatile organic compounds (Hannah et
al., 1986), resulting in low influent concentrations to the
FWS system that follows, while primary sedimentation is
less effective and results in higher influent concentrations
of both to subsequent VSB systems.
3.8 Constructed Wetland Modeling
3.8.1 Modeling Concepts
The modeling of wastewater treatment operations and
processes has long been of interest to environmental en-
gineers. This interest stems primarily from a need to quan-
tify the performance of the process and a desire to opti-
mize the design and operation of the treatment facility.
Modeling of many of the treatment processes used today
has met with only partial success primarily because of the
lack of rigor in most models. This is due to the enormous
complexity of the reaction mechanisms that may take place
within many of these systems and with the difficulty in char-
acterizing the constituents within the wastewater. Con-
structed wetlands fall in this category of a highly complex
system in which a multiplicity of reactions and reaction
mechanisms occur, even in the simplest of systems. Ad-
sorption, sedimentation, flocculation, biological catalysis,
precipitation, exchange, and diffusional processes are but
a few of the important functional mechanisms that may
control the removal of a given constituent. Furthermore,
these mechanisms are dependent on a number of physi-
cal, chemical, and biological variables within the system
(e.g..temperature, redox potential, pH, plant density, etc.).
It is apparent that in a highly complex system such as
the constructed wetland, the quantification of all specific
rate-controlling mechanisms seems unlikely. The transient
nature of the influent wastewater characteristics and the
lack of substantial control over the process undoubtedly
will result in frequent changes of the rate-controlling mecha-
nisms of the process.
In developing a model for any process, the first question
that should be asked is, "What is the value of modeling
this particular system?" Currently, the design engineer may
be using empirical models that assist in interpolating infor-
mation from lab-scale or pot-scale studies. The major prob-
lem is scale-up, and most of the designer's time is spent
on concerns about operating conditions within rather nar-
row ranges in order to meet permit requirements. Added
to that is the ever-present shortcoming of analytical and
sampling methods. The answer to the question would ap-
pear to be that there is little value in developing more em-
pirical curve-fitting models for the process. The design
engineer might be well advised at the present time to de-
velop performance parameters, curves, and operational
charts that could be used for the plants under investiga-
tion. If a deterministic model of mechanistic proportions is
to be developed, it needs to be developed through a se-
ries of rigorous processes ensuring that it is, in fact, a true
model of the process.
Writing a mechanistic, mathematical model is generally
easier than verifying it. That is not to say that conceiving
and writing the model is trivial, but rather to emphasize the
difficulty in giving the model a fair chance to fail the experi-
mental test. Note that the emphasis is on a chance for
verification failure rather than a chance to pass. Thus an
investigator's problem of ownership of a particular model
presents itself, which is not easily subjugated to the scien-
tific issue of fairly and rigorously testing the model.
The experimental learning process is basically iterative
and consists of successive and repeated use of the se-
quence. Box and Hunter (1965), although not the first to
note this important underlying pattern in experimentation,
have best exploited the pattern and developed strategies
for experimentation that efficiently lead one through the
cycle and advise one in determining the details of subse-
quent cycles. One such cycle is illustrated in Figure 3-10.
In environmental engineering, a field that relies heavily on
empirical methods, the unavoidable long-term character
of the experiments required for a system, such as a con-
structed wetland, has resulted in many different individu-
als conducting rather inefficient iterations of different parts
of the problem. As a result, the development of a rigorous
model of the process, or parts of it, has not been achieved
as is true with many of the wastewater treatment processes
designed today.
Of particular importance in the iterative sequence are
the steps of design and analysis. In this context, design is
61
-------
Model
Reliable and Pertinent
Data
Parametric Estimates
I
Quality of Fit
Adequacy of Model
4- 4
Yes
No
Experimentation -I
Figure 3-10. Adaptive model building
devising experiments suggested by the current status of
the process that will most likely improve an understanding
of it. Analysis would be the examination of the data in such
a manner as to discover how far conjectures are born out
and spark modified or new conjectures when the old ones
are found wanting. Both engineering and statistics play an
important role in the process.
3.8.2 Status of Wetland Modeling
What is the status of model building for constructed wet-
lands at this time? There are a number of ways one might
classify models. One classification would include linguis-
tic models, stochastic models, and deterministic models.
Linguistic, or word, models are qualitative and have as their
main advantage the capability of representing incomplete
states of knowledge not explicitly represented by the other
two types of models. Stochastic models of processes are
the result of data-driven, top-down approaches to model-
ing and can reflect information contained in the data used
to prepare them. These models are useful but are data
intensive and require that the data be representative of
the behavior of the process that they are designed to model.
Deterministic models, both empirical and mechanistic, are
either built from the bottom up based on first principles or
result from careful observation of phenomena. They are
robust and general, and are effective provided that the data
are available to support the theory and to calibrate the
model.
An examination of the literature on constructed wetlands
suggests that all three of these models have been pro-
posed or used. Yet it is worth noting that none have really
met the test of the iterative process. There are very few
full-scale studies of constructed wetlands that have pro-
vided a database sufficient to demonstrate success or fail-
ure of a given model. Most studies lack sufficient spatial
and temporal sampling to even identify whether a model
fails the experimental test of verification. In an effort to pro-
vide more data, investigators use databases from a num-
ber of sites. Site-to-site variability makes this process sus-
pect. Quality control on the data collected is also of con-
cern. For the most part, the data fit to constructed wet-
lands is regressed from empirical models, and fit is ex-
pressed in terms of the coefficient of determination, R2. It
is important to note that a high value of R2 does not assure
a valid relation nor does a low value mean that the model
is useless. It is often stated that R2 explains a certain pro-
portion of the variability in the observed response. If the
data were from a well-designed controlled experiment, with
proper replication and randomization, it is reasonable to
infer that a significant association of the variation in y with
variation in the level of x is a causal effect of x. If, however,
as in the case of most wetland data, the data are observa-
tional, there is a high risk of a causal relationship being
wrong. With observational data, there can be many rea-
sons for associations among variables, only one of which
exhibits causality. Totally spurious correlations, often with
62
-------
high R2 values, can arise when unrelated variables are
combined.
Often rival models may be tentatively considered for a
constructed wetland process. It is not uncommon to find
that more than one model can be calibrated to fit the data
and give residual errors that are acceptable. In some cases,
the selection of the seemingly acceptable model is of little
practical consequence over the range of interest. In other
cases, knowing which model is better may throw light on
fundamental questions about reaction mechanisms and
other phenomena under investigation. A fundamental con-
cept in model discrimination is that rival models often di-
verge noticeably only at extreme conditions. Thus extremes
must be evaluated to provide useful statistical information.
Models must be put into jeopardy of failing. An excellent
discussion of this may be found in Berthouex and Brown
(1994).
In summary, it appears premature, given the lack of qual-
ity-assured data, for designers of constructed wetlands to
rely on regressed empirical models. The problem is one of
extrapolation of these mostly "black box" models from site
to site and extension of the model outside of the database.
Examination of the wide variation in parameter values (re-
action coefficients, background concentrations, etc.) sug-
gests that fitting data to simplistic models may be insuffi-
cient at this time to provide reliable design information in
most cases. Currently the design of these systems should
be based on design parameters (e.g., hydraulic loading,
nitrogen loading, detention time, etc.) and operating crite-
ria that are required to meet a specific effluent limitation.
This is not a novel approach, but has been used for many
decades by environmental engineers in the design of highly
complex unit processes including the activated sludge pro-
cess and waste stabilization ponds. Only when a carefully
designed series of iterative studies have been conducted,
and data based on quality-controlled specifications have
been analyzed, can rigorous models be provided for use
in wetland system design.
Currently there is a North American Database (NADB)
on wetlands that has been relied on for purposes of wet-
land design. Efforts have been made to refine that data-
base to improve reliability. What is urgently needed at this
time is an effective plan for the design of studies that will
provide a comprehensive understanding of the processes
that occurwithin wastewaterwetlands. Efforts have already
been made to mathematically model some of the wetland
processes based on first principles. These models should
serve as the starting point for the adaptive iterative pro-
cess as described in Figure 3-10. The experimental de-
sign should include extensive, quality-assured, transect
data at numerous selected sites (spatial variations) over
an extended period of time (temporal variations). Charac-
terization of the wastewater must include both particulate
and soluble fractions of contaminants and must ensure
quality control of both sampling and analyses. Character-
ization of the wetland is also important and should include
data on residence time distribution of flow, geometry, plant
species and distribution, monolithic zone coverage and
distribution, and so forth. Once this database is developed,
the iterative modeling of this very complex system can
begin in earnest. Given the number of years of constructed
wetland experience, such efforts are generally overdue.
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project, effluent quality results—System design and
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Grady, Jr., C.P.L. and H.C. Lim. 1980. Biological wastewa-
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Hammer, D.A. 1992. Creating freshwater wetlands.
Chelsea, Ml: Lewis Publishers, Inc., 298 pp.
Hannah, S.A., B.M. Austern, A.E. Eralp, and R.H. Wise.
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Kadlec, R.H. and R.L. Knight. 1996. Treatment wetlands.
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Chapter 4
Free Water Surface Wetlands
There are many design factors which effect the effluent
quality from a free water surface (FWS) constructed wet-
land. Consideration of some of these factors can signifi-
cantly reduce the effluent variation. Site specific factors
which need to be considered in the design of wetlands
include topography, climate (growing season, temperature
variation, evapotranspiration and precipitation), wastewa-
ter characteristics, flows and loads, and wildlife activity
(Gearheart and Finney, 1996). Design variables include
total area, the number, size, depth, and shape of wetland
cells, hydraulic retention time, vegetation types and cov-
erage, inlet and outlet type and location, and internal flow
patterns.
This chapter provides a brief summary of expected wet-
land treatment performance based on the most reliable
data from existing operating wetlands, describes issues
that are important in the design and layout of a FWS con-
structed wetland, and provides an overall strategy for siz-
ing a constructed wetland system. Several design ex-
amples are included, and construction issues unique to
FWS wetland systems are discussed.
4.1 Performance Expectations
4.1.1 Introduction
The performance of operating FWS constructed wetland
treatment systems reveals the range of effluent quality and
the variability of performance possible with these types of
systems. Evident in this analysis is the great variety in the
range of treatment capacities, and thus the loadings, to
which FWS treatment wetlands are subjected. Given the
wide variety of settings, design criteria, configuration, and
inlet/outlet (I/O) placement, considerable variation in per-
formance should be expected. The largest single compila-
tion of FWS wetland operating data is the North American
Database (NADB, 1993). Unfortunately, much of the data
within the NADB is difficult to use for performance evalua-
tion because of the absence of hydraulic description of the
system's influent and effluent flows. Another major con-
straint is the lack of intra-cellular and individual cell influ-
ent and effluent water quality data. The 40 systems in-
cluded in the detailed portion of this performance evalua-
tion are known as the Technology Assessment (TA) sites
(USEPA, 1999). For purposes of this design manual only
those sites treating oxidation pond effluent and primary
treated effluent are considered. There are 22 sites in this
category (designated DM sites), which are used to assess
loading versus effluent concentration. The data sets em-
ployed in this analysis are from Arcata, Gustine and Ma-
nila, CA, Beaumont, TX, Brookhaven, NY, Columbia, MO,
Fort Deposit, AL, Mount Angel, OR, Ouray, CO, West Jack-
son County, MS, and Listowel, Ontario, Canada.
The brief performance summary included here offers an
overview of loading, influent and effluent ranges for a num-
ber of water quality constituents, and presents the observed
relationship between loading rates and effluent quality for
all systems. A more broad performance review, including
cumulative effluent probability plots for the 40 TA sites is
provided in FWS Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: A
Technology Assessment (USEPA, 1999). The focus of this
manual for FWS application in a strictly non-tertiary treat-
ment mode resulted in the need to cull out those tertiary
applications from the TADB to produce the (DMDB) data-
base which is used herein. In all cases, after the DMDB is
used to analyze the information, the TA database is evalu-
ated along with other mechanistically viable, controlled
studies and/or mechanistic analyses to produce the most
reasonable engineering interpretations of the data. The
additional quality-assured data which are needed to ad-
vance the understanding of the free water surface con-
structed wetlands are described at several locations in the
text of this chapter.
4.1.2 Range of Operating Conditions and
Performance
Table 4-1 shows the mean and range of loadings for
each water quality constituent for the 22 DM systems in-
cluded in this analysis. Preliminary treatment for the 22
DM systems includes 21 lagoon systems and one primary
effluent system. This first level of assessment is useful only
in the context of summarizing the range of performance
and operating conditions of these FWS constructed wet-
lands and their range of response in terms of effluent con-
centration. This level of analysis summarizes the wide
range of applications and expected performance for oper-
ating FWS treatment wetlands. No accounting for geometric
configuration, planting strategy, inlet/outlet works, climate,
etc., is made at this time.
The data in Table 4-1 are a summary of the treatment
effectiveness, and are not meant to suggest a mass bal-
66
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Table 4-1. Loading and Performance Data for Systems Analyzed in this Document (DMDB).
Pollutant Loading
Rate (kg/ha-day)
Constituent Min Mean Max
BOD5
TSS
NH4-N
TKN
TP
FC
2.3
5
0.3
1.0
—
—
51
41
5.8
9.5
—
—
183
180
16
20
—
—
Min
6.2
12.7
3.2
8.7
0.56
42000
Influent (mg/L)
Mean
113
112
13.4
28.3
1.39
73000
Max
438
587
30
51
2.41
250000
Min
5.8
5.3
0.7
3.9
0.68
112
Effluent (mg/L)
Mean
22
20
12
19
2.42
403
Max
70
39
23
32
3.60
713
BOD = Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5 day)
TSS = Total Suspended Solids
NH4-N = Ammonia Nitrogen
TKN = Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
TP = Total Phosphorus
FC = Fecal Coliform, cfu/100mL
ance of constituents, e.g., not all systems reported all con-
stituents.
4.1.3 BOD Performance
The relationship between average biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) loading and average BOD effluent con-
centration for the studied systems is shown in Figure 4-1.
. There is a general trend between increased BOD loading
and increased effluent concentration up to the highest load-
ing of 183 kg/ha-day if only the fully vegetated designs are
taken into account. The figure reveals considerable efflu-
ent variation for a given BOD loading and shows consider-
able variation in effluent quality at the lower BOD loading
rates. The effect of the background BOD, due to release
from previously settled influent TSS and plant decomposi-
tion is especially evident in systems with low loading rates.
Figure 4-2 illustrates the internal BOD load which occurs
from the partial anaerobic digestion of previously settled
organic solids and plant exudates and other byproducts of
anaerobic biodegradation. The portion of that internal load-
ing which is due to the plant detritus has been measured
and is illustrated in Figure 4-3. Since anaerobic processes
are extremely sensitive to temperature, these internal load-
ings begin in the spring as water temperature rises and
continue until the backlog of settleable organics and plant
detritus accumulated over the winter is exhausted. Plant
exudates and senescent byproducts occur in their own
cycles which provide internal loading to the system in a
dynamic manner. Background BOD concentrations can
range up to almost 10 mg/L.
A more conservative analysis of Figure 4-1 indicates that
a fully vegetated FWS should not be loaded above 40 kg
BOD/ha-d if a secondary effluent BOD standard (30 mg/L)
is to be met. Restricting the analysis to open water FWS
systems indicates that loadings up to 45 kg/ha-d yielded
effluent BOD of less than 20 mg/L, and loadings up to 130
kg/ha-d always met this quality. However, there is only one
data point above 45 kg/ha-d and it is at 130 kg/ha-d. The
open water FWS systems which permit reaeration and
aerobic oxidation should be designed for an areal loading
of no more than 60 kg/ha-d to consistently attain an efflu-
ent BOD of <30 mg/L until more performance data are ob-
tained. Coincidently, Stowell (1988) recommended an up-
per limit of 60 to 70 kg BOD/ha-d to prevent odors from an
FWS system. Open water FWS systems loaded below 45
kg/ha-d can be expected to attain effluent BODs of 20 mg/
L or less. Analysis of the TADB yields a similar maximum
areal BOD loading rate of 50 kg/ha-d without differentia-
tion between fully vegetated and open water FW systems
(EPA, 1999).
4.1.4 TSS Performance
The effectiveness of FWS treatment wetlands to remove
total suspended solids (TSS) is recognized as one of their
principal advantages. Over a range of loadings from 5 to
180 kg/ha-day, there are several relationships between
loading and effluent TSS quality with the DM data, as shown
in Figure 4-4. Under a fairly narrow range of solids load-
ings, (up to 30 kg/ha-d) secondary effluent TSS concen-
trations (< 30 mg/L) can be attained with fully vegetated
systems. Since physical processes dominate the removal
of TSS, similar designs should produce similar effluent
qualities. Analysis of the TADB (EPA, 1999) yields similar
maximum loading.
TSS removal is most pronounced in the inlet region of a
FWS constructed wetland. Generally, the influent TSS from
oxidation pond systems are removed in the first 2 to 3 days
of the nominal hydraulic retention time in fully vegetated
zones near the inlet (Gearheart,et al, 1989; Reed, et al,
1995; Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Enhanced settling and
flocculation processes account for most of this removal,
and the overall removal efficiency is a function of the ter-
minal settling velocity of the influent and flocculated sol-
ids. Long-term removal of detrital material will likely be re-
quired 10-15 years into operation. The separated solids
undergo anaerobic decomposition, releasing soluble dis-
solved organic compounds and gaseous by-products, car-
bon dioxide and methane gas, to the water column. Figure
4-2 shows the reduction of total and soluble BOD and TSS
through a pilot project wetland cell. Approximately 80% of
the TSS is removed in the first two days of theoretical HRT
primarily due to enhanced sedimentation and flocculation.
67
-------
80
70 -
60 -
^ 50 -
"3)
Q
§ 40
LU
30 -
20 -
10 -
o
V
V
V
V
V
O
V
V
o
o
?OJ
o
vv
o
V = Fully Vegetated
O = Significant Open Area
50
Figure 4-1. BOD effluent vs. areal loading (DMDB)
60
100
BOD Load (kg/ha-day)
150
200
Total BOD (mg/L)
Soluble BOD (mg/L)
TSS (mg/L)
2 3
HRT(days)
Figure 4-2. Release of soluble BOD during early stage
68
-------
O)
Q
o
CO
A
~L^
^-
-Typha-annual BOD (mg/L)
• Scirpus-annual-BOD (mg/L)
S
fS
/>
/
^*f
s
s
.
¥
ST
-ik
-f-
x
X
X1
^
—
X1
X
x1
•— <
X1
-^
^
20
40
60
80
100
Percent Dry Weight of Standing Crop to
Water Column
Figure 4-3. Annual detritus BOD load Scripus and Typha - assuming 15,000 kg/Ha standing crop (Gearheart & Finney, 1996)
50
40 -
30 -
V)
V)
01
I 20
10 -
o
V
V
o
V
o
V
o
«
V
o
V
o
V
o
6*0
o
o
o
V
V= Fully Vegetated
O = Significant Open Area
i
50
100
TSS Load (kg/ha-day)
150
200
Figure 4-4. TSS loading vs. TSS in effluent (DMDB)
69
-------
Subsequently, the removal essentially ceases without sub-
sequent open zones which can provide conditioning and
transformation processes which may improve overall re-
moval of TSS attainable by the system.
A closer analysis of the DMDB again shows that TSS
loadings can be higher for FWS systems with open-water
zones. Only one very small site with such zones exceeded
secondary effluent TSS standards (30 mg/L), and it was
loaded at more than 90 kg/ha-d. Below a loading of 30 kg/
ha-d an effluent of 20 mg/L of TSS was consistently achiev-
able. It is therefore recommended that in addition to that
areal loading limitation a maximum loading of 50 kg/ha-d
be employed to attain an effluent of 30 mg/L of TSS until
more performance data can be obtained.
4.15 Nitrogen Performance
Any discussion of nitrogen species in FWS constructed
wetlands must be predicated by a return to first principles,
as described in Chapter 3. Given the numerous transfor-
mation possibilities and the dearth of removal mechanisms,
there are only a few meaningful explanations. Influent ni-
trogen for the typical applications of this manual will be
primarily in the form of ammonia-nitrogen (NH4-N) with a
significant organic nitrogen (ON) contribution. Approxi-
mately 10 to 15% of the oxidation pond effluent TSS due
to algae is organic nitrogen (Balmer and Vik, 1978). Since
both are measured by the total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)
test, it becomes the likely standard of areal loading analy-
sis. Any discussion of just one species (typically, NH4-N)
is of little value and often misleading to readers.
Another key discussion point is the inherent inability of
fully vegetated FWS systems to nitrify a typical FWS influ-
ent, as described in the preceding paragraph, within a prac-
tical number of days of HRT During periods of senescence
when fully vegetated zones become partially open-water
zones, different mechanisms of treatment can replace
these which dominate during the normal growing season,
if the climate can sustain them. This is further reinforce-
ment for the fact that there are few absolutes in natural
systems. Sadly, these conditions are rarely recognized or
adequately described and measured, making use of most
existing data sets open to some question. However, in this
analysis the fact that a system is classified as either fully
vegetated or as having significent open-water zones aids
in explaining many anomolies.
4.1.5.1 TKN Performance
Figure 4-5 illustrates that for a fully vegetated FWS which
receives 30 to 50 mg/L of TKN the effluent exceeds 24
mg/L since the only removal mechanism is sedimentation
35
30 -
25 -
20 -
15 -
10 -
5 -
o
V
V
o
V
V
«
V
o
V
ooo
V = Fully Vegetated
O = Significant Open Area
10 15
TKN Load (kg/ha-day)
i
20
25
Figure 4-5. Effluent TKN vs. TKN loading
70
-------
of organic nitrogen (ON). One more lightly loaded (3.3 kg/
ha-d) fully vegetated system did produce an effluent TKN
of about 9 mg/L. The three open-water zone systems were
all lightly loaded (< 2.8 kg/ha-d) and produced effluent TKN
of about 4 mg/L. Since these latter designs offer a mecha-
nism to transform the TKN to nitrate-nitrogen (NO3 -N),
which could subsequently be removed through denitrifica-
tion, they could conceivably be loaded more heavily and
still meet a stringent total nitrogen standard (e.g., 10 mg/
L). No more heavily loaded systems were indicated in the
DMDB. The TADB analysis (EPA, 1999) did indicate that
any FWS system which received a TKN loading of less
than 3.3 kg/ha-d could meet an effluent TKN of less than
10 mg/L, but does not subdivide results into the two
subcatagories used herein. Arcata's open-water-zone sys-
tems have been able to maintain effluent total nitrogen (TN)
below 5 mg/L at loadings of up to 3 kg TN/ha-d (Gearheart,
1995) through the denitrification provided near the FWS
system outlet which is fully vegetated. Maximum TKN load-
ings to sustain an effluent TKN of less than 10 mg/L can
conservatively be set at 5 kg/ha-d until more data are made
available. This only applies to open water FWS systems,
while fully vegetated systems are limited to only a small
percentage of TKN removal due to the settling of organic
nitrogen particulate matter.
4.1.5.2 Denitrification
The extent of nitrate removal via denitrification is de-
pendent on the extent of the prior conversion of TKN to
NO3-N, a labile carbon or other energy source and anaero-
bic/anoxic conditions in the water column. Therefore, deni-
trification, which converts NO3-N to gaseous end prod-
ucts which can leave the constructed wetland, is best suited
to a fully vegetated condition. Further, any NO3-N which
enters a FWS wetland is likely to be quickly removed, while
any nitrate formation (nitrification), which occurs in the
open-water zones of the FWS can be removed near the
fully vegetated outlet zone if the conditions noted above
are met. The DMDB offers no assistance in that all the
systems which had nitrate-nitrogen in their influent had it
at very low concentrations (average = 2.47 mg/L), even
though effluent concentrations were lower (average = 2.22
mg/L).
Gearheart (1995) reports that the carbon produced from
decaying macrophytes is sufficient to denitrify 100 mg NO3-
N/L in an FWS and that the reaction rate is temperature
dependent, signifying its biological nature. Reed, et al
(1995) and Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998) also indicate
that FWS systems have the capablility to denitrify, but they
offer no specific examples. Therefore, denitrification should
be feasible in FWS systems as long as there is sufficient
detention time in fully vegetated zones with anaerobic/an-
oxic conditions.
4.1.5.3 Ammonia Nitrogen Performance
Also, as noted previously, ammonia-nitrogen (NH4-N)
limits are often specified for treatment facilities in their
NPDES permit. However, the level of effluent ammonia in
an FWS constructed wetland effluent bears only a tenu-
ous relationship to its influent NH4-N concentration. The
normal case will find that all influent nitrogen is measured
as TKN, and that this total will be divided between organic
nitrogen and NH4-N. It is likely that this total nitrogen will
be reduced in any FWS owing to the loss of organic nitro-
gen due to enhanced settling. In the DMDB the average
TKN removal was 32%, while the fully vegetated systems
reported 28%. This difference is not larger because the
open-water FWS systems were few in number and were
all loaded more lightly. Although one can plot the effluent
NH4-N vs NH4-N loading from the DMDB, the data dem-
onstrate no useful relationship. Therefore, unless a FWS
is designed for very low TKN loadings with an ample open-
water zone to nitrify the influent, there is no meaningful
chance to meet any NH4-N effluent standard which is sig-
nificantly lower (>30%) than the influent concentration.
4.1.5.4 Other Nitrogen Performance
Since total nitrogen is the sum of all forms of nitrogen, it
will be reduced through nitrification/denitrification, the loss
of organic nitrogen due to flocculation and sedimentation
and plant uptake of NH4-N. Since some of this settled frac-
tion will return to the mainstream as the settled organics
partially digest and the plant uptake will return due to se-
nescence, the total nitrogen budget should be evaluated
on an annual basis. The returned nitrogen will likely be in
the same two forms (organic and ammonia-nitrogen) as
the normal influent TN load, making this internal load very
compatible with the external load. Given the transformability
of individual nitrogen components between each other
based on the conditions existing at different locations in
the FWS wetland, the designer needs to provide passive
controls(e.g.,depth and vegetation patterns) if he or she
wishes to remove a substantial portion of the incoming ni-
trogen load.
4.1.6 Total Phosphorus Performance
Only 4 of the DMDB systems measured TP loadings and
effluent quality, as shown in Figure 4-6. While some ap-
proximate comparisons can be made, the need to sepa-
rate the inorganic phosphorus performance from the or-
ganic particulate phosphorus performance makes the lack
of DM data impossible to utilize effectively, therefore, the
TA database (EPA, 1999) is used for an approximate analy-
sis.
Figure 4-7 shows that over a range of loading up to 4.5
kg/ha-day at the TADB sites, total phosphorus effluent con-
centration generally increased with loading (USEPA, 1999).
At the lower loading rates (<0.55 kg/ha-d), however, the
effluent phosphorus concentration was less than 1.5 mg/
L. The fractional distribution of TP in municipal wastewa-
ter previously treated by lagoons is variable and has not
been well documented. Balmer and Vik (1978) found fil-
tered P/total P to be 20-25%, but the flocculation and sedi-
mentation superiority of the initial FWS fully vegetated zone
will remove a significant % of those forms which enter as
supracolloidal and settleable solids. Gearheart (1993) has
performed extensive studies on the Arcata FWS systems
and found a relationship between areal loading and phos-
71
-------
Q.
3.5 -
3 -
2.5 -
01
I 2^
1.5 -
1 -
0.5
I
0.5
1.5 2
TP Load (kg/ha-day)
2.5
Figure 4-6. Effluent TP vs. TP areal loading
j"
^)
Q.
3
p
1-
"c
0)
E
LU
o.u
4.5 •
4.0 -
3.5 •
3.0 -
2.5 •
2.0 •
1.5 •
1.0 •
0.5 •
n n i
+
•
* *
* * *
» *
^k ^k
^ ^
k •
0.0
1.0 2.0 3.0
Total P Loading (kg/ha-d)
4.0
5.0
Figure 4-7. Average total phosphorus loading rate vs. total phosphorus effluent concentration for TADB wetland systems
72
-------
phorus removal. An upper limit of 1.5 mg/L removal of or-
thophosphates was found at loadings of less than 1.5 kg/
ha-d and a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of at least 15
days. HRTs of less than 7 days yielded a maximum re-
moval of 0.7 mg/L of orthophosphate, as shown in Figure
4-8.
The phosphorus cycle of uptake during the growing sea-
son and release during senescence and the initial sub-
stantial uptake of phosphorous by the soil of the FWS fur-
ther confounds short-time studies of phosphorus transfor-
mations and removal. As a final issue in this conundrum,
the particulate fractionation and chemical speciation of the
influent phosphorus will also have some impact on trans-
formations and fate of P. Therefore, long-term studies which
differentiate between P forms and document vegetation
condition, climate, temperature and other pertinent water
quality parameters are necessary to provide meaningful
information for future FWS system designers, but the an-
nual P removal by these systems is quite limited based on
mechanistic evaluations and controlled studies.
4.1.7 Fecal Coliform Performance
Only four systems in the DMDB reported fecal coliform
(FC) data, and three of those were fully vegetated sys-
tems. The average removal was just over 2 logs, from
72,700/1 OOmL to 400/100ml. The TADB (EPA, 1999) re-
sults are shown in Figure 4-9 which offers no obvious rela-
tionship between inlet and outlet concentrations. Figure 4-
10 (Gearheart, 1989) shows results from the Arcata pilot
study which demonstrate that flocculation/sedimentation
is the primary FC removal mechanism for fully vegetated
cells or zones. This figure is especially valuable in light of
the world literature on FC dieoff in lagoons which identify
solar radiation as the primary disinfection mechanism
(Mara, 1975). Such a mechanism can be effective in open-
water zones of the FWS, but the same mechanisms which
remove settleable and colloidal solids in fully vegetated
zones are responsible for FC removal in those zones.
1.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
HRT (hr)
Figure 4-8. Retention Time vs. Orthophosphate Removal (mg/l)
Estimates of the internal addition of background fecal
coliform by wildlife in treatment wetlands are provided by
those systems that receive disinfected influent. For ex-
ample, the Arcata Enhancement Wetland received chlori-
nated effluent, and during the period 1990-1997
(Gearheart,et al,1998), the effluent FC was less than 500
MPN/100ml_ about 80% of the time. This is a system with
large open-water zones that supports a wide variety and
high population of aquatic birds and mammals. Higher lev-
els of background FC levels are found during the fall and
winter bird migration period. A similar study on the same
system during 1995-1996 showed that the effluent mean
was 40 CFU/1 OOmL, was less than 300 CFU/1 OOmL over
90 percent of the time, and on no occasion exceeded 500
CFU/1 OOmL. Studies of MS-2 coliphage showed similar (2
logs) removal to that which was obtained with FC
(Gearheart, 1995).
The considerable temporal variability in the effluent mi-
croorganism counts produced by treatment wetlands and
conventional treatment technologies suggests the use of
geometric averaging to determine monthly mean values
from daily or weekly measurements. Even with geometric
means, individual monthly values are frequently 10 times
larger or smaller than the long-term mean for many treat-
ment wetlands, possibly due to wildlife habitat features.
This implies that at sites which have strict FC restrictions,
the ability to disinfect the FWS effluent is required.
4.1.8 Metals & Other Particulate-Oriented
Pollutants
While some metals are required for plant and animal
growth in trace quantities (barium, boron, chromium, co-
balt, copper, iodine, iron, magnesium, manganese, mo-
lybdenum, nickel, selenium, sulfur, and zinc), these same
metals may be toxic at higher concentrations. Other met-
als may be toxic at even very low concentrations (e.g. ar-
senic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and silver) (Gearheart,
1993).
Information from FWS treatment wetlands indicates that
a fraction of the incoming metal load will be trapped and
effectively removed through sequestration with settleable
suspended solids and soils. For many metals, the limited
data indicate that concentration reduction efficiency and
mass reduction efficiency correlate with TSS reduction.
Wetland background metal concentrations and internal
profiles are not well known. It has been shown that chro-
mium levels higherthan 0.1 mg/L and copper levels higher
than 1.0 mg/L have detrimental effects on a floating duck-
weed species (Lemna gibba). Table 4-2 shows metal con-
centration data obtained from a constructed wetland dem-
onstration project in Sacramento, where disinfected acti-
vated sludge effluent was applied to parallel 1.44 acre cells,
each with a hydraulic loading of 65 m3/ha-d and similar
plant density.
The valence and form of each metal was not determined,
but nickel and arsenic appeared to be the most resistent
to removal (SCRSD, 1998). Several researchers have stud-
73
-------
Effluent FC (number/100 mL)
IU.UUU ;
1 000 -
100 -
-in -
•
• A
* *»
% *
* +
•
*
1
10
100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Influent FC (number/100 ml_)
Figure 4-9. Average influent FC concentration vs. FC effluent concentration for TADB wetland systems
100
W
W
n
Q
O
CO
100
Figure 4-10. Arcata pilot Cell 8, TSS, BOD, FC
Table 4-2. Trace Metal Concentrations and Removal Rates, Sacramento Regional Wastewater
Treatment Plant (SCRSD, 1998).
Metal
Silver
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Mercury
Nickel
Lead
Antimony
Selenium
Zinc
Min
0.25
2.00
0.040
0.50
4.60
0.0084
4.30
0.25
0.40
0.50
6.4
Influent (mg/L)
Mean
0.29
2.23
0.077
1.05
8.62
0.0105
8.23
0.58
0.41
0.50
26.2
Max
0.32
2.60
0.140
1.40
17.00
0.0144
23.00
1.20
0.42
0.50
34.0
Min
0.02
1.50
0.005
0.50
1.60
0.0021
4.10
0.05
0.12
0.50
1.30
Effluent (mg/L)
Mean
0.03
2.20
0.009
0.77
4.04
0.0031
8.96
0.14
0.15
0.50
3.53
Removal (%)
Rate
Max
0.03
3.10
0.019
3.10
7.00
0.0041
20.00
0.26
0.20
0.50
8.70
90
1.3
88
27
19
71
—
55
63
—
70
74
-------
led particle sizes vs removal rates. Most have concentrated
on urban mechanical wastewater treatment systems.
Odegaard (1987) noted that except for nickel 50 to 75% of
the incoming metals (zinc, copper, chromium, lead, and
cadmium) in the wastewater were associated with the TSS.
Hannah, et al, (1986) showed that facultative lagoons re-
moved 40 to 80% of metals, including nickel. The sum-
mary of these and other studies is that most metals, with
the exception of nickel, boron, selenium, and arsenic, tend
to associate with removable solids fractions. Gearheart and
Finney (1996) evaluated particle size removals of oxida-
tion pond effluent in a FWS wetland (see Table 4-3). Their
results show that the settleable solids (> 100 &m) portion
of BOD, COD and TSS are essentially completely removed,
the supracolloidal 1 to 100 &m) fraction is 80 to 90% re-
moved, while the remaining (<1&m) fractions are less im-
pacted.
4.1.9 Stochastic Variability
Free water surface (FWS) treatment wetlands demon-
strate the same type of water quality variability typical of
other complex biological treatment processes. While inlet
concentration pulses are frequently dampened through the
long hydraulic and solids retention times of the treatment
wetland, there is always significant spatial and temporal
variability in wetland water pollutant concentrations. The
stochastic character of rainfall and the periodicity and sea-
sonal fluctuation in ET contribute to much of this variability
in the concentrations in wetland effluents. Better design
and operational factors could reduce some of the variation
seen in systems to date. Each site and its unique climatol-
ogy require the designer to consider the effect these vari-
ables will have on the sizing, depth, and configuration of
the system.
4.2 Wetland Hydrology
The hydrology of FWS wetlands is considered by many
to be the most important factor in maintaining wetland struc-
ture and function, determining species composition, and
Table 4-3. Fractional Distribution of BOD, COD and TSS in the
Oxidation Pond Effluent and Effluent from Marsh Cell 5
(Gearheart and Finney, 1996)
BOD
COD
TSS
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
Oxidation Pond
Fraction
Total
Settleable
Supracolloidal
Colloidal-soluble
Marsh Fraction
Total
Settleable
Supracolloidal
Colloidal-soluble
27.5
3.7
13.7
10.1
4.8
0
1.2
3.6
100
13
50
37
100
0
24
76
80
5
23
52
50
0
4
46
100
6
29
65
100
0
8
92
31.0
5.8
25.2
2.3
0.3
2.0
100
19
81
100
13
87
developing a successful wetlands project (Mitsch and
Gosselink, 1993). The following section describes the most
common method for characterizing wetland hydrology: the
development of a wetland water balance.
4.2.1 Wetland Water Balance
The wetland water balance quantifies the hydrologic
balance between inflows, outflows, and internal gains and
losses of waterto a wetland, in relation to the wetland vol-
ume or storage capacity. The sources of waterto a FWS
constructed wetland are wastewater inflow and precipita-
tion, snowmelt and direct runoff from the wetland catch-
ment (i.e. berms and roads). Water losses from a FWS
constructed wetland occur through the outlet, evapotrans-
piration, infiltration, and bank storage (wicking). Athorough
understanding of the dynamic nature of the wetland water
balance, and how this balance affects pollutants, is useful
in the planning and design of FWS constructed wetlands.
An overall wetland water balance is the first step in de-
signing a FWS constructed wetland, and should be com-
pleted prior to the actual design steps described later in
this chapter. At a minimum, a detailed monthly or seasonal
water balance, which considers all potential water losses
and gains, should be conducted for any proposed FWS
constructed wetland. An annual water balance may miss
important seasonal wetland water gains or losses, such
as heavy periods of winter precipitation or high summer
evapotranspiration rates, which can affect FWS constructed
wetland pollutant effluent concentrations. Water balances
performed over shorter time periods than monthly will cap-
ture additional information about the dynamics of a wet-
lands hydrology, but the increased cost of data acquisition
will not generally be justified.
The wetland water balance for a FWS constructed wet-
land can be expressed in generic units (L=length; T=time)
as:
dVw
dt
c + Qsm-Qb-Qe+(P+ET+l)Aw (4-1)
where:
Aw
ET
I
P
|
Q!
V
= wetland water surface area (L2),
= evapotranspiration rate (L/T),
= infiltration to groundwater (L/T),
= precipitation rate (L/T),
= berm loss rate (L3/T),
= catchment runoff rate (L3/T),
= wastewater inflow rate (L3/T),
= wetland outflow rate (L3/T),
= snowmelt rate (L3/T),
= time (T), and
= water volume or storage in wetland (L3).
The impact of wet weather and snowmelt on the waste-
water inflow (Qo) is external to the water balance.
Some of the terms in Equation 4-1 may be deemed in-
significant and can be neglected, simplifying calculations
and data collection requirements. For example, ground-
75
-------
water infiltration (I) and berm losses (Qb) can be neglected
if the wetland is lined with an impermeable barrier, and the
snowmelt (Qsm) is only important in certain locations.
4.2.2 Wastewater Inflow
The daily wastewater inflow flow rate (Qo) will almost
always be the primary inflow into a FWS constructed wet-
land. If the FWS wetland is being added to an existing
wastewater treatment process, wastewater flow rates may
already be measured. If the wastewater flow rates and
variability are not known, they can be estimated using con-
ventional engineering methods. Examples of variable
wastewater flows include seasonal peaks from vacation
communities and seasonal high infiltration and inflow rates
into collection systems.
4.2.3 Precipitation, Snowmelt, and
Catchment Runoff
Depending on the time period of the water balance, daily,
monthly or seasonal precipitation and snowmelt data may
be required. Precipitation inflows into a wetland come from
direct precipitation (P) onto the wetland surface area and
runoff from the wetland catchment (Qc). Snowmelt
(Qsm)accounts for the amount of water entering the wet-
land from melting snow from the wetland catchment. The
effects of precipitation on the wetland water balance are
normally significant, while snowmelt can be seasonably
significant only in certain climates. Qc is a significant factor
only in the rarest of circumstances. °
4.2.4 Wastewater Outflow
The wastewater outflow (Qe) corresponds to the amount
of treated wastewater leaving the FWS constructed wet-
land over a specified time period. Wastewater outflow re-
flects the balance between inflows, additional water gains
and losses, and the change in storage of the FWS con-
structed wetland.
4.2.5 Evapotranspiration
Wetland evapotranspiration (ET) is the combined water
loss due to evaporation from the water surface and tran-
spiration from wetland vegetation. The loss of water from
ET affects the wetland in two ways. It increases the hy-
draulic retention time by removing water, and can concen-
trate certain pollutants, especially conservative dissolved
constituents. For non-conservative constituents, such as
BOD, an increase in the hydraulic retention time may pro-
vide a modified removal rate which can either partially off-
set or enhance the concentrating effects of ET.
Specific ET rates have proven difficult to accurately
measure in FWS wetlands. As a consequence, it is com-
mon practice in wetland design to assume that wetland
ET rates are equivalent to some percentage of open water
or pan evaporation rates. Kadlec and Knight (1996) rec-
ommend that ET be assumed equal to 70 to 80% of Class
A pan evaporation in fully vegetated FWS systems. Reed,
et al, (1995) suggest 80% of the pan rate. Since ET rates
in FWS systems may vary from those in open waters to
those in fully vegetated zones, an overall average rate may
be useful. A rate of 70 to 75% of the pan rate is a reason-
able assumption since the two are not significantly differ-
ent. Maximum ET rates have been found in smaller wet-
lands or wetland test cells with small area to perimeter
ratios (Gearheart, et al, 1993). ET rates of up to 5 mm/d
are found in the southern U.S., and Qe may approach zero
during these periods (EPA, 1999).
4.2.6 Infiltration and Berm Losses
Infiltration (I) is the loss of waterthat occurs into the bot-
tom soils or berms of a FWS constructed wetland. If
present, infiltration decreases the outlet flow rate, effec-
tively increasing the water retention time and increasing
the potential for constituent removal. Constituent reduc-
tion may be further improved by the loss of soluble pollut-
ants into the soil as the water infiltrates. Infiltration tends
to reduce with time as clogging of soil pores progresses
(Middlebrooks, et al, 1982). If the FWS constructed wet-
land is lined with some type of impermeable barrier, infil-
tration can be neglected in the water balance. If not, siting
on more permeable soils might endanger ground water
quality.
4.2.7 Wetland Volume
The outlet in a FWS constructed wetland generally con-
sists of a control structure that can regulate water depths
in the wetland. Increasing or decreasing water levels
changes the wetland volume, which influences the water
balance by providing more or less storage capacity. The
wetland volume (Vw) or storage capacity directly influences
the time required for the wastewater to pass through the
wetland. Water storage capacity can be increased to off-
set the effects of high seasonal precipitation or evapotrans-
piration. Since FWS constructed wetlands have a continu-
ous wastewater inflow and some form of outlet water level
control, water surface elevations do not change signifi-
cantly, unless the wetland operation and maintenance
schedule dictates water level fluctuations. The type of
emergent aquatic plants in each region of an FWS is pri-
marily determined by the depth of the FWS in that zone.
For the most part 1.2m (4 feet) is considered the maxi-
mum seasonal water depth for fully vegetated sections of
the wetland. Normal operating depths vary from 0.5 to
0.75m (1.7 to 2.5 feet) depending on the types of plants
and types of physical substrate.
4.3 Wetland Hydraulics
From a design perspective, wetland hydraulics defines
the movement of water through a FWS constructed wet-
land. A FWS constructed wetland with poor hydraulic de-
sign can be problematic in terms of effluent water quality,
odors, and vector nuisances. This section first defines some
basic wetland hydraulics terms, and then briefly summa-
rizes basic wetland hydraulic principles.
76
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4.3.1 Wetland Hydraulics Terminology
and Definitions
4.3.1.1 Water Depth
Water depth is an important physical measure for the
design, analysis, and operation and maintenance of FWS
constructed wetlands. The ability to vary water depth in a
FWS constructed wetland is one operational control avail-
able to operators to manipulate wetland performance.
The actual water depth at all locations in a FWS con-
structed wetland will generally not be known with a high
degree of accuracy due to basin bottom irregularities. In
addition, the water depth in the wetland may decrease due
to the buildup of peat from the deposition of detritus and
settled solids buildup. Increasing the water depth by chang-
ing the outlet weir elevation can help offset decreases in
water depth. This slow-rate change progresses with time
from the inlet toward the outlet. Detrital plant material builds
upon and under the water surface of any vegetated zone,
especially the initial vegetated zone. Wetlands operating
for 15 years have documented a 0.08-0.12m (3 to 5 inch)
depth change due to plant detritus along the initial veg-
etated zone in an FWS wetland. The largest accumulation
was in the inlet region (Kadlecik, 1996).
Estimated operating water depths for FWS constructed
wetlands in the NADB (1993) have ranged from approxi-
mately 0.1 to over 2.Om (0.3 to 6+ feet) with typical depths
of 0.15 - 0.60m (0.5 to 2 feet). Operating depths are gen-
erally different for the area with emergent plants (0.6 m)
than those areas with submergent plants (1.2m). Since
most of the NADB systems were designed to be fully veg-
etated, these depths are less than one would expect in the
future. For some calculations the average water depth (h)
can be used, as it represents the average water depth over
the total wetland surface area (Aw).
4.3.1.2 Volume
The volume (Vw) of a FWS constructed wetland is the
potential quantity of water (neglecting vegetation, litter and
peat) that could be stored in the wetland basin. The wet-
land water volume can be determined by multiplying aver-
age water depth (h) by area (Aw):
= (Aw)(h)
(4-2)
4.3.1.3 Wetland Porosity or Void Fraction
In a FWS wetland, the vegetation, settled solids, litter
and peat occupy a portion of the water column, thereby
reducing the space available for water. The porosity of a
wetland (e), or void fraction, is the fraction of the total vol-
ume available through which water can flow. Wetland po-
rosity has proven difficult to accurately measure in the field.
As a result, wetland porosity values listed in the literature
are highly variable. For example, Reed, et al (1995) and
Crites and Tchobanoglous (1996) suggest wetland poros-
ity values ranging from 0.65 to 0.75 for fully vegetated
wetlands, for dense to less-mature wetlands, respectively.
Kadlec and Knight (1996) report that average wetland po-
rosity values are usually greater than 0.95, and e = 1.0
can be used as a good approximation. Gearheart (1997)
found porosity values in the range of 0.75 in dense mature
portions of the Arcata wetland. For hydrological design, an
average porosity value should be used which is based on
the areal percent of open water zones (non-emergent veg-
etation) to vegetated zones. For example, a wetland with
50% open water (e = 1.0) and 50% emergent vegetation
(e = 0.75), would have an average e = 0.875.
The overall effects of decreasing porosity are to reduce
the wetland volume available for water, which reduces the
retention time of water within the wetland, and to increase
flocculation of colloidal material which improves removal
by sedimentation. It is recommended that a porosity value
of 0.65 to 0.75 for fully vegetated zones be used in FWS
constructed wetland design calculations, with lower val-
ues for the most densely vegetated areas. A value of e =
1.0 should be used for wetland open water zones. The
use of conservative average porosity values provides a
factor of safety, and results in a more conservative design.
4.3.1.4 Average Wastewater Flow
The average wastewater flow accounts for the effects of
water gains and losses (precipitation, evapotranspiration
and infiltration) that occur in a FWS constructed wetland.
Defining Qo as the FWS influent flow rate and Qe as the
FWS efflue°nt flow rate, the average wastewater ffow rate
is expressed as:
o = Qo + Qe
^•ave 2 (4_3)
If actual wastewater inflow and outflow are known, these
values can be used in Equation 4-3. If only one of these
flows has been measured, a water balance can be con-
ducted to determine the other. If neither are known, a wa-
ter balance can be useful to show the relationship between
the two under the extreme circumstances of operation.
