EPA-670/2-74-045
December 1974
Environmental Protection Technology Series
ICJNG^CHEM!
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EPA-670/2-74-045
December 1974
MANUAL FOR DEICING CHEMICALS:
•?
APPLICATION PRACTICES
By
David.L. Richardson
Project Director
Robert C. Terry
Jane B. Metzger
Raymond J. Carroll
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140
Contract No. 68-03-0154
Program Element No. 1BB034
Project Officer
Hugh E. Masters ' -
Storm and Combined Sewer Section (Edison, N.J.)
Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory
National Environmental Research Center
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
This edition printed under sponsorship of
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
Federal Highway Administration
Offices of Research and Development
Washington, D.C. 20590
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
EERU-TIX
RECEIVED
APR 1 8 1989
EERU-TIX
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REVIEW NOTICE
The National Environmental Research Center —
Cincinnati has reviewed this report and approved
its publication. Approval does not signify that
the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or com-
mercial products constitute endorsement or recom-
mendation for use.
NOTE ON FHWA/DOT REPRINT
This edition of this manual has been reprinted at
the request of the Offices of Research and Development
of the Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department
of Transportation. The United States Government
assumes no liability for its contents or use thereof.
Its contents do not necessarily reflect the official
views or policy of the Department of Transportation.
This manual does not constitute a standard, specifi-
cation, or regulation.
This edition is printed for official use only.
Copies are available to the public from the Superinten-
dent of Documents of the U.S. Government Printing Office
and from the National Technical Information Service of
the Department of Commerce,
11
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FOREWORD
Man and his environment must be protected from the adverse effects of
pesticides, radiation, noise and other forms of pollution, and the
unwise management of solid waste. Efforts to protect the environment
require a focus that recognizes the interplay between the components
of our physical environment — air, water, and land. The National
Environmental Research Centers provide this multidisciplinary focus
through programs engaged in
9 studies on the effects of environmental contaminants
on man and the biosphere, and
• a search for ways to prevent contamination and to
recycle valuable resources.
The study described here was undertaken to minimize the amount of
chemicals used in controlling snow and ice on highways. Practical
guidelines are presented for good practices in the application of
deicing chemicals.
A.W. Breidenbach, Ph.D.
Director
National Environmental
Research Center, Cincinnati
111
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ABSTRACT
This report contains the results of a study conducted for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency to minimize the loss to the environment
of chemicals used in controlling snow and ice on highways. Based on
the best current practices for highway maintenance as observed during
two years of study, practical guidelines are presented for the use of
deicing chemicals.
1. Supervisory aspects of proper chemical usage are defined,
including organization and personnel training.
2. Efficient snow and ice control requires good judgment and
appropriate action. Elements of proper decision-making
are discussed, including weather forecasting, setting
chemical application rates, and accounting for chemical
usage.
3. The backbone of winter road maintenance is equipment.
General requirements and major equipment classes are
described, including recent improvements and advantages
or disadvantages. Methods are given for accurate spreader
calibrations.
4. Means are described for developing and enlisting the support
of citizens and drivers for winter road maintenance policies.
5. Legal requirements for and constraints on snow and ice
control are described.
This report was submitted in partial fulfillment of Program Element
No. 1BB034, Contract No. 68-03-0154 by Arthur D. Little, Inc., under the
sponsorship of the Environmental Protection Agency. Work was completed
in June 1974.
xv
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CONTENTS
Foreword
Abstract
List of Figures
List of Tables
Acknowledgements
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY
PART ONE: LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER I - LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
Common Local Snow Removal- Ordinances
New State Laws
Related Federal Law
Emerging Environmental Laws and Regulations
PART TWO: ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION
CHAPTER II - SUPERVISION REQUIREMENTS
The Maintenance Manager
Organizational Context
PART THREE: OPERATIONS
CHAPTER III - TOOLS FOR DECISION-MAKING
Weather Warning
Traffic Conditions and Level of Service
CHAPTER IV - ACTIONS
Being Prepared
Mobilization
Issuing of Orders
Application Rate for Deicing Material
Precautions in Handling of Deicing Chemicals
Role of Spreader Operator
Accounting for Chemical Usage
Page
iii
iv
vii
x
xi
1
7
7
7
8
12
14
16
16
16
20
26
26
26
31
35
35
49
50
50
57
57
58
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Page
PART FOUR: EQUIPMENT 67
CHAPTER V - SNOW AND ICE CONTROL EQUIPMENT 67
Equipment Requirements 67
Trucks 71
Spreaders 77
Ground-Speed Controllers 83
Liquid Dispensing Systems 87
Snow Plows 91
Graders 95
Front-End Loaders 95
Snow Blowers 95
CHAPTER VI - SPREADER CALIBRATION 98
Yard Calibration 98
In-Service Calibration 109
Pattern Calibration * 113
PART FIVE: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT 115
CHAPTER VII - CITIZEN EDUCATION AND COOPERATION 115
Introduction 115
General Goals and Principles 120
Specific Tools and Techniques 124
Themes and Messages 142
REFERENCES 146
APPENDIX A: ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES FOR CITIZEN EDUCATION 147
VI
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FIGURES
No. Page
1 Organization of Town or City Maintenance Function 22
2 Organizations of State Highway Departments 23
3 Organizational Context as Viewed by the Maintenance
Managers 24
4 Weather Reporting Form 29
5 Extended Weather Forecast 30
6 County Snow Removal Priority Map 36
7 Foreman's Section Map 38
8 Operator's Route Map 39
9 Preseason Equipment Checklist 43-48
10 Pre-operations Walk-Around Inspection 59
11 Operator's Chemical Usage Log 61
12 Operator's Winter Report 62
13 Generalized Operator's Daily Storm Report 63
14 Storm Summary Report 65
15 Five-ton, Two-Axle, Heavy-Duty Truck with Underbody
Scraper 73
16 Four-wheel-drive, 3/4-Ton Pickup Truck with Plow 73
3
17 Three-quarter-ton Pickup Truck with 1.5-yd Spreader 75
18 Vee-type Hopper Spreader 75
19 Details of Spinner and Spreader 76
20 Modification to Spreader 78
21 Lump Breaker 78
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No.
22 Ontario Spreader
23 Rear View of Michigan ¥-bottom Spreader
24 Interior View of Hopper, Michigan W-bottom Spreader
Spreader Towed Behind a Dump Truck
25
26
Open-Loop Ground-Speed Controller: Sensor and Control
Circuit
27 Typical Cab Control Unit for Open-Loop Ground-Speed
Controller
28 Closed-Loop Ground-Speed Controller: Sensor and
Control Circuit
29 Ground-Speed Controller with Photoelectric Feed
Mechanism, Vehicle-Speed Sensors, and a Manual
Override
30 Truck-Mounted Calcium Chloride Dispensing System
31 High-Speed Plow
32 Two-Way Plow
33 Vee Plow, Wing Plow, and Underbody Scraper on Tandem-
drive Truck
34 Front-End Loader Equipped for Plowing
35 Snow-blowing Machine
36 Front-End Loader Equipped with Snowblower Unit
37 Calibration Worksheet—Spreader Without Ground-Speed
Controller
38 Spreader Calibration Card (Front Side) Truck Without
Ground-Speed Controller
39 Spreader Calibration Card (Reverse Side) Truck Without
Ground-Speed Controller
40 Calibration Worksheet—Spreader with Ground-Speed
Controller
Page
80
80
82
82
84
86
88
89
90
92
92
94
94
96
96
99
104
105
107
Vlll
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ISO.
Page
41 Spreader Calibration Card for Truck with Ground-Speed
Controller 110
42 Calculation Worksheet for In-Service Calibration 111
43 Test Road Section for Calibration of Spread Pattern 114
44 The Maintenance Manager's World 119
45 Summary of Techniques for Developing Citizen
Cooperation 125
46 Utility Bill "Stuffer" Concerning Snow and Ice
Control 131
47 Snow and Ice Control Information Pamphlet 132-133
48 Snow Truck with Explanatory Sign 135
49 Warning Sign 135
50 Warning Sign 137
51 Warning Sign at Bridge 138
52 Reversible Sign: Slippery Conditions Warning Side 139
53 Reversible Sign: Chains Advisory Side 139
54 Truck Equipped with Snow Warning Signs 140
55 Safe Maximum Speed Limit Sign 140
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TABLES
No.
1 Levels of Service for Snow and Ice Control
2 Guidelines for Levels of Service in Snow and Ice
Control
3 Guidelines for Chemical Application Rates
4 Mixtures for Environmentally Critical Areas
5 Equipment Guidelines
6 Typical Design Specifications for Trucks Commonly
Used for Snow Plowing and for Spreading of
Deicing Chemicals
7 Vehicle Speed Conversion for Spreader Calibration
8 Table for Checking Spreader Performance
Page
33
34
52
55
68
72
102
112
x
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This manual was prepared in partial fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-0154
under the direction of Richard Field, Chief; Anthony Tafuri, Staff
Engineer; and Hugh Masters, Project Officer, of the Storm and Combined
Sewer Section, Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, National
Environmental Research Center-Cincinnati, Edison, New Jersey 08817.
Many individuals in the following organizations have made significant
contributions of time and material, and their participation is sincerely
acknowledged.
Allied Chemical Corporation
American Public Works Association
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Arlington, Massachusetts
Burlington, Massachusetts
California Department of Transportation
Concord, Massachusetts
Connecticut Department of Transportation
Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan
Epoke Company, Denmark
Frink Sno-Plows, Clayton, New York
Koehring, Farm Division, Appleton, Wisconsin
Lake Cochituate Watershed Association, Natick, Massachusetts
Maine Department of Transportation
Massachusetts Audubon Society
Massachusetts Conservation Council
Massachusetts Department of Public Works
Massachusetts Forest and Park Association
Massachusetts Turnpike Authority
Meyer Products, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio
Michigan Department of State Highways
Minnesota Highway Department
New York Department of Transportation
New York Thruway Authority
North American Snow Conference
Northeast Weather Services, Inc., Bedford, Massachusetts
Pawtucket, Rhode Island
Pennsylvania Department of Transportation
Root Spring Scraper Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan
The Salt Institute, Washington, D.C.
Snoblast Corporation, Denver, Colorado
Swenson Manufacturing Co., Lindenwood, Illinois
Tarrant Manufacturing Co., Saratoga Springs, New York
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratories,
Hanover, New Hampshire
Vermont Department of Highways
XI
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CONVERSION TO METRIC UNITS
In this Manual, all units are expressed in U.S. customary units. Conversion
to metric units is easily accomplished by use of the following formulae:
Multiply miles by 1.6093 to get kilometers
3
Multiply tons by .9072 to get metric tons (10 kg)
Multiply cubic yards by .7646 to get cubic meters
Multiply pounds by .4536 to get kilograms
Multiply feet by .3048 to get meters
xii
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RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY
THE PROBLEM
State highway departments, turnpike authorities, municipal street
departments, and other organizations Cshopping centers, hospitals, schools)
annually purchase approximately 9 million tons of salt and other deicing
chemicals with a total value of about $140,000,000. As the amount of
these materials has increased, so too has the concern for what these
materials are doing to our environment.
Excessive use of material and loss of material before it can be used
effectively provides several causes for concern. Chief among these, from
the standpoint of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and its counter-
part state agencies, is that environmental damage may result from
water-borne salt. Much of the salt spread on roads eventually enters the
various water courses either as direct run-off or by percolation into the
groundwater system. There is evidence of road salt in private and public
wells and surface reservoirs.
The U.S. Public Health Service recommends that drinking water not contain
more than 250 mg/1 of the chloride ion. Water of even low salinity has
been known to cause corrosion problems in industrial plants. Although no
federal standard for sodium in drinking water exists, one is currently
being considered; however, the generally accepted warning level is 20 mg/1
for patients restricted to low-sodium diets.
Cost is another concern. Salt and other deicing chemicals are expensive
and, for reasons of economy, should be used effectively and sparingly. In
addition to the direct costs, there are additional indirect costs that are
borne partly by highway agencies in the form of corrosion damage to trucks
and equipment and to bridge decks; for the most part, these delayed costs
must be paid by other segments of the public in the form of rusted
automobiles and degraded drinking water.
For these environmental and economic reasons, it is important that mainten-
ance authorities use no more salt and other chemicals than are absolutely
necessary to improve the driving conditions during winter storms. ,The
problem is that excess amounts have been applied routinely. The causes
include lack of awareness of the problem, lack of managerial controls over
salt usage, lack of calibrated equipment, and lack of understanding and
cooperation by the driving public.
Because of a concern for this excessive use of salt and other deicing
chemicals, the EPA funded this program to investigate techniques for
minimizing the loss to the environment of chemicals used in controlling
snow and ice on highways. The charter of this two-year project was to
study the best current practices for snow and ice control in highway
maintenance and to develop practical guidelines for the use of deicing
chemicals. The study immediately ran into two diverse points of view;
from the environmentalist's point of view, no chemicals should be used
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and, from the point of view of improved driving conditions, an amount
equal to or slightly in excess of an as-yet-to-be-determined minimum
amount of chemical should be used. A premise of this study is that salt
will continue to be used as the principal deicing chemical and that a
compromise must be effected between the concerns of the environmentalists
and those of the driving public.
A major finding in this study was a discrepancy between the prescribed
amounts of deicing material and the amounts that are actually used on the
highway surface. Many maintenance managers were aware of this and readily
admitted that they were using more material in their operation than was
actually prescribed by their maintenance manuals. Those managers who, for
economic or environmental reasons, initiated actions to reduce the amount
used to the prescribed levels found to their surprise and satisfaction
that there was no reduction in the level of service provided by the lesser
amounts of deicing chemicals. This finding provides the basis for the
recommendations of this manual.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations of this manual include techniques—both technical and
managerial—for reducing the amount of chemical used and discussion of
areas in which further research efforts would be beneficial.
Techniques for reducing the amount of chemical used include:
• The use of ground-speed controllers for all spreaders.
• Calibration of spreaders to determine how much material
is being used. Two techniques are presented; a yard
calibration and an in-service calibration. Rule-of-thumb
techniques are also presented for checking calibration
and determining when spreaders are not operating at their
prescribed rates.
• Establishment of levels of service. Standards for main-
taining roads during the winter should vary according to
road types and their average daily winter traffic.
• Establishment of a set of application rates for each
agency. Guidelines are presented for the amount of
chemicals to be applied under varying weather conditions
for various classes of roads. Two distinct rates are
prescribed: one for the first application and lesser
amounts for secondary applications as the storm progresses.
e Starting to plow snow early in each storm and emphasis on
plowing rather than salting. Underbody scrapers are
recommended for keeping snow-pack from forming.
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• Accounting for the amount of salt used on each, section
of highway or city street. A daily report filled out
by each operator—summarizing the amounts of chemical
used, the lane miles upon which it is used, and the
results obtained—is essential for accurate accounting
for chemical usage.
Effective snow and ice control hinges upon the leadership and decision
making of the maintenance manager. Therefore, a strong recommendation of
this study is that his importance in the organization be recognized and
that he be given the training and resources necessary to do his job
effectively. This manual is addressed specifically to the needs of
maintenance managers at all levels of the organization from road crew
foremen right up to superintendents and commissioners.
The major areas where additional research effort must be placed include:
9 Improvement in the reliability of ground-speed controllers
for metering the amount of deicing chemicals spread onto the
roadway.
e Development, through carefully controlled experiments, of
a sound basis for prescribing the minimum amount of chem-
icals and/or abrasives to be applied to road surfaces for
various weather and traffic conditions.
THE INTENT OF THIS MANUAL
This manual seeks to help maintenance managers establish an operating
balance between two important, but sometimes conflicting, public-policy
goals—clear roads and clean water. It supplements the discussion and
recommendations in a companion Manual for Deicing Chemicals; Storage and
Handling (EPA-670/2-74-033). That manual focused on the relatively easy
task of minimizing wastage during shipment and storage. This one
addresses the more difficult task of reducing excessive application of
salt onto roads and highways.
Above all, this manual is designed to be practical. Its recommendations
embody the best current practices, as observed during many weeks spent
with highway crews in snow-belt cities and states. Its recommendations
recognize that snow conditions, types of equipment, traffic volumes, budgets,
and other factors vary widely. It avoids exotic solutions that would require
special equipment and large costs. It tries to respect operating requirements,
as well as concern for environmental protection.
Some of what this manual recommends is becoming common practice. The
several application rates and levels of service found in this manual are
based upon, or are direct borrowings of, plans and descriptions reported
by highway personnel, the Salt Institute, and researchers in publications,
including state maintenance manuals; papers presented to the Transportation
Research Board, the North American Snow Conference, the American Public
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Works Association, and other technical and professional associations;
and corporate and institutional publications.
What, then, is the unique contribution of this manual?
valuable in several ways:
Probably, it is
• Eange. The manual covers all aspects of deicing chemical
usage, from laws and regulations to choice of equipment
and techniques for educating the driving public.
• Balance. The manual concerns itself equally with technical
and managerial issues.
• Perspective. The manual draws upon a range of literature,
as well as first-hand observation of field operations.
• Alternatives. The manual presents a range of tools—
equipment, techniques, recommendations, and references—
so that its users can derive operationally and environmentally
satisfactory solutions suited to their particular needs and
constraints.
In short, this manual tries to provide a complete, practical, down-to-earth
guide for all levels of maintenance managers charged with using deicing
chemicals effectively and responsibly.
SUMMARY
In the remainder of this discussion, the major areas covered in the manual
are briefly introduced.
PART ONE: LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
Until recently, maintenance managers have not needed to pay much attention
to laws. But now, due to concern about chemical damage to the environment
(especially to public drinking water supplies), the legal framework is
changing and becoming more restrictive.
Several states have recently taken, or are now considering, laws to curb
excessive use of salt. Although federal legislation has not yet addressed
deicing chemicals directly, recent or pending laws on water pollution
control and safe drinking water reflect growing public concern about damage
to water supplies, and thus a potential future problem for highway mainten-
ance managers. Moreover, states are following the federal lead in
environmental legislation, including provisions encouraging active partici-
pation by citizens in policy planning and execution.
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PART TWO: ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION • . .
Job descriptions of maintenance managers should be amended to reflect the
broadened scope of their responsibilities beyond the traditional role of
maintenance engineers. In light of these changes, maintenance supervisory
training should include the basics of groundwater hydrology, environmental
aspects of designing and maintaining roads, management techniques for
accounting for salt usage, and procedures for complying with federal and
state environmental protection laws.
The organization of the maintenance function can significantly influence its
operational success. Winter maintenance cannot be managed effectively with-
out considering maintenance requirements during other seasons. In small
jurisdictions, one workforce may perform all road functions, including
maintenance. But in large cities and 3tates, the organizational position
and prominence of maintenance can vary; it may be integrated with the design
and construction tasks of field districts or it may be separated, with its
own chain of command directly to top management. Maintenance in any context
deserves attention and support by top managers in matters of policy, relations
with the public, and allocation of budget resources. Maintenance managers who
perform well merit recognition and promotion.
PART THREE: OPERATIONS
Several critical elements in successful operation deserve particular
attention:
• Weather warning with accuracy. This is the most important
tool for decision making. The maintenance manager has
access to all weather services — federal, independent
(for a fee), local radio-T.V. stations, and neighboring
highway departments in the storm's path.
• Planning of operation strategy through setting of
appropriate levels of service for winter maintenance.
• Preparation for the winter season through detailed
organization of the workforce and intensive crew
training.
e Setting of chemical application rates in accordance
with weather, traffic, and planned levels of service.
0 Paying particular attention to environmentally critical
areas through the use of minimum chemical techniques.
• Accounting for chemical usage by road section and
analyzing'the results obtained.
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PART FOUR: EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS AND CALIBRATION
Guidelines are presented for the equipment required for snow and ice
control operations based on the lane-miles to be serviced, number of
interchanges, average spreader and plowing speeds, and levels of service.
A variety of trucks, spreaders, blowers, loaders, graders, and plows are
shown in photographs, with the text presenting their essential features,
as well as advantages and latest innovations.
Ground-speed-controlled spreaders are the most important items of equipment
for applying chemicals accurately. These devices allow dispensing only
when the truck is in motion, and then only proportional to its speed, thus
eliminating the wastage common today with independently controlled spreaders.
Calibration of spreaders is the most important action an agency can take to
minimize excessive use of chemicals. Two techniques—yard calibration and
in-service (over the road) calibration—are explained step by step, with
calculations. Results for each truck are recorded on a card in the cab,
for ready reference by the driver. Calibration measures should include not
only the amount dispensed, but also the pattern and extent of the spread.
PART FIVE: PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Three broad approaches exist for reducing excessive reliance on chemicals.
The first, technical, is the most familiar and makes up most of this
manual. The second, legal, has been emerging in recent years through the
efforts of environmentalists and legislators. The third, education and
persuasion of the driving public, is presently the least-used tool available
to maintenance managers.
Managers can help influence driver behavior, and thus reduce their demands
for excessive use of chemicals in several ways: by knowing the facts
about chemical usage and environmental damages, by developing citizen
awareness of environmental consequences, by showing their own concern, and
by enlisting citizen support for sensible maintenance policies and budgets.
The techniques described include speeches, press releases, pamphlets,
telephone procedures, roadside signs, surveys, hearings, and citizen
advisory groups.
These techniques should promote several messages. Citizens starting to
drive should ask, "Is this trip really necessary?" Maintenance departments
should offer and provide only service that is reasonable; the slogan "June
travel in January" raises unreasonable expectations and incurs unreasonable
costs. Bare roads are, by themselves, not necessarily safe roads, and
maintenance departments are not solely responsible for highway safety.
Citizen drivers are obliged to observe laws and regulations devised for the
common good, such as laws that limit speed, designate snow routes, and
establish levels of service.
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PART ONE: LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER I
LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
In the past, maintenance managers have probably not had to pay much
attention to questions of law and regulations, except to know that muni-
cipal ordinances may require citizens to clear sidewalks on their prop-
erty. However, the legal and regulatory framework relating to snow and
ice control is important. Furthermore, it is in the process of changing
and developing. These changes will influence the way in which mainten-
ance managers and their organizations work. Good managers must, there-
fore, be sensitive to them.
The assumption underlying this manual is that deicing chemicals and their
use are only one part of a total system. This system may be described
as "moving people and goods during bad winter weather." It includes many
components, such as roads, cars, winter driving equipment on cars, weather
and weather forecasting, snow-fighting organizations, and travelers and
their drivers. Experience with this and other environmental problems
shows that success depends upon attacking all components of a problem,
not just a few. The system has, in addition to technical components
treated elsewhere in this manual, important nontechnical components,
including the legal-regulatory framework and the behavior of citizen
travelers and drivers.
In this chapter, four aspects of the legal-regulatory framework are
discussed.
« Common local snow removal ordinances,
0 New state laws,
• Related federal laws, and
• Emerging environmental laws and regulations.
COMMON LOCAL SNOW REMOVAL ORDINANCES
Towns, villages, cities, and other municipal jurisdictions receive their
writ of authority from one of the 50 states; their enabling legislation
authorizes local jurisdictions to enact such ordinances, by-laws and
regulations, "not repugnant to law, as they may judge most conducive to
their welfare, which shall be binding upon all inhabitants thereof and
all persons within their limits." (Massachusetts General Laws Chapter
40, section 21, given as a sample.)
By-laws and ordinances normally related to a variety of functions such
as regulating.sewers, preserving peace and good order, and protecting
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public drinking water supplies. In Massachusetts, towns may pass by-laws
for preventing the fall of snow and ice from roofs, for providing for
the removal of snow and ice from sidewalks, for requiring owners of
buildings near public ways to take measures to prevent snow and ice from
falling upon passing persons, and for authorizing the superintendent of
streets to remove vehicles hindering the plowing of snow.
As awareness of the environmental side effects of chemicals increases,
more local governments will probably enact by-laws or regulations to con-
trol their use. They may act independently or within the framework of
new laws passed by their states. Ann Arbor, Michigan, acted in 1970,
after a series of city-sponsored studies and public meetings, by passing
an eight-point policy, which it published in a brochure to all citizen
drivers; the complete brochure is reproduced in Chapter VII of this
manual.
Maintenance managers should know the relevant laws or by-laws in their
state or local jurisdictions. In addition to the by-laws cited above,
some states and localities are now enacting environmental protection
laws and by-laws that may affect the work of maintenance organizations.
Maintenance managers should know their own obligations under these laws,
the duties of citizens, and how to invoke the police powers of government
to assist their work.
NEW STATE LAWS
Several states have recently taken, or are now considering, laws to pro-
tect their environment against contamination by deicing chemicals, New
Hampshire anticipated the problem in 1959 and 1965, when its legislature
authorized the state highway department to replace roadside wells contam-
inated by road salt. Two states acted in 1971. Minnesota's legislature
enacted a statute which reads in part:
"(160.215) HIGHWAYS: SNOW REMOVAL: USE OF SALT OR CHEMICALS
RESTRICTED. In order to:
(1) Minimize the harmful or corrosive effects of salt or
other chemicals upon vehicles, roadways, and vegetation;
(2) Reduce the pollution of waters; and
(3) Reduce the driving hazards resulting from chemicals on
windshields; road authorities, including road authorities of cities,
villages, and boroughs, responsible for the maintenance of highways
or streets during periods when .snow and ice are prevalent, shall
utilize such salt or other chemicals only at such places as upon
hills, at intersections, or upon high speed or arterial roadways
where vehicle traction is particularly critical, and only if,
in the opinion of the road authorities, removal of snow and ice
or reduction of hazardous conditions by blading, plowing, sanding,
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including chemicals needed for the free flow of sand, or natural
elements cannot be accomplished within a reasonable time."
In Vermont, environmentally-minded legislators proposed legislation to
change the state's standard of service from a "bare road" policy to a
"safe road" policy. Out of discussion and debate with the Vermont Depart-
ment of Highways, the following compromise resulted:
"NO. R33. JOINT RESOLUTION RELATING TO THE BARE OR SAFE ROAD
POLICY OF THE VERMONT DEPARTMENT OF HIGHWAYS.
Whereas, the state of Vermont has attained and enjoyed over
the years the enviable reputation for outstanding maintenance
of its state highway system; and
Whereas, this, high quality of highway maintenance enhances and
promotes the safety of the traveling public as well as the
swift and efficient movement of goods into, within and from the
state of Vermont; and
Whereas, the state's economy and the continuing well-being
of its citizens are dependent, in part, upon the immediate
availability and use of the highway network; and
Whereas,•the immediate availability and use of the state
highway system dictates a bare or safe road surface as soon as
possible after inclement weather; and
Whereas, the controlled use of chemicals has been proven
from 30 years experience to be an effective method available
to attain a bare or safe road surface; and
Whereas. there has been evidence presented indicating that
the excessive use of chemicals may be harmful to the environment;
now therefore be it .
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives: That the
department of highways is commended for their program of research
for less potentially harmful methods of obtaining bare or safe
roads, and be it further
Resolved; That the department of highways be exhorted and ;
encouraged to work with the Agency of Environmental Conservation
in a continuing effort to discover methods of obtaining bare
or safe roads which will be economically feasible and least
harmful to the environment, and be it further
Resolved; That the Agency of Environmental Conservation shall
work closely with the highway department in accomplishing the
foregoing purposes, and be it further
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Resolved; That the department of highways should continue to
maintain a bare or safe road policy with appropriate adjustments
determined advisable as a result of conducted research.
Approved: March 29, 1971."
Two years later, Massachusetts enacted a stronger law, emphasizing storage
but also providing authority to regulate application in special areas
such as reservoir watersheds. Chapter 1208, Massachusetts Laws of 1973,
amended Chapter 85 of the General Laws to include a new section:
"Section 7A. No. person shall store sodium chloride, calcium
chloride or chemically treated abrasives or other chemicals used
for the removal of snow or ice on roads in such a manner or place
as to subject a water supply or ground-water supply to the risk
of contamination. The department of public health, hereinafter
called the department, in consultation with the department of
public works, may issue regulations as to place or manner of
storage of such chemicals and may, by specific order, in a
particular case regulate the place where such chemicals may
be used for such purpose. Any violation of this section or
any regulation or order issued hereunder shall be punished by
a fine not to exceed fifty dollars per day. Any person who
uses more than one ton of such chemicals in any calendar year
shall report annually to the department on November first,
and at such other times as prescribed, the amount of such
chemicals used in the previous twelve months specified by road
section or other location and the amount of chemicals on hand.
Copies of such reports shall be made available upon the request
of any concerned state or municipal agency or commission. The
department may require studies by competent professional per-
sonnel of the probable impact of proposed new or improved
highways and the maintenance thereof by use of such chemicals
upon reservoirs, ponds, streams, lakes, wetlands and the
groundwater aquifers associated with both public and private
water sources. Estimates of such chemicals to be applied on
proposed roads and other paved areas shall be based upon the
most recent records of chemicals actually applied as reported
under the provisions of this section. The word "person" as
used in this section shall include surveyors of highways,
road commissioners, superintendents of streets in towns,
commissioners of public works in cities and towns, the
chief engineer of the state department of public works, the
chief engineer of the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority, the
chief administrative officer of state agencies and private
persons, including corporations."
