EPA-440/I-74-Q20-a
Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines
and New Source Performance Standards for the
CATFISH, CRAB, SHRIMP,
AND TUNA
Segment of the Canned and
Preserved Seafood Processing
Point Source Category
June 1974
Q
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington, D.C. 20460
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DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
AND STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
FOR THE
CATFISH, CRAB, SHRIMP, AND TUNA SEGMENTS OF
THE CANNED AND PRESERVED SEAFOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY
POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
Russell E. Train
Administrator
James L. Agee
Assistant Administrator
for Water and Hazardous Materials
Allen Cywin
Director, Effluent Guidelines Division
Elwood H. Forsht
Project Officer
June 1974
Effluent Guidelines Division
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $4.50
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ABSTRACT
This report presents the findings of a study of the farm-raised
catfish, crab, shrimp, and tuna processing segments of the canned
and preserved seafood processing industry for the purpose of
developing effluent limitations guidelines for point source and
and new source standards of performance for new sources in order
to implement Sections 304, 306, and 307 of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (the Act).
The seafood processing plants included in this study were those
processing farm-raised catfish, crab, shrimp and tuna. Other
aquatic and marine species are the subject of a separate study,
which is to be published at a later date.
Effluent limitations guidelines are set forth for the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
"Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available" and the
"Best Available Technology Economically Achievable" which must be
achieved by existing point sources by July 1, 1977 and July 1,
1983, respectively. The "Standards of Performance for New
Sources" set forth a degree of effluent reduction which is
achievable through the application of the best available demon-
strated control technology processes, operating methods or other
alternatives.
The effluent limitations to be met by July 1, 1977 and the New
Source Performance Standards are based on the best biological or
physical-chemical treatment technology currently available. This
technology is represented by aerated lagoons, activated sludge,
or dissolved air flotation. The limitations to be met by July 1,
1983 are based on the best physical-chemical and biological
treatment and in-plant control as represented by reduced water
use and enhanced treatment efficiencies in pre-existing systems
as well as new systems.
Supportative data and rationale for development of the effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance are contained
in this report.
iii
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CONTENTS
Section Page
I. CONCLUSIONS 1
II. RECOMMENDATIONS 3
III. INTRODUCTION 7
IV. INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION 17
V. WASTE CATEGORIZATION 93
VI. SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS 199
VII. CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY 217
VIII. COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY
ASPECTS SUMMARY
297
IX. BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE, GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS 321
X. BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE, GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS 329
XI. NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
AND PRETREATMENT STANDARDS 337
XII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 341
XIII. REFERENCES 343
XIV. GLOSSARY 367
Appendix A: Bibliography - Air Flotation Use
Within the Seafood Industry 379
Appendix B: Bibliography - Air Flotation Use
Within the Meat and Poultry Industry 383
Appendix C: List of Equipment Manufacturers 385
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FIGURES
Number
1 Source and disposition of edible fishery
products 9
2 Typical seafood process diagram 10
3 General location of fish and shellfish plants
sampled 12
4 General location of fish and shellfish plants 13
sampled
5 Catfish process 21
6 Catfish production rates and flow ratios 26
7 Catfish production rates and BOD5_ ratios 27
8 Catfish production rates and suspended
solids ratios 28
9 Crab production rates and flow ratios 31
10 Crab production rates and BOD5 ratios 32
11 Crab production rates and suspended solids
ratios 33
12 Conventional blue crab process 36
13 Mechanized blue crab process 41
14 King and tanner crab frozen meat process 45
15 King and tanner crab canning process 47
16 King and tanner crab section process 50
17 Alaska and west coast shrimp freezing process 62
18 Alaska and west coast shrimp canning process 63
19 Shrimp production rates and flow ratios 70
20 Shrimp production rates and BOD5 ratios 7]
21 Shrimp production rates and suspended solids
ratios 72
22 Southern non-breaded shrimp canning process 79
23 Breaded shrimp process 80
24 Supply of canned tuna 82
25 Tuna process 84
26 Tuna production rates and flow ratios go
27 Tuna production rates and BOD5 ratios 91
28 Tuna production rates and suspended solids
ratios 92
29 Conventional meal plant capital costs 225
30 Continuous fish reduction plant with soluble
recovery and odor control 226
31 Low cost batch reduction facility 228
32 Brine-acid extraction process 231
33 Brine-acid extraction primary facility costs
(excluding dryer) 232
3U Enzymatic hydrolysis of solid waste 234
35 Chitin-chitosan process for shellfish waste
utilization 236
36 Approximate investment for extracting basic 237
chemicals from shellfish waste
vii
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FIGURES (Cont'd)
Number Page
37 Increase in waste loads through prolonged
contact with water 241
38 Typical horizontal drum rotary screen 242
39 Typical tangential screen 246
40 Typical screen system for seafood processing
operations 247
41 Typical dissolved air flotation system for seafood
processing operations 257
42 Dissolved air flotation unit 258
13 Removal efficiency of DAF unit used in Louisiana
shrimp study - 1973 results 265
44 Air flotation efficiency versus influent COD
concentration for various seafood wastewaters 266
45 Typical extended aeration system for seafood
processing operations 269
46 Removal rate of filtered BOD in a batch aeration
reactor 270
47 Removal rate of unfiltered BOD in a batch
aeration reactor 271
48 Typical aerated lagoon system 276
49 Catfish processing, initial treatment 282
50 Catfish processing, oxidation pond alternative 283
51 Catfish processing, spray irrigation alternative 284
52 Alaska crab processing, aerated lagoon biological
alternative 286
53 Alaska physical treatment alternative, remote
plants with adequate flushing available 288
54 Tuna processing treatment 294
55 Catfish treatment efficiencies and costs 310
56 Conventional blue crab treatment efficiencies
and costs 311
57 Mechanized blue crab treatment efficiencies
and costs 312
58 Alaska crab meat treatment efficiencies
and costs 313
59 Alaska crab whole and sections treatment
efficiencies and costs 314
60 Dungeness and tanner crab other than Alaska
treatment efficiencies and costs 315
61 Alaska shrimp treatment efficiencies and costs 315
62 Northern shrimp treatment efficiencies
and costs 317
63 Southern non-breaded shrimp treatment efficiencies
and costs 318
64 Breaded shrimp treatment efficiencies and costs 319
65 Tuna treatment efficiencies and costs 320
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TABLES
Table
Number Page
1 July 1, 1977 Guidelines 4
2 July 1, 1983 Guidelines 5
3 New Source Performance Standards 6
4 Total supplies of catfish in the U.S.
1963-68, with production projection
estimates 1969-1975 19
5 Proximate analysis of raw catfish offal 23
6 Offal from tank-raised channel catfish 24
7 Catfish offal from cage-cultured channel
catfish 24
8 Catfish processing waste water characteristics 25
9 Recent Alaska crab catches (NOAA-NMFS) 5]
10 Typical crab waste composition 52
11 Alaskan shrimp wastes, 1967 50
12 Composition of shrimp waste 55
13 Recent shrimp catches 73
14 Shrimp products, 1970 74
15 New England shrimp landings, 1965-1969 75
16 Catfish process material balance 99
17 Catfish process summary (5 plants) 100
18 Catfish process (plant 1) ]Q2
19 Catfish process (plant 2) 103
20 Catfish process (plant 3) ]04
21 Catfish process (plant 4) 105
22 Catfish process (plant 5) 106
23 Conventional blue crab process material balance IQQ
24 Conventional blue crab process summary (2 plants) 109
25 Conventional blue crab process (plant 1) -J-JQ
26 Conventional blue crab process (plant 2) IT]
27 Mechanized blue crab process material balance 113
28 Mechanized blue crab process summary (2 plants) ^4
29 Mechanized blue crab process (plant 3)
30 Mechanized blue crab process (plant 4)
31 Material Balance - Alaska tanner and king crab
sections process and Alaska Dungeness crab
whole cooks (without waste grinding) -joi
32 Material Balance - Alaska tanner crab frozen
and canned meat process (without waste grinding) 122
33 Material Balance - Alaska tanner and king crab
sections process (with waste grinding) 103
34 Material Balance - Alaska tanner crab frozen
and canned meat process (with waste grinding) 124
35 Alaska crab whole cook and section process
summary—without grinding (3 plants) 125
36 Alaskan crab whole cook and section process summary
(including clean-up water) - without grinding
(3 plants)
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TABLES (Cont'd)
* u Page
Alaska crab frozen and canned meat process summary
—without grinding 127
38 Alaska crab frozen and canned meat process summary
(Including clean-up water) - without grinding 128
39 Alaska Dungeness crab whole cook process without
grinding (plant K8) 129
40 Alaska Dungeness crab whole cook process without
grinding (plant K1) 130
41 Alaska king crab sections process without grinding
(plant K11) 131
42 Alaska tanner crab sections process without
grinding (plant K6) 132
43 Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process with
grinding (plant K6) 133
44 Alaska tanner crab canned meat process without
grinding (plant K8) 134
45 Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process without
grinding (plant S2) 135
46 Alaska crab section process summary with
grinding (4 plants) 137
47 Alaska crab frozen and canned meat process
summary with grinding (4 plants) 138
48 Alaska tanner crab sections process with
grinding (plant K1) 139
49 Alaska tanner crab sections process with
grinding (plant K3) 140
50 Alaska tanner crab sections process with
grinding (plant K6) 141
51 Alaska tanner crab sections process with
grinding (plant K11) 142
52 Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process with
grinding (plant K1) 143
53 Alaska tanner crab frozen meat processs with
grinding (plant K6) 144
54 Alaska tanner crab canned meat process with
grinding (plant K8) 145
55 Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process with
grinding (plant K10) 146
56 Material Balance - Oregon Dungeness crab whole and
fresh-frozen meat process (without fluming wastes) 149
57 West Coast Dungeness crab process summary
without shell fluming (3 plants) 150
58 West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and
whole cook process (plant 1) 151
59 West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and
whole cook process without shell fluming
(plant 2) 152
60 West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and
whole cook process without shell fluming
(plant 3) 153
61 West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and
whole cook process with shell fluming
(plant 2) 154
62 West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and 155
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TABLES (Cont'd)
Table Page
whole cook process with shell fluming
(plant 3) 155
63 Canned and frozen Alaskan shrimp material balance 157
6H Alaska frozen shrimp process summary (plants SI 5 K6) 153
65 Alaska frozen shrimp process - Model PCA
peelers (plant Si) - sea water 159
66 Alaska frozen shrimp process, Model PCA peelers
(Plant Si) — seawater, with clean-up 160
67 Alaska canned shrimp process - Model A peelers
(plant K2) - fresh water 161
68 Alaska canned shrimp process - Model A peelers
(plant K2) - fresh water, with clean up 162
69 Canned West Coast shrimp material balance 165
70 West Coast canned shrimp process summary
(2 plants) 166
71 West Coast canned shrimp (plant 1) 167
72 West Coast canned shrimp (plant 2) 168
73 Canned Gulf shrimp material balance 170
74 Gulf shrimp canning process summary (3 plants) 172
75 Gulf shrimp canning process (plant 1A) -]73
76 Gulf shrimp canning process (plant 1B) 174
77 Gulf shrimp canning process (plant 2) 175
78 Gulf shrimp process screened (plant 3) 176
79 Breaded Gulf shrimp - material balance 172
80 Breaded shrimp process summary (2 plants)
81 Breaded shrimp process (plant 1)
82 Breaded shrimp process (plant 2)
83 Tuna process material balance 125
8H Tuna process summary (9 plants) 126
85 Tuna process (plant 1) 127
86 Tuna process (plant 2) 122
87 Tuna process (plant 3)
88 Tuna process (plant 4)
89 Tuna process (plant 5)
90 Tuna process (plant 6)
91 Tuna process (plant 7)
92 Tuna process (plant 8)
93 Tuna process (plant 9)
9U Percent of total plant waste by unit process for
5-day BOD and suspended solids ig7
95 Proximate composition of whole fish, edible
fish and trimmings of dover sole 221
96 Northern sewage screen test results 244
97 SWECO concentrator test results 244
98 SWECO vibratory screen performance on salmon
canning wastewater 244
99 Tangetial screen performance 248
100 Gravity clarification using F-FLOK coagulant 251
101 Results of dispersed air flotation on tuna
wastewater 251
102 Efficiency of EIMCO flotator pilot plant on
tuna wastewater 260
103 Efficiency of EIMCO flotator full-scale plant
on tuna wastewater 260
XI
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TABLES (Cont'd)
Page
Efficiency of Carborundum pilot plant on Gulf
shrimp wastewater 262
Efficiency of Carborundum pilot plant on Alaska
shrimp wastewater 262
Efficiency of Carborundum pilot plant on menhaden
bailwater 263
Efficiency of full-scale dissolved air flotation
on sardine wastewater 263
Efficiency of full-scale dissolved air flotation
on Canadian seafood wastewater 264
109 Activated sludge pilot plant results 272
110 Efficiency of Chromaglas package plant on
blue crab and oyster wastewater 272
111 Equipment efficiency and design assumptions 280-281
112 Estimated practicable in-plant waste water
flow reductions, and associated pollutional
loadings reductions 298
113 Treatment efficiencies and costs 299-303
114 1971 Seattle constructions costs 395
115 U. S. Army Geographical index 306
116 Operation and Maintenance costs 307
117 July 1, 1977 Guidelines 324
118 July 1, 1983 Guidelines 330
119 New source Performance Standards 333
xn
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations guidelines
for existing sources and standards of performance for new
sources, the farm-raised catfish, crab, shrimp and tuna segments
of the canned and preserved seafood processing industry are
divided into fourteen subcategories:
a) Farm-Raised Catfish Processing
b) Conventional Blue Crab Processing
c) Mechanized Blue Crab Processing
d) Non-Remote Alaskan Crab Meat Processing
e) Remote Alaskan Crab Meat Processing
f) Non-Remote Alaskan Whole Crab and Crab Section Processing
g) Remote Alaskan Whole Crab and Crab Section Processing
h) Dungeness and Tanner Crab Processing in the Contiguous
States
i) Non-Remote Alaskan Shrimp Processing
j) Remote Alaskan Shrimp Processing
k) Northern Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous States
1) Southern Non-Breaded Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous
States
m) Breaded Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous States
n) Tuna Processing.
The major criteria for the establishment of the subcategories were:
1) variability of raw material supply;
2) variety of the species being processed;
3) degree of preprocessing;
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respective waste water constituents within the industry. Because
waste treatment, in-plant waste reduction, and effluent manage-
ment are in their infancy in this industry, rapid progress is
expected to be made in the near future.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Effluent limitations for discharge to navigable waters are based
in general on the characteristics of well-operating screening
systems, dissolved air flotation units, and biological treatment
systems. Parameters designated to be of significant importance
to warrant their routine monitoring in this industry, are 5-day
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD£), total suspended solids (TSS),
oil and grease (OSG), and pH.
The 1977 effluent limitations are presented in Table 1; The 1983
limitations, in Table 2; and new source performance standards, in
Table 3.
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Table 1
July 1, 1977 Guidelines
Subcategory
A Farm-Raised Catfish
B Conventional Blue Crab
C Mechanized Blue Crab
D Non-Remote Alaskan
Crab Meat
E Remote Alaskan Crab Meat
F Nbn-Reraote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
G Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
H Dungeness + Tanner Crab
in the Contiguous States
I Non-Remote Alaskan
Shrimp
J Ranote Alaskan Shrimp
K Northern Shrimp
L Southern Non-Breaded
M Breaded Shrimp
N Tuna
Technology
Basis
S, GT
S, GT
S, GT
S, GT
Cortcninutors
S, GT
Cominutors
S, GT
S
Conminutors
S
S
S
S, DAF
Parameter (kg/kkg or lbs/1000 Ibs liveweight processed)
BOD
Max 30-day Daily
Average Max
_ _
-
-
— —
* *
- -
* *
-
-
* *
- -
-
- -
9.0 23
Max 30-day
Average
9.2
0.74
12
6.2
*
3.9
*
2.7
210
*
54
38
93
3.3
TSS
Daily
Max
28
2.2
36
19
*
12
*
8.1
320
*
160
114
280
8.3
Max 30-day
Average
3.4
0.20
4.2
0.61
*
0.42
*
0.61
17
*
42
12
12
0.84
O+G
Daily
Max
10
0.60
13
1.8
*
1.3
*
1.8
51
*
126
36
36
2.1
* No pollutants may be discharged which exceed 1.27 on (0.5 inch) in any
dimension.
S = screen; GT = simple grease traps; DAF = dissolved air flotation;
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Table 2
July 1, 1983 Guidelines
Subcategory
A Farm-Raised Catfish
B Conventional Blue Crab
C Mechanized Blue Crab
D Non-Remote Alaskan
Crab Meat
E Remote Alaskan Crab Meat
F Non-Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
G Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
H Dungeness + Tanner Crab
in the Contiguous States
I Non-Remote Alaskan
Shrimp
J Remote Alaskan Shrimp
K Northern Shrimp
L Southern Non-Breaded
Shrimp
M Breaded Shrinip
N Tuna
Technology
Basis
S, GT, AL
S, GT, AL
S, GT, AL, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, GT, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, GT, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, DAF, AS, IP
Parameter (kg/kkg or lbs/1000 Ibs liveweight processed)
BOD
Max 30-day
Average
2.3
0.15
2.5
2.0
1.3
-
1.7
28
27
10
17
0.62
Daily
Max
4.6
0.30
5.0
5.0
3.3
-
4.3
71
68
25
43
2.2
TSS
Max 30-day
Average
5.7
0.45
6.3
0.53
5.3
0.33
3.3
0.23
18
180
4.9
3.4
7.4
0.62
Daily
Max
11
0.90
13
1.3
16
0.83
9.9
0.58
46
270
12
8.5
19
2.2
OK3
Max 30-day
Average
0.45
0.065
1.3
0.82
0.52
0.048
0.36
0.07
1.5
15
3.8
1.1
1.0
0.077
Daily
Max
0.90
0.13
2.6
0.21
1.6
0.12
1.1
0.18
3.8
45
9.5
2.8
2.5
0.27
S = screen; GT = simple grease trap; Al = aerated lagoon; IP = in-plant change;
DAF = dissolved air flotation; AS = activated sludge system
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Table 3
New Source Performance Standards
Subcategory
A Farm-Raised Catfish
B Conventional Blue Crab
C Mechanized Blue Crab
D Non-Remote Alaskan
Crab Meat
E Remote Alaskan Crab Meat
F Non-Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
, G Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
H Dungeness + Tanner Crab
in the Contiguous States
I Non-Remote Alaskan
Shrimp
J Remote Alaskan Shrimp
K Northern Shrimp
LU Southern Non-Breaded
Shrimp
M Breaded Shrimp
N Tuna
S = screen; GT = simple grease trap; Al
DAF = dissolved air flotation
Technology
Basis
Parameter
(kg/kkg or lbs/1000 Ibs
BOD
Max 30-day Daily
Average Max
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
GT,
GT,
GT,
GT,
GT,
GT,
GT,
DAF
IP
IP
DAF
DAF
DAF
DAF
AL
AL
AL, IP
IP
IP
IP
IP
, I?
, IP
, IP
, IP
, IP
2.3
0.15
2.5
-
_
-
-
4.1
-
-
62
25
40
8.1
4.6
0.30
5.0
-
—
-
-
10
-
-
155
63
100
20
Max 30-day
Average
5
0
6
5
5
3
3
0
180
180
15
10
22
3
.7
.45
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.69
.0
liveweight
TSS
Daily
Max
11
0.90
13
16
16
9.9
9.9
1.7
270
270
38
25
55
7.5
processed)
0+G
Max 30-day Daily
Average Max
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
15
15
5
1
1
0
.45
.065
.3
.52
.52
.36
.36
.10
.7
.6
.5
.76
0
0
2
1
1
1
1
0
45
45
14
4
3
1
.9
.13
.6
.6
.6
.1
.1
.25
.0
.8
.9
aerated lagoon; IP = in-plant change;
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
Section 301(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 (the Act) requires the achievement by not
later than July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned treatment works, which are
based on the application of the best practicable control
technology currently available as defined by the Administrator
pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act. Section 304(b) also
requires the achievement by not later than July 1, 1983, of
effluent limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the best
available technology economically achievable which will result in
reasonable further progress toward the national goal of
eliminating the discharge of all pollutants, as determined in
accordance with regulations issued by the Administrator pursuant
to Section 304(b) of the Act. Section 306 of the Act requires
the achievement by new sources of a Federal standard of
performance providing for the control of the discharge of
pollutants which reflects the greatest degree of effluent
reduction which the Administrator determines to be achievable
through the application of the best available demonstrated
control technology, processes, operating methods, or other
alternatives, including, where practicable, a standard permitting
no discharge of pollutants.
Section 304(b) of the Act requires the Administrator to publish
within one year of enactment of the Act, regulations providing
guidelines for effluent limitations setting forth the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the best
practicable control technology currently available and the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best control measures and practices achievable including
treatment techniques, process and procedure innovations,
operational methods and other alternatives. The regulations
proposed herein set forth effluent limitations guidelines
pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act for the canned and
preserved seafoods source category. Section 306 of the Act
requires the Administrator, within one year after a category of
sources is included in a list published pursuant to Section
306(b)(1)(A) of the Act, to propose regulations establishing
Federal standards of performances for new sources within such
categories. The Administrator published in the Federal Register
of January 16, 1973 (38 F.R. 1624), a list of 27 source
categories. Publication of the list constituted announcement of
the Administrator's intention of establishing, under Section 306,
standards of performance applicable to new sources for the canned
and preserved seafoods source category, which was included in the
list published January 16, 1973 (38 F.R. 1624) , a list of 27
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source categories. Publication of this list constituted
announcement of the Administrator's intention of establishing,
under Section 306, standards of performance applicable to new
sources within the seafood industry category as delineated above,
which was included within the list published January 16, 1973.