4.3.1.5 Hydraulic Retention Time
The nominal hydraulic retention time (HRT) is defined
as the ratio of the useable wetland water volume to the
average flow rate (Qave). The theoretical hydraulic reten-
tion time as t can be calculated as:
= (VJ(e)/Qa
(4-4)
The flow rate used in the hydraulic retention time calcu-
lation can be the average wetland flow (Qave) or the maxi-
mum or minimum flows, depending on theavpurpose of the
calculation.
4.3.1.6 Hydraulic Loading Rate
The hydraulic loading rate (q) is the volumetric flow rate
divided by the wetland surface area and represents the
depth of water distributed to the wetland surface over a
specified time interval. The hydraulic loading rate can be
written as:
(4-5)
77
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where q has units of L/T. Generally the hydraulic load-
ing rate is determined using the wastewater inflow (Qo).
4.3.2 Water Conveyance
Water conveyance in FWS wetlands is hydraulically com-
plex, varying in both space and time due to wetland veg-
etation and litter, changing inflow conditions, and the sto-
chastic nature of hydrologic events.
When designing a constructed wetland, it is necessary
to understand how water moves through the wetland, and
how this water movement influences various design con-
siderations.
4.3.2.1 Ideal versus Actual Flow in a FWS
Constructed Wetland
Though plug flow is generally assumed forthe purposes
of FWS constructed wetland design, actual wetland flow
hydraulics do not follow an ideal plug flow model. The de-
viation from plug flow of an existing FWS constructed wet-
land can be determined through the use of tracer tests.
One result of a tracer test is the determination of the aver-
age tracer retention time, which is defined as the centroid
of the response curve, as shown in Figure 4-11. The aver-
age tracer retention time is equal to the active water vol-
ume (Vw) (e) divided by the average volumetric flow rate
(Qave), and thus represents a direct measure of actual re-
tention time. Results from some tracer studies have shown
that the hydraulic characteristics of a FWS constructed
wetland can be approximated by a series of 4 to 6 equally
sized complete mix reactors (Kadlec and Knight, 1996; and
Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998). In other studies, the
complete mix reactor model has resulted in a poor fit to
the data, and other models have been more successful.
Figure 4-11 shows the observed tracer concentration from
one wetland cell of the Sacramento Regional Wastewater
Treatment Plant Demonstration Wetlands Project com-
pared to the predicted tracer concentrations using the fi-
nite state model first suggested by Hovorka (1961). The
finite stage model integrates components of completely
mixed, plug flow, and off line storage addition/feedback
into one hydraulic model. Coefficients are unique for each
geometry, planting pattern, etc. For any given site with
appropriate data the finite stage model gives the best fit of
the tracer data. This method was first applied to FWS sys-
tems at the Arcata pilot studies (Gearheart, et al, 1983)
and has subsequently been applied to the Sacramento
system (Dombeck, 1998). The value of multiple cells and
periodic open-water zones have been recognized for mini-
mizing short-circuiting by numerous authors.
4.3.2.2 Hydraulic Gradient in a FWS
Constructed Wetland
For FWS constructed wetlands, some assessment of the
energy loss or head loss from inlet to outlet is necessary
to ensure that the wetland is designed to handle all poten-
tial flows without creating significant backwater problems,
such as flooding the inlet structures or overtopping berms.
It has historically been assumed that Manning's equation,
which defines flow in open channels, can be adapted to
0.90
•••ED— Finite Stage Model
6 8 10
Time (days)
12
14
16
Figure 4-11. Tracer response curve for Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant Demonstration Wetlands Project Cell 7 (SERSD, 1998).
78
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estimate head loss in FWS wetlands. By assuming that
the submerged wetland vegetation, peat and litter provides
more frictional resistance to flow than the wetland bottom
and sides, Manning's equation has been adapted as fol-
lows:
S1/2 =•
(4-6)
where:
v = average flow velocity (L/T),
n = Manning's resistance coefficient (T/L1/3),
h = average wetland depth (L), and
S = hydraulic gradient or slope of water surface (L/L).
In the above equation, the average wetland depth and
water surface slope is fairly easily estimated, and the av-
erage velocity (v) is defined as the average flow (Q v) di-
vided by the available average cross sectional area (Av)(e),
or (Width)(depth)(e). The determination of Manning's re-
sistance coefficient (n) is not as straightforward. In wet-
lands, the vegetation and litter providing resistance to wa-
ter flow is distributed throughout the water column, with
settled particles and detritus on the bottom and a thicker
thatch level at the top. Thus, n should be a function of the
water depth as well as the resistance of specific surfaces.
Measurements of n in operating wetlands range from ap-
proximately 0.3 to 1.1 s/m1'3 with the higher numbers cor-
responding to water depths less than 0.2 m (Kadlec and
Knight, 1996). Reed, et al, (1995) use an equation to esti-
mate n at 0.2m depth to vary from 1 to 14 s/m1'3. Linsley,
et.al., (1982) offer a series of values for n fromO.024 to
0.112. A default value of 0.1to 0.5 is suggested for those
wishing to pursue this issue. Atypical solution provided in
Crites and Tchobanoglous (1996) is a slope of 1 in 10,000,
or 1cm in 100 meters. Since multiple cells are recom-
mended as good design practice to minimize short-circuit-
ing and to maximize treatment performance, the above
analysis is superfluous for most applications where aspect
ratios (length/width) are within suggested limits of 3:1 to
5:1, or even larger.
4.4 Wetland System Design and Sizing
Rationale
4.4.11ntroduction
As FWS constructed wetlands became recognized as a
viable wastewater treatment process, FWS design mod-
els soon followed. These models were intended to aid en-
gineers/designers in the process of FWS wetland design
and performance assessment. To date, a number of wet-
land design methods have been proposed for predicting
constituent removals in FWS wetlands. These may be
found with explanation in Reed, et al, (1995), Kadlec and
Knight, (1996) and Crites and Tchobanoglous, (1998). The
design models and methods have been used to attempt to
predict the fate of BOD, TSS, TN, NH4 , NO3, TP and fecal
conforms in a FWS system.
Free water surface constructed wetlands have usually
been modeled as attached growth biological reactors, in
which the plants and detrital material uniformly occupy the
entire volume of the wetland.
The current trend in wetland design modeling is the de-
velopment of simple mass balance or input/output mod-
els. These simplified models do not explicitly account for
the many complex reactions that occur in a wetland, either
in the water column or at interfaces such as the water/
sediment interface. Instead, all reactions are lumped into
one overall biological reaction rate parameter that can be
estimated from collected FWS wetland performance data.
At this stage of wetland understanding, more complex and
theoretical wetland models which explicitly describe the
kinetics of known wetland processes may not be possible
due to severe limitations in almost all of the existing wet-
lands data.
4.4.2 Existing Models
In essence the types of models that have been used in
FWS constructed wetland design are known as plug-flow-
reactor (PFR) models.. One assumes horizontally based (lin-
ear) kinetics (Reed, et al,1995; Crites and Tchobanoglous,
1998), while the other assumes vertical (areal) kinetics
(Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Several varieties of these mod-
els exist. Some assume average kinetic rate constants, while
others assume retarded kinetic rate constants. All provide a
list of effluent background concentrations below which an
FWS cannot dependably attain and specific default values
fortemperature adjustments to correct kinetic rate constants.
Some suggest monthly multipliers for average computed
design performance. Some include safety factors within the
equation while others apply them to the model result. All as-
sume first-order biological kinetics, despite the fact that the
initial fully vegetated treatment zone is anaerobic, and none
of these models can account for a sequencing, i.e., fully veg-
etated and open-water zones in sequence, design which is
recommended herein for better performance. Recently, one
of the primary model creators has also noted the inadequacy
of these models (Kadlec, 2000). Readers are referred to
Kadlec and Knight (1996), Reed, et al, (1995), and Crites
and Tchobanoglous (1998) for details. For the purpose of
this manual, i.e., providing secondary (BOD=SS =30mg/l)
and advanced secondary treatment of municipal wastewa-
ters, none of these equations alone are able to accurately
predict the performance of a multi-zone FWS constructed
wetland. Even if they could be calibrated "to fit" a specific set
of data their non-deterministic basis belies their ability to fit
other circumstances of operation.
4.4.3 Areal L oading Rates
The areal loading rate method specifies a maximum load-
ing rate per unit area for a given constituent. These meth-
ods are common in the design of oxidation ponds and land
treatment systems. Areal loading rates can be used to give
both planning level and final design sizing estimates for
FWS systems from projected pollutant mass loads. For
example, knowing the areal BOD loading rate, the expected
BOD effluent concentration can be estimated or compared
to the long term average performance data of other well-
documented, full-scale operating systems.
79
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In section 4.1 each pollutant was discussed based on
areal loading vs. effluent concentration based on the
DMDB, the TADB, specific studies and mechanistic evalu-
ations of other sources of information. Areal loading does
not always correlate to a reasonable design basis, espe-
cially with regard to nutrients and pathogen removal, and
other mechanistic explanations are necessary. However,
if typical municipal wastewaters are to be treated which
have total and filtered pollutant fractionation which are rea-
sonably consistent from site to site, a rational design ap-
proach can be deduced for those parameters which can
be removed during the enhanced flocculation/sedimenta-
tion which occurs in the initial fully vegetated zone of a
FWS constructed wetland. Therefore, based on Figures
4-1 and 4-4 the following areal loadings can be employed
for this initial zone (zone 1) of the FWS :
Parameter Zone 1 Areal Loading Effluent Concentration
BOD
TSS
40 kg/ha-d
30 kg/ha-d
30 mg/L
30 mg/L
The relative areal loadings imply that unless the pre-
treatment process were to have a BOD concentration of
greater than 1.3 times the TSS concentration, the latter
would be the critical loading rate for the fully vegetated
zone if secondary standards are to be met by a fully veg-
etated FWS system.
If the FWS system were to have significant open areas
between fully vegetated zones, a better effluent quality
could be attained at areal loadings, based on the entire
FWS system area (A ):
Parameter
BOD
TSS
Areal Loading
45 kg/ha-d
60 kg/ha-d
30 kg/ha-d
50 kg/ha-d
Effluent Concentration
<20 mg/L
30 mg/L
< 20 mg/L
30 mg/L
These loadings are based on the entire system area,
not just zone 1. Therefore, with open-water zones which
provide aerobic transformations and removal opportuni-
ties, a better effluent quality is achievable than with a fully
vegetated FWS system. Although there are insufficient data
at this time to eliminate the need to provide effluent disin-
fection, more disinfection interferences are removed which
would facilitate that step. Conversely, the open water zones
would attract wildlife to a greater degree, and the impacts
created by their activities. Similarly, the need to and the
power required to reaerate the final effluent will at the least
be reduced. The advantages of this design concept have
been described by Gearheart and Finney (1996) to include
reduced "background" BOD concentrations in the effluent
owing to the aerobic biological removals in the open-water
zones. As with the fully vegetated systems, the TSS areal
loading is more critical. With more quality data these limit-
ing loadings could be shown to be conservative, especially
the BOD loading for attaining secondary effluent standards
with open-water FWS systems.
4.5 Design
4.5.1 Design Sizing and Performance
Mechanisms
If a pretreatent system already exists, the type of influ-
ent characterization necessary has already been dis-
cussed, but at a minimum all pollutants which are of con-
cern to the NPDES permitting authority should be mea-
sured as both total and filtered through a standardized glass
fiber filter prior to analysis. Ideally, a particle-size distribu-
tion analysis of the type described in Crites and
Tchobanoglous (1998) could be performed for all critical
pollutants to aid the designer in predicting what level of
removals of each pollutant are likely to be attained by an
FWS or other treatment processes. If the pretreatment
system does not exist, the designer will need to perform a
variety of investigations as described in several engineer-
ing texts (e.g., Crites and Tchobanoglous,1998; WEF,
1998).
A primary supposition of this manual is that a FWS con-
structed wetland is most likely to treat effluent from a sta-
bilization or oxidation pond or from primary-treated (settled)
municipal wastewater. After the designer determines overall
size of the FWS system from these BOD and TSS areal
loading rates, he or she can return to evaluate the fate of
other constituents.
If the total and filtered analyses are available, it is a rea-
sonable approximation to assume that the filtered analy-
sis represents a rough approximation of effluent quality
attainable from treatment zone 1 (fully vegetated zone)
given that the filter pores are generally a bit largerthan the
specific particle sizes indicated for the "colloidal/soluble"
fraction in Table 4-3. Internal loads in the soluble form
should also be added to this fraction in estimation of zone
1 effluent(see Figure 4-2 and 4-3). For more stringent ef-
fluent requirements than those cited above for BOD and
TSS, the designer should look at alternative polishing pro-
cesses such as land treatment or slow sand filtration.
While a few physical and chemical processes occur uni-
formly over the entire wetland volume, many of the most
important treatment processes occur in a sequential man-
ner and the wetland must be designed to accommodate
this characteristic. For example, TSS removal and removal
of associated BOD, Org N and P, metals, etc., occur in the
initial portion of the cell, while the subsequent zones can
impact certain soluble constituents. Given sufficient dis-
solved oxygen in open (unvegetated) areas, soluble BOD
removal and nitrification of ammonia can occur. If insuffi-
cient oxygen is present, soluble BOD is very slowly re-
moved by anaerobic processes. Wetland design must also
consider the background level, or expected lower limit, of
water quality constituents in the FWS wetland effluent (see
Table 4-4). Particulate and soluble constituents are inter-
nally produced as a part of the normal decomposition and
treatment processes occurring in a constructed wetland.
Wildlife contribute fecal coliform and additional organic
compounds. During periods of intense activity, wildlife also
80
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stir up settled solids contributing to an increase in turbid-
ity, TSS, and BOD. Table 4-4 shows the typical background
levels for the constituents of interest recommended for
users of this document. Designs requiring effluent quality
close to the values in Table 4-4 must be aware of the natu-
ral fluctuations about the mean values, as shown in Figure
4-12. For more details on the numerical values in the table,
the reader is urged to refer to Reed, et al, (1995), Kadlec
and Knight, 1996, and Gearheart, 1992.
A similar approach to the one suggested here for de-
signing FWS wetlands, referred to as the "sequential
model", has been developed by Gearheart and Finney
(1999). The overall approach of the model is to consider
the dominant physical and biological processes respon-
sible for determining effluent quality from each distinctive
area or zone of the constructed wetland and allow the de-
signerto specify areal requirements and wetland depth for
each of these specific functions. This methodology recog-
nizes that while some of the constituent transformations
and removal mechanisms are to some degree occurring
simultaneously throughout the wetland, the majority of the
removal occurs in a sequential fashion, with one process
or mechanism providing the products for the next process
or mechanism. The total area required fortreatment is then
a sum of each of the zones required to reach a specific
effluent objective. This approach allows the designer to
sequentially determine the range of effluent characteris-
tics which are attainable in a given definable zone before
entering a subsequent reactor (zone) which has known
treatment capabilities.
Table 4-4. Background Concentrations of Water Quality Constituents
of Concern in FWS Constructed Wetlands
Parameter
TSS
BOD1
BOD2
TN
NH4-N
TP
Range
(mg/L)
2-5
2-8
5- 12
1 -3
0.2-1.5
0.1 -0.5
Typical
(mg/L)
3
5
10
2
1
0.3
Factors governing
Plant types, plant coverage, climate,
wildlife activity
Plant types, plant coverage, plant
density, climate, wildlife activity
Plant types, plant coverage, plant
density, climate
Plant types, plant coverage, climate,
oxic/anoxic conditions
Plant types, plant coverage, climate,
oxic/anoxic conditions
Plant types, plant coverage, climate,
soil type
FC3 50-5000 200 Plant types, plant coverage, climate,
wildlife activity
1FWS with open water and submergent and floating aquatic macro-
phytes.
2Fully vegetated with emergent macrophytes and with a minimum of
open water.
2Measured in cfu/100 ml
The sequential model approach recognizes that all the
treatment objectives beyond secondary require a minimum
of three general wetland "compartments" (see Figure 4-
13): (1) an initial compartment where the bulk of the floc-
culation and sedimentation will occur, (2) an aerobic com-
partment where soluble BOD reduction and nitrification can
occur, and (3) a vegetated polishing compartment where
further reductions in TSS and associated constituents and
nitrogen (via denitrification) can occur. Permanent phos-
phorus removal in wetlands is generally small and is largely
the result of phosphorus adsorption to solids and plant
detritus. Sedimentation and pathogen reduction are related
to detention time in zone 1, to retention time and tempera-
ture in zone 2, and to retention time in zone 3. As noted
earlier, the notion of "compartments" is artificial as the treat-
ment processes overlap in time and space, and no spe-
cific physical compartment is necessarily implied. However,
separation of an FWS into a series of single-function zones
(cells) with individual outlet controls is not an unattractive
concept.
A rational overview of the FWS system is depicted in
Figure 4-14. It illustrates that the primary mechanisms in
zone 1, which is fully vegetated and anaerobic throughout
its depth during the growing season, are sedimentation
and flocculation, as determined by transect measurements
of dissolved oxygen and pollutant concentrations. Any ex-
tension of the HRT in zone 1 beyond approximately 2 days
at Qmax would be essentially wasteful since the anaero-
bic conditions will not result in any significant further re-
moval of soluble constituents and flocculation sedimenta-
tion has been effectively completed. The TSS and associ-
ated constituents (particulate BOD, organic nitrogen and
phosphorous, metals and certain semivolatile organic com-
pounds) have also reached this same status. Volatile or-
ganics are likely to be removed from the wastewater dur-
ing the collection or oxidation pond treatment processes
(Hannah, et al, 1986), while most semivolatiles are removed
with the solids in the oxidation pond or in zone 1 of the
FWS system.
For many years it has been recognized that effluent floc-
culation is primarily a function of energy input from either
external sources or internal hydrodynamic forces, and that
reduced Reynolds' Numbers (Re) induce optimal sedimen-
tation of particles. Over the past several decades this phe-
nomena has been applied in the development of hydrody-
namic devices which accomplish excellent flocculation and/
or sedimentation without moving parts, such as pipe mix-
ers and flocculators, tube and plate settlers, and pebble
bed and wedgewire outlet devices for clairifers. Flow
through the emerging vegetation is extremely tortuous and
is accompanied by a very small hydraulic radius. The
Reynolds Number (Re) is a direct function of the hydraulic
radius (diameter, if the path were round (as in a pipe). If
the Re falls in a range which corresponds to laminar flow,
sedimentation is maximized. Re is several thousand in large
basins, and even larger in non-vegetated ponds. No direct
measurements of Re or laminar flow have been made at
the time of this writing, but analogous results from studies
81
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150
-Mean
•Median
•Minimum
—O— Maximum
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Distance from Influent (m)
Figure 4-12. Mean, median, minimum and maximum transect BOD, data for Arcata Pilot Cell 8
Pretreated
(Lagoon)
Floating and
Inlet Settling Zone Emergent Plants
Submerged
Growth Plants
/
Floating and Emergent
Plants
Outlet
Zone
"V
< Length (L) >
/s / /,1.2m
ZoneS
Fully Vegetated
D.O. (-)
H < 0.75 m
Figure 4-13. Elements of a free water surface (FWS) constructed wetland
82
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5
o
-------
where:
C = BOD, mg/L
Kb = specific BODs removal rate constant
(T-1)
Kb = 0.15(1.04)T-20
(4-10)
Therefore, in analyzing Figure 4-14 the downward stope
in FC and BOD in zone 2 can be approximated through
the above equations, without considering offsets from wild-
life. As noted previously, the nitrifying bacteria can prolif-
erate and convert ammonia-nitrogen to nitrate(NO3-N) and
will be the primary nitrogen transformation role of zone 2.
However, the carbonaceous BOD must be low enough to
allow these reactions to occur. In rotating biological
contactors this concentration of BOD is about 15 mg/l
(USEPA, 1993). As noted by Gearheart (1992) increasing
the size of the open-water zone generally increases dis-
solved oxygen, pH, and NO3-N, while decreasing soluble
BOD and ammonium.
U.K.'s Department of Environment has studied lagoon
systems treating similar quality influent to that of zone 2.
They have noted that algal growth generally starts to oc-
cur between days 2 and 3 (UK, 1973). Algal growth can
raise pH, interfere with FC kill and the growth of submerged
plants, increase NH3-N volatilization, and induce phospho-
rus precipitation. Also, the additional biomass and precipi-
tates that must be removed in zone 3 will add to the inter-
nal loading on the FWS system. The primary goal of the
open-water zone is to provide dissolved oxygen to remove
BOD and convert NH4-N to NO3-N. Therefore, the optimium
sizing of this zone would be an HRT of 2 to 3 days. Assum-
ing a Qmax/Qave of 2, the designer might choose an HRT of
2 days at Qmax or an HRT of 3 days at Qave. Climate would
likely be the final criterion, with the larger size favored in
northern areas and the smaller in southern ones.
The third zone is fully vegetated like zone 1 and has a
similarfunction. Zone 3, like zone 1 is also capable of deni-
trification if the influent flow contains NO3-N. Where oxida-
tion pond pretreatment of municipal wastewaters is em-
ployed, zone 1 of the FWS system is not generally required
to denitrify, but zone 3 will if zone 2 induces nitrification.
The primary energy source for successful denitrification is
the release of organic substrates from the detritus from
decaying plants. However, partially digested, previously
removed organics may also be available. Denitrifying bac-
teria perform only under anaerobic conditions and best
when attached to large surface areas, e.g., plants. Denitri-
fication, like nitrification, is temperature-sensitive. Nitrifi-
cation and denitrification are greatly impaired when water
temperatures are reduced below 10°C. Gearheart (1992)
showed total inorganic nitrogen in the Arcata Marsh to be
reduced from 25 to 5 mg/L. In 1995 he demonstrated pilot-
scale removal of NO3-N from 130 mg/L to 6 mg/L using no
supplemental carbon sources in 80 hours at 15°C. The
primary limitation in a three-zone FWS system designed
to remove nitrogen is the rate of nitrification in the open-
water zone. If the open-water zone succeeds in nitrifying
the NH4-N, the system should be able to denitrify it. Reed,
et al, (1995) indicate that denitrification should require less
than one day hydraulic retention time (HRT) for denitrifica-
tion from municipal wastewater concentrations to an efflu-
ent requirement of < 10 mg/L. Kadlec and Knight (1996)
found that 1 to 2 days should suffice to reach 90% NO3-N
removal. Therefore the previously- stated requirement for
zoneS (HRT of 2 days) should meet this retention require-
ment and ensure significant denitrification. WEF Manual
of Practice FD-16 (1990) indicates that the denitrification
rate can be as high as 10 kg/ha-d. Loadings must be within
the limits of available labile carbon to proceed at the maxi-
mum rate.
As with zone 1 there is additional, temporary nutrient (N
and P) removal by plant uptake in zone 3, which may be
significant at certain times during the year, while release
of most of these nutrients occurs at other times. These
plant effects can mask the effects of other processes which
could be impacting the system performance at the same
times. Unfortunately, there are insufficient data to fully quan-
tify the nutrient cycle for each zone of the FWS system.
4.5.2 Total Suspended Solids Removal
Design Considerations
Since prior discussion indicates that TSS removal (rather
than BOD removal) drives the sizing process, there is a
need to provide further discussion of the mechanisms in-
volved and their implications on design. Treatment mecha-
nisms which dominate in the vegetated inlet zone of a FWS
constructed wetland volume are flocculation, sedimenta-
tion and anaerobic decomposition. Discrete and flocculent
settling occurs as the wastewater flows through the initial
fully vegetated zone. Since the FWS was likely preceded
by an oxidation pond where most discrete settling has oc-
curred already, the enhanced settling in zonel is mostly
due to flocculation of large supracolloidal solids in pas-
sage through the emergent vegetation. The processes are
generally not temperature dependent and occur at rela-
tively high hydraulic loading rates. TSS removal rates of
40 to 60% are common with a q of 0.06 m/day to 0.27 m/
day, but relative removals are more accurately determined
by influent characteristics and the hydrodynamics of the
initial vegetated zone.
The majority of incoming solids are removed in this ini-
tial settling volume. Hyacinth and duckweed systems are
similar to (but not as good as) zone 1 of an FWS in the
hydrodynamics which promote excellent flocculation and
sedimentation. The mechanisms of the fully vegetated zone
1 can be estimated from the use of particle size distribu-
tion analysis. Generally, wastewaters have been analyzed
in form size ranges:
Settleable (>100 urn)
Supracolloidal (1 to 100 urn)
Colloidal (0.001 to 1 urn)
Dissolved (< 0.001 urn)
84
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Only one study has employed this approach (Gearheart
and Finney, 1996) with oxidation ponds followed by FWS
constructed wetland treatment. The results shown in Table
4-3, clearly demonstrate the essentially complete removal
of the settleable fraction (100% for BOD and 95% forTSS)
and progressively reduced removal of the supracolloidal
(91% of BOD and 92% of TSS) and colloidal (66% of BOD)
fractions. This progression runs counter to the frequently
noted biological reaction rate vs particle size relationship
(Levine, et. al., 1991). Therefore, the primary mechanism
for removal of TSS and associated pollutants (BOD, or-
ganic nutrients, metals and toxic organics) is not biologi-
cal in nature. This would appear to be reinforced by the
lack of dissolved oxygen, high oxygen demand, and the
slow nature of anaerobic biological reactions which are
the predominant biological mechanisms.
The solids that are removed undergo incomplete anaero-
bic decomposition (acidification) resulting in a release of
nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon in the form of volatile
fatty acids. The amount of accumulated internal load de-
pends on the length of time the water temperature stays
below 5-10°C since this material does not undergo signifi-
cant decomposition until the water temperature increases
above this threshold value. The longer the uninterrupted
period of less than 5-10°C, the greater the initial load and
its effect on dissolved BOD at temperatures above this
threshold. In most temperate North American climates, the
release of this accumulated organic material expresses
itself mostly in the late spring and in the early summer,
similar to oxidation pond "spring turnover". Some of these
impacts are noted by the comments within Figure 4-14,
which show how some of these phenomena might impact
removal patterns.
Non-degradeable material is removed, accumulates and
is compressed forming an organic layer of biologically re-
calcitrant material in the sediments of zone 1. The layer is
thicker near the influent end of the wetland and gets shal-
lower in the direction of flow. This delta of accumulated
solid material can eventually reduce the HRT and the avail-
able solids storage volume of the wetland. These losses
are also acerbated by accumulated plant detritus. These
accumulated solids ("sludge" or"biosolids") will occasion-
ally need to be removed and managed, e.g., directly land
applied and plowed under as a soil amendment orthrough
some other method as directed by the regulatory authori-
ties.
The reduction in wetland volume due to settled solids,
living plants and plant detritus can be significant over the
long term. The rate of accumulation of settled suspended
solids is a function ofthewatertemperature, mass of influ-
ent TSS , the effectiveness of TSS removal, the decay
rate of the volatile fraction of the TSS, and the settled TSS
mass which is non-volatile. The plant detritus buildup is a
function of the standing crop and the decay rate of the
plant detritus. Accumulation for emergent vegetated areas
of the Arcata enhancement wetlands was measured to be
approximately 12 mm/year of detritus on the bottom due
to plant breakdown and 12 to 25 mm/year of litter forming
a thatch on the surface (Kadlecik, 1996). The volume of
the living plants, specifically the volume of the emergent
plants, ranged from 0.005 m3/m2 (low stem density, water
depth of 0.3 m) to 0.078 m3/m2 (high stem density, water
depth of 0.75 m). This accumulation is more or less con-
stant from year to year as the wetland matures. The total
volume reduction under the initial vegetated zone can be
estimated using a mass balance equation:
V=[(Vss)(t) + (Vd)(t)]Aw
where:
(4-11)
V = volume reduction over period of analysis (m3),
Vss = volume reduction due to non-volatile TSS and
non-degradable volatile TSS accumulation
(m3/ha-yr),
Vd = volume reduction due to non-volatile detrital
accumulation as Afunction of annual production
(nf/ha-yr),
Aw = fully vegetated wetland area (ha),
t = period of analysis usually (years).
The loss of volume per hectare over a ten year period
for a 1 hectare fully vegetated FWS wetland zone with a
depth of 0.75 m can be estimated by use of this equation.
Based on information in Middlebrooks, et al, (1982) and
Carre, etal, (1990) a reasonable default value for Vss when
treating raw wastewater in lagoons) would be 200 to 400
m3/ha-yr (2 to 4 cm/yr). Therefore, a conservative default
value of 150 m3/ha-yr can be used. One hundred percent
coverage of emergent vegetation was measured to con-
tribute 120 m3/ha- yr of bottom detritus, and 120 m3/ha-yr
of surface litter with a standing crop volume of 412 m3/ha.
Substituting into the equation for a 10-year analysis yields:
Vr=[150)(10) + (240)(10)] 1.0 = 3,900m3
Table 4-5 provides additional examples of wetland vol-
ume loss due to TSS and plants detritus. Based on the
actual Arcata experience, it is clear that use of equation 4-
11 is a conservative means of estimating volume reduc-
tion from TSS deposition and detrital accumulation.
Using the initial fully vegetated zone volume (V.,) and
adding the standing crop (V c), the total loss of volume can
be estimated by addition to b°e4,312 m3. Since the original
volume is area (10,000 m2) times depth(0.75 m) or 7,500
m3, the total loss of volume would be 4,312/10,000 or 43%.
This corresponds to a new porosity (e) of 0.57. As noted
earlier dense, mature stands of emergent plants are as-
sumed to have a porosity of about 0.65.
Table 4-5. Examples of Change in Wetland Volume Due to Deposition
of Non-Degradable TSS (Vss) and Plant Detritus (Vd) Based
on 100% Emergent Plant Coverage (Gearheart, et al, 1998)
Influent TSS.
(mg/L)
Vss (rrWyr)ha)
50% removal 75% removal
V(m3/ha/yr)
40
60
168
75
80
225
113
112
240
240
150
240
85
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The accumulation computed above indicate that the call
is nearly ready for residual solids removal, as its excess
storage capacity is essentially used up. However, the Arcata
facility for which the accumulation measurements were
made is still performing well after 12 years (USEPA, 1999).
The loss of volume and porosity computed by the previ-
ous method is obviously conservative, but illustrates how
one could conservatively estimate the loss of porosity in
the initial settling zone.
When designing the primary wetland cell treating oxida-
tion pond effluent the designershould considerthis cumu-
lative problem by increasing the depth of the inlet zone
(up to 1 .Om) to lengthen the period before solids removal
would be required. The designer should also provide for
easily accessible solids removal in this zone. There may
be a need to harvest vegetation and related detritus to
maintain fully vegetated and open-water areas in proper
proportion. Such controlled harvesting may be extended
into the fully vegetated zones to reduce the apparent loss
of effective treatment volume and delay the need to re-
move accumulated solids.
The fully vegetated, anaerobic zone 1 of the FWS wet-
land should be designed based upon the average maxi-
mum monthly flow rate (Qmax) to assure the potential for
effective removal of solids during periods of high flow. To
facilitate solids removal and handling, this initial compart-
ment should be designed as at least two equally sized
wetlands with a 0.6 to 0.9 m operating depth, which can
be operated in parallel. This would allow taking one cell
out of operation for maintenance work such as for solids
removal, vegetation removal, or replanting.
4.5.3 Design Examples
Design Example 1 - BOD and TSS to meet secondary
effluent requirements
Design a FWS wetland to treat lagoon effluent to meet a
monthly average 30 mg/l BOD and TSS discharge objec-
tive. The community has a design population of 50,000
people with an average annual design flow of 18,920 m3/
day (5 MGD) (Qave). Use design loading factors from sec-
tions 4.4 and 4.5 to meet a 30 mg/l BOD and TSS effluent
standard. Since a single fully vegetated FWS system can
be employed with maximum areal loading rates for these
systems are 40 kg BOD/ha-d and 30 kg TSS/ha-d. Facul-
tative lagoon effluent typically averages from 30 to 40 mg
BOD/L and 40 to 100 mg TSS/L, with the latter being much
more variable due to seasonal algal growth and spring and
fall overturn periods (WEF, 1998; Middlebrooks, et al,
1982). For this example the average FWS influent BOD is
50 mg/l at Qave (18,920 m3/d), while the average TSS is 70
mg/L at this flow. At the maximum monthly flow (Qmax) of 2
x Qave the BOD is 40 mg/L and TSS is 30 mg/L.
Step 1 - Apply areal loading rates(ALR) to average (Qave)
and maximum monthly flow (Qmax) conditions to iden-
tify the critical conditions for sizing of the facility.
ALR = Q Co/Aw
(4-12)
where:
ALR = areal loading rates: BOD = 40 kg /ha-d ;TSS
= 30 kg /ha-d
QO = incoming flow rate, in m3/d
CO = influent concentration, in mg/L
A = total area of FWS, in ha
w '
which for BOD yields:
forQ ,A = (18,920 m3/d)(1000 L/m3)(50 mg/L)/(40
kg/ha-d)(106 mg/kg) = 24 ha
for Qmax, Aw = (37,840) (40)/ (40) (106) = 38 ha
Similarly, for TSS:
forQave,Aw = (18,920)(70)/(30)(106) = 44ha
forQmax,Aw = (37,840)(30)/(30)(106) = 38ha
Therefore, the limiting condition is the TSS loading at
average flow conditions, where 44 hectares are required
to meet secondary effluent standards with a fully vegetated,
single-zone FWS system. However, it has been previously
shown that open water zones permit higher areal loading
rates (from section 4.4), so the sizing can be recomputed
on that basis following the same procedure. From that
analysis, with BOD and TSS loading rates of 60 and 50
kg/ha-d, respectively, the critical condition is still the aver-
age flow condition and the TSS areal loading, but with a
requirement of 26 ha instead of 44 ha.
Step 2 - Determine the theoretical HRT(days) using equa-
tion 4-4, assuming h = 0.6 m and e = 0.75 in veg-
etated zones (1 and 3) and h = 1.2 m and e = 1.0 in
the open zone (2). The combined estimate is an aver-
age depth of 0.8 mand an average e = 0.8. Therefore,
the first estimate is for overall HRT, followed by indi-
vidual cell estimates.
forQ
t = -
Vwe Aw h £
(26 ha)(10,000 m2 / ha)(0.8 m)(0.80)
18,920m3d
forQ
= 8.9 days
t = 4.5 days
This last calculation implies that at the maximum monthly
flow the overall HRT may not be adequate for the neces-
sary treatment mechanisms to perform. If these relatively
equal-sized zones are employed as a first approximation,
there would be less than one day of theoretical HRT in
each at this maximum flow condition. For zone 1 the mini-
mum HRT at Q should be about 2 days, making 4 days
For zone 2 there is an upper limit which depends on
climate and temperature. In this example, the concept is
86
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that the open-water area will have an HRT exceeding that
which is required for an algal bloom, creating a significant
additional loading on zone 3. The time required for this
condition varies with temperature, e.g., shorter in hotter
climates. For most U.S. conditions a maximum HRT of
about 2 to 3 days should avoid most blooms. On the other
hand, the longer the HRT in zone 2, the better the reduc-
tion in soluble organics, ammonia-nitrogen and fecal
conforms. Therefore, the designer should consider isola-
tion of this zone from the fully-vegetated zones that pre-
cede and follow it and provide some flexibility in HRT con-
trol independent of the other zones to optimize this zone's
treatment performance. For this exercise a minimum HRT
of 2 days is chosen, making the average HRT 4 days at
average flow.
Zone 3 should be provided the same design consider-
ations as zone 1, since it functions in the same manner.
Depending on the performance of zone 2, it may also pro-
vide denitrification in addition to flocculation and sedimen-
tation. Therefore, it should have approximately the same
HRT as zone 1.
The minimum HRT at Qmax is therefore 2 + 2 + 2 = 6
days, and the average 12 days with the assumptions cho-
sen in this example. This would then require (using equa-
tion 4-4)an overall wetland area of:
Aw = (t)(Q)/(h)(e)
= (12 d)(18,920 m3/d) / (0.8 m)(0.80)(10,000 m2/ha)
= 35 ha
Applying the normal additional area for buffers and set-
backs of 1.25 to 1.4, the total area required for the FWS
facility is 45 ha (135 acres).
Step 3. - Configuration
Given the high TSS of the influent stream and the po-
tential for short circuiting, the system should be designed
with two parallel treatment trains of a minimum of three
cells in each. The first cells in each train should normally
each get 50% of the flow and may have a deeper (1.0 m)
inlet area directly adjacent to the inlet structure to handle
any discrete solids settling which might occur at this loca-
tion. This design option would add approximately one day
to the overall HRT, and would only be chosen in situations
where pretreatment is likely to allow escape of readily settle-
able particulates. Multiple cells allow for redistribution of
the primary cell effluent in the subsequent cell which re-
duces short-circuiting. Flexible intercell piping will facili-
tate maintenance without a major reduction in the neces-
sary HRT to produce satisfactory effluent quality. Aspect
ratios of the cells should be greater than 3:1 and adapted
to the site contours and restrictions. Additional treatment
will likely be required after the FWS system to meet fecal
coliform and dissolved oxygen permit requirements.
Design Example 2 - BOD and TSS < 20mg/L Effluent
Requirements
To meet this effluent quality an open-water zone will be
required in the FWS. From Section 4.4.3 the critical load-
ings to meet these effluent concentrations are 45 kg BOD
/ha-d and 30 kg TSS /ha-d. Using the same influent condi-
tions in the first example, the steps of preliminary sizing
are the same.
Step 1 -Apply areal loading to determine the FWS system's
critical sizing conditions using equation 4-12.
BOD: atQ , A = (18,920)(50)(1000)/(45)(106)
w = 21 ha
atQmax, Aw= (37,840)(40)(1000)/(45)(106)
= 34 ha
TSS: atQave, Aw = (18,920)(70)(1000)/(30)(106)
= 44 ha
atQmax, Aw = (37,840)(30)(1000)/(30)(106)
= 38 ha
The limiting condition is again the TSS loading at Qave,
where 44 hectares are required. This is a larger require-
ment than in the previous example, as would be expected
since more stringent effluent requirements are being met.
Step 2 - Determine the theoretical HRT (t) required for the
entire 3-zone FWS system and each specific zone
using equation 4-4, assuming an overall average depth
(h) of 0.8 m and an overall porosity (e) of 0.8.
for C!
t =
(44 ha)(10,000 m2 / ha)(0.8 m)(0.8)
19,920 m3/d
= 14.9 days
forQmax t = 7.4 days
Returning to individual zones and assuming an equal
minimum HRT in each, equation 4-4 is used in dimension-
ing at maximum flow conditions:
(2.5d)(37,840m3/d)
(1.0)(1.2m)(10,000mz/ha)
= 7.9 ha
Therefore, the area for zones 1 and 3 are:
A3 =A1 = (44 - 7.5 )/2
= 18 ha
The overall FWS system area, including buffers, would
be about 58 hectares (145 acres).
Step 3 - Configuration
Again the use of parallel trains is encouraged for all the
same reasons as noted in the previous example. Parallel
trains of 3 cells in each are recommended which allow any
single cell in a train to be removed from service with trans-
fer of its influent to the same zone cell.
By using an aspect ratio in the range of 3 to 5:1 and
complete-cell-width inlets and outlets the intercellulartrans-
fers should be simplified.
87
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Design Example 3 - Estimating from examples 1 and 2.
For design example 1, if the influent to the FWS system
was facultative lagoon effluent, it would be reasonable to
expect the characterization in Table 4-6,with cognizence
that the impact of climate and season on the performance
of lagoons and the characteristics of municipal wastewa-
ters vary by orders of magnitude. However, the numbers
in the table are within the normally expected ranges. To
test the areal loading information presented earlier in this
chapter, the loading factors for each chemical constituent
can be computed using equation 4-12. These yield a TKN
loading of 10.8 kg/ha-d for example 1 and 8.6 kg/ha-d for
example 2. Similarly, the TP loadings are 2.7 kg/ha-d and
2.1 kg/ha-d for examples 1 and 2, respectively.
Comparing these loadings to Figure 4-5, it is impossible
to accurately predict effluent quality for example 1, but it
appears that little removal could be expected had the origi-
nal fully vegetated approach been taken. Mechanistically,
the primary mechanisms which are available for TKN re-
moval in zone 1 are flocculation and sedimentation of or-
ganic N. Since there are only 4 mg/L of organic N the real-
istic maximum expectation would be a removal of all but 1
mg/L, while the NH4-N may be mostly assimilated by the
plants during the active growing rate computed for this
example, but most would be returned to the water column
during senescence. Therefore, the effluent TKN could av-
erage anywhere between about 15 and 20 mg/L,depending
on the season, and an overall removal of about 2 to 3 mg/
L. With the final open-water design of this example, it is
not possible to predict removal without more data from
open-zoned systems. As in example 2, the three-zone FWS
is likely to produce an effluent TKN of greater than 4 mg/L
since all three such systems on the figure were loaded at
a lower rate. Actual removal would depend upon nitrifica-
tion accomplished in zone 2, which would be a function of
temperature, HRT and dissolved oxygen in that zone. Since
the TKN loading rate is about 4 to 5 times the highest one
in the figure for open water systems, a conservative ap-
proach might be that one-fourth of the nitrogen might be
nitrified in the open zone and denitrified in zone 3. This
would yield an additional 4 mg/L to the 3 assumed for ex-
ample 1. This would yield a removal of 7 mg/L and an ef-
fluent TN of about 13 mg/L which could vary from about 10
to 16 mg/L during the year depending on plant condition
and temperature. Conversely, the systems shown in the
figure may have had excess capacity in zone 2 to fully
nitrify all the ammonium-nitrogen and the same effluent
concentration for the lightly loaded open-water systems
could also be attained. By having an open-water zone
where nitrification can occur, the inherent denitrification ca-
Table4-6. Lagoon Influent and Effluent Quality Assumptions.
Parameter Raw Wastewater Lagoon Effluent
TKN(mg/L)
NH4-N(mg/L)
TP(mg/L)
FC(#/100ml)
40
10
7
106
20
16
5
104
pability of the subsequent fully-vegetated zone creates a
potent opportunity for nitrogen control. It is also feasible
in the open-water zone to enhance NH3 volatilization, but
this mechanism is less likely to be significant owing to the
limited size of zone 2 which may not permit increased pH
which would enhance volatilization. Such estimates are
extremely tenuous until more data is generated on higher
loadings to these open water FWS systems, and in the
interim the designer would be wise to perform pilot studies
where nitrogen limits are part of effluent permit require-
ments.
Areal loading data on total phosphorus (TP) in Figure 4-
6 are inconclusive. The TADB (USEPA, 1999) would sug-
gest that these example loadings could produce an efflu-
ent of 3.0 to 4.5 mg/L. At the loadings indicated in these
examples, the data of Gearheart (1993) would allow for an
overall annual average removal of approximately one mg/
L. This would provide a similar effluent for both examples
of about 4 mg/L. The dominant removal mechanisms in
both examples are flocculation and sedimentation of or-
ganic phosphorus, but plant uptake and release will cause
the effluent to vary from background levels in the growth-
phase to levels at or above the influent concentration dur-
ing the senescent-phase. This discussion does not include
the startup-phase where TP removal will occur for several
months until the soil's phosphorus adsorption capacity is
reduced to an equilibrium level by satisfaction of the soil's
calcium, aluminum and iron adsorption sites and comple-
tion of the initial growth phase of the plants.
Fecal coliform (FC) removal is limited by the natural back-
ground which is depicted in Table 4-4. Figure 4-10 shows
that FC removal is based on enhanced sedimentation and
flocculation in the fully-vegetated zone of an FWS. There-
fore, approximately one log (90%) of removal can be safely
estimated in that zone. With an open-water zone, the FWS
can take advantage of the natural solar disinfection which
is described in the international lagoon literature (Mara,
1975). This additional kill of FC is limited by the HRT in the
open-water zone and is a temperature-dependent func-
tion with first-order kinetics. Time limitation and single-cell
hydraulics will likely limit additional kill to about one log.
Since in zone 3 FC removal would be by sedimentation,
less than one additional log of removal could be expected.
Based on the prior analyses the total removal for ex-
amples 1 and 2 would be 2+ logs of kill, with an expected
effluent FC count of <100/100ml. A fully vegetated system
which has no open zone would likely remove somewhere
between 1 and 2 logs to produce an effluent with several
hundred FC/100ml. Both would experience a natural varia-
tion about those means as discussed earlier in the chap-
ter. One major reason for periodic increases will be wildlife
attraction to open water zones. However, with the require-
ment that the outlet be located at the terminus of the sub-
sequent fully-vegetated zone 3, the impacts of wildlife
should be minimized. However, some spikes of fecal
coliform may still be evident.
As noted earlier, the impact of the example designs on
metals and toxic organics will vary also. Most metals will
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likely be removed with the TSS by physical means, and
effluent metals will probably be similar in ratio to the two
TSS effluent concentrations. The average pond effluent
had a TSS of 70 mg/l and the two FWS designs should
yield 30mg/L and 20mg/L, respectively. Therefore, design
examples 1 and 2 should remove about 70% of the heavy
metals. Since each metal reacts differently this type of
analysis has little meaning. Typically, nickel, boron, sele-
nium and arsenic are more resistent to removal by sedi-
mentation than most of the other commonly measured
metals. A similar discusion can be provided with regard to
semi-volatile toxic organic compounds. Both classes of
pollutants may be associated with certain effluent particle-
size fractions, which will cause them to follow the removal
patterns discussed earlier in concert with Table 4-3.
4.6 Design Issues
This subsection describes issues that are important in
the design and layout of a FWS constructed wetland.
These design issues are separate from wetland area de-
terminations already described. However, it is important
fortheengineer/designerto understand that design issues
and wetland area determinations are both important. The
design issues outlined here are intended to maximize the
treatment potential of FWS constructed wetlands and may
impact the wetland area determined from the wetland siz-
ing steps, which should be considered the starting point
for a FWS constructed wetland design. Many of the de-
sign issues outlined below are based on experience with
FWS constructed wetland systems currently in operation.
4.6.1 Wetland Layout
4.6.1.1 Site Topography
In many cases, the topography of the site will dictate the
general shape and configuration of the FWS constructed
wetland. On sloping sites, for example, constructing the
long dimension of the wetland parallel to the existing ground
contours helps minimize grading requirements. With proper
design, sloped sites can reduce pumping costs by taking
advantage of the existing hydraulic gradients.
4.6.1.2 Aspect (length to width) Ratio
The aspect ratio (AR) or length to width ratio (L/W), of a
FWS wetland system is defined as the average length di-
vided by the average width, and can be expressed as:
W
(4-13)
where:
L = average length of wetland system, and
W = average width of wetland system.
FWS constructed wetlands have been designed with ARs
from less than 1:1 to over90:1 . Generally, FWS constructed
wetlands are designed and built with an AR greater than
1:1. It has been suggested that wetlands with higher ARs
help to minimize short circuiting, and force the wetland to
more closely conform to plug flow hydraulics (Gearheart,
1996: Dombeck, 1998). However, results of dye studies
on existing FWS constructed wetlands have shown that
many wetlands deviate from ideal plug flow hydraulics in-
dependent of the AR. For wetland systems with very high
length to width ratios, careful consideration needs to be
given to headless and hydraulic gradient considerations
to avoid overflows of confining dikes nearthe influent end.