"Section 2. The commissioner of the department of public
health shall issue guidelines for the reporting of the amount
of chemicals used in snow and ice removal, as required by section
seven A of chapter eighty-five of the General Laws, inserted
10
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by section one of this act, prior to the effective date of this
act."
The reasons which moved Massachusetts to pass this law are described in a
recent book.
In mid-1973, a legislative survey by Arthur D. Little^ of 33 American
snow-belt states found that most of them have no statutes or pending bills
concerning deicing chemicals. Bills had recently been introduced but had
failed to pass in Connecticut and Nevada. In Wisconsin, however, events
were following the pattern of Massachusetts, as concern about environmen-
tal injury led to legislative hearings, reports, and the drafting of
bills. Two strong measures were proposed in Wisconsin's General Assembly
in January, 1974. The first, Assembly Bill 1401A, would establish strong
controls for use of chemicals:
9 Chemicals would have to be stored so as to prevent con-
tamination of land and water.
• Chemicals would have to be used only where vehicle traction
is critical, and then only when alternative methods are
not adequate.
0 Salt spreaders would have to be certified as being in
good working order and properly calibrated.
a Snow and ice would not be dumped where the melt would flow
into surface waters.
• Local governments would have to file annual reports of
chemical use.
• Wisconsin's Highway Commission would have to prepare annually
an environmental impact statement about chemical usage
anticipated during the next year.
• The Department of Transportation would have to conduct
research into alternative methods of snow and ice control.
The second, Assembly Bill 1402A, would require comprehensive study of the
environmental effects of deicing chemicals in order to establish a base-
line for continued monitoring.
Just as at the local level, maintenance managers at the state level must
be aware of environmental protection laws which may affect their opera-
tions . In Vermont, for example, the state's water quality authorities
require the Department of Highways to request and receive an annual per-
mit before applying deicing chemicals which may degrade drinking water
supplies. Similarly in other states, strong laws exist which public
health authorities can invoke to protect drinking water supplies. More-
over, additional laws have recently been passed in some states, for
11
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example, to protect coastal and inland wetlands and other natural re-
sources, which may be significant for maintenance operations.
RELATED FEDERAL LAW
Traditionally, the building and maintenance of roads and highways have
been activities reserved to state and local governments. So, too, have
the regulation of water supplies. However, recent activities in the
Congress and by the Environmental Protection Agency foretell a more
vigorous Federal role in years to come.
During the 1960's, the obviously declining quality of the nation's waters
contributed greatly to the general concern for environmental degradation
which became a major political issue in 1970. In 1965, Congress passed
the Water Quality Act, which followed the traditional pattern of pro-
viding Federal encouragement and funds while leaving the basic initiative
to state and local governments. However, they did not act with the
desired vigor, and Congress therefore passed in 1972 the far-reaching
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments, which shifted leadership
to the Federal government, set stringent goals for water quality by the
mid-1980Ts, and authorized vigorous enforcement.
Three aspects of the 1972 law should concern maintenance managers. First,
even though the Act does not apply explicitly to drinking water supplies,
it does signal a growing and intense national awareness of the limits and
fragility of our water resources. The Act applies to surface waters as
they are used for fishing, swimming, and other recreation. Historically,
surface waters and ground waters have been treated separately, both pro-
fessionally and legally, even though they are not separated physically;
however, it will only be a matter of time before the public recognizes
generally the natural linkages between surface and ground waters and the
role of deicing chemicals as a pollutant. Second, the Act requires par-
ticipation by the public.
Public Law 92-500, Section 101 (e) provides:
"Public participation in the development, revision, and enforce-
ment of any regulation, standard, effluent limitation, plan, or
program established by the Administrator or any State under the
Act shall be provided for, encouraged, and assisted by the
Administrator and the States. The Administrator, in cooperation
with the States, shall develop and publish regulations specifying
minimum guidelines for public participation in such processes."
Third, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the states are di-
rected to actively seek, encourage, and assist the public in participating
in this process of setting water quality requirements and monitoring
them. To that end, Congress charged:
"Information and Education Programs should be devised which
will acquaint the public with the complexity of the water
12
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quality control process and provide them with the technical
information. To accomplish this, the Environmental Protection
Agency should look to the utilization and .support of such
devices as community workshops and other assistance activities
which were developed and utilized so effectively in the
implementation of the Clean Air Act." (Legislative history,
Public Law 92-500, U.S. Code and Administrative News, 1972,
page 3679. The steps chosen by EPA to implement this charge
are presented in The Federal Register, Vol. 38, No. 163,
August 23, 1973, pp. 22757-8.)
Consistent with the Act, a nationwide series of workshops addressed the
more obvious kinds of contamination, such as raw sewage from towns or
cities, chemical wastes from factories, and agricultural pesticides
drained off from farmlands. They did not yet specifically include deicing
chemicals as pollutants, but this will also be only a matter of time.
The systematic public participation required by this Act, as well as
regulations governing review of environmental impact statements for high-
ways and other projects, has not yet intruded into the world of mainten-
ance managers. However, as environmental consciousness rises, as knowl-
edge of water quality grows, as the public participation process becomes
familiar, and as the potential dangers of deicing chemicals become widely
known, maintenance managers can expect demands for public participation
to rise, and perhaps even be required by law or regulation. Thus, main-
tenance managers would do well to follow the techniques that federal and
state environmental protection officials develop for implementing public
participation in water quality programs. Part Five, Chapter VII of this
manual discusses many techniques for encouraging citizen education and
cooperation.
In the context of national concern about water quality in general, it is
not surprising that Congress is now considering the first federal law on
drinking water during this century, the proposed "Safe Drinking Water
Act." One. bill has already been passed by the Senate; another and
reportedly stronger version is being considered, in mid-1974, by the
House Commerce Committee. It is not useful here to speculate in, detail
about .the likely contents of the final Act. However, it seems probable
that such a law will strengthen federal authority to establish minimum
standards of quality for drinking water, standards which could signifi-
cantly increase the concern of public health authorities about the use
of deicing chemicals. . •
Federal guidelines for state public health authorities already exist in
the Drinking Water Standards issued in 1962 by the U.S. Public Health
Service. Its recommended maximum level of chloride of 250 mg/1 led
Massachusetts public health authorities recently to close three public
wells and to voice their concern about rising chloride levels in several
more. The Standards do not, however, present recommendations concerning
sodium, the chemical element which concerns physicians treating patients
•13
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for high blood pressure (hypertension) and other diseases of the heart
and blood vessels. One reason is that awareness by the medical community
of possible harmful effects of sodium was not wide-spread in the early
1960's; but awareness has increased significantly in recent years. Re-
visions of the Standards are now being considered; the criteria proposed
in October 1973 by a public advisory group retain the limit of 250 mg/1
of chloride but suggest no level for sodium; however, the final document
is reported likely to include, for the first time, a thorough discussion
of sodium and its importance. Here again, it is not useful to try to
predict the revised standards, and how they might affect maintenance
managers. Our purpose, instead, is to draw attention to their significance
for maintenance managers.
EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS
As the preceding sections suggest, the rate of change in recent years in
the field of environmental law and regulation has been rapid. This pace
may continue for some time. Therefore, this manual cannot pretend to
keep maintenance managers up-to-date on the legal-regulatory framework
in all states and local jurisdictions. It can, however, urge maintenance
managers to remain aware of these developments which may affect their
work.
Some states are currently following the lead of the federal government
in passing their own legislation which supplements, and in some cases
goes beyond, federal statutes. Maintenance managers should remind general
counsels or legislative representatives of highway maintenance organiza-
tions (states, local governments, and special districts such as turnpike
authorities and park commissions) to review new statutes and regulations
and advise how these may affect maintenance operations. For example,
some states have adopted environmental policy acts, modeled on the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, which include provisions
written in broad language. Some states have also passed citizen right-
of-action statutes which confer upon individual or small groups of
citizens legal standing to sue governments for improper performance of
duties; previously, the right to allege wrong-doing and to bring suit
was limited to persons or organizations which had sustained injuries
for which they sought relief and payment of damages. States have also
strengthened and broadened the citizen's right to know about governmental
operations, including the right of easy access to information contained
in public documents. Massachusetts, and perhaps other states, recently
amended its constitution to include a broad environmental bill of rights,
guaranteeing to citizens the right to enjoy such natural resources as
clean air and water. Massachusetts also initiated the "ten-citizen
procedure," by which ten or more citizens can petition a government agency
to conduct a public hearing, for example, related to implementing a law
or setting standards, or petition a court to intervene against a govern-
ment agency whose actions threatened injury to the environment.
Statutes are not the only source of legal authority. Administering
agencies normally issue regulations needed to translate a statute into
14
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effect. The courts are regularly asked to decide cases, which become
precedents used in the interpretation of statutes and regulations. One
example occurred in Massachusetts in early 1974, when the Commonwealth's
Supreme Judicial Court backed the legislature's recent environmental
legislation. The case (S-r-7844, February 27, 1974) arose from a dispute
between the City of Boston and the Massachusetts Port Authority (Mass Port)
The Authority is a public corporation, created by the state legislature
to provide a variety of public services, such as operating the city's
airport, following principles of business rather than governmental
management; such authorities or special districts, numerous and often
economically powerful, exist in many states and cities to operate turn-
pikes, tunnels, bridges, parks, and airports, many of which have roads
requiring wintertime maintenance. One question at issue in this case
was whether Mass Port was required, in view of its special status, to
comply with certain provisions of recent environmental legislation. The
Court ruled unanimously that all authorities must so comply. The lengthy
opinion has, as the justices recognized, far-reaching implications, both
for other authorities and for future interpretation of certain statutory
requirements, such as assessing the environment impact of proposed new
construction. The Chief Justice wrote that the result of Mass Port's
interpretation would be that "a small group of state authorities would
have a unique exemption from the regulatory power of the state, an
exemption available to no person or legal entity, public or private."
In short, authorities are subject to state laws on environmental matters.
Although this decision applies only within Massachusetts, the legal argu-
ment supporting it could well be followed by courts in other jurisdictions.
15
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PART TWO: ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION
CHAPTER II
SUPERVISION REQUIREMENTS
The use of deicing chemicals has many technical aspects, and much of this
manual focuses on technical questions. However, the problem of proper
use of deicing chemicals is not just technical; it is also influenced
by such factors as leadership, management or the lack of management,
public attitude, and behavior of equipment operators. The many suggestions
set forth in this manual depend for their effectiveness, of course, upon
the cooperation and outlook of many highway maintenance employees. They
take their cues, in both technical and policy matters, from their super-
visors who, even to the top level, must clearly endorse and support a
policy of using a minimum amount of environmentally harmful chemical
materials to improve winter driving conditions. These cues should be
explicit and unequivocal. This section points out those aspects of proper
chemical use in which supervision is crucial.
Although a number of specific comments and recommendations are made in
this manual, one general point should precede all discussions. Leadership
in general, and supervision of chemical usage, which is merely one aspect
of highway maintenance, is by its nature not a separate commodity or
function. It cannot be bought in packages and it cannot be contracted
to others. It is not the task of one man only; nor is it a full time
task performed by a staff specialist. Instead, responsibility for proper
usage of deicing chemicals is only one of the many assignments of
maintenance supervisors. Ideally, they should be knowledgeable about a
number of specific topics described in this manual. Although those
maintenance managers and supervisors who have been trained professionally
as engineers may feel more comfortable reading the sections focused on
technical questions, their roles as supervisors or managers require them
to pay attention to the non-technical aspects of maintenance, especially
if they wish to perform their jobs successfully. They should, therefore,
probably pay special attention to those parts of this manual with which
they feel least familiar.
THE MAINTENANCE MANAGER
Our choice of terms needs a word of explanation. "Maintenance manager"
is used throughout this manual to designate the key public works officials
exercising decision-making power in the chain of command responsible for
controlling snow and ice on winter roads. In a town or small city, the
superintendent of roads or public works (who may also be the town manager
or administrator) usually functions also as the maintenance manager in
direct control of storm operations. The larger the jurisdiction, the more
likely is the delegation of this function to a separate and subordinate
official who specializes in maintenance, as distinct from engineering„
road construction, research and planning, and other functions common
to large highway or street departments.
16
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In many or perhaps most cases, maintenance chiefs are professionally trained
and experienced'as- engineers; indeed, in some jurisdictions-, they carry the
title of "maintenance engineer." But we prefer the term "manager" because
it emphasizes that maintenance supervisors must have not just the technical
skills associated with the term "engineer" But also several coordinating
and judging skills:
• For mobilizing men as well as machines
9 Tor directing complex operations
• For managing budgets
e For representing the maintenance function to various sectors
of public, as well as to other functions within the highway
or public works department.
Moreover, the title "manager", even when held by an engineer, reflects
the change and broadening that normally occurs later in an official's
career, as he grows beyond his early technical training and assumes a
wider range of responsibilities. Finally, the term recognizes that the
use of snow-fighting techniques so as to minimize harm to the environment
requires judgments that are not solely engineering in character; they
are managerial because they require compromises or trade-offs among
competing criteria or goals (such as service to motorists, financial
efficiency, environmental protection, and adherence to policy and
regulations). Because of such considerations, Connecticut's Bureau of
Roads recently adopted the concept and title, for example, "District
Maintenance Manager", as part of a general reorganization, noted below.
Sometimes we use "maintenance manager" to refer specifically to the
chief maintenance supervisor; at other times, we broaden it to include
all supervisors, from commissioners or superintendents to foremen of
road crews, whose jobs require some independent exercise of judgment.
Whether superior or subordinate in the chain of command, these supervisors
influence the total effect of a department's snow and ice control effort,
and, therefore, share in the managerial responsibility for success or
failure. Which use of the term we intend in each instance will be clear
from its context.
This manual is written in phrases... familiar to highway maintenance personnel
of state or city departments. But it is addressed to maintenance managers
responsible for roadways of private organizations as well, including
hospitals, universities, schools, cemetaries, and commercial establishments
such as shopping plazas, truck depots, and company or factory parking lots.
In time, all may find themselves regulated to greater or lesser degree
by state or local laws seeking to prevent further chemical contamination
of the environment, especially public drinking-water supplies.
The maintenance manager is caught these days in a tough dilemma. First
of all, he has the responsibility to maintain the roads in his jurisdiction
17
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In good repair and in driyeable conditions. He is, caught between the expecta-
tions of the driving public who increasingly wants, and often demands, June-
in-January roads, and the environmentalists who are concerned with the rapid
deterioration of some water supplies through the excessive use of deicing
chemicals. Often, the maintenance manager, as an individual and inhabitant
of planet earth, shares both of these feelings. As a maintenance manager,
however, he is also beholden to his immediate superiors to perform his job
within his allotted budget, which is often interpreted in terms of minimum
manpower, equipment, energy, and, of course, expensive chemicals such as
salt and calcium chloride.
In order to adjust and clarify the duties of managers for responsible use
of deicing chemicals, their formal job descriptions should be revised to
include the following points:
1. Develop policies and procedures for applying chemicals, to meet
environmental as well as engineering requirements, drawing
upon expert assistance as necessary from .headquarters and
research staffs.
2. Develop or assemble environmental baseline data required
for planning and possible environmental impact statements.
Essential baseline data would include groundwater information
and annual reports of its sodium and chloride levels (expressed
in "milligrams per liter", which is the same as "parts per
million"), which should be obtainable from public health
authorities. Without such baseline data as a background,
effects of various management practices, for good or for
bad, cannot be measured objectively.
3. Be responsible for, or assist in, cooperative relationships
with other governmental agencies concerned, for example,
about environmental or public health aspects of usage.
4. Ensure proper adherence to policies and procedures, checking,
for example, the periodic calibration of spreaders and recording
of operating data.
5. Supervise periodic instruction of maintenance workers in
environmentally safe handling of salt and other deicing
chemicals during loading, application, and cleaning up
after storms.
6. Perform frequent on-the-spot inspections during winter
operations to observe actual usage practices and take
steps to improve sub—standard practices.
7. Design and ensure proper use of the department's system
for reporting usage of deicing chemicals, for purposes
both of efficient management and of preventing use of
salt in excess of established standards.
18
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8. Review periodic chemical usage reports, interpret them
as necessary to higher authority, other government agencies,
and the general public; when indicated by abnormal reports,
take corrective actions to improve usage and handling
practices.
9. Consult with design and construction engineers when
building or improving roads to ensure consideration of
features (e.g., drainage ditches) needed generally to
facilitate and specifically to minimize entry of deicing
chemicals into the environment.
Supervising maintenance managers are presumed to be mid-career officials,
with time to participate in only occasional in-service training courses.
Such courses, perhaps a few days in length, should include at least
three kinds of teaching techniques: formal instruction, problem-solving
exercises, and field observation.
Formal instruction should include consideration of two basic areas:
(1) special engineering topics and (2) environmental protection require-
ments and procedures. Special engineering topics should include groundwater
hydrology; environmental aspects of planning, design, construction and
maintenance of roads; and winter operations where salt and other chemicals
are used. Environmental quality topics would vary from state to state,
but generally include discussions of federal and state environmental
laws, implementing requirements-prescribed by the Federal Highway Adminis-
tration and the state highway agency, and finally specific procedures for
complying with those requirements, for example holding public hearings,
developing possible environmental impact statements, developing programs
for minimizing chemical usage, and meeting regular reporting requirements.
Formal instruction should always be. accompanied by a variety of problem-
solving exercises which are tailored to the topics and manner of presentation.
For example, trainees might be asked"to select and evaluate groundwater
hydrological data, to identify and rank techniques for minimizing chemical
usage, to draft portions of an environmental-impact statement required by
a state, or to develop operations procedures which will minimize the use
of chemicals.
Formal instruction and problem-solving exercises should be complemented by
opportunities for observation in the field. Trainees might visit and
inspect DPWs noted for good usage practices; observe or even assist in
the instruction of maintenance workers prior to the winter season, observe '
a department's work on an environmental impact statement, or observe a
public or interdepartmental hearing on proposed chemical usage policies.
Although the formal aspects of supervising a maintenance;team are important,
the practical behavioral problems should not be overlooked. The many
requirements and suggestions presented in the manual may suggest that the
critical actors, namely the operators and drivers on the road, are ideal
19
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employees—well-motivated, well-paid, taking pride in their work,
technically skilled, and concerned only with minimizing environmental
effects of chemical use. In reality,- these ideal men exist rarely.
Moreover, managers in public service have only limited us-e of those
major tools of reward and punishment—pay raises, promotions, and dismissal.
However, they can still find ways of motivating their subordinates. In
general, they must protect them from pressures and interference from out-
siders, fight within the DPW for needed budget and equipment, and represent
them vigorously in personnel questions. Managers should improve working
conditions in the little ways which count, for example by providing radios
in truck cabs, hot coffee and food at depots during nighttime storm operations,
and inexpensive help (for example high school boys seeking work) for routine
jobs such as breaking up caked salt and sweeping up trucks and pads after
loading. Specific employees can be rewarded by assigning them to preferred
routes, the newest equipment, and more desirable jobs. Managers should
tour their areas regularly during storms, both to inspect operations.and
to provide that personal, on-the-spot leadership required by any team
working under pressure. By techniques such as these, managers can help
to overcome deficiencies in equipment and budget while influencing the
behavior of their subordinates.
ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT
To plunge right into the heart of our problem and all of its technical
aspects is tempting. But first, it is both,useful and necessary to review
its context; indeed, the problem has arisen largely because we have
concentrated on technical improvements in maintenance while paying little
or no attention to its effects on its environmental context. Other aspects
of context are equally important. Vermont's Commissioner of Highways,
John T. Gray, argues that the management of winter maintenance cannot
be examined intelligently without considering maintenance management during
other seasons. For example, unlike managers of private businesses, managers
of government agencies are subject to civil service regulations which,
in effect, restrict their flexibility in hiring and laying off workers as
seasonal needs change. Moreover, efficiency requires that equipment be
purchased, wherever possible, for multiple uses and during all seasons.
Equally important for the function of maintenance is its organizational
context. Maintenance, whether performed by an all-around crew in small
towns or by a special division within a state's DPW, both influences
and is influenced by other parts of its parent organization, such as
personnel, purchasing, construction, planning, and financial management.
Moreover, beyond its own department, it influences and is influenced by
other agencies of government, including the town manager or mayor or
governor, the town meeting or city council or state legislature, the
budget or fiscal office, and lately the public health or natural resources
authorities. A significant part of any manager's job is to understand
the relationships between his division and other organizational units and
to manage them effectively.
20
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Figure 1 represents how the maintenance function fits within the government
of a town or a small city. Wintertime maintenance is performed By a
small organization, which also handles all other road building tasks. For
large cities, of course, the organizational structure resembles that of
states, where size dictates separate field districts and specialization
of functions.
Figure 2 shows schematically two kinds of organization at the state level.
The difference is in how functions are organized in the field districts.
First, the left-hand side of Figure 2 shows the integrated field district,
in which maintenance is only one of several functions, all supervised by
the District Engineer, who reports directly to the Chief Engineer; in this
structure, policies and technical assistance from state headquarters reach
the District Maintenance Engineer only through his District Engineer, who
may or may not be sympathetic to the problems and requirements of winter-
time maintenance. Second and by contrast, the right-hand side of Figure 2
shows a state organization where maintenance is organized separately. This
structure was adopted recently by Connecticut's Bureau of Highways. Previously,
Maintenance was grouped with and often subordinate to Design and Construction,
despite the fact that it now requires the largest proportion of personnel
and a substantial budget. The preeminence of Design and Construction
probably reflected the expansion of highway building during the 1960's,
especially construction of the interstate system, which therefore naturally
offered more opportunities for promotion. By contrast, the maintenance
function suffered in various, ways, especially in haphazard personnel
promotion practices. With the reorganization in 1972, Connecticut first
restricted transfers among divisions to lower level jobs only and second,
promoted maintenance managers only from within the newly separated Main-
tenance Division. No form of organization is free of problems of coordination.
Often, organizational charts and their formal chains^of-command are merely
ideal and rational pictures; in practice, leadership and effective comm-
unication ebbs and flows in response to physical proximity, personal
compatibility, and other influences. However, the separate structure
shown in Figure 2 moves the maintenance function closer to the top
manager of the highway department; it thereby offers better chances of
success in competition for budget and personnel; and it presumably also
offers better career opportunities, always an important attraction for
men of talent. ; !
The symbolism of this separated form of organization should not be over-
looked. It emphasizes that long-term maintenance can be as important
as initial layout and construction of roads, even though it is a routine
housekeeping function. Moreover, it suggests that maintenance policies
are a concern of top management, and that their understanding and support
is important for success. Finally, it places the maintenance manager
somewhat closer to his ultimate customers, the various groups within the
driving public.
Figure 3 presents the organizational context in a different way. It
centers on the maintenance manager, whether in a small or large jurisdiction.
It retains the hierarchy or chain of command above and below him. But it
21
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Citizen Road Users
and
Voters
Town Meeting,
Board of Selectmen,
or City Council
Other
Departments
Garage Foreman
Repair Mechanics
Town Manager
or Mayor
Superintendent
of Roads or
, Public Works
(May also be
Town Manager)
Crew Foremen
(1 or More)
Road Crew
(1 or More)
Drivers, Equipment-
Operators,
Helpers
(Supplemented During
Heavy Storms by
Contractor Equipment
and Drivers)
FIGURE 1 ORGANIZATION OF TOWN OR CITY MAINTENANCE FUNCTION
(Winter Maintenance only One of Many Functions Performed by a
Smalt Staff)
22
-------
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Is Q Z
E -a HI
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23
-------
Top General Government Officials
(Governor, Mayor, Selectmen, DOT
Commissioner, City Manager, Legisla-
tive Chairmen)
Heads of Other
Gov't Agencies
(E.g. Natural Re-
sources, Environ^
mental Protec-
tion, Conserva-
tion Commis-
sions, Water
Board, Public
Health Dept.
eads of Other
ov't Depart-
ents (E.g.
Finance &
Budget, Pur-
chasing, Sanita
tion. Parks,
(State or local)
District Engineer
Other DPW
Managers
(E.g. Construe
tion)
Maintenance
Manager
tration, Design)
Other DPW
Field Units
Assistant Managers
or Engineers
Other DPW
Field Units
Maintenance
Organization
(by district and road sec-
tion) Foremen & Crews
Field Organizations of Other Government Agencies
FIGURE 3 ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT AS VIEWED BY THE MAINTENANCE MANAGER
24
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also suggests how relationships radiate out from him to other organizational
•units, both within the DPW and in other government agencies. Later in
Part Five, Chapter TIT, we shall add more concentric circles to suggest
the maintenance manager's relationships with other important groups outside
of government.
Although this manual seeks to report best current practices observed in
a variety of highway and public works departments, its generalized format
is not intended to obscure the realities of differences among various
jurisdictions—state, county, city, town, and private institutions.
Although geographical size and organizational structure vary, the principles
of responsible chemical usage remain basically the same.
Large cities, for example, resemble states in needing a departmental
organization with distinct and specialized units, and a chain of command.
Although a city's area may have somewhat less variation in weather than
a state, differing conditions within short distances remain a problem.
A city's more compact area can allow close and more frequent personal
inspections by managers, and thus somewhat tighter supervision of chemical
usage during winter storms. However, truck drivers must still be left
some discretion in applying chemicals according to local conditions.
Small cities and towns offer the best conditions for personal observation
and control by the maintenance manager, who may also be the DPW super-
intendent and even town manager. However, such managers may be subject
to more personal and direct pressures, from influential merchants, as well
as from environmental advocates and from DPW road workers. Moreover, they
may lack the specialized equipment and training available to large city
or state departments. But their more intimate knowledge of a smaller area
may permit them to strike a better balance among such competing goals
as high-quality service, low-cost operations, and environmental protection.
Despite the variations imposed by these differences among jurisdictions,
it is important that service on rpads passing through more than one juris-
diction be consistent. This is to avoid sharp changes in road conditions,
which may surprise motorists and help cause accidents.
25
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PART THREE: OPERATIONS
CHAPTER IT!
TOOLS FOR DECISION-MAKING
Maintenance managers responsible for snow and ice control are faced with
a number of decisions when storms become imminent. In most instances,
these decisions must be made in the face of conditions that re continually-
changing and under pressure from local interest groups. To assist in making
these decisions, these maintenance managers must have the best possible,
up-to-date information about the storm and traffic conditions. The starting
point for all such decisions is the weather forecast.
WEATHER WARNING
The most important asset of maintenance managers is a dependable source
of knowledge about the timing, magnitude, and duration of each storm so
that men, equipment, and material can be deployed and used in the most
efficient way. Each organization must establish to its own satisfaction,
a procedure or combination of techniques for finding out what the weather
will do in their jurisdiction. Sources of information for alerting snow
and ice control operations are numerous:
• National Weather Service of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA);
• Independent Weather Forecasting Services, such as
Northeast Weather Service in Bedford, Mass., and
Murray and Trettle in Chicago, 111.;
• Local Television and Radio Station Meteorologists;
• Independent Meteorologists; and
• Neighboring snow and ice control groups located along
the storm's path.
All weather services have access to the same meteorologic data. It is
the interpretation of these data, and translation of them into useful
weather forecasts which is crucial.
National Weather Service of NOAA
The federal government provides weather forecasting services through the
National Weather Service, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce, (formerly
the U.S. Weather Bureau). Weather Service offices, maintained at most
municipal airports, provide generalized hourly weather forecasts for the
immediate surrounding area. These forecasts are communicated in three
different ways.
26
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e Telephone: usually a recorded transcription is updated
hourly. Since the forecast format is usually the same,
it is convenient to formulate a data sheet onto which
the weather data can Be transferred when a telephone
call is made. Sometimes local radio and television
stations receive forecasts directly from the National
Weather Service at specified times during the day.
Other stations use only selected parts of the National
Weather Service forecast.
• Continuous transmission over "VHF/FM radio stations at
162.55 or 162.40 Megahertz. A special receiver is
required for these transmissions. These stations are
located only in large metropolitan areas and have an
effective transmission range of only 40-60 miles.
Forecasts are repeated every 4-6 min and are revised
every 2-3 hrs.
© An aviation-oriented forecast by the Federal Aviation
Administration (surface weather is also reported)
through a transcribed weather broadcast service (TWEB):
broadcasts are in the 200-400 Kilohertz AM frequency -
range depending on location (although a special
receiver is required, a small portable radio can be
easily modified to receive these signals3),
Independent Meteorologic Forecasting Services
Many organizations subscribe to an independent meteorologic forecasting
service that provides up-to-the-minute weather information. The independent
meteorologic service can provide several important services above and
beyond that provided by the National Weather Service:
® Individualized forecasting for specific localities. The
National Weather Service covers only large areas within
the immediate vicinity of the forecasting offices.
« Updated forecasts on an hourly or more frequent basis
depending upon how a storm is developing.
© Direct telephone contact by the subscribers with the
meteorologists who are making the forecast at any time
night or day, 24 hours per day, seven days a week.
As with any large meteorologic service} continuous weather observations
and data are received over connections to the government weather teletype
network and the facsimilie network. Situations are spotted as they
develop, and according to the judgment of the forecaster, warnings are
issued to subscribers as necessary. Some subscribers receive regularly
scheduled weather forecasts, others on an unscheduled basis depending
upon the weather.. The typical weather forecast for snow and ice warning
27
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can be either in the form of an alert-or in toe form of a storm framing.