Industry Background
The seafood industry in the United States is an integral part of
the food processing industry. The processors have been expanding
and improving methods of production from the days of drying and
salt curing to modern canning and freezing. Per capita
consumption of fish and shellfish in 1972 was 5.5 kg (12.2 Ibs);
totaling 1,134,000 kkg (1,250,000 tons) in the United States.
The source and dispositon of seafood are shown in Figure 1. The
total value of these products in 1972, including animal feed and
other by-products, was a record $2.3 billion, 23 percent above
the previous year (N.M.F.S., 1973).
Regardless of the method of preservation, i.e., fresh-pack,
freezing, canning, or curing, the four segments of the industry
considered in this study (catfish, crab, shrimp and tuna) use
variations of a common seafood processing method. Figure 2
schematically shows the general steps in this method: harvest,
storage, receiving, evisceration, precooking, picking or
cleaning, preservation and packaging. The following general
industry description is expanded in detail in Section IV for each
subcategory of the industry. This general description serves to
introduce the reader to the basic steps in seafood processing and
to provide a basic grasp of the processes prevalent among the
subcategories.
Catfish are raised in the southeastern United States; processing
is concentrated in Arkansas, Georgia, Alabama, Florida and
Mississippi. In 1972, farm-raised catfish production totaled
35,400 kkg (39,000 tons); and wild catfish totaled 21,000 kkg
(23,000 tons). The production of farm-raised catfish is growing
rapidly, and has increased 180 percent since 1968.
The blue crab industry is located on the Eastern Seaboard and
Gulf Coast. It comprises the largest crab landings in the U. S.;
65,800 kkg (72,500 tons) were landed in 1972. Alaska king crab
followed the blue crab with 33,600 kkg (37,000 tons) landed. The
Pacific Coast snow (tanner) and Dungeness crab catches were
approximately 12,700 kkg (14,000 tons) in 1972 (N.M.F.S., 1973).
Shrimp are landed and processed on all three U. S. coastlines.
In 1972 the largest U. S. commerical landings, 103,400 kkg
(114,000 tons), were in the Gulf, followed by the Pacific
fisheries, where landings totaled 48,100 kkg (53,000 tons). New
England and the South Atlantic had landings of approximately
11,340 kkg (12,500 tons) each in 1972.
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SOURCE
BEGINNING
STOCKS
IMPORTS
DOMESTIC
PRODUCTION
BEGINNING
STOCKS
BILLION POUNDS
EDIBLE WEIGHT DISPOSITION
— 3 .2
IMPORTS
DOMESTIC
PRODUCTION
_ 2-4 —
— 1.6
.8
ENDING
STOCKS
EXPORTS
DOMESTIC
CONSUMPTION
ENDING
STOCKS
EXPORTS
DOMESTIC
CONSUMPTION
1971
1972
1971
1972
Figure
Source and disposition of edible fishery products,
-------
HARVEST
1
I
PICKS CLEAN
PRESERVE,
CAN, FREEZE
FRESH
I
MARKET
RECEIVE
\
i
PRE-PROCESS
«
EVISCERATE
i
PRE-COOK
1
BY-PRODUCTS
Figure 2 Typical seafood process diagram.
10
-------
The tuna industry, like shrimp, is highly mechanized. United
States landings for tuna in 1972 were 237,700 kkg (262,000 tons).
Over 171,000 kkg (188,500 tons) of that total was landed in the
Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific Coast states, including Hawaii.
Puerto Rico had landings of 66,700 kkg (73,500 tons) in 1972.
Significant tonnages of tuna are purchased from Japanese,
Peruvian, and other foreign fishermen. As a part of this study
the wastes emanating from processing plants in each of the major
commodity areas of the United States were monitored. The plants
selected for monitoring were representative of the industry from
several standpoints: including size, age, level of technology,
and geographical distribution. Figures 3 and 4 locate the plants
sampled.
general Procegs Description
Harvesting utilizes some of the oldest and newest technologies in
the industry. It may be considered a separate industry supplying
the basic raw material for processing and subsequent distribution
to the consumer. Harvest techniques vary according to species,
and consist of four general methods: netting, trapping, dredging,
and line fishing. Fishing vessels utilize the latest technology
for locating fish and shellfish and harvest them in the most
expedient and economical manner consistent with local
regulations. Once aboard the vessel, the catch either is taken
directly to the processor, or is iced or frozen for later
delivery.
The receiving operation usually involves three steps: unloading
the vessel, weighing, and transporting by conveyor or suitable
container to the processing area. The catch may be processed
immediately or transferred to cold storage.
Preprocessing refers to the initial steps taken to prepare the
various fish and shellfish for the processes that follow. It may
include washing of dredged crabs, thawing of frozen fish,
beheading shrimp at sea, de-icing shrimp, and other operations to
prepare the fish for butchering.
Wastes from the butchering and evisceration are usually dry-
captured, or screened from the waste stream, and processed as a
fishery by-product.
Except for the fresh market fish, some form of cooking or pre-
cooking of the commodity may be practiced in order to prepare the
fish or shellfish for the picking and cleaning operation.
Precooking or blanching facilitates the removal of skin, bone,
shell, gills, and other materials. The steam condensate, or
stick water, from the tuna precook is often collected and further
processed as a by-product.
The fish is prepared in its final form by picking or cleaning to
separate the edible portions from non-edible portions. Wastes
11
-------
LEGEND
0 SHRIMP
CRAB
CATFISH
Figure 3 General location of fish and shellfish plants sampled.
-------
LEGEND
0 SHRIMP
(|)CRAB
(S) TUNA
Figure 4 • General location of fish and shellfish plants sampled.
13
-------
generated during this procedure are usually collected and saved
for by-product processing. Depending on the species, the
cleaning operation may be manual, mechanical, or a combination of
both. With fresh fish and fresh shellfish, the meat product is
packed into a suitable container and held under refrigeration for
shipment to a retail outlet. If the product is to be held for
extended periods of time before consumption, several forms of
preservation are used to prevent spoilage caused by bacterial
action and autolysis: freezing, canning, pasteurization and
refrigeration.
Bacterial growth is arrested at temperatures below -9°C (16°F)
(Burgess, 1967). For this reason, freezing is an excellent
method of holding uncooked fish for an extended period of time.
Freezing is also advantageous because the meat remains es-
sentially unchanged, in contrast to canning, which alters the
product form. However, autolysis still continues at a reduced
rate, necessitating the consumption of the meat within approxi-
mately 6 months. Storage times vary from species to species.
Blanching prior to freezing inactivates many enzymes and further
slows autolysis.
Preservation by canning requires special equipment to fill the
can, add preservatives and seasonings, create a partial vacuum
and seal the can. A partial vacuum is necesary to avoid dis-
tortion of the can due to increased internal pressures during
cooking. After sealing, the cans are washed and retorted
(pressure-cooked) at approximately 115°C (240°F) for 30 to 90
minutes, depending on the can size. Although the enzymes are
inactivated at rather low temperatures, high temperatures must be
reached to insure the destruction of harmful anaerobic bacterial
spores. Clgstridium botulinum, the most harmful of these, must
be subjected to a temperature of 116°C (240°F) for at least 8.7
minutes (Burgess, 1967). A longer cooking time is employed to
achieve this temperature throughout the can and to insure total
destruction of the bacteria. After the cook, the can is cooled
with water and the canned fish or shellfish is transported to the
labeling room for casing and shipment.
Process Summary
Catfish
Sixty percent of the catfish harvest is from farm ponds or
raceways; the rest are caught wild. They are transported alive,
iced, or "dry" (without ice), to the processing plant. At the
plant the fish are kept in live-holding tanks until ready to be
processed. They are usually stunned by electrocution. The fish
are then conveyed into the plant where the heads and dorsal fins
are removed. They are then eviscerated and skinned. A final
cleaning removes adhering skin, fins, and blood. The fish are
weighed and packaged according to size; larger fish are cut into
14
-------
steaks or filleted; smaller fish are packaged whole. All catfish
are marketed fresh or frozen.
Solid wastes are subjected to rendering wherever facilities are
available. Otherwise, they are deposited in landfills or dumps.
Wastewater treatment is usually not practiced.
Blue Crab
Harvesting of blue crab is accomplished by dredging them from the
mud, catching them with baited traps or lines, or scraping them
from grassy shores during the molt. Transported live to the
receiving dock, the crabs are unloaded into trolleys for
immediate steam cooking at 121°C (250°F) for 10 to 20 minutes.
After storage overnight in a cooling locker, the claws are
removed (and saved for mechanical processing or hand picking) and
the body of the crab is picked manually. The meat is packed into
cans or plastic bags. In the mechanized plant the claws and
sometimes the bodies, after removal of carapace and "back fin,"
are run through a mechanical picker which separates the meat from
the shell. The meat is then frequently canned, retorted, and
cased for shipment. The select "back fin" is hand packed in
cans, pasteurized, and refrigerated.
Other Crab
Dungeness, tanner, and king crab are caught in baited pots and
generally stored onboard the vessel in circulating seawater. In
Alaska, where larger volumes of crab are caught, they are stored
in live tanks at the processing plant. On the lower West Coast,
where catches are much smaller and consist mainly of Dungeness
crab, they are usually dry-stored and butchered early the day
after delivery. Most plants utilize dry butchering; some,
however, employ fluming to transport shell and viscera. The
crabs are then cooked, cooled, picked, packaged, and stored.
Meat extraction of "sections" (crab halves) is done either
manually or mechanically. Mechanical picking is practiced mainly
in Alaska, using rollers or high-pressure water. Hand picking is
performed chiefly on Dungeness and imported tanner crabs in the
lower West Coast states. Meat that has been picked from the crab
is marketed either fresh, frozen or canned. Some crabs are
cooked and marketed without butchering.
Waste from crab processing is rendered, if facilities are
available. Otherwise, it is hauled to a sanitary landfill or
discharged to the bay or to a municipal sewer, along with plant
sanitary wastes.
Shrimp
Shrimp are caught by trawlers, vessels which "drag" the ocean
with large nets. The shrimp are stored in ice until delivery to
the processor. They are then de-iced, separated from debris, and
weighed. The shell is peeled either manually or mechanically.
15
-------
After being Gleaned of debris the shrimp are usually blanched.
They are then either frozen or canned. Variations of the process
among Alaskan, West, Gulf, and Atlantic Coast shrimp are ex-
plained in Section IV. The shell and larger waste solids are
sometimes screened from the waste stream and either rendered at
another facility or removed to a sanitary landfill. In other
instances, the solids are discharged to the bay with the
untreated waste water.
Tuna
Tuna are harvested by line or by net. They are frozen onboard
the vessel and thawed (usually by salt water) at the processing
plant. The tuna are then butchered, precooked, cooled, and
cleaned, before being packed in cans. Depending on the condition
of the cleaned tuna, the meat is graded as solid, chunk, or flake
style. The cans are subsequently retorted, labeled, cased, and
shipped to the retailer. Viscera, precooker stick water and
solid wastes are further processed into by-products. Some
plants, however, do not practice press-liquor or stick water
recovery. Such plants discharge these liquids to local waters
with their untreated process waste waters, or barge them to sea.
16
-------
SECTION IV
INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
INTRODUCTION
The initial categorization of this segment of the seafood
processing industry logically fell along commodity lines. That
is, four broad groups of subcategories were involved: catfish,
crab, shrimp and tuna. Beyond this general breakdown, however,
further fragmentation was necessary to develop subcategories of a
relatively homogeneous nature, each of which could be considered
as a unit in the process of developing (and ultimately applying!
effluent limitations and standards. The following variables, in
addition to type of seafood, were considered in the development
of subcategories:
1. variability in raw material supply;
2. condition of raw material on delivery to the
processing plant;
3. variety of the species being processed;
H. harvesting method;
5. degree of preprocessing;
6. manufacturing processes and subprocesses;
7. form and quality of finished product;
8. location of plant (taking into account such factors
as climatic conditions, terrain, soil types, etc.) ;
9. age of plant;
10. production capacity and normal operating level;
11. nature of operation (intermittent versus continuous);
12. raw water availability;
13. amenability of the waste to treatment.
It remained then to define and establish subcategories whose
uniqueness dictated the consideration of separate limitations
based on the variables listed above. During the course of the
study, the importance of all but one of these variables was
confirmed. The only variable which was found to have little
relationship to the ultimate development of subcategories was the
"age of the plant." In the course of the field work, it became
obvious that within a given industry, either 1) equally
antiquated processes were being used by all processors (with
minor modifications); 2) older plants had been remodeled
periodically during the life of the industry so that similar
processes were being employed in both old and new plants; or 3)
(as was the case with catfish) the industry was so young that
significant differences in plant age did not exist.
On the following pages will be found a description of the final
subcategorization of the four segments of the seafood industry
considered in this study. Included in each discussion is a
17
-------
detailed description of the industry within the subcategory, a
description of the raw materials used, end products produced,
methods and variations of production, and a review of the
rationale for its designation as a separate unit. Much of the
information contained in the initial description of each
subcategory is based on an updating of the original seafoods
"state of the art" report developed for EPA in 1970 (Soderquist,
et al., 1970), together with supplemental material gathered on-
site and developed through extensive communication with the
industry.
In each case, a generalized flow diagram is presented for each
major component of the subcategory. Variations on each of those
general themes are then discussed in the text.
FARM-RAISED CATFISH PROCESSING (Subcategory A)
Background
Since 1963, the production of farm catfish has increased steadily
(see Table 4) . Four species (channel catfish, Ictalurus
jnmctatus; blue catfish, Ictalurus furcatus; white catfish,
iSi^iiiElii catus; an<3 brown bullhead catfish, Ictalurus nebulosus)
have been grown and managed successfully in ponds. Catfish are
considered a delicacy in the southern and southcentral states and
markets have been (and continue to be) expanding rapidly. In
1969, the total harvest was 38 million kilograms (84 million
pounds) (Jones, 1969). The National Marine Fisheries Service
estimated that the total farm catfish production in 1975 will
reach 51 million kilograms (112.5 million pounds) (Jones, 1969).
Continued high demand for the finished product, together with
improvements in production technology, have stimulated rapid
growth of the catfish processing industry over the past few
years. In the mid-1960's, according to Mulkey and Sargent
(1972), nearly all farm-raised catfish were sold to local con-
sumers or were offered (at a price) to local sport fishermen in
commercial "fish-out" lakes. In 1970, sixteen processing plants
were operating in nine states and processing 2.9 million
kilograms (6.4 million pounds) of raw material annually (Russell,
1972). Today at least thirty-seven plants are in operation,
mostly in Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas.
Processing
The science of raising catfish involves planting six inch
fingerlings which are fed a commercial ration through maturity.
For detailed descriptions of catfish farming schemes, the reader
is directed to Barksdale (1968) , Grizell, et al. (1969), Boussu
(1969), and Greenfield (1969). Harvesting is accomplished by a
preliminary seining of the rearing pond followed by drainage of
18
-------
Table 4 Total supplies of catfish in the D. S. 1963-68,
with production projections estimates 1969-1975 (Jones, 1969).
Wild
Catfish
Year
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
(kg x 106)
21.9
21.6
20.4
19.3
18.8
18.3
19.3
20.4
20.4
21.0
21.0
21.6
21.6
(Ib x 106)
(48. 3)
(47. 6)
(45.0)
(42.5)
(41.3)
(41.3)
(42. 5)
(45.0)
(45.0)
(46.3)
(46. 3)
(47.5)
(47.5)
Catfish
Imports
(kg x 106)
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.9
1.4
1.8
2.3
3.2
3.6
4.1
4.1
5.0
6.4
(Ib x 106)
( 0.5)
( 0.8)
( 1-0)
( 2.0)
( 3.0)
(4.0)
(5.0)
( 7.0)
( 8.0)
( 9.0)
(9.0)
(11.0)
(14.0)
Farm
Catfish
(kg x 106)
1.1
1.7
3.2
5.0
7.5
12.5
19.1
26.2
32.5
35.4
41.3
44.5
50.1
(Ib x 106)
( 2.4)
( 3.8)
( 7.0)
( 11.0)
( 16.5)
(27.5)
( 42.0)
( 57. 6)
( 71.5)
( 78.0)
( 91-0)
( 98.0)
(112.5)
-------
•the pond (during dry weather) and manual collection of the
remaining fish lying in the bottom mud. The fish are generally
shipped alive in aerated tank trucks to the processing plant
where they are stored in holding tanks. Live hauling eliminates
the need for meat preservation before processing but generates
the problem of disposal of the feces-contaminated holding water.
Alternatively, the fish are packed in ice and trucked to the
processing plant. Local small producers frequently deliver their
fish dry (and without ice) to the plant. Figure 5 depicts the
process used in the catfish industry. The solid line depicts the
product flow, the single dashed line depicts waste water flow and
the double dashed line depicts primarily waste solids flow. The
twin beheading saws (band saws) are followed by the evisceration
table, skinning machines, the washing-rgrading area and the
automatic weigher-sorter. A typical catfish plant employs
twenty-four workers (for one shift) and processes about 5000 kg
(11,000 Ibs) of fish per eight-hour day.
The receiving area includes the holding tanks and the stunning
tank, which may or may not be distinct from one another. The
storage tanks require a non-chlorinated water supply to avoid
toxicity to the fish. Sufficient dissolved oxygen must be
provided through mechanical aeration or high water exchange
rates. Prior to stunning, most processors attempt to "cull out"
and discard dead fish.
Iced storage is more popular with processors who must transport
their raw material long distances to the processing plant. When
iced storage is used, the effluent load from the receiving area
is reduced.
When processing begins, the live fish are first "stunned," which
involves electrocution in water-filled tanks or dewatered cages.
This method of killing is claimed to have the advantage of
concentrating most of the blood in the head, thereby minimizing
blood loss and discoloration of the flesh during subsequent
processing (Billy, 1969). A possible disadvantage of this method
was pointed out by Mulkey and Sargent (1972). This was the
assumed tendency for the fish to defecate during stunning. The
specific effects, however, of shocking on meat quality and on
waste production remain to be determined.
After stunning, the fish are butchered. This process consists of
beheading, eviscerating, and skinning and can be either manual or
mechanical. At this point, under-size and "trash" fish are
discarded. Catfish have traditionally been skinned before
marketing. This is necessary to reduce off-flavor in "wild"
catfish, but at least one writer questions the necessity to skin
cultured catfish (Billy, 1969).
In some plants receiving fish on ice rather than alive, the
beheading is preceeded by a pre-wash step that uses a significant
amount of water. After loading onto a conveyor belt, the fish
are spray-washed as they are transported into the plant.
20
-------
( CULL FISH )
1
|
II
II
I
II
ll
j' (HEADS, FINS)
(* —
(VISCERA)
(SKINS)
T
SOLIDS DISPOSAL
LIVE CATFISH FROM
POND OR RACEWAY
\
\
ELECTRICAL
STUNNING
1
B E-HEAD
i f
I
SKIN
1
CLEAN
a RINSE
1
SORT BY SIZE
1
PACK
1
FREEZE
OR
REFRIGERATE
1
SHIPPED TO
CUSTOMER
(FECES, WATER) _
"*!
l
1
i
1
1
i
l
1
i
1
1
(BLOOD, WATER) ^
(SLIME, WATER) '
1
1
1
(BLOOD, SOLIDS.WATERlj
|
1
1
(BLOOD, WATER) 1
^
|
1
TO CITY SEWAGE
>~- SYSTEM OR LOCAL
t STREAM.
Figure 5
Catfish process.
21
-------
Heads are usually removed with conventional band saws or table
saws. The solid wastes, including the decomposed and under-size
fish, are dry-captured at many plants; water is required only for
periodic equipment cleaning.
Evisceration is accomplished either manually or with a vacuum
system. In the latter case, after the body cavity is opened
manually, the viscera are removed by vacuum "guns" and dry-
captured for subsequent rendering, incorporation into pet food,
or burial for final disposal. The manual method of evisceration
is slower than the vacuum system. Whether evisceration is
mechanical or manual, the majority of plants do employ dry-
capture of the viscera for ultimate disposal.
Skinning is done either manually or mechanically; however, even
the mechanical systems require considerable manual input. Manual
skinning involves impaling of the carcass on a hook suspended a
few feet above the work area and stripping of the skin from the
carcass using a pliers-like tool. Mechanical skinning involves
running the fish (manually) over a planer-like machine three
times (once for each side and once for the back) and abrading and
pulling the skin from the body of the fish. Surprisingly,
mechanical skinning increases the product yield a small amount.
This is because manual skinning tears off the abdominal flesh
along with the skin, whereas mechanical skinning does not. Skins
are either flumed to the main waste stream or are trapped at the
skinner in a basket-type screen and dry-captured.
A third method of skinning, using sodium hydroxide, is still in
the research stage. Development of the technique, analogous in
some ways to the "dry caustic" peeling method now being adopted
in the fruit and vegetable processing industries, is under way at
Mississippi State University (Lorio, 1973). Large-scale
acceptance of the method by the industry in the next few years is
not anticipated.
After butchering, pieces of adhering skin and fins are removed
and the fish are manually or automatically washed, where the body
cavities are scrubbed with rotating brushes, and subjected to a
final rinse. From this point, they are graded and inspected.