Use of equation 4-6 and the material in section 4.3.2.2 will
permit the designer forced to use high AR cells to evaluate
each assumption and make corrections as necessary.
When conducting a hydraulic grade line analysis to deter-
mine if the backwater is at an acceptable elevation near
the inlet, the outlet level is normally assumed to be at the
midpoint.
4.6.1.3 Wetland configuration
The shape of a FWS constructed wetland can be highly
variable depending on site topography, land configuration,
and surrounding land use activities. FWS constructed wet-
lands have been configured in a number of shapes, in-
cluding rectangles, polygons, ovals, kidney shapes, and
crescent shapes. There is no data that supports one FWS
constructed wetland shape as being superior in terms of
constituent removal and effluent quality, over another
shape. However, any wetland shape needs to be designed
and configured following the general guidelines of this re-
port. Design concerns such as hydraulic retention time,
short-circuiting, headless, inlet/outlet structures, and inter-
nal and surface configurations can significantly impact
wetland effluent quality.
4.6.1.4 Multiple cells
It has been shown in both the design of oxidation ponds
and FWS constructed wetlands, that a number of cells in
series can consistently produce a higher quality effluent.
This is based upon the hydrodynamic characteristics that
constituent mass is gathered at the outlet end of one cell,
and redistributed to the inlet of the next cell. This process
also minimizes the short circuiting effect of any one unit,
and maximizes the contact area in the subsequent cell.
For treatment and water quality purposes, it is recom-
mended that a FWS constructed wetland should consist
of a minimum of three cells in series. Open water zones
have also been used to redistribute flows, but their value
in this regard has been overshadowed by their other at-
tributes.
Large wetland cells can have internal berms running
parallel to the flow direction, effectively creating smaller
parallel cells with better hydraulic properties. Multiple cells
with appropriate piping between them offer greater opera-
tional flexibility. In the event that a wetland cell needs to be
taken offline for maintenance reasons, the remaining cell
or cells can remain operational. This is made even more
important if cells are sized to coincide with zoning. Com-
pletely vegetated and completely open cells are easier to
maintain and are more flexible when sequencing or inde-
pendent cell HRT adjustments or maintenance is required.
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4.6.2 Internal Wetland Components
4.6.2.1 Open water/Vegetation ratio
The location of emergent vegetation, the type and den-
sity of this vegetation, and the climate as it relates to plant
senescence are important factors in the design of a FWS
constructed wetland. Providing adequate open water ar-
eas is an important, but often overlooked, component in
the design and implementation of FWS constructed wet-
lands (Gearheart, 1986; Hammer, 1996; Hamilton, 1994,
Stefan et al., 1995). Open water is defined as a wetland
surface which is not populated by emergent vegetation
communities, but may contain submergent aquatic plants
as well as unconsolidated groupings of floating aquatic
plants. Historically, many FWS constructed wetlands were
designed and built as fully vegetated basins with no desig-
nated open water areas. Many of these systems proved
problematic with very low or no water column dissolved
oxygen, that resulted in odor production and vector prob-
lems.
Natural wetlands generally contain a mix of open water
and emergent vegetation areas. The open water areas
provide many functions such as oxygenation of the water
column from atmospheric reaeration, submerged macro-
phytes, and algal photosynthesis. They also permit preda-
tion of mosquito larvae by fish and other animals and pro-
vide habitat and feeding areas for waterfowl. Open water
areas in FWS constructed wetlands will not only provide
the same functions as for natural wetlands, but will also
provide the opportunity for increased soluble BOD reduc-
tion and nitrification of wastewater because of the increase
in oxygen levels. It is recommended that a FWS constructed
wetland not be fully vegetated, but should include some
open water areas. Open water areas in a FWS constructed
wetland will result in a more complex, dynamic, and self-
sustaining wetland ecosystem, that better mimics a natu-
ral wetland. Open water wetlands have lower background
BOD than fully vegetated wetlands (see Table 4-4), which
reflects their improved treatment potential.
The ratio of open waterto emergent vegetation depends
on land availability, costs, and the function and goals of
the FWS constructed wetland system. Generally speak-
ing zones 1 and 3 should be 100% vegetated with the zone
2 surface having > 50% to 100% open water. If denitrifica-
tion is required, the 3rd zone which is 100% vegetated will
accomplish it.. The open-water zones with an HRT in ex-
cess of 3 days may invite algal blooms. As long as this
zone is followed by a fully vegetated zone with an HRT of
2 or more days, this should not represent a problem be-
yond increased biomass management requirements.
The most effective method used for creating open water
areas in a single cell is to excavate a zone that is deep
enough to prevent emergent vegetation colonization and
migration. Some have periodically raised water levels to a
depth that limits emergent vegetation growth, but this is
operationally demanding and may have negative treatment
impacts. The type of dominant macrophyte (i.e., emer-
gent or submergent) can be controlled by controlling the
operating depth. Water column depths greater than ap-
proximately 1.25 to 1.5 meters planted with submergents
such as Potomogeton spp., will not rapidly be encroached
upon by emergent macrophytes like bulrushes reeds, and
cattails. If the water column depth is between 0.5 to 1.0
meters and planted with emergent vegetation, such as
bulrush and cattails, they will prevail over submergents
and most other emergents by filling in the surface area
through rhizome and tuber propagation. The seasonal
change in water levels (hydroperiod) is also a determinant
in establishing various aquatic macrophyte communities.
Due to the lack of shading, significant blooms of algae
can occur in large open water areas, which can have nega-
tive effects on effluent quality. To help minimize the poten-
tial for algal growth, open water areas should be designed
for less than 2 to 3 days hydraulic retention time. In gen-
eral, the growth cycle of algae is approximately 7 days, so
providing open water areas with less than 2-3 days reten-
tion time will help minimize algal growth in the open-water
zone of the wetland. Sufficient standing crops of
submergent macrophytes may also limit algal regrowth in
these zones. Conversely, excessive algal growth may im-
pair the performance of the submergent macrophytes by
limiting the solar energy which reaches them.
Guidelines for designing a FWS constructed wetland in
terms of vegetated covering are as follows: Begin with an
emergent vegetation zone covering the volume used in
the first 2 days of retention time at maximum monthly flow
(Q ) to provide for influent solids flocculation and sepa-
ration.. The emergent zone should be followed by an open
water zone covering days 3 and 4 in the retention time
sequence at Qmax. The open waterzone should be designed
to facilitate production of dissolved oxygen to meet CBOD
and NBOD demands. The final 2 days of hydraulic reten-
tion volume at Qmax should be an emergent wetland to
reduce any solidsm(algae, bacteria, etc.) generated in the
open water and to supply carbon (decomposing plant ma-
terial) and anoxic conditions for denitrification. It is also
recommended that this final stand of emergent vegetation
be as close as possible to the outlet of a FWS constructed
wetland. This provides a final level of protection just be-
fore the effluent leaves the wetland to minimize the impact
of wildlife on effluent quality. This recommendation may
heighten the maintenance requirements for the outlet de-
vice, but it will result in less variability in the effluent qual-
ity.
4.6.2.2 Inlet Settling Zone
Depending on the pretreatment process, a substantial
portion of the incoming settleable and suspended solids
may be removed by discrete settling in the inlet region of a
FWS constructed wetland. For example, if the FWS sys-
tem is to follow an existing treatment facility which is prone
to produce high concentrations of settleable TSS, an inlet
settling zone should be used. If the pretreatment facility
does a good job of solids capture, but has a high concen-
tration of soluble constituents, an inlet settling zone is of
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no value. Given that FWS systems are generally preceded
by lagoon systems which seasonally produce large TSS
concentrations, primarily due to algal mass, the need for
an inlet settling zone would be marginal since algal solids
will require flocculation and sunlight restriction before be-
coming settleable.
If an inlet settling zone should be desired, it should be
constructed across the entire width of the wetland inlet. A
recommended guideline is to design a settling zone which
provides approximately 1 day hydraulic retention time at
the average waste water flow rate, as most settleable and
suspended solids are removed within this time period. The
settling zone should be deep enough to provide adequate
accumulation and storage of settled solids, but shallow
enough to allow the growth of emergent vegetation, such
as bulrush and cattails. Recommended depth is approxi-
mately 1 meter.
Most accumulated organic solids will slowly decay and
reduce in volume. This decay is one of the two major
sources of internal loading and background constituents
in the effluent. However, at some time in the future the
remaining accumulated solids will need to be removed from
the settling zone.
4.6.2.3 Inlet/Outlet Structures
Placement and type of inlet and outlet control structures
are critical in FWS constructed wetlands to ensure treat-
ment effectiveness and reliability. To effectively minimize
short-circuiting in a FWS constructed wetland, two goals
concerning cell inlet/outlet structures are critical: (1) uni-
form distribution of inflow across the entire width of the
wetland inlet, and (2) uniform collection of effluent across
the total wetland outlet width. Both of these should mini-
mize localized velocities, thus reducing potential
resuspension of settled solids. It is important that any out-
let structure be designed so that the wetland can be com-
pletely drained, if required. Some of the common types of
wetland inlet/outlet systems in use today, and general
guidelines regarding their design are further discussed in
Chapters.
Depending on the type of wastewater influent, the inlet
structure discharge point could be located below or above
the wetland watersurface. Perforated pipe inlet/outlet struc-
tures can be difficult to operate and maintain when they
are fully submerged. All inlet distribution systems should
be accessible for cleaning and inspection by using
cleanouts.
Outlet structures represent an operational control fea-
ture that directly affect wetland effluent quality. It is impor-
tant that outlet structures facilitate a wide range of operat-
ing depths. By adjusting the outlet structure, both the wa-
ter depth and hydraulic retention time can be increased or
decreased. This and the need to accommodate cell drain-
age usually results in locating the outlet manifold at the
bottom of the outlet zone. The differences in water quality
between water depths can also be highly variable. An outlet
structure design which allows for maximum flexibility of
collection depths may be desirable, but may not always
be compatible with collection devices that minimize short-
circuiting. With this type of design, the outlet structure can
be adjusted to draw wetland effluent from the water depth
with the best water quality. This alternative design usually
involves multiple drop boxes with openings at different
depths. In most cases however the uniform collector set
at the bottom is favored owing to its inherent advantages
in terms of improved effluent quality and facilitation of cell
drainage.
Two types of inlet/outlet structures are commonly used
in FWS constructed wetlands. For small or narrow (high
AR) wetlands, perforated PVC pipe can be used for both
inlet and outlet structures. The length of pipe should be
approximately equal to the wetland width, with uniform
perforations (orifices) drilled along the pipe. The size of
the pipes, and size and spacing of the orifices will depend
on the wastewater flow rate and the hydraulics of the inlet/
outlet structures. It is important that the orifices be large
enough to minimize clogging with solids. Perforated pipes
can be connected to a manifold system by a flexible tee
joint, which allows the pipes to be adjusted up or down. In
some cases wetland designers with this type of inlet/outlet
structure will coverthe perforated pipes with gravel to pro-
vide more uniform distribution or collection of flows. This
type of inlet/outlet structure requires periodic inspection,
some operation and maintenance to maintain equal flow
through the pipe, and access at the end to clean clogged
orifices.
For larger wetland systems, multiple weirs or drop boxes
are generally used for inlet and outlet structures. Weirs or
drop boxes are generally constructed of concrete, but
smaller PVC boxes are also available. These structures
should be located no further apart than every 15 m (center
to center) across the wetland inlet width, with a preferred
spacing of 5 to 10 m. The same spacing requirements apply
forthe outlet weirs ordrop boxes. Depending on the source
of the wastewater influent, the inlet weirs or drop boxes
can be connected by a common manifold pipe. Whatever
the configuration, it is important that the manifold pipes
and weirs be hydraulically analyzed to attain reasonably
uniform distribution. Simple weir ordrop boxtype inlet struc-
tures are relatively easy to operate and maintain.
Weir overflow rates have not been considered in the
design of most wetlands. Weir loading rates of existing
wetlands are significantly higher than those required in
most biological solids removal processes (i.e., 120 to 190
m3/m.d ) (WEF, 1998). Excess weir rates can cause high
water velocities near the outlet which could entrain solids
which would otherwise be removed from the effluent.
Therefore, weir loading rates should be designed to meet
the above range for best performance until more quantita-
tive data are generated.
4.6.2.4 Baffles
Baffles are internal structures installed either perpen-
dicular or parallel to the direction of flow. Baffles can be
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effective in reducing short-circuiting, for mixing waters of
different depths, and for improved flocculation performance.
Properly designed and placed open water zones can also
act as baffles by allowing mixing and redistribution of waste-
water before it enters into the next wetland vegetated zone.
The use of baffles depends on cell configurations, aspect
ratios, treatment goals, and permit compliance. In general,
except for special circumstances unforseen in typical mu-
nicipal wastewater treatment application the use of such
structures is not recommended. However, their use in cor-
recting problems which are due to hydraulic flow difficul-
ties (short circuiting, dead zones, etc.) make them useful
to the operator-owner.
4.6.2.5 Recirculation
Recirculation is the process of introducing treated efflu-
ent back to the inlet or to some other internal location of
the wetland. Recycling effluent can decrease influent con-
stituent concentrations and increase dissolved oxygen
concentrations near the inlet. The increased dissolved
oxygen concentrations can help reduce inlet odors, lower
BOD, and enhance nitrification potential in open-water
zones. If recirculation is to be considered, the effects of
recirculation on the wetland water balance and wetland
hydraulics need to be analyzed. In general, the ability to
recycle, like the ability to drain each cell, could be consid-
ered part of the need to have flexible piping , multiple cells,
and multiple trains of cells. The value of recirculation has
not been shown to date to be a major factor in improving
FWS performance.
4.6.2. 6 Flow Measuring Devices
Many existing wetland systems do not have accurate
flow measuring devices. Even if accurate estimates of in-
flows and/or outflows to the treatment plant are known,
internal flow distribution to individual wetland cells is not
known or measured. Without accurate flow measurements
to individual wetland cells, it is impossible to determine
internal flow rates, average velocities, and hydraulic re-
tention times for each cell, thus making system perfor-
mance adjustments difficult. It is recommended that some
type of flow measuring device be either installed in or avail-
able to be installed in each cell of a FWS constructed wet-
land. This includes separate flow measuring devices on
each inlet for multiple wetland cell configurations. Some
examples of flow measuring devices include simple 90° V-
notch or rectangular weirs, and more sophisticated Parshall
flumes for larger systems. Depending on the size and lay-
out of the wetland, cell inlet/outlet structures should be
designed to be compatible with available flow measuring
devices.
4.6.3 Pretreatment Requirements
Examples of treatment that should precede FWS con-
structed wetlands include all types of stabilization ponds
and primary sedimentation systems. The use of wetlands
to polish secondary effluent to less than 10 mg/l BOD and
TSS has been documented, but is not covered in detail
here. The reader is directed to USEPA (1999) for guid-
ance in these applications. The effluent entering a FWS
constructed wetland should be free from floatable and large
settleable solids, and excessive levels of oil and grease.
Also important to a FWS constructed wetland is the in-
coming metal concentrations. While a FWS constructed
wetland does remove and immobilize many heavy metals
along with the TSS, excessive influent concentrations could
result in residuals which are unacceptable for subsequent
land application. A source reduction program and/or an
industrial waste pretreatment ordinance are required if
excessive metals concentrations are present in the raw
wastewater.
4.7 Construction/Civil Engineering Issues
Specific construction/civil engineering design issues that
should be considered early in the planning and design
phase of a FWS constructed wetland project include site
topography and soils, berm construction, impermeable liner
materials, wetland vegetation substrate, and internal drain-
age. Many of these issues should be considered during
the site selection process, as they may become difficult or
costly to correct later in the actual design and construction
phases of the project. The construction/civil engineering
requirements for a FWS constructed wetland are similar
to other earthen water quality management systems such
as oxidation ponds, and are discussed in Chapters and in
USEPA (1983) and Middlebrooks, et al (1982).
4.7.1 Site Topography and Soils
In general, level land with clay soils affords the optimal
physical setting for a FWS constructed wetland. Potential
wetland sites with other physical conditions can be used,
but may require more substantial engineering, earthwork,
construction requirements, and liners. In orderto overcome
site limitations, the cost of a FWS constructed wetland will
also increase proportionally as the wetland site further
deviates from optimal site conditions.
FWS constructed wetlands can be built on sites with a
wide range of topographic relief. Construction costs are
lower for flat sites since sloped sites require more grading
and berm construction. Site topography will generally dic-
tate the basic shape and configuration of the FWS con-
structed wetland.
The principal soil considerations in siting and implement-
ing a FWS constructed wetland are the infiltration capacity
of the soils and their suitability as berm material and wet-
land vegetation substrate. In most cases FWS constructed
wetlands are required to meet stringent infiltration restric-
tions depending on the state regulations for groundwater
protection. An exception are wetland systems designed to
incorporate infiltration as part of the treatment and dis-
charge process. In these cases, the underlying soil must
have infiltration rates compatible with the design discharge
rates. If native site soils are not suitable, separate infiltra-
tion trenches can be added to increase the infiltration sur-
face area. In some cases, it will be necessary to import
berm and/or bottom materials or use synthetic liners (see
Chapters) to prevent infiltration.
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Interior berms containing FWS wetland cells should be
built with up to 3:1 side slopes as the soil characteristics
allow. A minimum freeboard of 0.6 m above the peak flow
operating depth in the wetland is required. For wetlands
that will receive exceptionally high peak inflows, additional
freeboard may be required to ensure that berm overtop-
ping does not occur. Additional freeboard may also be de-
signed to accommodate long-term solids and peat buildup
during the operation of the wetland, and to allow appropri-
ate water depths to be maintained as sludge builds up in
the initial cells overtime.
All FWS-cell external berms should have a minimum top
width of 3 m, which provides an adequate road width for
most standard service vehicles. In some cases, internal
berms can have smaller top widths, as routine operation
and maintenance can be carried out by small motorized
vehicles, such as ATVs. Road surfaces should be an all
weather type, preferably gravel, which also minimizes di-
rect runoff into the wetland.
Berm integrity is critical to the long term operational ef-
fectiveness of FWS constructed wetlands. Common berm
failure causes include burrowing by mammals, such as
beaver nutria and muskrat, and holes from root penetra-
tion by trees and other vegetation growing on or near the
berms. Several design features can eliminate and/or mini-
mize these problems. A thin impermeable wall, or internal
layer of gravel, can be installed during construction, which
will minimize mammal burrowing and/or root penetration.
Planting the berm using vegetation with a shallow root sys-
tem can also be effective. Unlike oxidation ponds, berm
erosion in fully vegetated zones and/or cells from wave
action is generally not a concern due to the dampening
effect of the wetland vegetation. However, in larger cells
with open zones it could be an issue, and stabilization pond
texts should be consulted for solutions (Middlebrooks, et
al, 1982)(USEPA, 1983).
In the design and site selection process, an important
consideration is the amount of additional area required for
berms. In general, the higher the aspect ratio for a FWS
constructed wetland, the more area that will be required
for the berms and for the entire wetland system. This in-
crease in required total wetland area to accommodate
berms is more pronounced for smaller wetlands than for
larger wetlands. A factor of 1.2 to 1.4 times the cell area is
usually employed to determine the total site area for the
FWS system.
4.7.2 Impermeable Liner Materials
A concern with FWS constructed wetlands is the poten-
tial loss of water from infiltration and contamination of
groundwater below the wetland site. While there are some
wetland applications where infiltration is desirable, the
majority of the applications require some type of barrier to
prevent groundwater contamination. Under ideal condi-
tions, the wetland site will consist of natural soils with low
permeability that restrict infiltration. However, many wet-
lands have been constructed on sites where soils have
high permeability. In these cases, some type of liner or
barrier will likely be required to minimize infiltration. Liner
requirements can also add significantly to the construction
cost of a FWS constructed wetland.
Existing natural soils with permeability less then approxi-
mately 10~6 cm/s are generally adequate as an infiltration
barrier. For site soils with higher permeabilities, some type
of liner material will likely be required. Some examples of
wetland liner materials include imported clay fill, bentonite
soil layers, chemical treatment of existing soils, asphalt,
and synthetic membrane liners such as PVC or HOPE. In
some instances, it will be possible to compact the existing
site soils to acceptable permeability. Due to their ability to
be placed in shaped wetland cells, clay liners are gener-
ally a more sustainable component of the wetland than
synthetic membrane liners. Whatever liner material is cho-
sen, an important consideration is to provide adequate soil
cover and depth that protects the liner from incidental dam-
age and root penetration from the wetland vegetation (see
Chapters).
4.7.3 Soil Substrates for Plants
Aquatic macrophytes generally reproduce asexually by
tuber runners. Soils with high humic and sand components
are easier for the tubers and runners to migrate through,
and plant colonization and growth is more rapid. The soil
substrate for wetland vegetation should be agronomic in
nature (e.g. loam), well loosened, and at least 150 mm (6
inches) deep. Depending on the liner material, deeper soil
substrates may be required to protect the liner. If this type
of soil layer exists at the site, it should be saved. After the
wetland basin, berms and other earthen structures are
constructed, and the liner is installed (if required), the origi-
nal soil substrate can be placed back into the excavated
region. To meet soil specifications, it may be necessary to
amend the saved soils with other materials.
While soils such as loam and silt are good for plant
growth, they can allow large vegetation mats to float when
large water level fluctuations occur in the wetland. Float-
ing vegetation mats can significantly alter the treatment
capabilities of FWS constructed wetlands by allowing
wastewaterto flow between the floating mats and substrate,
not in contact with any vegetation treatment media. To cir-
cumvent this potential problem, denser soil substrates such
as a sandy loam, or a loam gravel mix can be used. This
will be more important in FWS constructed wetlands where
large water depth fluctuations will be part of the operation
and maintenance procedure.
4.7.4 Internal Drainage and Flexible
Piping
In the event a FWS constructed wetland needs to be
drained, the wetland bottom should have a slope of 1% or
less. Drainage may be required for maintenance reasons
such as liner repair, sludge removal, vegetation manage-
ment, and berm repair. Deeper channels may be employed
to allow for drainage and/or continued use when serial cells
are taken out of service. Channels can also be used to
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connect deeper open water areas where these are part of
a larger cell, ratherthan separate cells. In general the more
complete the intercellular piping, the greater the opera-
tional flexibility is for the entire system.
4.8 Summary of Design Recommendations
A summary of the design recommendations for FWS
wetland treatment systems is presented in Table 4-7. As
more quality-assured data become available allowable
pollutant areal loadings will likely be revised.
Table 4-7. Recommended Design Criteria for FWS Constructed
Wetlands
Table 4-7. Continued
Parameter
Design Criteria
Design Porosities
Cell Hydraulics
0.65 for dense emergents in fully
vegetated zones
0.75 for less dense stand of
emergents in same zones
1.0 for open-water zones
Each cell should be completely
drainable
Flexible intercell piping to allow for
required maintenance
Independent, single-function cells
could maximize treatment
Parameter
Design Criteria
Effluent Quality
Pretreatment
Design Flows
Maximum BOD Loading
(to entire system) to Meet:
Maximum TSS Loading
(to entire system) to Meet:
Water Depth
Minimum HRT (at Qmax)
in Zone 1 (and 3)
Maximum HRT (at Qave)
in Zone 2
Minimum Number of Cells
Minimum Number of Trains
Basin Geometry (Aspect Ratio)
BOD <20 or 30 mg/L
TSS <20 or 30 mg/L
Oxidation Ponds (lagoons)
Qmax (maximum monthly flow) and
Qave (average flow)
20 mg/L: 45 kg/ha-d
30 mg/L: 60 kg/ha-d
20 mg/L: 30 kg/ha-d
30 mg/L: 50 kg/ha-d
0.6 - 0.9 m Fully vegetated zones
1.2 -1.5m Open-water zones
1 .Om Inlet settling zone
(optional)
2 days fully vegetated zone
Inlet Settling Zone Use
Inlet
Outlet
Outlet Weir Loading
Vegetation
Emergent -
Submerged -
2 - 3 days open-water zone
(climate dependent)
3 in each train
2 (unless very small)
Optimum 3:1 to 5:1, but subject to
site limitations
AR > 10:1 may need to calculate
backwater curves
Where pretreatment fails to retain
settleable particulates
Uniform distribution across cell inlet
zone
Uniform collection across cell outlet
zone
<200 m3/m-d
Typha or Scirpus (native species
preferred)
Potamogeton, Elodea, etc (see
chapter 2).
(continued)
4.9 References
Balmer, P. and B.Vik.. 1978. "Domestic WastewaterTreat-
ment with Oxidation Ponds in Combination with Chemi-
cal Precipitation," Prog. Water Tech, Vol 10, No. 5-6,
pp867-880.
Carre, J., M. P. Loigre, and M. Leages 1990. "Sludge Re-
moval from Some Wastewater Stabilization Ponds."
Water Science Technology, Vol 22, No 3-4, pp 247-
252.
Cole, S. 1988. "The Emergence of Treatment Wetlands".
ES&T. Vol 3, No. 5, pp. 218-223.
Crites, R.W, and G. Tchobanoglous. 1998. "Small and De-
centralized Wastewater Management Systems, WCB
- McGraw-Hill, NY.
Dombeck, G. 1998. Sacramento Regional Wastewater
Treatment Plant Demonstration Wetland Project. 1997
Annual Report, Nolte and Associates, Sacramento, Ca.
Frankenbach, R.I and J.S Meyer. 1999. Nitrogen Removal
in A Surface Flow Wetland Wastewater Treatment Wet-
lands, 1999, Wetlands, Volume 1a, No. 2, June 1999
pp.403-412.
Gearheart, R.A., and B. Finney. 1999. "The Use of Free
Surface Constructed Wetlands as An Alternative Pro-
cess Treatment Train to Meet Unrestricted Water Rec-
lamation Standards", Wat. Sci. Tech. Vol. 40, No. 4-5,
pp. 375-382.
Gearheart, R.A., B. A. Finney, M. Lang, and J. Anderson.
1998. "A Comparison of System Planning, Design and
Sizing Methodologies for Free Water Surface Con-
structed Wetlands". 6th International Conference on
Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control.
Gearheart, R.A. and B. A. Finney. 1996. Criteria for De-
sign of Free Surface Constructed wetlands Based
Upon a Coupled Ecological and Water Quality Model.
Presented at the Fifth International Conference on
Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, Vienna,
Austria.
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Gearheart, R. A. 1995. Watersheds - Wetlands - Wastewa-
ter Management. In Natural and Constructed Wetlands
for Wastewater Treatment. Ramadori, R., L. Cingolani,
and L. Cameroni, eds., Perugia, Italy, pp 19-37.
Gearheart, R. A. 1993. "Phosphorus Removal in Constructed
Wetlands". Presented at the 66th WEF Conference and
Exposition, Anaheim, Ca.
Gearheart, R.A. 1992. Use of Constructed Wetlands to Treat
Domestic Wastewater, City of Arcata, California", Wat.
Sci. Tech., Vol. 26, No. 7-8, pp. 1625-1637.
Gearheart, R.A., F. Klopp, and G.Allen. 1989. Constructed
Free Surface Wetlands to Treat and Receive Wastewa-
ter Pilot Project to Full Scale, In D.A. Hammer (ed.) Con-
structed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment, pp. 121-
137, Lewis Publisher, Inc., Chelsea, Ml
Gearheart, R.A., B. A. Finney, S. Wilbur, J. Williams, and D.
Hall. 1984. "The Use of Wetland Treatment Processes
in Water Reuse", Future of Water Reuse, Volume 2, Pro-
ceedings of Symposium III Water Reuse, AWWA Re-
search Foundation, pp. 617-638.
Gearheart, R.A., S. Wilbur, J. Williams, D. Hull, B. A. Finney,
and S. Sundberg. 1983. City of Arcata Marsh Pilot
Project: effluent quality results-system design and man-
agement. Final report. Project No. C-06-2270, State
Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, CA.
Gregg, J., and A. Home. 1993. "Short-term Distribution and
Fate of Trace Metals in a Constructed Wetland Receiv-
ing Treated Municipal Wastewater", Environmental En-
gineering and Health Sciences Laboratory Report No.
93-4. University of California, Berkeley, CA.
Hammer, D, 1992,"Creating Freshwater Wetlands", Lewis
Publishers, Chelsea, Ml
Hannah, S.A, B.M. Austern, A.E. Eralp, and R.H. Wise, 1986.
Journal WPCF, Vol 55, No 1, pp 27-34.
Hovorka, R.B. 1961. An Asymmetric Residence-time Distri-
bution Model for Flow Systems, Dissertation, Case In-
stitute of Technology.
Kadlec. R.H. 2000. The Inadequecy of First-OrderTreatment
Wetland Models. Ecological Engineering, vol. 15, pp 105-
109;
Kadlec, R.H. and R.L. Knight. 1996. Treatment Wetlands.
Boca Raton, FL: Lewis-CRC Press.
Kadlecik, L. 1996. Organic Content of Wetland Soils, Arcata
Enhancement Marsh, Special Project, ERE Department
Wetland Workshop.
Levine, A. D., G. Tchobanoglous and T Asano, 1991. Size
Distributions of Particulate Contaminants in Wastewa-
ter and Their Impact on Treatability. Water Research,
Vol. 25, No 8, pp. 911-922.
Linsley, R.K. Jr., M.A. Kohler, and J.L.H. Paulhus, 1982.
Hydrology for Engineers, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill, NY.
Mara, D.D. 1975 Proposed Design for Oxidation Ponds in
Hot climates. Journal ASCE-EE , Vol.101, No 2, pp 296-
300.
Marais, C. V R., and V A. Shaw. 1961. A Rational Theory for
the Design of Sewage Stabilization Ponds in Central and
South Africa. Transactions South African Institute of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 3, pp. 205ff.
Middlebrooks, E. J., C. E. Middlebrooks, T. H. Reynolds, G.Z.
Waiters, S.C. Reed, and D.B.George. 1982. Wastewa-
ter Stabilization Lagoon Design, Performance and Up-
grading, MacMillen, New York, NY.
Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink.1993. Wetlands. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, NY.
NADB (North American Treatment Wetland Database). 1993.
Electronic database created by R. Knight, R. Ruble, R.
Kadlec, and S. Reed forthe U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Cincinnati, OH.
Odegaard, H. 1987. Particle Separation in WastewaterTreat-
ment. In Proceedings EWPCA 7th European Sewage
and Refuse Symposium, pp. 351-400.
Reckhow, K., and S. S. Qian. 1994. Modeling Phosphorus
Trapping in Wetlands Using General Models. Water
Resources Research, Vol. 30, No. 11, pp. 3105-3114.
Reddy, K. R., and WR. De Busk. 1987. Nutrient Storage
Capabilities of Aquatic and Wetland Plants for Water
Treatment and Resource Recovery. Magnolia Pub., Inc.,
Orlando, FL.
Reed, S. C., R. Crites, and E. J. Middlebrooks, 1995 /'Natu-
ral Systems for Waste Management and Treatment,
McGraw-Hill, San Francisco, Ca.
Reed, S.C., R.W Crites, and E.J. Middlebrooks. 1995. Natu-
ral Systems for Waste Management and Treatment. 2nd
Ed., McGraw-Hill, NY.
Sartoris, J., J. Thullen, L. Barber, and D. Salas. 1999. Inves-
tigation of Nitrogen Transformations in a Southern Cali-
fornia Constructed WastewaterTreatment Wetland, Eco-
logical Engineering, Vol 14, pp. 49-65.
SCRSD. 1998. Constructed Wetlands Demonstration Project.
1997 Annual Report, Sacramento, CA.
Sparham, V.R. 1970. "Improved Settling Tank Efficiency by
Upward Flow Clarification," JWPCF, Vo. 42, No 5, pp
801-811.
Tchobanoglous, G., R. W Crites, R.A. Gearheart, and S. C.
Reed. 2000. A Review of Treatment Kinetics for Con-
structed Wetlands. Presented to WEF Specialty Con-
ference Disinfection, 2000. New Orleans, LA.
95
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Tchobanoglous, G., F. Meitski, K. Thompson and T.H.
Chadwick. 1989. Evolution and Performance of
City of San Diego Pilot-Scale Aquatic Wastewa-
ter Treatment System Using Water Hyacinths.
Research Journal WPCF, Vol 61, No. 11-12, pp
1625-1655.
Tchobanoglous, G. and E. D. Schroeder. 1985. Wa-
ter Quality: Characteristics, Modeling, Modifica-
tion. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
United Kingdom, Dept. of Environment. 1973. Treat-
ment of Secondary Sewage Effluent in Lagoons.
Notes on Water Pollution #63. London, U.K.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
1999. FWS Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment:
A Technology Assessment. EPA 832/R-99/002.
Office of Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1988. Design
Manual. Constructed Wetlands and Aquatic Plant
Systems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment.
EPA/625/1-88/022. Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1983. Design
Manual - Municipal Wastewater Stabilization
Ponds. EPA/625/1-83-015. Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993.
Manual: Nitrogen Control. USEPA Publication No.
EPA/625/R-93/010. Cincinnati, OH.
Water Environment Federation, 1998. Design of Mu-
nicipal Wastewater Treatment Plants, 4th Ed,
MOP#8. Alexandria, VA.
Water Environment Federation, 1990. Natural Sys-
tems for Wastewater Treatment. MOPFD-16, Al-
exandria, VA.
96
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Chapter 5
Vegetated Submerged Bed Systems
5.1 Introduction
The pollutant removal performance of vegetated sub-
merged bed (VSB) systems depends on many factors in-
cluding influent wastewater quality, hydraulic and pollut-
ant loading, climate, and the physical characteristics of the
system. The main advantage of a VSB system over a free
water surface (FWS) wetland system is the isolation of the
wastewater from vectors, animals and humans. Concerns
with mosquitoes and pathogen transmission are greatly
reduced with a VSB system. Properly designed and oper-
ated VSB systems may not need to be fenced off or other-
wise isolated from people and animals. Comparing con-
ventional VSB systems to FWS systems of the same size,
VSB systems typically cost more to construct, primarily
because of the cost of media (Reed etal., 1985). Because
of costs, it is likely that the use of the conventional VSB
systems covered in this manual will be limited to individual
homes, small communities, and small commercial opera-
tions where mosquito control is important and isolation fenc-
ing would not be practical or desirable.
A conventional VSB system is described in Chapter 2
and depicted in Figure 2-3. The typical components in-
clude (1) inlet piping, (2) a clay or synthetic membrane
lined basin, (3) loose media filling the basin, (4) wetland
vegetation planted in the media, and (5) outlet piping with
a water level control system. The vast majority of VSB sys-
tems have used continuous and saturated horizontal flow,
but several systems in Europe have used vertical flow.
Alternative VSB systems are defined here as VSBs that
have been modified to improve their treatment performance
(George et al., 2000, Young et al., 2000, Behrends et al.,
1996). Typical modifications involve some type of cyclic
filling and draining of the system to improve the oxygen
input into the media. The potential improvement in perfor-
mance with alternative VSB systems is offset to some de-
gree by a more complex and expensive operating system.
It is too early to predict whether alternative VSB designs
will prove to be more cost effective or practical than con-
ventional VSB systems, although they appear to provide
significantly better removal of certain pollutants.
This chapter will discuss VSB systems that treat (1) septic
tank and primary sedimentation effluents, (2) pond efflu-
ents, and (3) secondary and non-algal pond effluents. The
most common VSB systems in the U.S. treat septic tank
and pond effluents for BOD and TSS removal. In Europe,
VSB systems are most often used to treat septic tank ef-
fluents, although they have also been used extensively in
the U.K. for polishing activated sludge and RBC effluents,
and for treating combined sewer bypass flows (Cooper,
1990, Green and Upton, 1994).
This chapter provides a summary of the theoretical and
practical considerations in the design of conventional VSB
systems. VSB systems, like other natural treatment sys-
tems, are less understood than highly-engineered waste
treatment systems because they (1) have more variable,
complex, and less controllable flow patterns, (2) have re-
action rates and sites within the system that vary with time
and location, and (3) are subject to the inconsistencies of
climate and growth patterns. This complexity makes the
development and use of design equations based on ideal-
ized reactor and reaction kinetic theory difficult, if not im-
practical and unrealistic. Furthermore, because pollutant
removal performance can be quite variable, designs must
be conservative if a guaranteed effluent quality is required.
5.2 Theoretical Considerations
5.2.1 Potential Value of Wetland Plants in
VSB Systems
In several recent studies that have compared the pollut-
ant removal performance of planted and unplanted VSB
systems, it has been found that plants do not have a major
impact on performance (Young et al, 2000, George et al.,
2000, Liehr et al., 2000). There is however significant cost
and time associated with the establishment and mainte-
nance of the wetland plants in a VSB system. Neverthe-
less, planted systems have a significant aesthetic advan-
tage over unplanted systems and may be of value as wet-
land habitat in some cases. Unfortunately, the aesthetic
value of plants and the value of VSB wetland systems as
wetland habitat are difficult to quantify, and no mitigation
credit is given by the USEPA for the habitat value they
provide. In the following sections the potential value of
wetland plants in VSB systems is discussed in more de-
tail.
5.2.1.1 Type of Wetland Plants
Several studies have attempted to determine if pollutant
removal performance differs with various types of wetland
97
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plants (Gersberg et al., 1986, Young et al., 2000). Although
some researchers have claimed a relationship, these
claims have not been substantiated by others (Gersberg
etal., 1986).
It is not clear if it is desirable to maintain a single plant
species, or a prescribed collection of plant species, for any
treatment purpose. Single plant (monoculture) systems are
more susceptible to catastrophic plant death due to pre-
dation or disease (George et al., 2000). It is generally as-
sumed that multiple plant and native plant systems are
less susceptible to catastrophic plant death, although no
studies have confirmed this assumption. Plant invasion and
plant dominance further complicate the issue; in several
cases researchers have found that, with time and without
operator intervention, one of the planted species or an in-
vader species has become the dominant species in all or
part of the system (Young et al., 2000, Liehr et al., 2000).
This occurs less frequently and more slowly in VSB sys-
tems than in FWS systems.
The impact of wetland plants on pollutant removal per-
formance appears to be minimal based on current knowl-
edge, so the selection of plants species should be based
on aesthetics, impacts on operation, and long-term plant
health and viability in a given geographical area. Local
wetland plants experts should be consulted when making
the selection.
5.2.1.2 Plant Mediated Gas Transfer
Wetland plants can facilitate gas transfer both into and
out of the wastewater of a VSB system. The focus of most
studies has been oxygen transfer into the wastewater.
However, methane and other dissolved gases in the waste-
water can be transferred out of the wastewater by wetland
plants. The mechanisms of plant-mediated gas transfer
are described in detail in Chapter 3. The potential amount
of oxygen transferred by plant roots into the wastewater
depends on many factors including dissolved oxygen con-
centration in the wastewater, root depth in the wastewater,
air and leaf temperatures, and plant growth status (rapid
growth vs. senescence). Most studies to determine the
rates of plant-mediated oxygen transfer have been per-
formed in laboratory microcosms or mesocosms under
controlled conditions.(George et al., 2000, Liehr, et al.,
2000) It is not clear if these results are transferable to full-
scale systems.
Based on a review of the literature, the likely rate of oxy-
gen transfer is between zero and 3.0 g-O2/m2-d (0 - 0.6
lbs/1000 ft2-d). While this maximum value is within the BOD
loading range of lightly loaded VSB systems, (3 g/m2-d =
30 kgBOD/ha-d = 27 Ib BOD/ac-d), there is very little evi-
dence to support the assumption that plants add signifi-
cant amounts of oxygen to VSB systems. Typical values
of dissolved oxygen in VSB systems are very low (<1 .Omg/
L), but because of the difficulty in obtaining an accurate in-
situ oxygen reading, the actual values are probably even
lower. In VSB systems where oxidation-reduction poten-
tial (ORP) has been measured, values were typically quite
negative, indicating strong reducing conditions.
Unplanted systems have been found to perform as well
as planted systems in both BOD and ammonia nitrogen
removal (George et al., 2000, Liehr et al., 2000, Young, et
al., 2000). Furthermore, investigations of root depth and
flow pathways have found that the roots do not fully pen-
etrate to the bottom of the media and there is substantially
more flow under the root zone than through it (Young et
al., 2000, George et al., 2000, Bavor et al. 1989, Fisher,
1990, DeShonetal., 1995, Sanford etal., 1995a&1995b,
Sanford, 1999, Rash and Liehr, 1999, Breen and Chick,
1995, Bowmer, 1987). The oxygen supply from the roots
is also likely to be unreliable due to yearly plant senes-
cence, plant die-off due to disease and pests, and vari-
able plant coverage from year to year. Considering all of
these factors, it is recommended that designers assume
wetland plants provide no significant amounts of oxygen
to a VSB system.
Plants will also affect the other potential source of oxy-
gen to VSBs — the direct oxygen transfer from the atmo-
sphere to the wastewater. Researchers at TVA have esti-
mated oxygen transfer from the atmosphere to be between
0.50 and 1.0 g-O2/m2-d (0.1 - 0.2 lbs/1000 ft2-d) (Behrends
etal., 1993). Decomposing plant matter on top of the me-
dia would likely cause even lower rates of oxygen trans-
port into the wastewater because the plant matter acts as
a diffusion barrier and, ultimately, an oxygen demand.
5.2.1.3 Nutrient and Metals Removal by
Wetland Plants
Wetland plants take up macro-nutrients (such as N and
P) and micro-nutrients (including metals) through their roots
during active plant growth. At the beginning of plant se-
nescence most of the nutrients are translocated to the rhi-
zomes and roots. A significant proportion of the nutrients
may also be exuded from the plant (Gearheart et al., 1999).
Estimates of net annual nitrogen and phosphorus uptake
by emergent wetland species vary from 12 to 120 gN/m2-y
and 1.8 to 18 gP/m2-y respectively (Reddy and DeBusk,
1985). Reeds and bulrush are at the lower end of both
ranges while cattails are at the higher end. These esti-
mates are based on annual growth rates and nutrient con-
centrations of the whole plant, but since in a VSB system
only the shoots can be harvested, the values should be
reduced by at least 50%. Plant uptake of metals can also
be estimated by this method. To maximize nutrient removal
by the plants in a VSB system, shoot harvesting must be
done before senescence. Harvesting of wetland plants is
not recommended during the growing season because the
warm temperatures may cause plant stress, substantial
stem death, and significant delay in re-growth in some
wetland plants (George, et al., 2000).
The expected maximum removal rates of nitrogen, phos-
phorus and metals by direct plant uptake and harvesting
are small compared to typical loadings in VSB systems.
Furthermore, nitrogen, phosphorus and metals removal by
plant uptake will vary with time. Most of the nutrient up-
take occurs during rapid plant growth in the spring and
summer, and if the plant is not harvested before senes-
98
-------
cence a significant portion of the plant-sequestered nutri-
ents are released back into the water. Therefore, unless
the nutrient removal standards for a VSB system are also
variable and synchronous with plant uptake and release,
the presence of plants may be more harmful than helpful
in meeting nutrient removal standards. Finally, it is unlikely
that the nutrients or metals removal obtained by harvest-
ing are worth the considerable time and labor required to
harvest and reuse or dispose of the biomass.
5.2.1.4 Plant-Supplied Carbon Sources for
Denitrification
Because of the inherent anaerobic conditions associ-
ated with VSB systems, they are good candidates fordeni-
trification. The likely limiting factor for denitrification in VSB
systems is biodegradable organic carbon. The value of
plant-supplied organic carbon for denitrification in a VSB
system depends on the wastewater COD to nitrogen ratio
and the forms of nitrogen in the influent to the system.
Plant-supplied organic carbon is most important in VSB
systems treating nitrate-rich influents deficient in biode-
gradable organic carbon such as effluents from nitrifying
activated sludge plants. The minimum COD to nitrate-ni-
trogen ratio for denitrification is 2.3 g-COD/g-NO3-N. Since
oxygen is used preferentially over nitrate as the electron
acceptor by the microbes that carry out denitrification, the
required COD/NO3-N ratio can be significantly higher if any
oxygen is present in the system.
Decomposing wetland plants and plant root exudates
are potential sources of biodegradable organic carbon for
denitrification but are also sources of organic nitrogen,
which is easily converted to ammonia. Plant root exudates
of organic carbon and nitrogen are the largest at the be-
ginning of senescence. Because of the predominantly
anaerobic conditions in VSB systems, decomposition of
plant biomass within the media of a VSB system will likely
provide more organic carbon (and ammonia) to the waste-
water than will decomposition of the plant biomass on top
of the media, which takes place in largely aerobic condi-
tions. Some of the decomposition products of biomass on
top of the media (including nitrates) are transported into
the wastewater by precipitation infiltration.
In one study of a VSB system treating a nitrified second-
ary effluent, nitrate removal improved from 30% to 80%
when mulched biomass including straw, wetland plants,
and grass was applied to the top of the media (Gersberg
et al., 1983). Another study with a VSB system treating a
nitrified landfill leachate found that nitrate removal was lim-
ited by biodegradable organic carbon (Liehr et al., 2000).
5.2.1.5 Plant Role in Thermal Insulation
One potential advantage of a planted over an unplanted
VSB system is the role of plants in providing thermal insu-
lation to the wastewater during cold weather. Dead plant
biomass on top of the media helps to limit both convective
heat losses from the wastewater and infiltration of melted
snow into the wastewater. Two researchers have devel-
oped methods to estimate the effect of plants in prevent-
ing heat loss from the wastewater of a VSB system (Reed
et al., 1995, Smith et al., 1997). However, it is not clear
how important this factor is in pollutant removal perfor-
mance because 1) it has not been shown that planted VSB
systems perform better than unplanted systems, even in
winter, and 2) the dead plant material on top of the media
also acts as a barrier to oxygen transfer and a potential
source of biodegradable carbon and nutrients to the waste-
water.
5.2.1.6 Plant Impact on Hydraulic Conductivity
(Clogging) and Detention Time
Several VSB systems have experienced conditions
called "surfacing" where a portion of the wastewater flows
on top of the media. Surfacing (1) creates conditions fa-
vorable for odors and mosquito breeding, (2) creates a
potential health hazard for persons and animals that may
come into contact with the wastewater, and (3) reduces
the hydraulic retention time (HRT) and performance of a
VSB system. Surfacing occurs whenever the hydraulic
conductivity of the media is not sufficient to transport the
desired flow within the usable headless of the media. The
usable headless is defined by the difference in the eleva-
tions of the outlet piping and the top of the media. Surfac-
ing can result from a number of factors including (1) poor
design of the system inlet and outlet piping, (2) an inaccu-
rate estimate of the clean hydraulic conductivity of the
media, (3) improper construction, and (4) an inaccurate
estimate of the reduction in hydraulic conductivity, or "clog-
ging", that will occur due to solids accumulation and/or
growth of plant roots. Several researchers have found that
clogging was the most severe within the first 1/4 to 1/3 of
the system (Young et al., 2000, George et al., 2000, Bavor
et al. 1989, Fisher, 1990, Sapkota and Bavor, 1994, Tan-
ner and Sukias, 1995, Tanner et al., 1998). The hydraulic
conductivity was found to be less restricted and fairly uni-
form over the remaining length of the system.