Typically, a storm alert is put out in the afternoon before 3:30 or 4:00
p.m. when the maintenance people go home. This gives- the regular day crew
a. chance to prepare equipment for a night storm and to alert or schedule
crews for a night storm duty.
From 4 to 6 hr before a storm is expected to begin, the independent weather
service will telephone the following detailed information to subscribers:
• the approximate hour the storm will begin;
• the type and amount of precipitation expected;
• the duration of the storm;
• the temperatures, wind direction and velocity, and
drifting conditions during and after each storm;
• the approximate hour of change from snow to rain, ice to
rain, snow to ice, etc.; and
• weather conditions to be expected after the storm, particularly
whether the temperature will go up or down.
Details of this information are transmitted by phone and recorded on forms
similar to the one shown in Figure 4. The subscriber has a large number
of these forms, which he fills out when called by the weather service.
Transmission of the information in numerical form saves time and prevents
possible errors. For storms beginning during the night, subscribers are
called before 4:00 p.m. the previous afternoon with details of the fore-
cast at that time. If details are unobtainable before about 4:00 p.m.,
an alert is telephoned in lieu ,of the detailed forecast. This same
procedure is generally followed for storms which are expected to begin
over the weekend.
For large subscribers such as the Massachusetts Department of Public Works,
specialized forecasts are prepared. These may be transmitted over teletype
to the subscriber who cuts a transcription tape of his own for transmission
over a closed-circuit teletype system to major road divisions. For other
large subscribers, the information may be transmitted by facsimilie. From
this type of weather forecast, a specific weather map can be drawn for the
particular locality of the subscriber like the New Jersey,,Turnpike, which
has considerable variation in weather conditions from one end to the
other. For other subscribers, an extended weather forecast can be provided
as on the form shown in Figure 5.
The independent weather service emphasizes direct communication with main-
tenance managers. Individual subscribers can call the independent weather
service at any time and consult with the forecasting meteorologist who
is on duty at the time. This two-way communication is as important to the
forecaster as it is to the subscriber. The forecaster can pinpoint exactly
28
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NORTHEAST
Bedford Massachusetts
WEATHER SERVICES
Telephone (617) 275-8860 -
DAT! .
GIVEN IT.
AIEA
.RECEIVED IT.
. DISTRICT
Snow & lee -- Storm Warning
THE FOLLOWING HEATHER FORECAST INFORMATION IS PROVinm FOR TOE EXCLUSIVE
USE OF TOE SUBSCRIBER AND IS NOT AUTHORIZED FOR HIRTHfR DISTRIBUTION.
^ SNOW
Jr 1 Snow
D 4 Snow Flurries - OCon.inulnj
Q 3 Sno.v to Ice
D 4 Snow to Rain
D S Snow and Ice Mixed
Q . 6 Snow and Rain Mixed
O 7 Rain to Snow
^» TYPE OF SNOW
Jr 8 Drifting
O^ 9 Fluffy
H^IO Dry (below 30°F)
D 11 Very Dry (below 20°F!
D 14 Wet (30°-34°F)
QJ3 Melting (over 34°F)
Sr 14 Becoming
D J5 Dry (below 30°F)
Br^l6 Very Dry (below 20°F)
D 17 Wet (30°-34°F)
D 18 Melting (over 34°F)
TOTAL SNOW ACCUMULATION
D 1» Little, if any (Trac»)
D 40 Less than 1 Inch
D 21 1-2 Inches D Near 1 inch
D 42 1-3 Inches
D 43 2-4 Inches
D>44 3-6 Inches
(T 25 4-7 Inches
D 26 6-9 Inches a Additional
D 47 8-12 Inches
D 28 10-15 Inches
D 29 12-18 Inches
D 30 Over 18 Inerni
SNOW . ... BV
BEGINNING '•* BI
O 31 Mon. D 53 Mon.
D 34 Tue». D 54 Tues.
D 33 Wed. D 55 Wed.
D 34 Thurs. D 56 Thurs.
•F* 35 Fri. tf 57 Fri.
D 3* Sat. D 51 Sal.
D 37 Sun. D 5» Sun.
Q 38 12-2 D 60 12-2
a 39 1-3 D 61 1-3
a 40 2-4 D 64 2-4
D 41 3-5 P 63 3-5
^44 4-4 D 64 4-6
O 43 5-7 Q 65 5-7
a 44 6-8 D 66 6-8
D 45 7-9 D 67 7-9
D 46 8-10 IT 61 8-10T
D 47 9-11 D 6» 9-11
O 48 10-12 D 70 10-12
D 49 11-1 (Noon) D 71 11-1 (Noon)
a 50 11-1 (Mid.) D 74 11-1 (Mid.)
Q 51 A.M. D 73 A.M.
tf 52 P. M. & 74 P. M.
ICE
D 75 Ice (Freezing Roin)
D 76 Ice (Freezing Drizzle)
D 77 Sleet (Ice Pellets)
G 78 Ice to Rain
D 79 Ice to Snow.
D 80 Rain to Ice
D 81 Drizzle to Ice
TYPE OF RAIN OR DRIZZLE
O 82 Hard Freezing (below 25°F)
0 83 Freezing (25°-32°F)
Q 84 Borderline (30°-34"F)
D 85 Non-freezing (34"-40°F)
D 86 Mild (over 40" f)
Q 87 Becoming
D 88 Hard Freezing (below 25°F)
D 89 Freezing (25°-32°F)
D 90 Borderline (30°-34'F)
D »1 Non-freezing (34"-40°F)
Q 94 Mild (over 40"F)
EFFECTS OF RAIN OR DRIZZLE
D 93 Brief Icing (3 hrs. or leu)
D 94 Prolonged Icing (more than 3 hraj
D 95 Part Washout of New Snow
D 96 Total Washout of New Snow
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
D 97 Slush Freezing
DS8 Shorp Temperature Drop
Hr99 Snow Drifting after Storm
QlpO Snow, 2" or more per Hour
BfTOl Rush Hour Problems
O 104 Catch Basin Flooding
ICE BY RAIN BY
P 103 Mon. D 145 Mon.
D 104 Tues. D 126 Tues.
U 105 Wed. d 127 Wed.
a 106 Thurs. D 12» Thurs.
Q 107 Fri. D 149 Fri.
D 108 Sat. D 130 Sat.
D 109 Sun. D 131 Sun.
D 110 12-2 D 134 12-2
a 111 1-3 D 133 1-3
D 114 2-4 O 134 2-4
D "3 3-5 D 135 3-5
D 114 4-6 D 136 4-4
D 115 5-7 D 137 5-7
O 116 6-8 D 138 6-8
D 117 7-9 D 139 7-9
D 118 8-10 D 140 8-10
D 119 9-11 D 141 9-11
D 140 10-12 D 144 10-12
D 121 11-1 (Noon) D 143 11-1 (Noon)
D 122 11-1 (Mid.) D 1*4 11-1 (Mid.)
O «3 A.M. D 145 A.M.
D 144 P.M. D 146 P M.
DURATION OF STORM
D 147 Less than 3 Hours ...
D 148 3-6 Hours n Additional
D 149 6-12 Hours
QJ50 12-18 Hours
IrlSl 18-24 Hours
D 154 Over 24 Hours
WIND
OJ53 light and Variable
IM54 Becoming
D 155 5-10 m.p.h.
DJ56 10-20 m.p.h.
B*157 20-30 m.p.h.
QJ58 Over 30 m.p.h.
Bn59 Gusty - .
KJ60 N 8*165 N
SlM 1 «^M Shifting to Ojlf I
D 163 W 1H68 W
WEATHER AFTER STORM
DJ69 Sunny
S^170 Partly Sunny
D 171 Cloudy
D 174 Snow Flurries
D 173 Thawing Days (above 40°F)
D 174 Thawing Nights (above 40°F)
n 175 Melting Days (above 32°F)
D 176 Melting Nights (above 32°F)
D 177 Be ow Freezing Days
DJ78 Below Freezing Nights
tri7f Below 20°F All Day
D JSO Below IO'F All Day
ensi Windy (over 25 m.p.h.)
D 184 Snow or Ice Storm within 24 Hours
ALERT FOR POSSIBLE TROUBLE
PXOMIILITT OF SHOW OR ICE STORM
n 183 90 Percent Certain
R184 75 Percent Certain
185 60 Percent Certain
D 186 Less than 50 Percent Certain
CONDITIONS DEVELOPING
COULD FAVOR
D 187 Snow (amount uncertain)
Q 188 Snow (1 inch or less)
D 189 Snow (1-3 inches)
O 190 Snow (2-4 inches)
D 191 Snow (4 inches or more)
B194 Changing from Snow to Rain
193 Changing from Rain to Snow
D 194 Changing from Snow to Ice
D 195 Ice Storm
D 196 Changing from Ice to Rain
D 197 Changing from Rain to Ice
REASON UNABLE TO DETAIL FORECAST
D 198 Storm Could Skirt Your Area
D 199 Timing Uncertain
B400 Borderline Temperatures
401 Snow Accumulation Doubtful
PROBABLE BEGINNING TIME
OF TROUBLE
D 404 Within 3-6 Hours
D 203 Within 6-12 Hours
D 404 Within 12-18 Hours
D 205 Within 18-24 Hours
O 406 Within 24-36 Hours
CANCEL EARLIER FORECAST
OR ALERT
n 407 No Snow or Ice Expected
FORM NUMBER 20 WR
Courtesy of Northeast Weather Services,
Bedford, Massachusetts.
FIGURE 4 WEATHER REPORTING FORM
29
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\ U OAILV FORECAST
2 ^PRELIMINARY FORECAST
3 •'FORECAST
4 Q SUPPLEMENTARY
S a REVISED FORECAST
6 O WEEK END OUTLOOK
NORTHEAST ^A WEATHER SERVICES
131A Greit Road Badford MMUchuum 01730
T.tephonn (617) 275-8860
For i xclulhn UM of wMcribw: further dintminition it not (uthorlztd.
Dan:
Tirm:
•v-
FIRST DAY VtOM
GENERAL WEATHER
TEMP.
WINDS
GUSTS
MID- 3AM
3AM-6AM
6AM 9AM
SAM-NOON
NOON.3PM
3PM. 6PM
UWT
li«V
6PM-9PM
9PM. MID.
M.
REMARKS:
Ttmp>r«turn ntatt to tht l«t hour of the 3-hour Foracnt Ptriod.
SECOND DAY TuC.
GENERAL WEATHER
• TEMP.
WINDS
GUSTS
If,
MID 3AM
3AM 6AM
6AM-9AM
9AM NOON
NOON-3PM
71
3PM-6PM
6PM-9PM
9PM-MID.
REMARKS:
Ttmpff»tur« re lite to the list hour of th« 3-hour Por*can P«riod,
THIRD DAY
MAX TEMP:_2i!.MIN TEMP:
FOURTH DAY
MAX TEHP:_S* HIN TFMP-O*/g*
""1
FIFTH DAY
MAX TFMP;
TEMP:,
FORM IOID
Courtesy of Northeast Weather Services,
Bedford, Massachusetts.
FIGURES EXTENDED WEATHER FORECAST
30
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what is happening during a storm and sharpen the local forecast in that
area. This- technique is particularly useful for prediction of changes in
storm conditions as: a storm passes, between regular observation stations.
It also gives; the subscriber a chance to make his feelings known particularly
when the weather is not what is forecasted.
A listing of independent weather services can be found in the oulletin of
the American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon Street, Boston, Massachusetts.
Local Television and Radio Stations
Many local radio and television stations maintain staff meteorologists who,
with access to the standard government weather information, provide general
weather forecasts for the local area served by the particular station.
These forecasts are often used in conjuntion with other forecasting sources
in formulation of an overall picture of the weather situation confronting
the local snow and ice control group.
Other Sources of Weather Information
1. Sometimes independent meteorologists are employed to provide
the precise weather predictions required of snow and ice control operations.
2. A telephone call to a neighboring highway organization may
provide the required warning of snow conditions descending upon the area.
3. Often times through monitoring of a radio station in an adjacent
state, sufficient warnings of snow conditions can be obtained particularly
when storms follow traditional weather patterns. Supervisors of the western
sections of the Massachusetts Turnpike regularly tune in on a Hartford,
Connecticut radio station, which has a weather report that they find
reliable.
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
Two other major factors in decisions about snow and ice control are the
traffic conditions that will exist at predicted start of the storm, during
the storm, and at the end of the storm and the level of service to be
maintained on the various classes of roads. The time at which storm
conditions begin to develop has an important bearing upon the response
and each group must establish a set of priorities to be followed as storms
develop. (It is essential to give these priorities wide publicity so
that the driving public will understand what is happening and give their
support by staying home or avoiding lower serviced roads.)
Priorities for level of service should be based on traffic volume because
it reflects the degree of difficulty in snow and ice control, the speed
of vehicles using the roads, and the skill and familiarity of the highway
users traveling on these roads. Volume of traffic also reflects the number
of people that will be inconvenienced by deteriorating road conditions.
Often, level of service priorities are established (quite validly) by
31
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experience or tradition. Minnesota, Michigan, Washington, New York, Nova
Scotia, and other jurisdictions have established levels of service based
on average daily traffic C&DT). The levels- of service used in Minnesota
are given in Table 1. Levels of service will be used in this manual as-
the basis for standards for snow and ice control, rate of application of
chemicals and abrasives, and allocations of equipment and manpower. The
recommended generalized priority system includes- the four classifications
of roads in Table 2. The guidelines for levels of service in Table 2 are
a distillation of information from all of the above sources and can serve
as a stepping off point for the preparation of levels of service suited
to each particular location.
32
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Table 1. LEVELS OF SERVICE FOR SNOW AND ICE CONTROL
Courtesy of Minnesota Department of
Highways
Classification
Urban Commuter
Rural Commuter
Primary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
ADT
Over 10,000
2,000-10,000
800-2,000
400-800
250-400
Under 250 &
Gravel Roads
Level of Service*
Bare pavement within 6
hours after termination
of storm (12 hours for
severe storms).
Bare pavement within 24
hours after termination
of storm. (On divided
highways, left lanes
should be half bare with
sanded curves and hills
before termination of
snow removal effort.
Intermittent bare pave-
ment, clear Wheel
Tracks (compacted
snow with appropriate
sanding allowed in
towns and sheltered
areas).
Two bare wheel tracks
and sanded hills and
curves.
Bare left wheel track
and sanded hills and
curves.
Compacted snow is
acceptable.
*Based on an average snowstorm of four inches falling in a
six to eight hour period. Standards apply only to the main-
line and interchange roadways; frontage road, crossover and
other clean-up operations are not included.
33
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CHAPTER r
ACTIONS
Up to this point, this manual has been concerned with the regulatory
frameworks, the supervision requirements, and some of the decision-making
processes that lead up to snow and ice control operations. This chapter
is written for the highwaymen (the equipment operators, the foremen, and
the supervisors) who get out into the storm and do the work. It deals
with organization of operations, pre-season training and equipment in-
spection, mobilization of men and equipment, issuing of orders, guidelines
for application of deicing chemicals, and precautions to be taken in1
handling of deicing chemicals and loading spreader trucks. It discusses
the role of the spreader operator, techniques for minimizing chemical
applications, and accounting procedures for keeping track of the use of
chemicals.
BEING PREPARED
An important part of snow and ice control is the preparation of men and
equipment for the actions that must be taken when weather conditions turn
bad. Essential to the effective program is an organization that is responsive
to the levels of service established in Chapter III.
Organization of Operations
As was pointed out in Chapter II, the work organization at the district
level is the same no matter what the organization (a town or city or an
integrated or a separate function within a state organization). The
activities at this district level are of primary interest to us in this
Chapter.
Uniform criteria must be used in establishing levels of service standards
throughout the jurisdiction. At the district level it is highly recommended
that both work breakdown and man and equipment assignments be based on an
overall level of service plan. A good example of this is the district-
level organization developed by the Pennsylvania.Department of Transportation
(Penn DOT) and reproduced here with its permission.
Within Penn DOT, the basic unit of organization is the county. Each
county, which contains approximately 1,000 lane miles of road, is broken
up into a number of foreman sections, such as the eight shown in Figure 6.
Each of these eight foreman sections contains approximately 120 lane-miles
of road, classified as interstate, primary, secondary, or rural and
rated for level of service in that order. For simplified presentation,
detail is shown for only foreman section 1. Color coding of levels of
service as used by Penn DOT instead of the symbol codes shown here, increase
the ease with which these planning maps can be read during storm operations.
35
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36
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Within the foreman section, equipment assignments are made in accordance
with the priorities established as shown in Figure 7. On this summary
figure is all of the information the foreman will need, including stockpile
locations, operator's names, the lane miles to Be covered by each piece
of equipment, the equipment number or rental agreement number, the equipment
type, and the telephone number of the operator. Additional information
includes the radio call number of the supervisor, the stockpile number and
the name and telephone number of the assistant superintendent.
The third breakdown in this organization, shown in Figure 8, again shows
the foreman section map and outlines the individual operator's route. This
map is kept in the cab of each vehicle along with the calibration data for
the spreader, and helps provide a continuity of service if road assignments
have to be switched.
A work breakdown such as the one shown is based on a level of service for
which the county maintenance manager has classified roads as primary,
secondary, and rural, and has established appropriate service priorities.
This classification is often made on the basis of the ADT, or sometimes
simply on the experience of the maintenance manager.
Penn DOT's system is more elaborate and detailed than traditional methods
of organization. But it has several advantages. It organizes in a common
format much of the data which supervisors need in order to manage. It
increases the probability that prescribed standards will be applied and
followed throughout a large area; this promotes not only efficiency in
use of supplies, but also the uniformity of winter road conditions which
drivers should have for reasons of both convenience and safety. Personnel
within the department, whether drivers or top managers, can be transferred
from one job to another but still have guidance from common operating
instructions applied to each county, section, and route. A related
advantage, from both driver and managerial viewpoints, is that each truck
driver knows what is expected of him by his supervisors in the very top
of the chain of command, but the zone of discretion can be clearly limited
and understood. This system also enables managers to pinpoint responsiblities,
an important attribute of any organization. Moreover, it presents a mass
of important data in compact yet clear form, which can aid managers in
expanding both their strategy and their tactics to outside examiners,
whether from other government agencies, the legislature, or the public.
Finally, this clearly-presented system makes easier the inevitable process
of change and adjustment.
In this organization, the responsibility for maintaining roads is located
at the foreman's level because he and his equipment operators are in the
best position to judge the condition of the road, to see how the weather
conditions are affecting the road surface, and to observe the traffic
conditions. Almost all vehicles are equipped with two-way radios so that
instant communication can be maintained with the section foreman. With
this communication, the section foreman as he patrols his section, can be
appraised of developing road conditions, of breakdowns, and of the progress
in plowing or spreading of chemicals; he can reassign equipment in the event
of breakdown or if level-of-service priorities have to be modified.
37
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Foreman's Section 1
Stockpile
Interstate System
Primary System
Secondary System
Rural System
Key
©
—*-
A
A
A
— •—
— B-
-^A-
Name
P. Harrison
R. Kastler
A. Catino
J. Metzger
K. Leonard
B. Friksen
L. Champey
G. Krassner
E. Coburn
T. McNulty
Lane
Miles
Stock Pile
40.5
40.5
40.5
40.5
38.7
38.7
30.0
27.4
30.3
Equipment No. or
Agreement No.
178-1046
377-6672
308-4089
576-4066
Rented Hopper
Rented
274-4081
806-2066
866-4067
371-4067
Telephone No.
665-2049
665-4489
673-8139
665-4746
665-3478
665-3693
665-4565
Type
Eq.
L
G
P/S
P/S
S
G
P/S
P/S
P/S
P/S
Foreman — T. O'Leary
Assistant Superintendent — P. Daniker
FIGURE 7 FOREMAN'S SECTION MAP
38
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Operator's Route
Stockpile
Interstate System
Primary System
Secondary System
Rural System
Key
—
Name
G. Krassner
Lane
Miles
30.3
Equipment No. or
Agreement No.
806-2066
Telephone No.
665-3693
Type
Eq.
P/S
FIGURE 8 OPERATOR'S ROUTE MAP
39
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When, rented equipment is uaed within a division, all equipment and accessories
should Be ready for use by November 1. Within the terms of their contract,
rented trucks are employed to supplement equipment of the jurisdictions
Cstate, county, or town). Such rental equipment is called out as needed
during storms and used in the same manner as any state-owned equipment.
Each piece of rental equipment should Be given a definite work assignment
under a specific foreman who supervises that equipment and is responsible
for its performance. The foreman should have the responsibility for calling
out the rented equipment, checking its time of arrival and departure,
arranging for changing its plow blades, allowing time out for the operator's
meals, changing his work assignments temporarily, loading of materials,
and ensuring effective use of the equipment.
Pre-Season Crew Training and Equipment Inspection
Probably the most important action that maintenance managers can take to
ensure that their winter maintenance operations are effective, is to
review operations in a series of pre-season training sessions for all
personnel. Everyone should be included in these pre-season training
sessions, including managers, supervisors, equipment operators and their
helpers, time keepers, mechanics, and, of course, all of the contractor
supervisors and equipment operators.
All aspects of the winter maintenance program should be covered to some
degree in each training session, although the focus of particular training
session programs can be adapted for the audience. Management aspects may
be emphasized at the supervisors meeting, and equipment-operation aspects
may be emphasized for those personnel who are responsible for the field
operations. Attendance at these pre-season training sessions should be
required, and groups should be chosen so that older, more experienced
employees attend along with the first-time new employees. • Throughout
each training session, questions and discussion should be encouraged so
that the operation is fully understood and improvements can be suggested.
The techniques that can be utilized in pre-season crew training include
classroom instruction, shop demonstration, equipment dress rehersals, and
finally route familiarization. All of these techniques should be used
to some degree in each program and should be tailored to the particular
need of the organization responsible for the winter maintenance program.
The program can begin as early as September, depending upon when the
winter season begins, and continue right up until the winter season begins.
Although efforts should be made to complete the program before November 1,
training should be considered as an on-going, ever-changing function,
which can continue throughout the winter season as new information or
techniques are brought to the attention of the winter maintenance organization.
Classroom Instruction
All training sessions should be tailored to small groups (five} to ten
participants at a time) so that the instruction can be personalized and
questions and discussions encouraged. Instruction material should be
40
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prepared by the parent organization so that uniformity is guaranteed
throughout the jurisdiction.
Some of the techniques that have been employed by various organizations,
are listed below in descending order of preference:
• Seminars prepared and executed by the parent organization
with slides and movies,
9 Seminars conducted by local supervisors including slides with
coordinated sound tracts or slides with a tape recorder,
• Slides with a text prepared by the parent organization, and
« Discussions of local operations and standard procedures.
Topics to be covered at these sessions include;
9 Winter working hours and shift rotations;
« Mobilization;
e What to do and when to do it under varying weather conditions;
e Coordinating operations with weather changes, traffic conditions,
and time of day;
e How to run a spreader;
e • Quantities of chemicals and/or abrasives for varying weather
conditions;
« Where to spread chemicals on the road;
e Calibration of spreaders; and
• Hazards to the environment.
Table-top demonstration models are useful for demonstrating plowing techniques.
One town utilizes a model truck with plow to show employees how and how
not to plow snow. The model operates on a street mock-up, which includes
the difficult plowing situations that may arise including a cul-de-sac,
and various types of intersections including multi-street, curbs, driveways,
and straight road sections. Dry sand.or soap powder simulates the snow.
Each person is given a chance to "drive" the plow truck.
Shop Demonstration
Another effective tool in the training session is the shop demonstration
during which pre-snowfall instruction can be given on spreader operation,
plow maintenance and hook up, and spreader calibration. In these shop
41
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demonstrations, an instructor (in this case an experienced operator) can
demonstrate to each new operator how to mount a plow and properly adjust
it for the various weather conditions and how to prepare a spreader for
the different materials and rates of application that are expected in
the winter operation program. Under supervision, each new operator must
perform these functions on the specific piece of equipment which he will
be responsible for using during the winter season.
These shop demonstrations should also include the calibration of a spreader.
For details of spreader calibration see Chapter VI.
Equipment Dress Rehearsal
Following procedures used by the Minnesota and Michigan Highway Departments,
all equipment in a section should be mobilized on one day for a formal
equipment inspection and dress rehearsal. In order to stress the importance
of this inspection, managers at all levels must be involved. These inspections
are usually conducted by personnel from the head maintenance office.
The purpose of this inspection is to determine if the equipment is in
proper mechanical condition for the coming winter season. A detailed
and complete inspection is made of each piece of equipment. All accessories
are checked thoroughly, and the general condition of the equipment is noted
on the Equipment Pre-Season Checklist shown in Figure 9. Minor repairs
are made, and major work is scheduled for a later date by the shop foremen.
Route Familiarization
The last step in the training program should enable the operator and his
helper or wing-plow man to become thoroughly familiar with the section
or sections or road over which he is to operate. Frequent stops should
be made to inspect obstacles such as guard rails, manhole covers, and
curb stones, which may cause damage to equipment if struck. High stakes
with reflectors or perhaps just a tall branch should be attached to these
obstructions so that the operator can identify them under the adverse
weather conditions experienced during storms. Remember, the obstacle
that is visible when the leaves are beginning to fall will probably be
invisible or extremely difficult to spot from a plow or spreader when
the weather conditions are poor.
Where to Get Additional Information
Several organizations have devoted considerable thought and efforts to
develop effective training programs for winter maintenance personnel.
They are aware of both the operational and the environmental problems
and, through these programs, have addressed the issues.
The Salt Institute has produced an effective program entitled "Sensible
Salting" that can be incorporated into a pre-season crew training program.
Sensible Salting programs are conducted by skilled personnel from the
Salt Institute and include the following:
42
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ENGINE COMPARTMENT . .
Oil leaks - valve covers, oil pan, filter housing, lines, etc.
Oil level and condition
Power steering pump - belt, condition & adjustment, fluid level
Cooling system
Coolant level
Coolant specific gravity protected to - °F
Radiator condition - leaks
Radiator hoses condition - leaks
Heater hoses condition - leaks
Fan belt - condition & adjustment
Fan blade - looseness, cracks
Water pump - seal, bearings
Radiator shutters - condition & operation
Electrical system
e Battery - holder, hold downs, caps missing
« Battery cables - tightness, corrosion
123456
e Electrolyte level ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
© Electrolyte specific gravity [ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ]
e High rate discharge test - battery amp/hr rating
9 Time discharged ( )
® Amperes ( )
® Minutes ( )
@ Final voltage ( )
& Alternator
9 Belt - condition & adjustment
® Lubrication (if necessary)
® Wiring - condition & tightness
« Voltage regulator - mounting, wiring
Brake system components
• Hydraulic
a Master cylinder - condition, fluid level
9 Lines - leaks & condition
® Air
e Compressor - lubrication, air & cooling lines tight
e Belt - condition & adjustment
« Intake filter - condition & clean
FIGURE 9 PRESEASON EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST
43
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Fuel system (gas)
* Carburetor - mounting, leaks, etc.
• Air cleaner - condition, ducts
• Fuel pump - tightness, leaks
• Fuel filter - drain water, clean or replace element
Fuel system (diesel)
Air cleaner - condition & service
Transfer pump - condition & leaks
Injection pump - condition fie leaks
Injectors - condition & leaks
Filters - condition & service
Ignition systems
• Coil - condition & clean
• Distributor
• Cap - condition & clean
• Rotor - condition & clean
• Points & condenser - condition & adjustment
• Primary wiring - condition & tightness
• High tension wires - condition & tightness
Clutch master cylinder - condition, fluid level
Windshield washer tank - fill
Front mounted hydraulic pump - co.ndition & leaks
• Clutch - operation & adjustment
Steering box - fluid level check
With engine running
• Engine governor settings
• Air pressure governor settings
• Voltage regulator settings
• Engine timing settings
CHASSIS INSPECTION
Steering
Wheel bearings - condition, adjustment & lubrication
Steering box - seals, bearings, adjustment
Drag link - tightness, lubrication
Bell crank - tightness, lubrication
Tie rod - tightness, lubrication
Steering arms - bent, tightness
FIGURE 9 CONTINUED
44
-------
• Power steering cylinder - condition & tightness
0 Alignment
* Toe in
0 Caster
e Camber ' . •
0 Travel stops
Brakes
Air
Rear
Front
R L
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Front Bogie Rear Bogie
R L R L
Actuators
Lines
Hoses
Adjusters
Quick release valves ( ) ( ) (
Air reservoir - leaks, relief valves, lines
Safety reservoir - leaks, relief valves, operation
Hydraulic
0 Booster - leaks, operation
Rear
Front
R L
0 Hoses ( ) ( )
0 Lines ( ) ( )
Parking brake - operation & adjustment
Front Bogie Rear Bogie
R L R L
Springs
Rear
Front
R L
Main
R L
Auxiliary
R L
0 Mounts, clamps; pins ( ). ( ) ( ) (-.) ( ) ( )
0 Springs ()() ()(), ()()
0 U-bolts ()() ()() ().().-
Truck frame - bent, cracks, loose
0 Plow frame - loose, bent, cracks, elongated bolt holes
0 Wing plow frame - loose, bent, cracks, elongated bolt holes
0 Underbody scraper ...
frame - loose, bent, cracks,.elongated bolt holes
Clutch - condition & adjustment
Transmission(s) mounting - leaks, lubrication level
Drive shaft(s) U-joints - carrier bearings, lubrication .