After cleaning, the fish are sorted by weight and generally those
under 0.45 kg (one pound) are packed in weight groups on ice and
refrigerated or frozen to await shipment. Some plants, however,
package individual fish in trays and seal them in plastic. Fish
over O.U5 kg (one pound) are frequently filleted or cut into
steaks.
The bulk of the product leaves the plant as fresh or frozen whole
processed fish. A small market exists for fresh and frozen
fillets and for frozen breaded fish sticks. Recently, liquid
nitrogen freezing has proven successful in producing meat with
improved quality. Pond-reared channel catfish can be kept frozen
for as long as twelve months with only small losses in flavor
(Billy, 1969).
22
-------
Many plants have rearing or holding ponds on-site. A few
discharge some or all of their process wastewaters (including
holding tank waters) into these ponds.
Wastes Generated
Jones (1969) estimated 45 percent of the whole catfish to be
waste and the National Marine Fisheries Service (1968), 40
percent. Using the 45 percent value, the total waste quantity
projected for 1975 was calculated to be 23.0 million kilograms
(50.6 million pounds).
Four main methods of disposal of catfish offal are currently
practiced. These are: processing for pet food and catfish feed,
rendering for fish meal, and burial (Billy, 1969). Catfish offal
has been rendered to a meal containing over 45 percent protein.
The distribution of essential amino acids in the proteins of the
catfish offal makes it a good source of supplementary protein for
animals. Several proximate analyses of catfish offal are
available in the literature. One is detailed in Table 5.
Table 5. Proximate analysis of
raw catfish offal
Constituent
Moisture
Crude fat
Ash
Crude protein
Level
58.6%
25.5%
3.1%
12.8%
The offal consists mainly of heads, skin, viscera and fat.
Tables 6 and 7 reflect the percentages of each.
23
-------
Table 6. Offal from tank-raised
channel catfish (Beaton, et al., 1970)
Component
Finished product
Head
Skin
Viscera
Fat
Large Fish
63.9%
22.5%
6.5%
5.6%
1.5%
Small Fish
62.8%
23.3%
6.5%
6.1%
1.8%
Average
63.4%
22.9%
6.5%
5.9%
1.7%
Table 7. Catfish Offal from cage-cultured
channel catfish (Beaton, et al., 1972).
Finished product
Onlike the data available on solid wastes, very little data
have been published on the nature of liquid wastes generated
in catfish processing plants. The sole published source of
information on catfish processing waste water characteristics
prior to the current study was the paper by Mulkey and Sargent
(1972) reporting on a three-day characterization program at a
Georgia catfish processing plant. These investigators found
the total plant effluent to exhibit the characteristics in
Table 8.
24
-------
Table 8. Catfish processing waste water
characteristics (Mulkey and Sargent, 1972).
Level
kg or 1 Ib or gal kg or 1 lb or gal
Parameter 1000 fish 1000 fish kkg raw mat1! ton raw mat'l
Flow
BOD
COD
TSS
TVSS
Grease
7570
3.6
4.9
2.3
2.0
and Oil 0.8
(2000)
(8.0)
(10.8)
(5.1)
(4.5)
(1.7)
16,400
7.9
10.6
5.0
4.4
1.7
(3920)
(15.7)
(21.2)
(10.0)
(8.8)
(3.3)
Their data were expressed in terms of pounds or gallons per fish
or per 10CO fish processed. For comparative purposes, these data
were converted to the forms shown in the table, based on the
assumption that the average catfish processed weighed 0.46 kg
(1.02 Ibs) (as was indicated by Mulkey and Sargent).
Figures 6, 7, and 8 are respective plots of the catfish waste
water flow, BOD5, and suspended solids data gathered in this
study. Each data point represents the summary data of each plant
sampled.
Subcategorization Rationale
Subcategorization for the catfish processing industry was
relatively straightforward, largely due to the fact that the
industry is in relative infancy and is much more homogeneous than
most of the other seafood processing industries.
As is the case with nearly all seafood processors, the catfish
processors do not enjoy a constant supply of raw product.
Availability is seasonal and a function of such factors as the
water temperatures in the immediate area, rainfall frequency and
intensity (affecting harvesting), development of certain off-
flavors (due to algae), and priority in work scheduling on the
farm. In the Tennessee Valley region, for instance, the growing
season lasts for about 150 days. Optimum growth occurs in the
water temperature range of 28° to 31°C (82° to 88°F). During the
winter months, the fish remain virtually dormant and grow very
little. The harvesting season begins usually in the fall and
continues through the winter and into the spring (as the weather
25
-------
35,000
30,000
25,000
©
0
20,000
©
©
15,000
10,000
I I I I I | I I I
I 234567
PRODUCTION kkg/day
8 9 10
Figure 6
Catfish production rates and flow ratios
26
-------
I
j?
o
o
CO
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
—
©
O
—
0
-
0
-
-
-
-
1 1 1 1 1 1 1,1 1 1
123456789 10
PRODUCTION kkg/day
Figure 7
Catfish production rates and BODS ratios
27
-------
£
en
CO
•H
H
o
en
•0
©
-
-
~"
-
-
-
i i i i i i i i i i
123456789 II
PRODUCTION kkg/day
Figure 8
Catfish production rates and suspended solids ratios
28
-------
permits). Recently, as the processing industry has become more
organized, the producers have been enticed to harvest (although
on a reduced scale) through the summer months. Some processors,
furthermore, have entered the production business, thereby
assuring themselves more complete control over raw material
supply. In the summer of 1972, as a result, most catfish
processing plants operated at about 60 percent of full production
capacity.
Another consideration in subcategorization was condition of raw
material on delivery to the processing plant. In the catfish
industry, the farm-raised catfish are delivered either alive in
aerated tank trucks or packed on ice or "dry." The waste waters
from the live haul are, of course, much greater in volume than
those from iced transportation and are contaminated mainly with
feces, regurgitated material, and pond benthos. The ice, on the
other hand, where used in packing the fish for transport, is
usually bloody and contains significant amounts of slime. A
significant amount of water is necessary for spray-washing before
the fish are transported into the plant. Although the two types
of wastes differ in character and concentration, it was felt that
these differences were not sufficient to warrant separate sub-
categories.
A third consideration in subcategorization was the variety of
species being processed. Although the most common variety
currently processed is the channel catfish, others are handled by
the plants in lesser amounts. The results of the analyses of the
samples gathered during the plant monitoring phase of this study
indicated that no significant difference in the nature of the
wastes from the processing of various species existed.
A fourth consideration in subcategorization was the method of
harvesting. As discussed previously, harvesting methods are
relatively uniform throughout the industry.
Degree of pre-processing, manufacturing processes and sub-
processes, and form and quality of finished product, as have been
discussed previously, are relatively uniform throughout the
industry and present no bases for further subcategorization.
Plant location and age were also considered. The catfish
industry is located in the central and southern states in areas
of similar climatic conditions (conducive to the raising of farm
catfish) in flat to moderate rolling terrain. The soils present
no severe construction problems, in general. High water tables,
in certain localities, present problems. Many of the plants are
located in rural areas on sufficient acreage to permit
installation of adequate treatment systems. Those with
inadequate land in their possession currently either: 1) have
access to other land (at a price); or 2) are reasonably well
suited for incorporation into a nearby municipal system. As
mentioned previously, age of plant is not a significant factor in
this industry.
29
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The relatively unsophisticated level of the industry indicates
that the production capacity, normal operating levels (percent of
capacity) and nature of operation (intermittent versus
continuous) do not appreciably affect the waste loadings
generated by the processing plants.
The remaining two factors considered in subcategorization, raw
water availability and waste treatability, do not appear to
present insurmountable obstacles to the imposition of effluent
guidelines and the industry's successful compliance with them.
Fresh water is generally available to all processors in the
industry and although virtually nothing is known about
treatability of the specific wastes generated in catfish
processing, no known toxicants are present in the waste streams,
and the operations offer sufficient continuity to sustain some
types of biological treatment systems.
For all the above reasons, the United States catfish processing
industry was placed into a single subcategory for the purpose of
designing and estimating the costs of treatment systems and for
developing effluent standards and guidelines.
CRAB PROCESSING
The second segment of the seafood industry which was considered
in this study was crab processing. Figures 9, 10, and 11 are
plots of all crab flow, BOD5, and suspended solids data
(respectively) gathered in this study. The complete crab
industry data is presented in Section V. An analysis of the flow
data reveals that water use in the conventional blue crab process
was less than one-tenth that of the other crab operations;
furthermore the organic loading, in terms of BOD, from the
mechanized blue crab process was more than double those from the
processing of other species. It has been determined that blue
crab should be designated a separate subcategory from the other
species processed in the United States.
Within the blue crab industry, plants employing a claw picking
machine (mechanized processing) generated waste waters
significantly greater in quantity and in BOD loadings than
conventional (manual) processors. Thus separate subcategroies
were necessary.
Further review of the data indicates significant differences in
water use between Alaskan and "lower U8" crab processors. Large
differences in settleable solids were also noted. Whereas the
average settleable solids concentration in the Alaskan samples
was about 36 1/kkg, those from the Pacific Northwest averaged
about 1600 1/kkg. These factors, together with others discussed
later under "Subcategorization Rationale" led to the segregation
of the two industries and designation of a separate subcategory
for each.
30
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CRAB
146,000
50,000
40,000
§ 30,000
20,000
JO ,000
D
• = Conventional blue crab
O= Mechanized blue crab
D = Alaska crab,
whole cook & section
•= Alaska crab,
frozen & canned meat
A = West Coast Dungeness,
fresh & whole cook
10 15
PRODUCTION kkg/day
20
25
Figure 9
Crab production rates and flow ratios
31
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= Conventional blue crab
= Mechanized blue crab
— Alaska crab,
whole cook & section
£D
20
(kg/kkg)
oi
Q
O
* 10
5
•= Alaska crab,
D
O frozen & canned
O
A= West Coast Dung
fresh & whole c
-
A
A
- • D
O
5 10 15 20
PRODUCTION kkg/day
Figure 10
Crab production rates and BOD5[ ratios
32
25
-------
yl
1^1
CO
•H
O
U)
TJ
-------
A final breakdown within the crab industry was based indirectly
on type of final product. Referring again to the data in Section
V, the Alaskan crab industry produced two distinctly different
types of waste water streams: one from meat operations and one
from whole-and-sections processes, the former producing 70
percent more flow, 62 percent fewer settleable solids and 90
percent more suspended solids.
In all, five different subcategories were ultimately designated
for the crab industry: Conventional Blue Crab (Subcategory B);
Mechanized Blue Crab (Subcategory C) ; Alaskan Crab Meat
(Subcategories D and E); Alaskan Whole Crab and Crab Sections
(Subcategories F and G); and Dungeness and Tanner Crab Outside of
Alaska (Subcategory H) .
Conventional Blue Crab Processing (Subcategory B)
Background
The blue crab, comprising 55 percent of the United States crab
production, is harvested along the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic
coasts; a principal center of processing is the Chesapeake Bay
area. Of the 184 plants in the United States, 90 are located in
Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. These plants are
typically small, locally owned businesses with highly variable
production schedules.
The blue crab JCallinectes sajoidus) is a much smaller (11-13 cm;
4.5-5 in capapace) variety than the West Coast and Alaskan crab.
Most crab processed are caught locally (within a 50 mile radius
of the plant), although during slack periods crab are imported
from remote areas (with high spoilage losses) . Transshipment
from one production area to another is often practiced when local
supplies are inadequate.
Crabs are harvested from shallow water in baited traps, on baited
lines ("trot lines"), "scrapes," or dip nets, or they are dredged
from the bottom mud. Rapid and careful handling is necessary to
keep the crabs alive. Dead crabs must be discarded because of
rapid deterioration.
"Cocktail claws" are considered prime products and are often
packed separately. The meat is richer, with fuller texture than
the more fibrous body meat.
Many blue crab hold eggs and are called "sponge" crab. These are
generally accepted by most plants; personnel from some plants,
however, claim that during cooking the eggs impart a permanent
"iodine" flavor to the meat. Also, it is reasoned that the more
egg-bearing crabs returned to the sea, the greater the
possibility of sustained blue crab yields. For these reasons
34
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some processors refuse to accept sponge crabs. In addition, some
states periodically prohibit harvesting of sponge crabs.
In some areas most of the crabs processed for meat in the blue
crab industry are the females, called "sooks." The males, or
"jimmies," are usually larger than the females; the processors
frequently segregate the largest jimmies and market them alive.
Processing
The conventional blue crab processing scheme is shown in Figure
12. The first step is the cooking phase where the crabs are
steamed at 121°C (250°F) for 10 minutes. On the Gulf Coast, the
crabs are sometimes boiled, but boiled crab meat is prohibited in
most states because the temperature available for microbial kill
is lower in the boiling process. The vast majority (more than 80
percent) of blue crab processors today employ steam cooking.
Cooking takes place in horizontal or vertical cookers. An
average-size horizontal cooker can hold from 820 to 1230 kgs
(1800 to 2700 Ibs) per change. Vertical cookers average 410 kgs
(900 Ibs) capacity.
About 35 percent of the live weight of the crab is lost in the
steam cooking process; condensates from the crab cookers have
been shown to exhibit BOD's of 12,000 to 14,000 mg/1 (Carawan,
1973).
After cooking, the crabs are normally butchered manually and the
meat picked from the shell. An industry average for manual meat
picking is 14 kg (30 Ibs) of meat per picker per day (Paparella,
1973).
Yields in conventional blue crab processing plants vary from 9 to
15 percent (Thomas, 1973). in the conventional process, after
the crabs are cooked, air cooled and picked, the meat is placed
into cans or similar containers. Much of the crab meat is
"sealed" in cans with snap-lids which are manually pressed into
place, iced and sold fresh. In addition many cans are
hermetically sealed, but are not retorted; rather they are
pasteurized in a water bath at 89°C (192°F) for about 110
minutes. Some crab meat is canned (and retorted) in the
conventional fashion, but most is not. In canning, additives
such as EDTA (ethylenediaminetetracetic acid), alum, citric acid
and other organic acids are used in very small amounts.
One exception to the above processes is that involving soft shell
crab. In this instance, crabs are harvested during the molting
process, kept in the plants in "live boxes" and checked every
four hours for progress in shedding their shells. Immediately
after the shell is discarded, the crab is marketed alive (packed
in wet grass) as a "soft shell crab."
35
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: PRODUCT FLOW
TO
OR CLAWS TO
MECHANICAL PICKER
= WASTEWATER FLOW
= = WASTE SOLIDS
( WATER)
(OR6ANICS, HOT WATER)
(WATER)
(SHELL, WATER)
EFFLUENT
Figure 12 Conventional blue crab process,
36
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Wastes Generated
Although some exploratory work has been conducted in the blue
crab processing industry by North Carolina State University, the
University of Maryland, and others, no comprehensive study of the
waste waters produced in the processing of blue crab had been
reported at the time this project was initiated.
In the conventional blue crab processing plant (Figure 12) the
water usage is small. The overall pollutional load is
attributable mainly to the cooking phase and to the plant clean
up operation, cooker condensates have a BOD of up to 14,000
mg/1, whereas plant clean up waters have organic strengths of
perhaps one-tenth of that. Most conventional plants utilize ice-
making machines which have a continuous cooling water stream
(having no appreciable pollutant loading) which may flow 24 hours
per day.
The major portion of the blue crab is not edible, and as a result
is wasted in processing. This waste, consisting of body juices,
shell and entrails, may range up to 86 percent of the crab by
weight (Stansby, 1963), of which 25 percent is liquid lost in
cooking. The solid waste load from the blue crab processing
industry for 1971 was calculated to be 33.6 million kg (74
million Ib) using 51 percent as the residual solids fraction of
the waste. The actual waste volume was somewhat less, since a
percentage of the total crab landed was marketed whole or
butchered to remove only backs and entrails.
The composition of shellfish waste is largely determined by the
exoskeleton, which is composed primarily of chitin, (a
polysaccharide structural material), protein bound to the chitin,
and calcium carbonate. While the major portion of the waste
generally consists of exoskeletal materials, varying significant
amounts of attached or unrecovered flesh and visceral materials
are included. The protein concentration of crab waste is
considered low compared to visceral fish wastes, reducing its
value as an animal feed. However, most of the solid wastes from
the blue crab processing industry are utilized in crab meal for
eventual incorporation into animal feed.
Subcateqorization Rationale
The characterization program for this study centered around the
Chesapeake Bay area because of its large number of blue crab
processors in a relatively small geographic area. The sampling
schedule was established based on anticipated catches in the
Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina area. Considerable delay
was experienced when these harvests did not materialize on
schedule. Conferences with local industrial representatives
indicated that about once about every decade the early spring
blue crab harvest is extremely poor, and 1973 happened to be one
37
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of those years. The poor harvest was attributed to locally heavy
rainfall and subsequent dilution of the estuaries with fresh
water.
Several active plants were finally located, and although the
plants were operating intermittently or at reduced levels
occasionally, the time constraints of the study forced the use of
these plants for the monitoring program. They were sampled in
depth over a period of several weeks.
The problems of seasonality and inavailability of raw material
served to emphasize the need for careful consideration of these
factors in the design of proposed treatment systems for the blue
crab industry. It did not, however, provide any substantial
basis for further subcategorization of the industry because it
appeared that all segments of the blue crab industry were equally
susceptible to inavailability of raw material at various times
during the processing season.
The condition of the raw material on delivery to the processing
plant was of considerable concern in the blue crab processing
industry, especially with respect to dredged crab.
During several of the winter months, (December through March)
most of the crabs that are processed have been dredged out of the
mud in the estuaries where they have taken refuge during their
dormant stage. In the harvesting process these crabs sustain a
significantly greater incidence of injury than do those taken
with other methods. The general condition of the crabs is poor
and, therefore, the yield at the processing plant is markedly
lower. Furthermore, a great deal of silt and mud is carried into
the processing plant with the raw material and must be removed in
a prewash step that is not normally employed with crabs harvested
by other means. These combinations of factors likely cause the
waste from the processing of dredged blue crab to be considerably
different from those harvested by alternative measures. For the
present, dredged crab have been included in Subcategories C and D
(depending on whether they are processed mechanically or not) for
the purpose of development of treatment system designs,
estimation of expected effluent levels after treatment and
estimation of treatment system costs. However, since no data are
yet available on the actual percentage of solid and liquid wastes
generated in the processing of dredged blue crab, this decision
must be considered tentative. It remains to be confirmed (or
refuted) during some future blue crab dredging season.
The variety of the species being processed appeared to be fairly
uniform throughout the blue crab industry and was not a
significant factor in the development of the subcategorization
schemes.
A fourth item considered in subcategorization was "harvesting
methods." As discussed above under "condition of raw material on
delivery to the processing plant," the harvesting method employed
38
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influences the raw material condition, which in turn probably
affects the waste water quantity and quality.
"Degree of preprocessing" was not a consideration in the blue
crab industry because only live whole crabs delivered to the
processing plant were incorporated into the finished product.
The "manufacturing processes and subprocesses" were important
factors affecting subcategorization, as discussed earlier.
"Form and quality of finished product," while they did have an
impact on the total levels of waste water constituents, did not
drastically alter the basic character of the waste stream and
therefore, were not considered of sufficient importance to
warrant further subcategorization.
"Location of plant" might conceivably be a significant variable
in the blue crab industry. Blue crab processing plants are found
from New Jersey to Texas and certainly along that vast coastline
different climatic conditions, terrain and soil types are
encountered. Clearly, diversities of site specificity are so
complex and so important that they would overshadow any
artificial geographical subdivision established in an attempt to
define more homogeneous subcategories. An individual processing
plant, faced with the problem of abating its pollution load,
might be hindered by its location. Most commonly, the
availability of significant land area with a low ground water
table, sufficient drainage, etc. would be the goal. This is
frequently not the case in the blue crab industry, where plants
are often located on piers or on land with high ground water
tables. In general, blue crab processing plants are either 1)
located near small population centers, which eventually would
permit joint industrial-municipal treatment or 2) situated
physically in such a manner that onsite treatment of their waste
waters may be technically feasible.
Additional considerations in subcategorization were "production
capacity and normal operating level;" and "nature of operation
(intermittent versus continuous)." By nature, the blue crab
processing industry is an intermittent process (controlled by
product availability) and production capacity is governed by such
constraints as number of employees available, size of production
area, size and number of cookers and retorts (where used) and
availability of adequate storage. In the monitoring phase of
this study, no evidence was found to indicate that either of
these variables significantly affected the waste streams from the
processing plants. Therefore, no subcategorization along these
lines was attempted.
The last two variables considered in the subcategorization scheme
were "raw water availability" and amenability of the waste to
treatment." Raw water availability was not a consideration in
the blue crab industry because no in-plant modifications or waste
treatment additions would significantly increase the amount of
raw water required by the processor. Waste treatability is not a
39
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significant factor for further subcategorization but is is
partially responsible for separating the blue crab industry into
Conventional and Mechanized.
For all of the above reasons, the United States blue crab
processing industry was placed into two subcategories
(Conventional and Mechanized discussed below) for the purpose of
designing and estimating the costs of treatment systems and for
developing effluent standards and guidelines.
Mechanized Blue Crab Processing (Subcategory C)
Processing
The mechanized blue crab processing scheme is shown in Figure 13.
Initial processing is similar to that for conventional blue crab
discussed earlier. Instead of complete manual processing a claw
picking machine is utilized. It consists of a hammer mill
followed by a brine separation chamber where the meat is floated
away from the shell and exits the chamber via the brine overflow.