Based on studies in Europe during the 1980s, some re-
searchers proposed that plant roots significantly increased
the hydraulic conductivity in VSBs with soil media by open-
ing up preferential pathways for the wastewater flow
(Kickuth, 1981). Later studies of these systems found that
a significant portion of flow occurred on top of the soil (Coo-
per et al., 1989). Based on recent studies, the presence of
plant roots in the gravel media of a VSB system will have a
negative effect on hydraulic conductivity (George et al.,
2000, Young et al., 2000, DeShon et al., 1995, Sanford et
al., 1995aand 1995b, Breen and Chick, 1995). Research-
ers at TTU compared the reduction in void volume due to
root and non-root solids. They estimated that the reduc-
tion in void volume due to root solids (2 - 8%) was much
larger than the reduction in void volume due to non-root
solids (0.1 - 0.4%). Even though the overall estimated re-
duction in void volume was small, there was a 98% reduc-
tion in hydraulic conductivity.
The primary functions of a plant's roots are to supply
water and nutrients and to physically anchor or support
the above-ground portions on the plants. Water and nutri-
99
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ents will be plentiful at all depths of a VSB, so the plant
roots will typically penetrate only 15 - 25 cm (6" - 10") as
needed to anchorthe plant. In most VSB systems the plant
roots do not fully penetrate the entire depth of the media
and the reduction in hydraulic conductivity in the root zone
results in the creation of "short-circuiting" under the root
zone, and more flow through the portion of the media with-
out roots (Bavoretal., 1989, Fisher, 1990, DeShonetal.,
1995, Sanford et al., 1995a and 1995b, Sanford, 1999,
Rash and Liehr, 1999, Tanner and Sukias, 1995, Breen
and Chick, 1995). This situation may also lead to the cre-
ation of stagnant zones within the media ("dead volume")
which results in lower actual HRTs as the water preferen-
tially flows through a smaller volume of the media. The
decrease in HRT will depend in part on the fraction of the
depth that is occupied by the roots; that is, deeper beds
will have more a greater proportion of the media that is not
impacted by roots.
From tracer studies, researchers have found significant
differences between actual and theoretical HRTs in their
VSB systems and attributed it to dead volume in the upper
zone of the media where the majority of the roots grow
(Liehr et al., 2000, Young et al., 2000, Bavor et al., 1989,
Fisher, 1990, DeShon et al., 1995, Sanford et al., 1995a
and 1995b, Breen and Chick, 1995). However, the re-
searchers at TTU did not find a significant reduction in HRT
in three of the cells they studied. (George et al., 2000)
The researchers at North Carolina State University
(NCSU) attributed part of the dead volume in their sys-
tems to stratification of the water caused by less dense
rain water infiltration ponding within the media on top of
higher density leachate. This phenomenon has also been
reported by others (DeShon et al., 1995, Sanford et al.,
1995a and 1995b, Sanford,1999, Rash and Liehr, 1999).
NCSU found that the short-circuiting was greater in an
unplanted VSB system than in a planted system. While
rain water ponding may be a problem with some VSB sys-
tems, the effect at NCSU was magnified by the relatively
large catchment area (due to the shallow side slopes used
in the system) and the salinity of the leachate. The CU
researchers performed two sets of tracer studies in the
three cells of the Minoa system. The first set was performed
in the clean media of each cell before planting. The sec-
ond set was performed after plant establishment on the
one cell that was half planted and half unplanted. From
the first study they concluded that there was short circuit-
ing through the lower media and dead volume resulting in
the actual HRTs being only 75% of the theoretical values,
even in the clean media. They attributed these results to
media compaction during construction and intermixing of
the upper pea gravel with the lower larger media. From
the second tracer study they concluded that plants roots,
which penetrated only half of the media depth, resulted in
more short circuiting and dead volume than in the unplanted
media. Tanner & Sukias (1995) also reported more accu-
mulation of solids in the root zone, which further contrib-
uted to preferential flow around the root zone.
5.2.2 Removal Mechanisms
5.2.2.1 BOD and TSS
VSB systems have been used for secondary treatment
(i.e. 30 mg/L of BOD and TSS) for a variety of wastewa-
ters including: primary and septic tank effluents; pond ef-
fluent; and effluents from activated sludge, RBC, and trick-
ling filter systems that don't consistently meet secondary
standards. As discussed in Chapter 3, the primary mecha-
nisms for BOD and TSS removal are flocculation, settling,
and filtration of suspended and large colloidal particles.
VSB systems are effective for TSS and BOD because of
relatively low flow velocities and a high amount of media
surface area. They typically do better at TSS removal, be-
cause TSS removal is a completely physical mechanism,
while BOD removal is more complex. Larger biodegrad-
able particles that have been quickly removed by physical
mechanisms will be degraded over time and be converted
into particles in the soluble and small colloidal size range.
As such they become an internal "source" of BOD as they
degrade and reenter the water. Some material is also in-
corporated into microbial biomass.
Some material will accumulate in a VSB, but the amount
of long term solids accumulation is unknown. Tanner and
Sukias (1995) reported finding less solids accumulation
than would be expected based on the load in the influent
wastewater. Researchers at Richmond, Australia (Bavor
et al., 1989, Fisher, 1990) found that most solids were re-
moved in the initial section of the VSB and that the "solids
accumulation front" stabilized after a year and did not ad-
vance. These findings support the idea that trapped mate-
rial will degrade over time. VSB systems treating pond
wastewater are likely to accumulate more solids, and be
more susceptible to clogging, because TSS in pond waste-
water is predominantly algae, which are slightly less bio-
degradable and degrade more slowly than typical primary
or secondary wastewater solids.
BOD and TSS in the effluent from a VSB are probably
not materials that have passed through the VSB, but rather
are converted or internally produced material. As such it is
likely to be quite different in size or composition from influ-
ent BOD and TSS. For example, the influent TSS in the
Las Amimas system were predominantly algal cells, but
there were almost no algal cells in the effluent even thought
the effluent TSS averaged 30 mg/L (Richard & Synder,
1994).
True BOD removal only occurs when the material caus-
ing the BOD is completely converted by anaerobic biologi-
cal processes to gaseous end products. The two most likely
anaerobic pathways are methane fermentation and sul-
fate reduction. Because methane fermentation is severely
inhibited at temperatures below 10°C, sulfate reduction
probably predominates for soluble BOD removal during
colder months. However, seasonal performance does not
vary as much as would be expected based on the typical
temperature dependence of biological reactions. A likely
explanation, illustrated in Figure 5-1, is that biodegradable
particles that are physically removed during colder months
100
-------
^5>
OT
OT
1
Influent TSS
Accumulated
Solids
Fall
Winter
Spring
Summer
Fall
1
Influent BOD
Internal BOD Load
Due to Conversion
of Accumulated Solids
D)
Q
O
CO
Effluent BOD
Fall
Winter
Spring
Summer
Fall
Figure 5-1. Seasonal cycle in a VSB
101
-------
are degraded more slowly and accumulate (Kadlec and
Knight, 1996). As the temperature warms up the rate of
degradation of trapped particles increases, leading to a
reduction of accumulated solids and a release of BOD.
This theory would explain why summer BOD removal rates,
based on influent BOD loading, do not appear to be sig-
nificantly greater than winter removal rates. The need for
insulation of the surface of VSB systems in northern cli-
mates has been discussed, but the need has not been
quantified (Jenssen, etal, 1993).
Alternative VSB systems should achieve higher oxygen
transfer rates, so BOD removal should improve because
aerobic biological processes will become more prevalent.
However, microbial biomass production should also in-
crease, which may lead to increased clogging problems.
The potential of alternative VSB systems forTSS and BOD
removal is unclear, but performance at Minoa, NY has been
very good (Reed and Giarrusso, 1999).
5.2.2.2. Nitrogen
Several conventional VSB systems have been designed,
built and operated to remove ammonia from various waste-
waters. While partial ammonia removal has been achieved
in some systems, the removals have been less than pre-
dicted (George et al., 2000, Liehr et al., 2000, Young et al.,
2000). Ammonia can be removed by microbial reactions
or plant uptake. Because VSB systems are predominantly
anaerobic, microbial removal via nitrification is very lim-
ited. As discussed in Section 5.2.1.3, plant uptake is also
very limited. Very lightly loaded systems have achieved
partial ammonia removal (George et al., 2000,1999; Young
et al., 2000), but if ammonia removal is required, a sepa-
rate ammonia removal process should be used in conjunc-
tion with a VSB system.
The predominantly anaerobic condition of VSB systems
seems well suited for microbial removal of nitrate via deni-
trification, but there are relatively few studies to document
their use for this specific purpose (Gersberg, et al, 1983;
Stengel and Schultz-Hock, 1989). Systems treating well
oxidized secondary effluents or other carbon limited waste-
waters may have inadequate carbon for denitrification to
proceed efficiently (Liehr et al., 2000). Systems treating
wastewaters with more carbon, and that have achieved
partial nitrification, typically achieve almost complete deni-
trification (George et al., 2000, Young et al., 2000). Crites
and Tchobanoglous (1998) suggest that significant denitri-
fication of municipal wastewaters can occur in VSB sys-
tems at a detention time of 2 to 4 days, but Stengel and
Schultz-Hock (1989) demonstrated with methanol addition
that denitrification was carbon limited.
Alternative VSB systems should achieve higher oxygen
transfer rates, so they should be more efficient at ammo-
nia removal via nitrification (George et al., 2000, Reed &
Giarusso, 1999, Behrends et al., 1996, May et al., 1990)
and less efficient for nitrate removal via denitrification than
conventional VSBs.
5.3 Hydrology
5.3.1 Evapotransporation and
Precipitation Impacts
The avoidance of surfacing is a major design criterion
and high amounts of precipitation orsnowmelt can increase
the flow in a VSB system. In climates with extended peri-
ods of precipitation or heavy snowmelt, the runoff from the
total catchment area that drains into the VSB must be es-
timated and included in the design flow. Evapotransporation
(ET) decreases the hydraulic loading and will not contrib-
ute to surfacing.
Except in very wet climates, flows from precipitation
events will probably not adversely affect performance be-
cause VSB systems have a relatively small surface area
(compared to FWS wetlands) and effluent controls should
be sufficient to prevent surfacing. Precipitation dilutes pol-
lutants in the system, temporarily raises the water level,
and decreases the HRT, while ET concentrates pollutants,
temporarily lowers the water level, and increases the HRT.
ET rates will vary depending on plant species and density,
but rates from 1.5 to 2 times the pan evaporation rate have
been reported in the literature (refs). Except in very wet or
dry climates, the two results are probably offsetting, re-
ducing the overall impact on water level and effluent val-
ues. Unfortunately, the specific effects of ET and precipi-
tation on VSB performance are not documented because
good estimates of ET and precipitation are hard to obtain,
and precise influent and effluent flow measurements are
seldom available, even in research systems.
5.3.2 Water Level Estimation
An important step in the design process is to estimate
the elevation of the water surface throughout the VSB to
ensure that surfacing of the wastewater does not occur.
As in all gravity flow systems the water level in a VSB sys-
tem is controlled by the outlet elevation and the hydraulic
gradient, or slope, which is the drop in the water level
(headless) over the length from the inlet to the outlet. The
relationship between flow through a porous media and the
hydraulic gradient is typically described by the general form
of Darcy's Law (Eq. 5.1). This form assumes laminar flow
through media finerthan coarse gravel, and many authors
have modified it for other applications including other me-
dia and turbulent flow. However, use of the general form
without modification is recommended as sufficient to esti-
mate the water level within a VSB.
Q = (K)(Ac)(S) = (K)(W)(Dw)(dh/dL)
or, for a defined length of the VSB,
dh = (Q)(L) / (K)(W)(Dw)
(5-1)
(5-2)
where Q= flow rate, m3/d
K= hydraulic conductivity, m3/m2-d, or m/d
A = cross-sectional area normal to wastewater flow, nf
C= (W)(Dw)
where W = width of VSB, m
D = water depth, m
102
-------
L = length of VSB, m
dh = head loss (change in water level) due to flow re
sistance, m
S = dh/dL = hydraulic gradient, m/m
The water level at the inlet of a VSB will rise to the level
required to overcome the head loss in the entire VSB.
Therefore, the VSB must be designed to prevent surfac-
ing. K for an operating VSB varies with time and location
within the media and will have a major impact on the head
loss. K is very difficult to determine because it is influenced
by factors that cannot be easily accounted for, including
flow patterns (affected by preferential flow and short cir-
cuiting), and clogging (affected by changes in root growth/
death and solids accumulation/degradation). Therefore, a
value must be assumed for design purposes. Typical val-
ues for various sizes of rock and gravel are shown in Table
5-1. Several of the references listed in Table 5-1 also noted
that K was much less in the initial 1/4 to 1/3 of the VBS
than in the remainder of the bed. Based on the studies
listed in Table 5-1 and many observed cases of surfacing
in VSB systems, the following conservative values are rec-
ommend for the long-term operating K values:
initial 30% of VSB K = 1 % of clean K
final 70% of VSB
Kf = 10% of clean K.
5.3.3 Hydraulic Retention Time and
Contaminant Dispersion
The theoretical HRT in any reactor is defined as the liq-
uid volume of the reactor divided by the flow rate through
it. The liquid volume in a VSB system is difficult to accu-
rately determine because of the loss of pore volume to
roots and other accumulated solids, such as recalcitrant
biomass and chemical precipitates. The lost pore volume
will vary with both location in the VSB and time, both sea-
sonally and yearly, because of root growth and decay, and
solids accumulation and degradation. Preferential flow (see
section 5.2.1.6) as illustrated in Figure 5-2 will also have a
direct impact on HRT and has not been correlated with
changes in pore volume. For design purposes the volume
occupied by roots and other solids is assumed to be insig-
nificant and the theoretical HRT is estimated using the
average flow (including precipitation and ET for very wet
or dry climates) through the system, the system dimen-
sions, the operating water level, and the initial (clean) po-
rosity of the media, which is either estimated or experi-
mentally determined.
The actual HRT has been frequently reported to be 40-
80% less than the theoretical HRT (based on pore vol-
ume) either due to loss of pore volume, dead volume, or
preferential flow (Fisher, 1990, Sanford et al., 1995b,
Bhattarai and Griffin, 1998, Batchelor and Loots, 1997,
Rash and Liehr, 1999, Tanner and Sukias, 1995, Breen
and Chick, 1995, Tanner et al., 1998, Bowmer, 1987). A
rough approximation of the liquid volume can be deter-
mined by measuring the volume of water drained from an
operating bed, but water held in small pores or adhering to
biomass will remain in the system. Draining will also not
be able to account for preferential flow. Tracer studies are
recommended as a more realistic measure of the HRT in
a VSB system, using one of a variety of tracers (Young et
al., 2000, Young et al., 2000, George et al., 2000, Netter
Table 5-1. Hydraulic Conductivity Values Reported in the Literature.
Size and type1
of Media
5-10 mm gravel
5-10 mm gravel
"CleanVDirty"
K (m/d)
34,000/12,000
34,000/900
Type ofWastewater
(Typical TSS, mg/L)2
2° effluent (100)
2° effluent (100)
Length of
Operation
2 years
2 years
Notes & References
K = 1 2,000 is for downstream portion (last 80 m) of VSB
K = 900 is for inlet zone (first 20 m) of VSB
Bavor et al (1 989), Fisher (1 990), Bavor & Schulz
(1993)
17 mm creek rock
6 mm pea gravel
100,000/44,000
21,000/9000
30-40 mm coarse gravel NR/1000
5-14 mm fine gravel NR/12,000
20-40 mm coarse gravel NR/NR
5 mm pea gravel 6200/600
19 mm rock
14 mm fine gravel
22 mm coarse gravel
120,000/3000
15,000/see note
64,000/see note
nutrient solution (neg)
nutrient solution (neg)
2° effluent (30 w/a)
2° effluent (30 w/a)
landfill leachate (neg)
landfill leachate (neg)
septic tank effluent (50)
aerated pond (60 w/a)
aerated pond (60 w/a)
4 months neg = negligible TSS
4 months Macmanus et al (1992), DeShon et al (1995)
2 years w/a = with algae; pond effluent; gravel bed only-
no plants
2 years coarse gravel is first 6m of bed; fine is last 9 m of
bed Sapkota & Bavor (1994)
26 months for coarse gravel, headless was controlled by
outlet, not K
26 months Sanford et al (1995a & 1995b), Sanford (1999),
Surface et al (1993)
7 months George et al (2000)
2 years K of combined gravel (fine overlaid coarse) was
2 years 2000 at 50 m from inlet; 27,000 at 300 m from inlet
Kadlec & Watson (1993), Watson et al (1990)
1Type as defined in the reference(s)
2neg = negligible; w/a = with algae
103
-------
_v
Flow
Wetland Plants
Intlet
Small (Planting) Gravel)
Outlet
Zone
Intlet
Zone
0.6m
Not to Scale & Dimensions Are "Typical"
Figure 5-2. Preferential Flow in a VSB
and Bischofsberger, 1990, Fisher, 1990, Netter 1994,
Sanford etal., 1995b, Bhattarai and Griffin, 1998, Bowmer,
1987).
Some of the current design equations for VSB systems
assume plug flow conditions. However, tracer studies per-
formed on VSB systems have found significant amounts
of dispersion as shown in Figure 5-3 (Sanford et al., 1995b,
Bhattarai and Griffin, 1998, Liehr et al., 2000, George et
al., 2000). Based on current data it appears that VSB sys-
tems can not be accurately modeled as either plug flow or
complete mix reactors. The simplest model that can pro-
vide a reasonable fit to the tracer curves is a series of
equal volume complete mix reactors. However, while this
model may mathematically fit the tracer data, it does not
realistically represent physical flow through porous media.
Intuitively it would seem that a plug flow reactor with dis-
persion would most closely represent the actual conditions
in a VSB. This model allows greater flexibility in determin-
ing a fit of the tracer data but typically results in a complex
mathematical model of pollutant removal. Estimates of the
dispersion number for VSB systems have ranged from
0.050 to 0.31 (George et al., 2000, Bhattarai and Griffin,
1998), with greater numbers for systems with small length-
width ratios. Dispersion numbers less than 0.025 are in-
dicative of near-plug flow conditions while values above
0.20 indicate a high degree of dispersion. The modeling of
flow and dispersion is complicated by the non-uniformity
of flow and pore volume in space and time as previously
discussed, and by other factors including precipitation and
ET.
At this point in time there appears to be little justification
for using complex flow models, because of a lack of data
and the unpredictable and constantly varying conditions
within a VSB.
5.4 Basis of Design
5.4.1 Introduction
Attempting to fully describe pollutant removal in VSB
systems is at least as complex as trying to describe VSB
hydraulics. Many authors have examined several relation-
ships as a model for pollutant removal, including zero and
first order reactions in both plug flow and complete mix
reactor models. None of the relationships were found to
reasonably fit of the all data that are available. Further-
more, data from VSB systems are typified by a wide vari-
ability, as would be expected of dynamic natural systems
that are influenced by many factors. This variability is evi-
dent in the plots of TSS, BOD, TKN and TP data in this
section. Data scatter is not reduced by comparing pollut-
ant removal with a variety of factors (e.g. area, volume,
HRT, percent removals or loading rate), or by normalizing
the data (Ce/C0). Expected trends, such as temperature
dependence for BOD removal or better removal with lower
104
-------
20
18
16
o) 14
I 12
is
o
O
10
8
6
4
2
0
50
100
150
Time (hrs)
200
250
300
Figure 5-3. Lithium Chloride Tracer Studies in a VSB System (George et al., 2000)
pollutant loading, are often not apparent due to the scatter
of the data. Therefore, the design approach recommended
here is to use the maximum pollutant loading rates that
have been shown to meet discharge standards. This ap-
proach yields a much more conservative design than other
common design approaches. As additional quality data be-
comes available in the future, it may be possible to extend
these conservative loading rates with confidence.
Two types of pollutant loading rates were considered,
an areal loading rate (ALR), g/m2-d, and a volumetric load-
ing rate (VLR), g/m3-d. Both ALRs and VLRs have been
used by researchers to describe VSB performance. ALR
is calculated by multiplying the influent flow rate (m3/d) by
the influent pollutant concentration (mg/L = g/m3), and di-
viding by the surface area of the VSB system (m2). Be-
cause sedimentation, plant growth and oxygen transfer are
theoretically dependent on the surface area, ALR may be
a characteristic parameter for some pollutants. VLR is cal-
culated by multiplying the influent flow rate (m3/d) by the
influent pollutant concentration (mg/L = g/m3), and divid-
ing by the pore volume of the VSB system (m3). Because
the removal of certain pollutants could be dependent on
the HRT, the VLR could be a characteristic parameter for
some pollutants. However, because the actual saturated
pore volume is seldom known and the HRT may not be
directly related to the pore volume due to preferential flow,
the utility of VLR for design purposes is limited. Also, a
comparison of Figures 5-4 through 5-7, which are typical
of scatter for all pollutants, shows that data scatter is not
reduced by the use of VLR. Therefore, the design recom-
mendations in this chapter are based on ALRs.
Finally, because the type of pre-treatment has a major
impact on the characteristics of the wastewater being
treated, the following discussions are organized by the type
of wastewater being treated: septic tank and primary efflu-
ents, pond effluents, and secondary treatment effluents.
5.4.2 7SS and BOD Removal for Septic
Tank and Primary Effluents
Two recent studies, one conducted by Tennessee Tech-
nological University (TTU) and one conducted by Clarkson
University (CU) at the Village of Minoa, New York, have
provided the majority of data used to establish the design
recommendations for this section (George et al., 2000,
Young et al., 2000). These two studies were chosen be-
cause their research objectives were to provide design in-
formation, they utilized several VSBs with different mea-
sured loadings, and the data are of good quantity and qual-
ity. Influents in the TTU and CU studies were respectively
a low strength septic tank effluent and a fairly typical pri-
mary effluent. Each data point in the following figures rep-
resents a quarterly average of biweekly (every 2 weeks)
sampling for the TTU data, and a quarterly average of at
least two monthly samples for the CU data. The results
from one other VSB system treating septic tank effluent
studied by University of Nebraska - Lincoln (UNL) research-
ers are also included in these figures (Vanier & Dahab,
1997). After reviewing the literature, no other studies with
105
-------
50
40
15> 30
_§
H
| 20
L1J
10
* *
•
10 15
TSS Areal Loading Rate (g/m2-d)
20
Figure 5-4. Effluent TSS vs areal loading rate
OT
OT
L1J
50
40
30
20
10
100
Figure 5-5. Effluent TSS vs volumetric loading rate
200 300 400
TSS Volumetric Loading Rate (g/m3-d)
500
25
600
106
-------
Q
o
CO
LU
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
D
• TTU1
A TTU2
* TTU3
Tl IMI
+ cu
• NADB
A
A«
r<
' 1.6'
*
*
+ * *
* *
; ; . i
ri I ;
i* *
P
4 6 8 10 12 14
BOD Areal Loading Rate (g/m2-d)
Figure 5-6. Effluent BOD vs areal loading rate
IUU
80
nr
t 60
Q
O
CO
1 40
^
!t=
LU
20
•
*
*
* 4
* *
J. A *
+ * * *
* *
A * • *
Tttf 4. * ft *
.&*' » '* *.
• TTU1
A TTU2
*TTU3
T UNL
* CU
50 100
BOD Volumetric Loading Rate (g/m3-d)
150
200
Figure 5-7. Effluent BOD vs volumetric loading rate
107
-------
septic tank or primary wastewater were found to have data
with similar quality and quantity as these three studies.
Data from the NADB for VSBs treating primary effluent,
some of which are of unknown quality, are also shown in
Figures 5-4 and 5-6.
TSS removal is quite good; effluent TSS was consis-
tently less than 30 mg/L at TSS ALRs as high as 20 g/m2-
d (Figure 5-4). The two data points in Figure 5-4 that are
above 30 mg/L are from systems at TTU that were inten-
tionally overloaded to failure, and are not typical. Other
researchers have reported plugging of the surface of the
media (as opposed to clogging of the pore volume) when
excessively high TSS loadings were applied (Tanner &
Sukias, 1995, Tanner et al., 1998, van Oostrom & Cooper,
1990). Additional data may extend these limited ALRs when
it becomes available. However, it should be noted that the
typical sustained influent TSS concentrations for the data
plotted in these figures were less than 100 mg/L. It is rec-
ommended that TSS ALR be limited to 20 g/m2-d, based
on the maximum monthly influent TSS. This would corre-
spond to a loading of 2 cm/d for an influent concentration
of 100 mg/L of TSS, 4 cm/d for an influent concentration of
50 mg/L of TSS, and so on.
BOD removal is not as good as TSS removal, so the size
of a VSB designed to meet secondary treatment standards
will generally be controlled by the requirements for BOD re-
moval. Effluent BOD values were found to periodically ex-
ceed 30 mg/L at BOD ALRs greater than 6 g/nf-d (Figure 5-6).
It is recommended that BOD ALR be limited to 6 g/m2-d,
based on the maximum monthly influent BOD, to produce
a maximum effluent BOD of 30 mg/L. Table 5-2 compares
the size of a VSB designed with this ALR compared to the
size of VSBs designed using several common approaches.
As expected the other design approaches result in VSB
systems significantly smaller than that using the conser-
vative design approach presented here.
5.4.3 Nutrient Removal for Septic Tank
and Primary Effluents
Most of the organic nitrogen in septic tank and primary
effluents is associated with suspended solids that are easily
removed in VSB systems. It is generally assumed that the
organic nitrogen will be converted to ammonia in VSB sys-
tems, but spiked concentrations of urea (a soluble form of
organic nitrogen) were often not completely converted in
one study (George etal., 2000). Ammonia removal in VSB
systems is severely oxygen limited, and it is inversely re-
lated to the ultimate (carbonaceous and nitrogenous) BOD
loading. Also, the conversion of organic nitrogen into am-
monia via ammonification or hydrolysis masks any attempt
to relate ammonia removal to other design factors. For this
reason Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) data rather than
ammonia data are presented in Figure 5-8. The TKN re-
moval performance is generally poor and highly variable.
Therefore, VSB systems should not be used alone to treat
pre-settled municipal wastewaters if significant amounts
of ammonia must be consistently removed.
Although the data are not presented here, if any nitrate
is produced in VSB systems treating septic tank and pri-
mary effluents, it is likely that the nitrate will be removed
by denitrification.
Table 5-2. Comparison of VSB Area Required for BOD Removal Using Common Design Approaches.
Design criteria
Flow (Q) = 400 rrWd (105,680 gpd)
Influent BOD5 (Ci) = 125 mg/L
Effluent BOD5 (Ce) = 30 mg/L
Design
Approach
This Manual
Rate
Constant
Loading Other Factors
Constant
6 g/m2-d
(54 Ib/ac-d)
Required
Area
m2 (ac)
8,330 (2.0)
European
(Cooper, 1990)
Kadlec &
Knight
(1996)
Reed, etal.
(1995)
TVA (1993)
KBOD = 0.1/d
Temperature
Dependent2
K10 = 0.62/d
K20 = 1.104/d
180 m/yr
(590 ft/yr)
5.3 g/m2-d
(48 Ib/ac-d)
Background Concentration2 = 10 mg/L
Water Depth1 = 0.4 m (16")
Media Porosity1 = 0.38
Derived from TVA design
Assumes septic tank effluent
5710(1.4)
1420(0.4)
at 10°C, 6090(1.5)
at 20°C, 3400 (0.8)
9430 (2.3)
1Values chosen by user; these are not necessarily the values recommended by the design's author.
2Values calculated per instructions of design's author.
108
-------
50
40
a) 30
T"*"- T^
IA A| •
20
10
LU
4 6 8 10
TKN Areal Loading Rate (g/m2-d)
12
14
Figure 5-8. Effluent TKN vs areal loading rate
Although phosphorus is partially removed in VSB sys-
tems treating septic tank and primary effluents, VSBs are
not very effective for long-term phosphorus removal (Fig-
ure 5-9). It should be noted that the phosphorus data shown
in Figure 5-9 are from VSB systems that are relatively new,
when it can be assumed that the phosphorus precipitation
and adsorption capacity of the media would be at its great-
est. Because plant uptake of phosphorus is quite small
compared to typical loadings (Reed, et al, 1995; Crites &
Tchobanoglous, 1998), the phosphorus removal capacity
will decrease with time. Estimates of realistic long-term
phosphorus removal by plant harvesting is limited to about
0.055 g/m2-d (0.5 Ib/ac-d) (Crites & Tchobanoglous, 1998).
VSB systems should not be expected to remove phospho-
rus on a long-term basis.
5.4.4 TSS, BOD and Nutrient Removal for
Pond Effluents
There is much less quality data comparable to the TTU
and CD studies for VSB systems treating pond effluents.
Data from a study conducted at three experimental VSB
systems at Las Animas, Colorado by Colorado State Uni-
versity (Richard & Synder, 1994) were used to support
design recommendations for VSB systems treating pond
effluents (Table 5-3). The pollutant removal performance
for the Las Animas VSBs treating oxidized pond effluent
was not as good as the performance of the TTU and CU
systems. NABD data for VSBs treating pond effluent (Fig-
ure 5-10), which are not as reliable as the Las Animas
data, show similar performance. Several of the NABD sys-
tems have experienced surfacing caused by clogging of
the media surface (as opposed to clogging of the pore vol-
ume) by algae.
For Las Animas, the average TSS ALR was 6.2 g/m2-d
(55 Ib/ac-d) and produced an overall average effluent TSS
of 35 mg/L. The average BOD ALR was 2.0 g/m2-d (18 Ib/
ac-d) and produced an overall average effluent BOD of 25
mg/L. There was essentially no nitrogen or phosphorus
removal on average in the three VSBs. The poor overall
percent removal of BOD of 35% might be related to the
relatively high concentrations of algal cells in the influent
during several months of each year. The measured BOD
of pond effluent typically does not account for the true BOD
of algal cells because algal cells degrade more slowly than
other organic matter.
A VSB system in Mesquite, Nevada has been used since
1992 in parallel with overland flow and oxidation ditch sys-
tems to treat an aerated pond effluent. One year of monthly
data for the Mesquite system is summarized in Chapters.
Over the one-year sampling period the effluent BOD aver-
aged 29 mg/L when loaded at an average BOD ALR of 2.5
g/m2-d (22 Ib/ac-d). Better BOD and TSS removals than at
Las Animas and Mesquite are reported in a 1993 EPA re-
port for several VSB systems treating pond algal effluents.
However, the sparse amount of data of unproven quality
represented by the average values given in the report is
109
-------
0)
£
Q_
Effluent!
O.D
3
2.5
2
1.5
I
0 5
n
+ *
* * * +
•
A • *
• *
• ** • 1
• V • . j_ * ^
^i« J* • *
^•^rA
• *^» * • I • T
f • • A T
* • 1 * * *T
• • I. * *C
^
• S
1
TU1
TU2
TU3
U
0.2
0.4 0.6 O.l
TP Areal Loading Rate (g/m2-d)
1.2
Figure 5-9. Effluent TP vs areal loading rate
inadequate to use with confidence. Sapkota and Bavor
(1994) report similar TSS removal, but do not report BOD
removal.
The upgrading of pond effluent with rock filters is similar
to the use of VSBs after ponds. However, because of vari-
able results from rock filters, their use is generally cau-
tioned due to a lack of reliable design information (Reed,
et al, 1995). Performance of rock filters is also plagued by
H S generation and high effluent ammonia. Illinois requires
effluent aeration and recommends disinfection before dis-
charge for pond rock filter systems. Because of the limited
data and uncertainty about similar rock filter systems, VSB
systems are not recommended for treating pond effluents
if the system must consistently meet a 30/30 standard.
5.4.5 BOD, TSS and Nutrient Removal for
Secondary and Non-algal Pond
Effluents
There are very few quality-assured data available from
VSB systems in the U.S. treating secondary effluents. The
1993 U.S. EPA report included data collected over a three
month period from three systems. Additional data from one
of these systems, Mandeville, LA, is included in Chapter
8. The Mandeville VSB treats an aerated lagoon effluent
which has little or no algae. The average influent BOD and
TSS were 40 and 16 mg/L, respectively. The average ef-
fluent BOD and TSS were 5 and 3 mg/L, respectively at a
BOD ALR of 7.9 g/m2-d (70 Ib/ac-d).
Representatives from Severn Trent Water, Ltd., have
reported on the performance of VSB ("reed bed") systems
treating activated sludge and RBC effluents in small treat-
ment plants (less than 2000 people) in the U.K. (Green
and Upton, 1994). The goal for these VSB systems is to
provide additional treatment of secondary effluents so that
they consistently meet discharge limitations, which can vary
from 30/20 to 15/10 TSS/BOD. Essentially these systems
serve as aesthetic and sometimes economical substitutes
for tertiary filters for small treatment plants. In some cases
in the U.K. they have been used to treat storm water by-
pass flows at secondary treatment plants. While the Severn
Trent systems typically remove some nitrogen and phos-
phorus, they are not capable of meeting typical discharge
standards for nutrients in the U.S. The primary design ba-
sis used by Severn Trent is a hydraulic surface loading
rate of 0.20 m3/m2-d (5 gpd/sq ft) forthe average daily flow
(Green and Upton, 1994). This value is derived from the
design recommendation of the European task group on
VSB systems (Cooper, 1990). For systems with an aver-
age influent BOD < 40 mg/L, this results in average areal
BOD loading of less than 8.0 g/m2-d (71 Ib/ac-d). Typical
systems are 0.6 m (24 in) deep, 0.4 m wide per m3/d (5 ft
per 1000 gpd) of flow, and 12.5 m (41 ft) long.
Based on the success of the Mandeville and Severn Trent
systems, it appears that VSB systems can be effectively
used to help small secondary systems consistently meet
secondary effluent standards. The recommended approach
110
-------
Table 5-3. Data from Las Animas, CO VSB Treating Pond Effluent.
Time Inf. TSS
Period1 mg/L
Cell!
Winter 91 89.7
Srping 92 146.0
Summer 92 178.0
Fall 92 223.0
Winter 92 50.0
Spring 93 66.0
Summer 93 95.3
Fall 93 127.0
Average 121.9
Cell 2
Winter 91 89.7
Srping 92 146.0
Summer 92 178.0
Fall 92 223.0
Winter 92 50.0
Spring 93 66.0
Summer 93 95.3
Fall 93 127.0
Average 121.9
CellS
Winter 91 89.7
Srping 92 146.0
Summer 92 178.0
Fall 92 223.0
Winter 92 50.0
Spring 93 66.0
Summer 93 95.3
Fall 93 127.0
Average 121.9
1Each of the vali
60
50
13> 40
E,
OT
OT
t 30
Q
0
CO
| 20
E
LU
10
0
jes in the table is the
Eff. TSS
mg/L
43.0
28.7
41.7
34.3
34.3
24.0
33.3
38.0
34.7
51.0
34.0
43.3
26.0
33.0
26.7
27.0
33.3
34.3
46.0
47.0
33.3
41.3
34.3
23.7
29.3
34.3
36.2
average of three
Inf. BOD
mg/L
26.7
34.0
49.7
54.0
33.7
41.0
30.0
40.3
38.7
26.7
34.0
49.7
54.0
33.7
41.0
30.0
40.3
38.7
26.7
34.0
49.7
54.0
33.7
41.0
30.0
40.3
38.7
monthly
Eff. BOD
mg/L
37.5
22.7
29.0
30.0
32.7
32.0
9.3
16.0
26.2
37.0
35.0
29.3
40.0
29.7
35.3
15.0
21.3
30.3
11.3
22.0
20.3
27.0
25.7
29.7
8.3
8.0
19.0
samples.
Inf. TKN
mg/L
ND
7.2
6.1
7.3
14.1
16.1
3.9
4.0
8.4
ND
7.2
6.1
7.3
14.1
16.1
3.9
4.0
8.4
ND
7.2
6.1
7.3
14.1
16.1
3.9
4.0
8.4
Eff. TKN
mg/L
ND
11.4
8.7
10.7
14.0
16.3
5.3
3.4
10.0
ND
14.1
9.0
8.8
14.2
15.2
5.5
4.8
10.2
ND
5.4
9.6
8.1
13.0
13.9
4.7
5.6
8.6
Inf. TP
mg/L
1.57
1
1.17
1.47
2.25
2.55
0.67
0.65
1.42
1.57
1
1.17
1.47
2.25
2.55
0.67
0.65
1.42
1.57
1
1.17
1.47
2.25
2.55
0.67
0.65
1.42
Eff. TP
mg/L
1.9
1.67
1.68
1.9
2.3
2.6
0.78
0.6
1.68
2.57
2.37
1.72
1.78
2.28
2.68
0.82
0.65
1.86
1.47
1.43
1.62
1.72
2.2
2.53
0.82
0.55
1.54
•
•
• ft • * • "
tf^'
*m _ • ,_.
^
J • •*
^m
m mm m
•" • •
•
u
m
"
• BOD
• TSS
10
15
20
BOD orTSSAreal Loading Rate (g/m2-d)
NADB Systems Treating Pond Effluent
25
Figure 5-10. NADB VSBs Treating Pond Effluent
111
-------
is to limit the BOD ALR to a maximum monthly value of 8
g/m2-d (71 Ib/ac-d). However, VSB systems are not rec-
ommended as a remedy for inadequately operated acti-
vated sludge systems. Process upsets in poorly operated
activated sludge systems can quickly fill a VSB system
with mixed liquor solids, resulting in surface flow due to
clogging of the media.
5.4.6 Metals Removal for All Types of
Wastewater
Metals are removed in a VSB by two primary mecha-
nisms. First, because many metals (e.g. Zn, Cr, Pb, Cd,
Fe, Al) are associated with particles (Heukelekian & Balmat,
1959; SWEP, 1985), the high efficiency of particulate sepa-
ration in a VSB should remove these metals accordingly.
Second, sulfide precipitation occurs due to the reduction
of sulfates to sulfides in the absence of nitrate, and ren-
ders some metals insoluble, resulting in significant remov-
als, as described in Reed, etal (1995) forCu, Cd, and Zn.
As long as the system ORP remains low, which is likely
given the anaerobic nature of VSBs, it is unlikely that met-
als precipitated in the sulfide form will re-enter the water
column (Bounds, et al, 1998; Reed, et al, 1995). Some
metals such as Ni and Cd are more mobile and less likely
to be removed, but they are not normally present in toxic
quantities in municipal wastewater.
There is relatively little data on metals removal by VSB
systems and no known information from long-term stud-
ies. Gersberg etal. (1984) found significant removal of Cu,
Zn and Cd, and determined that plant uptake was respon-
sible for only 1 % of the Cu and Zn removal. In a study with
a VSB system treating a landfill leachate, researchers found
only a small increase in the Pb, Cd, and Cu levels on root
surfaces, and no increase in any of the metals measured
in any plant tissue compared to plants from a control sys-
tem (Peverly et al., 1995). They concluded that the in-
creased metal concentrations on the root surface was due
to metal precipitation and adsorption. Metal removal by
plant uptake should not be counted on in any VSB system
over the long term.
5.4.7 Pathogen Removal for All Types of
Wastewater
While pathogens will be partially removed in a VSB sys-
tem, a disinfection step after the VSB will normally be re-
quired to meet discharge limits. Researchers in Nebraska
found a three log reduction in fecal conforms from 106 to
103/1 OOmL in a VSB system treating a septic tank effluent
(Vanierand Dahab, 1997). Gersberg etal. (1989) found a
two log reduction in total conforms in a VSB system treat-
ing primary effluent. The coliform removal in two VSB sys-
tems in England treating secondary effluents varied be-
tween 40% and 99%, but effluent values did not meet dis-
charge requirements (Griffin et al., 1998). Fecal coliform
reductions were typically two logs (1 x 106 to 1 x 104/1 OOmL)
in several experimental VSB systems in Tennessee, ex-
cept for two cells operated in a fill and drain mode. These
fill and drain cells achieved a three log reduction with the
same influent wastewater (George et al., 2000). For de-
sign purposes a two log reduction is a reasonable esti-
mate of VSB performance.
5.5 Design Considerations
5.5.1 Media Size and Hardness
The media of a VSB system perform several functions;
they (1) are rooting material for vegetation, (2) help to
evenly distribute/collect flow at the inlet/outlet, (3) provide
surface area for microbial growth, and (4) filter and trap
particles. For successful plant establishment, the upper-
most layer of media should be conducive to root growth. A
variety of media sizes and materials have been tried, but
there is no clear evidence that points to a single size or
type of media, except that the media should be large
enough that it will not settle into the void spaces of the
underlying layer. It is recommended that the planting me-
dia not exceed 20 mm (3/4 in) in diameter, and the mini-
mum depth should be 100 mm (4 in).
The media in the inlet and outlet zones (see Figure 5-
11) should be between 40 and 80 mm (1.5 - 3 in) in diam-
eter to minimize clogging and should extend from the top
to the bottom of the system. The inlet zone should be about
2 m long and the outlet zone should be about 1 m long.
These zones with larger media will help to even distribute
or collect the flow without clogging. The use of gabions
(wire rock baskets used for bank stabilization) to contain
the larger media simplifies construction. Gabions may also
make it easier to remove and clean the inlet zone media if
it becomes clogged.
Any portion of the media that is wetted is a surface on
which microbes grow and solids settle and/or accumulate.
Media in VSBs have ranged from soil to 100 mm (4 in.)
rock. Experience with soil and sand media shows that it is
very susceptible to clogging and surfacing of flows, even if
influent TSS concentrations are minimal, so soil or sand
media should be avoided. Gravel and rock media have
been used successfully, with smaller diameter media be-
ing more susceptible to clogging, and larger media more
difficult to handle during construction or maintenance.
Crushed limestone can be used, but is not recommended
for VSB systems because of the potential for media breakup
and dissolution under the strongly reducing environment
of a VSB, which can lead to clogging. Media with high iron
or aluminum will have more sites for phosphorus binding
and should enhance phosphorus removal, but only during
the first few months of operation. The limited removal ca-
pability is probably not worth an added expense if it is not
available locally at a reasonable cost. Alternative media
such as shredded tires, plastic trickling filter media, ex-
panded clay aggregates and shale with potentially high
phosphorus absorptive capacity have been used, but there
is inadequate data to make a recommendation for or
against their use.
There does not appear to be a clear advantage in pollut-
ant removal with different sized media in the 10 to 60 mm
(3/8 - 2 in.) range. Therefore, it is recommended that the
112
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Media Surface
Water Level
20-
30mm gravel/rounded stone
OOOD
Side View
Figure 5-11. Proposed Zones in a VSB
40-80
mm
Rock
rno-
nmr
E
CD
O
Inlet
Zone
2m
Treatment Zone
Zone 1
30% of Length
Zone 2
70% of Length
Outlet
Zone
1 m
Outlet
average diameter of the treatment zone media be between
20 and 30 mm (3/4 - 1 in.) in diameter as a compromise
between the potential for clogging and ease of handling.
To minimize settling of the media smooth, rounded media
with a Mohs hardness of 3 or higher is recommended if it
is available locally at a reasonable cost. Based on the data
in Table 5-1, the hydraulic conductivity of the 20 - 30 mm
diameter clean media is assumed to be 100,000 m/d.
5.5.2 Slopes
The top surface of the media should be level or nearly
level for easier planting and routine maintenance. Theo-
retically, the bottom slope should match the slope of the
water level to maintain a uniform water depth throughout
the VSB. However, because the hydraulic conductivity of
the media varies with time and location, it is not practical
to determine the bottom slope this way, and the bottom
slope should be designed only for draining the system,
and not to supplement the hydraulic conductivity of the
VSB. A practical approach is to uniformly slope the bottom
along the direction of flow from inlet to outlet to allow for
easy draining when maintenance in required. No research
has been done to determine an optimum slope, but a slope
of 1/2 to 1 % is recommended for ease of construction and
proper draining (Chalk & Wheale, 1989). Care should be
taking when grading the bottom slope to eliminate low
spots, channels and side-to-side sloping which will pro-
mote dead volume or short-circuiting.
The slope of the berms containing a VSB should be as
steep as possible, consistent with the soils, construction
methods and materials. Shallow side slopes create larger
areas which capture and route precipitation into the VSB,
which may be detrimental to system performance. Also,
the site should be graded to keep off-site runoff out of the
VSB.
5.5.3 Inlet and Outlet Piping
The inlet piping must be designed to minimize the po-
tential for short-circuiting and clogging in the media, and
maximize even flow distribution. For VSBs with length-width
ratios less than one, additional care must be taken to spread
the influent across the whole width of the VSB. Standard
hydraulic design principles and structures (e.g. adjustable
weirs and orifices) are used to split, balance evenly dis-
tribute flows (WEF, 1998). The recommended method to
evenly distribute flows is to use reducing tees or 90 de-
gree elbows which can be rotated on the header (see Chap-
ter 6). The main advantage of a rotating fitting is that it
allows the operator to easily adjust the distribution of the
influent, which may help in reducing media clogging. When
the potential for public access exists, a cover over the in-
fluent distribution system must be used. Possible covers
include half sections of pipe or cavity chambers, as used
in leach fields. If piping with orifices is used to distribute
flows instead of a pipe with rotating fittings, it is necessary
to minimize the headless in the distribution piping so that
the headless through the orifices controls the flow. This
requirement limits the number and size of orifices used,
and makes the distribution piping large enough so that the
velocity in it is low. The orifices should be evenly spaced
at a distance approximately equal to 10% of the cell width.
For example, a system 20 m (65 ft) wide should have ori-
fices placed every 2 m (6.5ft). If poor design causes waste-
water to always discharge through only some of the ori-
fices, clogging of the media or accumulation of a surface
113
-------
layer of solids near those orifices can become a problem,
especially for an influent with relatively high suspended
solids, such as pond effluent. Finally, the inlet piping should
be designed to allow for inspection and clean-out by the
operator.
The outlet piping must be designed to minimize the po-
tential for short-circuiting, to maximize even flow collec-
tion, and to allow the operator to vary the operating water
level and drain the bed. For VSBs with length-width ratios
less than one, additional care must be taken to collect the
influent from the whole width of the VSB. A collection header
with orifices that is placed across the entire width of the
bottom of the VSB is recommended to promote even flow.
The collection header should be designed with the same
hydraulic principles used for inlet distribution piping. Slot-
ted or perforated drainage pipe can be used if the collec-
tion header is not too long, but properly sized and spaced
orifices in a large diameter collection header allow a de-
signer to use a longer collection header and still achieve
balanced flow collection. The recommended maximum dis-
tance between orifices in the collection header is 10% of
the cell width. The relative potential for clogging with slot-
ted or perforated drainage pipe versus a longer collection
header with fewer orifices is unknown. Finally, the outlet
piping should be designed to allow for clean-out by the
operator.
A simple device to adjust the water level in a separate,
covered, outlet box is recommended to achieve variable
water level control (see Chapters). It is recommended that
there be only one collection header and adjustable-level
device per cell of a multiple cell VSB system. The adjust-
able device should allow the operator to flood the VSB to a
depth of 50 mm (2 in.) above the surface of the media (for
help in weed control), and to draw-down or drain the cell
for maintenance.
5.5.4 System Depth, Width and Length
The impact of water depth on pollutant removal is not
clear. One problem with almost all published information
on VSB systems is that even though the media depth may
be known, the actual operating water level is not known.
The TTU study found slightly better BOD removal with
greater media depth, when comparing 45 cm (18 in) with
30 cm (12 in) systems operated at same areal loading, but
it is unclear if this was due only to the increased HRT. No
other study has tested this result or determined the opti-
mum depth for a VSB system (George et al., 2000). One
study suggested that total root penetration of the media
was critical to pollutant removal and recommended that
system depth be set equal to the maximum root depth of
the wetland species to be used in the VSB (Gersberg et al.