FIGURE 9 CONTINUED
45
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Exhaust system - mounting, corrosion
Fuel tank(s) - mounting, lines, gauges, caps, leaks
Hydraulic oil reservoir - mounting, lines, gauges, caps, leaks
Rear end(s) & power divider (if used) - mounting, lubrication level
Miscellaneous component mounting (hydraulic pumps, P.T.O., etc.)
• Condition - mounting, operation
Tires & wheels - check tread, sidewalls, inflation,
wheels bent, cracked, lug nuts tight
( )
( )
' '
Tires
Rear
Front Bogie
R ' L
In Out In Out
Rear Bogie
R L
In Out In Out
Front
R L
• Condition ()() ()()()() ()()
• Inflation ()() ()()()() (\
• Wheels ()() ()()()() ()()
• Lug nuts ()() ()()()() ()()
Dump body - condition & operation
• Tail gate - condition & operation
Spreader - general condition, controls, operation
Auxiliary engine (if used)
Flight conveyor - chain, bars, shafts, sprockets, etc.
Spinner - condition, operation
Baffles - gate, top screen, condition & operation
Hydraulic motors & lines - condition & leaks
Lubrication - gear reduction, shafts, sprockets, etc.
Front plow
A-frame - bent, broken
Lift piston - mounting, lines, leaks
Swing pistons - mounting, lines, leaks
Trip mechanism - condition & operation
Cutting edge - worn, bent, broken
Wing plow - general condition
• Hoist mechanism - condition & operation
• Swing mechanism - condition & operation
( )
( )
FIGURE 9 CONTINUED
46
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Underbody scraper - mounting, bent, cracks ( )
a Lift mechanism ( )
a Trip mechanism ( )
a Cutting edge ( )
CAB CHECK
General condition of body, fenders, hood, grill, running boards, etc.( )
a Glass - windshield, side & vent windows, rear window ( )
9 Doors - latch, handles, condition & operation ( )
a Seats - upholstery, adjustment ( )
a Floorboards - padding trim . ( )
Heater & defroster - condition, output, leaks ( )
a Fan switch ( )
a Cable controls ( )
e Hoses & ducts ( )
a Auxiliary fan defroster ( )
Switches & lights - condition & operation
High
a Headlight & dimmer switch
Low
R
Front
R
Rear
R
Turn signals
Tail lights
Brake lights
Parking lights
Cab markers
a Clearance lights
• Plow & sander lights
« Rotating beacon
e Spotlight
© Interior cab light
• Map light
a Courtesy light
Instruments
e Speedometer
0 Tachometer
o Ammeter
® Temperature gauge
s Fuel gauge(s)
© Oil pressure gauge
FIGURE 9 CONTINUED
47
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• Air pressure gauge
• Low air-pressure warning buzzer
* Miscellaneous gauges
Driving controls
Steering wheel - condition & operation
Clutch pedal - operation & adjustment
Brake pedal - operation & adjustment
Accelerator pedal - operation & adjustment
Transmission lever(s) - 2-speed button, operation
Parking brake - operation & adjustment
Horn - operation
Windshield wipers - operation
2-way radio - check all frequencies, operation & interference
Plow controls
Raise Lower
Float
Swing
• Front plow
• Wing plows
• Underbody plow
Spreader controls
Ground-speed controller
Calibration check
Operation - all ranges
Manual override
anual operation
Calibration check
Conveyor control - operation, repeatability
Spinner control - operation, repeatability
Emergency & safety equipment
First aid kit
Fire extinguisher
4-6 fuses
Reflector flares
Shovel
Tire chains
Tow chain cable
Red flags
Wing push bar
Wing push bar shear pins
Flashlight
Light kit
Wheel chocks
FIGURE 9 CONTINUED
48
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• A movie on snow and ice control operations,
• A movie on calibration techniques,
• Discussions concerning snow and ice control operations,
9 Demonstrations of the calibration of a spreader (usually
performed on a spreader belonging to the host organization),
and
e Additional information to be supplied by the Salt Institute
The New England Chapter of the American Public Works Association has
developed a training film designed to improve snow plowing operations.
The film is about a snow school designed to help eliminate the common
mistakes in snow plowing and combines classroom demonstration with a
model snow plow and a table-top model of common street plowing situations
and actual street plowing scenes combined with descriptions of good
plowing techniques.
The Michigan Department of State Highways has developed two internal
training programs for snow and ice control. One program concerns how
much salt to use and where to put the salt when spreading it. The other
program concerns calibration of spreaders and is based principally upon
Salt Institute's Sensible Salting Program.
MOBILIZATION
As it becomes increasingly clear that bad weather is on the way, warning
must be given so that men and equipment can be ready. The warning procedures
in Chapter III indicate how supervisors or their designated alternates can
be directly notified by phone that snow and ice control actions will
probably have to be initiated. Acknowledgement of this notification is
usually required and is logged by the weather warning personnel.
Each road section must be provided with at least 3, and preferably 4 hours
of warning along with a description of the magnitude of the storm so that
crews can be alerted and materials and equipment can be prepared for the
particular weather expected. The exact time for mobilization is, of
course, the responsibility of the road section supervisor.
Thus, the most important warning is the first or preliminary warning that
bad weather is on the way. At this time, the supervisor makes his decision
about what to do and when to do it based on past experience with similar
warning. For instance, he may elect to apply chemicals or abrasives and/or
wait for snow to accumulate and then plow.
The degree of mobilization will probably depend upon the magnitude of the
storm. For a large, full-scale storm, the entire road section crew may
be mobilized including truck spreader operators, front-end loader operators,
wing plowmen, laborers, foremen, and mechanics. For a small storm or one
49
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that begins at night, just the spreader operators may be required, and
they will load their own trucks.
ISSUING OF ORDERS
The road section supervisor has responsibility for issuing orders concerning
both mobilization of manpower and equipment and the application rate for
deicing material. He is responsible for interpretation of the weather
reports and the road conditions at hand, prescription of the application
rate for deicing chemicals or abrasives, and the initiation of plowing
operations. These orders are usually issued verbally to the foremen
and then in turn to the equipment operators who adjust their spreaders
for the amount prescribed and attach the requisite plows as needed.
APPLICATION RATE FOR DEICING MATERIAL
The amount of deicing material that must be applied to improve the driving
conditions on a particular section of highway at any specific time during
a given storm is dependent primarily on the weather, the traffic conditions,
and the level of service to be maintained. From an environmental point
of view, the minimum amount to be applied would be no chemicals—clearly
not an acceptable alternative except perhaps on little-used rural roads.
From the point of view of improved driving conditions, an amount equal
to or slightly in excess of a not-yet-determined minimum should be used.
Unfortunately, no generally accepted guidelines have been established
for minimum amounts of chemical to be applied for different weather and
traffic conditions. Furthermore, no experimental programs have been
conducted to determine the minimum amount of chemicals required—a
condition that has been long recognized by many maintenance managers.
Those guidelines that are presently being used have evolved from the point
of view of improving the driving conditions. Until there is widespread
concern for the environment on the part of the driving public (see Part
Five of this manual) or until the demand for bare roads at all times is
diminished, these guidelines will not change significantly. In addition,
since existing guidelines have not been verified experimentally, they
have simply been found to be adequate.
The critical environmental issue is not the exact amount of chemical
material that is prescribed for a given set of weather, traffic, and road
capacity conditions, but rather that no more than the recommended prescribed
amount be used (a matter of equipment calibration) and that a minimal
number of applications be made during each storm (a matter of weather
prediction and supervision of the operation).
A major finding of the study leading up to the writing of this manual was
that many agencies did not know how much salt or deicing chemical was
being spread with each application and, in most instances, the amount
was not only greater than expected but also greater than the amount
prescribed. This startling fact was revealed in many agencies when,
50
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for either financial or ecological reasons, a concerted effort reduced
the use of chemicals yet did not reduce the level of service or the
driving conditions.
General Guidelines
In view of all, of these limitations, suggested guidelines for chemical
application rates are given in Table 3. These guidelines reflect the
lower limits of chemical usage in current practice among a wide range
of city, town, county, state, and toll-road authorities. Five classi-
fications of roads comprise the basic parameters. The guidelines are
presented in terms of the amount of material that is to be spread upon
a mile of two-lane road or per mile of two lanes of a divided highway.
How this material is to be spread on the highway must be determined
by each agency.
Generally, chemicals such as salt (sodium chloride) and/or premixes
of salt and calcium chloride are spread in a narrow pattern in the center
of two-lane roads or on the crown of multi-lane divided highways. On
super elevated curves, the material should be placed as high as possible
on the curve so that the brine produced will flow across the road surface.
Under some conditions a full width pattern is required particularly on
heavily traveled roads where all lanes carry equal traffic.
In some agencies, particularly on secondary roads, the material is not
spread but simply placed in a windrow right on the centerline of the highway
where the melting action produces brine which will flow in both directions
across the road. In the case of abrasives, a larger spread pattern is
generally used in order to obtain good coverage of both driving lanes
either on a two-lane road or on a multi-lane highway. Care must be
exercised during spreading to ensure that material is not spread into
the breakdown lanes or onto the shoulders where it is not effective.
The New York State Department of Transportation has developed guidelines
for spreading of deicing chemicals that call for an initial application
of material at the beginning of storms followed by applications at a
lower rate on an as-needed basis. The initial application forms a brine
on the road surface which prevents bonding of snow and ice and the subsequent
buildup into snow pack. The smaller applications, particularly when made
immediately after plowing (often by the plow trucks itself>a maintain
this film of brine at the road surface. The last small application is
made when the storm is almost finished and is beneficial in drying the
road particularly if a temperature drop occurs at storm's end.
The quantities prescribed in Table 3 are for two-lane roads; when single
lanes are being treated, such as exit ramps and acceleration lanes, the
rates should be half of those stated in Table 3. Reducing this rate
should be the duty of tl,.a spreader operator or his assistant and is an
important environmental consideration, particularly for large cloverleaves
at the junction of multi-lane highways where there is a large, concentrated
usage of deicing chemicals.
51
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Included in Table 3 are the timing of applications and suggested waiting
periods between chemical application,and the initiation of plowing. This
waiting period is critical from the points of view of operations, improved
driving conditions, and the environment because it allows the deicing
chemical to form a brine, spread out on the highway, prevent bonding of
precipitation (snow, sleet, or freezing rain) and to be dissolved completely
in this process before plowing occurs. Premature plowing will pick up
the material in undissolved form and deposit it on the shoulder where it
is of no use in improving the driving conditions. In short, when deicing
chemicals are used, the philosophy should be to use them fully and not
throw them away.
Oftentime highway men are confronted with a problem of changing weather
conditions. This emphasizes the need for close monitoring of the weather
and judging what the weather will do on the basis of past experience with
similar storms. This is where the skill of maintenance managers is
crucially important. When changes in weather conditions are predicted,
the supervisor should take these changes into account when prescribing
the material and quantities. For instance, if there is a high probability
of rising temperature, the amount of material prescribed should be reduced
in anticipation of the temperature rise. Likewise, if the temperature
is predicted to drop rapidly at the end of a storm, it is important to
get a final application of salt down so that the road will dry up as the
storm ends and so that icy patches cannot form.
Environmentally Critical Areas
Some agencies are consciously reducing the amount of material that is
used in environmentally critical areas, such as watersheds used for
water supply. Several courses of action are open in these areas.
First of all, the level of service of roads in these areas can be lowered,
particularly on primary and secondary roads. Care should be taken to
notify motorists that there will be a reduction of the level of service
in these areas.
Next, the amount of salt used can be reduced by application of smaller
amounts and less frequently. Some jurisdictions are reducing the amount
of sodium that enters such environmentally critical areas by using mixtures
of salt and calcium chloride in ratios of 3:1 or 5:1 salt to calcium chloride.
Prewetting of the salt has been used in order to accelerate the action of
salt, and at the same time to utilize less total material. These salt
prewetting schemes usually use materials that do not freeze at extremely
low temperatures, such as solutions of salt, calcium chloride, methyl
alcohol, or propylene glycol.
The North Dakota Highway Department has successfully prewetted salt with
water alone sprayed on top of the loaded truck at a rate of 18-20 gallons
per^cubic yard of salt. Salt brine pumped from an area drainage catchment
basin can also be used for prewetting salt. Care must be exercised when
53
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using water or dilute solutions in sub-freezing weather to keep water
hoses and pumps from freezing. A prewetted load of salt must not remain
in the truck for a prolonged period during sub-freezing weather because
it will freeze.
The prewetting material of choice by some agencies is a 32% (by weight)
solution of calcium chloride (4.12 Ibs of 94-97% CaCl in 1.0 gal of water,
or 5.79 Ibs of 77-80% CaCl2 in 1.0 gal of water). Several techniques are
used for applying it to the salt. In some jurisdictions, calcium chloride
solution is pumped onto the dry load of salt before the truck driver proceeds
along his route. In Iowa, Michigan, New York, and others, a tank of calcium
chloride solution is carried on the truck, and the calcium chloride solution
is dispensed into the discharge chute of the spreader either by means of
a pump or under gravity. The object is to coat thoroughly each particle
of salt with calcium chloride solution before it is applied to the
snow or ice on the road; this can initiate immediate melting of the
snow or ice to form additional brine that dissolves the crystals of salt.
Prewetting keeps the salt from bouncing off the roadway during spreading
and from blowing away once it is on the road. A typical application rate
for prewetting of salt as it is dispensed at the back end of a spreader
is at 8 gal per ton. For calcium chloride solutions applied beforehand
to a full load of salt in the truck, a typical application rate is 10 gal
per ton, and the material is pumped onto the top of the load just before
the truck leaves the yard.
Connecticut's Bureau of Highways has been experimenting in 21 critical
watershed areas with several mixtures of sand, salt, calcium chloride,
and 50/50 mixture of propylene glycol to accelerate the action of the
salt and calcium chloride. The three mixtures being used are summarized
in Table 4. Mixture One containing no sand, is used on the interstate
highways where they pass through these watersheds. The standard Connecticut
premix (3:1 salt/calcium chloride) is spread at a rate of about 430 Ib
per two-lane mile and is prewetted with a 50-50 mixture of propylene glycol
and water at a rate of 10 gal per two-lane mile. Mixture Two uses 11 parts
sand and two parts of standard premix. This mixture is prewetted with
10 gal per mile of 50-50 propylene glycol water mixture. Of the three
mixtures being used Mixture Two, as noted in Table 4, contains the
smallest amount of salt and calcium chloride. Mixture Three is made
from seven parts sand and two parts of standard premix. No propylene
glycol is used for prewetting of this mixture.
Additional Techniques for Minimizing Chemical Applications^
In one way or another, all of the techniques outlined in this manual are
directed toward minimizing the amount of deicing chemicals and/or maximizing
the effect of those chemicals that are used. As many of these techniques
should be incorporated as possible, appropriate, and economically feasible.
During each winter storm, the optimum chemcical application rate is a
combination of many factors including the level of service, weather conditions
changing with time, the state and characteristics of the chemicals used,
the time of application relative to both changing traffic and weather
54
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Table 4 MIXTURES FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY CRITICAL AREAS
Mixture 1
Mixture 2
Mixture 3
Spread Rate
(Ibs/mile of 2-lane road)
430
1500
1500
Description of Mixture
Dry Ingredients
all 3:1 Premix
11 parts sand 7 parts sand
2 parts 3:1 Premix 2 parts 3:1
Premix
Amount of 50/50 propylene
glycol
10
12
none
Calculated Quantities
(Ibs/mile of 2-lane road)
a salt
e calcium chloride
« sand
320
110
___
180
45
1275
260
86
1154
3:1 Premix = 3 parts Rock Salt and 1 part Hydrated Calcium
Chloride by weight
Courtesy of State of Connecticut Department of Transportation
55
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conditions, and the topography and type of road surface. The actual
determination of an application rate by a maintenance manager is a
matter of his best judgment. Usually the rate is chosen that will
reasonably cover as many of the uncontrollable variables as possible.
Many noteworthy techniques have been developed by maintenance managers
who are attempting to minimize the application rates for deicing chemicals
and abrasives, and/or to maximize the deicing effect of those materials
applied. In the following listing, are some additional techniques that
were noted during the course of the study preceding the writing of this
manual.
• Application of chemicals should occur in smaller increments
in response to changing traffic and weather conditions.
Although this requires more attention by operators, foremen,
and other maintenance managers and much more intensive use
of equipment, the techniques guards against the possibility
of unnecessary over-application of environmentally harmful
chemicals.
• Abrasives should be used with little or no use of chemicals
in locations where traffic is not heavy enough to remove them
rapidly from the road. A mixture of 20 parts of sand and
one part salt (the minimum amount required to keep a sand
pile from freezing) often results in sufficient melting
action to provide an adequate level of service on secondary
roads and roads in residential areas.
• For storms that are expected to produce heavy snowfalls,
application of salt at the onset of the storm followed
by early and continued plowing throughout the storm will
provide an adequate level of service, particularly if
it is followed by a light application of salt at the end
of a storm in order to clear up the road and prevent
freezing when the temperature drops.
• Less chemicals are required to prevent snow pack from forming
if underbody scrapers are used extensively in the plowing
program. These scrapers can clear the road surface of hard-
packed snow more readily than a conventional front-mounted
plow.
e Through coordination of the timing of plowing and chemical
applications, the salt is allowed to melt, form brine, and
break the snow-ice bond at the road surface before snow
is plowed off. Success of this technique requires keen
observation of conditions and good communication among crew
foremen and district supervisors.
56
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9 When roads are subject to regular one-way commuter traffic,
both plowing and chemical applications should be concentrated
on in-bound or out-bound lanes as appropriate to the peak
traffic load and time of day.
• A towed spreader (see Figure 25 in Chapter V) is useful
for applying concentrated and controlled amounts of chemicals
to areas on the roadway (such as the passing lane) that may
need additional applications in such a well-defined area
that a large spreader truck would put too much material
out over a too large area.
PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING OF DEICING CHEMICALS
Once the application rate has been prescribed, the action shifts from
the supervisors or managers to the men who must carefully use these
deicing chemicals. A complete description of precautions concerning
handling of deicing chemicals before application is given in Part III
of Manual for Deicing Chemicals: Storage and Handling (EPA-670/2-74-033).
When the spreader trucks are being loaded before and during a storm good
practices should, be followed. In general, five precautions should be
observed. '••--.
« If possible, load trucks or spreaders inside the salt storage
shed. This reduces spillage and cleanup problems.
« Before the spreader truck leaves the shed or the loading area,
clean it off—catwalks, top edges and ledges of the body, tanks,
roof and fenders. This will keep the salt from spilling off
where it is not wanted.
® Keep the loading area clean by immediately cleaning up any
salt lying on the loading pad, and get it back under cover.
• Keep the salt dry by keeping it under cover as long as possible
before loading it onto the trucks.
® Handle the salt as little as possible. Excessive handling
causes large particles to break down into finer particles
which reduces their effectiveness for clearing snow.
ROLE OF THE SPREADER OPERATOR
The spreader truck operator has the ultimate control over the amount of
chemical that is spread on highways. The success of any program to
minimize the amount of chemicals spread on highways is totally dependent
on his enthusiastic acceptance of this goal. Thus, it becomes increasingly
important that spreader operators be thoroughly familiar with the equipment
and the desires of the foremen, supervisors, and other high officials
responsible for the snow and ice control program.
57
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Further, because he is out in the storm, the spreader operator is in the
best position to judge the condition of his section of the road and the _
efficacy of his snow and ice control efforts, and can feed this informatxon _
back to his foreman and supervisors. Maintenance of two-way radio comrounxcatxon
with each spreader operator is as important as use of a well-calibrated,
easily controlled salt spreader.
Control of the actual amount of salt spread should be in the hands of the
spreader operator. He should be told by his supervisor the standard amount
of salt that is to be spread on his particular run. The actual spreadxng
rate may vary from place to place throughout the run depending upon the
number of intersections, grades, and bridge decks that are subject to
icing before the main road. However, as weather conditxons change for
better or for worse, the operator should have the option of increasing
or decreasing his amounts within some limit, for instance +20 or -100 Ib
depending upon the weather and traffic he encounters. Before increasxng
the spreading amounts above this upper discretionary limit, the operator
should seek guidance from his supervisor via the two-way radio. Clearly,
to vary the spreading rate this way during a run requires equipment wxth
in-cab controls which are in good operating condition.
All spreader operators should be trained to spread chemicals on the crown
of the road or on the high side of the road and should know how to change
spreading techniques or pattern in response to crosswinds that blow the
material before it settles on the highway pavement. Further, he should
know when to cease spreading chemicals and initiate a plowing operatxon.
Before beginning each snow control operation, the spreader operator
should check out his truck thoroughly. This should be done before the _
spreader is loaded with chemicals. A good time to perform thxs xnspectxon
is when the driver is first called out or when he is called upon to
attach his plow in readiness for a storm condition. Each driver should
perform a preoperation walk-around inspection, checking all of the items
listed in Figure 10. Upon completion of this check out, the operator can
proceed to load the spreader with the assurance that his truck and spreader
are in top operating condition.
ACCOUNTING FOR CHEMICAL USAGE
While careful control of the amount of deicxng chemical that is spread
is the primary means for minimizing the impact on the environment, a second
major technique for control is the development of an accounting procedure
that allows supervisors to keep track of the use of chemicals and to
analyze the results obtained therefrom. The basic requirement for
accounting for salt usage is knowing:
• what snow and ice control techniques were used,
• the type and amount of chemical used,
• where it was used and the number of lane miles covered,
58
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UNDER HOOD
Lube Oil
Coolant
Power-steering
pump reservoir
Alcohol injector
Windshield washer fluid
General:
Belts
Leaks
Loose components
WALK AROUND
CAB
Any fluid leaks under truck
Any damage or loosening of mounting bolts, etc.
Turn on lights
headlights
clearance lights
tail and stop lights
flasher beacon
plow and spreader lights
Turn off all lights
Springs
Hangers
Pins and U-bolts
Wheel lug nuts
Tire inflation
Any stones between duals
Plow
trip mechanism
mounting
cutting edge
Spreader
any broken or loose components
leaks
hydraulic leaks
deflector
Hydraulic oil tank
mounting
fluid
Air tank drain valve closed
Start engine
oil pressure ( ) fuel ( ) ammeter ( )
air pressure buildup time
any abnormal engine or transmission noises
all cab controls
odometer
speedometer
tachometer
brake
hand brake
radio operation
calibration chart handy
supply of Operator's Daily Trip Reports
pencils
FIGURE 10 PRE-OPERATIONS WALK-AROUND INSPECTION
59
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• what the weather and road conditions were, and
• what the results were.
Three major classes of winter reporting are required in a successful
management program for snow and ice control.
• the operator's daily storm report,
• the road section, supervisors storm summary report, and
• the road district's annual winter activity report.
Operator's Daily Storm Report
The starting point and probably the most important input to this
management control procedure is the basic data provided by a daily
truck operator's report. This report of winter activities, like any
report to be completed by an operator, must be easily filled out (and
accurately), yet contain sufficient information for meaningful analysis.
Two operator reporting forms that incorporate much needed information
are shown in Figure 11 and 12. A suggested model for an operator's
daily report is shown in Figure 13.
Operator's daily reports should be hand-sized forms which can fit into
a shirt or coat pocket and which are printed on heavy weight, high grade
paper stock suitable for field usage even under damp conditions. Each
operator is responsible for filling in the report card as material is
loaded onto his truck and as work is accomplished. At the end of each
shift, the operator totals up his usage of material and the lane miles
on which the material was spread, and submits the card to his supervisor
for verification. A supply of these operator activity cards should
be kept in each truck. These operator reports can be used for accounting
for materials usage for purposes of resupply and restocking and by the
supervisor in preparing his storm summary report.
Supervisor's Storm Summary Report
The second important report in the management control of chemical deicing
compounds is the road section supervisor's storm summary report. This
report can be compiled from all of the daily reports by operators covering
the period of a storm and with some additional data concerning the weather,
which must be gathered by the supervisor. Six important parameters should
be included in the supervisor's storm summary report.
• Total materials used;
• Number of applications;
• Total lane miles;
60
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Form 1 7756 (9 71)
Minnesota Highway Department
CHEMICAL USAGE LOG
Complete in duplicate at end of each shift Original to foreman, copv remains
in book
Date
Unit No
Single [ ) Tandem f 1
Route No
Source
COVERAGE
LOAD Spot (%) Continuous
1 ( I I I
2 [ ] [ 1
3 [ ] (I
41 ] [ ]
5 [ 1 [ ]
6 1 ] [ ]
7 . [ ] [ 1
8 [ 1 [ ].
9 [ ] ( ]
10 [ ] [ ]
No. of Times j|
Covered | Totals
Co. Yds oi
Winter Sard
,
SHIFT HOURS
1 ) 8 AM - 4 PM
1 ] A PM - 12 M
[ J 12 M -8 AM
1 ] M- M
c^Mdi^"'^ Vd'-
I
1
i
J
1
i
Signature o< Operator
Remarks:
Courtesy of State of Minnesota Highway Department.
FIGURE 11 OPERATOR'S CHEMICAL USAGE LOG
61
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.I''""
! STATE OF MICHIGAN
« DEPARTMENT OF STATE HIGHWAYS
j MAINTENANCE DIVISION
| Form 450 (Rev. 10/71) -CS^1'1
OPERATORS WINTER REPORT
i ROUTE (S)
: FOREMAN
*
' OPERATOR
TRUCK #
CREW SIZE 1 ACTIV
ITY
I 141
WINTER OPERATIONS
EQJJ 1 PMENT
FINANCIAL CODE
START T,MF
DATE TIME
SDATE TIME
AM PM
AM PM
TOTAL HOURS
ACT. 141
ACCOMPLISHMENT
LOAD
*t
1
2
3
4
5
6
SALT
SAND
TOTAL
SPOT
TONS/YD
LEFT
TONS/YD
CONTINUOUS
TONS/YD
MILES
MATERIAL
DESCRIPTION
SALT
SAND
CALCIUM CHLORIDE
UNIT
TONS
CY. YDS.
BAGS
TOTAL
AMOUNT
Courtesy of State of Michigan
Department of State Highways
FIGURE 12 OPERATOR'S WINTER REPORT
62
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• Measures of the weather at the reporting location:
type of precipitation (dry snow, wet snow, sleet,
freezing rain, rain),
total snowfall,
total water content of precipitation, and
brief description of the storm including temperatures,
wind, hourly snowfall and/or precipitation rates;
• Quantities calculated from the above information (average
pounds of chemical per lane mile per application); and
e Results obtained from the materials applied.
In the many state and local snow and ice control organizations contacted
during this study, no storm summary report was found that included all of
this above information. A suggested generalized form for a storm summary
is shown in Figure 14. The supervisor in each road section is responsible
for completing this type of form as soon as possible after the storm or,
in the event of a series of small winter operations, at the end of each
week. These storm summary reports form the basis for comparisons of the
snow and ice control activities in the various road sections of larger
administrations, and for development of state-wide and/or annual summaries
of snow and ice control activities. The body of data should be large
enough so that statistical analysis can be applied if desired.
Annual Chemical Use Report
A final report of interest to the management of snow and ice control
with chemicals is an annual report of chemical consumption. Large
administrations responsible for snow and ice control such as states,
cities, turnpike authorities, and towns may be required to produce or
may want a summary report of chemicals consumed. The important parameters
for such a report might include:
• Total tons of materials used;
• The average number of applications;
• The total lane miles on which chemicals are applied;
• The total snowfall;
• The total precipitation water content;
• A summary description of all of the storms encountered that
winter, including duration, dates, type;
• The calculated quantities
average pounds of chemicals per lane mile per application and
average pounds of chemicals per lane mile per measure of the
weather such as the inches of snowfall and equivalent
precipitation as inches of water;
64
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District No.
Road Section
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Length
(Miles)
© ©
Material
Type
No.
Applications
Total
Amount
(Tons)
Total
Miles of
2-Lane
Roads
Covered
Rate
Lb/Mile of
2-Lane
2000 X ©
2X<2)
Results
Description of the Weather
Time
Type of
Precipitation
Cumulative
Amount (in.)
Temper-
ature
°F
Notes
Total Snowfall
Total Precipitation
fas W=itor}
Date(s) of Storm
(in.)
FIGURE 14 STORM SUMMARY REPORT
65
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• Results obtained from the material applied;
• A discussion of the quality of the service provided the
traveling public; and
• An estimate of the environmental impact.
Managerial Uses of Accounting Reports
These data gathering and reporting efforts must now be applied constructively
to the management of the use of deicing chemicals. They should be used
to produce desired levels of snow and ice control for the traveling public
with a minimum of chemicals.