The shell is removed counter-currently on an inclined belt. A
few plants use this machine for pre-picked bodies and claws, not
just for claws alone. Of the 18U plants in the industry perhaps
ten plants employ the machine for crab claws. Perhaps another
two or three employ the machine for complete body cavities
("cores"). Operating on claws alone, a typical mechanized plant
utilizes the mechanical picker 5 to 10 hours per week, or more if
additional claws are purchased from other plants.
The plants employing the claw picking machines enjoy a slightly
higher percentage yield than the remainder of the plants. In
addition, the back or lump "fin" meat is separated and marketed
as a premium product.
The remainder of the processing steps is similar to those used in
conventional blue crab processing.
Wastes Generated
In those operations employing claw machines, because of the
nature of the process, the BOD loadings are significantly greater
than those of the conventional plants, and water usage is
increased many fold as shown in Section V. The waste water
includes both the brine used in the flotation tanks and the wash
water used to remove the brine from the meat after it has been
separated from the shell. Whereas the waste waters from a
conventional blue crab processing plant can be expected to be
biodegradable, those from a plant employing a picking machine
would likely present salt toxicity problems to some biological
waste treatment systems. This, in fact, has already been noted
in one location in the Eastern Shore area of Maryland, where the
40
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TO
REDUCTION PLANT
OR LANDFILL
• PRODUCT FLOW
•• WASTEWATER FLOW
: WASTE SOLIDS FLOW
Figure 13 . Mechanized blue crab process.
41
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digesters in the local municipal plant (receiving blue crab
processing wastes) experience frequent upset conditions.
Subc a tegor i z at ion Rat iona 1 e
As a result of this study the blue crab industry had to be broken
down into at least two subcategories. The first (Subcategory B) ,
encompassed conventional blue crab processing and the second
(Subcategory C) included those blue crab processing plants
employing claw picking machines for the removal of meat from
claws or from body sections or both.
The utilization of the claw picking machine either for claws or
for bodies, or for both, introduced significantly greater
quantities of waste water, BOD, grease, etc., into the waste
stream and at the same time, changed the character of the waste
stream through the addition of large quantities of sodium
chloride. Sodium chloride at the levels found in these blue crab
processing plants is inhibitory to many biological treatment
systems. Its toxic effect is increased by the fact that the
machines are operated on the average less than two days per week,
meaning that waste streams fluctuate from very low salinity to
extremely high salinity from day to day throughout the processing
season. Since the above factors would seriously affect all three
main considerations in development of subcategorization schemes:
1. design configuration;
2. expected effluent levels after treatment; and
3. cost of treatment;
it was decided to subcategorize the industry based on the use of
the claw picking machines.
The other considerations for potential subcategorization were
discussed earlier under Subcategory B - Conventional Blue Crab
Processing and the same conclusions are relevant to this
Subcategory.
Alaska Dunqeness^ King and Tanner Crab
The second major crab fishery in the United States (behind blue
crab) is centered in the state of Alaska and is made up of three
commercial species, Dungeness (Cancer maqister) , king
camtschatica) , and tanner (Chionecetes bairdii)
crab. The tanner crab is also referred to as the snow or spider
crab. The Alaskan crab industry differs from that of the blue
crab in that a relatively small number of processing plants
handles a very large volume of product. Furthermore, the typical
Alaska crab operation is considerably more mechanized than the
typical blue crab operation. Based on these reasons and
considerations of extreme seasonality, harsh climate, frequent
42
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inavailability of usable land, and high costs, the Alaskan crab
industry was placed in a separate category from the remainder of
the United States crab industry.
As discussed in the introduction to this section, the waste water
characteristics from the processing of sections and whole crab
differed significantly (see Section V) from those of the meat
process waste stream, leading to the desingation of separate
subcategories for each.
Alaskan Crab^Meat Processing (Subcategories D and E)
Background
Until recently the major crab species processed in Alaska was the
king crab. In 1970, for instance, of the more than 34.5 kkg (76
million pounds) of crab processed in Alaska, 68 percent were king
crab, whereas 18 percent were tanner and 12 percent Dungeness
crab. In the ensuing three years, however, tanner crab have
become increasingly important and soon will challenge king crab
for the leadership position in terms of quantity processed.
In contrast to the blue crab harvest, the Alaskan crab harvest
takes place exclusively through the use of baited traps or
"pots." Upon unloading from the pots the crabs are placed in
"live tanks" on board the fishing vessel and are transported
alive to the processing plant where, in most instances, the crab
are transferred to on-site live tanks to await processing. In a
few instances, on-site live tanks are not employed, the crab
being processed immediately upon unloading from the fishing
vessel. This practice has proven, however, to be inefficient and
it is expected that the use of live tanks will continue into the
forseeable future.
For each of the three species of crab processed in Alaska,
seasonality is an important factor. Tanner crab enjoy the
longest processing season, extending from January to May in the
Kodiak area. The major season for king crab in the Kodiak area
is about one and one-half months long during the months of August
and September and for Dungeness crab the two month season peak
begins in mid-June. These seasons are a function of location.
Alaska is an extremely large state, having 58,000 km (36,000
miles) of shoreline (more than the total contiguous 48 states)
and fishing boats range as far as 1600 km (1000 miles) from base
to take advantage of crab availability during slack seasons
locally.
Processing
Land-based live tanks are usually constructed of steel or wood.
Capacities vary from 23 to 45 cu m (6000 to 12,000 gal). In
43
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Alaska as much as 7300 kg (16,000 Ib) of live crab are stored in
a medium-sized live tank. The salt water in the live tanks is
continuously recirculated from the local harbor. Residence times
vary from ten minutes to one hour. In the past, in congested
areas, high mortality rates in the live tanks have resulted from
the use of poor quality intake water. This poor quality has been
the result of pollution of the local area with processing wastes.
Live tank intake lines are usually located on or near the bottom
of the local waterway to prevent interference with navigation.
Decomposing detritus on the bottom has created dissolved oxygen
deficits and generated toxicants such as hydrogen sulfide which
in turn have led to the high product losses in the live tanks.
Live tank crab are normally processed as rapidly as possible and
are seldom held for more than a few days. Tanner crab seem to be
more sensitive to live tank storage conditions than the other two
species (Hartsock and Peterson, 1971) . This is because tanner
are deep water crabs and exhibit a lower tolerance to overcrowded
conditions and environmental changes.
Each of the three species handled in Alaska is processed into at
least three different forms of finished product: canned meat,
frozen meat, and sections and legs—sections being the term
designating body halves. In addition, Dungeness crab, and to a
very limited extent king crab, are processed for marketing whole.
The section and leg processes and the Dungeness whole processes
produce the least waste, while the meat processes for freezing
and canning produce considerably greater quantities, although the
characteristics, of course, are similar (see Section V).
The processes for frozen and canned meat products are depicted in
Figures 14 and 15, respectively. All plants handling a given
product utilize approximately the same unit operations with
occasional small variations in the butchering, handling, storing
and conveying procedures. These variations generally do not
alter the waste water characteristics significantly.
Two operations common to all processes except the whole crab
process are butchering and cooking. In the butchering process,
the crab are transported from the live tanks to the butcher area
either on belts or in steel tubs where they are placed in a
holding area to await butchering. The live crab are butchered by
impaling them on a metal plate. This cuts the body in two,
allowing the viscera to fall to the floor while at the same time,
removing the carapace (back) as a single piece. Next the gills
are removed from the animal through the use of a rotary wire
brush or paddle wheel. At one plant a paddle wheel is used to
both butcher and gill in a single step. Currently, in most
plants in Alaska the viscera, carapaces, and the gills are fed
into a grinder intermittently. Dead crab are sorted out prior to
butchering and are presently also ground. These grinders operate
from 50 to 70 percent of the time during processing and the
resulting waste load constitutes a large portion of the total
solid and organic wastes emanating from the processing plant.
4,4
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Two types of cookers are used in the crab processing industry in
Alaska. They are distinguished by product flow and are termed
either batch cookers or flow-through cookers. Both types are
common. Some crab plants employ two cooking periods during the
processing operation—a precook and a final cook. When the
precook is used, it is designed to firm the meat, rinse off the
residual blood from the butchering operation and minimize heat
shock of the subsequent cooking step. Precooking at 60° to 66°C
(140° to 150°F) normally lasts from one to five minutes. The
main cook is conducted at about 99°C (210°F) for 10 to 20
minutes. Salt is usually added to the cooker water in
concentrations of 50,000 to 60,000 mg/1 NaCl (as chloride)
(Soderquist, et al., 1972b). Batch-type cookers range in size
from 76C to 3800 1 (200 to 1000 gal). Makeup water is added
periodically to replace losses from evaporation, product
carryover, and water overflow. Steam is normally employed to
heat the tanks to the desired temperature. The cookers are
usually drained and the cooking water replaced once or twice per
shift.
Flow-through cookers range in size from 1.9 to 9.5 cu m (500 to
2500 gal). The crab are conveyed through the cooker on a
stainless steel mesh belt. Nearly all flow-through cookers in
Alaska employ steam-heated hot water, although at least one plant
was observed by the field crew using steam cooking directly. As
was the case with batch cookers, flow-through cookers (also
called "continuous cookers") are drained and refilled one to two
times per shift (except steam cookers).
The following paragraphs discuss briefly the process variations
employed in the preparation of different product forms.
King and Tanner Crab Frozen Meat Process
In the Alaskan plants processing king and tanner crab for the
frozen meat market (Figure 14), the crab are stored in live tanks
in the normal manner and transported to the butchering area as
needed. The carapace, viscera and gills are removed in the
butchering area. The butchering waste is currently ground and
subsequently discharged through a submarine outfall, via a flume
to a surface discharge point, or is sometimes simply dumped
through a hole in the floor onto the water beneath the plant.
After the crabs are butchered, the legs are separated from the
shoulders on circular or stationary saws. Stationary saws
consist simply of fixed saw blades along which the crab are
passed to effect the separation of the legs from the shoulders.
Next, the crab parts are precooked for four to five minutes at
60° to 66°c (140° to 150°F). Some processors collect the claws
after the precook, brine freeze them and market them as "cocktail
claws" much as is done in the blue crab industry. Others handle
the claws as additional sources of picked meat and after the pre-
cook, the meat is "blown" from the claws and shorter more "meaty"
leg sections with a strong jet of water. The meat from the
45
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•• PRODUCT FLOW
CIRCULATING SEAWATER
OVERFLOW TO OCEAN
= WASTEWATER FLOW
— = . WASTE SOLIDS FLOW
(QR) = GRINDER
OUTFALL PUMPED TO
SEVEN FATHOM DEPTH
Figure 14 King and tanner crab frozen meat process,
46
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CIRCULATING SEAWATER
BUTCHER CARAPACE^VISCERA^G!LLSJ__
PRECOOK IBLQOD,WAIER)_
= PRODUCT FLOW
— = WASTEWATER FLOW
= -== = WASTE SOLIDS FLOW
(GR) = GRINDER
OUTFALL PUMPED TO
SEVEN FATHOM DEPTH
Figure 15 King and tanner crab canning process
47
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larger leg sections and from -the shoulders is often extracted
with rollers or shaken from the shell. In the roller operation
the parts are placed manually or hydraulically between two rubber
rollers (looking very much like those of an old-fashioned
wringer-type washing machine) and the meat is squeezed from the
shell as the legs or shoulders pass through the rollers. The
shells are subsequently often flumed from the rollers to a
grinder prior to entering the main waste stream.
Broken shell and other detritus are hand-picked from the meat.
The meat is then manually segregated into three categories: claw
meat, leg meat, and shredded meat. It is next cooked at 93° to
99°C (200° to 210°F) for 8 to 12 minutes, rinsed, and cooled with
fresh water. At this point, the meat is packed into trays,
usually in 6.8 kg (15 Ib) batches and 180 to 350 ml (6 to 12 oz)
of saline solution or ascorbic acid solution is added to each
tray. The type and volume of additives employed varies from
processor to processor. The trays are frozen and later boxed for
shipping.
In at least one crab freezing operation in Alaska, no precook is
used. The crab are simply cooked at 93°C (200°F) in a flow-
through cooker for 10.5 minutes. This operation takes place with
the gills still intact on the animals. After cooking the gills
are manually separated and discarded. Legs are subsequently
removed from the shoulders on stationary saws.
The major differences between the freezing of king and tanner
crab legs and sections are the use of rollers almost exclusively
for tanner (contrasted with their infrequent use for king crab)
and small variations in cooking time. Wastewater characteristics
for the two species are similar.
King and Tanner Crab Canning Process
In this operation (Figure 15) the crab meat is processed in much
the same way as crab meat in the freezing process through the
second cook. At that point the meat is manually packed into cans
of various sizes, the most common one being 184 grams (6.5 oz)
and a sodium chloride-citric acid tablet is added to each. Next,
a vacuum is drawn on each can and the lid is sealed with a
"double roll seamer." The cans are then placed into baskets and
retorted for 50 to 60 minutes at 116°C (240°F). Cooling is
normally accomplished in the retorts by flooding them with cold
water for 7 to 12 minutes. The baskets are then removed from the
retorts and the cans allowed to dry prior to boxing for shipment.
Dungeness Crab
The main Dungeness crab season begins in mid-June and lasts
through mid-August in Alaska. As a result, onsite sampling was
not conducted during maximum Dungeness crab processing activity;
48
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however, some monitoring of Dungeness crab processing was ac-
complished in Kodiak, Alaska and the data resulting from these
activities together with the data gathered previously in Oregon
by Oregon State University (Soderquist, et al., 1972b) served as
bases for the Dungeness crab recommendations in this report.
In Alaska, Dungeness crab are most frequently processed for sale
as whole crab. When processed into canned or frozen meat
products, processing schemes similar to those in Figures 14 and
15 are employed.
Prelections
Harvesting of Dungeness crab are on the decline whereas king crab
seemed until recently to have reached a plateau. In 1971 and
1972, however, harvests increased. Production appears to be
determined in large part by the size of the previous year's
survival of offspring. Recent catches are outlined on Table 9.
The relative stabilization of king crab harvests has been due
largely to stricter controls imposed on the fishing industry by
the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. The controls established
a king crab fishing season lasting from five to seven months in
Alaskan waters.
Tanner crab have been increasingly harvested in recent years.
Abundant stocks exist off the northern Pacific Coast and pro-
duction which has been accelerating rapidly, should continue to
increase (Alverson, 1968) until the demand exceeds the supply or
until stricter controls are established on the fishery by the
Alaska regulatory authorities.
Wastes Generated
As is the case with blue crab, the major portion of the Alaskan
harvest is not edible and as a result is wasted in processing.
The yield for king crab and Dungeness crab meat operations have
been listed as 20 percent (Jensen, 1965) and 27 pecent ,
respectively. Tanner crab yields are even lower than these two
values. Using an average yield figure of 20 percent it can be
concluded that 80 percent (on the average) of the Alaskan crab
harvest is wasted. For the purpose of estimating solid waste
volumes, furthermore, this figure might be reduced by 50 percent
to account for leaching of solubles during cooking and to take
into consideration the significant percentage of the harvest
processed as sections or whole crab. Assuming, then, that 57
percent of the total harvest in Alaska eventually becomes solid
waste, it was calculated that 23,100 kkg (25,800 tons) of solid
wastes were generated by the Alaskan crab industry in 1972. As
tanner crab harvests increase over the next few years, the
percentage wastage figure will increase proportionately in Alaska
and the total tonnages of crab waste produced will rise slowly.
49
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CIRCULATING SEAWATER
OVERFLOW TO OCEAN
* PRODUCT FLOW
= WASTEWATER FLOW
= = WAST SOLIDS FLOW
(Q) = GRINDER
(CARAPACE, VISCERA.GILLS) ,
(BLOOD,WATER)
(LEG SHELL
DISCHARGE
"THROUGH FLOOR
i SHELL, MEAT,WATER) I
(ORGANICS, WATER)
(MEAT,WATER)
(MEAT, WATER)
I
(WATER)
I
(GR)
DISCHARGE
VIA FLUME
Figure 16 King and tanner crab section process.
50
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Table 9
RECENT ALASKA CRAB CATCHES (NOAA-NMFS)
1969
1970
1971
1972
Species
kkg
(tons) kkg
(tons) kkg
(tons) kkg
(ton)
Dungeness crab
King crab
Tanner crab
22
25
5
,300
,300
,080
(24
(27
( 5
,550)
,900)
,600)
26,500
23,600
6,570
(29,250)
(26,050)
( 7,240)
19,400
31,900
5,760
(21
(35
( 6
,350)
,200)
,350)
11,800
33,600
13,150
(13.000)
(37,000)
(14,500)
en
-------
As mentioned in the blue crab discussion, the composition of
Crustacea waste is largely chitin, protein and calcium carbonate
plus varying amounts of flesh and visceral materials. The
Ketchikan Technological Laboratory of the National Marine
Fisheries Service listed typical compositions of Alaskan crab
waste as shown on Table 10. The protein concentration of crab
waste is considered low compared to visceral waste, reducing its
value as a potential source of animal feed. However, some work
has been done involving fortification of crab meal with higher
protein sources.
Table 1C. Typical crab waste composition
Composition
Species Source Protein Chitin CaCO3
king crab
tanner crab
tanner crab
Picking line
Leg and claw shelling
Body butchering and
shelling
22.7
10.7
21.2
42.5
31.4
30.0
34.8
57.9
48.8
Essentially no definitive comprehensive data on the character of
Alaskan crab processing waste waters were available prior to the
present study. A thorough characterization program, therefore,
was conducted and the results are outlined in Section V.
Subcategorization Rationale
Subcategorization for the Alaskan crab industry was relatively
complicated. At the beginning of this study it was assumed that
as many as ten subcategories would be designated, one for each
final product generated in the processing of each species:
1. frozen tanner crab meat
2. canned tanner crab meat
3. tanner crab sections
4. frozen king crab meat
5. canned king crab meat
6. king crab sections
7. whole Dungeness crab
8. frozen Dungeness crab meat
9. canned Dungeness crab meat
10. Dungeness crab sections
In the course of the field work it became evident that, although
differences in the above processes existed, the variations in
waste water flow and content noted were not significant when
52
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compared to the normal plant-to-plant and day-to-day variations
within each of those preliminary subcategories, except in the
general comparison of meat versus sections and whole crab.
The king, Dungeness and tanner crab processing industry in Alaska
was separated from the rest of the United States for several
reasons. These reasons were all based on the assumption that a
subcategory should be designated whenever differences between
plants would seriously affect the development of:
1. treatment design configurations;
2. designation of expected effluent levels after
treatment; and/or
3. estimation of costs of treatment.
The Alaskan crab industry is noted for its large processing
plants. Although the plants process crab only a few months per
year, their production levels are significantly greater than
those of plants in other parts of the country processing similar
crab (tanner and Dungeness). Raw material availability,
furthermore, is very much a function of weather in Alaska; during
periods of poor weather (which often occur even in the summer
months), no raw material is available at the docks for
processing.
The condition of raw material on delivery to the processing plant
is fairly uniform in Alaska and was not considered justification
for subcategorization. Although, as previously mentioned, the
tanner crab mortality in the live tanks on the dock is
significantly greater than that of Dungeness and king, those
crabs which were processed (the live crabs) were of fairly
uniform quality throughout the contractor's monitoring period.
This is not to say that product yield does not vary in the course
of the processing season. Crabs taken during the springtime,
having more recently molted, contain a lower percentage of usable
meat than those harvested late in the season. This
consideration, although it affects the waste water stream in the
processing plant, should not prove to be a detriment to this
study because sampling took place during that part of the year
when yields were low and wastage was high. It is not expected
that pollutant levels (in terms of production, such as kg of BOD
per kkg raw material) would increase over the course of the
season; rather, they would be expected to decrease somewhat
(although, again, perhaps not significantly).
As mentioned above, the variety of the species being processed
was initially taken into account in the monitoring phase of this
program. The waste water characteristics, however, (Section V)
indicate that this consideration is not sufficient to warrant the
designation of a separate subcategory for each species.
53
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"Harvesting methods" was another variable to be considered in
subcategorization. As mentioned in the "processing" section of
this discussion, crab processing in Alaska is uniformly
restricted to the use of "pots," and therefore, little
variability in harvesting methods exists.
Analogous to the discussion on "condition of raw material,"
"degree of preprocessing" was not a consideration in the Alaskan
crab processing industry because, again, all animals enter the
processing line alive.
"Form and quality of finished product," while initially con-
sidered to be possible bases for subcategorization, were
rejected, based on the characterization data (Section V), except
for the aforementioned distinction between crab meat and whole
and sectioned crab.
A very important item in the Alaskan crab processing industry is
the plant location. In this region of the country, perhaps more
than in any other, site specificity must be an over-riding
concern in the development of waste management, treatment, and
disposal alternatives. Most, if not all, of the king, tanner and
Dungeness crab processing plants in Alaska are located south of
Bristol Bay in terrain which can most aptly be described as
"vertical." Virtually every plant is built on piling because of
the lack of suitable real estate.
The general location of the Alaskan processors in an area of
limited accessibility and of inflated costs (the Army Corps of
Engineers Construction Price Index lists remote Alaska as 2.6 and
Kodiak, Alaska as 2.5 based on a national average of 1.0)
justifies the designation of a separate subcategory for these
processors.