1983). However, as discussed previously, plants supplied
with abundant nutrients near the surface will not neces-
sarily grow roots to their maximum depth. As a safety fac-
tor Kadlec and Knight (1996) recommend allowing room
for solids accumulation in the bottom of the VSB, but the
need for this has not been proven. Typical average media
depths in VSB systems have ranged from 0.3 to 0.7 m (12
to 28 in.), and various researchers have recommended
depths from 0.4 to 0.6 m (16 to 24 in.).
As discussed previously there is evidence for preferen-
tial flow below the root zone through media with a higher
conductivity. In order to minimize this flow, a shallower
depth would be required. On the other hand, a shallower
depth may require a greater area to achieve a desired HRT.
Until future studies provide better information on optimum
water depth, it is recommended to use a design maximum
water depth (at the inlet of the VSB) of 0.40 m (16 in.). The
depth of the media will be defined by the level of the waste-
water at the inlet and should be about 0.1 m (4 in.) deeper
than the water.
The overall width of a treatment system using VSBs is
defined by Darcy's Law, which is a function of the flow,
ALR, water depth and hydraulic conductivity. The width of
a individual VSB is set by the ability of the inlet and outlet
structures to uniformly distribute and collect the flow with-
out inducing short-circuiting. The recommended maximum
width in a TVA design manual is 61 m (200 ft.). If the de-
sign produces a larger value, the user should divide the
VSB into several cells that do not exceed 61 m in width. As
discussed previously, several researchers have noted that
most BOD and TSS is removed in the first few meters of a
VSB, but some recommend minimum lengths ranging from
12 to 30 m (40 to 100 ft) to prevent short-circuiting. The
recommended minimum length forthis manual is 15 m (50
ft).
Although much has been made of the aspect (length-
width) ratio in early constructed wetlands literature, the only
prerequisite for treatment is the area as defined by the
ALR. A study by Bounds, et.al. (1998) found that there was
no significant difference in TSS or CBOD removal in three
parallel VSB systems with aspect ratios of 4:1, 10:1, and
30:1. In all three systems the majority of TSS and CBOD
was removed in the first third on the VSB. Removals were
also unaffected by stressing the systems with large hy-
draulic spikes and intermittent loading. The TTU study also
found no significant difference in systems with 1:4 and 4:1
aspect ratios (George et al., 2000). Therefore, the aspect
ratio is not a factor in the overall design. However, the rec-
ommended values for maximum width and minimum length
discussed previously will tend to result in individual VSB
cells with an length-width ratio between 1:1 and 1:2.
5.6 Design Example for a VSB Treating
Septic Tank or Primary Effluent
The design has two basic assumptions. First, the total
VSB hasfourzones (see Figure 5-11). The inlet and outlet
zones were discussed in section 5.5.1. Based on the lit-
erature as discussed previously, the initial treatment zone
will (1) occupy about 30% of the total area, (2) perform
most of the treatment, and (3) have a big decrease in hy-
draulic conductivity (use K = 1 % of clean K). The final treat-
ment zone will occupy the remaining 70% of the area and
have little change in hydraulic conductivity (use K = 10%
of clean K). The second basic assumption is that Darcy's
114
-------
Law, while not exact, it is good enough for design pur-
poses. The sizing of the initial and final treatment zones
follows these steps:
1) determine the surface area, using recommended
ALR
2) determine the width, using Darcy's Law
3) determine the length and headless of the initial treat-
ment zone, using Darcy's Law
4) determine the length and headless of the final treat-
ment zone, using Darcy's Law
5) determine bottom elevations, using bottom slope
6) determine water elevations throughout the VSB,
using headless
7) determine waterdepths, accounting for bottom slope
and headless
8) determine required media depth
9) determine the number of VSB cells
For this example the following values are given:
• Maximum Monthly Flow (Q) = 200 m3/d
• Maximum Monthly Influent (CO) BOD = 100 mg/L =
100g/m3
• Maximum Monthly Influent (CO) TSS = 100 mg/L = 100
g/m3
• Required discharge limits = 30 mg/L BOD and TSS
Recommended values for VSBs (see Table 5-4) are:
• ALR for BOD = 6 g/m2-d
• ALR for TSS = 20 g/m2-d
• Use washed, rounded media 20-30 mm in diameter,
clean K= 100,000 m/d
• Hydraulic conductivity of initial treatment zone (K) =
1% of 100,000 = 1000 m/d
• Hydraulic conductivity of final treatment zone (Kf) =
10% of 100,000 = 10,000 m/d
• Bottom slope (s) = _% = 0.005
• Design water depth at inlet (Dw0) = 0.4 m
• Design water depth at beginning of final treatment zone
(DJ = 0.4 m
• Design media depth (Dm) = 0.6 m
• Maximum allowable headless through initial treatment
zone (dlr) = 10% of Dm = 0.06 m
5.6.1 Determine the Surface Area (As) for
Both Pollutants
As = (Q)(C0)/ALR
For BOD, As = (200 m3/d)(100 g/m3) / 6 g/nf-d = 3333 m2
For TSS, As = (200 m3/d)(100 g/m3) / 20 g/nf-d = 1000 m2
Use the larger area requirement, or 3333 m2.
The surface area for the initial treatment zone (A ) =
(30%) (3333 m2) = 1000m2
The surface area for the final treatment zone (A f) =
(70%)(3333 m2) = 2333 m2
5.6.2 Determine the Width
Determine the minimum width (W) needed to keep the
flow below the surface, using Darcy's Law (Eq. 5-1) and
recommended values for the initial treatment zone.
Q = (Ki)(W)(Dw0)(dh/Li)
where: L = length of initial treatment zone = (Asi) / (W)
Substitute and rearrange equation to solve for W:
W = (Q)(Asi) / (KXdh^DJ (5-3)
For this example:
W2 = (200 m3/d)(1000 m2) / (1000 m/d)(0.06 m)(0.4 m)
= 8333 m2
W = 91.3m
This is the width for which the headless equals 0.06 m,
given all the parameters as defined. The designer must
use a width equal to orgreaterthan this to ensure that the
headless is less than or equal to the design value.
5.6.3 Determine the Length and Headloss
(Eq. 5-2) of the Initial Treatment
Zone (L)
L = (Asi) / (W) = (1000 m2) / (91.3 m) = 11.0 m
This is the length for which the headless equals 0.06 m,
given all the parameters as defined. The designer must
use a length less than or equal to this to ensure that the
headless is less than or equal to the recommended value.
dh = (Q)(L) / (Ki)(W)(Dw0) = (200 m3/d)(11.0 m) / (1000
m/d)(91.3 m)(0.4 m) = 0.06 m
5.6.4 Determine the Length and Headloss
of the Final Treatment Zone (L)
Lf = (Asf) / (W) = (2333 m2) / (91.3 m) = 25.6 m
This is the length where the total area of the VSB will be
exactly equal to the value set by the ALR. The designer
must use a length equal to or greater than this to ensure
115
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that the surface area is equal to or greater than the recom-
mended value.
dhf= (Q)(Lf) / (Kf)(W)(DJ = (200 m3/d)(25.6 m) /
(10,000 m/d)(91.3 m)(0.4 m) = 0.01 m
5.6.5 Determine Bottom Elevations
Ebe = elevation of bottom at outlet = 0 (reference point
for all elevations)
Ebf = elevation of bottom at beginning of final treatment
zone = (s)(Lf) = (0.005)(25.6 m) = 0.13 m
Eb0 = elevation of bottom at inlet = (s)(L + Lf) =
(0.005)(11.0 m + 25.6 m) = 0.18 m
5.6.6 Determine the Water Surface
Elevations
E^ = elevation of water surface at beginning of final
treatment zone
= Ebf + D^ = 0.13 m + 0.4 m = 0.53 m (D^ = 0.4 m
was an initial recommended value)
Ewe = elevation of water surface at outlet = E^ - dhf =
0.53 m- 0.01 m = 0.52 m
E = elevation of water surface at inlet = E + dh =
wO wf i
0.53 m + 0.06 m = 0.59 m
5.6.7 Determine Water Depths
Dw0 = depth of water at inlet = Ew0 - Eb0 = 0.59 m - 0.18
m = 0.41 m (about equal txTdesign Dw0, so okay.)
D^ = depth of water at beginning of final treatment
zone
= E - Ebf = 0.53 m- 0.13 m = 0.40 m (equal to
design D^, so okay.)
Dwe = depth of water at outlet = Ewe - Ebe = 0.52 m - 0 =
0.52 m
5.6.8 Determine the Media Depth
The media depth will depend on whether the designer
wants a level media surface, or a minimum depth-to-water
(D J throughout the VSB.
a) If a level surface is desired, the elevation must be
greater than the highest water elevation, which is at the
inlet, Ew0 = 0.59 m. A media elevation set at 0.65 m would
be reasonable, and the following media depths and Dtw's
result:
Dm0 = depth of media at inlet = 0.65 m - Eb0 = 0.65 m -
0.18 m = 0.47 m
Dmf = depth of media at beginning of final treatment
zone = 0.65 m - E = 0.65 m - 0.13 m = 0.52 m
Dme = depth of media at outlet = 0.65 m - 0 = 0.65 m
DM = depth-to-water at inlet = 0.65 m - Ew0 = 0.65 m -
0.59 m = 0.06 m
Dtof = depth-to-water at beginning of final treatment
zone = 0.65 m - E = 0.65 m - 0.53 m = 0.12 m
Wf
Dtoe = depth-to-water at outlet = 0.65 m - Ewe = 0.65 m
-0.52m = 0.13m
The depth-to-water is small at the inlet (0.06 m) and the
designer may want to add an additional layer of media in
the first few meters of the initial treatment zone as an added
precaution against surfacing, even though the design ALR
and K values is very conservative. The resulting Dto in the
final treatment zone would be 0.12 to 0.13 m, which should
not inhibit the growth of aquatic species.
b) If a constant depth-to-water throughout the VSB is
desired (e.g. 0.1 m), then the media depth would be calcu-
lated as follows:
Em0 = elevation of media surface at inlet = Ew0 + 0.1 m
= 0.59 m + 0.1 m = 0.69 m
Emf = elevation of media surface at beginning of final
treatment zone
= E + 0.1 m = 0.53 m + 0.1 m = 0.63 m
E = elevation of media surface at outlet = E +0.1
me we
m = 0.52 m + 0.1 m = 0.62 m
D . = depth of media at inlet = E - E = 0.69 m -
mu ' mu bu
0.18 m = 0.51 m
Dmf = depth of media at beginning of final treatment
zone = Emf- Ebf = 0.63 m- 0.13 m = 0.56 m
D = depth of media at outlet = E -0 = 0.52m-0 =
0.52m
This approach would result in a drop in the media sur-
face of (0.69 m-0.51 m) of 0.18 mover the 11.0m length
of the initial treatment zone (slope = 1.6%), which would
probably not impair operation and maintenance activities.
5.6.9 Determine Number of VSB Cells
It is recommended that at least two VSBs be used in
parallel in all but the smallest systems, so that one of the
VSBs can be taken out of service for maintenance or re-
pairs without causing serious water quality violations. In
this example, the total size of the VSB system is 91.3 m
wide by 36.6 m long. Therefore, use two VSBs, each 46 m
wide and 37 m long could be used. Other combinations of
length and width that have the required surface area will
also work as long as the hydraulics conditions are meet.
Also remember that inlet and outlet zones will add to the
overall length of the VSB.
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Table 5-4. Summary of VSB Design Guidance.
Pretreatment
Recommended for use after primary
sedimentation (e.g. septic tank, Imhoff
tank, primary clarifier) VSBs not
recommended for use after ponds
because of problems with algae
Surface Area
Based on desired effluent quality and areal loading rates as follows:
BOD
BOD
TSS
TKN
TP
Depth
Media (typical)
Water (typical)
Length
Width
Bottom slope
Top slope
6 g/m2-d (53.5 Ib/ac-d) to attain 30 mg/L
effluent
1.6 g/m2-d (14.3 Ib/ac-d) to attain 20 mg/L
effluent
20 g/m2-d (178 Ib/ac-d) to attain 30 mg/L
effluent
Use another treatment process in
conjunction with VSB
VSBs not recommended for phosphorus
removal
0.5-0.6m (20-24 in.)
0.4-0.5m (16-20 in.)
As calculated (see design example);
minimum of 15 m (49 ft)
As calculated (see design example);
maximum of 61 m (200 ft)
0.5 -1 %
level or nearly level
Hydraulic Conductivity
First 30% of length 1 % of clean K
Last 70% of length 10% of clean K
Media
All media should be washed clean of fines and debris; more rounded
media will generally have more void spaces; media should be resistant
to crushing or breakage.
Inlet zone 40 - 80 mm (1.5 - 3.0 in)
[1st 2m (6.5 ft)]
Treatment zone
Outlet zone
[last 1 m (3.2 ft)]
Planting media
[top 10cm (4 in.)]
Miscellaneous
20 - 30 mm (3/4 -1 in) [use clean K =
100,000, if actual Knot known]
40 - 80 mm (1.5 - 3.0 in)
5-20 mm (1/4-3/4 in)
Use at least 2 VSBs in parallel
Use adjustable inlet device with
capability to balance flows
Use adjustable outlet control device with
capability to flood and drain system
5.7 On-site Applications
A number of states, including Louisiana, Kentucky, Kan-
sas, Arkansas, Texas and Indiana, have used VSBs for
on-site wastewater management. Kentucky alone lists over
4000 such installations (Thorn et al., 1998). Most of these
states have adopted VSBs as a pretreatment step prior to
soil infiltration in an effort to protect groundwater by over-
coming the inadequate purification capacity of certain soils.
They view VSBs as passive systems with low operation
and maintenance requirements.
A review of various on-site VSB design guidelines by
Mankin and Powell (1998) revealed that there was a large
variation among the designs. Recommended depth var-
ied from 0.3 to 0.8 m (1 to 2.5 ft), with the great majority
between 0.3 and 0.5 m (1 and 1.5 ft). For a three bedroom
house typical VSB areas varied from < 10 m2 to > 100 m2
(104 to 1088 ft2), HRTs varied from 1.3 to 6.5 d, and length-
width ratio varied from 71:1 to 1.8:1. Median values were
a depth of 0.45 m (1.5 ft), area of 30 m2 (315 ft2), and HRT
of 4.7 d. Gravel size guidelines varied from 0.65 cm (0.25
in.) to 7.5 cm (3.0 in.)
These authors sampled three typical VSB systems in
Kansas and compared them with other reported data. De-
spite employing a largerthan average area, the units failed
to meet a 30/30 BOD/TSS requirement at two of the three
sites.
Given the general lack of operation and maintenance
requirements and the potential aesthetic appearance of
VSB systems, their attractiveness to local and state regu-
lators is quite predictable. As a passive system potentially
capable of meeting a 30/30 BOD/TSS requirement, they
have obvious advantages over mechanical systems which
require a significant management program and electrical
support to function satisfactorily. Also, their general reli-
ability, when compared to mechanical systems, offers ad-
ditional protection against clogging of the soil's infiltrative
surface.
Based on the VSB design guidance presented previously,
a three bedroom home would require a VSB of 100 m2,
assuming six persons and a BOD loading of 100 g/cap-d.
As expected, due to the conservative nature of the design
approach presented in this chapter, this area is at the high
end of the areas found by Mankin and Powell (1998).
There should be minimal deviation from the recommen-
dations of Table 5-4, except that simplified inlet and outlet
configurations, appropriate for small on-site systems, can
be used. As with larger VSBs, some means of post-aera-
tion and disinfection will be required if surface discharge is
contemplated. Discharge to soil infiltration is more likely,
and soil absorption guidelines provided by the State will
apply.
5.8 Alternative VSB Systems
Alternative VSB systems are those that operate with
some schedule of filling and draining the media. Fill and
drain VSB systems are similar to sequencing batch reac-
tors, intermittent sand filters, or overland flow systems in
that the flow into a single cell of a system is intermittent.
Draining a VSB system is a simple way to introduce more
oxygen into the media. Clearly plants are playing a lesser
role in these systems and they are inherently quite differ-
ent from a natural wetland. Nevertheless they are discussed
here because they have been identified as constructed
117
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wetlands and have evolved from conventional VSB sys-
tems. They are more complex to operate than a conven-
tional VSB system.
One of the first and more unconventional alternative VSB
systems was developed in England and tested in England
and Egypt in the late 1980s (May et al., 1990). The sys-
tem, called a gravel bed hydroponic system, is very simi-
lar to an overland flow process except that the wastewater
flows through 8-10 cm (3-4 in) of gravel. Loading is typi-
cally intermittent except when denitrification is desired.
Researchers atTTU (1999) experimented with alternat-
ing fill and drain VSB wetlands for one year in 1994 and
compared the results to conventional VSBs in side by side
testing. The alternating fill and drain cells followed a con-
ventional VSB cell. Effluent from the fill and drain cells was
recycled back to the conventional cell. They found some
improvement in nitrogen removal but overall the results
were not as good as they had expected.
Researchers at TVA have developed (and patented) a
system in which the wastewater is quickly drained from
one wetland cell and pumped into a second parallel cell
(Behrends, et al., 1996). The draining and filling occurs
within 2 hours and then the process is reversed; the sec-
ond cell is drained quickly and the first cell is refilled. The
reciprocating flow process is repeated continuously, with
a small amount of influent continually added to the first
cell and a fraction of the wastewater continually drawn from
the second cell as effluent. The reciprocating two cell sys-
tem was compared with a conventional two cell system for
six months in side by side testing in late 1995 and early
1996 at Benton, Tennessee. Continued operation of both
two-cell pairs in the reciprocating mode has continued since
May of 1996. Comparing conventional operation to the
reciprocating mode, the reciprocating mode produced sig-
nificantly lower effluent BOD and ammonia nitrogen.
One of the most studied full-scale VSB systems is lo-
cated at the Village of Minoa in New York State (see Chap-
ter 9). Two New York State agencies and the USEPA pro-
vided grant funds to the Village for incorporation of sev-
eral special features in the VSB system and for a research
and technology transfer study of the system by research-
ers at Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY. The system was
originally designed and operated as a conventional VSB
system, but during 15 months treating a primary effluent,
the system performed very poorly compared to its design
expectations. Faced with numerous complaints from
nearby residents about hydrogen sulfide odors, the opera-
tors started operating the system with occasional draw-
down periods to control odors. The drawdown significantly
reduced odors. In April 1997, when the experimental plan
for the system called for the three cells to operated in se-
ries, the Minoa operators decided to increase the flow by
100% and change the operation to a fill and drain mode.
The fill and drain operation included a resting period dur-
ing the drained condition and continuous operation forsome
time after filling. The fill and drain operation eliminated the
hydrogen sulfide odors and also resulted in a significant
improvement in the effluent quality. However, the opera-
tors were not satisfied with the improved performance and
experimented further. In 1998 they changed the operation
to a mode that continued to the writing of this manual. Two
of the wetland cells operate in a parallel fill and drain mode
very similar to sequencing batch reactors. The third cell is
operated in a conventional mode but in series with the first
two cells. This mode of operation has resulted in an addi-
tional significant improvement in effluent quality over the
previous fill and drain mode of operation. See section 9.8
for a more detailed description of the operation and the
results.
Within the last five years, several unsaturated vertical
flow systems have been constructed and tested in Europe.
Most have been used for tertiary treatment of secondary
effluents but they have also been used for treating septic
tank and sugar beet processing effluents. They appear to
perform significantly betterthan conventional VSB systems.
Recommended design loadings are approximately twice
that for conventional VSB systems.
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Chapter 6
Construction, Start-up, Operation, and Maintenance
6.1 Introduction
Constructed wetland systems require infrequent opera-
tion and maintenance activities to achieve performance
goals if they are designed and constructed properly. This
chapter discusses construction details, start-up procedures,
and operation and maintenance activities for both free water
surface wetlands and vegetated submerged beds.
6.2 Construction
Construction of wetland systems primarily involves com-
mon earth moving, excavating, backfilling, and grading.
Most of the equipment and procedures are the same as
those employed for construction of lagoons, shallow ponds,
and similar containment basins. However, there are as-
pects that require special attention to ensure flow through
the wetland is uniform over the design treatment volume.
Also, establishment of vegetation is unique to the basin
construction and not always within the repertoire of con-
struction contractors. It is the intent of this section to pro-
vide guidance on these special and unique aspects of
wetland construction.
6.2.1 Basin Construction
The basic containment structure of constructed wetlands
consists of berms and liners. The structural and watertight
integrity of the liner and surrounding berm are critical. Fail-
ure of either will result in loss of water, risk of ground water
pollution, and possible loss of plants due to the decline of
the water level in the wetland.
6.2.1.1 Basin Layout
The topography of the site will dictate the general shape
and configuration of the wetland. Constructing the wetland
on sloping sites with the long axis along the contour will
minimize the grading requirements. With proper layout, long
sloping sites can reduce pumping costs by taking advan-
tage of the available fall.
6.2.1.2 Site Preparation
Clearing and grubbing, rough grading, and berm con-
struction use the same procedures, techniques, and equip-
ment used for lagoons and conventional water contain-
ment basins. If possible, it is desirable to balance the cut
and fill on the site to avoid the need for remote borrow pits
or soil disposal. If agronomic-quality topsoil exists on the
site, it should be stripped and stockpiled. In the case of
FWS wetlands, the topsoil can be utilized as the rooting
medium for the emergent vegetation and revegetation of
the berm surfaces. A soil-rooting medium is not required
for VSB systems.
To meet its performance expectations, it is critically im-
portant for the water to flow uniformly through the entire
wetland area. Severe short-circuiting of flow can result from
improper grading or nonuniformsubgrade compaction. The
operating water depth may be 60 cm (2 ft) or less, so ir-
regularities in the bottom surface can induce preferential
flow paths. Specified tolerances for grading will depend
on the size of the wetland. A very large FWS wetland of
several thousand acres cannot afford the effort to fine grade
to very close tolerances. Therefore, the wetland should be
subdivided into several smaller cells or the design should
incorporate a sizing safety factor to compensate for po-
tential short-circuiting. For smaller wetlands of a few hun-
dred hectares or less, it is usually cost effective to specify
closer grading tolerances. Bottom grades are an impor-
tant consideration when converting existing lagoons to wet-
lands. Because of the design depths in lagoons, careful
grading of the bottom may not have been required. In many
cases in which conversions were made without careful
regrading, significant short-circuiting has occurred that re-
duced the wetland treatment performance.
Uniform compaction of the subgrade is also important to
protect the liner integrity from subsequent construction
activity (i.e., liner placement, soil placement for FWS wet-
lands, gravel placement for VSB systems) and from stress
when the wetland is filled. The loading on the liner is ap-
proximately 2,200 kg/m2 (450 Ibs/ft2) including the plant
mass. Short-circuiting of flow through a FWS wetland also
can result from ruts and low areas in the subgrades. The
subgrade should be uniformly compacted to the same lev-
els used for native soils in road subgrades.
Fine grading and compaction of the native subgrade soils
also depends on the liner requirements. Most wetland cells
are graded level from side to side and either level or with a
slight slope in the direction of flow. Wetlands are often con-
structed with a bottom slope of 1% or less which is suffi-
cient to drain the cell if and when maintenance is required.
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6.2.1.3 Berms
Berms in constructed wetlands contain waterwithin spe-
cific flow paths. Exterior berms are designed to prevent
unregulated flow releases. Interior berms are used to aug-
ment flow distribution. External berms are typically built to
provide 0.6 to 1 m (2-3 ft) of freeboard with a width at
least 3 m (10 ft) at the top to permit service vehicle ac-
cess. The amount of freeboard should be enough to con-
tain a given storm rainfall amount. Side slopes should be
a maximum of 3:1; however, slopes of 2:1 have been used
for internal side slopes, particularly when liners or erosion
control blankets are used. Access ramps into each cell of
the system should be shallow enough for maintenance
equipment to enter. All berms should be constructed in
conformance with standard geotechnical considerations,
for they may be subject to local dam safety regulations.
Design considerations for internal berms, however, are less
critical since they are not designed for water containment.
See Figure 6-1 for typical design features of constructed
wetland berms.
Short-circuiting around the edges of cells has been ex-
perienced in some FWS wetlands where vegetation on the
berm slope is absent. This is a particular problem if syn-
thetic liners are used. The liners do not provide a good
rooting medium and so may remain bare. The open water
gap between the berm and the vegetated area in the wet-
land proper provides a preferential flow path. A soil layer
can be placed on the berm side slope to establish vegeta-
tion, but the slope is very susceptible to erosion, particu-
larly near the water line. The soil loss from erosion will
have the added impact of reducing the detention time in
the wetland. This has not been a problem in clay-lined
wetlands because the clay provides a good rooting me-
dium.
6.2.1.4 Liners
Liners used for wetlands are the same as those typically
used for lagoons and ponds. The materials include:
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polyethylene (PE)
Polypropylene
Most systems typically use 30 mil polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) or high-density polyethylene (HDP). These may be
prefabricated for small, individual-residence wetlands, but
Grassed
, Slope
(2:1 to 3:1)
Gravel Road (> 3m wide)
-Grassed Slope (>3:1)
Impervious
Plug (optional)
a) Exterior Berm
Grassed Berm
>3:1 typical)
Synthetic Liner
b) Interior Berm
Figure 6-1. Examples of constructed wetland berm construction
123
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they are usually constructed in place using conventional
procedures for assembly, joint bonding, and anchoring.
Liners also may include scrims, which are more costly. The
scrim is a woven nylon or polypropylene net embedded in
plastic or surrounding bentonite. Plastic liners with scrims
are marketed under trade names such as Hypalon orXR-
5. Several good resources are available for liner applica-
tion and selection (EPA, 1993; EPA, 1994; Rumer and
Mitchell, 1996).
Liner punctures must be prevented during placement and
subsequent construction activity. If the subgrade contains
sharp stones, a geotextile fabric should be placed beneath
theliner.Ageotextilefabricora layer of sand approximately
5 cm (2 in) thick should be placed on top of the liner if
crushed rock is used in a VSB system. The engineershould
specify that the liner installer provides written approval of
the condition of the subgrade as a condition prior to liner
installation.
Many membrane liners currently used require protec-
tion from ultraviolet solar radiation. Conventional methods
can be used to achieve protection, but VSB systems should
not use a soil cover as UV protection since erosion may
wash soil into the bed and result in local media clogging.
Riprap material consisting of aggregate approximately 8-
15 cm (3-6 in) in size is recommended forthis application.
This larger riprap will reduce the potential for weeds to
become established and spread into the wetland. It can
also withstand foot traffic for the life of the system.
Clay liners also have been used. Manufactured liners
using bentonite are common. The bentonite may be mixed
with the native soils and compacted, or it may be in the
form of pads or blankets consisting of bentonite between
two scrims of finely woven polypropylene or polyethylene.
Native soils may be used if they have sufficiently high
clay content to achieve the necessary permeability. Usu-
ally the state regulatory agency will specify the acceptable
permeability. Typically, the clay liner must be 0.3 m (1 ft) or
more in thickness to provide the necessary hydraulic bar-
rier. In the case of a FWS, the surface of the clay layer
should be well compacted to discourage root penetration
by the emergent vegetation as the wetland matures.
6.2.1.5 Inlet and Outlet Structures
Inlet and outlet structures distribute the flow into the
wetland, control the flow path through the wetland, and
control the water depth. Multiple inlets and outlets spaced
across either end of the wetland are essential to ensure
uniform influent distribution into and flow through the wet-
land. These structures help to prevent "dead zones" where
exchange of water is poor, resulting in wastewater deten-
tion times that can be much less than the theoretical de-
tention times.
In small- to medium-sized wetlands, perforated or slot-
ted manifolds running the entire wetland width typically are
used for both the inlets and outlets. Sizes of the mani-
folds, orifice diameters, and spacing are a function of the
projected flow rate. For example, the first cell of the FWS
wetland in West Jackson County, Ml, is designed for an
average flow of 2,270 m3/d (600,000 gpd). It uses a 300
mm (12 in)-diameter PVC manifold for the inlet that ex-
tends the full 76 m (250 ft) width of the cell. The manifold
is perforated with 50 mm (2 in)-diameter orifices on 3 m
(10 ft) centers. It rests on a concrete footing to ensure sta-
bility and discharges to a 150 mm (6 in)-thick layer of coarse
aggregate. A single inlet would not be suitable for a wide
wetland cell such as this because it would not be possible
to achieve uniform flow across the cell. Multiple weir boxes
could be used as an alternative. Splitter boxes using "V"
notched weirs or other methods can be used to divide the
influent flow equally between the individual weir boxes.
The weir boxes also can be used for measuring the influ-
ent flow. Examples of these types of structures can be found
in irrigation engineering textbooks.
Where possible, the inlet manifold should be installed in
an exposed position to allow access by the operator for
flow adjustment and maintenance. Several alternatives to
the simple drilled orifice can be used for flow distribution
control. See Figure 6-2 for examples of inlet manifolds.
In cold climates where extended periods of freezing
weather are possible or where public exposure is an is-
sue, a submerged inlet is necessary. In these instances,
the simple perforated inlet manifold is used. Since it is not
possible to adjust the level of the submerged manifolds
after construction is completed, extra effort should be ex-
pended to compact and grade the inlet and outlet zones to
limit subsequent settling. It may be necessary to support
the manifold on concrete footings where the underlying
soils are potentially unstable. An accessible cleanout should
be provided at each end of the submerged manifold to
allow flushing if the manifold becomes clogged. Shut-off
devices should be provided on all inlets to permit mainte-
nance or resting of the wetland.
In FWS wetlands, the encroachment of adjacent emer-
gent vegetation may clog the manifold outlets with plant
litter and detritus. This problem may be eliminated by con-
structing a deep water zone approximately 1-1.3 m (3-4
ft) deeper than the bottom of the rest of the wetland. The
open area should be limited to 1 m (3 ft) in width. The
manifold also can be enclosed in a berm of coarse riprap
8-15 cm (3-6 in) in size. The coarse riprap inhibits plant
growth. The open water design, however, allows easier
access to the manifold for maintenance, but may encour-
age wildlife visitation and the potential effluent quality deg-
radation that accompanies it.
Outlet structures help to control uniform flow through the
wetland as well as the operating depth. If submerged out-
let manifolds are used, they must be connected to a level
control device that permits the operator to adjust the water
depth in the wetland. This device can be an adjustable
weir or gate, a series of stop logs, or a swiveling elbow
(Figure 6-3).
An alternative to submerged manifolds for inlet and out-
let structures is multiple weir or drop boxes. These are
124
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. Cleanout (both ends)
ao
Oo
c£
Control Valve
Gravel
Cleanout
a) Submerged Perforated Pipe
Wire Mesh Gabion
with 60- 100mm Stones
b) Gabion Feed
Level Surface
So\\ Cover over Liner
F^N\ Swivelling
I -K\ Tees
Back-filled
with Stones
Wre Mesh Gabion (optional)
with 60- 100mm Stones
90° Tees with "O" Ring Seals Inlet
c) Swivel Tee
Figure 6-2. Examples of constructed wetland inlet designs
125
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Outlet
Adjustable
Weir
Debris
Screen
- Adjustable Weir
Outlet
Debris
Screen
a) Adjustable Weir
Wire Mesh Gabion (optional)
with 60- 100mm Stones
Liner
Slotted Pipe
Collector
Wire Mesh Gabion (optional)
with 60 - 100mm Stones
Slotted Pipe
Collector
"O" Ring Joint
c) 90° Elbow Arrangement
Interchangeable Section
of Pipe Fits "O" Ring Socket
b) Interchangeable Section
Figure 6-3. Outlet devices
126
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usually constructed of concrete, either cast in place or pre-
fabricated. Several boxes must be installed across the width
of the wetland to ensure uniform flow through the wetland.
Preferred spacing varies from 5 to 10 m (15-30 ft) but may
be as much as 15 m (50 ft) on center depending on the
width of the wetland cell. Overflow rates should be limited
to <200 m3/m-d (16,000 gpd/ft2). Drop boxes do require a
deep water zone immediately around them to minimize
vegetation encroachment. In northern climates, the boxes
are more susceptible to freezing than are submerged mani-
folds.
Debris screens may be placed in front of FWS wetland
outlets. In Figure 6-3 there is an example of their place-
ment in the outlet. The emergent vegetation in the wetland
will drop many leaves, and storm events can uproot entire
plants that float to the collection manifolds or outlet struc-
tures. The screens will prevent the debris from clogging
the downstream piping or treatment processes or impair-
ing effluent quality.
6.2.1.6 Media
A soil or finer-rock medium is necessary as a matrix in
both FWS wetlands and VSB systems for supporting emer-
gent vegetation. In FWS wetlands, a layer of soil at least
15 cm (6 in) deep is placed on the compacted bottom or
liner to create the rooting medium for the intended emer-
gent vegetation. This soil can be the topsoil removed dur-
ing initial site preparation and grading or can be imported.
Any loamy soil with acceptable agronomic properties is
suitable.
In VSB systems, the media provide the matrix for water
flow as well as the planting medium. Gravel is the most
commonly used media, but sand, crushed rock, and plas-
tic media also have been used (Kadlec and Knight, 1996).
Large gravel media are typically recommended to prevent
clogging, whereas a smaller media layer can be used on
top of a bed of larger gravel to provide a better rooting
media (see Chapter 5).
Most local sand and gravel suppliers have concrete ag-
gregate available that can be screened for the coarse frac-
tions to provide an acceptable media for VSB systems.
The media should be washed to eliminate soil and other
fines that can contribute to media clogging. Rounded river
gravel is recommended over sharp-edged crushed rock
because of the looser packing that the rounded rock pro-
vides. Hard, durable stone (river gravel or crushed stone)
is recommended. Crushed limestone, which is soft and
easily disintegrates, should be avoided.
6.2.2 Vegetation Establishment
Vegetation and its litter is necessary for successful per-
formance of FWS wetlands and contributes aesthetically
to the appearance of both FWS wetlands and VSB sys-
tems. Establishing this vegetation is probably the least fa-
miliar aspect of wetland construction for most contractors.
In recent years, a number of specialty firms have emerged
with the expertise for selecting and planting the vegetation
in these systems. Employing one of these firms is recom-
mended for large projects if the construction contractor
does not have prior wetland experience.
6.2.2.1 Species Selection and Sources
For wastewater treatment, macrophytes selected for
planting should (1) be active vegetative colonizers with
spreading rhizome systems, (2) have considerable biom-
ass or stem densities to achieve maximum velocity gradi-
ent and enhanced flocculation and sedimentation, and (3)
be a combination of species that will provide coverage over
the broadest range of water depths encountered (Allen et
al., 1990).
Wetland plants can be purchased from nurseries, col-
lected in the wild, or grown for a specific project. No gen-
eral recommendation can be made as to the best source
of plants for a particular project. However, wild collected
plants are usually the most desirable because they are
more closely adapted to local environmental conditions,
can be planted with limited storage, and offer a greater
diversity. For large projects, commercial seedlings may be
the most cost-effective alternative. The seedlings are sup-
plied in suitable planting condition that allows use of me-
chanical agricultural equipment for planting.
6.2.2.2 Planting
Establishing vegetation in a constructed wetland involves
planting a suitable propagule at the appropriate time. Whole
plants or dormant rhizomes and tubers are typically planted.
Seeding has not been particularly successful because of
stratification requirements of wetland seed and loss of seed
from water action.
In temperate climates, the prime planting period begins
after dormancy has begun in the fall and ends after the
first third of the summer growing season has passed. The
planting period for herbaceous vegetation is broader than
for woody plants. Early spring growing-season plantings
have been the most successful (Allen et al., 1990).
Planting seedlings or clumps is the simplest method.
Some experience is necessary with rhizomes to identify
the node of the future shoot, which must be planted up-
ward. Special anchoring may be necessary when the plant-
ing medium is soft, plants are buoyant, or erosion will dis-
turb the system. The soil should be maintained in a moist
condition after planting. The water level can be increased
slowly as new shoots develop and grow. The water level
must never be higher than the tips of the green shoots or
the plants will die.
The macrophyte planting density can be as close as 0.3
m (1 ft) centers or as much as 1 m (3 ft). The higher the
density, the more rapid will be the development of a ma-
ture and completely functional wetland system. However,
high density plantings will increase construction costs sig-
nificantly. If planted on 1 m (3 ft) centers, a wetland sys-
tem will take at least two full growing seasons to approach
equilibrium and optimal plant-related performance objec-
127
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tives. FWS wetlands should be planted more densely ow-
ing to the role of the plants in the treatment process. How-
ever, it may not be economical to plant very large FWS
wetlands on 1 m (3 ft) centers if the total wetland area is
intended to cover several thousand hectares. In such
cases, plantings should be done in separate bands ex-
tending the full width of the wetland cells to interrupt pref-
erential flow of wastewaterthrough the cells. VSB systems
can be planted less densely.
Water must be provided during the initial growth period.
This can be complicated in large FWS wetlands because
it may not be possible to plant the entire surface in a cell at
one time. If mechanical equipment is used for planting,
the unplanted areas should be kept dry until planting is
complete. Since the bottom is sloped toward the discharge
end, planting should start at the outlet and proceed toward
the inlet. Sprinklers and shallow flooding have been used
to keep the planted areas wet. If planting by hand, the whole
area can be flooded with a few centimeters of water. The
water depth can be increased gradually as the plant shoots
grow until the design level is reached. If the FWS wetland
is designed to treat a high-strength influent such as pri-
mary treated wastewater, a cleaner water source or dilut-
ing the wastewater with storm water or well water is rec-
ommended forthe initial planting and growth period so the
plants are not overly stressed. If the intended influent is
close to secondary quality, it can be used immediately. If
an acceptable agronomic soil has not been used as the
rooting media, a preliminary application of commercial fer-
tilizers may be necessary. Use of fertilizers should be care-
fully considered, however, because of the potential impacts
of the nutrients that might escape in the effluent to the
receiving water.
In VSB systems, it is typical practice to flood the wetland
cell to the surface of the media prior to planting and to
maintain that level until significant growth has occurred.
Later, the water level is lowered to the intended operating
level. If the wetland is designed to treat septic tank or pri-
mary effluent, clean water is recommended forthe plant-
ing phase. The high oxygen demand of the wastewater
could inhibit initial plant growth. After a few weeks of plant
growth, wastewater can be introduced. A layer of straw or
hay mulch 15 to 20 cm (6-8 in) in thickness should be
placed on the gravel surface to protect the new plants from
the high summer surface temperatures that can occur on
bare gravel surfaces. The mulch also is useful for provid-
ing thermal insulation during the first winter of operation in
northern climates.
6.3 Start-up
Start-up periods for FWS wetlands are necessary to
establish the flora and fauna associated with the treatment
processes. The start-up period will vary in length depend-
ing on the type of design (FWS wetlands or VSB systems),
the characteristics of the influent wastewater, and the sea-
son of year. In FWS wetlands, the start-up period should
be sufficient forthe vegetation to become well established
if the treatment objectives are to be met. The start-up pe-
riod for VSB systems is less critical since its performance
is less dependent on vegetation.
6.3.1 Free Water Surface Wetlands
FWS wetlands will not attain optimum performance lev-
els until the vegetation and litter are fully developed and at
equilibrium. The time required to reach this point is a func-
tion of the planting density and season of the year. A wet-
land with a high density planting that is started in the spring
is likely to be fully developed by the end of the second
growing season. A wetland with a low density planting
started in late fall in a northern climate may require three
years or more to achieve its intended treatment perfor-
mance.
Under ideal conditions, start-up of a FWS wetland should
be delayed six weeks after planting to provide sufficient
time forthe emergent plants to acclimatize and grow above
the working water level. When this is not possible, start-up
must control the water level at less than plant height. How-
ever, such rapid start-up will risk damage to the new plants
and may prolong the time required for the system to reach
optimum performance.
When start-up is initiated, the water level must be gradu-
ally raised to the design level by adjusting the flow control
device at the outlet of each cell. This is done to allow the
tops of the emerging vegetation to remain above water. If
the influent is high strength, such as primary or septic tank
effluent, it may be necessary to dilute the influent with clear
water or recycle treated effluent to slowly increase the
pollutant loadings to the wetland until the vegetation is
acclimatized.
During the start-up period, the operator should inspect
the wetland several times per week. Plant health and
growth should be observed, berms and dikes inspected
for structural problems, water levels adjusted, and mos-
quito emergence noted. In large areas of a FWS system
where growth of the vegetation has failed, the macrophytes
should be replanted to avoid the risk of short-circuiting of
flow. The experience developed during this period will be
helpful in determining the inspection frequency that will be
required during the mature phase of the wetland.
Treatment performance during the start-up period may
not be representative of long-term expectations. Poorly
established FWS wetlands with minimal vegetation will not
perform acceptably. Influent TSS and associated pollut-
ants will not be properly removed. Large open areas will
permit algae blooms. The system will not perform differ-
ently from a maturation pond, in that only pathogen kill will
likely occur. Removal efficiency of TSS and its associated
pollutants can be expected to improve as the plant canopy
develops and increases in density. Removals of ammonia
and phosphorus may be greater during the start-up period
than after equilibrium is reached in new FWS wetlands,
which have a new soil surface and rapidly growing veg-
etation. Both conditions provide a rapid but short-term re-
moval of these nutrients. Adsorption sites on soil particles
128
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can take up both ammonia and phosphorus, and the nutri-
ent uptake by the plants during the rapid growing phase
can be significant. Within one ortwo years of start-up, how-
ever, removal of phosphorus will decline. Removal of am-
monia nitrogen will decline also unless the system is a
FWS with substantial open areas.
6.3.2 Vegetated Submerged Bed Systems
Treatment in VSB systems is primarily BOD and TSS
removal through the trapping of particulate material in the
media. Some BOD removal may be reintroduced from bio-
chemical methanogenisis of captured organic solids in the
anaerobic environment. Biological denitrification also may
occur if nitrates are present in the influent. Plants may take
up nutrients in the wastewater, but this is usually not sig-
nificant. Phosphorus removal during the start-up period will
occur, but typically becomes minor as chemical exchange
sites on the media are filled. Since the plants play an in-
significant role in the treatment performance, equilibrium
should be reached in less than one year unless high-ca-
pacity media is employed.
During the start-up period, the operator is primarily re-
sponsible for adjusting the water level in the wetland. Typi-
cally, the VSB systems will be filled to the surface of the
media at the end of planting. As the plants begin to root,
the water level can be gradually lowered to the design
operating level. It may be necessary to add fertilizer dur-
ing this period until sufficient nutrients are made available
by the addition of wastewater.
6.4 Operation and Maintenance
Constructed wetlands are "natural" systems. As a result,
operation is mostly passive and requires little operator in-
tervention. Operation involves simple procedures similar
to the requirements for operation of a facultative lagoon.
The operator must be observant, take appropriate actions
when problems develop, and conduct required monitoring
and operational monitoring as necessary. The most criti-
cal items in which operator intervention is necessary
areAdjustment of water levels
• Maintenance of flow uniformity (inlet and outlet struc-
tures)
• Management of vegetation
• Odor control
• Control of nuisance pests and insects
• Maintenance of berms and dikes
6.4.1 Water Level and Flow Control
Water level and flow control are usually the only opera-
tional variables that have a significant impact on a well-
designed constructed wetland's performance. Changes in
water levels affect the hydraulic residence time, atmo-
spheric oxygen diffusion into the water phase, and plant
cover. Significant changes in water levels should be in-
vestigated immediately, as they may be due to leaks,
clogged outlets, breached berms, storm water drainage,
or other causes.
Seasonal water level adjustment helps to prevent freez-
ing in the winter. In cold climates, the water levels should
be raised approximately 50 cm (18 in) in late fall until an
ice sheet develops. Once the water surface is completely
frozen, the water levels can be lowered to create an insu-
lating air pocket under the ice and snow cover to maintain
higher water temperatures in the wetland (Kadlec and
Knight, 1996; Grits and Knight, 1990). This procedure is
used for both FWS wetlands and VSB systems.
6.4.2 Maintenance of Flow Uniformity
Maintaining uniform flow across the wetland through in-
let and outlet adjustments is extremely important to achieve
the expected treatment performance. The inlet and outlet
manifolds should be inspected routinely and regularly ad-
justed and cleaned of debris that may clog the inlets and
outlets. Debris removal and removal of bacterial slimes
from weir and screen surfaces will be necessary. Sub-
merged inlet and outlet manifolds should be flushed peri-
odically. Additional cleaning with a high-pressure water
spray or by mechanical means also may become neces-
sary.
Influent suspended solids will accumulate near the in-
lets to the wetland. These accumulations can decrease
hydraulic detention times. Overtime, accumulation of these
solids will require removal. VSB systems cannot be
desludged easily without draining and removing the me-
dia. Therefore, VSB systems should not be considered for
treating wastewaters with high suspended-solids loads,
such as facultative pond effluents, which have high algal
concentrations.
6.4.3 Vegetation Management
Routine maintenance of the wetland vegetation is not
required for systems operating within their design param-
eters and with precise bottom-depth control of vegetation.
Wetland plant communities are self-maintaining and will
grow, die, and regrow each year. Plants will naturally spread
to unvegetated areas with suitable environments (e.g.,
depth within plant's range) and be displaced from areas
that are environmentally stressful. Operators must control
spreading into open water areas that are intended by de-
sign to be aerobic zones through harvesting.
The primary objective in vegetation management is to
maintain the desired plant communities where they are
intended to be within the wetland. This is achieved through
consistent pretreatment process operation, small, infre-
quent changes in the water levels, and harvesting plants
when and where necessary. Where plant cover is deficient,
management activities to improve cover may include wa-
ter level adjustment, reduced loadings, pesticide applica-
tion, and replanting.
Harvesting and litter removal may be necessary depend-
ing on the design of the system. Plant removal from some
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FWS wetlands may be required to meet the treatment
goals, but a well-designed and well-operated VSB system
should not require routine harvesting. Harvesting of
Phragmites at the height of the growing season and just
before the end of the growing season does help to remove
some nitrogen from the system, but phosphorus removal
is limited (Suzuki et al., 1985). Winter burning of vegeta-
tion can be used to control pests.
6.4.4 Odor Control
Odors are seldom a nuisance problem in properly loaded
wetlands. Odorous compounds emitted from open water
areas are typically associated with anaerobic conditions,
which can be created by excessive BOD and ammonia
loadings. Therefore, reducing the organic and nitrogen
loadings can control odors. Alternatively, aerobic open
water zones interspersed in areas between fully vegetated
zones introduce oxygen to the system. Turbulent flow struc-
tures such as cascading outfall structures and channels
with hydraulic jumps, which are employed to introduce
oxygen into the system effluent, can generate serious odor
problems through stripping of volatile compounds such as
hydrogen sulfide, if the constructed wetland has failed to
remove these constituents.
6.4.5 Control of Nuisance Pests and
Insects
Potential nuisances and vectors that may occur in FWS
wetlands include burrowing animals, dangerous reptiles,
mosquitoes, and odors. An infestation of burrowing ani-
mals such as muskrats and nutria can seriously damage
vegetation in a system. These animals use both cattails
and bulrushes as food and nesting materials. These ani-
mals can be controlled during the design phase by de-
creasing the slope on berms to 5:1 or using a coarse riprap.
Temporarily raising the operating water level may also dis-
courage the animals. Live trapping and release may be
successful, but in most cases it has been necessary to
eliminate the animals. Fencing has had little success.