Because the pounds of salt applied per lane mile can be easily calculated
from the operator's daily storm report, this report is most useful to the
road section supervisor in determining if his operators are spreading chemicals
at the prescribed rates. When this rate exceeds the prescribed amount,
the supervisor can look further to determine if the equipment or the
operator is at fault. This report can also be used for inventory records
of chemicals used. By checking the reported usage of chemicals drawn
from various storages against receipts and inventory of chemicals in
these storages, the supervisor can also check the accuracy with which
his operators report their usage.
The supervisor's storm summary report is used for deciding when to order
replacement materials and how much, for determining if the prescribed rate
for salt spreading and the number of applications each storm are providing
the desired level of service, for evaluating the performance of subgroups
(crews), and for fending off questions and criticisms from other managers
and the driving public.
A comparison of storm summary reports from various road sections can be
used for analysis of the relative efficiency of each section in terms
of measures such as tons per lane mile per inch of precipitation or tons
per lane mile per storm.
The annual snow and ice control summary report is useful for interpretation
both by officials and by the general public. Good use can be made of this
report in requesting additional funds for equipment and storage of
materials for subsequent winter seasons, for discussing usages in
proportion to the amount of precipitation when talking with environmental
groups, and in budgeting the chemical and abrasive requirements for the
following winter season (See Chapter VII).
66
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PART FOUR: EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER V
SNOW AND ICE CONTROL EQUIPMENT
The availability of appropriate and functioning equipment and experienced
personnel to operate it is the single most important element in a success-
ful snow and ice control program. Although no two organizations have
exactly the same program or approach, a commonality exists in the equip-
ment they use. In this section general equipment requirements are dis-
cussed and major classes of equipment are described. Wherever possible,
advantages and disadvantages are presented, improvements made by indivi-
dual organizations are noted, and new developments underway are introduced.
EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
Figuring Needs
A winter snow and ice control program for each road section requires a
unique mixture of manpower and equipment suited to the average local
weather and traffic conditions and the level of service to be maintained.
These equipment and labor requirements are usually established over a
period of years in response to weather, the level of service, and experi-
ence in providing this level of service.
In the course of this study, similarities were noted among the inventories
of equipment required for similar road sections. From informal surveys
made in the course of a large number of visits to organizations active in
snow and ice control, guidelines are established in Table 5 for equip-
ment. These guidelines are a generalized measure for evaluation of
present operations, for preparation of budgets for new equipment procure-
ment, and for estimation of manpower requirements for the coming winter
season.
Specific equipment and labor requirements for each snow arid ice control
jurisdiction can be established only after consideration of numerous
complex factors, including the distance in lane miles to be serviced,
the number of interchanges, the average plowing and spreading speeds,
and the level of service. Sometimes a formula is derived including a
variety of variables for calculation of equipment requirements.
The Minnesota Department of Highways uses the following formula for cal-
culation of required single- and tandem-axle dump trucks.4 This require-
ment is directly related to lane mileage, cycle time, and number of inter-
changes. Cycle time is the amount allowed for snow removal on through
lanes of a given road section to maintain the required level of service
under average weather conditions. For interchanges, cycle time .is
increased to 1.5 times the figure for the adjacent mainline; one truck
67
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68
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is provided for each 1.5 urban complex interchanges, two urban simple
interchanges, or four rural interchanges. The truck requirements for a
given road section are calculated by the equation:
N.
= D +
u
15C 1.5
u
2.5
where
N = number of trucks
D = distance to be plowed in lane miles
15 = average plowing speed in mph
C = cycle time in hours
N N W
NA = WB » WA '
c u r
N = the number of complex (A) and simple ,(B),
r urban (u) and rural (r) interchanges.
Of course, any equipment guidelines must be adapted for the particular
needs of each unit or road section within an organization. Past experi-
ence in each road section, both with the durability or the equipment
and with the productivity, has a large influence in determining the
numbers, types, sizes, and the particular manufacturer of the various
equipments. Much of this past experience can be based upon the various
management reporting systems, such as how long it takes a driver to
complete his given piece of work, or the maintenance record on a particu-
lar piece of equipment.
When equipment requirements are being established, due consideration must
be given to the use of outside contractors who .may have equipment avail-
able during the winter months for augmentation of the existing fleet of
equipment in a. given jurisdiction. When equipment needs are examined
from a total cost point of view (taking into account year-round labor
requirements, equipment depreciation, maintenance and garaging require-
ments), many organizations find that outside, rented contractor equipment
(with operators and oftentimes supervisors) provides a cost-effective
solution to the winter maintenance problem.
The primary thrust of any winter maintenance program should be to utilize
all equipment effectively yet, at the same time not abuse it. Each organ-
ization should strive to use its most effective equipment to its maximum
capacity at all times and to supplement its use with lesser capacity
equipment as required during heavy storm periods. This heavy-duty, first-
line equipment (spreaders with ground-speed controllers, and trucks with
underbody scrapers, large front-end plows and wing plows) should always
be maintained in top working condition.
69
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Labor Requirements
Specific manpower requirements for a given road section are a function of
the equipment requirements and a large number of other local variables.
General practices that have evolved concerning what constitutes one-man
and two-man operations are worth noting, however. The practices of the
State of Minnesota Department of Highways are the examples cited here.^
Vehicle operation by one man is permissible:
• Whenever weather and road conditions permit a safe operation;
• For single operations such as sanding or chemical application;
• When snowfall does not result in large windrows on traveled
surfaces.
Two-man operation of vehicles is used:
• If poor visibility due to blowing snow may affect a safe
operation;
• For snowfall that produces large windrows requiring more than
one operation to clear the traveled portion of roadway;
• On certain hazardous roadways with extensive left-turn slots;
» For operations involving use of a wing plow; or
• Any other operation considered unsafe for one operator.
Combined one— and two-man operations are used when they are safe and
traffic conditions have normalized so that operations are less restricted.
The types of work performed under this arrangement are as follows:
• Removal of snow from shoulders and adjacent slopes to provide
additional space for the next storm;
• Removal of snow from intersections and other locations where
high banks interfere with visibility;
• Resumption of normal maintenance operations; and
• Performance of any operation that will return traffic movements
back to normal.
Equipment Reliability
Careful attention should be paid to routine maintenance of all equipment
and especially the first-line equipment which is crucial to the winter
operations program. The equipment maintenance program should focus on
70
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minimizing downtime for the first-line equipment so that it is available
during the time of greatest need. Such a maintenance program requires
that routine overhauls be completed during the summer and fall months,
that key components of the equipment be stockpiled at the locations
where it might be needed and that the maintenance personnel are available
who can, by all means within their capability, get key pieces of equipment
in operation in the event of breakdowns.
TRUCKS
Trucks are the backbone of all snow and ice control programs. Used for
plowing and/or spreading chemicals and abrasives, they come in all sizes
and capacities depending upon their use. They range from small four-wheel
drive utility plows to tractor-trailer rigs for chemical/abrasive spreading
on long, straight stretches of road. The choice of a truck is often
controlled by its intended year-round purpose, which can result in equipment
that is less than optimal for snow and ice control.
The five-ton two-axle heavy-duty truck shown in Figure 15 is the overwhelming
choice of all snow and ice control organizations. Specifications for this
type of truck are summarized in Table 6. Ideally, for snow and ice control
this type of truck is equipped with a chassis-mounted spreader and a plow
or combination of plows. The chassis-mounted spreader makes fuller use
of the truck's rated capacity than does a truck with a dump body and a
slip-in spreader. Chassis-mounted spreaders, however, require dismounting
of the spreader in the spring and replacement with a dump body for summer
operations.
The advantages of equipping such a truck with a dump body and a slip-in
type spreader are two-fold. The twice annual changing over of spreader
bodies is eliminated, and, through the use of a suitably designed storage
rack, the slip-in spreader can be removed during those periods in the winter
when there is little snow, and the trucks can be used for other operations.
A disadvantage of the slip-in type spreader is that it does not make full
use of the capacity of the truck. Because the tare weight of the truck,
dump body, and empty spreader is greater than that of the truck and
chassis-mounted spreader, less capacity is available for material for
a given gross vehicle weight. Additionally, the center of gravity of a
loaded slip—in spreader is higher than that for a chassis-mounted spreader.
A solution to this problem is the use of a tailgate type spreader in conjunction
with a dump body.
Many organizations utilize lighter-duty trucks of from 2-ton to 3-ton capacity
for plowing operations. These trucks are seldom equipped with spreaders and
are often used for other maintenance operations, e.g., as sanitation trucks,
for landscape work, during sign and lane marker painting operations, and
for general utility work. Specifications for this medium-duty truck are
shown in Table 6.
The versatile four-wheel-drive, three-quarter ton pickup truck is being
used increasingly for plowing. Equipped with a two-way power angling
plow, it is useful for plowing in tight areas, such as in service areas
71
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Courtesy of Root Spring Scraper Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan.
FIGURE 15 FIVE-TON, TWO-AXLE, HEAVY-DUTY TRUCK
WITH UNDERBODY SCRAPER
Courtesy of Meyer Products, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio.
FIGURE 16 FOUR-WHEEL-DRIVE, 3/4-TON PICKUP TRUCK
WITH PLOW
73
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and rest areas on turnpikes, and is sometimes even used for main-line
operations. A typical unit set up for plowing is shown in Figure 16;
the specifications for such a vehicle are shown in Table 6.
In some organizations, a small three-quarter ton pickup truck is equipped
with a 1.5-yd3 spreader as shown in Figure 17. Often used by the foremen
for patrol, these units are useful for quick application of chemicals as
needed and, often when larger spreaders breakdown, for backup.
Each truck should be equipped with lights and other safety equipment in
accordance with all state and federal regulations. As a minimum these
should include:
• chassis delineation lights,
• a revolving flashing light mounted on the top of the cap,
• two alternately flashing warning lights mounted near the top
extreme corners of a chassis-mounted hopper or on the upper
extreme of the back end of a dump body,
• a set of headlights that clear the front-end plow,
• a fixed spotlight aimed at the tip of any wing plow to be
attached,
• reflector flare and fuses,
• first aid kit,
• two-way radio,
• wheel chocks,
• cab map lights,
• flood light on spreader discharge area, and
• two large outside-mounted rear view mirrors.
With the advent of the current fuel and material shortages, more care
should be given to the selection and specification of trucks and their
components. The sharp increase in fuel costs make the diesel almost
mandatory in trucks above the 15,000-lb. G.V.W. class. Certainly, soft
undercoating and optional tougher paints and primers should be specified
for all state and municipal equipment whenever possible. The lower mileage/
time usage ratio of municipal trucks favors the selection of fiberglass
cabs and other non-corrosive components.
Choice of the smallest displacement engine that will do the job effectively
will result in continued fuel savings. Modern multi-range automatic
transmissions are slowly coding into their own. These units, coupled
74
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Courtesy of Tarrant Manufacturing Co., Saratoga Springs, N.Y.
FIGURE 17 THREE-QUARTER-TON,PICKUP TRUCK
WITH 1.5-YD3 SPREADER
**•#»'
Courtesy of Tarrant Manufacturing Co., Saratoga Springs, N.Y.
FIGURE 18 VEE-TYPE HOPPER SPREADER
75
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Courtesy of Massachusetts Department of Public Works.
FIGURE 19 DETAILS OF SPINNER AND SPREADER
76
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with the proper engine, can save fuel, increase equipment longevity, and
reduce operator training time and fatigue.
Increased complexity in mandatory safety and emission equipment requires
more preplanned maintenance in order to reduce downtime. Comprehensive
maintenance manuals should be specified when new equipment is procured,
especially for components like the new anti-skid devices that may be
unfamiliar to maintenance personnel. Perhaps additional training for
mechanics at the time of purchase should also be considered. This is
also a very good time to review requirements for spare parts with an
eye on the increasing lead time necessary to obtain replacement parts.
With increases in truck costs of 1%/month or more predicted for the next
few years, it behooves the buyer to choose trucks and options that will
yield maximum service and longevity. In general, this means selection
of trucks of simplest, most rugged designs and that are most easily maintained.
SPREADERS
Snow and ice control programs that use granular chemicals and/or abrasives
require a means of applying these materials on the roadway within closely
controlled areas. There are several techniques.
Earlier when sand, cinders, and/or salt were used, a laborer (sometimes two)
standing near the back of a dump truck would fling shovelsful of material
in a spreading pattern over the back end of the truck as the driver slowly
proceeded down the highway. Later, as rock salt came into more general
use, some organizations installed a large funnel on top of a 2-in. I.D.
tube, which discharged salt behind the left rear wheel of the truck. Salt
scooped into the funnel by a laborer was discharged out of the tube into
a windrow that was laid down behind the left rear wheel and near the center
or crown of the road. The trucks could be driven at a higher rate, and
considerably more road could be treated during a storm. Often the truck
was equipped with a built-up canvas cover to protect from the elements those
rugged individuals who shovelled.
Meanwhile, dry fertilizer spreaders were being developed for the agricultural
industry. These designs were adapted quite naturally to the spreading of
rock salt and abrasives. The modern outgrowth of these spreaders is the
focus of our attention in this manual. The most popular basic types of
spreaders generally found in snow and ice control programs are described.
By far the most popular type of spreader has a Vee-type hopper, which is
either chassis-mounted or slips into a dump body and has a hydraulically
powered, chain-type conveyor. A slip-in unit is shown in Figure 18.
Chemicals and/or abrasives removed from the hopper by the conveyor fall
down a chute onto a rotating spinner which distributes the material onto
the roadway. Details of the spinner and of the spreader are shown in
Figure 19. A system of flaps is often used to limit the spread pattern
from the spinner, particularly for application of salt on high-speed
roads.
77
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Courtesy of State of Michigan Department of Highways.
FIGURE 20 MODIFICATION TO SPREADER
Courtesy of State of Michigan Department of Highways.
FIGURE 21 LUMP BREAKER
78
-------
The Michigan Department of State Highways has engineered a versatile
modification of this basic design as shown in Figure 20. Through remote
control of a flap in the discharge chute, the material leaving the end
of the chain belt can be directed either onto a spinner, which gives a
full-width spread pattern, or onto a transverse auger, which moves the
material through the tube shown in Figure 20 to an impeller mounted onto
an end of the auger shaft. This impeller discharges the material to the
rear as the truck proceeds forward. The rearward velocity of the material
closely matches the forward velocity of the truck; since the material lands
on the road at zero velocity with respect to the road, it does not bounce
or slide off the driving lanes. The discharge scroll on the left-hand
impeller is pointed downward approximately ten degrees, and the discharge
end has been modified slightly to ensure that material is''not thrown up
into the air before it "lands on the road surface.. By reversal of the
transverse auger, the material can be discharged in a windrow from the
opposite end of the transverse tube shown in Figure 2Q.,
An additional feature of .the spreader used by the State of Michigan
Department of Highways is the lump breaker shown in Figure 21. This
breaker rotates as the flite chain moves, and the fingers crush all of
the. lumps before they pass through the spreader gate. Spreaders should
be equipped with screens with 2.5 to 3 inch openings on the top of the
hopper to ensure that all material entering is of sufficiently small size
so that it will pass through the narrower tailgate opening at the discharge
end of the chain-belt conveyor. On large spreader units, a pointed bridge
roof is installed over the chain-belt conveyor to keep the full load of
the salt or abrasive material from resting on the chain belt. This bridge
makes it easier for a hydraulic system to start moving material when
the hopper is fully loaded. . -.
Spreaders with chain-type conveyor belts have a controllable gate at the
discharge end to limit the amount of material leaving the hopper on the
chain-belt. An index system painted on the back of the hopper;is used
for setting the opening of this gate.
Some manufacturers offer auger-type spreaders, in which a single auger
located axially along the bottom of the Vee-bottom hopper conveys salt
to the chute above a distribution spinner. .Usually these spreaders are
equipped with a separately driven agitator located above the main auger
to prevent the material from bridging over the auger and stopping flow.
Several manufacturers offer a Vee-type hopper model with a chain-belt conveyor
that discharges material out of the front end of the hopper and into a
chute that carries the material sideways to a spinner located midway
between the front and rear axles of the truck. An advantage to this
type of delivery is that salt or abrasive materials are discharged in
front on the drive wheels of the truck, thereby insuring added traction
particularly on icy roads. Another advantage is that the spreader unloads
from the rear toward the front, and the remaining load always remains
better distributed between front and rear wheels of the truck.
79
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IS
Courtesy of Swenson Manufacturing Company, Lindenwood, Illinois.
FIGURE 22 ONTARIO SPREADER
Courtesy of State of Michigan Department of Highways.
FIGURE 23 REAR VIEW OF MICHIGAN W-BOTTOM SPREADER
80
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Short Conveyor Belt Spreader
A spreader built to the design specification of the Province of Ontario
is shown in Figure 22. This spreader has a pyramid-shaped hopper with a
capacity of 4 yd3. Because the amount of material in contact with the
short side-delivery chain belt is small, the starting load on the hydraulic
system is considerably less than that in a full-length chain-belt conveyor.
The spinner on this type of spreader is located between the front and rear
wheels of the truck on the driver's,side, and material is discharged in
front of the drive wheels. A small deflector is used to limit the
distribution of material on the road surface.
Low Center of Gravity Spreader
The Michigan State Department of Highways has developed an interesting
W-bottom spreader with double dual augers shown in Figure 23 and 24. The
important feature of this type of spreader is that for a given load size,
the hopper has a lower center of gravity than does a comparably sized Vee-
bottom spreader, and better use is made of existing volume within the
truck. Each pair of augers rotates in opposite directions, and all augers
rotate at thetsame speed. They feed a common chute, which in turn feeds
a cross auger or spinner as already described. The quantity of material
is regulated by the speed of the augers and restrictors located in the
exit discharge of the auger.
Spreader Towed Behind a Dump Truck
The spreader unit shown in Figure 25 is towed behind a standard dump truck
and provides a mechanism whereby chemicals and/or abrasives are applied
in proportion to the distance which the vehicle travels. This unit,
developed in Europe and now finding application in this country is a
genuine ground-speed-controlled spreader. The dispersement of the
material from its hopper is effected by a rotating roller, which is
driven by the wheels of the spreader. The rate of material spread
is controlled by a rubber flap which presses against the material-dispensing
roller. In operation, the truck driver raises his dump body to discharge
approximately 1.5 yd^ of salt or sand into the spreader hopper. The
roller is then engaged to the wheel drive and salt is dispensed in
proportion to the rotation of the spreader wheel. No operating controls
are needed in the driver's cab. The driver need only stop occasionally
to refill the hopper by raising his dump body. An advantage of this
type of spreader is that the salt is laid down directly under the spreader
and it is not thrown to either side. It is good for applying salt to
ramps, interchanges, parking areas, and other places where the material
should not be spread around very much. It is also very effective in
applying salt to an area such as a passing lane which needs treatment
long after the traffic lane has become dry. Some organizations find this
type of spreader useful for combating the early fall storms or the late
spring storms, which are usually small, and when the larger spreaders are
not mounted on truck chassis. It is also useful during periods when the
large heavy-duty spreaders are inoperative.
81
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Courtesy of State of Michigan Department of Highways.
FIGURE 24 INTERIOR VIEW OF HOPPER, MICHIGAN
W-BOTTOM SPREADER
Courtesy of the Epoke Company, Denmark.
FIGURE 25 SPREADER TOWED BEHIND A DUMP TRUCK
82
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The principal advantages of this type of spreader are that they are
inexpensive to buy and maintain when compared to a chassis-mounted spreader
(they cost about one-third that of a slip-in hydraulically controlled
spreader); they make good use of existing dump trucks, particularly the
2-3 ton size; and they can be ready for service in just a few minutes.
The disadvantages are that they do not spread while backing up, they
cannot spread material on more than one lane at a time (not useful for
multilane expressways), and the truck must raise the dump body periodically
to fill the spreader. (This operation requires that the truck pull off
of the highway and stop. Filling on the run is dangerous because the
raised dump body may catch overhead branches, wires and bridges).
Spreader Modifications for Different Materials
Hydraulic spreaders utilize a hydraulic motor attached to a 50:1 gear.
reduction unit, which drives the chain belt. The heavy starting loads
and the slow speeds at which the motor runs during spreading of chemicals
at low rates place an extreme load on this motor. The Massachusetts
Department of Public Works uses a three-speed gear box between the
hydraulic motor and the 50:1 gear reduction unit, which drives the chain-
belt. This gear box has 3:1 reduction, a 2:1 reduction, and a direct
drive. The 3:1 reduction is used during salt spreading, the 2:1 reduction
is used for spreading a mixture of sand and salt (50%), and the direct
drive is used for spreading sand. With the 3:1 reduction, the hydraulic
motor runs at an efficient torque and speed, and the chain belt is pulled
at a speed that allows the spreader to deliver material at a rate as low
as 75 Ib per lane mile when the tailgate opening is 1 in.
The hydraulic system used to drive these spreaders is also used for controlling
plows that may be attached to the truck. The preferred pump-drive system
is one attached through a coupling to the crankshaft pulley at the front
end of the engine. The engagement of the pump occurs by means of a
mechanical coupling, which must be made up when the engine is stopped, or
by means of a mechanical clutch that can be shifted manually or by air
pressure. Some hydraulic systems are driven from the truck power take-off
located on the transmission. The hydraulic oil reservoir should be of
sufficient size that the oil can be cooled to a steady-state operating
temperature during the worst operating conditions. Often, these reservoirs
are mounted on the chassis directly behind the cab.
Some spreader units, particularly older units, and most of those with small
capacity, are powered independently by a small air-cooled gasoline engine,
which is coupled through a centrifugal clutch. Remote on-off controls and
throttle setting are the major means of regulating these spreaders.
GROUND-SPEED CONTROLLERS
A recent addition to the control system for hydraulic chemical spreaders
is a control unit, which synchronizes the spreader feed mechanism with the
forward motion of the truck. This automatic type of control relieves the
driver of the burden of manual control of the application rate of salt
83
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Spinner Speed
. - Control
Feed Mech.
Drive Shaft
FIGURE 26 OPEN-LOOP GROUND-SPEED CONTROLLER:
SENSOR AND CONTROL CIRCUIT
84
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and/or sand or other chemicals during a storm; thus he is free to focus
his attention on driving, plowing, and other responsibilities.
Ground-speed controllers are a most important .piece of equipment for controlling
the rate of chemical application. More importantly, they enable spreading
of chemicals only when the truck is in motion and go a long way toward
eliminating the wasteful spreading of chemicals that inevitably occurs
when a vehicle is stopped, for one reason or another, and the spreader
continues to operate. Further, these ground—speed controllers are capable
of spreading chemicals in proportion to the speed at which the truck is
traveling. At slow speeds, a small amount of chemical is spread, whereas,
at high speeds, larger quantities are released. The net effect is that
a uniform quantity is spread on each mile the truck goes.
The basic operating principles of all ground-speed controllers require
that the rate of forward (or backward) motion of the vehicle be measured.
In most control systems, the rate of forward motion is monitored at the
back end of the transmission by the speedometer cable pickup, which senses
rotation of the drive shaft. Other points at which truck motion can be
sensed are in the front wheel or an idler wheel that rides on top of one
of the rear wheels and drives a rotary motion sensor. The purpose of the
sensor is to provide a signal proportional to its rotary motion. One
commonly-used sensor includes an eight-pole permanent magnet that, as it
rotates past a fixed coil, produces the desired signal. Another sensor
uses a photoelectric cell located directly.opposite a tungsten filament
lamp. Between these two units and attached to the rotating element of the
sensor is a card with multiple, evenly spaced perforations around its
perimeter. As it passes between the photoelectric cell and the incandescent
light, this card interrupts the light, .thus providing for the photodetector,
pulses of light that are in proportion to the rotational speed of the sensor.
There are two basic types of ground-speed controllers:
the closed-loop.
Open-Loop Control System
the open-loop and
This type of controller utilizes a single sensor usually attached at the
speedometer cable takeoff point on the transmission. Pulse signals from
this sensor are fed to the control circuit shown schematically in Figure 26
where the signal is amplified, compared with a calibration signal and with
a control signal, which is in proportion to the desired amount of salt.
This signal is then used to control a motor that opens or closes the hydraulic
valve controlling rate of chemical flow from the spreader.
A typical open-loop controller is shown in Figure 27. This unit is designed
to sit on top of a standard in-the-cab hydraulic control valve for a
hydraulic spreader. A desirable feature of this control unit is that the
operator can control manually the operation of the spreader in the event
of a failure in any part of the control system.
85
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MANUAL CONVEYOR
SPEED CONTROL
SELECTOR KNOB
AUTOMATIC
SYSTEM
MAIN FUSE
6V4 AMP
MATERIAL
VOLUME
SELECTOR KNOB
USED ONLY
WHEN AUTOMATIC
SYSTEM IS IN
OPERATION
GENERATOR
FUSE
(INSIDE
COVER)
1.0 AMP
PUSH BUTTON
SWITCH
FOR AUTOMATIC
SYSTEM
BUTTON
LITES UP
WHEN IT
IS 'ON.'
SPINNER SPEED
SELECTOR KNOB
MANUAL
OPERATION
'ONLY (NOT
PART OF
AUTOMATIC
SYSTEM)
CONTROL
VALVE
LEVER
SHUTS OFF
SPREADER
Courtesy of Koehring Farm Division, Appleton, Wisconsin.
FIGURE 27 TYPICAL CAB CONTROL UNIT FOR OPEN-LOOP
GROUND-SPEED CONTROLLER
86
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The advantages of the open-loop control system is that it is simple and
requires only one sensor. The disadvantages of the open-loop system are
that it cannot compensate for changes in temperature of the hydraulic oil
or other degradations in the hydraulic system, and temperature sensitivities
of the electronics in the control circuit may provide inaccuracies in the
calibration.
Closed-Loop Control System
A closed-loop control system utilizes two sensorss one usually attached
to the transmission takeoff point of the speedometer and the other attached
to the output shaft of the feed mechanism of the spreader unit. The control
system operates on the principle shown schematically in Figure 28. The
signal from the truck-speed sensor is compared with the control input
signal (which is proportional to the desired amount of salt) and to a
feedback signal from the output shaft of the feed mechanism. The signal
from the forward-motion sensor of the truck tells the control system that
spreading can commence. The control setting on the controller tells the
controller how to set the hydraulic valve opening for the speed at which
the truck is moving. The sensor on the output shaft of the spreader feeds
back a signal which indicates to the controller whether or not the spreader
is spreading the desired amount of material. With this type of controller,
a feed mechanism control accuracy of ±2% can be achieved under all driving
conditions in the vehicle speed range from approximately 0.2 to 45 mph.
Figure 29 shows a ground-speed controller unit that utilizes a photoelectric
feed mechanism and vehicle-speed sensors and that has a manual override
capability for controlling the hydraulic circuit in the event of a failure.
Some ground-speed controller units are equipped with a control feature
that allows an additional amount of salt to be spread on critical areas
such as at intersections, on bridges, or on steep portions of hills. This
"blast" switch usually provides approximately 20% additionaly material
for one-time application to critical areas.
LIQUID DISPENSING SYSTEMS
Many jurisdictions have been experimenting recently with prewetting of salt
with various materials in order to speed up its action, particularly at
temperatures near the lower limits at which salt is useful, and to keep
the material from bouncing off the road when it is spread. This technique
is discussed in Chapter IV.
A typiqal truck-mounted calcium-chloride dispensing system shown schematically
in Figure 30 has a 60-gallon stainless steel or fiberglass tank fitted into
the area between the truck dumpbody and the spreader hopper.^ The positive-
displacement pump shown is sometimes replaced with an electrically driven,
magnetically coupled, all-plastic pump and a solenoid control valve. A
spray bar (sometimes fitted with fan nozzles) dispenses liquid calcium
chloride into the discharge chute of the spreader.
87
-------
Spinner Speed
Control
Solid State
Servo
Control Box
Feed Mech.
Drive Shaft
FIGURE 28 CLOSED-LOOP GROUND-SPEED CONTROLLER:
SENSOR AND CONTROL CIRCUIT
88
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Spray Bar
Spreader
Discharge
Chute
Power
Takeoff
Spreader
Drive Shaft
.Chloride Liquor
Supply Tank
3 Way Valve
For Flushing
Positive
Displacement Pump
FIGURE 30 TRUCK-MOUNTED CALCIUM CHLORIDE DISPENSING SYSTEM6
90
-------
A disadvantage of prewetting salt with calcium chloride solution or
other solutions is that it requires additional equipment, special operating
procedures, and storage tank for 4,000-8,000 gallons of liquid material
at each maintenance depot. Each truck-mounted system must be flushed
at the end of a storm. Also, the addition of calcium chloride accelerates
the corrosion of equipment because it attracts water moisture from the
air.
SNOW PLOWS
After snow has begun to accumulate there comes a time when chemical operations
must cease and plowing must begin. This usually occurs when about 0.5 in.
of snow has accumulated and more is predicted. A multitude of plows are
available for snow and ice control work, and the particular design should
be chosen to match the type of snow condition expected in the area, the
nature of the road system (high-speed arterial, or downtown, or residential
areas), and the truck that will be used to propel the plow. Summarized
in the following paragraphs are description of the major types of plows
presently in use.