Furthermore, climatic conditions in the Alaska region are unlike
those anywhere else in the United States. Water temperatures
remain just above the freezing level and air temperatures can
remain below freezing for several months without respite. In the
northerly areas, permafrost interferes with normal construction
and foundation design techniques. In the non-permafrost zones
where top soil exists in any quantity, the ground freezes solid
during the coldest months of the year, only to thaw in the spring
and summer causing frost heaves and often producing extremely
poor foundation conditions. It is frequently the case,
especially in the gulf of Alaska and on the Aleutian Islands,
that virtually no top soil exists. The only land available is
solid rock and it is usually reposing at a steep angle.
Consideration of waste treatment design involving equalization
basins or treatment lagoons must contend with either blasting the
basins from solid rock or constructing them of concrete, steel,
or similar structural material.
Another consideration involves tidal fluctuations. Tidal
fluctuations in Alaska are among the greatest in the world,
54
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approaching 12 meters (40 feet) at times. This phenomenon
presents special problems when designing a waterside facility for
transportation of solid wastes.
As was the case in the blue crab industry, the influence of
production capacity, normal operating levels (percent of
capacity), and nature of operation (intermittent versus con-
tinuous) did not vary significantly from species to species
within the Alaskan crab industry and did not distinguish the
Alaskan crab industry from the rest of the United States;
furthermore, they did not appear to appreciably affect wastewater
characteristics or anticipated design problems and therefore,
were not judged bases for the designation of subcategories.
"Raw water availability" and "waste treatability" do not appear
to present insurmountable obstacles to the imposition of effluent
guidelines and to the industries' successful compliance with
them. Although fresh water is extremely expensive in the Alaskan
area (costing five to ten times Seattle prices), and in many
areas is scarce to non-existent, the anticipated waste management
schemes (discussed in Section VII) would not impose a significant
additional demand on water supplies. Furthermore, the wastes
from the processing of king, Dungeness and tanner crab can be
logically thought to be treatable (under proper conditions) and
no known toxicants are contained in the waste waters. Therefore,
these two factors were not considered bases for subcategorization
within the Alaskan crab industry.
As discussed in the "Economic Analysis of Effluent Guidelines,
Seafood Processing Industry" (June 1974), there is substantial
evidence that processors in isolated and remote areas of Alaska
are at a comparative economic disadvantage to the processors
located in population or processing centers in attempts to meet
the effluent limitations guidelines. The isolated location of
some existing Alaskan seafood processing plants eliminates almost
all waste water treatment alternatives because of undependable
access to ocean, land, or commercial transportation during
extended severe sea or weather conditions, and the high costs of
eliminating engineering obstacles due to adverse climatic and
geologic conditions. However, those plants located in population
or processing centers have access to more reliable, cost-
effective alternatives such as solids recovery techniques or
other forms of solids disposal such as landfill or barging.
For all of the above reasons the Alaskan Dungeness, king and
tanner crab meat processing industries were placed into two
subcategories for the purpose of designing and estimating the
costs of treatment systems and for developing effluent standards
and guidelines: non-remote Alaskan crab meat processing
(Subcategory D) , and remote Alaskan crab meat processing
(Subcategory E).
55
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Whole Crab and Crab Section Processing
(Subcategories F and G)
The following paragraphs discuss briefly the process variations
employed in the preparation of different product forms.
The most common method of perparation of king and tanner crab in
Alaska for the domestic market is the sectioning process shown in
Figure 16. After live tanking and butchering in the same manner
as in the meat process, the legs are allowed to remain attached
to the shoulders. The crab halves (or sections) are placed in
wire baskets and rinsed with fresh water to remove residual
blood. They are then precooked at 60° to 71°C (140° to 160°F)
for 2 to 5 minutes. Following precooking, the crab are cooked
for about 18 minutes at near-boiling temperatures; in addition to
cooking the meat this process inactivates the "bluing" enzyme, a
compound which, if not inactivated in this manner, causes the
crab meat during storage to turn from white to an undesirable
blue color. After cooking, the crab are rinsed and cooled in
either a spray or a dip tank system with circulating fresh water
(flow- through) , In the next step the crabs are inspected,
sections with missing legs or with cracked shells are shunted to
the meat processing line, and parasites are removed from the
shells manually with scrub brushes. The solid waste from this
area is dry-collected and periodically shoveled through the
butchering area grinder or occasionally a second grinder,
specifically located in this area of the plant. At this point
the cleaned crab sections are sorted according to size and
quality, packed into boxes and frozen. Freezing takes place in
either blast freezers or brine freezers. Those processors
employing brine freezing use a dip tank subsequent to freezing to
rinse off the adhering brine and to glaze the sections. The
sections are then boxed and stored in a freezer prior to
shipping.
In Alaska, Dungeness crab are most frequently processed for sale
as whole crab. In this process the crab are held in live tanks
until needed. After inspection for missing claws and legs they
are cooked in either batch or flow-through cookers. Cooking
lasts for 20 to 30 minutes at 99°C (210°F) in fresh water or in
water containing 50,000 to 60,000 mg/1 sodium chloride (as
chloride) . When salt is used, the main purpose is to impart a
more desirable flavor to the crab rather than to effect any
substantial change in meat characteristics.
After cooking, the Dungeness crabs are transferred to the packing
area, usually by a belt, where they are spray rinsed. The
workers tuck the legs under the body and place the crab into
large steel baskets. The steel baskets are then immersed in
circulating fresh water for 15 minutes to thoroughly cool the
crab. Freezing of the crab is then accomplished by placing the
steel baskets in a brine freezer for 30 minutes. After fresh
water rinsing for 5 minutes to remove the excess brine and to
56
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glaze the crab they are packed in boxes and stored in a freezer,
ready for shipment.
Dungeness crab that are missing claws or legs are butchered and
processed as sections as previously described for king and tanner
crab. The process is virtually identical for all three species.
There is little organic waste generated in the whole cook
operation. Whenever the number of missing crab appendages is
low, the largest source of organic waste in the whole cook
operation is the cooker. The water usage in the whole cook
operation is similar to that in the section process, the greatest
water use taking place in the cooling and rinsing operation.
There is a significant difference in the amount of water used and
the unit waste loads generated between the processing of whole
crab and sections and the processing of meat products (see
Section V). The discussion of subcategorization rationale for
crab meat products (Subcategories D and E) also applies to this
category. Therefore, the Alaskan Dungeness, king, and tanner
crab sections and whole crab processing were placed into two
separate subcategories: non-remote Alaskan whole crab and crab
section processing (Subcategory F), and remote Alaskan whole crab
and crab section processing (Subcategory G).
Dungeness and Tanner Crab Processing in the Contiguous States
(Subcategory H)
Background
Although processing volumes are small compared to those of
Alaska, a Dungeness and tanner crab processing industry does
exist along the Pacific Coast of the contiguous 48 states. The
predominant species processed in this region is Dungeness crab.
The tanner crab processed in this region are not native; they are
shipped frozen from Alaska during periods of surplus.
Most of the catch is picked for meat or cooked whole. Crab
processing as practiced in the "lower 48" is virtually identical
to that practiced in Alaska. The major difference between the
two industries is one of scale. Whereas a large plant in Oregon,
Washington, or California may pack 7.3 kkg (8 tons) of crab per
shift at peak capacity, its counterpart in Alaska might pack four
times that much.
Processing
The crab are removed from the pots and stored in live tanks
aboard ship. The size of the daily catch ranges from 140 to 900
kg (300 to 2000 Ibs). The boats usually deliver their catch each
evening, unloading and storing the crabs out of water prior to
57
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butchering the following morning. The crab normally are in
excellent physical shape prior to butchering for they are stored
such short lengths of time and the quantity of crab is so small
that there is hardly any weakening due to crowding, crushing or
oxygen depletion.
The butchering process is as previously discussed; the backs are
detached, the viscera removed and the legs separated from the
bodies. Some plants flume waste solids from this process to a
central screen but most employ dry-capture techniques. In the
latter instance, the only flows from the butchering area are
clean-up waters.
The next unit operation is bleeding and rinsing. The crab pieces
are either conveyed via belt beneath a water spray or are packed
in large steel baskets and submerged in circulating rinse water.
In either case, a continuous waste water flow results. The crab
parts (and whole crab) are then cooked in boiling water. Whole
crab are usually boiled 20 to 30 minutes in a 50,000 to 60,000
mg/1 (as chloride) sodium chloride solution, containing 650 to
800 mg/1 citric acid. Whereas the salt is used for seasoning,
the citric acid facilitates shell cleaning (by loosening adhering
materials) in a subsequent processing step. Crab sections, on
the other hand, are simply boiled for 12 minutes or so. The
waste water flows from this step, of course, are intermittent,
occuring whenever a cooker is discharged.
As in the bleeding and rinsing step, the next phase, cooling, is
accomplished in two ways. The simpler method employs sprays to
cool the hot crab, resulting in a continuous wastewater flow.
Other plants employ immersion of the crab-filled baskets into
tanks through which cooling water is constantly flowing. After
20 minutes, the baskets are removed and allowed to drain. The
resulting waste waters consist of a continuous flow (the cooling
tank overflow) and a discrete flow (the cooling tank "dump" plus
crab-basket drainage).
In the plants of Oregon, Washington, and California picking of
the meat from the shell is a manual operation. The "picking
stock" includes bodies and legs. Yields from Dungeness vary from
17 to 27 percent. This variation is mainly a function of the
maturity of the animal. Yields increase as the season
progresses. No water need be used in this operation except
during washdown.
The cleaned meat is conveyed to brining tanks where loose shell
is separated from the meat by flotation, much as is practiced in
the blue crab industry on the East Coast. The 100,000 to 200,000
mg/1 (as chloride) sodium chloride solutions are discharged
intermittently.
Most of the salt solution remaining on the meat is removed in the
next unit operation, the (immersion) rinse tanks. The discharges
58
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from these tanks are continuous and contain 1500 to 2000 mg/1
chloride.
After rinsing, the meat is drained and packed. Whether packing
the meat in cardboard and plastic for the fresh market or
canning, this operation contributes little to the waste water
system except clean-up flows.
In those instances where the meat is canned, the final step is
retorting. In those where fresh packing is practiced, the last
step is refrigeration. Both processes require water but neither
appreciably contaminates it.
Wastes Generated
The waste water flows from Dungeness and tanner crab operations
in the "lower 48" are similar to those emanating from Alaskan
operations with the singular exception that chloride concen-
trations are significantly higher and fluctuate strongly during
the processing shift and from day-to-day (see Section V).
Subcategorization Rationale
Subcategorization for the Oregon, Washington, and California
tanner and Dungeness crab processing industry was developed
following much of the reasoning outlined in the discussion of the
Alaskan crab industry (Subcategories D, E, F, and G).
The major differences between the two regions' processing
industries were geographical, with one exception: the use of the
brine tank in the "lower 48," whereas, it was not generally used
in Alaska.
The geographical reasons alluded to above, of course, included
considerations of climate, topography, relative isolation of the
processing plants, land availability, soil conditions, and
availability of unlimited water. All of the these aspects then,
together with the significant difference in waste water
characteristics (chloride) between the two regions, resulted in
the designation of different categories for the Alaskan industry
versus the Oregon, Washington, and California tanner and
Dungeness crab processing industry, for the purpose of designing
and estimating the cost of treatment systems and for developing
effluent standards and guidelines.
SHRIMP PROCESSING
Alaskan Shrimp (Subcategories I and J)
In addition to crab, the other major Alaskan fishery monitored in
this study was the Alaskan shrimp processing industry. The
59
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Alaska pink shrimp (Pandaius bprealis) are caught commercially in
nets to a distance of approximately 80 km (50 miles) from shore.
The shrimp are taken directly to a processing plant or to a
wholesale marketing vessel. When long storage times are
necessary, the shrimp are iced in the holds and re-iced every
twelve hours.
Background
When commercial shrimp production began in Alaska over 50 years
ago, hand picking was the basic peeling method used. In 1958,
automatic peelers were introduced. The tremendous expansion
experienced by the industry in the last decade can be attributed
mainly to the introduction of these mechanical peelers. From 45
to 180 kg (100 to 400 Ibs) of shrimp can be hand peeled per day,
whereas the capacities of modern shrimp peeling machines vary
from 1820 to 5450 kg (4000 to 12,000 Ibs) per day (Dassow, 1963) .
Table 11 lists the Alaskan shrimp processing regions and wastes
generated in 1967. The shrimp season extends throughout the year
in Alaska but the operation peaks from May through June. Over
4500 kkg (5000 tons) of wastes are generated annually in Alaska
by this industry.
Table 11. Alaskan shrimp wastes, 1967 (Yonkers, 1969).
Region
TOTAL
Canneries
(kkg)
(tons)
Aleutian Islands
Kodiak Island
Southeastern Alaska
1
3
2
410
3540
730
( 450)
(3900)
( 800)
4681 (5150)
The Alaskan shrimp processing industry is centered around Kodiak,
where shrimp represent the largest volume of landings. The
shrimp processing waste waters are said (McFall, 1971) to
constitute the major portion of the pollution load being
discharged into Kodiak harbor. Approximately 50 machine peelers
with a total capacity approaching 340 kkg (375 tons) of raw
shrimp per day are located in processing plants in or immediately
adjacent to the town of Kodiak. Up to 230 kkg (250 tons) of
shrimp waste were discharged into the receiving waters each day
during peak processing periods until the local waste handling
plant opened in late spring of 1973. Most of the shrimp plants
have from 4 to 9 machine peelers, each of which use about 3801
(100 gallons) of process water per minute.
60
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Shrimp are caught in large nets called "otter trawls." Large
planing surfaces or "doors" are used in conjunction with a lead
and float line to hold the mouth of the bag-like net open. Once
onboard the boat, the shrimp are heavily iced in most instances
and remain in the hold for as long as 5 days. The shrimp are
then transported to port, unloaded at the plant and frequently
stored for a few days to condition them for peeling. In Alaska,
fish that are caught with the shrimp are brought to the dock with
the catch and are later manually separated from the shrimp and
discharged.
Processing
The Alaskan shrimp process is depicted in Figures 17 and 18.
After unloading and storage, the shrimp are mechanically peeled
in one of two main types of shrimp peelers: the Model PCA and
the Model A, both of which are made by the Laitram Corporation of
New Orleans, Louisiana. The PCA peeler employs a 1.5 minute
steam precook to condition the shrimp prior to peeling. This
facilitates the peeling step of the operation and allows
significantly greater through-put of product. The Model A peeler
does not employ a steam precook. In Alaska the PCA shrimp are
nearly always subsequently frozen, while the Model A final
product is canned or frozen.
After peeling the meats are inspected and then washed. If they
are to be canned, the meats are blanched in a salt solution for
about 15 minutes and then dried by various methods to remove
surface moisture. Prior to final canning the shrimp are once
again inspected.
When this study was initiated, three subcategories for Alaskan
shrimp were designated in a preliminary fashion:
1. canned, Model A peeled shrimp;
2. frozen Model A peeled shrimp; and
3. frozen Model PCA peeled shrimp.
The resuli.3 of the study (Section V) indicated that no signi-
ficant differences in the waste waters from the processing of
Model A peeled and canned shrimp versus Model A peeled and frozen
shrimp exist. Furthermore, the differences in the waste
characteristics between the monitored plants using Model A
peelers and those using Model PCA peelers were only quantitative,
not qualitative. Based on these observations, it was decided to
designate the entire Alaskan shrimp processing industry as a
single subcategory.
With both Models A and PCA peelers, the shrimp are fed into the
machine on a broad belt. This insures an even distribution of
shrimp across the width of the peeler. The PCA shrimp are steam
precooked while on this belt. This precook helps "condition" the
shrimp by loosening the shell, making them easier to peel. The
processing rate for Model A peelers is higher than that for the
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PRODUCT FLOW
= WASTEWATER FLOW
= = = = == WASTE SOLIDS FLOW
UNLOAD
FISH PICKING
AGE
(FISH)
(ORGANICS)
JUKCANICS) l
PEELERS LSHELL.WATERJ.
WASHERS -^'-±±'--1^"^" I
1
1
SEPARATORS
(SHELL,WATER)
SHAKER
BLOWER
ISHELL, WATER) ^
INSPECTION -SJ'^-Li 1
SIZE
(MEAT)
SEAM
FREEZE
BOX
DISCHARGED TO OCEAN
.DIRECTLY BELOW
Figure 17 Alaska and west coast shrimp freezing process.
62
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= PRODUCT FLOW
PEELERS ISHELLJWATER)
= WASTEWATER FLOW
• = = = WASTE SOLIDS FUOW
OUTFALL PUMPED
TO SEVEN FATHOM DEPTH
Figure 13 Alaska and west coast shrimp canning process,
63
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PCA-type, but it is generally felt within the industry that the
PCA peelers yield a higher quality product. Whereas the Model A
can handle approximately 410 kg (900 pounds) of raw material per
hour. Model PCA capacities are limited to about 230-270 kg (500-
600 pounds) per hour. These processing rates, as mentioned
earlier, vary greatly with condition of the incoming product.
On the peelers, the shrimp drop onto counter-rotating rollers
that "grab" the feelers of the shrimp and roll the shell off the
meat. The shrimp are pressed against these rollers by overhead
racks. Considerable water is used in both types of peelers to
transport the product and the shell away from the machines. This
water may be either fresh water or salt water. Both types are
used in Alaskan processing plants.
In an average plant approximately 50 percent of the total water
use is in mechanical peelers. Frequently the shrimp meat is
flumed from the peelers to the next step, the washers.
Two types of washers are used for peeled shrimp, one for raw
shrimp and one for cooked. The Laitram Model C washer is
designed for detaching "swimmerettes," gristle and other waste
material and shell from raw shrimp, where the Laitram Model PCC
cleaner is designed to wash peeled precooked shrimp. In the
washers, agitators vigorously mix the shrimp in the trough of the
washer, breaking loose any shell not removed in the peeling
process. A few plants that use PCA peelers do not use subsequent
washers because the violent agitation fragments some of the
shrimp.
After washing, the shrimp meat is flumed to separators where the
small meat fragments and remaining shell are automatically
removed. Again, two different designs are used, one for peeled,
precooked shrimp and one for peeled raw shrimp. After passing
through the separators, the shrimp meat is flumed to a dewatering
belt. Approximately 20 percent of the total plant waste water
flow comes from the washing-separating area.
After dewatering, the Model A peeled shrimp are blanched in a
salt solution for 15 to 17 minutes at 96°C (205°F). Only the
shrimp which are to be subsequently canned are blanched. Usually
neither the PCA peeled shrimp nor the Model A peeled shrimp to be
frozen are subjected to the blanching step. The cooker used for
blanching is normally discharged every four hours.
The next step is the final air-cleaning step in a "shakerblower"
operation. This step is not universally used. In this step, the
shrimp meats are dried and any extraneous shell is blown off.
Following cleaning the shrimp are inspected and any shrimp with
shell still adhering to them are removed and wasted. The meat is
then further sized and graded either manually or by machine.
The shrimp to be canned move through the automatic filler and
into the cans. Before the lids are placed on the cans, ascorbic
64
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acid is added. As in the crab industry, the ascorbic acid serves
as a color preservative and prevents the undesirable "bluing" of
the meat. In the next step, the cans are seamed, after which
they are retorted for 20 minutes. Those Model A peeled shrimp
which are not to be canned but which are to be frozen are packed
without the use of additives.
PCA peeled shrimp, prior to freezing, are rinsed in a salt-
-ascorbic acid solution in some processing plants. In others,
this step is omitted. The shrimp are then frozen in plastic bags
or in 2.3 kg (5 Ib) cans and stored to await shipment.
Wastes Generated
Jensen (1965) estimated that 78 to 85 percent of the shrimp is
wasted in mechanical peeling.
The National Marine Fisheries Service listed the composition of
shrimp waste as shown in Table 12.
Table 12. Composition of shrimp waste
Composition
Source Protein Chitin CaCO3_
Hand peeling 27.2 57.5 15.3
Mechanical peeling 22.0 42.3 35.7
A specialized market for shrimp waste has developed in the fish
food industry. The red pigment of the shrimp (astaxanthin)
supplies the pink color which is characteristic in wild trout but
absent in farm trout (Mendenhall, 1971).
Crude waste from shrimp cannot provide the major source of
protein in livestock feed because the amount of calcium would be
excessive. However, a simple and inexpensive method for
decalcifying meal has been developed (Mendenhall, 1971). Other
uses for the solid waste produced in the shrimp processing
industry are discussed in Section VII.
Little work has been done to date on the characterization of the
waste waters generated in the Alaskan shrimp processing industry.
Crawford (1969) reported that mechanical shrimp peeler effluents
averaged 29,000 mg/1 total solids and 6.4 percent total nitrogen
(dry weight basis). Recent (and unpublished) work has been
conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency and by the
National Marine Fisheries Service in the shrimp plants of Kodiak,
Alaska. The results of their studies are detailed in Chapter 5
(McFall, 1971 and Peterson, 1973a and 1973br).
65
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Subcategorization Rationale
The reasoning followed in the development of the Alaskan shrimp
subcategory paralleled in many respects the reasoning followed in
the designation of Subcategories Dr E, F, and G. As is the case
with the crab industry, the Alaskan shrimp industry is
characterized by large processing plants operating heavily during
the peak processing months of the year and only intermittently
during the remainder of the year. Raw material availability, as
with crab, is very much a function of weather. The availability
of raw material at the docks is determined by the fishermen's
ability to set their nets and complete a "drag" through the
shrimp fishing grounds.
Indications are that the condition of raw material on delivery to
the processing plant influences the character of the waste water
streams emanating from the process. Unlike crab, shrimp are
delivered to the plant on ice and the age of the individual
animals in a load will vary from one day to a week. The degree
of natural decomposition (or degradation) varies correspondingly.