Dangerous reptiles are common in the southeastern
states. The most common are snakes, particularly the water
moccasin, and alligators. It is difficult to control these ani-
mals directly. Warning signs, fencing, raised boardwalks,
and mowed hiking trails can be used to minimize human
contact with the animals. Operators should be made aware
of the dangers and preventive actions that can be taken to
avoid dangerous situations.
Mosquito control is a critical issue in FWS wetlands. In
warm climates, wetlands have been seeded with mosquito
fish (Gambusia) and dragonfly larvae to control mosqui-
toes. Mosquito fish also can be used in northern climates,
but they need to be restocked each year. However, mos-
quito fish have difficulty reaching all parts of the wetland
when the accumulation of litter is too dense, particularly if
cattails are grown. Other natural control methods have in-
cluded erecting bat and bird houses. Desirable birds in-
clude purple martins and swallows. Bacterial larvicides,
BTI (Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis), and BS Bacillus
sphaericus) have been used successfully in a number of
wetlands.
6.4.6 Maintenance of Berms and Dikes
Berms and dikes require mowing, erosion control, and
prevention of animal burrows and tree growth. When the
wetland is operated at a shallow depth, periodic removal
of tree seedlings from the wetland bed may be necessary.
If the trees are allowed to reach maturity, they may shade
out the emergent vegetation and with it the necessary con-
ditions to enhance flocculation, sedimentation, and deni-
trification.
6.5 Monitoring
Routine monitoring is essential in managing a wetland
system. In addition to regulatory requirements, inflow and
outflow rates, water quality, water levels, and indicators of
biological conditions should be regularly monitored and
evaluated. Monitoring of biological conditions includes
measurement of microbial populations and monitoring
changes in water quality, percent cover of dominant plant
species, and benthic macroinvertebrate and fish popula-
tions at representative stations. Overtime, these data help
the operator to predict potential problems and select ap-
propriate corrective actions.
6.6 References
Allen, H.H., G.J. Pierce, and R. Van Wormer. 1990. Consider-
ations and techniques for vegetation establishment in con-
structed wetlands. In: D.A. Hammer (ed.) Constructed wet-
lands for wastewater treatment, municipal, industrial and
agricultural. Chelsea, Ml: Lewis Publishers, Inc.
Grits, M.A. and R.L. Knight. 1990. Operations optimization. In:
D.A. Hammer (ed.) Constructed wetlands for wastewater
treatment, municipal, industrial and agricultural. Chelsea,
Ml: Lewis Publishers, Inc.
Kadlec, R.H. and R.L. Knight. 1996. Treatment wetlands. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press LLC.
Rumerand Mitchell, 1996. Assessment of barrier containment
technologies. NTIS report* PB 96-180583.
Suzuki, T, A.G. Wathugala, and Y. Kurihara. 1985. Preliminary
studies on making use of Phragmites australis for the re-
moval of nitrogen, phosphorus, and COD from the waste
water. UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme in Ja-
pan, Coordinating Committee on MAB Programme, pp. 95-
99.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1993. Report of
workshop on geosynthetic clay liners. EPA/600/R-93/171.
Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1994. Seminar
Publication: Design, operation, and closure of municipal
solid waste landfills. EPA/625/R-94/008. Office of Re-
search and Development, Cincinnati, OH.
130
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Chapter 7
Capital and Recurring Costs of Constructed Wetlands
7.1 Introduction
The major items included in capital costs of constructed
wetlands are
• Land costs
• Site investigation
• Clearing and grubbing
• Excavation and earthwork
• Liner
• Media
• Plants
• Inlet structures
• Outlet structures
• Fencing
• Miscellaneous piping, pumps, etc.
• Engineering, legal, and contingencies
• Contractor's overhead and profit
Most of these costs are directly dependent on the de-
sign treatment area of the system, and the unit costs for
almost all are essentially the same for FWS and VSB sys-
tems. The major difference between the two concepts is
the media cost (Table 7-1). In the case of a VSB, a 60 cm
(2 ft) depth of gravel typically fills the bed, whereas the
medium for a FWS wetland consists of 15 cm (6 in) or
more of topsoil used as growth media for the wetland veg-
etation.
7.2 Construction Costs
7.2.1 Total Construction Costs
The cost data in this report were obtained from site vis-
its to nine operational constructed wetland systems and
from related published sources. The nine systems were
Arcata, CA; Gustine, CA; Mesquite, NV; Ouray, CO; West
Jackson County, MS; Mandeville, LA; Sorrento, LA;
Carville, LA; and Ten Stones, VT. This group includes four
FWS wetlands and five VSBs with design flows ranging
from 0.3 to 175 L/s (6,700 gpd to 4 mgd). The start-up
dates forthese subsystems range from 1986 (Arcata, CA)
to 1997 (Ten Stones, VT). In order to provide a common
base for comparison, all costs have been adjusted with
the appropriate Engineering News Record (ENR) Construc-
tion Cost Index (CCI) factor to August 1997 (ENR CCI =
5854).
Unfortunately, it is not possible to extract the individual
line-item construction costs listed in Table 7-1 for most
existing wetland systems because their construction con-
tracts were let as lump sum bids for entire projects. In many
cases, the situation is further confounded since the lump
sum bids also may include preliminary treatment compo-
nents, pumping stations, and community collection sys-
tems. In addition, local conditions and site characteristics
also significantly affect wetland system costs. VSB wet-
lands in southern Louisiana, for example, pay a high price
for imported gravel since none is available locally. Some
existing wetland systems were converted from existing la-
goon cells. In these cases, the costs for clearing and grub-
bing and excavation and earthwork would be minimal. As
a result of these factors, it is not possible to derive general
nationally applicable cost-per-hectare unit cost. The best
that can be achieved is a range of costs that may be use-
ful for an order-of-magnitude preliminary estimate.
Table 7-2 presents a summary of technical and cost data
for the nine constructed wetland systems included in the
EPA case study visitations. The costs listed in the table
are the estimated construction costs for the wetland com-
ponent in each system at the time the system was con-
structed. It is difficult to draw general conclusions from the
data because of the many variables involved. The sys-
tems listed were designed with different design models and
procedures to achieve different water quality goals, so the
relationship between the treatment areas provided and the
design flow rates is not meaningful. The only nearly con-
sistent factor is that land costs were zero in all cases ex-
cept Ouray, CO, because the land was already in the pos-
session of the system owner. The costs given are based
on actual construction costs and do not include a factor for
system design or site investigation. In most cases, the site
investigation costs for these nine systems were minimal
131
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Table 7-1. Cost Comparison of 4,645 m2 Free Water Surface Constructed Wetland and Vegetated Submerged Bed
Free Water Vegetated
Surface Wetland Submerged Bed
Item
Excavation/
Compaction
Soil (45 cm)
Gravel (60 cm)
Liner (30 mil PC)
Plants
Plumbing
Control Structures
Other
Units
m3
m3
m3
m2
Each
Lump sum
Lump sum
Lump sum
Unit Price
$2.30
$1.30
$20.95
$3.75
$0.60
Total Cost ($)
13,000
2,800
Na
19,250
7,500
(60cm o.c.)
7,500
7,000
10,000
67,050
% of Total
19.4
4.2
—
28.7
11.2
11.2
10.4
14.9
100.0
Total Cost ($)
13,000
na
51 ,900
19,250
13,330
(45 cm o.c.)
7,500
7,000
10,000
121,980
% of Total
10.7
—
42.6
15.8
10.9
6.1
5.7
8.2
100.0
1 4,645 m2 = 50,000 ft2
Table 7-2. Technical and Cost Data for Wetland Systems Included in 1997 Case Study Visitations
Location
Startup
Date
Area
(hectares)
Flow
(rrWs)
No.
Cells
Liner1
Berm
Const2
Land
Cost
Const.
Cost
$/m2
Adj. Cost3
$/m2
Free Water Surface Wetlands
Arcata, CA
Gustine, CA
Ouray, CO
W.J.C. MS
1986
1987
1993
1997
3.0
9.8
0.9
20.2
66.2
22.8
8.7
54.8
3
24
4
7
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
$0
$0
$55,000
$0
$225,000
$882,000
$108,500
$700,000
7.43
9.04
12.16
3.44
Vegetated Submerged Beds
1A 'No' response is compacted native soil or pre-existing pavement
2A 'No' response had pre-existing lagoon berms
Adjusted to August, 1997 costs (ENR CCI = 5854)
Hectares = 2.47 acres; rrWs = 22.83 mgd; m2 = 10.76 ft2
10.12
12.27
13.02
3.44
Carville, LA
Mandeville,LA
Mesquite, NV
Sorrento, LA
Ten Stones, VT
1986
1990
1991
1991
1997
0.3
2.3
1.9
0.07
0.04
3.4
34.2
9.1
1.14
0.16
1
3
12
1
2
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$100,000
$590,000
$515,000
$75,000
$40,000
38.64
26.05
27.13
103.44
84.66
52.64
32.18
32.83
125.18
89.66
since information pertaining to soil characteristics and ground
water conditions was already available.
There is some evidence of economy of scale in the tabulated
data; the 20.2-hectare (50-acre) FWS wetland expansion at West
Jackson County, MS, is the largest system listed and had the
lowest unit cost. Contributing factors are believed to be the lack
of a liner and minimal berm construction because of the small
number of relatively large cells selected for this project (seven
cells). Ouray, CO, had the highest unit costs listed for FWS wet-
lands. This system required the use of a membrane liner and
had significant construction costs for berms because of the num-
ber of small cells, in this case four cells on 0.89 hectares (2.2
acres). The system at Gustine, CA, shows a higher unit cost
than Arcata, CA, primarily due to the extra berm construction
involved. Other sources indicate that the cost per hectare for
large FWS systems is about one-third the cost of smaller FWS
wetlands, similar to the range presented in Table 7-2. The con-
struction costs for FWS wetlands might therefore range from
about $34,600 per hectare to $237,200 per hectare ($14,0007
acre to $96,000/acre in 1997$), depending on the size of the
system, the number of cells and berms, and the need fora mem-
brane liner. The size of the system will depend on the water-
quality goals and local climatic conditions. Additional costs will
include any site investigation and engineering design, pre- and/
or post-treatment components, means for transferring waste-
water to the treatment site and effluent from the site, and land
costs.
Economy of scale is apparent forthe five VSB systems listed
in Table 7-2. The average unit cost for the two smallest sys-
tems is at least twice that of the three larger systems. An-
132
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other major factor in these cost differences is due to the
significant differences in the local costs of the rock and
gravel media used. Sorrento, LA, for example, used
crushed limestone imported from Mexico because speci-
fied aggregate was not available in that part of Louisiana.
In comparison, Mesquite, NV, used available media from
a nearby gravel pit. Local gravel also was available for the
Ten Stones, VT, system, but the system is conservatively
designed for the cold winter climate and has a higher unit
cost than Mesquite, NV. If the Sorrento costs are omitted,
the construction costs for VSB wetlands may range from
$321,200 per hectare to $897,000 per hectare ($130,0007
acre to $363,000/acre in 1997$), depending on the size of
the system, the need fora liner, and the local costs of gravel.
The size of the system will depend primarily on the water-
quality goals and to a lesser degree on local climatic con-
ditions. Additional costs will include any site investigation
and engineering design, pre- and/or post-treatment com-
ponents, means for transferring wastewaterto and/orfrom
the treatment site, and land costs. These costs for VSB
wetlands are significantly higherthan the highest costs cited
for FWS wetlands.
7.2.2 Geotechnical Investigations
Only four of the systems listed in Table 7-2 did not utilize
any preliminary geotechnical investigations. Three of these,
Arcata, CA; Gustine, CA; and Mesquite, NV, utilized exist-
ing lagoon cells, and the underlying soil conditions were
presumably already known. The fourth system, Ten Stones,
VT, was relatively small, and the state regulatory agency
required a membrane liner regardless of the underlying
soil characteristics, so a geotechnical investigation was
not considered necessary. The other five systems utilized
some shallow borings to verify expected soil conditions at
the wetland site. The only system that retained cost data
for this activity was Mandeville, LA, where approximately
$15,000 was allocated in 1989 for site surveys and soil
borings in the wetland area. The updated cost for survey-
ing and soil borings at the Mandeville wetland site would
be about $2,720 per hectare ($1,100/acre) in 1997$.
7.2.3 Clearing and Grubbing
Three of the systems listed in Table 7-2 required clear-
ing and grubbing as part of their site preparation. Techni-
cal details and related costs are listed in Table 7-3. The
cost data in Table 7-3 are compatible with experience in
the general construction industry. Costs for clearing and
grubbing on relatively level land can range from $4,940
per hectare ($2,000/acre) for brush and some small trees
to $12,355 per hectare ($5,000/acre) for a tree-covered
site. Campbell and Ogden (1999) indicate southwestern
costs at $2,965 per hectare ($1,200/acre).
7.2.4 Excavation and Earthwork
Excavation and earthwork typically includes grading the
wetland site to finished grade, constructing berms and
access ramps, and in the case of FWS wetlands, reserv-
ing and replacing topsoil in the bed to serve as the vegeta-
tion growth medium. Table 7-4 summarizes available cost
data from the 1997 survey.
An economy of scale is expected for earthwork costs
and is evident in the data for the small Ten Stones, VT,
project where excavation costs were three times greater
than the larger municipal-sized systems. All three sites
listed were on relatively level land, with soils ranging from
clay at West Jackson County, MS, to silty loam at Ten
Stones, VT. The average cost for the two municipal sys-
Table 7-3. Clearing and Grubbing Costs for EPA Survey Sites
Location
Site Area
(hectares)
Total
Cost
Cost/
Hectare
Adj. Cost1
($/hectare)
West Jackson Co., MS2
Sorrento, LA3
Ouray, CO4
20.2
1.6
2.0
$100,000
$7,000
$22,700
$4940
$4325
$11,120
4940
5235
12,050
'Adjusted to August, 1997 $ (ENR CCI = 5854
2Ground cover: brush and sparse tree seedlings
3Ground cover: brush
4Ground cover: trees
Hectares = 2.47 acres
Table 7-4. Excavation and Earthwork Costs for EPA Survey Sites
Location
W. Jackson Co., MS
Gustine, CA
Ten Stones, VT
Site Area
(hectares)
20.2
9.7
0.04
Quantity
(m3)
52,000
34,400
355
Total
Cost
$408,000
$200,000
$8,200
$/Hectare
20,165
20,600
184,200
$/m3
7.85
5.81
23.16
Adj. Cost1
($/m3)
8.29
8.03
23.16
'Adjusted to August, 1997 $ (ENR CCI = 5854
Hectares = 2.47 acres
m3 =
yd3
133
-------
terns shown is about $8.17 per cubic meter ($6.25/yd3).
About one-third of that cost could be assigned to excava-
tion of the wetland bed to grade (on relatively level land),
with the remainder for berm and ramp construction and
reservation and replacement of topsoil for the FWS sys-
tem. Campbell and Ogden (1999) suggest $1.96 to $3.27
per cubic meter ($1.50 to $2.50/yd3) as a default value for
preliminary estimates.
7.2.5 Liner Costs
A variety of materials, including the in situ native soils,
have been used as liner material depending on the re-
quirements of the regulatory agencies. The majority of the
systems listed in Table 7-2 utilized the existing on-site soils
fortheir liner material. Two of the remaining systems listed
in Table 7-2 used plastic membrane liners. Table 7-5 sum-
marizes these costs. These costs reflect the economy of
scale available for larger systems. The unit cost at Ouray
was $5.27 per m2 ($0.49/ft2), while $10.01 per m2 ($0.93/
ft2) was found at Ten Stones (1997$). Ouray used a 30-mil
HOPE liner, and Ten Stones used a prefabricated 30-mil
PVC liner. Other liner materials are also available, and typi-
cal large system costs for some of these are presented in
Table 7-6. Where soils are rocky, a geotextile fabric or layer
of sand may be necessary beneath the synthetic liner to
protect it from punctures. The liner will add $0.54 to $0.86/
m2 ($0.05 to $0.08/ft2) to the costs presented in Table 7-6.
The costs of compaction and testing of clay liners can ex-
ceed $3.23/m2 ($0.30/ft2).
Table 7-5. Liner Costs for EPA Survey Sites
Location
Treatment Area
(hectares)
Total
Cost
Cost/
Hectare1
Adj. Cost2
($/hectare)
Ouray, CO
Ten Stones, VT
1.363
0.045
$64,000
$4,500
$46,930
$100,175
52,725
100,175
1 Represents cost per hectare of treatment area. Actual liner area is
larger to cover berms, etc.
Adjusted to August, 1997 $ (ENR CCI = 5854)
3Lined area at Ouray, CO includes lagoons and wetland cells.
Hectares = 2.47 acres = 10,000 m2
Table 7-6. Typical Installed Liner Costs for 9,300 Square Meter
(100,000 ft2) Minimum Area
Liner Material $/m2
Bentonite (9.8 kg/m2 and harrowed in place)
Clay impregnated geosynthetic
Asphalt concrete
Butyl rubber (50 mm thickness)
PVC (30 mil)
HOPE (40 mil)
Hypalon (30 mil
Hypalon (60 mil)
PPE (30 mil)
Reinforced PPE (30 mil)
XR-5
0.52-0.60
0.37-0.60
0.60-0.75
0.60
0.28-0.40
0.35-0.40
0.55
0.60-0.70
0.58-0.60
0.65
0.85-0.92
m2 = 10.76 ft2
7.2.6 Media Costs
The media in a FWS wetland are the soils placed on top
of the prepared bottom of the bed which serve as the growth
medium for the emergent vegetation in the system. A simi-
lar layer of topsoil is also usually applied to the berm slopes
to allow their revegetation. Placement of these soil layers
is usually included in the earthwork costs previously dis-
cussed.
The media used in a VSB are the gravel or rock placed
in the bed. They serve to support the growth of the vegeta-
tion and to provide physical filtration, flocculation, sedimen-
tation, and surfaces for attached microbial growth and ad-
sorption to occur. Several different sizes of rock and gravel
can be used in these systems. At the sites visited in the
EPA study, medium-sized gravel, 20-25 mm in diameter
(0.75-1 in), was used for treatment. Coarser rock, 40-50
mm in diameter (1.5-2 in), was used to surround the inlet
and outlet manifolds, and a layer of pea gravel, 5-10 mm
in diameter (1/4-3/8 in), was sometimes used to cap the
gravel in the treatment bed. Coarse stone, 10-15 cm in
diameter (4-6 in), is sometimes used to coverthe exposed
liner on the side slopes and to reduce the risk of burrowing
animals. The unit cost of these materials depends on the
size of the material, the volume needed, and the distance
from the source to the wetland site. The media is usually
the most expensive part of the construction of a VSB, po-
tentially representing 40 to 55% of total construction costs
(Table 7-1). Table 7-7 summarizes the costs forthese ma-
terials as derived from the 1997 site visitations.
The local availability of gravel and the transport distance
to the VSB site are the key factors influencing media costs.
As a result, the cost data in Table 7-7 should only be used
for preliminary estimates. Local sources should be con-
tacted for a detailed construction cost estimate. Based on
the data in Table 7-7, the media costs (for the main bed)
range from $74,130 to $133,440 per hectare ($30,000 to
$54,000/acre) depending on the local availability of suit-
able material.
7.2.7 Plants and Planting Costs
Plant materials sometimes can be obtained locally by
cleaning drainage ditches. It is also possible to develop an
on-site nursery at the wetland construction site if there is
sufficient advance time, or grow plant sprigs or seedlings
from seed and transplant these to the wetland cells. A large
and expanding number of commercial nurseries also exist
and can supply a large variety of plant species forthese
wetlands systems. The majority of the systems listed in
Table 7-2 were planted with commercial nursery stock.
Small systems are typically planted by hand; large sys-
tems can use mechanical planters, and nursery-grown
sprigs or plant seedlings are advantageous for the pur-
pose. Hydroseeding has been successful with Typha seeds
(Gearheart et al., 1998). Table 7-8 summarizes available
cost data for plants and planting from the 1997 survey sites.
Campbell and Ogden (1999) quote a range of $0.50 to
$1.00 per plant in place as a default value, while Gearheart
et al. (1998) estimate $12,355 per hectare ($5,000/acre)
for a total planting cost.
134
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Table 7-7. Media Costs for VSBs from EPA Survey Sites
Location
Mesquite, NV
Carville, LA
Ten Stones, VT
Media Size
(mm)
Bed: 10-25
Top: 20
Bed: 40-75
Top: 10
Bed: 20-25
Outlets: 50
RipRap: 100
Media Depth
(m)
0.8
0.15
0.60
0.15
0.60
0.60
0.12
Media Quantity
(m-Vhectare)
8,140
1,525
6,100
1,523
6,095
725
445
Cost
($/m3)
10.99
27.14
20.21
25.07
12.01
7.85
18.31
Cost
($/hectare)
89,380
41 ,325
123,160
38,180
73,180
5,680
8,130
Adj. Cost1
($/hectare)
108,230
44,735
133,320
38,180
73,180
5,680
8,130
'Adjusted to August, 1997 $ (ENR CCI = 5854)
rrWhectare = 1.89 yd3/acre
Table 7-8. Costs for Wetland Vegetation and Planting from EPA Survey Sites
Location
Ten Stones, VT
Plant
Type
Cattails
Bulrush
Plant
Density
(no./hectare)
35,830
35,830
Planting
Method
Hand
Hand
Plant Cost
($/plant)
0.23
0.23
Planting Cost
($/hectare)
Not available
Not available
Adj. Planting
Cost1
($/hectare)
Not available
Not available
Mandeville, LA
Carville, LA
Sorrento, LA
Gustine, CA
Ouray, CO
Bulrush
Pickerel Weed
Arrowhead
None
Bulrush
Cattails
Cattails
Bulrush
15,000
34,595
34,595
None
46,950
11,860
13,465
13,465
Hand
Hand
Hand
None
Mechanical
Mechanical
Hand
Hand
Not available
Local sources
Local sources
None
Not available
Not available
Local sources
Local sources
2,965
2,470
2,470
None
3,460
1,975
Not available
Not available
'Adjusted to August, 1997 costs (ENR CCI = 5854)
Table 7-9. Costs for Inlet and Outlet Structures from EPA Survey Sites
3,670
3,370
3,370
None
4,595
2,695
Not available
Not available
West Jackson Co., MS
Mesquite, NV
Arcata, CA
Cattails
Bulrush
Bulrush
11,860
Not available
9,885
Mechanical
Hydroseeding
Hand
0.38
Not available
Not available
4,450
Not available
Not available
4,450
Not available
Not available
Location
West Jackson Co., MS
Carville, LA
Gustine, CA
Ten Stones.VT
Structure Type
Concrete box
Concrete box
Concrete box
100mm PVC manifold
Weir Type
Bolted plate
Shear Gate
Stop log
None
Cost
($/structure)
2,500
3,900
1,125
1,500
Adj. Cost1
($/structure)
2,500
4,400
1,500
1,500
'Adjusted to August, 1997 $ (ENR CCI = 5854)
7.2.8 Cost of Inlet and Outlet Structures
The inlet and outlet structures for most small- to moder-
ate-sized wetland systems are typically some variation of
a perforated manifold pipe. Large wetland systems typi-
cally use multiple drop or weir boxes for both inlets and
outlets. Adjustable water level outlet structures should be
used to control the water level in the wetland cell. If the
outlet is a pipe manifold, a water level-control structure
must be added, which should cost about the same as a
weir box. Table 7-9 summarizes the available cost data
from the 1997 survey.
7.2.9 Piping, Equipment, and Fencing
Costs
These items include the piping to transfer the wastewa-
ter to the wetland, the piping from the wetland to a dis-
135
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charge point, and any pumps required for either of those
purposes. Fencing is typically installed around all munici-
pal wastewater treatment systems, but has not usually been
required around the smaller VSB wetland beds due to the
low risk of public contact and exposure to the wastewater.
None of these features are unique to wetland systems,
and costs for these items were not available at the sites
included in the 1997 EPA survey.
7.2.10 Miscellaneous Costs
These costs include engineering design and legal fees,
construction contingencies, and profit and overhead for the
construction contractor. These costs are not unique to
wetland systems and are usually expressed as a percent-
age of the total construction costs when preparing an esti-
mate. Mobilization and bonding are also typically included
in the construction costs. Typical values for miscellaneous
costs are as follow:
• Mobilization, 5% of direct costs
• Bonds, 3% of direct costs
• Engineering design services, 15% of capital costs
• Construction services and start-up, 10% of capital costs
• Contractor's overhead and profit, 15% of capital costs
• Contingencies, 15% of capital costs
The following example illustrates the application of these
factors. Assume direct project construction costs (i.e., la-
bor, materials, equipment, etc.) are $300,000, therefore:
Direct construction costs
Mobilization, 5%
Bonds, 3%
Capital cost of construction
Engineering, 15%
Start-up, 10%
$300,000
$15,000
$9,000
$324,000
$48,600
$32,400
Overhead, profit and contingencies, 30% $97,200
Total capital costs
$502,200
7.2.11 Construction Cost Summary
The major cost factors for both VSB and FWS wetlands
are compared in Table 7-10. The tabulated data are drawn
from previous tables for an assumed 0.405 hectare (one
acre) wetland with a membrane liner. The cost data are in
terms of dollars per hectare, and the percentage data are
percent of total cost. The latter can be used to determine
which system components are likely to be the most ex-
pensive. The cost data shown do not include the costs of
the land, mobilization, fencing, landscaping, pre- or post-
treatment units, or the transfer piping to and from the wet-
land site, and should only be used for preliminary, order-
of-magnitude cost estimates.
The cost of gravel media for the VSB is the most expen-
sive item in Table 7-10, followed by the membrane liner for
both types of wetlands. The cost of the gravel media in the
VSB controls the cost regardless of the type of liner used.
If site conditions allow for the compaction of native clay
soil to produce an acceptable ground water barrier in lieu
of a synthetic membrane liner, then the liner costs can be
eliminated. In this case, perforated pipe manifolds for inlet
and outlet structures are used instead of concrete weir
boxes.
7.3 Operation and Maintenance Costs
The operation and maintenance of constructed wetland
systems designed for wastewater treatment are relatively
simple and require minimal time. They are similar to, but
somewhat more than, the O&M requirements for a facul-
tative pond. Most of the operator's time at a wetland treat-
ment system is spent servicing pumps, headworks, disin-
fection, and other conventional components in the process.
Animal (i.e., nutria, muskrats) control, vector (mosquitoes)
control, and NPDES monitoring are probably the most time-
consuming aspects of wetland operation and maintenance.
Crites and Ogden (1998) report the operating costs for FWS
constructed wetlands and VSBs range from $0.10 to $0.30
and $0.04 to $0.08, respectively, per 3,785 L (1,000 gal) of
treated water.
At the FWS wetland system at Ouray, CO, the O&M re-
quirements for the wetland are as follows:
• Check berms for animal Once per week
damage and erosion
• Check and clean effluent Once per week
debris screens
• Observe and adjust water Once per month
levels and flow rates
• Remove sludge from inlet As required
zone
• Flush manifold pipes As required
Mosquito control
As required by local
health authorities
The 1997 monthly operating costs forthe complete treat-
ment system (aerated lagoon, FWS, chlorination/dechlori-
nation) at Ouray, CO, were
• Power for lagoon aerators $1,400
• Lagoon sludge removal and disposal 800
• Miscellaneous supplies 125
• NPDES laboratory tests 300
• Wages 1,083
• Total $3,708
136
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Table 7-10. Range of Capital Costs for a 0.4 Hectare (Membrane Lined VSB and FWS Wetland)
Item
Vegetated Submerged Bed (VSB)
Low Cost Range High Cost Range
Cost1 Percent Cost1 Percent
($/hectare) of Total ($/hectare) of Total
Free Water Surface (FWS)
Low Cost Range High Cost Range
Cost1 Percent Cost1 Percent
($/hectare) of Total ($/hectare) of Total
Survey /Geotechnic
Clears Grub2
Earthwork3
Membrane Liner4
30 mil PVC
40 mil PE
40 mil PPE
45 mil Reinf. PPE
60 mil Hypalon
XR-5
Media
Plants & Planting7
Control Structures
Plumbing & Fencing
Totals:
2,718
4,942
18,039
37,807
43,243
53,869
64,494
69,931
102,301
129,483s
8,649
4,942 8
17,297
233.87710
1.2
2.2
8.1
16.9
—
—
—
—
—
57.8
3.9
2.2
7.7
100
5,436
12,355
29,900
43,243
48,432
59,305
69,931
80,803
113,174
199,413s
17,297
16,062
17,297
410.93511
1.3
3.0
7.3
—
—
—
—
—
27.5
48.5
4.2
3.9
4.2
100
2,718
4,942
18,039
37,807
43,243
53,869
64,494
69,931
102,301
16.0626
8,649
39,5379
17,297
145.05010
1.9
3.4
12.4
26.1
—
—
—
—
—
11.1
6.0
27.3
11.9
100
5,436
12,355
29,900
43,243
48,432
59,305
69,931
80,803
113,174
20,01 56
17,297
39,600
17,297
255,01 211
2.1
4.8
11.7
—
—
—
—
—
44.4
7.8
6.8
15.5
6.8
100
'Adjusted to 1997 dollars (ENR CCI = 5854)
2Clearing and grubbing costs are higher for sites with large trees
3Earthwork (excavation and compaction) costs are typically 2.00 to 3.25 per m3. A 0.9 m deep excavation was assumed.
4For rocky soils, add 5,435 to 8,645 per hectare to the costs presented. For a site employing a minimum of 9,300 m2 of liner, deduct 5,435. Delete
the costs for the liner if native clay liner is used.
5Reported cost range is for 60 cm of gravel media with 15 cm of pea gravel. Gravel costs typically range from 17 to 26 per m3 within 20 miles of the
project. Longer delivery distances will increase the cost.
6Assumes 15 cm of topsoil over the wetland bottom.
7Planting costs are typically 0.50 to 1.00 per plant. Values shown are for planting at 2.5 sq. ft centers. Adjust cost if different spacing is used.
8122 m of 100 mm diameter PVC manifold plus one water level control box
9Eight concrete weir box structures for inlets/outlets
10Uses 30 mil PVC liner
"Uses XR-5 liner
0.405 ha = 1 acre
The tasks specifically related to the wetland components
are estimated to require about 16 hours per month or about
$3,000 per year. On an areal basis, this equates to $3,370
per hectare per year ($1,364/acre per year) for this 0.89-
hectare (2.2-acre) wetland system. These wetland costs rep-
resent about 7% of the total O&M costs for the entire treat-
ment process. If more rigorous testing than the minimal
NPDES testing were required, then monitoring could become
the most expensive cost of all O&M categories shown.
The annual O&M expenses at the VSB system in Carville,
LA (0.15 mgd), are shown in Table 7-11. At Carville, the an-
nual costs directly associated with the wetland components
are estimated to be $650 per year or $2,500 per hectare per
year ($1,015/acre per year). These costs are about 6% of
the total O&M costs for the entire treatment system.
The 1996 O&M costs for the Gustine, CA, sewer depart-
ment were about $433,275, which included bond repayment,
engineering fees, and other contractual services. A single
major expense was $152,402 for electrical power for pumps
and the lagoon aerators. The direct O&M costs forthe sewer
system, the lagoons, and the wetland were $280,873. Since
the wetland O&M tasks at Gustine are similar to those previ-
ously described for Ouray and Carville, it can be assumed
that the cost percentage determined at those systems is also
applicable at Gustine. Using a 7% factor, the annual wetland
O&M costs at Gustine would be $19,661 or approximately
$2,025 per hectare per year ($819/acre per year).
At Arcata, CA, it is estimated that the O&M tasks directly
related to the wetlands require 20 minutes of operator time
per day or 122 hours per year. The major tasks are weir
adjustments and berm inspections. At an assumed cost of
$30 per hour (including benefits, incidentals, and support
costs), the annual O&M costs forthe Arcata wetlands would
be $1,205 per hectare per year ($488/acre per year).
Forthe small system at Ten Stones, VT (6,700 gpd), one-
half hour per month is estimated to inspect the system and
pumps and to adjust water levels if necessary. These efforts
will be voluntary on the part of the corporation members, so
there will be no actual cost for the service. However, if a
contractual service were retained at the previously assumed
rate of $30 per hour, the annual maintenance costs would
be $4,043 per hectare per year ($1,636/acre per year).
The remainder of the systems included in the 1997 EPA
Survey (West Jackson County, MS; Mandeville, LA; Mes-
quite, NV; and Sorrento, LA) did not have recorded data for
separate wetland O&M costs, and estimates were not pro-
vided. Table 7-12 summarizes the O&M cost data that was
available.
It is not possible to divide the total annual O&M costs shown
in Table 7-12 into ranked categories forthe major O&M tasks.
The major O&M tasks are visual inspections of the berms
and of plant health, and adjustments in water levels and other
flow-control structures as required. Both nutria and musk-
137
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Table 7-11. Annual O&M Costs at Carville, LA (570 m3/d) Veg-
etated Submerged Bed
Annual Cost
Item (1997$)
Electricity
Lagoon aerators
UV disinfection
Miscellaneous
Maintenance
Repair berms (30 man-hours)
Maintain UV system (60 man-hours)
Berm grass cutting (50 man-hours)
Parts & Supplies
Aerators
UV System
Flow meter
NPDES Monitoring
Labor (192 man-hours)
Materials
Total
4,080
316
350
478
956
797
230
800
25
3,209
350
11,591
Table 7-12. Annual O&M Costs for Constructed Wetlands
Location
Design Flow
(rrWd)
Treatment Area
(hectares)
Cost
($/ha-yr)1
Ouray, CO (FWS) 1375
Gustine, CA (FWS) 3785
Ten Stones, VT (VSB) 25
Carville, LA (VSB) 565
0.89
9.71
0.05
0.26
3370
2025
4045
2510
11997$
rats can cause physical damage and leakage in the berms
and can destroy, as well as some insects, the plant cover in
the wetland cells. If routine visual observations indicate
damage, a more intense O&M effort will be necessary for
repair and animal or insect control.
Active mosquito control may be an issue in California
and in the southwestern and southeastern states, and the
FWS system O&M costs will increase accordingly. None
of the systems listed in Table 7-12 were making special
efforts for either animal or mosquito control. On a long-
term basis, it will be necessary to remove accumulated
sediment from the wetland cells when it begins to interfere
with the hydraulic performance of the system. A ramp for
this purpose should be included in the design and con-
struction of each wetland cell.
7.4 References
Campbell, C.S. and M.H. Ogden. 1999. Constructed wet-
lands in the sustainable landscape. New York, NY: John
Wiley and Sons.
Crites, R.W and M.H. Ogden. 1998. Costs of constructed
wetlands systems. Presented to WEFTEC, WEF 71st
Annual Conference, Orlando, FL.
Gearheart, R.A., B.A. Finney, M. Lang, and J.Anderson.
1998. A comparison of system planning, design, and
sizing methodologies for free water surface constructed
wetlands. In: 6th International Conference on Wetland
Systems for Water Pollution Control. IAWQ.
Middlebrooks, E.J., C.H. Middlebrooks, J.H. Reynolds, G.Z.
Waiters, S.C. Reed, and D.B. George. 1982. Waste-
water stabilization lagoon design, performance, and
upgrading. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co.
138
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Chapter 8
Case Studies
In 1997, a series of site visits to constructed treatment
wetlands was performed forthe U.S. EPA to compile back-
ground information and assess performance of free water
surface (FWS) and vegetated submerged bed (VSB) wet-
lands. Edited versions of these site visit reports are pre-
sented in this chapter to enrich the reader's understand-
ing with insight gained from actual construction and op-
eration of treatment wetland systems. Most quantifying
terms are expressed in English units. Conversion factors
are as follows:
• 1 acre = 0.405 ha
• 1 mgd = 3,780 m3/d
• 1 ft = 0.3m
• 1 gal/day-ft2 = 4 cm/d = 0.004 m3/m2-d
• 1 in = 2.54 cm
• 1 Ib = 0.454 kg
8.1 Free Water Surface (FWS) Constructed
Wetlands
8.1.1 Arcata, California
8.1.1.1 Background
Arcata is located on the northern coast of California about
240 miles north of San Francisco. The population of Arcata
is about 15,000. The major local industries are logging,
wood products, fishing, and Humbolt State University. The
FWS constructed wetland located in Arcata is one of the
most famous in the United States.
The community was originally served, starting in 1949,
with a primary treatment plant that discharged undisinfected
effluent to Arcata Bay. In 1957, oxidation ponds were con-
structed, and chlorine disinfection was added in 1966. In
1974, the State of California prohibited discharge to bays
and estuaries unless "enhancement" could be proven, and
the construction of a regional treatment plant was recom-
mended. In response, the City of Arcata formed a Task
Force of interested participants, and this group began re-
search on lower-cost alternative treatment processes us-
ing natural systems. From 1979 to 1982, research con-
ducted at pilot-scale wetland units confirmed their capabil-
ity to meet the proposed discharge limits. In 1983, the city
was authorized by the state to proceed with development,
design, and construction of a full-scale wetland system.
Construction was completed in 1986, and the system has
been in continuous service since that time.
The wetland system proposed by the city was unique in
that it included densely vegetated cells dedicated fortreat-
ment followed by "enhancement" marsh cells with a large
percentage of open water for final polishing and habitat
and recreational benefits. This combined system has been
successful since start-up and has become the model for
many wetland systems elsewhere.
Two NPDES permits are required for system operation:
one for discharge to the enhancement wetlands for pro-
tection of public access and one for discharge to the bay.
The NPDES limits for both discharges are BOD 30 mg/L
and TSS 30 mg/L, pH 6.5 to 9.5, and fecal conforms of 200
CFU/100 ml. Since public access is allowed to the en-
hancement marshes, the state required disinfection prior
to transfer of the pond/treatment marsh effluent. The state
then required final disinfection/dechlorination prior to final
discharge to Arcata Bay. The effluent from the final en-
hancement marsh is pumped back to the treatment plant
for this final disinfection step.
The basic system design forthe treatment and enhance-
ment marshes was prepared by Dr. Robert Gearheart and
his colleagues at Humbolt State University. The design was
based on experience with the pilot wetland system that
was studied from 1979 through 1982.
The pilot wetland system included 12 parallel wetland
cells, each 20 ft wide and 200 ft long (L:W 10:1), with a
maximum possible depth of 4 ft. These were operated at
variable hydraulic loadings, variable water depths, and
variable initial plant types during the initial phase of the
study. Hardstem bulrush (Scirpus validus) was used as
the sole type of vegetation on all cells. The inlet structure
for each cell was a 60° V-notch weir, and the outlet used
an adjustable 90° V-notch weir, permitting control of the
water depth. Heavy clay soils were used for construction
of these cells, so a liner was not necessary and seepage
was minimal. The second phase of the pilot study focused
on the influence of open water zones, plant harvesting,
and kinetics optimization for BOD, TSS, and nutrient re-
139
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moval. Some of the cells, for example, were subdivided
into smaller compartments with baffles and weirs along
the flow path. The results from these pilot studies not only
provided the basis for full-scale system design but have
contributed significantly to the state-of-the-art for design
of all wetland systems.
The full-scale treatment wetlands, with a design flow of
2.9 mgd, utilize three cells operated in parallel. Cells 1
and 2 have surface areas of about 2.75 acres each (L ~
600 ft, W« 200 ft), and cell 3 is about 2.0 acres (L « 510 ft,
W« 170 ft). The original design water depth was 2 ft, but
at the time of the 1997 site visit for this report they were
being operated with a 4-ft depth. Hardstem bulrush was
again used as the only plant species on these treatment
marshes. Clumps of plant shoots and rhizomes were hand
planted on about 1-m centers. Since nutrient removal is
not a requirement for the full-scale system, the treatment
marshes could be designed for a relatively short detention
time primarily for removal of BOD and TSS. The HOT in
these three cells is 1.9 d at design flow and a 2-ft water
depth. These treatment marshes were designed to pro-
duce an effluent meeting the NPDES limits for BOD and
TSS (30/30 mg/L) on an average basis. These wetland
cells utilized the bottom area of former lagoon cells. A sche-
matic diagram of the operating system is shown in Figure
8-1.
The final "enhancement" marshes were intended to pro-
vide for further effluent polishing and to provide significant
habitat and recreational benefits forthe community. These
three cells are operated in series at an average depth of
2.0 ft and have a total area of about 31 acres. Retention
time is about 9 d at average flow rates. The first cell (Allen
Marsh), completed in 1981, was constructed on former log
storage area and contains about 50% open water. The
second cell (Gearheart Marsh), completed in 1981, was
constructed on former pasture land and contains about
80% open water. The third cell (Mauser Marsh) was con-
structed in a former borrow pit and contains about 60%
open water. These 31 acres of constructed freshwater (ef-
fluent) marshes have been supplemented with an addi-
tional 70 acres of salt water marshes, freshwater wetlands,
brackish ponds, and estuaries to form the Arcata Marsh
and Wildlife Sanctuary, all of which has been developed
with trails, an interpretive center, and other recreational
features. The shallow water zones in these marshes con-
tain a variety of emergent vegetation. The deeper zones
contain submerged plants (Sago pondweed) that provide
food sources for ducks and other birds and release oxy-
gen to the water to further enhance treatment.
The construction costs for the entire system, including
modifications to the primary treatment plant, disinfection/
dechlorination, pumping stations, and so forth were
$5,300,000 (1985$). Construction costs forthe treatment
wetlands are only estimated to be about $225,000, or
$30,000 per acre, or $78 per 1000 gpd of design capacity
(including removal of sludge from this site, which was pre-
viously a sedimentation pond for an aerated lagoon). This
does not include pumping costs to transfer final effluent
back to the chlorination contact basin, disinfection facili-
Pond
Figure 8-1. Schematic diagram of wetland system at Arcata, CA
140
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ties, orthe pumping and piping costs to reach the enhance-
ment marshes. Land costs also are not included since the
treatment wetlands were located on city-owned property.
8.1.1.2 Financial Arrangements
Construction costs for the Arcata system were funded
by a state/federal construction grant program with a grant
for 85% of the project costs. O&M costs forthe system are
paid with a surcharge on the consumer's water bills.
8.1.1.3 Construction and Start-up Procedures
Three of the final cells in the existing treatment pond
were selected forthe treatment wetlands. This allowed the
use of city-owned land at no cost, a gravity flow connec-
tion from the ponds, and clay soils that eliminated the need
for liners and minimized the earthwork requirements. The
lagoon cells were drained and dried, local fill was placed
to the desired grade, and the wetland bottoms were graded
level. Shallow drainage channels were excavated to per-
mit draining of the cell if desired. Construction of inlet and
outlet structures completed the construction activities. Each
cell has only one inlet and outlet structure. The wetland
effluent was collected from the bottom of the wetland in
each of these structures. The inlet structure has an adjust-
able weir so the flow to the three cells can be balanced.
The outlet weir is not adjustable and was originally de-
signed to maintain a 2-ft water depth in the cell. Prior to
the 1997 site visit, timber sections had been bolted to the
top perimeter of the outlet box. This raised the water level
in the bed and converted this box to a four-sided overflow
weir. This allowed wetland effluent to be decanted from
the top of the wetland rather than off the bottom. The new
4-ft water depth was intended to suppress undesirable plant
species that had started to spread in the wetland.
The treatment wetland cells were hand planted with
hardstem bulrush with clumps of shoots and rhizome ma-
terial planted on about 1-m centers. These plants were
obtained from the pilot wetland channels. The wetland cells
were flooded to a very shallow depth with tap water for
about three months to encourage new plant development
and growth. Wastewaterwas not applied at full depth until
the new plants were 3- to 4-ft tall and construction of the
rest of the system was complete (that is, effluent pump
station and other features).
The enhancement marshes were constructed on avail-
able waterfront land but at some distance from the basic
treatment system, so a pumping station and transmission
piping were required. These enhancement wetlands were
also sited on clay soils, so extensive soils and geotechnical
investigations were not necessary. The grading for these
wetlands was more complex than the treatment wetlands
because berms did not previously exist, and it was de-
sired to produce a wetland with different water depths and
with several nesting islands in each cell. Each of these
cells also contains a single inlet and a single outlet struc-
ture. The final effluent comes through a highly vegetated
zone of emergent macrophytes with no open water. The
final cell is followed by a pumping station to return effluent
to the treatment plant for final disinfection and discharge.
The entire treatment system is operated and maintained
by three operators who work five days per week and are
on call on weekends. The only wetland-related O&M task
is adjustment of the inlet weirs to ensure that flow is prop-
erly balanced and to visually observe the status of the treat-
ment wetlands; this might require 20 minutes per day. With
a total O&M effort of 87 hours per year at an assumed rate
of $30/hr for operator costs, the O&M costs for the treat-
ment wetlands alone would be $2,600 per year. The O&M
costs forthe pumping and the double chlorination would
add significantly to that, but these are unique to the Arcata
system and not generic to all wetland systems. Harvesting
or other special vegetation-management activities are not
practiced at this site.
8.1.1.4 Performance History
Performance data were collected for a two-year period
during the Phase 1 pilot testing program. This program
varied the flow rate and water depth in each of the two
cells to compare BOD removal performance at different
detention times and loading rates that would represent the
potential range for full-scale application at Arcata. These
data are summarized in Table 8-1. The BOD and TSS in
the pond effluent varied considerably during this period,
and not all of the cells were uniformly vegetated. Seasonal
variations in performance were observed, but Table 8-1
presents only the average effluent characteristics for each
of the cells over the entire study period. It is apparent from
the data that the wetlands were able to produce excellent
effluent quality over the full range of loadings and deten-
tion times used.
The long-term average performance of the Arcata sys-
tem is summarized in Table 8-2. It is clear that both the
treatment and enhancement marshes provide significant
treatment for BOD and TSS. The long- term removals fol-
low the pilot project results. Most of the nitrogen is removed
during the final stage in the enhancement marshes. This
is because of the long hydraulic detention time (HRT = 9
d), the availability of oxygen and nitrifying organisms in
Table 8-1. Summary of Results, Phase 1 Pilot Testing, Arcata, CA
(cells 1-4 had received two different hydraulic loading rates for one
year each-the higher loading occurred the first year)
Item
Influent
Effluent:
Cell 1
Cell 2
CellS
Cell 4
CellS
Cell 6
Cell?
CellS
Cell 9
Cell 10
Cell 11
Cell 12
HRT
(Actual)
2.1/10.7
1.5/17
2.7/29
1.5/15
3.7
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.6
3.8
7.6
5.5
HLR
gal/ft2-d
26
5.89/1 .22
5.89/0.5
4.66/0.5
5.39/0.5
2.94
2.4
4.4
2.4
1.71
1.71
1.47
1.47
BOD5
mg/L
37
11
14.1
13.3
12.7
14.0
10.7
13.3
15.3
11.9
12.6
9.4
9.0
TSS FECAL COLI
mg/L CFU/100ml
3183
6.8
4.3
4.7
5.6
4.3
4.0
7.3
7.2
9.4
4.9
5.7
4.3
317
272
419
549
493
345
785
713
318
367
288
421
141
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Table 8-2. Long-Term Average Performance, Arcata VWVTP
Location
Raw Influent
Primary Effluent
Pond Effluent
Treatment Wetlands
Enhancement Marshes
BOD
mg/L
174
102
53
28
3.3
TSS
mg/L
214
70
58
21
3
TN
mg/L
40
40
40
30
3
the open water zones, and anoxic conditions for denitrifi-
cation in the areas with emergent vegetation.