High-Speed Plow
The high-speed plow shown in Figure 31 is characterized by a conical-shaped
moldboard, which is small on one end and large on the other end. This type
of plow is typically used on very large vehicles (weighing 5 tons or more)
and plows the snow in only one direction, usually to the righthand side
of the road, although some lefthand, high-speed plows are in service. The
moldboard is contoured so that the snow leaves from the large end on the
blade and is directed out to the side. In light blowing snow, this
feature improves the visibility of the driver so that he can achieve a
higher plowing speed. The contoured moldboard provides maximum lateral
casting distance, and minimum power is also required to push the plow.''
Two-Way Plow
A popular plow for all-around use is the two-way, power reversible, straight-
edged plow with a constant cross section moldboard shown in Figure 32. This
popular plow is made in sizes ranging from 8 feet up to 14 feet in width
and is used on vehicles ranging in size from utility vehicles up to the
largest four-wheel drive plow trucks made. The power-angling characteristics
are useful for plowing either to the right or to the left on multiple-lane
roads and, upon occasion, are used for pushing snow directly ahead of the
truck (e.g., for clearing of parking areas). The constant cross section of
the moldboard limits the speed at which this type of plow can be used in
light snow, because the snow has a tendency to come up over the front of
the moldboard at high speed thus reducing the visibility of the driver.
Two-Way High-Speed Plow
A compromise between the high-speed and the two-way plow is the two-way,
high-speed plow. This plow has a straight cutting edge and a double-formed
moldboard, which is capable of casting snow either to the right or to the
left depending upon the orientation of the plow.
91
-------
Courtesy of Frink Sno-Plows, Clayton, New York.
FIGURE 31 HIGH-SPEED PLOW
Courtesy of Frink Sno-Plows, Clayton, New York.
FIGURE 32 TWO-WAY PLOW
92
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Vee Plow
In areas where moderate drifting may occur, a Vee plow shown in Figure 33
is useful for bucking through the drifts. Typically a Vee plow is mounted
on a large four-wheel drive truck, and is used in combination with dual
wing plows to keep open areas subject to minor drifting.
Wing Plow
The wing plow (Figure 33) is a versatile piece of equipment, which can
be used for pushing back high drifts or the accumulated snow left over
from earlier storms along the edge of the road. In tandem it is also
used often for plowing light snow on a multi-lane highway. In this
operation, the snow collected by the truck's front-mounted two-way plow
is caught by the wing plow and pushed back further, thus increasing the
width of road cleared in a single pass by one truck. In trucks equipped
with one or two wing plows, a second operator is required to operate
the wing plow particularly when winging-back accumulated snow in the
vicinity of road signs, culverts, and guard rails.
Underbody Scrapers
Trucks equipped with underbody scrapers are useful for removal of hard
pack snow from roadways (Figure 33). These plows are capable of exerting
downward pressure on the cutting edge of the plow and breaking through
ice and hard pack under some circumstances. Underbody plows are also
useful for removing light accumulations of snow (up to 2 in.). The
remote control feature of the angle of the underbody plow is desirable.
Additional Features of Plows
All snow plows must be able to be lifted from the surface of the roadway
by the operator through remote control, usually accomplished by a hydraulic
control system operated from the cab. In addition, plows should have a
mechanism, whereby the moldboard or the whole plow itself trips when it
meets an immovable object, such as a manhole cover, frozen rock or a post,
thereby minimizing the shock transmitted to the truck and driver and the
damage that might be incurred by the plow itself.
All front-mounted plows must have a hitch firmly attached to the frame of
the truck and to which the plow itself can be attached rapidly when
needed. A wide variety of hitches are available, many of which are
fabricated or modified in the maintenance shops of the various municipalities,
Many organizations find that plow cutting edges that have tungsten carbide
inserts eliminate the need for changing cutting edges, give far longer
service, and are well worth the additional purchase cost.
For areas where the minimum temperature is 28-32°F, rubber cutting edges
for snowplows have been used with some success for removing freshly fallen
or slushy snows from roads equipped with raised reflectorized traffic
markers.8,9 Even in this temperature range, salt or other chemicals
93
-------
Courtesy of Frink Sno-Plows, Clayton, New York.
FIGURE 33 SNOW-BLOWING MACHINE
Courtesy of Frink Sno-Plows, Clayton, New York.
FIGURE 34 FRONT-END LOADER EQUIPPED WITH SNOWBLOWER UNIT
94
-------
must be used to keep the snow from packing and to produce slushly snow
which can be easily plowed. Rubber or polyurethane cutting edges are not
useful when the temperatures, are below the critical temperature range of
28-32°F and steel or carbide-insert blades are needed to remove the snow.
GRADERS
In some municipalities, road graders that are used during the summer for
grading shoulders are used in the winter time for snow-plowing operations.
With two axles, single- or four-wheel drive, or three axles with two rear
drive, these graders can be equipped with a heavy-duty two-way front-
mounted plow. Such a unit is useful for both straight-line operations
and for clearing parking lots and other large areas. The easily controlled
scraper blade is often the only piece of equipment that is capable of
removing hard pack and ice from roadway surfaces.
FRONT-END LOADERS
The rubber-tired, front-end loader is the equipment of choice for handling
snow and ice control materials such as sand, salt, and mixtures thereof.
The articulated (hinged in the middle) version of this machine provides
maximum maneuverability for a given size machine. Such machines can
be used year-round for a variety of construction and maintenance tasks.
Considerable versatility in a plowing operation is provided when a large
front-end loader is equipped for plowing as shown in Figure 34. This
unit is capable of maneuvering in very tight quarters, and the articulated
model can make a sharp, 90-degree turn, an extremely useful feature for
urban snow plowing.
When a front-end loader is provided with two or more different bucket sizes,
savings of time and wear on equipment are achieved. A small-volume bucket
will prevent overloading of the machine during the summer season, and a
larger bucket will increase productivity when salt, sand and snow are
being handled during the winter season. For a plowing operation, a
machine rated at 2-2.5 yd-* is preferred. For general loading operations,
a machine rated at 1.5 yd^ and equipped with a 2-yd3 bucket is preferred.
SNOW BLOWERS
In many instances, snow blowers are the only means whereby roads can be
maintained open. These conditions occur in the high mountain passes
where heavy snowfalls occur, in areas where heavy drifting is frequent,
and in areas where rapid removal of accumulated snow is required, such
as on airport runways. For these heavy-duty applications, large snow-
blowing machines similar to the ones shown in Figure 35 have been developed.
Equipped with two large diesel engines, this unit is capable of casting
as much as 3,000 tons of snow per hour a distance up to 125 feet.
For lighter-duty operations, units of smaller capacity are utilized.
Smaller units are used for road clearing and for loading trucks when
clearing areas (such as downtown areas) in which snow cannot be stored.
95
-------
Courtesy of American Snoblast Corp., Denver, Colorado.
FIGURE 35 VEE PLOW, WING PLOW, AND UNDERBODY
SCRAPER ON TANDEM-DRIVE TRUCK
Courtesy of Root Spring Scraper Co., Kalamazoo, Michigan.
FIGURE 36 FRONT-END LOADER EQUIPPED FOR PLOWING
96
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A popular new concept in light-duty snow blowers is the self-powered
unit that is attached to the lift forks of a front-end loader as shown
in Figure 36. The unit shown has its power unit located immediately
behind the augers and blower. Other models, powered by hydrostatic units,
have a power unit mounted on the back end of the loader and rely upon
heavy-duty hydraulic motors for powering the augers and blowers. A
particular advantage of the front-end loader unit is that it can cut
down high drifts (snow depths up to 12 feet) by raising the blower unit
on the loader arms and cutting into the drift at successively lower levels,
Front-end mounted units are made with capacities of up to 1,500 tons per
hour and can cast the snow as far as 100 ft.
97
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CHAPTER VI
SPREADER CALIBRATION
Calibration of all chemical spreaders is the most important action that
an agency can take to control and reduce the amount of harmful deicing
chemicals that enter the environment. Calibration of spreaders not only
controls and reduces the amount of material used but it also saves money
by providing the desired level of service with less deicing chemicals.
The objectives of a thorough calibration program are very accurate
knowledge of the amount of chemical delivered by all units at each spreader
setting and identification and repair of all spreader units than cannot
be controlled within the range of prescribed spreading.
Spreaders should be calibrated annually before the winter season begins.
The calibration should be rechecked during the winter if any of the major
parts of the hydraulic system are replaced, if the moving mechanical
parts of the spreader are damaged or replaced, or if for any reason the
spreading rate becomes suspect.
Spreaders should be calibrated not only for the amount of salt dispensed
each mile the truck travels but also for the pattern of distribution of
material on the road surface.
In this section, two basic ways of calibrating chemical spreaders for
the amount per mile traveled are described. One method, a yard calibra-
tion, involves measurement of the amount the unit delivers over the com-
plete range of control settings of the spreader. The second, an in-
service calibration, is a calculation based on actual spreader operation,
i.e., total load delivered over a stretch of road of known length.
YARD CALIBRATION
Spreaders Without Ground-Speed Controllers
The calibration technique described in this section is based primarily on
methods developed by the Salt Institute under their Sensible Salting Pro-
gram, with modifications incorporated by the Michigan Department of State
Highways and others. This technique is applicable to hopper-type spreaders
and truck-tailgate spreaders, both of which rely upon the rotation of a
mechanical element (an auger shaft or flite-chain sprocket shaft) for
feeding chemicals and/or abrasive materials from the vehicle to the dis-
tribution mechanism of the spreader. Although applicable to hydraulically
controlled spreaders, the technique is adaptable also to independently
powered spreader units.
Equipment Required
The equipment required for calibration of salt spreaders includes:
98
-------
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• A scale for weighing the amount of salt. The scale can be a
hand-held or platform type and should be capable of weighing
quantities between 0 Ib and 100 Ibs, with a resolution of
2.0 Ib. The accuracy of the scale should be verified either
by the agency's department of weights and measures or with
several calibration weights.
• A means for collecting up to about 100 Ib of chemical material
(a square yard of canvas with grommets at each corner or a
burlap sack). For any collector weighing more than about 0.5
Ib, the tare weight should be determined.
• A stop watch or a watch with a second hand for timing shaft
revolutions.
• A shaft tachometer (if shaft rotation speed is too fast to
follow by counting).
• A means for placing a mark on the end of the auger or flite-
chain sprocket shaft. A marking pen, a dob of paint, a file
mark or a prick punch mark will do.
• Calibration worksheets like those shown in Figure 37.
• A clipboard or other means for holding calibration worksheets
while data are being assembled.
Calibration Procedure
The following procedure is recommended for calibration of spreaders that
do not have ground-speed controllers.
1. Clean the shaft end of the auger or flite-chain sprocket
shaft. Place an index mark on the end of the shaft so
that the number of revolutions per minute can be counted
at each dial setting. If the shaft end is not exposed,
mark the auger flite sprocket.
2. Remove the spinner disc or bypass the spinner motor with a
hydraulic line.
3. With the spreader system running and empty, let the truck
idle long enough to warm the hydraulic oil to a normal
working temperature.
4. Place a half load of salt in the truck body to put a load
on the spreader. This partial load will simulate actual
working conditions.
5. Open the throttle so the engine is running at approximately
working speed. If the truck is equipped with a tachometer,
set the throttle at the engine speed normally used during
salting.
100
-------
6. For hopper-type spreaders, open the gate to the appropriate
setting for the type of material for which the spreader
is being calibrated (salt, premix of salt and calcium chloride,
salt/sand, sand, or other abrasive). Trial and error adjust-
ments may have to be made in the gate opening in order to
get the desired spread rate.
7. Fill the spreader auger or conveyor with salt by rotating it
a few turns.
8. Set the spinner motor control to its usual level.
9. When the auger is full, place the canvas or the bag under
the discharge opening so that all of the salt discharged
is caught. Allow the auger or the sprocket to make one
full turn at a low setting and collect the salt that is
discharged.
10. Weigh the salt, deducting the weight of the canvas square,
bag, or other collector. Accuracy is important because
this factor is used repeatedly in the calculations. For
greater accuracy, repeat step 9 above several times and
then take the average weight and enter it in Column 3 of
the worksheet (Figure 37). Once the weight per revolution
has been established that weight will remain constant
throughout the calculating procedure.
11. To determine the number of revolutions per minute (RPM) ,
use a stopwatch or a watch with a second hand; count the
number of EPM's of the auger or flite-chain sprocket shaft
at each control setting. If necessary, use a hand tachometer.
Record these in Column 2 of the worksheet in Figure 37.
Calculations
The worksheet now contains two pieces of data needed for calculation of
the amount of salt that will be discharged in 1 min. Multiply Column 2
by Column 3 and enter the result (discharge rate in Ib/min) in Column 4.
To complete the calculation, you need to know the number of minutes
required for the truck to travel one mile at various road speeds. These
are tabulated in Table 7 and shown in Columns 5-10 of the worksheet. To
calculate the amount spread per mile when the truck is traveling at 15
mph, multiply Column 4 by the constant shown at the head of Column 5 and
enter the result in the proper place. Likewise, to determine the amount
spread at 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 mph multiply Column 4 by the constants at
the top of Columns 5-10, respectively, and enter the results in the proper
spaces. Perform these calculations for every control setting.
As an illustration of how the table is used, assume, for example, that
the auger or flite-chain sprocket discharges 8 Ib of salt (Column 3) each
101
-------
time it makes one full revolution at control setting number 3 and that
the auger turned 10 times per minute (Column 2). Obviously, the spreader
will put out 80 Ib per minute at that setting (Column 2 times Column 3
and the result entered in Column 4).
At a speed of 15 mph as shown in Table 7 the truck moves one mile every
4 min. Therefore, 80 Ib/min multiplied by 4 min equals 320 Ib/mi. This
value is entered in Column 5 for control setting number 3. This procedure
should be repeated for each control setting and at the various speeds at
xrfiich the material is spread. Record all data on worksheet (Figure 37).
The next set of calculations determines the distance that the spreader
truck will travel for various control settings and vehicle speeds before
the complete load is exhausted. These values are useful for checking
the calibration and overall health of the spreader. In Column 11 of the
calibration worksheet, enter the size of the load in pounds for the
material (salt, sand or mixtures thereof). This should be the weight
of the material when it is loaded level with the top of the screens or
the top of the spreader hopper (provided this does not exceed the vehicle's
legal gross weight). This value can be obtained either from the spreader
manufacturer or by weighing a truck full of material and entering the
amount in the line provided in Column 11. To calculate the time required
to empty the spreader for various control settings divide Column 11 by
Column 4, and enter the results in Column 12. The miles that a truck will
travel at 15 mph before the load is exhausted is determined by division
of Column 12 by the constant given at the top of Column 13. Likewise,
the miles a truck will travel before its loads are exhausted at 20-40 mph
are calculated in Columns 14 through 18, respectively, on the calibration
worksheet. Results should be entered in this table to the nearest 0.1 mi.
Table 7 VEHICLE SPEED CONVERSION FOR
SPREADER CALIBRATION
Vehicle speed
(mph)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Time to travel
one mile (min)
6,
4,
3,
2,
2,
00
00
00
40
00
1.71
1.50
1.33
.20
.09
1.00
Truck Calibration Card
The last step in the calibration of spreaders is transfer of the results
of the calculation onto a calibration card, which will be carried in the
102
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cab of the truck. This is simply done by copying the data from Columns
1 and 5-8 onto the pounds-per-mile side of the truck card shown in Figure 38.
The calibration check data in Columns 13-18 should be transferred onto
the miles-traveled-per-load side (the reverse) of the same calibration
chart shown in Figure 39.
On the truck calibration cards, color coding is very useful. For example,
those calibration values close to the most usually prescribed amount of
salt could be indicated in green, those higher than the prescribed ones
in red, and those rates lower than the prescribed rate in black. At a
quick glance, the operator can tell when he is operating in the proper
range.
The additional information called for on the truck calibration card should
also be filled in. The calibration of the spreader is now complete, and
the calibration worksheet should be placed on file either in the mainten-
ance record for the truck or in the agency's office. The truck calibra-
tion card should be placed in a convenient location in the truck so that
it is available for quick reference during a storm.
In some agencies, a template is made from a block of wood which has one
dimension equal to the gate opening required for straight salt and another
dimension equal to the opening required for another material such as sand.
This template is often attached to the spreader calibration card.
Spreader With Ground-Speed Controllers
Spreaders with ground-speed controllers are calibrated by the same basic
technique outlined in the previous paragraphs, but with several notable
additions.
The equipment required in this calibration is the same used for the
spreader without ground-speed controllers except for a modified worksheet.
In addition, a pulse generator must be utilized for simulation of the
truck's ground-speed sensor. It can be one provided by the manufacturer,
a low-frequency audio pulse generator capable of 100 cycles per second or
whose specification can be provided by the controller manufacturer, or a
homemade pulse generator with a standard truck sensor driven by a variable-
speed motor and equipped with a tachometer. These pulse generators are
based on the fact that all speedometers rotate at 1,000 EPM when the
vehicle is moving at 60 mph. Special precautions must be taken if the
truck is equipped with a two-speed rear-end axle and does not have a
compensated speedometer drive. If this is so, care must be taken to
insure that the truck is used only in the rear-end speed setting for
which the speedometer is calibrated correctly.
Measurement Procedures
The following procedures are followed for calibration of spreaders
equipped with ground-speed controllers.
103
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Spreader Calibration
Pounds par Mile
Material
Gate Opening
Truck No.
Spreader Ident.
Load Size
Control
Sotting
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Amount Spread (Lb/Miie)
15 mph
20
25
30
35
40
Date
Calibration by
Remarks -
FIGURE 38 SPREADER CALIBRATION CARD (FRONT SIDE)
TRUCK WITHOUT GROUND-SPEED CONTROLLER
104
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Spreader Calibration
Miles per Load
Material
Control
Setting
1
2
3
4
5
6 -
7
8
9
10
Distance Traveled per Load (Miles)
15 fnph
20
25
30
35
40
FIGURE 39 SPREADER CALIBRATION CARD (REVERSE SIDE)
TRUCK WITHOUT GROUND-SPEED CONTROLLER
105
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1. Disconnect the lead from the truck speed sensor and connect
the pulse generator. Set the pulse generator for a speed
setting of 30 mph.
2. Clean- the shaft end of the auger or flite-chain sprocket shaft.
Place an index mark on the end of the shaft so that the number
of revolutions it makes per minute can be counted at each
control setting. If the sprocket shaft end is not exposed,
mark the auger flite sprocket.
3. Remove the spinner disc or bypass the spinner motor with a
hydraulic line.
4. With the spreader system running and empty, let the truck idle
long enough to warm the hydraulic oil to normal working
temperature.
5. Place a half load of salt in the truck body to put a load
on the spreader. This partial load will simulate actual
working conditions.
6. For hopper-type spreaders, open the gate to the appropriate
setting for the type of material for which the spreader is
being calibrated (salt, premix of salt and calcium chloride,
salt/sand, sand or other abrasive). Trial and error adjust-
ments may have to be made in the gate in order to get the
desired spread rate.
7. Open the throttle so that the truck engine is running at
approximately working speed. If the truck is equipped with
a tachometer, set the throttle at the engine speed normally
used when salting.
8. Set the ground-speed controller at its lowest setting and
activate the spreader auger or conveyer to fill it by
allowing it to rotate a few turns.
9. Set the spinner motor control to its usual level.
10. When the auger is full, place the canvas or bag under the
discharge opening so that all of the salt discharge is
caught. Allow the auger or the sprocket to make one full
turn at this low setting of the ground-speed controller
and collect all the salt that is discharged.
11. Weigh the salt, deducting the tare weight of the canvas
square, bag or other collector. Accuracy is important
because this factor is used repeatedly in the calculations.
For greater accuracy, repeat step 10 above several times
and then take the average weight and enter it in Column 3
of the worksheet (Figure 40). Once the weight per
106
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3 £ W i-" CM" CM* n « •** -v uo* 10*
o
107
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revolution has been established, that weight will remain
constant throughout the calculation procedures.
12. To determine the number of revolutions per minute (RPM)
for the shaft, use a stopwatch or a watch with a second
hand and count the number of RPM's of the auger or
flite-chain sprocket shaft at each control setting. If
necessary, use a hand tachometer. Record these on the
worksheet shown in Figure 40.
Calculations - All of the data are now available for calculating the
amount of salt that will be discharged in 1 min. This is done by multi-
plying Column 2 by Column 3 and entering the result (discharge rate in
Ib/min) in Column 4.
To complete the calculation you need to know the minutes required to
travel one mile at the calibration speed or at the pulse-setting rate.
These values are tabulated on the worksheet. Assume that the'calibration
speed is 30 miles per hour; therefore, the time required for the vehicle
to travel 1 mile is 2 min. This value is constant throughout the remainder
of the calculation and is independent of control setting, therefore, 2.0
should be entered in Column 5 of the worksheet. Pick a calibration
speed consistent with regular spreader operations.
Because it is independent of the truck speed, the quantity spread is
easily calculated by multiplication of Column 4 by Column 5 to give the
quantity spread in pounds per mile for the particular control setting.
Enter the results in Column 6 and repeat for each control setting, using
the same values for Column 5.
As an illustration of how the table is used, assume, for example, that
the auger of flite-chain sprocket discharges 8 Ib of salt (Column 3) each
time it takes one full revolution at control setting number 4 and that
the auger turns 15 times per minute (Column 2). Obviously, the spreader
will put out 120 Ib/min at that setting (Column 2 x Column 3 and the
results entered into Column 4). Since the calibration speed is 30 mph
and the time to travel 1 mile is 2.0 min (Column 5), the quantity spread
per mile is the product of Column 4 x Column 5 (120 x 2.0 = 240 Ib/mi).
This calculation procedure should be repeated for each control setting
and all data should be recorded on the worksheet.
The next set of calculations determines the distance that the spreader
truck will travel for the various control settings before the complete
load has been exhausted. These values are useful for checking the cali-
bration and overall health of the spreader. In Column 7 of the calibra-
tion worksheet, enter the size of the load (Ib) for the material (salt,
sand, mixtures, or other abrasives). This weight should be for the
material when loaded level with the top of the screens or the top of the
spreader hopper. This value can be obtained either from the manufacturer
or by weighing a truck full of material and entering the amount in the
line provided in Column 7. This value is constant and independent of the
108
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control setting. To determine the distance that a truck can travel at
a given control setting before the load is exhausted divide Column 7 by
Column 6 and enter the results in Column 8.
Calibration card for trucks - The last step in this calibration of
spreaders is transfer of the results of the calculations onto a calibra-
tion card that is carried in the cab of the truck. This is simply done
by copying the data from Columns 1, 6, and 8 of the worksheet onto the
truck calibration card shown in Figure 41.
IN-SERVICE CALIBRATION
An in-service calibration is an excellent and simple way to determine
how much material a spreader actually discharges. The following technique
is especially useful for calibrating ground-speed controlled units. The
technique is valid only for the controller setting used at the time of
calibration and, calibration at both higher and lower controller settings,
while possible by this technique', may either spread too much material or
not enough material to do the job properly.
No equipment is required for this type of calibration. The technique
requires, however, that the truck have a reasonably accurate odometer
(+ 5%); odometer accuracy can be determined by checking the truck against
a measured mile. The technique also requires the knowledge of the
capacity of the spreader when it is loaded with material up to the top
of the screen or level with the top of the spreader hopper.
The technique requires that the spreader be set to the control setting
near the desired range. The driver then spreads salt over the prescribed
route and measures how far the truck goes before the load is exhausted.
For trucks without ground-speed controllers, this technique requires that
the driver maintain the truck speed constant at or near the desired
spreader amount setting. Data for this type of calibration are entered
in the calculation worksheet shown in Figure 42. To calculate the amount
of material spread per mile divide Column 2 by Column 4 and enter the
result in Column 5 of the worksheet. Data from this calculation worksheet
should be entered on a truck calibration chart to be placed in the cab
of the truck.
In-Service Check of Spreader Performance
The accuracy of calibration and the general overall health of a spreader
can be checked periodically by the driver using the data from the truck
calibration tables about how far a truck should travel on a full load
under prescribed controller setting and vehicle speed (spreader without
ground-speed controller). If for instance, his calibration chart says
that the truck should go 15.5 miles at a controller setting of 4 and a
speed of 30 miles per hour and the truck driver finds that he is going
only 10 miles before the load is exhausted, then the driver knows that
there is something wrong with the spreader and it should be remedied.
109
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Spreader Calibration
Gate Opening
Spreader I dent.
Calibration Speed or Pulse Setting
Truck No.
Load Size
Control
Setting
10
Calibration by
Date
Amount
Spread
(Lb/Mile)
Distance
Per Load
(Miles)
Remarks
FIGURE 41 SPREADER CALIBRATION CARD FOR TRUCK
WITH GROUND-SPEED CONTROLLER
110
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Loca
(?) (2) (?)•
Controller
Setting
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Load
(Lbs)
Truck
Speed (mph)
Mater
®
Distance
Traveled With
Load (Miles)
a|
(D
Amount of Material
(?)-f(7)(Lb/Mile)
PaMhratir,n"l-,y Date * Romarts
FIGURE 42 CALCULATION WORKSHEET FOR IN-SERVICE CALIBRATION
111
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Table 8 TABLE FOR CHECKING SPREADER PERFORMANCE
Prescribed
Spread Rat
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500
600
700
800
900
1000
e
1.5
30
24
20
17
15
13
12
10
10
9
8
8
7
7
6
•6
6
5
4
3
3
3
Miles traveled for full load
(tons)
.1
.3
.9
.2
.6
.0
.5
.0
.7
.3
.0
.0
.3
.8
.3
.0
2.0
40
32
26.7
22.8
20
17.8
16
14.5
13.3
12.3
11.4
10.6
10
9.4
8.9
8.4
8.0
6.7
5.7
5.0
4»4
4.0
2.5
50
40
33.3
28.6
25
22.2
20
18.2
16.6
15.4
14.2
13.3
12.5
11.8
11.1
10.5
10
8.3
7.1
6.3
5.5
5.0
3.0
60
48
40
34.3
30
26.7
24
21.8
20
18.5
17.1
16
15
14.1
13.3
12.6
12
10
8.6
7.5
6.7
6.0
3.5
70
56
46.7
40
35
31.1
28
25.4
23.3
21.5
20
18.7
17.5
16.5
15.6
14.7
14
11.7
10
8.7
7.8
7.0
4.0
80
64
53.3
45.7
40
35.5
32
29.1
26.7
24.6
22.8
21.3
20
18.8
17.8
16.8
16
13.3
11.4
10
8.9
8.0
4.5
90
72
60
.51.4
45
40
36
32.7
30
27.7
25.7
24
22.5
21.2
20
18.9
18
15
12.8
11.3
10
9.0
5.0
100
80
66.7
57.1
50
44.4
40
36.4
33.3
30.8
28.6
26.7
25
23.5
22.2
21
20
16.7
14.3
12.5
11.1
10
5.5
110
88
73.3
62.8
55
48.9
44
40
36.7
33.8
31.4
29.3
27.5
25.9
24.^
23.2
22
18.3
15.7
13.7
12.2
11
fa
120
96
80
68.6
60
53.3
48
43.6
40
36.9
34.3
32
30
28.2
26.7
25.3
24
20
17.1
15
13.3
12
112
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Even for spreaders that are not calibrated, the rule-of-thumb figures in
Table 8 are an indication of how far a truck should go with a given load
of salt for a prescribed spreading rate.
As an example, if a spreading rate of 250 Ib per mile is prescribed, a
truck with 4 tons of salt should be able to travel 32 miles before its
load is exhausted.
Table 8 can also be used to determine how much material per mile is
actually being spread. For instance, suppose the truck has a load of 5
tons of salt and that it travels only 20 miles before the load is
exhausted. The spreading rate from Table 8 is 500 Ib/mi.
PATTEBN CALIBRATION
An important part of any calibration is determining where the material
finally comes to rest on the road when it is spread under normal operating
conditions. Ideally, to be most effective, chemicals must be placed
where they will do the most good and with a minimum amount of loss. A
technique has been developed by the Michigan Department of State High-
ways Maintenance Methods Section, for testing the spread pattern.
For this calibration, a test section of road 24-feet wide and 100-feet
long is painted onto a section of a parking lot (see Figure 43). This
test section is divided into three 8-ft wide segments. The spreader to
be calibrated is loaded with salt, and the truck is brought up to cali-
bration speed before it enters the test section. Just before the truck
reaches the test section, the spreader is started and salt is spread
over the test pattern at the prescribed rate. After the truck passes,
the salt that is lying within the center 8-ft wide lane of the road is
swept up and weighed. The remaining salt in the two adjacent 8-ft wide
sections of the road is also swept and weighed. Finally, salt outside
of the 24-ft wide test section is swept and weighed. The sum of the
three amounts of salt collected is the total amount spread on the test
section. The percentage of material falling within the center 8-ft
band is determined by division of the weight of material in the center
8-ft band by the total. The percentage of salt falling on the road is
the sum of the material in the 8-ft lane and the two side lanes divided
by the total. A truck with the desired spreading pattern will leave at
least 75% of the salt within the center 8-ft band, ,and 95% of the salt
will be within the 24-ft band.
113
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I
Courtesy of State of Michigan Department of Highways.