As a general rule, the older the mean age of the animals in a
load, the greater will be the total pollutant content of the
processing waste stream.
In addition to age in terms of numbers of elapsed days since
harvest, the biological age of the shrimp appears to affect the
waste water characteristics. Although this study was of
insufficient duration to determine the exact effect of maturity
on waste water characteristics, previous investigation by the
National Marine Fisheries Service Technology Laboratory in Kodiak
and by the National Marine Fisheries Service, Seattle Laboratory
indicate that a significant difference in total waste loading
exists between early spring and late summer (Collins, 1973).
Indications are that as the shrimp mature and become larger, the
organic levels in the waste streams decrease. The difference in
organic load from processing of mature versus immature shrimp has
been indicated to be as much as 50 percent. The exact effect of
maturity on waste water component levels remains to be
determined.
As is the case with crab, the product yield tends to increase as
the season progresses. This consideration, although it affects
the waste water stream in the processing plant, should not prove
a detriment to this study because the waste water characteristics
developed (Section V) were generated during a period of relative
immaturity of the animal and correspondingly lower yields than
might be expected with mature animals. Therefore, it is not
expected that pollutant levels, in terms of production, would
increase over the course of the season. Rather they would be
expected to decrease somewhat, although again perhaps not
significantly. The third variable to be considered in
Subcategorization was "variety of the species being processed."
This variable was not applicable to the Alaskan shrimp industry
and was, therefore, not a justification for Subcategorization.
66
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As discussed in the "Background" section of this report,
harvesting of Alaskan shrimp is carried out virtually exclusively
through the use of otter trawls. Therefore, "harvesting method"
was not an important variable in the subcategorization scheme.
Whereas, "degree of preprocessing" is significant in other shrimp
fisheries where shrimp are sometimes beheaded at sea, and where
trash fish are sometimes separated from the shrimp catch prior to
returning to the processing plant, this is not the case in the
Alaskan industry. No preprocessing of the Alaskan shrimp takes
place prior to docking of the vessel next to the processing
plant. Therefore, this variable was not considered a significant
factor in the development of subcategories.
The variable "manufacturing process and subprocesses" does apply
to the Alaskan shrimp processing industry. As discussed in the
"Processing" section, two main types of peelers are used, Laitram
Model A and Laitram Model PCA (with steam precook). Furthermore,
those shrimp to be canned were subjected to a subsequent
blanching step which was not a part of the process for shrimp
which were to be frozen. While these variables are significant
in the Alaskan shrimp processing industry, their importance fell
short of dictating that a separate subcategory be established for
Model A versus Model PCA peeled shrimp.
"Form and quality of finished product" was a variable that was
considered in the subcategorization scheme and that indirectly
has an effect on the waste water strengths in the Alaskan shrimp
processing industry. That is, shrimp which are to be canned are
processed using Model A peelers and those which are to be frozen
are peeled on both. These differences, however, are covered
above under "manufacturing process and subprocesses" and need not
be further considered here.
"Location of plant" was a very important item in the Alaskan
shrimp processing industry and in large part justified desig-
nation of a separate subcategory. The arguments appropriate for
this decision are the same arguments that are presented earlier
in this chapter for Alaskan crab and need not be reiterated in
their entirety here. It is sufficient to mention that those
variables tied to the location of the plant such as climatic
conditions, terrain, and soil types are unique to the Alaskan
region and severely constrain the number of available waste
management alternatives which can be considered in the
development of effluent guidelines.
The effects of "production capacity and normal operating level"
are apparent in the Alaskan shrimp industry because a large
amount of the total plant flow passes through the peelers. That
flow remains constant whether the peelers are running at full
capacity or half capacity. Nevertheless, the influence of these
variables was not sufficient to warrant subcategorization.
67
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The "nature of the operation" was a consideration of near equal
importance to "location of plant." The intermittent nature of
the industry precludes the designation of treatment systems
requiring constant or only mildly fluctuating influent waste
streams and further limits the number of alternatives available
to the sanitary engineer.
The variables "raw water availability, cost and quality" and
"amenability of the waste to treatment" were of relatively small
consequence in the designation of this subcategory. Although the
maintenance of an adequate fresh water supply is a continual
problem in Alaska, the anticipated waste management schemes
(discussed in Section VII) would not impose a significant
additional demand on present water supplies. Furthermore, the
wastes from the processing of Alaskan shrimp can be thought to be
treatable (under proper conditions) and no known toxicants are
contained therein.
As discussed in the "Economic Analysis of Effluent Guidelines,
Seafood Processing Industry" (June 1974), there is substantial
evidence that processors in isolated and remote areas of Alaska
are at a comparative economic disadvantage to the processors
located in population or processing centers in attempts to meet
the effluent limitations guidelines. The isolated location of
some existing Alaskan seafood processing plants eliminates almost
all waste water treatment alternatives because of undependable
access to ocean, land, or commercial transportation during
extended severe sea or weather conditions, and the high costs of
eliminating the engineering obstacles due to adverse climatic and
geologic conditions. However, those plants located in population
or processing centers have access to more reliable, cost-
effective alternatives such as solids recovery techniques or
other forms of solids disposal such as landfill or barging.
For all of the above reasons the Alaskan shrimp processing
industry was placed into two subcategories for the purpose of
designing and estimating the costs of treatment systems and for
developing effluent standards and guidelines: non-remote Alaskan
shrimp processing (Subcategory I), and remote Alaskan shrimp
processing (Subcategory J).
Non-Alaskan Shrimp (Subcategories K, L, and M)
Of the seafood commodities studied, the most wide ranging was
shrimp. Significant shrimp fisheries are being exploited in
waters off the coast of all the major regions in this country.
In addition to the Alaskan industry a medium size shrimp canning
and freezing industry exists on the lower Pacific Coast, a medium
to large size canning industry operates on the Gulf Coast,
centering around the Mississippi River delta area, a large
breading and freezing industry extends from the east coast of
Texas to the east coasts of Florida and Georgia, and a growing
68
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shrimp canning and freezing industry operates in the New England
area.
Figures 19, 20, and 21 are plots of all shrimp flow, BOD£, and
suspended solids data (respectively) gathered in this study. A
review of these plots and the shrimp data in Section V reveals
that the breaded shrimp flows and suspended solids average about
twice those from the non-breaded shrimp processors. The
settleable solids in the waste waters from the northern shrimp
processors, on the other hand, were nearly ten times those from
southern shrimp processing, breaded or not. As was expected, the
breaded shrimp suspended solids levels were nearly twice those of
the non^breaded shrimp.
The breading of southern shrimp nearly doubled the waste water
BOD. The northern shrimp BOD's were nearly three times those of
the unbreaded southern shrimp, a phenomenon largely attributable
to the differences in product size (as is discussed later).
Paralleling this BOD relationship, the northern shrimp COD and
oil levels were also considerably higher than those of the
southern shrimp.
These obvious differences, together with contrasts in climate,
land availability and other factors (discussed later) led to the
designation of three subcategories for non-Alaskan shrimp:
Northern Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous States (Subcategory
K); Southern Non-Breaded Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous
States (Subcategory L); and Breaded Shrimp Processing in the
Contiguous States (Subcategory M).
Northern Shrimp Prgcessincr in the Contiguous States
(Subcategory K)
Background
The wastes generated in the shrimp canning and freezing industry
of the contiguous United States were found to vary from region to
region. The variations exhibited were easily traced to two main
variables: differences in product size; and harvesting or
preprocessing techniques. The basic shrimp process was found to
be consistent from Astoria, Oregon to Brownsville, Texas to New
Orleans, Louisiana to Brunswick, Georgia to Gloucester,
Massachusetts.
In terms of total product marketed, shrimp in the United States
are second only to tuna. The average United States shrimp
harvest approaches 100,000 kkg (224 million pounds) (Langno,
1970). Lyles (see Table 13) presents considerably higher values.
Table 14 shows the breakdown of the major products for 1970.
The principal species harvested in the Oregon, Washington, and
California waters is the pink shrimp (Pandalus jordani). Prod-
69
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§
160,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
• = Alaska
• •" Gulf
_ D= West Coast
o _ Breaded
0
O
D •
-
° * «
i i i i li
10 15 20
PRODUCTION kkg/day
25 30
Figure 19
Shrimp production rates and flow ratios
70
-------
IT*
tr>
X
Q
O
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
• *• Alaska
m •= Gulf
D= West Coast
D
O= Breaded
—
D •
O
O
-
-
1 1 I 1 i l
5 10 15 20 25
PRODUCTION kkg/day
Figure 20
Shriinp production rates and BODS ratios
71
30
-------
500
o =
Alaska
Gulf
West Coast
Breaded
400
tn
X
CO
T3
•H
H
O
CQ
'd
-------
Table 13
Recent shrimp catches
Year
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
Average
(kkg)
139,600
132,300
143,800
167,000
175,900
151,700
Quantity
(tons)
(153,900)
(145,800)
(158,550)
(184,050)
(193,950)
(167,250)
73
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Table 14
Shrimp products, 1970
Product
Breaded
Canned
Frozen
Specialty products
(kkg)
46,630
12,020
41,860
140
Quantity
(tons)
(51,400)
(13,250)
(46,150)
(150)
Total
100,650
(110,950)
74
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uction in this region approaches 6800 kkg (7500 tons) per year,
more than 80 percent of which is delivered to Oregon and
Washington processing centers (Soderquist, et al., 1970).
According to the National Marine Fisheries Service, the West
Coast stocks are capable of producing roughly twice that amount
under ideal circumstances. The shrimp industry of the New
England area is relatively new and has grown dramatically since
1965. From 1965 to 1969 harvests doubled yearly. In early
years, the fishery was confined to the state of Maine but as
harvests increased, processing spread south and a large
processing center is now located at Gloucester, Massachusetts.
Practically all Massachusetts shrimp landings take place at
Gloucester. On Table 15 is a list of shrimp landings in Maine
and in Massachusetts during the 1965 to 1969 period. The normal
shrimp season in New England is from September through May with
peak catches occurring from January to April. Shrimp processing
techniques in the region are varied. They include canning and
freezing of both peeled and unpeeled shrimp. The current trend
in processing is toward peeled, fresh-frozen shrimp using
standard automatic peeling machines, in plants operating up to 16
hours per day.
Processing
As mentioned earlier, the process for canned or frozen shrimp is
fairly uniform throughout the United States (see Figures 17 and
18), also the reader is directed to the processing description in
the sections dealing with Alaskan shrimp. Variations from that
general scheme are discussed below.
On the lower Pacific Coast, shrimp are brought to the processing
plant frequently (1-2 days). Very seldom are the shrimp held at
sea more than a few days. After netting, the shrimp are brought
onto the deck of the ship and the majority of the larger fish and
debris is removed at that time. The shrimp are then stored whole
in the hold of the boat. These shrimp are laid in a 5 to 8 cm (2
to 3 in.) mat with about 2 cm or more of ice put over them. This
layering is very important, if not done properly, spoilage will
occur quite rapidly. Although trash fish are removed from the
catch prior to returning to port, approximately one percent of
the delivered load still consists of trash fish and debris, and
must be manually separated at the processing plant. In the New
England area, the shrimp are delivered fresh daily to the
processing plant, heads on. At the plant dock they are inspected
and foreign material is removed; then they are weighed and iced.
The remainder of the shrimp canning and freezing operations on
the lower West Coast, South Atlantic, and Northeast Coast are
similar to those previously discussed in the section on Alaskan
shrimp. In the shrimp canning industry of the Gulf Coast and of
the West Coast, both Model A and PCA type peelers are employed.
In the New England area, the PCA type peelers are prevalent. On
the West Coast and in the New England area, some seawater is used
75
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Table 15 New England shrimp landings,* 1965-1969
(Gibbs and Hill, 1972).
Year
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Maine
(kkg)
942
1738
3147
11,110
Landings
(tons)
(1038)
(1916)
(3462)
(12,250)
Massachusetts
(kkg)
8
11
10
2040
(tons)
(9)
(12)
(11)
(2250)
(kkg)
950
1766
3171
6545
13,110
Total '
(tons)
(1047)
(1947)
(3496)
(7200)
(14,450)
*Heads on
**Entire New England shrimp fishery.
76
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in a few plants for processing. Most plants, however, use fresh
water exclusively.
Wastes Generated
The discussion of the wastes generated in the Alaskan shrimp
processing industry is applicable to much of the remainder of the
shrimp industry in the United States, especially the Pacific
Northwest and the Northeast industries where the shrimp are of
comparable size to the Alaskan shrimp.
The majority of the work on shrimp wastes has been conducted in
the Gulf Coast area. A demonstration project is currently under
way at a major shrimp cannery in Westwego, Louisiana. This
program is designed to evaluate the efficacy of different
screening and dissolved air flotation techniques.
Subcategorigation Rationale
Subcategorization for the shrimp industry was relatively com-
plicated. In addition to the previously mentioned factors which
differentiate between northern, southern and breaded shrimp,
other factors distinguish these subcategories from Alaskan shrimp
and were discussed in the "Alaskan Shrimp" section. The major
difference between larger Gulf and South Atlantic shrimp and
smaller West Coast and New England varieties are due to geography
and species diversity.
The condition of raw material on delivery to the processing plant
does vary between the northern plants and the southeastern plants
which may practice beheading at sea.
Harvesting methods, production capacity and normal operating
levels are similar in all areas of the country sampled.
Manufacturing processes and subprocesses, form and quality of
finished product, and nature of operation showed variation
between the canning processes and breading processes. Analysis
of the data (Section V) indicates that the West Coast canning
process, the Gulf Coast canning processes and the breaded shrimp
processes were each dissimilar enough so they should be
considered separately.
Raw water availability, cost and quality is definitely superior
in the Pacific Northwest to that of the Gulf Coast and South
Atlantic regions. However, no evidence has been put forth to
suggest that this should justify consideration of separate
subcategories.
SOUTHERN NON-BREADED^SHRIMP PROCESSING IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES
77
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(Subcategory L)
Background
In the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic area, the shrimp
industry is the most important seafood industry. The season in
that part of the country runs from April to early June and again
from August to early October. Three varieties of shrimp are
processed in the Gulf area, the pink (Penaeus duorarum); the
brown (Penaeus aztecus) and the white or gray shrimp (Penaeus
jjetiterus) . The latter is processed most heavily. In both the
shrimp breading and shrimp canning industries, considerable
importation of foreign stocks from points as distant as North
Africa and Indonesia is practiced.
Processing
As mentioned earlier, the process for canned or frozen shrimp is
fairly uniform throughout the United States (see Figures 17, 18
and 22), also the reader is directed to the processing
description in the sections dealing with Alaskan shrimp.
Variations from that general scheme are discussed below. In the
Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic fishery, the boats normally do
not bring their catch directly to the processing plant. They
commonly dock at central locations (buying stations) and unload
their catch into waiting trucks. The shrimp are then iced down
and hauled to the processing plant. Unlike other areas, the Gulf
and South Atlantic shrimp fishery behead a significant portion of
the catch at sea. This is done to minimize degradation of the
product and permits extension of fishing trips. In a few
instances, whole shrimp are brought to the unloading point where
they are beheaded prior to being loaded onto the truck, for
transport to the processing plants.
In addition to raw waste characteristics, the subcategorization
rational follows the discussions presented above for Alaskan
shrimp and northern shrimp processing.
BREADED SHRIMP PROCESSING IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES
(Subcategory M)
A large percentage of the shrimp landed on the Gulf Coast are
processed as a breaded product. This product was successfully
developed during the 1950's and markets are continuing to expand.
Processing
The breaded shrimp industry pays a higher price for beheaded
shrimp due to certain types of machinery that can only handle
this type of product.
78
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= PRODUCT FLOW
= WASTEWATER FLOW
' = WASTE SOLIDS FLOW
(FISH8 DEBRIS)
(CARAPACE MATERIAL, I
HEADS 8 TAILS.WATER)]
(WATER) i
1
I
(CARAPACE MATERIAL.
WATER)
(MEAT, WATER)
-
(DEBRIS)
IULBKIS) I
1
I
(SHRIMP PIECES IN DUMP) I
(MEAT, WATER)
WATER) _|
(HOT WATER)
(WATER)
• 1
I
1
I
EFFLUENT
Figure 22 Southern non-breaded shrimp canning process
79
-------
= PRODUCT FLOW
= WASTE FLOW
(BATTER OVERFLOWJ
BREADING) ^
EFFLUENT
Figure 23 • Breaded shrimp process.
80
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On the Gulf or South Atlantic Coast, where the breaded shrimp
industry is prevalent, peeling is done either by machine or hand.
Most plants utilize some form of hand peeling of shrimp. The
breaded shrimp schemes are shown on Figure 23. Hand peeling is
used because it gives a much nicer looking product than machine
peeling. There are two different makes of machine peelers used:
Johnson (P.D.I.) peelers, and Seafood Automatic peelers. The
machines have a capacity of 1800 to 5500 kg (4000 to 12,000 Ibs)
per day depending on the make (Dewberry, 1964).
Two types of breading usually occur in each plant: hand and
mechanical. Hand breading is done by experienced women who
generally work with the best product. The shrimp are first
dipped in batter, then in bread until the shrimp are coated, then
they are boxed, weighed and sealed. Mechanical breading employs
the same process as the hand breading and is sometimes called
"Japanese Breading." The mechanical breading generally has two
main waste flows: one from the holding tanks and the other is
from the batter mixing tanks overflow. Each plant also has a de-
breading station where improperly breaded shrimp are washed and
rerun prior to boxing.
Shrimp that have been breaded are packaged either as "fantail"
shrimp (shrimp that have the uropods portion of the tail left and
are split part way up the back), or as "butterfly" (split whole
shrimp with tail removed). Butterfly and whole shrimp (either
glazed and frozen or breaded and frozen) are also packaged. The
packages are then machine sealed and frozen. Shrimp are frozen
either in blast freezers or i.Q.F. quick freezers.
The discussion of the wastes generated in the Alaskan shrimp
processing industry is applicable to much of the remainder of the
shrimp industry in the United States.
In addition to raw waste characteristics the subcategorization
rational follows the discussions presented above for Alaskan
shrimp and northern shrimp processing.
TUNA PROCESSING (Subcategory N)
The annual consumption of tuna in the United States each year far
surpasses any other seafood. The raw material, processing
methods and size of operation clearly distinguish the tuna
industry from the other fisheries studied. For these reasons,
tuna is considered a separate category. The industry may be
divided into four main segments: harvesting, processing for
human consumption, production of pet food, and by-product
recovery. For the purpose of this report these four segments
will be discussed with specific emphasis on the processsing of
human food; pet food production and by-product utilization will
be treated as waste recovery, although each is an integral and
profitable part or the industry. Harvesting will be considered
81
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SUPPLY OF CANNED TUNA, 1961-72
Million
600
450
00
ro
300
150
U. S. pack from
imported fresh
and frozen
U. S. pack from
domestic landings
I
I
I
I
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972
Figure 24
-------
only from the standpoint of a raw materials source and shall not
be dealt with in detail.
Background
The United States tuna industry began in 1903 with the production
of 700 cases of Albacore tuna packed in California. By 1972, it
had grown to over 31 million cases per year worth $632.5 million
with plants located, not only in the continental United States,
but also in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and American Samoa. In recent
years, the industry has been increasingly dependent on imports of
fresh and frozen raw tuna to meet the demand. As indicated on
Figure 2Ht only 3U percent of the U. S. supply was packed from
domestic landings—compared with 39 percent in 1971 (N.M.F.S.,
1973). The four main tuna species of interest to the tuna pro-
cessors are the yellow fin (Neothunus macropterus), blue fin
(Thunnus thynnus), skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis), and Albacore
(Thunnus germo). These species are divided into the white meat
variety, exclusively Albacore, of which there is a limited catch,
and the light meat varieties of blue fin, yellow fin and skip-
jack; the latter two comprise the majority of the tuna canned in
the United States. White meat tuna is considered the "premium"
product of the industry, because of its characteristically white
color, firm texture and delicate flavor as compared with the
darker, fuller flavored light meat. Harvesting 'with pole and
line has given way in the past 20 years to the use of the purse
seiner, which permits the catching of a large volume of fish in
about one-fourth the time. (Albacore are primarily harvested
with pole and line because they don't school). After locating a
school of tuna, the fish are encircled with a large net which is
then drawn closed at the bottom. The fish are subsequently
crowded together and dipped out of the enclosure into the hold of
the boat. Fish harvested locally, i.e., near the processor, are
held in refrigerated cargo holds or wells in the ship. An
alternate method of storage has been developed for a catch which
must be transported from foreign water, often thousands of
kilometers from the processing plant. This method entails brine
freezing the fish and then holding them in a frozen state until
near the plant where the fish are then thawed enough to be easily
unloaded.
Processing
The processing of tuna is divided into several unit processes,
specifically: receiving, thawing, butchering, precook, cleaning,
canning, retorting, and finally, labeling and casing. Product
flow, waste water flow, pet food production, and waste
utilization is shown schematically in Figure 25.
The tuna are unloaded from the fishing boats into one ton bins
and transported by fork lift trucks to the scale house for
weighing. Then, depending on the condition of the fish, i.e.,
83
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RAW FROZEN TUNA
FROM BOATS
PRODUCT FLOW
= WASTEWATER FLOW
•-—••——-«= — * WASTE SOLIDS FLOW
(BLOOD, JUICES, SMALL PARTICLES)
( OILS, MEAT, BONE, ETC.)