8.1.1.5 Lessons Learned
The treatment wetlands (7.5 acres), with nominal HRTs
of three days, met weekly limits of 30 mg/L BOD and TSS
90% of the time. The enhancement wetlands (28 acres),
with a nominal HRT of 11 days, met weekly limits of less
than 5 mg/L BOD/TSS 90% of the time. Performance of
both wetlands results primarily from proper operation and
appropriate design that involves a combination of emer-
gent vegetation and open water zones. TSS levels are
higher in cell effluents where outlets are located in open
water zones.
Wetland habitat values and opportunities for research
and environmental education provided by the enhance-
ment marshes were optimized to gain state approval for a
near-shore discharge to Arcata Bay. Optimizing ancillary
benefits appears also to have complemented treatment
capabilities.
Nitrogen leaving the treatment wetlands in the ammonia
form is nitrified in the open water zones in the enhance-
ment marshes, where deeper open water zones with sub-
merged stands of Sago pond weed (Potemogeton
pectinatus) produce oxygen, and plant surfaces become
the substrate for attached- growth nitrifying organisms. This
plant also offers important habitat values since it is a ma-
jor food source for many duck species. Long total deten-
tion times (~9 d) and alternating open and vegetated zones
resulted in excellent nitrogen-removal performance.
Duckweed that grows on the open water surfaces is pre-
vented from becoming a permanent duckweed mat by suf-
ficient wind action. In vegetated areas, duckweed does
mat, and it impedes reaeration.
Denitrification takes place in the fully vegetated anoxic
zones in the enhancement marshes.
Most of the fecal conforms in the effluent are from birds
and other wildlife in the marshes and not from wastewater
sources.
Pilot-scale marshes produced better treatment than the
full-scale treatment wetlands, possibly due in part to the
different configurations of the two systems and the possi-
bility for short-circuiting in the larger full-scale cells. A 3:1
aspect ratio for the full-scale cells is acceptable as long as
the influent is uniformly distributed over the full width of
the cell and the effluent collected in a comparable man-
ner.
Short-circuiting probably occurs in the treatment cells,
but this could be corrected by replacing the single-point
inlet and outlet structures with perforated pipe manifolds
extending the full width of the cell.
8.1.2 West Jackson County, Mississippi
8.1.2.1 Background
The West Jackson County (WJC) wastewater treatment
system is owned and operated by the Mississippi Gulf
Coast Regional Wastewater Authority. It is one of several
treatment systems serving communities within the
Authority's boundaries. The system is located near Ocean
Springs, MS, on the north side of 1-10, about 20 miles east
of Biloxi, Mississippi.
The original WJC system included a 75-acre, multiple-
cell facultative lagoon for preliminary treatment followed
by 415 acres of slow-rate (SR) land treatment fields (grow-
ing hay). The land treatment site was underdrained, and a
portion of that recovered water was to be used to supple-
ment dry-weather flow into marshes in the Mississippi San-
dhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge. This system com-
menced operation in October 1987 with a design flow rate
of 2.6 mgd and a 56 d HRT. Problems developed soon
after start-up since the clay soils at the land treatment site
proved not to be as permeable as originally expected. Af-
ter extensive investigations and discussions, the design
consultant agreed to design and construct a supplemental
free water surface wetland to treat the excess flow.
Three parallel wetland units were constructed with a to-
tal area of 56 acres to treat a design flow of 1.6 mgd. The
discharge from this new wetland was to Castapia Bayou,
with NPDES permit limits for BOD at 10 mg/L, TSS at 30
mg/L, NH4-N at 2 mg/L, DO at 6 mg/L, pH at 6.0 to 8.5, and
fecal conforms at 2200/100 mL. Phase 1 of this new wet-
land was placed in operation in 1990 and Phase 2 in 1991.
Figure 8-2 is a schematic diagram of the 56-acre wetland.
Detailed costs are not available for the Phase 1 and 2
wetlands since they were funded privately by the design
consultant as part of the agreement with the Wastewater
Authority. Costs for Phase 3 (2.4 mgd) are available.
The Phase 1 wetland had two cells in series totaling 22
acres. The Phase 2 wetland (set 2) had three cells totaling
21.5 acres and another (set 3) which had two cells with a
total area of 12.5 acres. Local soils were all clays, so a
liner for these wetlands was not required. Bottoms of all
wetland cells were constructed with an average slope of
0.19% in the flow direction. At the end of each cell, mul-
tiple weir boxes were used as outlet structures with ad-
justable weir plates, allowing a maximum water depth in
the outlet zone of up to 2 ft. At the mean depth of 0.75 ft,
the design hydraulic residence times in the three wetlands
were 12.5 d in Phase 1,10.1 d in Phase 2-2, and 10.7 d in
142
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Post Aeration
Cell Area-Acres (hectares)
1A
1B
2A
2B
2C
3A
3B
12
10
10
8
4
9
3
Deep Zones
(4.8)
(4.0)
(4.0)
(3.2)
(1.6)
(3.6)
(1.2)
Weir Boxes
1A
Phase 1
Figure 8-2. Schematic diagram of Phase 1 and 2 wetland systems at West Jackson County, MS
Phase 2-3. The inlets to all three sets of cells used a 12-
inch perforated PVC pipe manifold. The elevation of the
Phase 1 wetland was slightly higher than the lagoon, so it
was necessary to pump lagoon effluent to this wetland.
The Phase 2 wetlands were at a lower elevation, and gravity
was used as the motive force.
A unique feature of this wetland system was the incor-
poration of "deep zones" in each wetland cell. These con-
sisted of trenches excavated perpendicular to the flow di-
rection, with the bottom of the trench excavated about 5 ft
below the general wetland bottom surface. This provided
a water depth of about 6 ft in these "deep zones," which
was sufficient to prevent colonization by the emergent
wetland plants. These trenches are about 20 ft wide at the
bottom and about 40 ft wide at the top. The purpose of
these "deep zones" was to redistribute the flow across the
width of the cell to minimize short-circuiting and to provide
an open water surface for atmospheric reaeration to sup-
ply the oxygen necessary for ammonia removal. The po-
tential open water provided by these zones was only about
10% of the surface area in each wetland cell. The water
surface in these zones also quickly became colonized by
duckweed (Lemna spp.).
In larger open water bodies, duckweed is very suscep-
tible to wind action; as a result, the water surface can re-
main available for atmospheric reaeration. At this location,
with the relatively narrow "deep zones" and the protection
provided by the adjacent emergent vegetation in the shal-
low portions of the marsh, wind was not sufficient to move
the duckweed mat, and oxygen transfer from the atmo-
sphere did not develop.
Because there was insufficient oxygen in the system to
continuously support nitrification reactions, there were sea-
sonal violations (particularly in late summer and early fall)
of the ammonia limits commencing in 1992. Corrective
action for this problem considered an external vertical-flow
filter bed for nitrification and submerged tubing aeration in
the "deep zones" to provide the necessary oxygen. The
latter was selected as the lower-cost alternative and was
installed in 1993. Problems again developed because nu-
tria (an animal similar to a muskrat), which occupy the
wetland in large numbers, were attracted to the air bubbles
and destroyed the aeration tubing by gnawing on it. In sub-
sequent discussions with the State of Mississippi, it was
decided that the ammonia limit would not be enforced until
the Castapia Bayou began to exhibit oxygen stress, so the
aeration tubing was not replaced.
The population is increasing rapidly in the communities
served by this system, and by 1996 the average flow into
these wetland units had reached 2.2 mgd. The Wastewa-
143
-------
ter Authority then authorized an upgrade and expansion of
the facility for a design flow of 5 mgd (1 mgd to land treat-
ment, 4 mgd to wetlands). The design was completed in
1996 and construction began in August 1997. The expan-
sion included modifications to the lagoon (providing aera-
tion and baffles), 50 acres of additional wetland area, a
plastic-media trickling filter bed for nitrification, UV disin-
fection, and additional post-treatment aeration to ensure
adequate DO in the final effluent. The expanded wetland
system is shown in Figure 8-3. The trickling filter compo-
nent has been designed but will not be constructed until
the State of Mississippi decides it will be necessary. Re-
cent data, shown in Figure 8-3, indicate that the open wa-
ter zones appear to be functioning well. A UV disinfection
system was added to the system because the NPDES
permit limits for fecal conforms have been modified to 200/
100 ml in the summer and 2000/100 ml in the winter.
Additional features of the existing Phase 1 and Phase 2
wetlands include post-treatment aeration to satisfy the
NPDES discharge limit for dissolved oxygen (6 mg/L).
Multiple outlet structures with adjustable weirs are used
for cell-to-cell transfer and for final discharges from the
wetlands. A miniature "deep zone" was excavated around
each of these structures to prevent the growth of emer-
gent vegetation in the immediate vicinity, as done for a
FWS system at Fort Deposit, AL. Published design mod-
els were not used in this case, and effluent quality (Figure
8-3) is excellent.
8.1.2.2 Financial Arrangements
The initial lagoon/land treatment system was funded
under a federal/state construction grant program in exist-
ence at the time. The Phase 1 and 2 wetlands were funded
directly by the design consultant. The Phase 3 expansion
was funded through a revolving loan fund as administered
by the State of Mississippi. Total costs forthe entire Phase
3 project are estimated to be $2,758,000 (1997$). This
includes lagoon modifications, UV disinfection, the nitrifi-
cation trickling filter, and post-aeration. The costs for just
the 50 acres of wetland expansion are estimated to be
about $700,000, or $14,000 per acre, or $250 per 1000
gallons of design flow capacity. Land costs for this project
are not included in this estimate since the land already
belonged to the Wastewater Authority. The O&M costs are
funded by a surcharge on each consumer's water bill within
the Authority's service area.
8.1.2.3 Construction and Start-up Procedures
The site for the original lagoon and land treatment site
was selected for its proximity to the Mississippi Sandhill
Crane National Wildlife Refuge, where the treated effluent
could be utilized in refuge marshes. The sites forthe Phase
Post Aeration
Phase 3
50 Acres
(20 ha)
Figure 8-3. Schematic diagram of Phase 3 wetland expansion at West Jackson County, MS
144
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1 and 2 wetlands were selected to take advantage of avail-
able land already owned by the Wastewater Authority and
for proximity to Castapia Bayou for the system discharge
point. As shown in Figure 8-3, the Phase 3 wetlands were
then located to utilize the remaining land available on this
site.
The site investigation for the wetlands included a
geotechnical investigation which indicated that ground
water impacts or intrusion would be minimized by underly-
ing clay subsoil. Borings and test pits verified the pres-
ence of these clay soils throughout the proposed wetland
area. Wetland sites originally were covered with scrub pine
and related ground cover, so clearing and grubbing of the
site was the first construction task. This was followed by
excavation to grade with typical highway construction
equipment and construction of both the external and inter-
nal berms with spoil material from the excavations. A liner
was not necessary due to the low permeability of clay soils,
but geotextiles were used adjacent to the inlet and outlet
structures to prevent erosion. The multiple concrete outlet
and transfer structures were cast in place.
The bulrush (Scirpus spp.) and cattails (Typhaspp.) se-
lected as the vegetation for this wetland system were ob-
tained locally by cleaning drainage ditches within the
Authority's jurisdictional area. The plants were brought to
the site and separated, and shoots were cut to about 1 ft in
length and planted by hand in individually augured holes.
The plants were placed on about 1 -m centers. At that den-
sity, it would require about 227,000 plants to coverthe origi-
nal 56-acre wetland site. Observations at the time showed
that two laborers could prepare and plant about 1,200
plants per day. At that rate it would require about 54 man-
hours per acre to vegetate a wetland bed using this tech-
nique.
As soon as a zone was planted, it was flooded with a
very shallow depth of stream water to encourage plant
growth. Lagoon effluent at the design depth was not ap-
plied for at least 30 days after planting was completed. A
pattern was adopted for Phase 1, on which alternating
bands of bulrush and cattails were planted. This was aban-
doned for Phase 2, so whichever species was available
on a given day was planted; as a result, cattails were the
dominant species in Phase 2.
8.1.2.4 Performance History
At the original 1.6-mgd wetland design flow rate, the
flow was split between the three wetland units: 0.6 mgd to
Phase 1, 0.65 mgd to Phase 2-2, and 0.35 mgd to Phase
2-3. During the period 1992 to 1995, the average effluent
characteristics from the facultative lagoon were BOD 31
mg/L, TSS 33 mg/L, TKN 12.9 mg/L, and NH4-N 4.4 mg/L Dur-
ing this same period, the combined final effluent from the wet-
land units met all NPDES limits on an annual average basis:
BOD 7.5 mg/L, TSS 4.6 mg/L, and NH4-N 1.85 mg/L. On a
monthly basis, there were excursions; the BOD exceeded
permit limits eight times (18%) and ammonia exceeded lim-
its 11 times (25%). The BOD violations were randomly dis-
tributed throughout the period and generally reflected
higher-than-normal loading. A more specific pattern was
shown by the ammonia, with the violations occurring in
late summer and early fall. By 1996 the flow rate to the
wetlands had increased to 2.35 mgd (47% higher than the
original 1.6 mgd design), and the excursions for both BOD
and NH4-N were more frequent. Table 8-3 summarizes per-
formance data for the period January 1996 through July
1997. It would appear from the data in this table that BOD
removal is slightly better in the warmer months, indicating
some dependence.
8.1.2.5 Lessons Learned
The inlet zone was submerged with a significant depth
of water, so the overland flow mode with very shallow sheet
flow did not develop. Ammonia removal provided by the
shallow sheet flow of water and the continuous availability
of oxygen intended for the system did not take place, even
with the weirs at their lowest setting.
"Deep zones" in each cell were intended to provide ad-
ditional oxygen to support nitrification reactions, but this
benefit was not realized when duckweed mats formed over
the surface of the deep zones. A single large "deep water"
zone in each cell, instead of multiple narrow trenches,
should have allowed sufficient duckweed movement to
sustain atmospheric reaeration.
The Phase 3 design provides both a perforated mani-
fold and an open ditch "deep zone" in the inlet area of the
cells to promote proper lateral distribution of the influent
and increased volume to capture incoming TSS.
Bulrush plants had been almost completely removed by
muskrats and nutria using these plants for food and nest-
ing material, but damage to cattails was minor. Damaged
Table 8-3. Wetland Water Quality, West Jackson Co., MS
Date
1996
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
1997
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
BOD5,
In
36
32
36
30
32
38
36
37
32
34
34
20
33
23
43
41
28
47
42
mg/L
Out
10
13
12
14
8
6
3
9
8
8
8
10
13
9
10
9
4
6
4
TSS,
In
28
21
24
18
32
38
42
60
40
90
41
17
18
17
24
23
24
23
43
mg/L
Out
12
10
14
6
5
3
5
12
13
7
5
3
5
6
5
4
2
2
3
NH4-N
In
7
12
9
9
10
18
6
12
2
2
2
1
1
2
16
9
9
1
3
mg/L
Out
4
4
6
6
4
4
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
8
6
7
2
2
145
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sections in Phase 1 were planned to be temporarily drained
and replanted with cattails. In the new Phase 3 addition,
cattails were proposed as the only plant in the bottoms,
and a variety of attractive flowering wetland species were
planned for the inside perimeter of the new cells.
The system supports large numbers of birds and other
wildlife, even though special measures to enhance habitat
values were not taken in Phases 2 and 3.
Birds and other wildlife in the wetlands appear to have a
significant impact on effluent fecal conforms from the sys-
tem, with the final wetland effluent often higher than la-
goon effluent entering the wetland.
8.1.3 Gustine, California
8.1.3.1 Background
Gustine is an agricultural community located in the Cen-
tral Valley of California on the east side of I-5 and about 60
miles south of Stockton. There are several milk-process-
ing industries in the community that impose high organic
loadings on the municipal wastewater treatment system.
The original treatment system consisted of an oxidation
pond with 14 cells operated in series (HRT ~ 56 d, aver-
age pond depth = 4 ft), with final discharge without disin-
fection to a small stream. Approximately one-third of the 1
mgd design flow originates from domestic and commer-
cial sources; the remaining two-thirds come from dairy prod-
uct industries. This combination produces a high-strength
wastewater with an average BOD of about 1200 mg/L and
TSS of 450 mg/L, and these characteristics resulted in fre-
quent violations of the 30 BOD/30 TSS NPDES discharge
limits for the original lagoon system.
In 1981, a Facility Plan for the city was funded under the
Clean Water Act. This plan considered a number of alter-
natives for upgrading the existing treatment system. The
most cost-effective alternative was assumed to be a facul-
tative lagoon followed by a constructed free water surface
(FWS) wetland for final polishing to consistently meet the
NPDES discharge limits. Since design criteria for FWS
wetlands were not well established in 1981, a pilot test to
develop final design criteria was recommended.
A pilot study was approved and was conducted from
December 1982 to October 1983. The pilot system modi-
fied an existing ditch that already contained a stand of cat-
tails. The pilot cell was 39 ft wide and 900 ft long. Partially
treated water was taken from various intermediate pond
cells. The influent to the pilot wetland averaged 180 mg/L
BOD and 118 mg/L TSS. At the operational water depth of
6 in, the HRT in the wetland averaged 2.5 d. The BOD and
TSS in the wetland effluent stabilized at 30 mg/L after the
start-up period. Just prior to the pilot testing, one of the
dairy industries closed and was not expected to reopen.
This resulted in lower-strength wastewaters than had been
previously experienced, and these were expected to pre-
vail in the future. The pilot results were used as the basis
for the design and sizing of the full-scale wetland compo-
nent. Construction of the system commenced in March
1986 and was completed in October 1987.
Three of the 14 existing lagoon cells (plus some addi-
tional adjacent land) were selected as the site for the new
wetland component. This area was converted to 24 wet-
land cells operating in parallel. Each cell had a net area of
about 1 acre and was 38 ft wide and 1107 ft long (L:W =
29:1), similar to the size and the configuration of the pilot
wetland unit. Internal berms constructed to separate the
wetland cells were 10 ft wide and 2 ft deep. An exterior
levee 6.5 ft high was constructed around the entire wet-
land areato provide protection fromthe hundred-yearflood,
as required by the State of California. Influent flow from
the lagoon passes through a distribution box where V-notch
weirs divide the flow into six equal parts. Each part of the
flow is then piped to a group of four cells. Gated aluminum
pipe is used to distribute flow across the width of each cell.
In orderto provide flexibility for high-strength flows, a simple
step-feed arrangement was designed. Pipe manifolds were
located at the inlet to each cell and at the one-third point
along the flow path. Each manifold was valved so the op-
erator could vary the amount of flow applied to each and
thereby avoid an overloaded inlet zone. An adjustable out-
let weir at the end of each cell allows a water depth rang-
ing from 4 to 18 in. These weirs discharge to a common
sewer, and the effluent is then pumped to the chlorine dis-
infection/dechlorination system. At the design flow of 1 mgd,
the design projected an average HRT at higher loading of
about seven days, which could be varied from 4 d in the
summer to 11 d in the winter, depending on the number of
cells in operation and on the water depth used. This op-
erational flexibility allowed for each cell to be taken out of
service each summer for vegetation management or other
O&M, if required. The system is schematically depicted in
Figure 8-4.
At the time this system was designed, the capability to
effectively remove algae in FWS wetland systems was not
clearly established. This issue was a concern since very
high concentrations of algae were known to develop dur-
ing the summer months in some of the lagoon cells at
Gustine. In orderto provide the operatorsome control over
this situation, the new design incorporated separate outlet
structures in each of the last seven cells of the remaining
11-cell (in series) lagoon system. In this way, the operator
could visually observe which cell(s) had the least amount
of algae present and select those for discharge to the wet-
land.
Soon after the 1987 system start-up, the milk-process-
ing industry in Gustine that had been closed for several
years was reopened and full-scale operations commenced.
This imposed a higher than expected organic load on the
treatment system; as a result, the lagoon/wetland system
could not consistently meet the 30/30 (BOD/TSS) NPDES
discharge limits, especially during the winter months. Fol-
lowing consent decree discussions with the U.S. EPA, the
City of Gustine evaluated the performance of the system
and recommended action that would bring the system into
compliance. The major system modification resulting from
this study was the addition of floating aerators to most of
the lagoon cells in order to reduce the organic loading.
146
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a) Overall System - Plan
Wetland
b) Typical Wetland Cell - Plan
C
D
New Outlets
Ponds
E-4 1107ft ^
38 ft fc. f
1 L
Figure 8-4. Schematic diagrams of the wetland system at Gustine, CA
The shallow 4-ft depth of the lagoon cells is not desirable
for efficient aeration but was too expensive to modify. As-
pirator aeration equipment was selected for this project
because of the shallow water depth. This equipment was
installed in 1992, and the lagoon has performed accept-
ably since.
8.1.3.2 Financial Arrangements
Federal and state funding for the facility plan, the pilot
study, and the design and construction of the wetland sys-
tem was provided under the Clean Water Act Construction
Grant Program administered in the early 1980s. The total
construction cost for this wetland system was $882,000
(August 1985$). This includes the cost of the multiple-pond
outlet structures and related piping and the 6.5 ft levee
around the perimeter of the wetland area. On an area ba-
sis (24 acres of treatment area), the cost would be $36,750
per acre. On a design flow basis (1 mgd system), the cost
would be $882 per 1000 gpd of treatment capacity. Land
costs are not included since the area was already owned
by the city. The gross area utilized was about 36 acres for
the wetlands, levees, and disinfection facilities.
For this facility, O&M costs are funded by a surcharge
on the consumer's water bill. The City of Gustine budgeted
$433,275 in 1996 for operation and maintenance of the
wastewater treatment and sewerage systems in the com-
munity. Based on a 1 -mgd design flow, the unit costs would
be $1.19 per 1000 gallons treated. The O&M costs for just
the wetland component are minimal and might represent
less than 10% of the total (e.g., $0.12/1000 gpd).
8.1.3.3 Construction and Start-up Procedures
There were no soils or geotechnical or ground water in-
vestigations at this site prior to or during construction. The
local soils were clays and the existing lagoons are unlined,
and it could therefore be assumed that the wetland cells
would not require lining. The site lay within the flood plain
of a small local stream, and the State of California did re-
quire a 6.5-ft high levee to protect the new wetland system
from the hundred-year flood.
Construction commenced with the draining and drying
of the three existing lagoon cells and clearing and grub-
bing of the adjacent land required to complete the system.
147
-------
The entire wetland area was excavated to grade, with a
flat bottom, and then the interior berms were placed as
fill. Construction of the inlet and outlet structures and
the related piping completed the physical aspects of the
wetland system.
Cattails (Typha latifolia) and tristar bulrush (Scirpus
californicus) were selected for use on this wetland
project. The specifications required that 18 of the cells
would be planted with cattail rhizomes on 3-ft centers,
and the remaining six cells would be planted with bul-
rush rhizomes on 1.5-ft centers. During the first plant-
ing attempt in September 1986, rhizomes of both plant
species were obtained at local natural stands and spread
on the wetland surfaces and disked into the soil. Water
was not available for irrigation and very few plants
emerged the following spring. The second planting at-
tempt occurred in June 1987 and consisted of mechani-
cal planting of cattail seedlings obtained at a nursery.
The bed was then flooded with high-BOD pond effluent.
Almost all of the plants died in a short time. It is be-
lieved this was due to heat stress (the air temperatures
were 100%F) and the high oxygen demand from the
poorly treated water used to irrigate. The contractor also
seeded the wetland area by broadcasting mixed bul-
rush seed (hardstem and tristar). Some live cattail plants
were also transplanted to the wetland beds from local
drainage ditches. These more mature plants survived,
whereas the small seedlings did not. By the fall of 1987,
a few of the cells were almost completely covered with
bulrush plants, but the majority contained random stands
of bulrush and isolated patches of cattails.
As a result of these planting problems, the system
started up in 1987 with insufficient plant cover to pro-
vide the necessary substrate for treatment and an or-
ganic loading that was more than double the design load.
In the spring of 1988, about half of the cells had moder-
ately dense growth over about 75% of the cell area. The
other half of the system contained only random patches
of bulrush and cattails. This situation improved slowly
during subsequent years; at the time of the 1989-1990
wetland evaluation, the wetland cells were still not com-
pletely covered with vegetation.
The hardstem and tristar bulrush gradually spread and
became the dominant species on the system. The wet-
land could be considered to be completely vegetated
since early 1993. However, during the 1997 site visit for
this report, patches of sparse vegetation and some open
water areas were still observed on some cells. As the
density of the vegetation increased, it began to create
hydraulic problems for operation of the system. Flow
through these FWS wetlands is thought to be governed
by Manning's equation. The frictional resistance to flow
through a wetland bed is significantly higher than in a
normal grassed drainage channel since the vegetation
(and litter) exists throughout the full depth of the water
column. This resistance obviously increases and the
length of the flow path increases. A system with a high
aspect ratio (29:1 at Gustine) has the potential to de-
velop a high enough resistance to force the water level
at the inlet to increase very significantly in order to pro-
vide the necessary hydraulic gradient. This occurred at
Gustine, and the water level at the inlets overtopped the
shallow berms. The operator had two options to solve this
problem: increase the height of the berms or reduce the
resistance to flow. He chose the latter course and got per-
mission to burn the vegetation in late fall after senescence.
This immediately solved the hydraulic problem, and burn-
ing has become an annual occurrence at Gustine.
There were no special start-up procedures used at this
system, and pond effluents at the full rate were applied to
all of the wetland cells regardless of vegetation coverage
in the fall of 1987. However, until corrective action was
taken in 1992 to reduce the organic loading in the ponds,
the system frequently did not meet the NPDES discharge
limits.
8.1.3.4 Performance History
As described in the previous section, this system did not
consistently meet the NPDES limits at start-up and for sev-
eral years thereafter. The problem was due to a higher
than expected organic load (particularly in the winter
months) and the lack of significant vegetation coverage
on most of the wetland cells. The vegetation and litter in
these FWS systems serve as the means for enhanced floc-
culation and sedimentation that actually perform the treat-
ment. The importance of this vegetation and litter can be
seen by comparing the data in Table 8-4. These are per-
formance results obtained during the 1989-1990 winter in
the special evaluation study, when several cells in the
Gustine wetlands were isolated and a careful performance
evaluation was conducted over a one-year period. One
cell (#6D in their set) was almost completely vegetated
with bulrush; the other cell (#2A in their set) listed in Table
8-4 was sparsely vegetated with some bulrush and cat-
tails. The influent BOD was slightly different for the two
cells because different source ponds were in use, but dur-
ing the period of concern the influent values were in the
same range. The HRT during this period was about 10 d
for both cells.
This FWS wetland system has had problems in meeting
its NPDES discharge limits since start-up. During the pe-
riod 1987 to 1992, the problem was believed to be an or-
ganic overload on both the lagoon pretreatment and on
the wetland component in this system as evidenced by
the data in Table 8-4. The system design expected a BOD
concentration of 150 mg/L entering the wetland, but the
actual average wetland influent BOD during this initial pe-
riod was close to 300 mg/L, with weekly excursions up to
630 mg/L during the winter months. This problem was com-
pounded by the immature vegetative growth in the wet-
land cells that significantly reduced the flocculation/sedi-
mentation treatment potential. The organic loading prob-
lem was corrected by the addition of aeration capacity to
the lagoon component, and the plant density has gradu-
ally increased on the wetland cells.
148
-------
Table 8-4. Performance Results in Mature Vegetated vs Immature Vegetated FWS Cells, Gustine, CA
Full Vegetation
Month
1989-90
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Avg
Temp
op*
50
43
44
45
56
-
BOD,,
In
54
154
525
483
215
286
mg/L
Out
8
17
35
29
16
21
TSS,
In
72
103
116
79
100
94
mg/L
Out
13
6
24
19
17
16
BOD5,
In
49
150
515
478
185
275
Partial Vegetation
mg/L
Out
20
66
153
123
21
77
TSS,
In
80
104
113
86
94
95
mg/L
Out
24
42
71
49
20
41
'Average water temperature in the marsh cells
Table 8-5 presents current wetland effluent BOD and TSS
values for 1996-1997. Ammonia (NH3) and Kjedahl nitro-
gen (TKN) values also were measured during the first half
of 1996 and are shown in Table 8-5. Wetland influent char-
acteristics were not measured during this period, but the
new aerators in the lagoon cells were operating continu-
ously, so it can be assumed that the organic loading on
the wetland probably does not exceed the original design
expectations. During 1996 the average daily flow into the
treatment system was 1.02 mgd, which is essentially equal
to the design capacity, so the system is not overloaded
hydraulically. It is clear from these data that this wetland
system is still having difficulty meeting the NPDES dis-
charge limits. The effluent BOD exceeded 30 mg/L twice
during 1996 and once during the first half of 1997; the ef-
fluent TSS met the 30 mg/L limit three times during 1996
(25% of the time) and three times during the first half of
1997 (50% of the time).
8.1.3.5 Lessons Learned
Poor performance evident in the 1996-1997 data may
not have been caused by an organic overload, since the
effluent BOD had been significantly below the discharge
limit most of the time, and the few BOD excursions were
relatively small and occurred mostly during the warm
months. Birds and other wildlife may be a contributing fac-
tor. Detritus and similar natural organic materials may also
be a source for the excess TSS.
Plant litter allowed to accumulate in the cells may im-
prove water quality. With the litter burned each year, sol-
ids entrapment must depend on living plants. Also, the
tristar bulrush that dominates many of the wetland cells
has narrow stalks and no leaves, so the plants' surface
area beneath the water surface is minimal, further reduc-
ing entrapment of solids. However, plant litter in the chan-
nels caused hydraulic failure when resistance to flow in-
creased and the cells overflowed their banks at the entry
zone, owing to the excessive L:W ratio.
The hydraulic problem was corrected in 1995 when three
interior berms in each set of four cells were removed and
some of the surplus material was used to increase the
height of the remaining berms. This action reduced the
system to six larger cells, changed the aspect ratio from
26:1 to 5.5:1, and increased water depth near the entry
zone. Removing the three interior berms also opened up
an additional 30,000 ft2 in each of the remaining cells to
serve as part of the wetland.
The initial selection of long, narrow wetland channels
was consistent with wetland design experience available
in 1983-1984, but experience has since shown that proper
treatment can be achieved in FWS wetlands with aspect
ratios as low as 2:1 to 3:1 as long as the system is prop-
erly constructed and the inlet and outlet structures allow
for uniform flow through the system.
Separate outlet structures at seven of the 11 lagoon cells
allow the operator to select the lagoon cell(s) with the least
algae for discharge to the wetland. This technique has been
very effective at algae removal as long as sufficient plants
and litter are present in the wetland, and as long as veloc-
ity of flow in large open water zones is sufficient to prevent
redevelopment and discharge of algae to the FWS sys-
tem.
Toxicity discharge limits imposed by the State of Califor-
nia for un-ionized ammonia could not be met by the exist-
ing pond-wetland system in the present mode of opera-
tion. The existing point discharge is planned to be aban-
doned and the effluent from the wetland component to be
used for irrigation in a slow-rate land-treatment system.
8.1.4 Our ay, Colorado
8.1.4.1 Background
Ouray is located in southwestern Colorado, about 60
miles north of Durango, on State Route 50. Its population
is about 2,500 in summer and about 900 in winter. The
town is at an elevation of 7,580 ft in a mountain valley and
experiences severe winter conditions.
The free water surface (FWS) wetland at Ouray receives
influent from a two-cell aerated lagoon and provides sec-
ondary treatment prior to chlorine disinfection/dechlorina-
tion and final discharge to the Uncompahgre River. The
NPDES monthly average discharge limits are BOD5 30 mg/
L, TSS 30 mg/L, and fecal conforms 6000 CFU/100 mL.
The wetland was designed for an expected winter water
temperature of 3°C and a summer water temperature of
20°C, with a 25% safety factor on sizing for BOD removal,
based on existing design equations.
149
-------
Table 8-5. Wetland Effluent Characteristics, Gustine, CA
Month
Temp. °F
BOD5, mg/L
TSS, mg/L
NH4-N mg/L
TKN, mg/L
1996
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
1997
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
48
54
55
61
64
72
75
70
63
59
52
48
48
50
54
61
66
70
21
20
16
30
29
18
22
47
32
26
28
24
25
22
27
24
22
31
20
22
24
45
57
41
36
71
39
43
42
50
26
27
38
34
26
34
13
16
11
4
3
2
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
15
18
16
7
9
7
15
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
The design flow forthe 2.2-acre wetland system is 0.250
mgd in winter and 0.363 mgd in summer. As shown in Fig-
ure 8-5, the wetland includes two parallel trains with three
cells each. The two trains operate in parallel, and one can
be taken out of service during the summer months for
maintenance if required. The curved configuration of these
wetland cells was selected in part because of the confined
site and in part for aesthetic reasons. The water depth in
the cells is adjustable via the outlet from a minimum of 8 in
to a maximum of 18 in. This water level is increased to the
maximum depth prior to the onset of winter to provide the
maximum possible detention time during the low tempera-
ture periods and to provide additional depth for ice forma-
tion on the water surface during the winter months.
A perforated manifold is used for both inlet and final out-
let structures forthe two sets of cells. Internal transfer from
cell to cell is accomplished with two parallel pipes through
each internal berm. The wetland cells are lined with 30-mil
HOPE membrane liners to prevent seepage since the lo-
cal soils are sandy clay loams. The detention time in the
system depends on water depth and on the presence of
winter ice. At minimum water depth the HRT is 2.2 d; at
maximum water depth without ice, the HRT is 3.8 d. Lo-
cally obtained cattails (Typha spp.) and bulrush (Scirpus
spp.) were planted in the wetland cells. The vegetation is
continuous, and there are no intended open water zones.
The wetland was designed in 1992, constructed during
the spring and summer of 1993, planted in October 1993,
and placed in partial operation in November 1993. It has
been in continuous operation since that time.
The construction costs for the entire system, including
aerated lagoons, chlorine disinfection/dechlorination equip-
ment, and miscellaneous features was $816,530 (1993$).
Construction costs for just the treatment wetlands is esti-
mated to be about $108,500 or $49,300 per acre, or $300
per 1000 gpd of design capacity.
8.1.4.2 Financial Arrangements
The construction costs forthe Ouray system were funded
by a state revolving-loan fund as administered by the State
of Colorado in 1993. O&M costs forthe system are funded
with a surcharge on the consumer's water bills. The total
monthly O&M cost forthe entire system at Ouray is $2,625;
most of this is related to power costs, sludge removal from
the aerated lagoon, and laboratory testing for NPDES
monitoring. The average O&M costs forthe wetland com-
ponent is estimated to be about $200 per month for minor
maintenance tasks.
8.1.4.3 Construction and Start-up Procedures
A geotechnical investigation was undertaken at the site
forthe new wetlands to determine underlying soil proper-
ties and ground water conditions. Soil borings to several
feet below the final wetland grade revealed the presence
of sandy clay loams with sand and gravel inclusions, with
an unconfined ground water aquifer at greater depth. These
soils were typical of the local flood plain and were consid-
ered too permeable, so a membrane liner was selected
forthe wetland.
Clearing and grubbing was the first construction activity
at the new wetland site. This was followed by grading, berm
construction, and liner placement. Priorto liner placement,
the subgrade was leveled and compacted to 90% of Proc-
tor density to preserve the intended grade during subse-
quent construction activities. After the liner was placed,
1.5 ft of local sandy clay loam was placed in the wetland
bottom to serve as the rooting medium for the wetland
vegetation. The curved configuration of the wetland cells
increased construction costs somewhat, but the site was
150
-------
To Discharge
Manifolds
Chlorination/
Dechlorination
Facility
71 x 160' •
^===
58' x 104' -
^^_ -
. 53' x 260'
\ ^
-\
\ 60' x 256'
*A
Transfer Pipes
Manifolds
From Lagoon
Figure 8-5. Schematic diagram of the wetland system at Ouray, CO
too confined to permit construction of a typical rectangular
system with straight sides.
Treatment wetland cells were hand planted by correc-
tional facility inmates with locally obtained bulrush and
cattail plants. The vegetation was planted on about 18-in
centers; at this density about 43,000 plants were required.
The bed was flooded with about 8-in of water and main-
tained in that condition until sufficient new plant growth
was observed. Some wastewater was applied during the
remainder of the 1993 winter, but full-scale operation did
not commence until the spring of 1994.
This system experiences subfreezing air temperatures
for extended periods each winter. An ice cover at least 6-
in thick persists for at least six months.
The inlet and outlet devices for each set of cells are 8-in,
perforated, Schedule 80 PVC pipe. These pipes were laid
in a 2-ft-wide, 18-in-deep trench extending the full width of
the cell. The trench bottom and sides are protected with 2-
to 4-in riprap. One end of each manifold has a 90% elbow
and a capped riser extending above the water surface to
serve as a cleanout if required. The effluent manifolds con-
nect to a concrete outlet structure that contains adjustable
outlet riser pipes for controlling the water level in the cells.
There are no special O&M requirements for these wet-
land units, including harvesting or other plant management
procedures. Raising and lowering the wetland water lev-
els on a seasonal basis and sampling for NPDES compli-
ance are about the only O&M tasks required. There have
been no problems with muskrats or other animals damag-
ing the plants as has occurred at several other wetland
systems. The wetland tasks listed in the O&M manual in-
clude weekly cleaning of effluent debris screens, weekly
checking of berms for erosion or muskrat damage, clean-
ing influent and effluent manifolds as required, and occa-
sional muskrat control. Mosquitoes have not been a prob-
lem at this site.
8.1.4.4 Performance History
It is typical for most small systems, including the Ouray
system, to monitor only for NPDES limits, and for that rea-
son to sample only the untreated (raw) wastewater and
the final effluent. As a result, the actual influent to the wet-
land component is not known. Data from the Ouray sys-
tem for the 1995-1996 period is shown in Table 8-6.
Based on limited data, the aerated lagoon at Ouray is
estimated to remove about 54% of influent BOD5 and 65%
of influent TSS. On that basis, with the average wetland
influent in 1995 at 58 mg/L BOD5 and 63 mg/L TSS, the
wetland achieved an average removal of 83% BOD5 and
90% TSS. In 1996, the average wetland removal percent-
ages were 88% for BOD5 and 91 % for TSS. Wetland aver-
age effluent fecal coliform concentrations during 1995 and
1996 were 570 CFU/100 ml and 1300 CFU/100 ml, re-
spectively. All of the monthly values were well below the
NPDES limit of 6000 CFU/100 ml, so it was not neces-
sary to operate the disinfection/dechlorination equipment
installed at the site.
8.1.4.5 Lessons Learned
• The Ouray system incorporated many improvements
learned from earlier FWS systems, including perforated
151
-------
Table 8-6. BOD & TSS Removal for Ouray, CO
Date
1995
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average
1996
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average
BOD In,
mg/L*
84
78
84
132
66
174
180
216
204
132
96
78
127
90
92
95
60
78
96
162
168
120
126
108
78
106
BOD Out,
mg/L**
5
8
7
9
8
15
14
10
18
16
6
3
10
4
6
2
5
13
11
7
11
5
8
3
2
6
TSS In,
mg/L*
124
122
216
182
152
196
170
316
296
144
146
98
180
176
154
184
178
68
109
334
226
102
127
121
160
162
TSS Out,
mg/L **
11
8
10
5
11
4
5
5
4
6
5
4
6
4
6
2
2
11
6
9
5
4
5
3
4
5
'Untreated wastewater
**Final system (wetland) effluent
manifolds extending the full width of the wetland cells
for inlets and outlets, cleanouts on the ends of these
manifolds, and a simple adjustable outlet structure for
control of the water level in the wetland cells.
• The adjustable outlet structure for water-level control
was essential for the water level to be raised during
the winter months to accommodate expected ice for-
mation.
• Large-sized riprap (4- to 6-in size) as a permanent slop-
ing cover for both the influent and effluent manifolds
excludes clogging debris and prevents algae devel-
opment. This technique precludes periodic cleaning
of a screen over the effluent manifold that would have
been installed to prevent accumulation of debris.
• Bats and dragonflies contribute to mosquito control dur-
ing the warm summer months, so mosquitoes and simi-
lar insect vectors have not been a health problem at
this system.
• Odors occasionally noticed at the inlet end of the wet-
land cells are caused by accumulation of TSS and al-
gae carried over from the final aerated lagoon cell
because the settling zone in this final lagoon cell is too
small to be completely effective.
• Ice cover and snow accumulation have provided ac-
ceptable thermal protection for the FWS system, and
the system has not needed alteration during the win-
ter months. In response to State of Colorado concerns
that FWS wetlands would not sustain acceptable per-
formance during low-temperature winter months, the
lagoon aeration system had been designed to allow
longer operational periods during winter months to
provide additional treatment so the wetland cells could
have been bypassed during winter months, if neces-
sary.
• Chlorination/dechlorination equipment included in the
original design at the insistence of the State of Colo-
rado has not been used, as the wetland effluent has
been consistently below permit limits.
8.2 Vegetated Submerged Bed (VSB)
Systems
8.2.1 Village of Minoa, New York
8.2.1.1 Background
The Village of Minoa is a small residential community of
approximately 3,700 in central New York state east of Syra-
cuse. The average daily flow to the wastewater treatment
plant in 1993 was approximately 0.35 mgd, but peak flows
as high as 1.6 mgd had been recorded. Efforts between
1990 and 1993 to abate the high rates of infiltration and
inflow were unsuccessful, and the Village of Minoa was
forced into a consent order with the New York State De-
partment of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) to
correct discharge violations.
In 1994 the village decided to use a VSB constructed
wetland system to treat primary effluent to secondary ef-
fluent standards, with an ultimate oxygen demand limit that
required at least partial nitrification. The VSB system also
would be used during wet weather conditions to treat
640,000 gpd of wet weather flow. The dry weather capac-
ity of the VSB system was to be 160,000 gpd, but the ac-
tual constructed size of the system was smaller than the
original design, reducing the design capacity to approxi-
mately 130,000 gpd. The treatment goal also was changed
from a BOD5 concentration of less than 30 mg/L and par-
tial nitrification to BOD5 alone.
Two New York state agencies and the U.S. EPA pro-
vided grant funds to the village for incorporation of several
special features in the VSB system and for a research and
technology transfer study of the system by researchers at
Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY.
The VSB system consists of three cells that can be op-
erated in parallel, combined parallel and series, or series
modes. Cells 1 and 2 are approximately the same size
(0.17 ha or 0.42 acres). Cell 3 is significantly smaller and
is irregularly shaped (0.1 ha or 0.25 acres) (Figure 8-6). At
the inlet end, the media depth is 0.5 m and the bottom
surface has a slope of 1%, resulting in a bed depth of ap-
proximately 0.9 m at the outlet end and an average depth
of 0.76 m.The upper 7.6 cm of the beds consist of 0.6 mm
pea gravel, which allowed for the establishment of wet-
152
-------
a) Period One - Continuous Flow in Parallel
area/V
0.17 ha
i
P
^ i
r
s
k
area/V
0.175 ha
f
P | N
2
I
I
> 1
area/V
0.10 ha
f
P | S
3
I
I
^ +
P = Phragmites
S = Scirpus
N = No Plants
b) Period Two - Fill and Drain Flow in Series
S
P
N
0
P
fc.
S
0
P
k.
c) Period Three - Combination Sequence (fill and draw [1 and 2] to continuous 3)
+
P ! S
1
i
f
P i N
2
1
1
Sj
3
1
1
1
P
Figure 8-6. Schematic of Minoa, NY, VSB system
land plants. The larger treatment media have an effective
size of approximately 1.9 cm and a measured porosity of
0.39. The cells are lined with a 60-mil HOPE liner.
Each cell is divided in half longitudinally by an extension
of the liner to the top of the media. Three of the half cells
were planted with Phragmites, two of the half cells were
planted with Scirpus, and the final half cell was left
unplanted. This planting scheme allowed for performance
comparisons of planted versus unplanted cells and Scirpus
versus Phragmites. The system is depicted in Figure 8-6.
In addition to the multicell design and multiple opera-
tional modes, the VSB system at Minoa incorporated sev-
eral other special features, including trilevel observation
well clusters within each half cell, specially designed inlet
weirs, thermistors beneath one of the cell liners and at
various levels within the cell, a dual-level effluent with-
drawal, and an adjustable water-level control.
The specific goals of the research/technology transfer
efforts were the following:
1. Establish optimum hydraulic, organic, and solids
application rates necessary to achieve Village of
Minoa NPDES permit limitations.
2. Conduct testing to determine the impact of wet-event
peak-day hydraulic impacts on treatment perfor-
mance. One of the project objectives was to evalu-
153
-------
ate the performance of the system under the maxi-
mum hydraulic design condition of 640,000 gpd.
3. Conduct tracer dispersion testing to measure actual
bed HRT and "in-place" hydraulic conductivities, to
evaluate impacts due to clogging, and to determine
the extent of short-circuiting.
4. Correlate ambient and wastewater temperature data
with observed removal efficiency for BOD, UOD (Ul-
timate Oxygen Demand), and ammonia nitrogen.
5. Evaluate the effect of plants (vs. no plants) and spe-
cific plants (Scirpus vs. Phragmites) on treatment
performance.
6. Evaluate the effect of vegetative harvesting on nu-
trient removal efficiency.
7. Provide data for calibrating an existing VSB heat-
loss model that predicts the substrate temperature
at various locations in the system.
8. Evaluate effects of series- versus parallel-flow con-
figurations on treatment performance.
9. Conduct a detailed energy audit to establish the
energy benefits of this system in comparison with a
conventional treatment approach.
Construction costs for the system are summarized in
Table 8-7. It should be noted that (1) the work at Minoa
was completed under adverse weather conditions and a
tight construction schedule because of the consent order
requirements, and (2) costs reflect all of the special fea-
tures incorporated in the system for research.
8.2.1.2 Financial Arrangements
The costs of the Minoa wetland system associated with
the research aspects of the project were funded by the
U.S. EPA and the two State of New York agencies. The
remaining capital costs of the project were funded with a
state revolving-fund loan under the innovative and alter-
native system program.
8.2.1.3 Construction and Start-up Procedures
As noted previously, the work at Minoa was completed
under adverse weather conditions and a tight construction
schedule because of the consent order requirements. Dur-
ing the establishment of the wetland plants throughout most
Table 8-7. Village of Minoa VSB Construction Costs (Fall, 1994)
of 1995, the wetland cells received only secondary efflu-
ent from the existing trickling filter.
8.2.1.4
Performance History
Sitework
60 Mil HOPE Liner
Wetland Media
Wetland Plants
Piping & Distribution
Miscellaneous
Total
$135,500
82,500
104,500
29,000
179,000
25,500
$568,000
The performance of the Minoa VSB system in treating
primary effluent can be divided into three periods. During
the first period of January 1996 to March 1997, the system
was operated as a conventional VSB system, with the three
cells in parallel. From April 1997 to March 1998, the three
cells were operated in series and in a sequential fill-and-
drain mode. From March 1998 to the writing of this manual,
the system has been operated in a different fill-and-drain
mode. Two cells, cells 1 and 2, operate in parallel but in
alternating fill-and-drain mode, similarto sequencing batch
reactors. The third cell, cell 3, operates in series-flow, but
with a constant water level, following the other two cells.