FIGURE 43 TEST ROAD SECTION FOR CALIBRATION
OF SPREAD PATTERN
114
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PART FIVE: PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
CHAPTER VII
CITIZEN EDUCATION AND COOPERATION
INTRODUCTION
Previous sections of this manual, as well ad the Manual for Deicing
Chemicals; Storage and Handling, have emphasized the mechanical tools
needed by maintenance managers in handling deicing chemicals properly.
This Part discusses other kinds of tools, not mechanical but just as
important in helping maintenance officials.
Three broad strategies exist for improving the use of deicing chemicals.
The first might be termed the technical appraoch; this has several components,
such as improving equipment, improving the management of chemicals through
such devices as reporting systems, and simply reducing the use of and
reliance upon chemicals. Most discussion about winter maintenance,
including Parts Three through Five of this manual, concentrate upon the
mechanical and technical tools that maintenance officials can control
most easily, such as trucks, plows, road crews, and road salt.
But these tools affect only part of the total problem or system. It can
be described as "moving people and goods during bad winter weather".
This system includes or is affected by many components, including roads,
cars, winter driving equipment on cars, weather and weather forecasting,
snow-fighting organizations, and travelers and especially drivers.
The second approach is legal or coercive. Legislators, officials of
government agencies, and citizens' environmental groups seeking to reduce
salt usage have recently turned to it as a means to define limits within
which highway officials may operate. Part One describes the several
components of the legal and regulatory framework, which is becoming more
restrictive.
The third approach is educational or persuasive. It has been the least
used to date, perhaps because it focuses on the majority of participants
in our system of moving people from here to there—those who drive and
ride over roads and highways. Clearly, their behavior in demanding
services influences significantly how well or poorly road crews can do
their work.
None of these three approaches can be used alone with success. Each can
and should support the others. All are needed for a successful program
of reducing reliance on chemicals.
This part of the manual addresses the third approach. Although maintenance
managers may not greatly influence (or feel that they can influence) drivers
and behavior, they should not ignore these participants in winter transport
115
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system. The following discussion assembles and presents ways in which
managers can develop and enlist the support of drivers and citizens,
especially influential ones, for their wintertime maintenance policies.
Our sources for this discussion are several. Here, as in other Parts,
we are not seeking to develop an impossible ideal; instead, we are
reporting on the best current practices as we have found them being used
by operating officials. Examples were gathered during field observation
trips, from many talks with highway officials as well as environmental
educators, and from the literature. Especially useful comments came from
a panel on citizen cooperation which was part of the 13th Annual North
American Snow Conference, in New York City, 1973.
Many techniques for citizen education and cooperation are potentially
available. We have treated separately, in Part One, the legal framework,
which serves both an educational as well as a coercive function. A
manager probably cannot and should not use all of the techniques to be
described. Instead, he must choose those most suited to the character
of his local situation, and then adapt them to its special needs; in the
process, he will probably improve these techniques in his own ways. The
choice of techniques will vary, for example, according to the level of
concern and knowledge of citizens in his community or jurisdiction.
Some officials may feel that citizen cooperation is nice but not absolutely
necessary. Others may feel that worrying about it is not really part of
the maintenance manager's job. The assumption underlying the following
is that citizen cooperation is not only nice, but also useful and productive.
For example, citizen attitudes can be crucial in influencing how legislators,
whether they are town meeting members, city councilors, or state representatives,
vote on requests by the department of public works for more funds for building
salt storage sheds or buying improved spreaders. For another example,
highway crews in communities where citizens make a conscious effort to
stay off roads during snow removal operations can accomplish their tasks
far more easily than their colleagues in communities where citizens demand
unreasonable levels and speed of service.
Of course, it is difficult for maintenance managers to communicate with
all citizen drivers individually. Instead, they must work through a variety
of organizations, both formal and informal, both governmental and voluntary.
Formal governmental organizations, such as police departments and conservation
commissions, are obviously key channels for communication and education.
Private voluntary organizations, such as the American Automobile Association
and the League of Women Voters, offer much potential for helping managers.
A 1972 pamphlet by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Citizen Action
Can Get Results, describes that potential well:
"Voluntary citizen organizations have long been part of the
way of life in the United States. Individuals with common
interests—social, civic, cultural, religious, political,
business, professional, etc.—have come together in clubs,
societies, associations and groups to share these common
116
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interests, exchange experiences and pursue mutual goals.
Thousands of groups exist, among them now are at least
3,000 conservation and environmental organizations. This
number includes approximately 250 national and regional
groups and some 400 state organizations. On the local
community level, there are approximately 2,500 organizations
of individuals concerned about one or more conservation
or environmental problems. In addition, there are uncounted
civic, church, labor, business, youth, school and women's
groups which devote at least some of their efforts to
environmental problems."
"Environmental organizations vary in size and range of
activity. Some employ professional staffs. Some,
especially on the local level, operate with volunteers.
Some are concerned with a single issue, some with any
and all environmental problems. While the scope and
degree of their efforts vary, in total they engage in a
multitude of activities on behalf of a better environment.
They work for water pollution control, cleaner air, noise
control, better methods of solid waste disposal, conservation
of natural areas, preservation of wildlife, population
control, transportation reform, pesticide control and
sound resource management. Some are primarily educational
groups. They educate their members and the general public
through their publications. Others engage in legislative
activities, stimulating their members and the public to
make their pro-environmental views known to elected and
appointed public officials. Some conduct meetings, workshops
and seminars, and engage in political action for or against
candidates. Some take legal action to assure that government
and industry abide by environmental protection laws and
regulations. Directly or indirectly, they bring pressure
on government at all levels to enact and implement environmental
protection laws and regulations."
"In sum, citizen organizations in the environmental field serve
as active, articulate voices of a public which has become
increasingly concerned about environmental quality. They
fulfill a watchdog role. And they exert a pro-environmental
influence on public opinion, on the press, on industry and
on government."
Examples of effective voluntary action by citizens on environmental
problems ara many. Those following suggest how effectively even a few
citizens, armed with determination and knowledge, can influence major
governmental actions. They also suggest that citizen concern and
energy can be enlisted by officials in support of important governmental
programs.
117
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• Groups of concerned citizens have won battles against
proposed highways which would have destroyed historic
and scenic natural areas.
• A Maryland scientist worked after hours with school
children in his community to mount a community-wide
campaign which led to enactment of the first municipal
law banning non-returnable soft drink and beer
containers.
• Citizens in many cities have established recycling
centers, where waste bottles, cans and newspapers
are collected for shipment to reprocessing plants
for reclamation and reuse.
• A Massachusetts citizens committee aroused public
awareness of the environmental damage caused by
deicing salts, and helped to write and pass that
state's new legislation to regulate salt use.
• A citizen advisory committee in a Massachusetts town
successfully supported efforts by the DPW to obtain
improved snowfighting equipment.
We have assembled in an appendix the names, addresses, and descriptions
of various organizations—private and governmental, national and state—
having resources which maintenance managers should explore in light of
their specific local situations. To identify quickly names of key
persons in local voluntary private organizations, whether or not affiliated
with national organizations, maintenance managers should start by contacting
the environmental chairman of their local League of Women Voters or a
similar well-established group; it customarily tracks such issues and
the critical actors involved in them.
The general ideal of the manager influencing the habits of the driving
public is, we recognize, not especially useful. He is only one, while
they are many. Even with ample time and budget, he and his organization
could not hope, except perhaps in small towns, to communicate with all
drivers effectively. Instead, he must use a variety of natural and
potential channels, both to publish his policies and to receive reactions
and opinions from citizens. Figure 44 attempts to depict schematically
the organizational context or world within which the maintenance manager
works. He and his immediate aides occupy its center. The surrounding
concentric circles display the persons and organizations, both governmental
and private, with whom they have customary links; those within the road
or highway department and in other government agencies naturally occupy
the nearest circles. The figure suggests that the maintenance manager
should consciously expand his relationships to groups in the circle
farthest from the center.
118
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Influential Individual Citizens
{Opinion leaders with access to officers of private
organizations and government)
{E.g. newspaper editors and columnists, TV
personalities, articulate citizens, lawyers)
Top Officers of Voluntary Organizations
(E.g. LWV, Chamber of Commerce, AAA, Audubon
Society, Bus and Truckers' Associations, Transport
Associations, Medical, Merchants) with access to top
General Government officials
Active General
Public
{Travelers by road,
drivers, voters,
letter-writers,
who can become ,
articulate) ;
Key Members
(E.g. Committt
Chairmen)
{Governor, Mayor, Selectmen, DOT "''• , . ' \ \
Commissioner, City Manager, Legisla- v •/ \ \
tive Chairmen) /\ \ Active General
..•••-,. / ''-, \ Public
Heads of Other - " • - \ ^ (Unorganized \
Gov't Agencies ' DPW Superintendents • s ' Citizen and Commer-
(E.g. Natural Re- or Commissioners ,. Heads of Other x \ c'a' Drivers)
sources, Environ-
» mental Protec-
tion, Conserva-
tion Commit-
KSc '0*«W«
Hea,,HDept. {g-g^
tionl
Other DPW
, Field Units
Iby di
tion)
(State or local) ,.'" .Gov't Depart- Key Members ;
'•.ments (E.g.
• District Engineer ' Finance & \ I
-, Budget, Pur-
'-.••' Other DPW \ ?!"*inp9' Snita' i 1 ';
"• Managers • ^ Pa'^!', , \
! M£a9r Msatta,^'"1 i i |
/•s^'sass/ i . j !
Maintenance / • ; /
Organization "• / / . /
istrict and road sec- \ , f ! •
Foremen & Crews ". -• ,' ' ;
Field Organizations of Other Government Agencies
Ordinary Members of Non-Government and Voluntary Organizations
(also Citizen and Commercial Drivers)
Unorganized and Passive Citizen and Commercial Drivers
(not voters Or opinion leaders)
FIGURE 44 THE MAINTENANCE MANAGER'S WORLD
119
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The following three sections discuss
• General goals and principles of a citizen education program,
• Specific tools and techniques, and
• Themes and messages.
GENERAL GOALS AND PRINCIPLES
There are many possible ways of trying to develop citizen education and
cooperation. There are also many possible messages. Therefore, at the
risk of stating what may seem obvious, some ideas are suggested here
that should guide maintenance managers in designing programs for their
own needs.
Develop Awareness
The first step in every environmental problem is to gather a base of
relevant information and to share it with everyone affected. It has
been easy during the past few years for concerned conservationists to
point fingers of blame at highway departments when evidence of environmental
injury appears. To the extent that departments of public works (DPWs)
have abused reliance on salt and other chemicals, sometimes even disregarding
their own stated policies, this blame is just. But to the extent that
departments have merely been responding effectively to widespread citizen
demands for service, when everyone was unaware of the delayed adverse
injuries, the blame is misplaced.
When the use of chemicals to fight ice and snow was spreading during the
1950s and 1960s, few people in the highway community, in the salt industry,
among scientists, and least of all among ordinary citizen drivers—considered
or recognized the potential environmental harm which would result years
later as accumulation of chemicals built up in the environment; the method
of systematic search for unintended future side effects, now known as
environmental impact studies or technology assessment, had not yet
developed. Almost everyone applauded chemicals for the convenience they
provided during wintertime, and most if not all of us were simply not
aware of troubles ahead.
As citizens (including the police) became aware of the convenience and
benefits of salting, they naturally urged DPWs to use it. Only later and
gradually did we become aware of its delayed costs, in the forms of
rusting automobiles, dying vegetation, and contaminated drinking water
supplies. It will naturally require some time for citizens to become
generally aware of the conflicting requirements now placed upon highway
maintenance officials - for clearing roads and for minimizing harm to
the environment. Until that awareness becomes widespread, highway officials
will continue to receive unreasonable demands for service, which will make
their wintertime work both unpleasant and difficult.
120
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Therefore, the first purpose of an education and cooperation program must
be to communicate to citizens who travel the roads, both maintenance workers
and the traveling public, basic information about the problem facing the
maintenance manager.
Inform Drivers About Maintenance Needs and Policies
In addition to creating general awareness, DPWs need to issue clear
guidelines or policies governing use of chemicals. They must also
communicate these policies to both their own workers and the traveling
public. Road crews can accomplish their work more easily and efficiently
if drivers cooperate during storms, by postponing trips, driving wisely,
not harassing road crews, and so on. Clear statements of policy can
have a threefold impact: (1) help maintenance crews in knowing when
their jobs are done properly, (2) inform police officers about what
road crews can and should do, and (3) guide the public in knowing what
levels of service to expect.
Show Your Concern
Some critics seem to believe that maintenance officials and workers are
not concerned about the negative side effects of their snow-fighting
practices. This impression is generally wrong. Maintenance men are
citizens, too, who want to enjoy the benefits of healthy trees and safe
water. But their concern should be apparent. Citizen critics are more
likely to sympathize with the problems of maintenance men if they realize
that DPWs are not hostile, defensive, or unwilling to consider reasonable
questions posed by citizens. In the next section, we report a number
of ways in which J)P¥s have made their concern apparent, and have thus
made their task easier.
Show Your Problems to Citizens
Few citizens have occasion to learn about the difficult problems which
face maintenance men every winter—unpredictable weather, tight budgets,
and conflicting demands from the public. Few, therefore, realize the
complex judgments which maintenance managers must make, concerning such
variables as use of contractors, balancing budgets, safety of their men,
efficient use of their equipment, responsible use of chemicals, responsiveness
to competing pressures from the public, and so on. So, few citizens
realize that reducing reliance on chemicals is by no means a simple
matter. Citizen drivers cannot learn everything about wintertime
maintenance. But they can rather easily learn the main difficulties
facing maintenance men. DPWs can take specific steps to educate citizens
about their work—including the cooperative role which citizen drivers
can play.
121
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Long-range Education is Important, Too
Everyone naturally acts to solve the most insistent and immediate problems,
such as influential officials who complain about services in particular
places. But some attention should be given to educating the drivers of
tomorrow. Adult drivers may be fixed in their attitudes, have little
time to learn, and recall the good old days of always-bare roads. But
teenagers learning how to drive have more time to learn, more incentive,
and perhaps attitudes more sympathetic to environmental concerns.
Attitudes and practices do not change overnight. Reliance upon chemicals
developed only gradually during the 1950s and 1960s. Awareness of their
side effects can spread only gradually, too. So, the time and funds needed
to educate teenagers and young adults are better long-term investments
than those required for older drivers. Moreover, teenagers can contribute
significantly to the education of their parents and other adults. Finally,
schools, especially driver education courses, offer an efficient way of
reaching this important sector of the driving public.
Don't Wait, Initiate
Government officials who wait in ignorance until complaints from the
public reveal a problem are likely to react defensively, too late, and
with too little information. Officials should, therefore, take the initiative
in educating citizen drivers, using the press and radio media as well as
other techniques described in the next section. Some experienced maintenance
officials have commented that the maintenance community does not use the
media enough. In short, one of the maintenance manager's jobs is to
educate citizen drivers. Moreover, he should, for his own sake, do so
regularly and actively.
Know the Relevant Facts
This may seem obvious and presumptuous. But experience during the past
few years suggest that too few maintenance officials were sufficiently
aware of the environmental consequences of their chemical policy, or
indeed of actual practices in their own organizations. One problem was
that salt was not just used, but abused. Most citizens do not know the
exact application rates prescribed by DPW maintenance manuals. But
keen observers recognized instinctively that trucks were often spreading
more than was required by conditions. And they were right. Random
field observations and analysis of statistics revealed that trucks
were often spreading twice (or more) salt than specified by the DPW's
own maintenance policies. Then, simply by recording more accurately
the amounts of salt spread, and without special efforts to calibrate
spreaders or change policies, highway departments reduced salt usage
by 20% or 30%. In short, maintenance managers were not controlling
their own operations by their own standards; hence, they were vulnerable
to outside criticism.
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One district maintenance manager reported the benefits of knowing the
relevant facts. When public complaints mounted, district officials
found themselves on the defensive and unable to respond confidently,
because they lacked detailed and documented records of how much salt
they had spread under what weather and road conditions. In self-protection,
they developed a system for recording each truck load and for monitoring
by managers of overall usage. To their surprise, they discovered that
they were using more salt than planned or expected. Moreover, their
new recording system resulted in the reduction of usage by about 26%.
The accumulating data allowed the district managers to identify problems
and develop solutions. Several years later, they had improved service,
reduced salt usage, learned how to respond to citizen complaints with
facts rather than emotions, and reported this valuable experience to
their colleagues elsewhere. Moreover, the number of complaints dropped
sharply.1U
Work Through Others
The maintenance manager cannot educate the public by himself. He should,
therefore, consciously enlist the aid of many others, both officials and
citizen leaders who are suggested in Figure 44. Many organizations, can
offer significant resources, which would probably cost only the exercise
of ingenuity and diplomacy.
Enlist Support from Your Bosses
Although this principle is really part of "work through others", above,
it merits separate mention because of its importance. Maintenance leaders
need support from their bosses, for many reasons. Concerning snow and ice
control, the chain of command is the channel through which the most
important pressures arrive, for example, when public groups complain
directly to the Chief Engineer, the DOT Commissioner, the Mayor, or even
the Governor. These pressures naturally influence the degree of support
(or criticism) the Maintenance Department receives from higher officials.
Common sense dictates, therefore, that maintenance managers should enlist
their superiors in their campaign to develop public education and
cooperation. Your boss can be part of your problem, insofar as he
represents pressures from the driving public; but he can also be turned
into part of the solution, helping to cope with those outside pressures.
In other words, your several bosses in the chain of command can serve
as lightning rods. But they can do so only if they understand and agree
with your winter maintenance policies. This you must help them do.
Enlist Citizen Support, Too
Similarly, citizen groups should be changed from part of your problem
into part of your solution. Individual citizen and citizen groups that
devote enough time and energy.to complain are thus signaling their interest
in your work. These energies-can, with some patience and skill, often-be
turned into an asset. The next section suggests how.
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SPECIFIC TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
In this section many techniques are reported. Some are useful for towns
and small cities, while others are suited only to state-level operations.
We do not classify them here, but leave readers to select those most
appropriate to their special conditions, for example, their available
budget. Furthermore, techniques must be selected also to suit the
character of the audience, which may be knowledgeable about the subject
of snow and ice control or may be ignorant.
The techniques are presented according to three categories:
• Those that give or publish information to the traveling
public,
• Those that get or receive information from highway and
road users,
• Those that allow or encourage the exchange of information
between the Maintenance Department and its public.
These techniques are listed by title in Figure 45 and then described
below.
Information-Giving Techniques
Speeches and Public Appearances-
Frequently during the past several years, highway maintenance officials
have been requested or required to appear before public bodies to explain
their wintertime policies. The occasions have included panel discussions
of highway associations, testimony before legislative commissions or
committees, meetings requested by representatives of private environmental
organizations, discussions in the Highway Research Board (now Transportation
Research Board) of the National Academy of Sciences, and perhaps even
appearances on radio and television interview shows. Such public and
quasi-public appearances are perhaps relatively new in the experience
of maintenance engineers, especially those that occur as the result of
pressure and criticism. But they can be used as forums for citizen
education. Indeed, appearances should be sought every year, as a matter
of routine, in order to explain policies and practices.
Public appearances of course require time and energy, and may thus seem
an added burden. Maintenance managers, however, can benefit from them
in several ways. They offer opportunities for explaining their policies.
They give operating maintenance officials opportunities to show their
concern for environmental quality and to explain the difficulties they
face. The comments and questions raised by citizens during such meetings
can give managers valuable information about public attitudes and knowledge,
or lack of knowledge; such information or "feedback" can guide managers
in adjusting programs, as well as in educational efforts. It also helps
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EXAMPLES OF
ACTIONS:
Information-Giving ,
Techniques
Speeches and Public
Appearances
Press Releases
Letters to Key Persons
and Groups
Pamphlets and Fliers
Posters and Exhibits
Answering Telephone
Inquiries
Signs on Roads and
Highways
Information-Getting
Techniques
Complaints
Scan the press
Surveys
Public hearings
Exchange or
Interaction Techniques
Citizen Workshops
Citizen Advisory
Boards
Town Meetings or
City Council
Sessions
Informal community
meetings
Invite citizen
leaders to
observe storm
operations
Invite environmenta-
lists to take
part in fall
training session
EXAMPLES OF
RESULTS:
Improved citizen under-
standing of:
• negative impacts of
over-salting
• policies and
procedures of high-
way snow maintenance
maintenance technology
and its .limitations •
needs for driver
cooperation
•Improved highway
maintenance depart-
ment understanding of:
citizen attitudes
and expectations
citizen reactions to
existing practices
and procedures
areas perceived by
citizens as environ-
mentally sensitive.-
New agreements on how
much.salt should be
used and where salt
should be stored.
New policies on
which roads should
be salted and with which
levels of service.
Change of attitude on
policy, procedures,
and associated costs,
e.g., citizen appre-
ciation of mainten-
ance man's difficult
job, department's
appreciation of
citizen concern, etc.
Agreements about
monitoring program.
Mapping of environ-
mentally sensitive
areas.
Citizen support for
more maintenance
money in DPW budget.
FIGURE 45 SUMMARY OF TECHNIQUES FOR DEVELOPING CITIZEN COOPERATION
125
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managers to inform their own maintenance workers about how their efforts
are viewed by the driving public. In short, one of any manager s many
responsibilities is to conduct relationships between his organization
and the outside world, which includes several kinds of publics, as
Figure 44 suggests.
The prospect of making public appearances regularly or annually may seem
too great a burden. A manager may feel that it is enough to publish his
policies only once. This is wrong, however, for several reasons. Local
conditions change, for example, as new roads are opened or new traffic
patterns emerge. Maintenance policies will naturally change from year
to year as new equipment is purchased, ideas are developed, or chemicals
are tried. Perhaps most important, the audience of citizen drivers
keeps changing, as new people move into the community, new drivers
are licensed, and new people become active in organizations. Finally,
educators have learned that once is not enough; lessons must be repeated
several times before they sink in. Therefore, citizen education is a
continuing job. Opportunities for speaking are potentially many. Energetic
managers should seek them out, rather than merely waiting for invitations
when controversy erupts.
It may seem that each meeting will require special and time-consuming
preparations. This will be true, of course, for the first one or two.
But thereafter, the manager's message will be well organized and constant.
He will merely need to adjust his emphasis slightly to suit the character
of his audience. Of course, a program of public appearances assumes that
the manager has already developed a clear set of policies that he needs
to make public. These policies become his message. Its form and emphasis
varies according to whether he is talking to his boss, legislators,
other government departments, or ordinary drivers—some of the many publics
which make up the manager's world. But for all of them, the basic message
remains the same. Typical occasions are listed below, and your community
will probably have others as well.
High School Driver Education Classes
Town Meetings or City Council Meetings
Conservation Commission Meetings
State Legislative Hearings
Civic and Environmental Groups
Monthly or Annual Meetings of Conservation
Associations, Driver Associations (AAA, ALA)
Local and Regional Transportation Groups, etc.
(Typical organizations are listed and described in Appendix A).
Press Releases-
Road superintendents in some towns have reported excellent results from
a program of annual fall messages through the press (newspapers, radio,
T.V.) reminding drivers of their role as winter approaches. The annual
early-winter message should set forth general policies, highlight changes
from the previous year, and remind citizens of their obligations. It
126
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can, for example, explain levels of service to be provided on different
kinds of roads, remind citizens to think before driving during storms,
and warn merchants Cfor example, parking lot operators) about ordinances
prohibiting them from dumping snow into city streets. These messages
should always mention the good work that maintenance departments perform,
the dollar cost of these services to citizens, and the benefits to
their tax rate of cooperation.
One annual message, however, is not enough. Special releases should be
issued before and after major storms; before, to warn of the storm and
remind citizens of their role; after, to report results. Again, these
releases should always include information about the dollar costs of
maintenance services and the benefits which citizens receive.
Maintenance managers may feel that the press will not be interested in
such releases, which admittedly are not as dramatic as news about
hurricanes and murders. But they should remember two points. First,
citizens who patronize the press (buy newspapers, watch T.V., listen
to the radio) are always interested in what may affect them, and weather
is everyone's daily concern. Second, editors are always hungry for good
"copy." They welcome it especially if presented in useable form, in
other words in a form which requires only minor changes before being
handed to the announcer or typesetter.
Learning the form of a press release is no more difficult than learning,
the form of a business letter or a short talk. In essence, "the lead"
or beginning paragraph should contain the most newsworthy and important
point you wish to make. Other points, one in each separate paragraph,
follow in descending order of importance. Paragraphs should be short;
so should sentences, and even words. A short quotation can often liven
up the copy. Above all, write with the interests of the reader or listener
in mind. The best way to learn the basics (and also to learn about your
local media) is to seek advice from a working reporter or editor; a young
one will be eager to expand his or her knowledge of government and to
develop potential sources of future stories.
In a 1972 pamphlet, Don't Leave It All To The Experts, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency offered 11 tips for working effectively with the press.
Although written for voluntary citizen groups, these tips apply equally
to any government agency which needs to tell its story to the public.
"The press is in the news business. The environment is news.
Responsible citizen organizations in the environmental field
should and can be part of this news beat. If your group is
not already known to the local press, consider these approaches:
!• Get to know the press. Make an appointment to see the editor,
managing editor or city editor of your newspaper and the new
director of your local television and radio stations. If you
have any community leaders or other well-known individuals
in your membership ranks (or an Advisory Committee), try to
have one or two of them accompany you on the visit.
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Tell the press about your organization's objectives, programs
and membership. Explain how you might be able to help them
from time to time—by interpreting the technical and scientific
jargon of pollution control into lay language, by evaluating
the success or failure of pollution control plans, by alerting
them when key environmental decisions are forthcoming, by
giving them newsworthy tips, etc.
Ask if there's a particular editor or reporter you should
contact when you have a potential news story. Give them the
name and telephone number of the person in your organization
whom they can contact.
Ask for editorial support as well as coverage in news columns.
Leave them with a brief (preferably one-page typewritten)
description of your organization and its programs and add them
to the mailing list for your newsletter, magazine, etc.
There's no substitute for this initial personal contact. It.
gives you and the press an opportunity to get to know each other.
It gives you the opportunity to establish your credibility.
2. Maintain your credibility. This is vital for continuing
good relations with the press. Your group must be responsible,
responsive, and knowledgeable in dealing with the press at all
times. Don't be evasive. If you don't know the answer to a
question, say so — and offer to get it and call back. Then
do so, with the answer or with a frank statement that you^
don't know or couldn't get the answer. Don't guess. Don t
speculate. If you're telling the press something off the
record, make it clear that you don't want to be quoted.
But don't use the off-the-record cover to peddle false or
inaccurate information.
3 Learn press deadlines. Don't call them at deadline time
unless you've got a truly "hot" item. Time your press release
to meet their deadlines.
4. In your press releases and conversations with the press,
avoid the jargon of pollution control [and snow and ice control].
Unless the reporter covers the environment full-time, chances
are you know more about the subject than he does. Be helpful
by talking and writing plainly.
5. Don't issue press releases or hold news conferences unless
you really have something to say. If you hold a press conference,
have a release and background material available and give^the press
a chance to go over it before the conference begins. Don't
waste the press's time by simply rehashing the press release
in your oral presentation. Allow plenty of time for questions.
If you really have nothing to add to the release, or if the
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subject doesn't lend itself to questioning, you shouldn't hold
a press conference. And don't schedule press conferences at
deadline times or in competition with other local major news
developments.
6. Don't tell the press what to print or broadcast; that is
their business and their decision. And don't expect the
press to print or broadcast every word in your press releases.
Settle for a part of the story.
7. When you issue a press release, deliver it personally if
at all, possible. If you have to mail it, call and alert the
press that a release is in the mail and brief them on the
content. Don't try to read the release to them unless they
ask you to. Whenever possible, get the release to the press
at least one or two days before the release date. (This
will not be possible under certain circumstances, of course—
such as a statement from your group in response to a control
agency action, a polluter's action, a legislative action, etc.).
8. If an officer of your organization is making a speech
somewhere, send a copy to the press at least a day or two
before, with a press release or cover note. Mark the
release and the speech for release at the time and date it
will be given.
9. Don't argue with the press. If you think you have a
grievance, discuss it with them privately and rationally.
Don't attack the press. If you have an honest disagreement
on a public policy, or an editorial opinion they've
expressed, present your views in a letter to the newspaper
editor. If it's a radio or television station, ask for an
opportunity to reply through a taped editorial comment,
broadcasting's version of the letter to the editor.
10. Be sure of your facts. If you mislead the press, you can
destroy your credibility and public acceptance. And con-
sequently, your ability to influence public opinion,
government and industry.
11. Be resourceful. Look for opportunities for your organ-
ization and its programs to become part of local news events,
not necessarily centered on the environment and thereby
receive valuable visibility."
To summarize, maintenance managers do not use the press enough. Press
releases are not difficult to write and issue. Editors are always
interested in information and news useful for their readers and listeners.
By giving editors good and timely releases, managers can greatly increase
the chances of having them used.