STICKWATER (OILS,SOLUBLE ORGANICS)
(HEAD, FINS,SKIN, BONE)
i (VEGETABLE OIL^MEAT PARTICLES)
(OILS, MEAT PARTICLES, SOAP)
(ORSANICS, DETERGENT)
, _ ^1
(SCRUBBER WATER WITH ENTRAINED ORGANICS)
REDUCTION PLANT
SOLUBLES PLANT —
(CONDENSATE WITH ENTRAINED ORGANICS)
HUMAN
CONSUMPTION
CONCENTRATED
SOLUBLES
Figure 25
Tuna process.
84
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soft or frozen, and the production backlog, they are either
transferred to cold storage or directly to thawing tanks; soft
fish which may be fresh or partially thawed are usually processed
immediately. Imported fish, i.e., purchased from a foreign
country, are also received to fill any gaps in domestic
harvesting.
The fish are thawed in large tanks which hold 8 to 10 one ton
bins. These tanks are equipped with a moveable end plate so that
fork lift trucks can place the bins inside the tanks and
subsequently remove them after the thaw. Once the bins are in
place, the end plate is lowered and fresh water or seawater is
pumped or sprayed into the tank. Thawing then takes place under
either static or continuous flow conditions. Steam is used in
some cases to heat the water.
The thaw time depends on three variables: 1) the condition of
the fish with respect to temperature; 2) temperature of the thaw
water, and 3) size of the fish. Smaller species, e.g., skipjack
averaging 1.8 to 9.0 kg (4 to 20 Ibs) and Albacore 4.5 to 18 kg
(10 to 40 Ibs), take from two to three hours to thaw whereas
larger species, e.g., the yellow fin averaging 4.5 to 45 kg (10
to 100 Ibs), take from five to six hours. Thawing time is
increased for fish held in cold storage at -12 to -18°C (0 to
10°F). A substantial reduction in thaw time is achieved by
heating the thaw water with the addition of steam. After thawing
is completed, the tanks are drained into a collection ditch, the
end plate is raised, and the bins are removed and placed on an
automated dumper at the head of the butchering line.
The thawed fish are dumped onto a shaker conveyor which spreads
them out and transports them to the butcher table. Equipped with
a conveyor belt, wash screen, and circular saw the table is
manned by 5 to 10 skilled workers who eviscerate each tuna. The
viscera, which comprises 10 to 15 percent of the tuna by weight,
is removed and placed in barrels along the line. The tuna is
washed with a water spray and checked for freshness
organoleptically, i.e., by a trained worker who inserts a hand
into the cut made by the butchers and smells it for signs of
putrifaction. Workers at the end of the line place the tuna in
mobile racks containing 14 separate trays. The larger species of
tuna are cut to standard size and set into trays for the precook
process which follows.
A small water jet is usually sprayed onto the saws to keep them
clean. The accumulated waste from the saw and wash screen drips
onto the floor and is collected in a drain running parallel to,
and underneath the butcher table. This drain also collects
waters used to hose down the floor periodically during the day
and the equipment washdown at the completion of the butchering
process. The viscera is collected in barrels and sent to either
the fish meal reduction plant or the fish solubles plant.
85
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The tuna are precooked to facilitate the removal of edible from
inedible portions. The precook process involves three main
steps: 1) the steam cooking of the fish, 2) removal of the steam
condensate or "stickwater," and 3) the cooling of the fish prior
to cleaning.
The racks of butchered fish are wheeled into large steam cookers
with a capacity of 10 tons of fish per cook. Depending upon the
size of the fish or fish sections, the cook will last from 2 to 4
hours at a live steam temperature of 93°C (200°F). Steam
condensate plus oils and moisture from the fish collects in the
cookers and the resulting stickwater is pumped to a solubles
plant which concentrates this and other by—product liquids.
After the precook, the racks are moved into a holding room and
cooled about 12 hours. The holding or cooling room may be
equipped with fine spray nozzles to hasten the heat loss, but in
most cases cooling takes place under ambient conditions. Because
of the time involved in the precook process, the fish are thawed,
butchered, and precooked the day before they are cleaned and
packed. From the cooling room the racks of cooked tuna are moved
into the cleaning area of the packing room.
The trays of cooked tuna are wheeled to the packing room where
the fish are removed from the racks and the tuna placed along the
long cleaning lines which lead the packing machine. There may be
from one to ten lines in a plant, depending upon its size, with
about 100 people working each line. The line consists of a long
double table, with an elevated shelf separating the two sides and
a stainless steel conveyor belt in the middle of this shelf. At
each position along the table is a hopper feeding another
conveyor belt beneath the table. First the head, tail, fins,
skin, and bone are manually removed from the fish and disposed of
in the aforementioned hopper, conveyor system. This scrap is
collected at the leading end of line and by means of an auger it
is conveyed to a collection area for transport to the fish meal
reduction plant. Depending on size and species, approximately 30
to 40 percent of the tuna by weight is comprised of this non-
edible portion. Next, the red meat which constitutes 6 to 10
percent of the tuna is scraped from the lighter meat into a
container for collection and transport to the pet food production
area. Cleaned of all excess material, the meat is separated into
four loins along natural dividing lines, i.e., down the back and
along the sides. These loins along with broken portions of the
loins are placed on the elevated conveyor to the can packing
machine. Chunk style tuna is prepared from broken sections
whereas whole loins are used for solid pack tuna. Automatic
packing machines shape the tuna and fill the cans. A spillover
of juices onto the floor from the compaction of the tuna results
in the only flow of waste from what is otherwise a dry process.
The cans are then filled with soybean or vegetable oil, a brine
solution, and monosodium glutamate; the oil replaces the natural
oils lost in cooking and lubricates the tuna to prevent sticking
to the sides of the cans during the high temperatures reached in
86
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retorting. The oil delivery system has an overflow collection
system which filters the oil and recirculates it, thereby mini-
mizing loss.
After vacuum sealing in a lid seaming machine the cans are run
through a can washer to remove all the particles and oil from the
outside. The can washers usually have three phases: prerinse,
soap rinse, and final rinse, all utilizing hot water. The first
two phases are recirculated water from which the oils and solids
are removed. A despotting agent is often added to the final
rinse to protect against mineral deposits on the cans as the cans
dry.
Conveyed by a series of belts, elevators, and wire enclosed
gravity feed lines, the packed cans arrive at the cooker room on
one of several lines, depending on can size. Retort cooker
buggies, which are semi-circular in shape to fit into the
cylindrical cookers, are filled with cans at each of these
several can lines. When enough full buggies of a particular can
size are loaded they are guided into the retorts on a set of
rails and the doors are bolted shut.
The retorts are essentially large pressure cookers which measure
1.4 meters by 11.1 meters (4-1/2 ft by 37 ft) in which the tuna
is sterilized at 121°C (250/F) for 1-1/2 hours. This procedure
insures the destruction of all living organisms within the can
which could destroy the product or more seriously in the case of
Clostridium botulinum pose a fatal danger to the consumer. After
the necessary time and temperature requirements have been
satisfied for the particular can size, the pressure is reduced
and the cans cooled with circulating cold water. A final water
rinse contains a despotting agent as is sometimes used to protect
against spotting when the cans dry. The buggies are removed from
the retorts to a holding room for further cooling and drying.
Each can is coded at the time of sealing; a representative number
are sampled, tested, and then that code is designated for a
certain market or distributor. After the cans have cooled in the
holding room, the buggies are dumped into a bin from which the
cans are alined for the labeling machine. Application of the
label and subsequent casing in corrugated fiber containers is the
last step in the processing plant before either shipment or
warehousina.
Pet Food Production
The dark colored meat scraped away from the lighter meat in the
cleaning process is collected and packed as pet food; the in-
dustry refers to this darker meat as "red meat." The packing
process differs from the human consumption line in that less
attention is given to the style of pack. Other flavor
ingredients are added and the can filling mechanisms deliver the
correct quantity of tuna to the can without the extra process of
87
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compaction and shaping. The cans are vacuum sealed, rinsed and
conveyed to the same cook room to be retorted. As these
processes have been previously described, no further mention will
be made of them here.
Non-Tuna Pet Food
In conjunction with the production of red meat tuna, some of the
plants are also equipped for processing other types of pet foods.
Viscera from the beef packing industry, egg, poultry parts, and
other ingredients are prepared and cooked in large vats. The
mixture is packed in cans using machinery very similar to that
used in the red meat process and sealed, passed through can
washers, and transferred to the cook room for retorting.
By-Product Recovery
No part of the tuna which enters the processing plant is regarded
as waste by the industry. Stickwater, the non-edible portions,
and the aforementioned red meat are all collected and further
processed into other products. Red meat, although also a by-
product, is discussed separately from this section because of the
similarities and shared processes with the production of tuna for
human consumption.
Fish Meal Reduction
All of the scrap removed to obtain the edible portions of tuna,
the spilled scrap and meat cleaned up before washdown, and solids
screened from the waste water are collected and transported to
the reduction plant for further processing.
The waste solids are ground, cooked, and then pressed to remove
valuable juices and oils before the resulting "press cake" is
dried by one of several methods. Depending upon the specific
process, small amounts of wastes are entrained in the various
water flows, e.g., steam condensate, barometric leg waters, air
scrubber waters, associated with drying. The resulting fish meal
is bagged and marketed for many different uses, including
fertilizer and animal feed additives.
The juices and oils collected from the pressing of the cooked
solids, termed the press liquor, are pumped to the solubles plant
which concentrates this liquor along with the stickwater, and
also in many cases a slurry of ground viscera. The usual method
is to heat the liquid with steam in the presence of a vacuum
produced by a barometric leg. The solubles after concentration
by 2 to 4 phases or "effects," are drained off for tuna oil
removal or marketed as an animal feed additive and other uses.
Wastes become entrained in the steam and aspirator waters of this
-------
process. Further information may be obtained from the literature
regarding fishery by-product recovery.
Subcatecrorization Rationale
Consideration of the tuna industry as a subcategory of the sea-
food industry was provisionally segregated prior to sampling
because of the homogeniety in the tuna processing methods, ex-
tensive by-product recovery, and the magnitude of production.
This segregation was substantiated by the data and information
obtained and subsequent comparison to the other subcategories.
Figures 26, 27, and 28 are plots of all tuna flow, BOD5, and
suspended solids data (respectively) gathered in this study.
Although widely distributed, the tuna processors utilize a common
technology for the production of canned tuna and various by-
products. The waste characteristics of this common technology
does show geographic variation which, although obvious
internally, does not justify further subcategorization of the
tuna industry. This variation is due to operational inconsis-
tencies which could be easily corrected to minimize differences
and thus justify a common waste treatment technology amenable to
all plants.
89
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40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
= Puerto Rico
= Southern California
= Northwest
100 200 300 400
PRODUCTION kkg/day
Figure 26
Tuna production rates and flow ratios
90
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• = Puerto Rico
•= Southern California
A— Northwest
20
15
Q
O
CQ
10
100
200 300
PRODUCTION kkg/day
400
Figure 27
Tuna production rates and KZ6 ratios
91
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tn
X
^
tn
X
tn
T3
•rl
H
o
CO
Q)
Ti
C
0)
ft
cn
3
01
~ Puerto Rico
= Southern California
= Northwest
15
10
100
200
300
400
PRODUCTION kkg/day
Figure 28
Tuna production rates and suspended solids ratios
92
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SECTION V
WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Introduction
A major effort in this study involved actual field
characterization of the waste waters emanating from processing
plants in each of the subcategories. This was necessary because
a previously-completed literature review and interview program
concluded that very little knowledge of the character and volume
of canned and preserved seafood processing waste waters was
available (Soderquist, et al., 1970).
The waste characteristics for the seafood processing industry
were identified using a combination of judgment and statistical
sampling methods. A preliminary stratification was first
developed to define subcategories which were considered likely to
be relatively homogeneous from the standpoint of the application
of control and treatment standards. The processing plants in
each subcategory were then treated as separate populations in
terms of sample means and standard deviations for several
important waste parameters.
In cases where the processing plants in a subcategory were
located over a relatively wide area, consultations with
knowledgeable industrial and university people were held and
plants were identified which were considered to be typical of the
whole group. Where the plants tended to be in groups, "cluster
sampling" was utilized as the basis for the sample design.
Temporal averages of the desired parameters were obtained from
the combined effluent streams and, when possible, from the most
significant unit operations. The temporal averages from each
process were then averaged to obtain a combined time and space
representation for each subcategory. The spatial range and
standard deviation of the temporal averages were then inspected
to verify the adequacy of the preliminary subcategorization.
Where the sample coefficient of variation appeared to be
relatively large for some of the parameters, the individual
process data were reviewed to determine if a further breakdown of
the subcategory should be undertaken. In general, variations
could be traced to differences in unit operations between
processes. Post-stratification was then employed and the more
typical processing operations separated from the exceptions; or
processors with the more similar operations were averaged
together to obtain strata which were more internally uniform. In
most cases it was decided that the creation of additional
subcategories was not warranted. The averages for these "sub-
subcategories" are included in this section to assist the reader
in understanding the sources of variation.
93
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Where the averages of different preliminary subcategories were
similar, and review of the other pertinent subcategorization
variables warranted the decision, all the plants in these
subcategories were combined to obtain averages for more general
subcategories.
Sampling Program Design
The preliminary subcategorization of the industry was developed
through review of all significant literature, consultation with
industry groups, related governmental represenatives and
recognized experts in the areas of fish processing, and waste
treatment and control, based on the factors discussed in Section
IV. The processing plants in each subcategory were then handled
as objects of separate universes.
Based on previous experience in examining wastes from the seafood
processing industry, the parameters considered to be most
important from the standpoint of waste control and treatment
were: flow, settleable solids, screened solids, suspended
solids, 5 and 20 day BOD, COD, grease and oil, organic nitrogen,
ammonia, pH, raw material input rate, and food and by-product
recovery.
Most of the processing plants in each subcategory were then
identified by the respective trade organizations. Where the
processing plants in a subcategory tended to be grouped together
in certain geographical areas, the method of cluster sampling was
adopted as being the most efficient in terms of information
gained per unit cost. Cluster sampling is optimal in terms of
reducing the sampling error when a collection of plants is
grouped, such that the groups tend to be alike, while showing
heterogenity within the group. This constrasts with "stratified
sampling," where the collection of plants is grouped such that
they tend to be homogeneous witin groups and heterogeneous
between.
Cluster sampling is a natural choice in this industry because of
a common organizational structure, while the variability within a
group (or cluster) is often high as a result of plant age,
processing level, management flexibility, and so on. In some
cases, however, neighboring plants may be more alike than plants
further apart, contrary to the principle that cluster sampling
reduces error when clusters are more heterogeneous within than
without; however, the cluster sampling method is still often the
most efficient (and the only practical method). The primary
criterion used to select the clusters was whether the cluster
appeared to be a scaled-down version of the entire industry in
the subcategory. This is contrary to the principle that clusters
be selected by simple random sampling; however, it utilized prior
knowledge of the industry to better advantage and presented the
opportunity for valuable judgmental inputs.
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An attempt was made to completely enumerate all the plants in
each cluster; however, this was modified by factors such as raw
material availability and accessibility to plant effluents. In
some cases there was insufficient raw material to keep all plants
operating during the monitoring period.
Individual Plant Sampling
Time-averaged estimates of the important parameters were obtained
by sampling the total effluent, and in most cases significant
unit operation contributions, over a period lasting from several
days to several weeks for each plant selected. In most cases the
effluent was being discharged at more than one point; therefore,
each point was sampled and flow-proportioned to obtain a sample
which would represent the total effluent.
Immediately after sampling, each aliquot was passed through a
standard 20-mesh Tyler screen prior to adding it to the
composite. This serves to remove the larger solids particles
(such as crab legs, some shrimp shell, fish parts, etc.) and
thereby greatly reduce the resultant "scatter" of the data
points. The method is especially valuable when one is dealing
with a limited number of samples and the development of a precise
base-line value for each parameter is the goal. The alternatives
to this approach were essentially three-fold:
1) to use a larger mesh size;
2) to blend or grind the samples; and
3) to leave all solids intact and in the sample.
A larger mesh size would have been less defensible than 20-mesh,
since the latter represented the minimum mesh expected to be
encountered in the final treatment designs. To grind the samples
would have led to unrealistically high values for some parameters
such as BOD and grease, because these values are surface-area
dependent. Blending a food processing waste sample can increase
its BOD by up to 1000 percent (Soderquist, et al, 1972a). Since
the values obtained through this method (especially those for
BOD—the single most important parameter in the guidelines) would
be unrealistically high and would not relate to actual receiving-
water conditions, this choice was rejected. As discussed above,
the third alternative was not adopted because it would introduce
unacceptable scatter into the results and throw into serious
question the validity of the parameter averages obtained.
Although it was recognized that laboratory screening efficiencies
would likely be significantly higher than full-scale field
screening efficiencies (for the same mesh), smaller mesh sizes
could be used in full-scale application to achieve the same
results.
Adoption of the 20-mesh screening method provided accurate,
reliable base-line data for each parameter in each subcategory
for screened waste water, thereby permitting confident design of
subsequent treatment components.
95
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Screening of the fresh sample rather than the composited one
minimized leaching from the solids, which would not normally be a
contributor if the waste waters were routinely screened prior to
discharge.
For estimates of removal efficiencies for the design and cost
estimates, the literature was consulted to establish the
relationship between screened and unscreened BODI5 for each
subcategory. This factor was applied in full recognition of the
inherent inaccuracies associated with the "unscreened" value.
The flow rates, concentrations and production rates can be
studied from the viewpoint of time-series analysis. An estimate
of the true time average over an infinite interval can be
obtained by taking the time average over a finite interval.
Problems arise when the time series statistics are not
independent of a time translation (time series is nonstationary).
Typical causes are daily and seasonal periodicities. This can be
obviated satisfactorily in many cases by considering the time
series to be periodically stationary, since samples taken at
intervals of the periodicity may be approximately stationary.
The time average can be determined by considering the time
functions in each period to be transient pulses, each with a
beginning and end in the period; and then averaging the sample
mean for each period over a number of periods.
Daily periodicities were handled in the manner described above;
however, the monitoring interval was too short to include even
one seasonal period. This problem was handled by considering the
fact that most processing plants operate at a peak rate while the
raw material supply lasts and then terminate the work shift. An
increasing amount of raw product would then increase the length
or number of shifts. A ratio of waste load to weight of raw
material could then be estimated independently of the amount of
raw material or shift length at the time of monitoring.
Information on seasonal variation in raw material landings which
is available from other sources can then be translated into waste
load variation.
Estimates of the averages for each day were obtained by taking a
number of samples during the day and then mixing volumes of all
the samples together in proportion to the flow at the time each
sample was taken. In the limit this is the same as taking a
sample from the total volume of effluent produced during the day.
Since mixing is approximately a linear operation for most of the
parameters, a laboratory analysis of the one composite sample
gives about the same results as taking the average of a series of
separate analyses of individual samples.
The number of samples taken during the day was dependent on the
variability of the waste load. For cases where the flow and
concentration were judged to be relatively constant only a few
samples were taken. When the flow was intermittent, but rather
constant in volume and concentration a random sampling of
96
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intermittent flows was made and the number of times the flow
occurred noted so an estimate of the total waste load from that
source could be developed. Sampling effort was concentrated at
points where the flows and concentrations were judged to be the
most variable and significant to the study.
Data Reduction
The raw waste concentrations and loading per unit of raw product
were estimated for each plant using the following methodology.
The time-averaged flow rate was estimated for each plant (where
plant refers to an individual process at an individual plant) by
expressing the flow rate for each day in terms of an eight hour
day and then taking an unweighted average. The average
production time per day was determined for each process; however,
the eight hour day was used to present the water and product flow
rates for each subcategory in a uniform manner.
An estimate of the ratio of each parameter, except pH, in terms
of weight or volume per unit weight of raw material was obtained
using the mean of the ratio's estimator. The ratio of the
parameter to production volume based on an eight hour day was
calculated for each day and an average of these ratios was
determined over all days. The range shown on the tables is the
lowest and highest daily ratio. The weight to weight ratios were
expressed in terms of kg/kkg, which is equivalent to 1 lb/1000
Ibs.
The parameter concentrations were expressed in terms of the ratio
of the load per unit of raw material to the flow per unit
production. This weights the concentration obtained from
individual daily samples according to the daily flow and
production volumes. The ranges shown on the tables are the
unweighted daily low and high concentrations obtained.
When the parameter time averages were obtained for each plant,
all the plants in a subcategory were averaged together using
equal weights to obtain a composite time-space representation.
A waste water material balance was determined by averaging the
flows from each unit operation in a manner similar to that
described for the total. The resulting average and range were
expressed as percents of the total average flow. The waste
characteristics of the flow from each operation were tabularized
when data were available, or described qualitatively from on-site
observations.
Raw product material balances were determined by obtaining food
and by-product production figures when possible and results were
expressed as percents of raw material input. The waste
percentages shown are the differences between the raw material
inputs and the finished product outputs.
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FARM-RAISED CATFISH PROCESSING (Subcategory A)
The farm-raised catfish processing industry is relatively new
(many plants are less than 5 years old) and employs similar
techniques. This was essentially substantiated by analysis of
the waste loading data. One variation was the large difference
in waste water production depending on whether the fish were
delivered in live haul trucks, on ice, or dry.
The samples on which this study is based were taken at five
processing plants during April, May and June of 1973. Those
months are some of the poorer production months in the industry.
Because the peak production season does not come until late
summer and fall, mostly small fish were being processed and the
additional amount of time required to process smaller fish held
the production volume down. The major complication was the
severe flooding throughout much of the Mississippi Delta, which
hindered or prevented harvesting of the fish, along with other
normal industry operations.