Conventional Parallel Operation
The BOD5 removal performance of the Minoa VSB sys-
tem in the conventional mode was very poor when com-
pared with the original design expectations. The three cells
were operated in parallel flow, but with different HRTs. The
performance of the Minoa system in BOD5 removal during
the first 10 months of conventional operation is summa-
rized in several of the figures (identified as CU) in Chapter
5 and can be compared with two other systems. The false
performance expectations forthe system were based on a
design equation developed with limited data, mostly from
VSB systems treating lagoon and pond effluents. The equa-
tion assumed that BOD5 removal performance is depen-
dent on temperature. Pollutant removal was not found to
vary significantly with temperature at Minoa.
The performance of the Minoa VSB system in TSS, TKN,
and total phosphorus removal during this period was simi-
larto the performance of other VSB systems treating sep-
tic tank effluents (see Chapter 5 figures). TSS and BOD
removal were reasonably good, whereas TKN and total
phosphorus removal was quite poor.
Tracer study results from Minoa were also very similar
to tracer study results from other VSB systems. After one
year of operation, a significant fraction of the wastewater
flowed under the shallow root zone of the system. Also
observed were substantial dead volumes and typical
amounts of dispersion within the media.
Comparing the treatment performance of planted and
unplanted half cells, the Clarkson researchers found that
the unplanted half-cell performance was equal to the
planted cells for all pollutants measured. They also found
that the Phragmites cells removed more COD, TKN, and
total phosphorus than the cells planted with Scirpus.
Series-Flow, Sequential Fill-and-Drain Operation
The three cells of the Minoa VSB system were operated
in series-flow, sequential fill-and-drain operation for approxi-
mately 12 months. The operation during this time made
use of the dual effluent piping to achieve the fill-and-drain
154
-------
operation, even though the flow through all three cells was
continuous. The water surface in a cell was controlled by
opening and closing the bottom drain line valve. When the
drain valve was closed, effluent from a cell flowed through
the upper effluent piping.
A typical cycle started with wastewater flowing through
a filled cell 1. The drain valve in cell 1 was opened
while drain valves in the other cells 2 and 3 were
closed. Twenty-four hours later, the drain valve in
cell 1 was closed and the drain valve in cell 2 was
opened. After 24 hours in this configuration, the drain
valve in cell 2 was closed and the drain valve in cell
3 was opened. It should be noted that this mode of
operation was possible at Minoa because of the sig-
nificant drop in elevation from cell 1 to Cell 3. At a
flow rate of 130,000 gpd, the draining of cells 1 and
2 from their upper levels would take four to five hours,
while cell 3 required only three hours. In filling, cells
1 and 2 would require 24 hours, while cell 3 required
12 hours.
The performance in BOD5 removal during the sequen-
tial fill-and-drain operation was significantly better than
during the previous period of conventional operation. Ef-
fluent BOD5 averaged less than 15 mg/L while the system
was treating a much higher flow, and performance improved
during the latter months of the period. TSS removal was
also good, but TKN and total phosphorus removal did not
improve significantly. One of the most important improve-
ments in the operation of the Minoa system during this
period was the reduction in the hydrogen sulfide odors that
had plagued the system during the period of conventional
operation.
Alternating Parallel Fill-and-Drain/Series-Flow Operation
Operation since March 1997 has had cells 1 and 2 oper-
ating in an alternating fill-and-drain mode followed by cell
3 operating in a constant-saturated mode. The pollutant
removal performance for BOD5 and TSS has remained
quite good, and there has been a significant increase in
nitrogen removal performance.
8.2.1.5 Lessons Learned
• Fill-and-drain operation can significantly increase the
BOD5 and nitrogen removal performance of conven-
tional VSB systems.
• BOD5 removal is not temperature dependent in con-
ventional VSB systems.
• Because of the potential for severe odor problems, con-
ventional VSB systems must be designed to have lower
organic loading rates when sited near households.
8.2.2 Mesquite, Nevada
8.2.2.1 Background
Mesquite, Nevada, is located on 1-15 near the Nevada-
Arizona border, about 112 miles east of Las Vegas. The
original treatment system for the community included
coarse screening and aerated facultative ponds followed
by storage ponds and land application on 62 acres of al-
falfa fields. The State of Nevada required an effluent with
BOD at 30 mg/L and TSS at 90 mg/L prior to land applica-
tion. The effluent at the Mesquite facility often exceeded
these limits, so an upgrade was required.
A 1989 facility plan for the upgraded facility recom-
mended an increase in total treatment capacity to 1.2 mgd,
additional aerated lagoons with lagoon effluent to either
overland flow terraces or a VSB, and either of these fol-
lowed by rapid infiltration basins. The VSB concept was
selected for this system because a free water surface
(FWS) wetland would have required a larger land area,
might not have been as effective for algae removal, and
would have been more susceptible to mosquito problems.
The design flow to the VSB was 400,000 gpd, with the
remainder routed from the lagoon to the overland flow
slopes. The existing facultative pond contained multiple
cells, and three of these were selected for conversion to
VSBs. The total VSB area was 4.7 acres.
The modified aerated lagoons were expected to produce
an effluent with about 70 mg/L, and the VSB wetlands were
designed to produce an effluent with 30 mg/L BOD5 in the
coldest month, which was January. The design model used
for BOD5 removal is temperature dependent, so the sys-
tem was sized to produce the target effluent value during
the coldest month. There were no NPDES discharge lim-
its for the VSBs since they were designed to discharge to
rapid infiltration basins and not to a receiving stream.
A schematic plan is shown in Figure 8-7 for one of the
three similarly configured VSB units. Each of the three
parallel units contained four parallel cells as shown on the
figure. The flow path in each of the four cells averaged 50
ft, and the cell width averaged 380 ft. This configuration
produces an average aspect ratio (L:W) of 0.13:1. This
very low aspect ratio was selected following observation
of surface flooding and related problems with VSB sys-
tems in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Oklahoma that had
aspect ratios of 10:1 or more and no provision for the nec-
essary hydraulic gradient to overcome the frictional resis-
tance of a very long flow path. In addition to the short flow
path distance provided at Mesquite, a bottom slope of 1%
was provided for the cell bottoms.
8.2.2.2 Financial Arrangements
Funding for construction of this new system was pro-
vided by a combination of municipal bonds and the State
of Nevada's revolving-loan fund. The total construction
costs for the VSB component at Mesquite was $515,000
(1990$), or $109,600 per acre, or $1,287 per 1000 gallons
of treatment capacity. The area cost is less than the
$178,000/acre (1990$) at the comparable VSB system in
Mandeville, Louisiana (see Mandeville case study), and
the difference is probably due to the higher cost of rock
and gravel in Louisiana. Land and liner costs forthe Mes-
quite project were zero because existing lagoon cells were
155
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In-
it
\~:
x
Tsoft
TT
i 1%
T
50ft
1%
Tsoft ^
Outlet Manifolds
\
Inlet Manifolds
200ft
•Out
380ft
Figure 8-7. Schematic diagram of typical VSB (one of three) at Mesquite, NV
converted to VSB units. The O&M costs are funded di-
rectly by a sewer charge for each connected user; a single-
family connection would pay approximately $8.63 per
month for this service.
8.2.2.3 Construction and Start-up Procedures
Construction of the new system components was com-
pleted in late 1990 and start-up occurred in April 1991.
The original lagoon cells were lined with asphaltic con-
crete. These were prepared forthe new VSB units by drain-
ing and drying, and then placement and compaction of lo-
cal clay soil backfill to a depth of about 2 ft. This backfill
was then graded to provide the desired 1% slope forthe
bottom. This 2-ft of compacted soil also ensured the im-
permeability of the bottoms. The effluent manifolds were
placed and leveled on the bottom prior to gravel bed con-
struction. Gravel forthe bed was transported from the lo-
cal pit, dumped in the wetland cell, and spread with a small
bulldozer. Trenches for the coarse inlet zone rock were
excavated and backfilled after placement of the entire 32-
in-deep gravel layer. The 2-in layer of fine gravel/coarse
sand was then placed on the surface of the bed, with the
exception of the inlet and outlet zones. Posts were then
driven into the gravel layer for support of the distribution
manifold pipes. Construction of external piping, outlet struc-
tures, and pumping stations then completed the work.
Flow distribution to the three VSB units utilized orifice
plates to split the flow, and 8-in perforated pipe manifolds
were used in each cell for both distribution and effluent
collection, as shown in Figure 8-7. The influent pipes were
elevated slightly above the bed surface, and the effluent
manifolds were at the bottom of the bed. The main VSB
bed consisted of a 32-in depth of washed river gravel rang-
ing in size from 0.4 in to 1.0 in obtained at a local gravel
pit. An inlet zone underneath each inlet pipe contains 2-in
to 4-in rockto ensure rapid infiltration and distribution. This
zone is about 3 ft wide at the top and extends the full
depth of the bed. The gravel in the main bed was then
covered with about a 2-in layer of fine gravel/coarse sand
mixture to aid in the germination and growth of the veg-
etation.
There were no soils or geotechnical investigations at
this site since existing lined lagoon cells were to be used
forthe new VSBs. The only geotechnical activity involved
with this project was to find a suitable source forthe rock
and gravel required. The layer of fine gravel/coarse sand
was chosen because the intended method of planting was
hydroseeding. A layer of fine gravel/coarse sand mixture
was placed on top of the gravel in the VSB cells to serve
as a growth substrate forthe intended hydroseeding. The
first bed was hydroseeded in July 1991 at a rate of 25 Ib/
acre of seed mixed with 2500 Ib/acre of mulch fiber. Sprin-
klers were then used to periodically flood the surface of
the bed to encourage germination and growth. By Sep-
tember 1991, only 20% germination could be observed.
Alkali bulrush (Scirpus robustus) was selected as the sole
vegetation type for all of the VSB cells. Again hydroseeding
was attempted but proved not to be successful. Planting
by hand with locally available plant materials (from ditches,
etc.) was successfully completed during the second year
of system operation. In 1997, the VSB cells were com-
pletely covered with healthy vegetation. There is no har-
156
-------
vesting or other vegetation- management procedures at
this site.
Water-level control in two of the three VSB units is pro-
vided by overflow weirs in the outlet structures. In the third
unit, water-level control depends on float-switch settings
for the discharge pump. In addition, the piping and distri-
bution and collection system were designed to operate with
a continuous 0.4 mgd recycle flow (100% of forward flow).
As of August 1997, an additional plant expansion was
underway at the Mesquite system. The city is growing rap-
idly as a retirement/recreational community and a number
of golf courses are under construction or planned. To pro-
vide irrigation water for these golf courses, the wastewa-
ter plant expansion is including an oxidation ditch with ni-
trification/denitrification capability and UV disinfection to
meet the necessary bacterial limits for golf course irriga-
tion. The VSB/overland flow/rapid-infiltration units at Mes-
quite will remain in stand-by use and will be operational
during high-flow winter months.
8.2.2.4 Performance History
The inlet orifice plates were provided to split the influent
flow proportionally to the surface area of each VSB unit
since there were slight variations in the size of the three
units. Table 8-8 presents average VSB performance data
during the period June 1992 through May 1993. Data are
not available on the performance of individual units or cells
within a unit.
Although the system met its effluent BOD target on an
annual average basis, there were monthly variations, as
shown in Table 8-9. However, these excursions had mini-
mal impact on the rapid-infiltration system.
These 1992-1993 performance results were achieved
without recycling VSB effluent. However, at the time of the
1997 site visit, recycle at 400,000 gpd was practiced con-
tinuously and produced essentially the same performance
results shown in the tables. Recycle was only considered
to be essential in the very hot and dry summer months in
order to keep the plants on the beds alive and functional.
In the general case, algae forms in the lagoon and is
separated in the VSB, and the decomposition of the algae
releases additional ammonia and organics. As a result,
the effluent ammonia and organics are elevated due to
internal loading during the warmest periods. Removal dur-
ing the warmer months of the year is believed to be offset
Table 8-8. Summary Performance, Mesquite, Nevada, VSB Compo-
nent, June 1992-May 1993
Table 8-9. Effluent Characteristics, Mesquite, NV, VSB Component,
June 1992-May 1993
Parameter Influent, mg/L
Effluent, mg/L
% Removal
BOD5
TSS
NH4-N
TKN
TP
64
57
16
29
7.4
29
13
10
16
6.2
55
77
38
46
16
Month
1992
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
1993
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Temp.
°C
21.6
26.7
27.1
23.6
19.1
13.5
7.5
8.1
12.7
13.9
16.2
20.3
BOD
mg/L
32
24
26
22
37
32
27
24
24
23
49
27
TSS
mg/L
6
6
6
5
5
22
16
14
18
16
17
21
NH4-N
mg/L
3.3
4.3
4.5
4.1
3.3
5.3
15.7
19.8
21.9
22.1
12.4
6.0
TKN
mg/L
6.7
6.4
7.6
6.8
5.6
8.6
22.3
29.7
29.9
29.9
23.6
9.5
TP
mg/L
5.0
5.3
4.8
5.5
6.1
5.8
4.7
6.1
8.0
9.2
7.1
7.0
by plant uptake during the growing season. Subsequent
data would be very useful to help identify the annual cycle
over several years.
8.2.2.5 Lessons Learned
• The wetland configuration and cross section shown in
Figure 8-7 were designed to maximize the available
area in the former lagoon cell, while at the same time
minimizing the aspect ratio.
• Surface overflows are due to improper hydraulic de-
sign rather than clogging.
• Subdividing each VSB into four separate cells with the
right slope in each cell to ensure proper flows required
very careful grading of subgrade soils that significantly
increased the cost and complexity of construction.
• Subdividing each unit into two cells by applying influ-
ent along the centerline and collecting effluent along
the two sides would have produced an aspect ratio of
0.26:1.
• Converting each former lagoon cell to a single wet-
land bed, with application along one long side and ef-
fluent collection along the opposite side, would have
produced an aspect ratio of 0.5:1, with a level subgrade
and the water level and hydraulic gradient controlled
by an adjustable outlet.
• Continuously flooding the bed with a few inches of wa-
ter after hydroseeding, rather than intermittently wet-
ting it, may have improved germination, as would plant-
ing in a more moderate season in the desert climate.
• Hand planting of shoots or rhizomes in the gravel of a
VSB system is preferred. Potted shoots and rhizome
material for a wide variety of plant species are com-
mercially available.
• An effluent recycle feature permitting 100% recycle is
not typical at most VSB systems and was not neces-
sary for water quality purposes.
157
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• Routine maintenance requirements at this system are
minimal and consist of periodic pump inspections and
monthly cleaning of orifices in the influent distribution
manifolds.
8.2.3 Mandeville, Louisiana
8.2.3.1 Background
Mandeville, Louisiana, is located on the northern shore
of Lake Pontchartrain at the end of the causeway bridge
from New Orleans. The 1997 population of Mandeville was
about 10,000, and the suburban residential community was
expanding rapidly. A vegetative submerged bed (VSB) was
selected as a component in the new wastewater treatment
facilities at the recommendation of the State of Louisiana
and the U.S. EPA Region VI. The system was constructed
during 1989 and placed in operation in February 1990, with
a design flow of 1.5 mgd. The system discharges to Bayou
Chinchuba, which drains to Lake Pontchartrain. The
NPDES limits are BOD510 mg/L, TSS 15 mg/L, NH3/NH4
5 mg/L, fecal coliform 200/100 mL, and a maximum pH of
9.
The new system was constructed at the site of the
community's original three-cell facultative lagoon, and one
of the original cells was retained for temporary treatment
and later abandoned at the completion of the new system.
A second original cell was deepened and converted to a
partial-mix aerated lagoon with three cells operated in se-
ries and submerged perforated tubing in the first two cells.
The hydraulic residence time (HRT) in this new lagoon was
about 15 days at design flow. The third original lagoon cell
was converted to a three-cell VSB gravel bed. The VSB
cells operate in parallel. Other new elements in the sys-
tem included a headworks containing a bar screen and
grit chamber, final disinfection with UV, and an effluent
pumping station. All of these major system components
are shown in Figure 8-8.
At the time this system was designed, sizing criteria were
5 acres per mgd of design flow, a one- to two- day HRT in
the VSB, and an aspect ratio (L:W) of at least 10:1 to en-
sure plug flow conditions. These criteria assumed that the
VSB influent would contain about 30 mg/L of BOD5 and
TSS following treatment in the aerated lagoon. All of these
criteria were applied at Mandeville except the 10:1 aspect
ratio, which could not be used due to the preexisting con-
figuration of the facultative lagoon cell. The average as-
pect ratio of the three VSBs is about 2.5:1.
The three VSBs are separated by low internal earthen
berms that provide about 1.5 ft of freeboard above the
gravel surface in the bed. The external berms are the pre-
existing dikes of the former facultative lagoon. The bottom
surface area is 6 acres. The VSB bed is composed of a
1.5-ft depth of crushed limestone rock (2- to 4-in size) over-
lain by 6 in of granite grave I (0.5-to 1-insize). The surface
layer of gravel was considered necessary as a rooting
O
O
Floating Aerator
CT" O
Cell 3:188'X 384'
UV Disinfection
and Pump _
Cell 2:171'X 471'
Effluent Manifold
Cell 1:180'X 471'
Lagoon Cells
140'X 540'X 10'Deep
VSB Cells
All 2' Deep
Figure 8-8. Schematic of VSB system at Mandeville, LA
158
-------
medium for the vegetation. Softstem bulrush (Scirpus
validus) was selected as the sole vegetation type, and nurs-
ery-grown shoots were planted on about 4-ft centers. An
annual harvest of these plants was recommended by the
designers and was practiced for several years after start-
up.
A 20-in PVC pipe conveys lagoon effluent to the VSB.
This pipe connects to a PVC manifold extending the full
width of the three cells. At three equidistant points in each
cell, the manifold discharges to a 10-in outlet pipe that is
valved and extends 25 ft into the bed. These outlet pipes
are at the surface of the bed, and they each end in a 90°
"down" elbow that penetrates into the rock layer. These
nine gate valves were intended for flow control so that a
cell could be taken out of service and/or flow could be ad-
justed as required to produce a relatively uniform distribu-
tion of flow.
The effluent manifold for cells 1 and 3 is 21-in PVC and
24-in PVC for cell 2. These manifold pipes were buried
with the top of the pipe flush with the top of the coarse rock
layer. Four-in-diameter holes were drilled on 8-in centers
at the top center of these manifold pipes. These manifolds
connect to the UV disinfection chamber, which then dis-
charges to the sump of the discharge pump. The top of the
gravel layer was graded level, as was the bottom of the
bed, and no adjustment was possible in the water level in
the bed, nor was it possible to drain the cells.
A special feature in all three wetland cells is the inclu-
sion of buried 6-in perforated PVC pipes. Two of these
open-ended pipes are buried in each cell, about 6 in above
the bed bottom in the coarse rock media. Their apparent
purpose is redistribution of subsurface flow in case the entry
zone of the bed becomes clogged with solids. Each pipe
is 100 ft in length and is laid parallel to the flow direction;
the two pipes in each bed are located about 35 ft on each
side of the longitudinal bed centerline.
The construction costs for the entire system, including
the aerated lagoons, was about $3,000,000 (1990$). The
cost for the VSB cells was about $590,000 (1990$), with
about 70% of that for procurement and placement of the
rock media and gravel layer. The materials used at
Mandeville were barged from Arkansas, since rock and
gravel are not readily available in this part of Louisiana.
Other VSB projects in the vicinity have used rock and gravel
barged from Mexico. The VSBs are not lined since the
subsoils are clay and sandy clay. Since the exterior dikes
for the former lagoon were utilized, construction costs were
minimal (except forthe cost of rock and gravel). Land costs
were zero since the preexisting lagoon was municipally
owned. The construction costs for this VSB were about
$590 (1990$) per 1000 gallons of design flow, or $105,400
per acre of treatment area forthe 5.6-acre system.
8.2.3.2 Financial Arrangements
The construction costs for the Mandeville system were
funded privately through bonds issued by the City of
Mandeville. No grant or funding support was provided by
the State of Louisiana or the U.S. EPA. The apparent rea-
son was the relatively low position of the city on the grant
priority list. The city, faced with the choice of curtailing com-
munity growth or funding a new system itself, chose the
latter option. The O&M costs for the system have been
obtained as a surcharge on the consumer's water bill.
8.2.3.3 Construction and Start-up Procedures
Construction activities commenced with draining of the
existing facultative lagoon. The bottom was allowed to dry,
and then accumulated sludge was removed and disposed
of. The bottom was then leveled in preparation for backfill-
ing with gravel. The concrete structures containing the UV
disinfection components and the effluent pump station were
also constructed at this time. The low interior earthen berms
were then constructed to divide the lagoon cell into three
parallel units. These interior berms permit foot traffic only.
The rock and gravel were hauled by truck from the barge
dock on Lake Pontchartrain to the site, dumped into the
bed, and spread with small bulldozers. The entire coarse
rock layer was placed and leveled before any gravel was
placed as the top layer. The inlet and outlet manifolds were
then installed and connected and rock backfilled around
them (the top gravel layer was not placed in these inlet
and outlet zones). The bed was then filled with water (with
effluent from the temporary lagoon) to the top of the coarse
rock. The bulrush shoots, obtained from a nursery in Mis-
sissippi, were planted by hand on 4-ft centers, with their
roots in contact with the water at the top of the coarse
gravel. About 15,000 plants were planted in the three cells.
Start-up of this system commenced immediately upon
completion of construction. In some systems of this type,
clean water is used to initially fill the bed, and the plant
shoots are allowed to grow for four to six weeks prior to
introduction of wastewater. In this case, lagoon effluent
was introduced during the planting stage, and daily flow
through the VSB commenced as soon as the aerated la-
goons were operational. There were no special start-up
procedures used at this site. However, a unique mainte-
nance procedure was adopted for several years, which
started with harvesting of weeds to encourage growth and
spread of the bulrush, which evolved into a complete an-
nual harvest of all vegetation and the removal and dis-
posal of the harvested material. That practice has now been
terminated.
8.2.3.4 Performance History
In 1991, the Mandeville system was selected by the U.S.
EPA for a detailed eight-week performance evaluation. This
effort included independent flow metering of system influ-
ent, VSB influent and effluent, tracer studies to verify HRT,
and weekly composite sampling and testing for BOD (total
and soluble), COD (total and soluble), TSS, VSS, TKN,
NH4-N, NO3, TP, DO, pH, and temperature. The study pe-
riod commenced in mid-June 1991 and was completed by
late September 1991. The average flow rate during this
period was 1.16 mgd, indicating that 77% of the system
design capacity was achieved in the second year of op-
159
-------
eration. This is a reflection of the very rapid growth and
residential construction in the community. A summary of
the water quality performance data is given in Table 8-10.
The tracer study, conducted only in cells 2 and 3 because
the valves for cell 1 had been inadvertently closed, mea-
sured a flow rate of 1.352 mgd, which indicated an actual
HRTof 17.8 hours. This compared favorably with the theo-
retical HRTof 18 hours for the same flow rate, assuming a
porosity of 42% in the rock/gravel bed. At the time of the
tracer test, surface water was apparent on portions of the
wetland cells, but the majority of the flow was subsurface.
If cell 1 had been operational during the test, it is believed
that the actual HRT would have been close to the one-day
theoretical HRT for the full system.
Table 8-11 presents a summary of system performance
data collected in 1996 and 1997. The values shown are
the averages for the month shown.
As shown in Table 8-11, the current actual flow exceeds
the original design rate of 1.5 mgd, but the system contin-
ues to meet the discharge limits for BOD and TSS but ex-
ceeds the ammonia limit on a seasonal basis (i.e., non-
compliance in the colder months). The routine compliance
with BOD5 and TSS limits is in part due to the reliability of
these systems for removal of these parameters, but is also
in part due to significant modifications to the system made
in 1992. The present system configuration, with the sur-
face aerators, the subsurface aerators, and the baffle cur-
tains as shown in Figure 8-8, has been in place since 1992.
The lagoons as originally constructed had submerged,
partial-mix aeration tubing in the first and second aeration
cells, and there were no baffles in place. In effect, the first
baffle in the first lagoon cell converts the entry zone into a
complete-mix aeration component. The purpose of these
modifications was to obtain a more rapid removal of BOD5
and more effective settling of TSS in the lagoons, and to
subsequently permit more effective ammonia removal in
Table 8-10. Water Quality Performance, Mandeville LA Treatment
System, June/September 1991
Parameter
BOD (Total) mg/L
BOD (Soluble) mg/L
COD (Total) mg/L
COD (Soluble) mg/L
TSS mg/L
VSS mg/L
TKN mg/L
NH4-N mg/L
Organic N mg/L
NO3-N mg/L
TN mg/L
TP mg/L
Fecal Coliforms#/100ml
DO mg/L
PH
Temperature °C
System
Influent
154
ND1
349
ND
132
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
6.9
ND
Wetland
Influent
41
21
79
40
59
39
5
1.4
3.1
4
9
3
TNTC
2.4
6.9
31.8
Wetland
Effluent
10
8
43
31
7
5
3
2.1
1.1
0.2
3
4
TNTC2
1.8
7.0
30.5
1ND = No data available.
2TNTC = Too numerous to count, sample taken prior to disinfection
the lagoons and VSB component. This strategy has been
successful for BOD5 and TSS, but not for ammonia. The
low ammonia values obtained in the EPA study during the
1991 summer are misleading. The records for the entire
year show a seasonal trend in effluent concentrations that
are similarto those shown in Table 8-11 for 1996-1997. In
1991, the effluent ammonia concentration averaged 3.2
mg/L during the warm months (March-November) and 7.8
mg/L during the colder months (December-February). The
system met the ammonia limit by a significant margin dur-
ing that first year of operation.
There are no significant seasonal trends in the ammo-
nia concentration in the untreated wastewater, but there
are in the lagoon effluent, which indicates that these higher
winter values are not treated effectively by the VSB. As a
result, the system effluent exceeds the discharge limit. This
condition suggests that the lagoon, as presently config-
ured, does not provide effective nitrification during the
colder weather. That is a plausible hypothesis since the
nitrifier organisms are temperature sensitive and gener-
ally exist in relatively low numbers in these partial-mix aer-
ated lagoons with no sludge return.
The city intends to increase the capacity of the system
to about 4 mgd to keep up with expected growth in the
community. Discussions are underway regarding the fu-
ture system configuration to solve both the ammonia prob-
lem and permit capacity expansion with maximum utiliza-
tion of the existing facilities.
8.2.3.5 Lessons Learned
• The internal hydraulics of the wetland cells force all of
the influent to enterthe cell at three points, with a total
cross-sectional area of about 2 ft2, which is inadequate
to receive a design flow of about 350 gpm and results
in surface flow in the inlet zone. A perforated inlet
manifold that extended the full width of each cell should
have prevented surface flow. At the effluent end of the
cells, surface flow was caused by outlet ports installed
at the same elevation as the rock surface.
• A means of controlling water levels in the bed and al-
lowing the bed to be drained for maintenance would
have improved the system.
• Modifications to the system, including additional ori-
fices drilled in the effluent manifold in the side and lower
quadrant, additional surface gravel placed in the area
of the manifold, and a new pipe installed to permit drain-
age of the cells, resulted in a lowering of the water
level in the effluent zone of the wetland bed, so the
gravel surface in that area is generally dry.
• Surface flow was experienced almost immediately in
the inlet and outlet zones of this system and was not
caused by clogging, as confirmed by EPA investiga-
tions in 1991, but rather by lack of hydraulic gradient.
• Hydraulic gradient for a flat-bottomed system can be
provided with a water-level control device at the efflu-
ent end of the cell.
160
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Table 8-11. Water Quality Performance, Mandeville, LA, Treatment System, 1996 -1997
Avg. Flow
Date mgd
1996
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Avg
1997
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Avg
Weighted
Average
1996/97
1991
1.57
1.60
1.75
1.26
1.11
1.72
1.33
1.71
1.32
1.69
1.51
1.57
1.51
1.85
2.31
1.53
1.44
1.67
1.64
1.68
1.73
1.59
1.16
Raw Wastewater
BOD TSS NH4-N
mg/L mg/L mg/L
133
156
126
145
137
138
131
64
61
86
119
116
118
89
63
94
97
112
93
108
94
109
154
115
120
116
148
133
132
115
70
155
137
126
122
124
111
94
128
98
140
167
109
121
123
132
14
15
13
14
18
18
16
20
31
21
44
37
22
20
24
26
22
25
28
16
23
22
ND
Wetland Influent
BOD TSS
mg/L mg/L
15
14
16
11
45
27
24
30
59
43
62
43
32
70
62
59
52
34
57
51
55
40
41
8
8
11
8
25
18
24
48
20
18
8
11
17
14
23
16
20
14
10
9
15
16
59
NH4-N
mg/L
14.3
14
16
12
10
1
1
7
12
14
8
28
11
12
44
16
10
6
12
9
16
13
1.4
Wetland Effluent
BOD TSS NH4-N
mg/L mg/L mg/L
5
6
2
4
3
2
2
10
9
7
8
6
5
7
10
7
6
4
4
6
6
5
10
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
7
7
4
5
2
3
4
6
3
4
3
3
2
4
3
7
11.9
12
11
8
9
0.5
0.7
5
5
5
4
19
8
7
20
5
4
4
4
5
7
8
2.1
• Bulrush planted in this system has attracted nutria and
muskrat, which favor bulrush for food and nesting
material. Nutria have eaten most of the bulrush plants
and bored through the interior berms, which causes
significant leakage between the cells. Small sacks filled
with a mixture of cement and sand have corrected the
leakage problem of nutria boring through interior
berms.
• The minimal availability of oxygen in VSB wetland beds
makes them ineffective for nitrification of ammonia, and
the Mandeville system can meet ammonia discharge
limits only when the aerated lagoon provides sufficient
ammonia removal.
8.2.4 Sorrento, Louisiana
8.2.4.1 Background
Sorrento, a small residential community in southeastern
Louisiana, is located about 50 miles southeast of Baton
Rouge. Prior to construction of the aerated lagoon wet-
land system, the community was served by on-site septic
tank systems. Many of these on-site systems were not func-
tioning properly due to the difficult soil conditions in the
area. The new system was designed in 1990 and placed
in operation in late 1991. The lagoon component consists
of two 10-ft-deep aerated cells (first cell contains four 3-hp
floating aerators, second cell contains four 2-hp floating
aerators), followed by a 7-ft-deep settling pond. The two
aerated cells were designed for 10 d HRT at the potential
ultimate flow rate of 130,000 gpd. At the 1997 flow rate of
32,000 gpd, the HRT is about 40 d, and only a few of the
aerators were operated.
The VSB cell, with a bottom area of about 7800 ft2, was
designed fora flow rate of 50,000 gpd with the intention of
adding a second parallel cell as the flow rate increases in
the future. The design HRT in this bed at 50,000 gpd would
be one day. The native soils are clays and silty clays, so
the bottoms of the lagoon cells and the VSB cells are not
lined. However, ageotextilelinerisused ontheinnerslope
of all berms to prevent erosion and weed growth; the outer
slope of these berms is grassed. The system discharges
to Bayou Conway, and the NPDES discharge limits are
BOD5 20 mg/L, TSS 20 mg/L, pH 6-9, and fecal conforms
200-400/100 mL. There are no ammonia limits forthis sys-
tem.
As shown in Figure 8-9, the VSB cell is triangular in
shape, with the inlet zone about 60 ft wide and the flow
path to the outlet about 250 ft long. This shape was se-
lected to minimize short-circuiting of flow. Previous designs
had large aspect ratios (10:1 or greater) but insufficient
hydraulic gradient to overcome the frictional resistance,
resulting in surface flow on top of the bed. At Sorrento, the
average aspect ratio is only 6:1, but all of the flow con-
verges at the end of the triangular bed.
161
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Aerators
Influent
Discharge Chlorination
t
Aerated Lagoons
Vegetated Bed
60 X 250 ft
Settling Pond
Figure 8-9. Schematic of VSB system at Sorrento, LA
The design engineer of the Sorrento system also incor-
porated several features to ensure that an adequate hy-
draulic gradient would always be available based on les-
sons learned from other systems. The bottom of the bed is
flat and level throughout its length, but the gravel depth is
3 ft at the inlet and 2.5 ft at the outlet, so the top surface of
the gravel slopes to provide for 0.5 ft of headless. In addi-
tion, the single outlet structure contains an adjustable sluice
gate that allows a further increase in the available hydrau-
lic gradient by adjusting the water level in the bed. The
inlet to the bed is an 8-in perforated pipe resting on the
bottom of the bed and extending the full width. The bed
effluent discharges to a concrete outlet box. There is also
an 8-in valved drain pipe at the outlet end of the bed to
drain the cell completely, if necessary. A chlorine contact
chamber is provided for disinfection priorto final discharge.
Two layers of aggregate are used in the Sorrento VSB.
The top layer is a 6-in depth of washed, 0.75-in gravel.
The main part of the bed is composed of crushed lime-
stone imported from Mexico, ranging from 1.5 to 3 in in
size. Since ammonia removal was not required and be-
cause maintenance problems with vegetation were appar-
ent at other systems, it was decided not to plant vegeta-
tion on the Sorrento VSB cell. At the time of the 1997 in-
spection for this report, weeds were growing around the
fringes of the wetland bed, but the general bed surface
was still free of vegetation.
This wetland system was selected for use at Sorrento
because the facility planning evaluation showed it to be
the most cost-effective process for meeting the NPDES
discharge requirements. The total construction cost for the
entire system was about $233,400 (1991$), with an esti-
mated $75,000 for the VSB component. The unit construc-
tion cost for the VSB would then be about $1500 per 1000
gallons of design capacity (forthe 50,000 gpd design flow).
On an area basis, the capital costs would be about
$419,000 per acre for the 0.18-acre VSB.
8.2.4.2 Financial Arrangements
The construction costs for the Sorrento system were
funded with federal and state money provided under the
U.S. EPA Construction Grant Program that existed at that
time. The O&M costs forthe system are supported by sewer
fees from the connected users.
8.2.4.3 Construction and Start-up Procedures
A site forthe new lagoon/wetland system was identified
on available land between the community and the final dis-
charge point to Bayou Conway. Geotechnical investiga-
tions were undertaken to identify and characterize the in
situ soils. These proved to be clays and silty clays that
would provide adequate protection for ground water. There
also was no identified risk of ground water intrusion or sur-
face water flooding at this site.
The site is relatively level, so the entire system was ex-
cavated, with excess material used to construct the berms.
A 3-ft freeboard was provided forthe lagoon cells and the
VSB component. The rock and gravel were hauled by truck
from a barge dock on the Mississippi River, dumped into
the bed, and spread with a small bulldozer. The entire
coarse rock layerwas placed and leveled before any gravel
was placed as the top layer. Inlet and outlet manifolds were
then installed and connected and rock backfilled around
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them. The bed was then filled with effluent from the lagoon
to the top of the coarse rock. Since vegetation was not
used on this system, start-up was immediate.
Routine maintenance procedures include servicing of the
lagoon aerators and the chlorine disinfection equipment;
there are no routine maintenance requirements for the
wetland bed. There have been problems with nutria bur-
rowing in the banks of the lagoon cells; however, since
there is no vegetation and no exposed water in the wet-
land cell, these animals have not been a problem at this
site. Since maintenance has not been required for the
wetland cell, the O&M cost for this component is zero.
8.2.4.4 Performance History
Water quality data are not available for untreated sew-
age at Sorrento or for lagoon effluent entering the wetland
system. The 1997 flow is estimated to be in the range of
15,000 gpd. At that rate the HRT would be about 100 d in
the lagoons and 4 d in the VSB component. With such a
long HRT, lagoon effluent could be expected to have a
BOD5 of less than 20 mg/L and a TSS in the same range
(except for algal bloom periods). With inputs at this level,
the VSB with an HRT of 4 d could be expected to produce
background levels of BOD5 and TSS, as confirmed in Table
8-12.
8.2.4.5 Lessons Learned
• The triangular configuration of this VSB system causes
flow lines to converge at the end of the system in a
single outlet point, which is cost effective, but any such
design would need to evaluate weir loading rates per
unit length to avoid excessive velocity in the outlet zone
that could cause resuspension of TSS and its associ-
ated contaminants.
• The sloping surface of the gravel (0.2% grade) pro-
vides an additional 0.5 ft of potential head at the inlet
Table 8-12. VSB Effluent Water Quality, Sorrento, LA
Date BOD, mg/L TSS, mg/L Fecal Coll1 pH
2/23/94
3/31/94
5/1 8/94
7/28/94
8/1 0/94
9/26/94
12/30/94
1/12/95
3/8/95
4/28/95
6/1 6/95
7/1 2/95
8/1 0/95
9/1 3/95
10/11/95
11/8/95
12/13/95
1/24/96
2/1 4/96
3/1 3/96
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
<6
5
4
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
11
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
0
0
20
100
0
6
180
TNTC
4200
666
0
0
0
0
0
0
53
350
3
6
7.2
7.2
7.5
7.4
7.2
7.8
7.6
7.9
7.9
7.1
7.8
7.5
7.3
7.5
7.4
7.5
7.4
7.4
7.5
7.0
1Note: after chlorine disinfection, #/100 ml
to help ensure that the hydraulic gradient is sufficient
to avoid surface flow on the bed.
• The adjustable outlet gate provides additional water
level adjustment; however, the outlet gate cannot be
lowered completely, so an additional drain pipe for de-
watering the bed is necessary. A completely adjust-
able outlet may have eliminated both the additional
gravel necessary to produce the sloping surface and
the drain pipe for dewatering.
• The system is oversized for the current flow rate and
organic loading, so an additional VSB cell may not be
necessary for the system to handle flow rate increases
anticipated in the future.
• The lack of plants in this system does not appear to
affect removal of BOD and TSS, as was observed in a
1992 EPA performance evaluation of a vegetated sys-
tem and a temporarily nonvegetated system.
• The lack of plants in effect equates the VSB concept
to a horizontal-flow, coarse-media, contact filter.
8.3 Lessons Learned
8.3.1 Design
Organic Loading
Organic loadings in the range of 10 to 25 Ibs BOD/acre/
day to FWS systems have been shown to effectively meet
30 mg/L BOD and TSS monthly effluent standards, with
no need after 15 years of operation to remove the settled
material from a FWS system. For the majority of these
systems, this range of organic loading results in six to eight
days of theoretical hydraulic retention.
Data Gaps
The database for both VSB and FWS systems has a
continuing problem of not having enough quality-assured
data to evaluate removal rates, seasonal differences, wa-
ter balances, and long-term treatment effectiveness. In-
sufficient data have been collected on contaminant load-
ings (both flow and concentration), incremental data
through the system (multiple data collection points), and
water column data (temperature, pH, and dissolved oxy-
gen) at different locations.
Inlet/Outlet Works
Studies comparing the placement of inlet/outlet (I/O)
works as a function of cell geometry and outlet approach
conditions are lacking. As a result, there is not a complete
rational approach to the placement and design of inlet and
outlet works for these types of systems. For example, the
criterion of weir overflow rate typically has been used to
place outlet weirs and specify weir length in these low ap-
proach-velocity systems. Included in the outlet design are
bathymetric and vegetative conditions of the outlet zone
of FWS wetlands. Large collection areas immediately up-
stream from outlet works that have no emergent vegeta-
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tion have resulted in poor effluent quality. Relatively shal-
low collection zones with emergent vegetation have shown
less variability of effluent quality, but more O/M require-
ments.
Headloss
While headless is a factor of concern in VSB systems, it
is not a major factor in FWS wetlands unless they have
extremely long and narrow flow reaches. Headloss is a
consideration in FWS wetlands only when L:W ratios are
great (10:1 or greater) and are combined with high hy-
draulic loading rates in heavily vegetated cells. Proper
placement of I/O works, sufficient berm height, and L:W
ratios less than 10:1 minimize headless effects in FWS
wetlands. Clean-water headless through a VSB wetland
system is quickly modified as pore spaces are filled with
separated solids and, to a lesser degree, rhizosphere de-
velopment. Under conditions of plugging by these mecha-
nisms, the liquid level will eventually surface and an un-
dersized, fully vegetated FWS wetland condition will be-
gin to develop on the surface.
Hydraulics
The internal hydraulics of a VSB system are critical to
treatment success. Systems constructed with high L:W
ratios, flat bottoms, and with effluent manifold ports lo-
cated at the top of the gravel produced surface flow at the
effluent ends of the cell. These types of systems also did
not allow for water level control within the bed and cell
drainage. Multiple-ported influent manifolds extending the
width of the inlet zone, coupled with similar effluent col-
lection manifolds with adjustable weirs or rotating elbows,
would allow for greater hydraulic contact in the basin and
more operational flexibility. Sloping the surface of the
gravel bed based on the design flow headless may also
permit increases in VSB hydraulic loading and duration of
service prior to major inlet maintenance.
Aspect Ratio
High aspect ratio FWS wetland cells can produce sig-
nificant operational problems at high hydraulic loading
rates and/or with dense stands of emergent vegetation.
Headloss effects are additive and are greatly aggravated
with high length-to-width ratios in totally vegetated FWS
wetlands. Both types of systems with L:W ratios as high
as 30:1 have produced significant flooding at the influent
berms while dropping the effluent water elevation below
weir recovery levels. Parallel cells with lower L:W with
multiple I/O works can control this effect. The only design
limitation is that the HRT must be above some minimum
to assure removal of TSS and associated pollutants of
concern.
Ice Formation
In colder climates where ice forms on standing water,
sufficient freeboard and outlet control is essential to allow
for ice formation to cap the normal operating depth of the
free surface water column. In most cases, this distance is
less than 1 ft. The ability to operate the wetland with the
water column directly in contact with the ice, with no low-
ering of the water level once the ice forms, is another im-
portant design feature. Lowering the water under these
conditions could allow for a secondary ice level, with a
liquid level constraint, to form under the primary level.
8.3.2 Mechanisms and Processes
Oxygen Transfer
Oxygen transfer through the rhizosphere evidently is not
a major contributor to contaminant oxidation in vegetated
submerged bed systems, based on both research and full-
scale studies. Oxygen demand associated with storage
products in roots and tubers is much greater than excess
oxygen available at the root hairs and other plant parts. In
FWS wetlands, epiphytes can colonize on stems and
leaves preferentially depending on oxygen exuding from
the gas transport plant structures.
Nitrification-Denitrification in VSB Systems
Cost-effectively sized VSB systems have not been shown
to significantly nitrify treated influent. It follows that VSBs
have not been shown to be able to denitrify an influent,
which is predominantly ammonia. Early studies that sug-
gested that significant amounts of nitrogen can be removed
in a VSB wetland system have not been duplicated in sub-
sequent studies and full-scale evaluations.
Plant Coverage
Coverage by emergent plants in FWS wetlands should
not be 100% because too much coverage by emergent
plants is negatively correlated with effluent quality. Plac-
ing open water (submergent aquatic macrophytes) between
areas of closed water (emergent macrophytes) is corre-
lated with better effluent quality than a wetland that has
100% emergence. Submergent plants release oxygen to
the water column, and these open water zones allow for
more surface reaeration. Emergent plants also contribute
more internal BOD loading upon decomposition.
Ground Water Recharge
Siting and designing FWS wetlands with intentional dis-
charge to ground water is a legitimate application of this
treatment technology. With proper design, FWS wetlands
for ground water recharge can remove nitrate nitrogen
(through denitrification) and indicator organisms. Data col-
lected at "leaky wetland sites," such as in Jackson Bot-
tom, Oregon, have demonstrated the effectiveness of these
processes in locations where soils are sufficiently porous.
Plant Litter
Plant litter is an essential component of a FWS con-
structed wetland. While this material contributes to flow
resistance, it more importantly seals surface areas in fully
vegetated zones to assure anoxic conditions.
164
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8.3.3 Vegetation
Development of Treatment Effectiveness
The full treatment potential of a FWS system may not be
realized until there is both full coverage of plants (as de-
signed) and a layer of litter beginning to accumulate on
the surface of the water. Depending on the type of plants,
planting density, and time of planting, a minimum of two
growing seasons, or two to three years, may be needed.
This may be important when negotiating discharge permit
requirements.
Ammonia Nitrogen
In VSB systems, plants are not critical to the removal of
BOD and TSS, as shown in several systems. Evidence
suggests, however, that they are effective in removing
portions of the nitrogen and phosphorus due to uptake by
the plants during the growing season. Most of these nutri-
ents are returned to the water column during the senes-
cent period.
Aeration
Attempts to aerate outlet zones of FWS systems with
submerged tubing have resulted in attracting animals such
as muskrats and nutria, which may damage the tubing.
Short-circuiting
Vegetation predation by nutria and muskrats in FWS
wetlands can produce serious hydraulic short-circuiting.
Varying plant resistance as the wastewater moves through
the wetland also can cause short-circuiting. Preferential
flow routes can develop in these systems, which have rela-
tively low velocities.
Seeding and Germination
Hydroseeding both VSB and FWS wetlands has only
been successful for cattails in some instances. Additional
studies of this low-cost approach to planting are recom-
mended. Seeding with 25 Ib/acre mixed with a mulch at
2500 Ib/acre have been used for VSB systems. Continu-
ous shallow-water inundation has consistently produced
higher germination rates than have sprinklers.
Plant Toxicitv
Emergent vegetation species, such as cattails and bul-
rushes, are sensitive to deep anaerobic sludge banks. In
situations with large volumes of carryover solids and mal-
functioning activated sludge units, emergent vegetation in
the inlet zone can die from sulfide toxicity in the rhizosphere.
Wastewaters with high levels of suspended and settle-
able solids should be pretreated upstream from a wetland
system through use of a settling pond.
8.3.4 Treatment Effectiveness
Nutrient Uptake
Both FWS and VSB wetlands have been shown to be
unable to reduce levels of BOD, dissolved phosphorus,
and ammonia nitrogen below certain minimums. This is
due to internal processes in a wetland, such as the solubi-
lization of influent settleable/suspended solids and the lit-
ter layer of aquatic macrophytes. Depending on the cli-
mate, pulses of dissolved carbon (both degradable and
non-degradable), soluble reactive phosphorus, and am-
monia nitrogen are taken up by the plants, and they are
released during periods of active decomposition in the
wetland. Colder climatic conditions with early falls, long
cold winters, and warm springs will pulse these materials
into the water column during the spring warm-up period.
Nitrification
Without operating in a fill-and-draw batch mode, it is not
economically feasible to attain aerobic conditions in a VSB
system to convert ammonia to nitrate. A VSB is anaerobic
throughout most of its depth, with little opportunity for nitri-
fying bacteria populations to develop. Internally loaded
ammonia from the decomposition of algal cells has also
been shown to be a factor when attempting to use a VSB
to meet ammonia standards.
Sheet Flow for Nitrification
Attempts to operate a fully vegetated FWS wetland in a
shallow mode to simulate conditions of overland flow have
not proven to be effective.
Measurement of Treatment Effectiveness
Most of the FWS wetlands in the NADB are used to treat
high-quality influents producing low organic loading con-
ditions. In most of these cases, the internal load is more
significant than the influent load. In only a few cases with
high organic loading rates were the upper limits of treat-
ment effectiveness measured, such as Gustine, Califor-
nia. While many viewed Gustine as a failure, it provided
well-documented data on a wide range of BOD, TSS, ni-
trogen, and coliform fully vegetated zone loading condi-
tions. These data showed that the upper instantaneous
BOD loadings of 150 to 200 Ibs/acre/day could still result
in less than 40 mg/L BOD in the effluent. Such loading
rates were based on a fully vegetated FWS system and a
specific wastewater, so the utility of this information is lim-
ited. Forexample, if a wastewater had a soluble BOD load-
ing of this magnitude, it would not be prudent (or success-
ful) to use a single fully vegetated cell for treatment.
165
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