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Letters to Key Persons and Groups-
This technique was reported successful by the superintendent of a New
Jersey town. It is in reality just a refinement of the press release,
a communication directed at a specific sector of the public. As fall
ends and winter begins, this superintendent writes a letter, perhaps
mimeographed, to owners of such businesses as garages, used car lots,
and markets. He reminds them of the town ordinance forbidding owners
from plowing or dumping snow onto the streets, explains the department's
policies for the coming winter, and requests their cooperation in
specific ways. Similar letters might also be addressed to merchants
and residents in congested areas, such as shopping districts, concerning
parking as well as plowing.
Pamphlets and Fliers
Many or all households in a town might be reached most effectively by
using a variation of the letter technique. One or another agency of
town or city government sends some kind of message—tax bills, water
bills, or voting information—to almost all households. It is a small
matter to add to these envelopes a flyer or a small pamphlet carrying
the maintenance message. The telephone company uses this technique
skillfully with its monthly memo, which subscribers find when they
open their bill. State Registries of Motor Vehicles, AAA, and citizens
groups might also be willing to include such fliers or "stuffers" with
their regular mailings for license renewals, newsletters, and the like.
A "stuffer" for utility bills from Arlington, Massachusetts is shown
in Figure 46.
For example, the City of Ann Arbor, Michigan recently published a six-
panel, fold-out pamphlet (shown as Figure 47) to inform its citizens
of the city's new snow and ice control program designed to reduce re-
liance on chemicals. Note that it includes a city map, highlighting the
arterial routes to be salted. It also includes tips for safe winter
driving, in cartoon form, and a summary of recommendations passed by the
city council. Such pamphlets can be distributed at many public meetings,
and also given to visitors to a department's snow-control center.
Larger than a flyer or pamphlet, but essentially the same idea, is the
pocket guide. Vermont's Department of Highways developed a simple but
effective shirt-pocket guide for all drivers of snow plows, reminding
them of the Department's policies. The Salt Institute several years ago
published a guide in comic-book form for the same audience. Managers,
or perhaps state associations of maintenance officials, could publish
such pamphlets specifically for cooperating government agencies, parti-
cularly the police, parks, sanitation, and fire departments, whose
personnel are greatly concerned and effected by snow-removal policies.
(These guides should be used in conjunction with personal talk by managers,
especially to police troopers in their barracks, to explain policies and
practices).
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WE'LL DO OUR BEST, BUT WE'LL NEED YOUR HELP!!
?For Better Snow Plowing This Winter,
We Would Appreciate Your Cooperation
By:
During a snowstorm,- do not drive
unless ABSOLUTELY necessary.
Public transportation should be used.
whenever possible. '
Please park your car off the street.
PLEASE HELP US TO HELP YOU!!!!!
Courtesy of Town of Arlington, Massachusetts.
FIGURE 46 UTILITY BILL "STUFFER" CONCERNING SNOW AND ICE CONTROL
131
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133
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Posters and Exhibits
Only a little effort is required to translate information in a pamphlet
into large visual displays. Posters reminding drivers of winter rules
can be spotted on bulletin boards in the town square, high schools,
churches, post offices, banks, and so on. The city of Arlington, Massa-
chusetts, recently used a truck body for posting the signs with good
effect, as shown in Figure 48.
Answering Telephone Inquiries
DPWs talk with many citizens who call to ask for weather information,
request special service, or generally to complain. Citizens who show
enough initiative to telephone undoubtedly talk about their experience
with others, and are, therefore, automatically influential. (Similarly,
newspapers and radio stations estimate that those who take the trouble
to write or call represent probably three to five others who have the
same thought but do not act.) Therefore, telephone relations with the
public, even though not conducted face to face, are just as important
as other types of contact.
Thus, a manager should think carefully about who in the organization should
handle telephone calls, and how. The man or woman on the DPW's telephone
should know the locality and its roads, be familiar with maintenance, be
skillful in talking with people, and be authoritative in manner. Although
the department serves the public, it cannot and should not blindly say
"yes" to every request or demand, especially when men and equipment are
under stress during a storm. The telephone person must know the depart-
ment's priorities, know the stage of operations, and, therefore be able
to tell callers when they are likely to be plowed out. But he or she
should not make rash promises that trucks will find difficult to fulfill
or that will cause political embarassment later for other officials.
The person on the phones can do much to ensure that rules will not be
too rigid. Although a town or city may accept a reduced salting program
in principle, the resulting delays and inconveniences may work serious
hardship on certain persons, for example, elderly shut-ins, physicians,
clergymen, and emergency workers such as ambulance drivers or telephone
repairmen. The maintenance chief and his telephone communicator should
be prepared to give a reasonable amount of special service to legitimate
callers, for example, by plowing a doctor's street early or assigning a
truck part-time for special and unexpected duties. Such service is the
best form of an agency's public relations; it can also make a significant
contribution to an environmentally-responsible snow-removal policy.
Signs on Roads and Highways -
All of the techniques described above are forms of general education,
designed to shape the attitudes of drivers. These must, however, be
reinforced by signs to remind citizens while they are driving. Signs
can be important safety devices, for example to warn drivers of a coming
change in road conditions. Two Massachusetts towns, Burlington and
134
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Courtesy of Town of Arlington, Massachusetts.
FIGURE 48 SNOW TRUCK WITH EXPLANATORY SIGN
*,1I» ''
Courtesy of Town of Concord, Massachusetts.
FIGURE 49 WARNING SIGN
135
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Concord, used them recently when they were experimenting with banning
salt (Figures 49 and 50). (Both towns have subsequently reinstituted
the use of salt in limited amounts). A more common sign on highways
throughout the northern states is one warning that bridges freeze
earlier than do road surfaces (Figure 51).
Signs reminding drivers to use snow tires, and possibly also chains,
should be used more frequently in jurisdictions that require them by
ordinance or law; this will assist police officers and judges in
enforecement. In some mountainous regions, public officials go further
requiring instead of merely advising the use of snow tires and chains.
Figures 52, 53 and 54 from California are examples. This technique can
be used effectively, however, only on roads where access is limited, as
in mountain passes, where road crews and police can talt vehicles and
inspect them. Similar potential usage exists on other controlled-access
highways, such as toll roads like the New York Thruway and the Massachusetts
Turnpike, where vehicles can be halted at toll plazas until dangerous
conditions abate.
Vermont has adapted this technique for its sections of interstate highways.
Figure 55 shows an advisory sign placed beside the access ramp to 1-89.
It can be adjusted by hand: the upper half of the pole sits loosely
in the lower half, so that the local highway crew man can turn it to
face entering traffic during dangerous conditions and turn it away again
during normal weather. These signs are only advisory, however, and not
enforced by police. Vermont authorities have not conducted research
to learn x*hether these signs appear to influence driver behavior; but
they do report from experience that the signs would better be placed
beside the interstate highway itself, just at the ned of the ramp's
acceleration lane, to remind through drivers already on the main line
as well as to warn drivers just entering. Other states should consider
adopting Vermont's practice.
Information-Getting Techniques
As the preceding list suggests, it is important to tell citizens about
maintenance policies, in the hope that they will behave cooperatively.
But any service organization must also receive information from its
customers about the forms and quality of its service.
Complaints-
These are the most obvious sources of information from citizens. Some may
seem irritating, crazy, or irrational. Some may be disregarded. But
others, especially if they form a pattern, should be considered with care
as a signal for a possible adjustment in policy and practice.
136
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Courtesy of Town of Burlington, Massachusetts.
FIGURE 50 WARNING SIGN
137
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iRIDGE FREEZES
IE BEFORE
SURFACE
FIGURE 51 WARNING SIGN AT BRIDGE
138
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Courtesy of State of California Department of Transportation.
FIGURE 54 TRUCK EQUIPPED WITH SNOW WARNING SIGNS
Courtesy of State of Vermont Department of Highways.
FIGURE 55 SAFE MAXIMUM SPEED LIMIT SIGN
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Scan the press -
Some information about citizen attitudes and needs is likely to appear
in the daily press. Comments may be direct, as in letters about specific
problems, or in editorials or columns. Some information may come indirectly,
in news reports of tie-ups or comments at town meetings.
Surveys -
Research techniques developed in universities have long been used by
businesses, for example, to learn about their markets. Local governments
are increasingly using survey methods, including mailed questionnaires,
interviews, and systematic observations, to obtain detailed information
about the needs of their citizen constituency. The mechanical traffic
counter, used by highway planners to gather data for origin-destination
studies, is a form of survey familiar to engineers. Such techniques
could be used by maintenance officials to learn the preferences of a
community for various snow—fighting tools and various levels of service.
DPWs could conduct mail surveys by including questionnaires in other
town or city mailings, as described above in our discussion of "pamphlets,"
or they might enlist cooperation of Conservation Commissions or voluntary
citizen environmental groups to conduct interview surveys. A variation
useful in small towns is to publish the questionnaire in the local news-
paper and request readers to return it by mail.
Public Hearings -
This form of obtaining citizen views has become familiar during the past
decade. For example, hearings are required for reviewing environmental
impact statements and water pollution control plans. Maintenance officials
can use them as a device both for proposing their policies and for learning
public reactions. Before initiating the hearing process, they should
consult other government officials who have already conducted hearings
in order to learn about the steps required for running them successfully.
Exchange or Inter-action Techniques
One-way communications are not enough to ensure citizen cooperation.
Clearly, a number of the information-giving and information-getting
techniques can be used for two-way communication; we shall not repeat
them here. Most of the other interaction techniques need only be listed
to be recognized.
Informal versions of public hearings include meetings between maintenance
officials and other officials or private citizens in community meetings,
with citizen advisory groups, or during citizen meetings on other environ-
mental questions. For example, maintenance managers might ask citizen
environmental leaders to convene an advisory panel to review and comment
each fall on policies planned for the coming winter. Conservation
officials or knowledgeable citizens can be included in annual fall training
programs for maintenance crews, to encourage direct give-and-take between
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truck drivers and citizen drivers. Citizen leaders can be invited to
observe storm-fighting operations, both in the snow control center and
on the road with crew chiefs, to learn the range of difficulty which
maintenance personnel face. (This, by the way, would make a good news-
paper feature article.)
Use of these interaction techniques should not be limited to non-govern-
ment persons only. They should also be employed in relations between all
sectors of the maintenance manager's world. They can be just as effective
with environmental officials, public health officers, and police officers,
as with citizens. The results of communicating with your various publics
using these techniques can be many. Managers can develop support for
higher appropriations, for example to finance salt storage sheds and
improved spreader equipment. Managers can learn from public health
officials or ground water hydrologists which areas are especially sensi-
tive to side effects of chemicals, and probably obtain advice in devising
procedures for special treatment; this has been done by state officials
in Connecticut. They can develop, with citizen help, simple programs for
monitoring the effects of maintenance policies on the environment and on
citizen attitudes. Ordinary drivers should become more aware of practical
problems facing maintenance crews. Perhaps most specifically, outside
advisors can help maintenance managers in deciding which levels of service
should be provided to which roads or areas, and in resolving the inevitable
conflicts that surround these choices.
Laws, ordinances, and regulations are also, as we noted at the beginning
of this discussion, important tools for citizen education. All of the
techniques described above can be used during the process of developing
regulations and laws, as well as in administering them effectively. For
example, towns may not legally need to pass by-laws to conform with state
laws; but conservationists have found this a useful device for focusing
the attention of citizens. For a fuller discussion of the legal and
institutional framework within which maintenance managers work, see
Part One, "Institutional Interactions."
THEMES AND MESSAGES
The previous discussion has concentrated on tools and techniques, although
some of the important messages have been mentioned in passing. In this
final section, a number of messages which seem important are set forth
explicitly. These were drawn from suggestions by maintenance personnel,
officials of other government agencies, citizen conservationists, and
our oxra observations.
Is this Trip Necessary?
One useful lesson of the gasoline shortage during the winter of 1973-74
was that people can indeed reduce their traveling, for example by
combining trips and by car pooling. For years since the end of World
War II, our economy of plenty, especially our ample supply of cheap fuel,
has encouraged drivers to assume that they can travel anywhere at will.
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In addition, man's apparent ability to shape and control nature's environ-
ment to suit his own convenience has encouraged the assumption that
drivers can travel any time at will, regardless of weather and road con-
ditions. But now we are being forced to recognize some limits, imposed
by such factors as safety, environmental degradation, cost of fuel, and
costs of maintaining roads during winter. Snow plow drivers who watch
inexperienced drivers and fools slithering helplessly into snow banks
naturally ask, "Is this trip really necessary?" Every winter, mainte-
nance managers should be reminding all drivers to ask this question of
'themselves before every trip in stormy weather.
Drive Slowly on Hazardous Roads
This caution, although obvious, needs to be repeated often, and in
various ways. One snow-plow driver for the State of New Hampshire put
it well in a slogan: "It is better to be late, Mr. Motorist, than to be
the late Mr. Motorist!" One benefit of slowing down appeared as a by-
product of the national policy to reduce fuel consumption in 1973-74 by
lowering the speed limit to 55 miles per hour: during the months that
followed, according to National Safety Council reports, the rates of
accidents and fatalities dropped significantly.
Only Service which is Reasonable
Since 1950, maintenance departments have striven and generally succeeded
in providing excellent levels of service to drivers. They did so for a
variety of reasons, in addition to the normal duty to serve: the dramatic
increase in numbers of cars and trucks, their growing importance in the
economy, the explosion of cities into suburbs, growth of population and
affluence, decline of railroads and mass transit forms of transportation,
and the advent of salt and other deicing chemicals as convenient and
effective ice-fighting tools. The enthusiasm about chemicals, by drivers
as well as by maintenance workers, led naturally to the concept of "bare
pavements" as the standard of service. The appealing notion of "June
travel in January" raised expectations that bare pavements would be
available at almost all times - night and day, in bad weather as well as
good. Such concepts have economic importance, for example to markets
receiving supplies by truck and for ski resorts receiving customers by
car while snow is falling. Maintenance departments have responded to
these demands well.
In fact, they have responded perhaps too well for their own peace of mind.
Few citizen drivers realize the dollar costs of such high levels of
wintertime service. Only in recent years have we begun to recognize the
environmental costs of heavy reliance on chemicals. As most maintenance
managers know from their jangling telephones, some citizens are all too
quick to complain when roads are less than bare.
Both DPWs and citizens must recognize more generally that maintenance
departments cannot provide services'without regard to costs, both dollar
costs and environmental costs. In other words, they can provide service
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only at reasonable levels. These levels of service must be clearly under-
stood both by maintenance crews and by citizen drivers, far more so now
than in the past. Only by mutual recognition of these stated standards
will maintenance managers be able to feel less defensive and less harassed.
Snow Routes
If various levels of service are to be provided, it follows that parti-
cular routes will be better for traveling at particular hours. The public
should know of them.
Bare Roads are Not Necessarily Safe Roads
The assumption that "bare roads are safe roads" is comforting but slippery.
It has seemed a valuable rule-of-thumb for maintenance foremen; and it
was certainly a valuable selling point for salt salesmen. But the idea
is slippery insofar as it leads people to assume that roads are the only
factor in highway safety. Clearly, the road and its condition is only
one component of the system of "moving people and goods from here to
there." Other parts of the system include weather, vehicles, and drivers.
All are obviously important influences on safety. A clear, dry pavement
is indeed preferable to a slippery, icy pavement. But drivers can drive
at hazardous speeds in January as well as June, and be encouraged to do
so by pavements that are clear.
It does not follow that roads covered with ice or snow are in themselves
unsafe. They are unsafe only if drivers travel over them without due
caution. (Incidentally, just as mariners must observe a general rule of
good seamanship, drivers must observe the law that requires them to
exercise good judgment in relation to conditions of road and weather.
Specific requirements of law and regulation, in the form of posted speed
limits, can at best only set the outside limits of behavior; within these
limits, drivers must exercise discretion and judgment to suit changing
conditions.)
The point that bare roads are not necessarily safe roads is important in
the relations between maintenance department and their publics. Mainte-
nance departments can only suffer from the sloppy thinking and sloppy
language which suggests that, first, bare roads are somehow safe roads,
and therefore second, that maintenance men are responsible for highway
safety. They can be responsible for maintaining pavements in certain
conditions; but they are not, and cannot be, responsible for all the
components that influence highway safety. Although this statement seems
obvious when written here, it seems to be forgotten during the stress of
an accident investigation, when many persons find it convenient to point
the finger of blame at road conditions and maintenance men. DPWs have
responsibility, to be sure, but with limits which must be defined clearly.
Clear standards of responsibility are necessary for good management,
cooperation with other government departments, and healthy relations
with citizens.
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In some communities, especially smaller ones, candid discussions about
such problems with environmental groups might result in them taking the
initiative in citizen education as part of the groups' regular program.
Over-Salting is Dangerous
The ample natural resources that Americans have long taken for granted
leads them to accept easily an argument that says, in effect: "If some
is good, then more must be better." Only in recent years are we beginning
to recognize that this logic may be fallacious.
Maintenance men with experience know that over-salting can defeat the
purpose of salting. One result, during a storm, can-be "slippery slush,"
which increases the hazards of driving. Another, after a storm, can be
a residue of chemicals on the road surface; at certain places, for example
low spots or shaded spots, and under certain conditions, when quickly
rising temperatures of vegetation can release moisture, the deliquescence
of a chemical agent such as calcium chloride can attract moisture that
may freeze on contact with the colder road pavement, and thus form a
thin, but hazardous, layer of ice. In addition, of course, abuse of salt
and other chemicals can increase dollar costs of replacing spalled con-
crete, dead trees or shrubs, and contaminated water supplies.
Maintenance men should by now recognize most of these dangers. Our
point, however, is that citizen drivers should learn about them also,
so that they will moderate their expectations and demands for service.
Cooperation can be Reinforced by Coercion
We argued earlier that cooperation is not merely nice, but also necessary.
Our discussion here has assumed that many or most drivers can and will
cooperate with maintenance authorities if they are shown why and how.
However, we recognize that not all drivers will comply. The police
powers of government are part of the maintenance manager-'s arsenal of
tools. He cannot use them himself, but police officers and other
officials with police powers can use them in his behalf. Drivers as
taxpayers should enjoy the benefits of well-maintained winter roads.
But drivers as citizens also have obligations to observe laws-and regu-
lations devised for the common good, for example, limiting speed, limiting
snow routes, and limiting levels of service. Maintenance managers, as
part of their program of public education, should explicitly remind
drivers of these obligations.
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REFERENCES
1. Richardson, D.L., Campbell, C.P., Carroll, R.J., Hellstrom, D.I.,
Metzger, J.B., O'Brien, P.J., and Terry, R.C., Arthur D. Little, Inc.,
Cambridge, Mass. Manual for Deicing Chemicals: Storage and Handling,
Report No. EPA-670/2-74-033. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1974, 89 p.
2. Terry, R.C., Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., Road Salt,
Drinking Water, and Safety; Improving Public Policy and Practices,
Ballinger Publishing Company, Cambridge, Mass., 1974, 163 p.
3. Lewart, C.R., "Make Your Pocket Radio a Weather Receiver," Popular
Science 201:108, August, 1972.
4. State of Minnesota Department of Highways, Maintenance Standards,
5-792-44-100, St. Paul, Minn., January 10, 1972.
5. State of Minnesota Department of Highways, Snow and Ice Removal
Plan-Maintenance Area 5A. Winter 1972-1973, St. Paul, Minn.,
August 14, 1972.
6. Bozarth, F.M. Implementation Package for Use of Liquid Calcium
Chloride to Improve Deicing and Snow Removal Operations. Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., April, 1973.
7. IRAP Aid for the "Hooker" - Frink's New Snow Plow. Science
Dimension (Ottawa) 5:10-13, December, 1973.
8. Washington State Highway Commission, Rubber Snowplow Blades and
Lightweight Snowplows Used for the Protection of Raised Traffic
Markers. Reprinted by the Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
D.C., December 1973.
9. Washington State Department of Highways, Use of Rubber Snowplow
Blades in Washington. Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
D.C., September, 1973.
10. Chandler, P.L., and Luoto, D.C., Minnesota Highway Department.
Managerial Aspects of a Chemical Reduction Program. Highway
Research Record No. 425. Highway Research Board, National
Academy of Science, Washington, D.C., June, 1973, pp. 77-85.
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APPENDIX A
ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES FOR CITIZEN EDUCATION
Listed below are a selection of organizations, by name or by type, both
jiational'or local, that can assist in developing a program of citizen
education and cooperation. The national offices listed can direct you
to their state and local chapters or affiliates; they can often supply
or suggest useful literature and audio-visual aids. In addition, look
for similar kinds of local organizations or informal groups, which can
offer local knowledge and resources of great value. To locate key
persons in private organizations, begin by contacting the Environmental.
Chairman of your nearest League of Women Voters.
General Federation of Women's Clubs. 1734 N St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
20036. An organization of 51 state federations of local women's clubs
and clubs in 53 foreign countries. Supports study and action programs
for community betterment. Departments include conservation, education,
home life, public affairs, international affairs and the arts. Publishes
program materials for members.
Sierra Club. 1050 Mills Tower,, 220 Bush St., San Francisco, Calif. 94104.
Membership, organization of 140,000 in 41 chapters. Active in legisla-
tion and litigation at all government levels devoted to the full range
of environmental problems. Publishes scientific and educational studies
concerning all aspects of man's environment and natural eco-systems.
The Garden Club of America. 598 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022.
National organization of member clubs which promote knowledge and appre-
ciation of conservation, horticulture and landscape design.
Izaak'Walton League of America. Room 806, 1800 North Kent St., Arlington,
Va. 22209. A membership organization of citizens, founded 50 years ago,
which has grown to a national organization with 600 chapters. Chapter
members work in their own communities and are dedicated "to the restora-
tion and wise use of all our resources." The League assists chapter and
state divisiqns with information, literature and professional staff
services. From its earliest.history the League has compaigned in: legis-
lative efforts aiding^ state and federal water pollution control agencies.
National Wildlife Federation. 1412 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20036. Develops and makes available information packet, including
publications list and sample publications, for primary, junior high,
senior high, and college levels; publishes weekly "Conservation Report"
reflecting Congressional action on environmental issues.
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National Audubon Society. 950 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022.
Membership organization with 260 local chapters. Works for conservation
of all natural resources and conservation education. Special programs
for Nature Centers Planning Division provides technical assistance in
planning and operation of community nature centers. Offers field staff
assistance on cost-share basis. The Society publishes bi-monthly maga-
zine, newsletters, bulletins and teaching aids, publications list. Offers
films and speaker services.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Public Affairs, 401
M Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024. Establishes and enforces
environmental standards; conducts scientific studies into the causes
and effects of pollution, techniques of pollution control, and environ-
mental consequences of man's actions; provides technical and financial
assistance to state, regional and local jurisdictions; publishes a wide
variety of environmental literature.
League of Women Voters of the United States. 1730 M Street, N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20036. 160,000 members in state and local chapters.
Provides information at the local level on environmental problems and
developments in the community; provides information on how to influence
decision-making. Contact local League of Women Voters listed in the
telephone directory, or write national headquarters for name of your
state leader.
Keep America Beautiful, Inc. 99 Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016.
Conducts ongoing public education programs to encourage a sense of in-
dividual responsibility for a quality environment, encouraging litter
control as the first step toward solving other pollution problems;
coordinates activities at state and local levels through four regional
field offices; designs, through its Program Development Department,
special ecology programs for businesses, industry, government, etc.,
upon request; provides information on environmental improvement projects;
sponsors public service campaigns through the Advertising Council to
fight pollution.
The Conservation Foundation. 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20036. Studies environmental issues and publishes findings in
monthly 12-page report, CF Letter; each issue is devoted to comprehen-
sive discussion of one topic; prepares publications in all areas of
conservation and provides information on relevant publications developed
by other sources; maintains rental/purchase collection of films and
filmstrips on conservation.
Regional EPA Directories. A number of EPA's Regional Offices (listed
below) have compiled directories of the environmental organizations
within their multi-state areas. For additional information contact
the Public Affairs Director.
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Regional Office
Boston, Mass.
617-233-7223
02203
States Covered
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Ver-
mont
New York, New York 10007
212-264-2515
Philadelphia, Pa. 19106
215-597-9370
Atlanta, Ga. 30309
404-526-3004
Chicago, 111.
312-353-5800
60606
Dallas, Texas 75201
214-749-1151
Kansas City, Mo. 64108
816-374-5495
Denver, Colo.
303-837-4905
80203
San Francisco, Calif.
415-556-6695
Seattle, Wash. 98101
206-442-1203
94111
New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico,
Virgin Islands
Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West Virginia, D.C.
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Ken-
tucky, Mississippi, North Caro-
lina, South Carolina, Tennessee
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, Texas
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming
Arizona, California, Hawaii,
Nevada, American Samoa, Guam,
Trust Territories of the Pacific,
Wake Island
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
Federal Highway Administration, National Highway Institute. This federal
unit was recently organized to provide training assistance to state and
local highway officials. It may in time offer assistance in citizen
participation and education.
American Automobile Association. 1730 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Wash-
ington, D.C. 20006. This membership association with many state
affiliates has a Department of Environmental Affairs in its Washington
office.
The Salt Institute. 206 North Washington Street, Alexandria, Virginia
22314. This trade association, representing the interests of the salt
producing companies, has recently developed public information materials
in connection with its "sensible salting" campaign.
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The following are types of state .and local organizations that can con-
tribute in the form of counsel, skilled manpower, public meetings, and
publications media (a few inquiries by telephone should lead quickly to
exact names and addresses):
State Highway Associations
Associations of City Managers. Town Selectmen. Township Supervisors,
and other senior officials of local governments
State Municipal Leagues or Associations
State County Leagues or Associations
Local or Regional Natural Resources Councils
Conservation Commissions. These arms of local government, recently
established in six northeastern states, possess powers and responsibilities
delegated by their state legislatures through enabling legislation.
With the passage of some state-level environmental protection laws, such
as the Inland Wetland Act in Massachusetts, the authority of Conserva-
tion Commissions is likely to increase. Their members may have consid-
erable experience with both local environmental problems and citizen
education.
Directories of Organizations and Specialists. In addition to the
nationally-known organizations described above, maintenance managers can
identify other resources through several directories, available in
major libraries or directly from their publishers:
* Directory of Environmental Information Sources, Charles E.
Thibeau, editor, Boston: National Foundation for Environmental
Control, Inc., 1972 (2nd edition), 457 pp. Lists many
organizations as well as articles, studies, etc.
• Encyclopedia of Governmental Advisory Organizations, Detroit:
Gale Publishing Co., 1973, ca. 300 pp. A comprehensive reference
guide to the many boards, panels, and groups which regularly
advise government officials and agencies. Supplements issued
annually.
• Water Quality Training Institute, The Conservation Foundation,
Washington, B.C., conducted" for the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency in 1974 a nation-wide series of meetings about the citizen
participation required by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
of 1972. The excellent loose-leaf manual written and assembled
by the Foundation includes a 170-page section, "On Technical
Assistance," consisting of names, titles, and addresses of about
2,500 scientific and technical specialists, listed by state",
willing to advise on water quality questions.
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® Conservation Directory, A List of Organizations, Agencies, and
Officials concerned with the Natural Resource Use and Management,
Annual publication of the National Wildlife Federation, 1412
Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington, B.C. 20036.
Similarly, other organizations may have networks or lists of cooperating
specialists available to assist maintenance managers.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-670/2-74-045
3, RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4, TITLE AND SUBTITLE
MANUAL FOR DEICING CHEMICALS: APPLICATION PRACTICES
5. REPORT DATE
December 1974; Issuing Date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7, AUTHOR(S)
David L. Richardson, Robert C. Terry, Jane B. Metzger,
and Raymond J. Carroll
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9, PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Acorn Park
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BB034; ROAP-ATB; TASK-036
11. CONTRACT/SBKHSCKNO.
68-03-0154
12, SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final, July 1972 - June 1974
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. Supplementary Notos This edition printed under sponsorship of U.S. Department of Trans-
portation, Federal Highway Administration, Offices of Research and Development,
Washington, B.C. 20590.
10, ABSTRACT
This report contains the results of a study conducted for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency to minimize the loss to the environment of chemicals used in
controlling snow and ice on highways. Based on the best current practices for
highway maintenance as observed during two years of study, practical guidelines
are presented for the use of deicing chemicals.
1. Supervisory aspects of proper chemical usage are defined, including organization
and personnel training.
2. Efficient snow and ice control requires good judgment and appropriate action.
Elements of proper decision-making are discussed, including weather forecasting,
setting chemical application rates, and accounting for chemical usage.
3. The backbone of winter road maintenance is equipment. General requirements and
major equipment classes are described, including recent improvements and advan-
tages or disadvantages. Methods are given for accurate spreader calibrations.
4. Means are described for developing and enlisting the support of citizens and
drivers for winter road maintenance policies.
5. Legal requirements for and constraints on snow and ice control are described.
Supplement to EPA-670/2-74-033, "Manual for Deicing Chemicals: Storage and
Handling;" NTIS PB-236 152.
17,
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Sodium chloride, Calcium chlorides, Sands,
Snow, Ice, Supervision, Deicers, *Snow
removal, *Maintenance
Deicing chemical spreader
Deicing chemicals
Deicing chemical usage
Snow and ice control
management
Citizen participation
Winter road maintenance
8L
13B
18, DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS /ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
164
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
UNCLASSIFIED
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
152
irUSGPO: 1979 — 657-060/5434
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