There was some difficulty in obtaining samples of the total
effluent since the waste water sources of the processes sampled
were quite diverse and often had several exits from the plant.
This was usually the case where older buildings designed for
other purposes had been converted to catfish processing plants.
Wastewater Sources and Flows
Depending on the location of the particular plant, a well or city
water system supplied the raw water and a city sewer system or
local stream were called upon to receive the final effluent.
Figure 5 shows a typical catifsh process flow diagram, and Table
16 gives a breakdown of the flow sources. The three main flows
formed the effluent and its constituent waste loads. The average
waste water flow from the process plants sampled was 116 cu m/day
(0.031 mgd) with a moderately large variation of about plus or
minus 50 percent due mainly to holding tank and cleaning
differences as mentioned. The flow from the live holding tank
area produced the largest volume of water (59 percent) and
contained the least waste. Conversely, the cleanup flows
contributed a relatively small volume of water (7.5 percent), but
contained the highest waste concentrations. The processing flows
were the third factor and they contributed a medium volume of
water with a medium to heavy waste concentration.
Water reuse was limited to the holding tank and was not a
universal practice. Plant 4 retained water in holding tanks for
a week or more with an overflow of roughly 0.2 I/sec (3 gpm) from
each tank, and as a partial consequence, had one of the the
lowest total daily flows. Plant 2 had to drain each holding tank
completely each time fish were removed from it because of the
tank and plant design. Plant 2 had the highest total water usage
with over two times the flow of Plant U. The other plants reused
holding tank water in varying degrees.
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Table 16. Catfish process material balance.
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 116 cu m/day (0.0306 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Range/ %
a) live holding tanks 59 55 - 64
b) butchering (be-heading,
eviscerating) -- — - —
c) skinning 4 2-7
d) cleaning 14 9-18
e) packing (incl. sorting) 3 1-5
f) clean-up 7 5-9
g) washdown flows 13 9-16
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 5.19 kkg/day (5.72 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food Product 63 — - —
By-product 27 0-32
Waste 10 5-37
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Table 17. Catfish process summary (5 plants)
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
116
(0. 0306)
23, 000 1
(5510)
7.8
180
140
3. 2
400
9.2
340
7.9
—
700
16
200
4. 5
27
0. 62
0.96
0. 022
6.3
79
(0.
5, 800
(3780
7.
2.
6.
5.
--
10
3.
0.
0.
5.
Range
170
021 - 0. 045)
- 31, 500
7550)
1 - 650
5 - 3.9
8 - 12
5 - 9.2
-
19
8 5. 6
51 - 0.75
0045 - 0. 045
8 - 7. 0
TOO
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Holding tank flows ran into the tanks from stationary faucets and
when the tanks were full the flow drained through standpipe
drains. Clean-up flows came almost exclusively from hoses but
processing flows were quite diverse in origin. Processing flows
came from skinning machines, washers, chill tanks, the packing
area, and eviscerating tables and included water used to flume
solids out of the processing area.
The by-product solids were removed from the processing area in
two ways. They were "dry-captured" in baskets or tubs and
removed by that means or flumed to a screening and collection
point. All of the plants sampled used the same type of skinning
machine, which was designed to operate with a small flow of
water. The skins were washed out of the machine; there is no way
to effect dry capture of the skins, short of redesigning the
equipment.
While the holding tank flow waste was mainly made up of feces,
slime, and regurgitated organic matter, the processing and clean-
up wastes were made up of blood, fats, small chunks of skin and
viscera, and other body fluids or components. A high waste load
came from the tanks where the fish were washed, and from the
chill tanks. There was no way to "dry-capture" this waste which
was composed of blood, fats, and some particulate organic
materials.
Product Flow
Table 16 shows the average breakdown of the raw material into
food product, by-products and waste. The percent recovered for
food depends on the size of the fish and to a slight degree
whether manual or mechanical skinning is used. The average is
about 63 percent. Some plants in rural areas dump or bury the
waste solids; however, most save the solids and ship them to a
rendering plant.
The average production rate is about 5.2 kkg/day (5.7 tons/day)
with a range from 3 to 7 kkg/day. The average shift length is
about 8 hours but is quite variable in some plants due to raw
material supply.
Raw^Waste Loadings
Table 17 gives the combined average flow and loadings. Tables 18
through 22 list the flows and loadings for each of the five
processing operations sampled. The average BOD loading was 7.9
kg/kkg with a range from 5.5 to 9.2 kg/kkg. The average BOD
concentration was 350 mg/1.
In developing the Catfish Process Summary, Table 17, the flow
data from Plant 2 was omitted. The excessive water use of 31,500
1/kkg was due to draining the holding tank completely each time
101
-------
Table 18. Catfish process (t>lant 1) .
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids , mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
148
(0.039)
20, 900
(5020)
1.2
25
--
530
11
440
9.2
--
860
18
270
5.6
36
0.75
2.2
0. 045
5.9
136
(0.
18,400
(4400
6.
_ —
6.
3.
--
11
3.
0.
0.
5.
Range
155
036 - 0. 041 ;
- 24, 500
5880)
6 - 44
— - —
1 - 16
7 - 13
_
23
5 - 7.8
32 - 1.1
0046 - 0. 095
5 6. 3
3 samples
102
-------
Table 19. Catfish process (plant 2).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N , mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
170
(0. 045)
31, 500
(7550)
0.4
14
120
3.9
270
8.5
230
7.2
--
540
17
120
3.9
20
0. 64
0. 51
0. 016
7. 0
Range
102
(0. 027 -
24,400 - 37
(5860
11
3. 2
6.4 -
6.3 -
__
12
2. 7
0.48 -
0. 014 -
6.8 -
204
0. 054)
, 000
8860)
17
4.6
10
7.9
--
28
4. 3
0. 73
0. 018
7.2
5 samples
103
-------
Table 20. Catfish process (plant 3).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu in/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
79
(0. 021)
15, 800
(3780)
0.45
7. 1
_ _
430
6.8
570
9.0
--
1200
19
260
4. 1
42
0.66
0. 28
0. 0045
5.8
64
(0.
10, 200
(2450
6.
--
5.
7.
--
14
2.
0.
0.
5.
Range
95
017 - 0. 025)
- 17,200
- 4120)
3 - 13
_
2 - 7.9
3 - 10
-
20
2 - 6. 0
35 - 0.83
002 - 0. 005
2 6.3
2 samples
104
-------
Table 21. Catfish process (plant 4).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu in/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
Range
80 76
(0. 0212) (0. 0201 -
26, 300
(6310)
25
650
--
290
7. 5
210
5. 5
--
380
10
140
3. 8
20
0. 53
0. 53
0. 014
--
23,400 -28
(5610
640
--
6.0
4. 3
--
7. 7
2.9
0.42
0. 0085 -
--
85
0. 0225)
,400
6810)
670
--
8.9
6.9
--
16
4. 6
0. 80
0. 020
--
9 samples
105
-------
Table 22. Catfish process (plant 5).
Parameter
Plow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
102
(0. 027)
20, 500
(4910)
9.3
190
120
2. 5
580
12
410
8.4
::
730
15
260
5.3
25
0. 51
1.5
0. 031
6.6
Range
68
(0. 018 -
12, 100 - 28
(2900
170
2. 1
5. 1
--
__
8. 7
3.2
_ _ ..
_ _ -
6. 5 -
125
0. 033)
, 000
6720)
230
3.2
18
--
--
22
8.6
— —
- _
6.7
8 samples
106
-------
the fish were removed. Common practice in the industry includes
holding tank water recycle with constant runoff and intermittent
drainage.
CONVENTIONAL BLUE CRAB (Subcategory B)
Based on preliminary observations of blue crab processing opera-
tions it became rather obvious that this part of the industry
should be divided into two subcategories depending on the use of
hand or machine picking. Subsequent analysis of waste loading
data confirmed this judgment. The only exception to the two
categories was perhaps the modern, high volume, mechanized plants
which contribute a relatively higher waste load per unit of raw
material. Much of this would be avoidable, however, through
concerted in-plant water use reduction.
The conventional process using manual picking was considered to
be relatively uniform; therefore, only two processing operations
were selected for sampling.
Wastewater Sources and Flows
All the plants sampled used domestic water supplies. The con-
ventional process shown in Figure 12 produced a small amount of
waste water, averaging only 2.52 cu m/day (660 gal/day). Table
23 gives a breakdown of the flow from each unit operation as a
percent of the total. The majority of the flow (60 percent) was
cooling water from continuous ice making operations, but
contributed negligible organic waste loads. The washdown was an
intermittent source which contributed an average of 23 percent of
the total flow, but also contributed only a small waste load.
The cooker flow averaged 17 percent and contributed the greatest
load to the waste water streams.
Product Flow
The proportion of the raw material going into food products, by-
products and waste is given on Table 23. About 14 percent of the
crab is utilized for food (Soderquist, 1970). Up to 80 percent
could be captured for by-products, which would leave about 6
percent entering the waste water flow.
The maximum conventional rate is about 500 kg/hr (1100 Ibs/hr).
The average production rate was about two-thirds of the maximum.
During a day's operation the processing is continuous; however,
the length of the shift and the number of days the plants operate
is intermittent due to fluctuations in the raw material supply.
The average processing time was 7.2 hrs/day for the conventional
plant.
107
-------
Table 23. Conventional blue crab process material balance.
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 2.52 cu m/day (0.000665 mgd)
Unit Operation
a) washdown
b) cook
c) ice
% of Average Flow
23
17
60
Range, %
17 - 26
13 - 21
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 2.59 kkg/day (2.85 tons/day)
Output
Food product
By-product
Waste
% of Raw Product
14
80
6
Range, %
9-16
79 - 86
108
-------
Table 24. Conventional blue crab process summary (2 plants).
Parameter
Plow Rate , cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
Mean
2. 52
(0.000665)
1190
(285)
4.4
5.2
620
0. 74
4400
5.2
6300
7. 5
220
0.26
760
0. 90
50
0. 06
Range
2.38
(0. 00063 -
1060
(255
4.3
0. 7
4. 8
--
7.2
0.21
0. 80
--
2. 65
0. 00070)
1310
315)
6.2
--
0. 78
5. 5
--
7.8
0. 30
1. 0
--
7. 5
7.2
7.9
109
-------
Table 25. Conventional blue crab process (plant 1).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
2. 65
(0. 00070)
1310
(315)
3.3
4. 3
—
--
600
0. 78
3600
4. 8
„ _
5500
7.2
230
0. 30
610
0. 80
46
0. 06
7.9
Range
2. 50
(0. 00066 -
1140
(273
1. 8
— — _
--
0.2
4. 7
~~ ]
6.8
0. 24
0. 66
0. 05
-_
6. 43
0. 001
1520
364)
6.8
«. —
--
1. 5
5. 0
7. 8
0. 37
1. 0
0. 08
--
9 samples
110
-------
Table 26. Conventional blue crab process (plant 2).
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
2.38 2.2
(0. 00063) (0. 00058
1060
(255)
5.8
6.2
660
0. 7
972
(233
0.2
5200
5.5 3.5
2. 8
0. 00073)
1270
304)
28
1. 2
9. 0
uuij , ing/ x
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
7400
7.8
200
0.21
940
1. 0
57
0. 06
7.2
5.4
0. 14
0. 55
0. 04
6. 1
12
0. 36
1. 2
0. 07
7. 8
9 samples
111
-------
Raw Waste Loadings
Table 24 gives the combined average conventional flows and
loadings and Tables 25 and 26 list the average flows and loadings
for each parameter for each of the two conventional processes
sampled.
The waste loadings from the two conventional processes were quite
similar. The flow ratio ranged from 1060 to 1315 1/kkg (255 to
315 gal/ton). The BOD ranged from 4.8 to 5.5 kg/kkg and the COD
ranged from 7.2 to 7.8 kg/kkg.
Mechanized_Blue_Crab (Subcategory C)
The mechanized blue crab process using the claw picking machine
had greater variability than the conventional process; ranging
from an essentially conventional operation with a mechanical
picker used intermittently for the claws, to modern facilities
employing several mechanical pickers and a pastuerization
operation to give longer product shelf life. A relatively poor
harvest and time limitations, however, permitted only two
mechanized processes to be sampled. This was a significant
sample of the industry, however, because less than ten plants
fall into the subcategory.
Conventional plants which employed mechanical claw pickers on an
intermittent basis and were considered to be mechanized plants.
Wastewater Sources and Flow
The mechanized process shown in Figure 13 produced considerably
more waste water than the conventional processes. The average
flow was about 178 cu m/day (0.047 mgd), with the mechanical
picker contributing about 90 percent of the volume. Table 27
gives a breakdown of the flow from each operation. The cooking
water, which had a high organic concentration, was diluted con-
siderably by the water from the mechanical picker. The mechani-
cal operation also produced brine wastes from the flotation tanks
and from the subsequent meat washing. The brine tanks averaged
about 1040 liter (275 gal) and were dumped once a shift. The
concentrations of sodium chloride were very high, being about
100,000 to 200,000 mg/1 (as chloride).
Product Flow
The proportion of the raw material going into food products,
by-products and waste is given in Table 27. About 14 percent of
the crab is utilized for food (Soderquist, 1970). Up to 80
percent could be captured for byproducts, which would leave about
6 percent entering the waste water flow.
112
-------
Table 27. Mechanized blue crab process material balance.
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 176 cu m/day (0.0465 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Range, %
a) machine picking 90.5 •— - —
b) brine tank 0.5 — - —
c) washdown 7.7 — - —
d) cook 0.2 — - —
e) ice making 1.1 — - —
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 4.8 kkg/day (5.3 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food Product 14 9-16
By-product 80 79-86
Waste 6 — - —
113
-------
Table 28. Mechanized blue crab process summary (2 plants)
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
176
(0. 0465)
36, 800
(8830)
2. 6
94
—
330
1Z
600
22
_ _
980
36
150
5.6
98
3.6
5.4
0.20
7. 0
76
(0.
29, 000
(6960
77
- -
_ _
22
_ _
29
4.
2.
0.
6.
Range
276
020 - 0. 07:
- 44, 600
- 10, 700)
110
- - _
— « —
23
_
42
3 6. 9
7 4. 4
16 - 0.24
9 - 7.2
114
-------
The maximum mechanized production rate is about 1.8 kkg/hr (2
tons/hr) on a raw material basis. The average production rate
was about two-thirds of the maximum. During a day's operation
the processing is continuous; however, the length of the shift
and the number of days the plants operate is intermittent due to
fluctuations in the raw material supply. The average processing
time was 4.1 hrs/day for the mechanized plant, on operating days.
Raw Waste Loadings
Table 28 gives the combined mechanized plant averages, and Tables
29 and 30 list the average flows and loadings for each of the two
mechanized processes sampled.
The concentration of all the parameters were much higher for the
conventional than the mechanized processes. For example, the
average BOD5. concentration from the conventional plants was 4410
mg/1 and only 650 mg/1 from the mechanized plants. However, this
was due to the much greater water use in the mechanized process,
which diluted the waste. The volume of water used per unit of
raw material was about 30 times greater in the mechanized than
the conventional process. The waste loads per unit of raw
material were, therefore, much lower for the conventional
process. For example, the average BOD5_ ratio from the conven-
tional process was 5.2 kg/kkg, compared to 22.7 kg/kkg from the
mechanized process.
The waste loading from the two mechanized processes were more
variable than the conventional processes. The flow ratio ranged
from 29,000 to 44,900 1/kkg (6960 to 10,760 gal/ton), and the COD
ratio ranged from 29 to 42 kg/kkg. The reason for the larger
variation was that one process, (Table 30) was a modern, high
production operation, utilizing water in many subprocesses while
the other was a more typical older facility.
ALASKA CRAB
The waste characteristics of the Alaska crab industry were
monitored during a period from March through June 1973. The
monitoring team attempted to sample each of the three crab
species (king, Dungeness and tanner) processed in Alaska.
However, the investigation was limited to mostly tanner crab
because of seasonality and availability of raw product.
Plants were selected for sampling primarily on the basis of raw
material availability, finished product form and accessibility of
waste discharge points. Sampling efforts were centered around
the three primary forms of finished product: canned meat, frozen
meat, and frozen sections. Each plant marketing a given product
uses the same basic unit operations with small process
variations. King and tanner crab data were combined because the
same equipment is used to process each and the waste strengths
were found to be similar.
115
-------
Table 29. Mechanized blue crab process (plant 3).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
76
(0. 020)
29, 000
(6960)
2.6
77
-H —
410
12
790
23
1400
42
150
4. 3
150
4.4
8. 3
0.24
6.9
19
(0.
9850
(2360
33
--
8.
12
_ _
29
2.
3.
0.
6.
Range
178
005 - 0. 047)
- 50, 900
- 12, 200)
124
: ::
3 - 16
32
— _ —
65
3 8. 5
4 - 5. 2
19 - 0.29
1 - 7.8
4 samples
116
-------
Table 30. Mechanized blue crab process (plant 4)
Parameter
Flow Rate/ cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammon i a -N , mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
276
(0. 073)
44,600 36,
(10,700) (8,
2.5
110
--
270
12
490
22
--
650
29
150
6.9
60
2. 7
3.6
0. 16
7.2
273
(0
900
840
57
--
7,
14
--
12
3.
2.
0.
6.
3
Range
284
. 072 - 0. 075)
- 60, 500
- 14, 500)
160
_
.9 - 16
27
_
51
6 - 7.9
2 - 3.6
13 - 0.22
9 8.2
samples
117
-------
Each process sampled used a grinder to facilitate fluming of the
solid waste from the butchering and meat extraction operations.
It was obvious that this method increased the wastewater load, as
opposed to handling the solids in a "dry" manner. To
substantiate this, samples were taken with and without grinding.
Flow proportioned samples of the total effluent were taken
periodically during each sampling day. The individual samples
were combined with the appropriate quantity of batch and
intermittent flow wastes to approximate the average waste load
for that particular shift.
The samples were screened with a 20 mesh Tyler screen and the
screened solids weighed. The settleable solids and pH were
determined in the field. Three aliquots of the screened sample
were sent to the laboratory where the remaining parameters were
analyzed. The relative waste load was then determined by
relating the shift length and raw material weight to each
parameter.
Wastewater^Sources and_Flow
Each of the plants sampled in Kodiak, Alaska uses city water for
processing and water volumes and flow rates were easily obtained
from water meter readings.
Plants outside of Kodiak use mostly salt water in processing
except for the cooking operation which uses local surface waters.
Figures m through 16 show the process flow diagrams for the
frozen and canned meat and section processes respectively. The
average total waste water flow and the breakdown per unit
operation is given in Table 31 for the section process, and in
Table 32 for the combined frozen and canned meat processes
without use of the grinder. This could be done since the
grinders only operated on an intermittent basis, as the solids in
the butcher area accumulated to a certain point.
The water used in the sections process (Table 31) was about 75
percent of that used in the frozen and canned meat process. Most
of the water came from the washing and cooling of the meat (60
percent) and contributed a medium amount of waste. The butcher
and cooking operations contributed a high strength waste but were
relatively low flows. The sorting, freezing and packing
operations contributed low flow and low-strength wastes. Most of
the water in the frozen and canned meat process (Table 32) came
from the meat extraction and cooling operations (57 percent) and
contributed a moderate strength waste. The butcher and cook
flows were high strength but low in volume. The pack, freeze and
retort operations contributed a low-strength waste which was
about 26 percent of the total volume.
Tables 33 and 34 show the water flow breakdown for the sections
and combined frozen and canned meat processed when the grinder
118
-------
was opera-ting to dispose of -the carapaces, viscera and gills from
the butcher area. It can be seen that the water flow increased
about 50 percent for the sections process and 25 percent for the
frozen and canned meat processes. A typical grinder used 170-230
1/min (U5-60 gal/min), Most plants processing sections used only
one grinder while almost all frozen and canned meat operations
used two.
Product Floy?
Table 31 shows the estimated breakdown of the raw material into
food, by-product and waste. "Food" product recovery averaged
about 64 percent for the tanner crab sections process. The
amount of food product ranged from 10-20 percent for the frozen
and canned meat plants using tanner crab. The wide range was due
to two exceptional plants, one which discarded shoulder meat (a
practice since changed), thus lowering their food product
recovery and a second plant which employed a mechanical picker,
brine separator, and belt water screening system which increased
their recovery. The other three plants sampled were typical and
had recovery ranges of between 14 and 17 percent.
Recovery varies with age of the crab as well as species. Yield
from king crab varies from 25 to 36 percent (an exuviant weight)
depending on age (Powel and Nickerson, 1963). The recovery
increases until the crab reaches a certain age and then decreases
as it grows older. Recovery also decreases after molting. This
decrease in recovery means a greater percentage of the crab is
wasted.
By-product recovery is a new phase of the Alaska crab industry.
Tangential screens are presently being installed in regions with
solids disposal facilities. Unfortunately only one screen was in
operation while the field crew was in Kodiak and the monitoring
was completed before the screening operation was standardized.
The byproduct recovery figures listed were estimated by adding
the settleable solids and suspended solids and then calculating
the by-product as the difference between 100 percent and the sum
of the waste and food product. By-product recovery estimates
compare favorably with values listed by Peterson (1972). The raw
material input rate was about the same for the sections, frozen
and canned meat processes (12 to 13 kkg/day).
The shift length varied from plant to plant depending on plant
policy and availability of personnel and raw material. During
the peak season most plants ran two shifts daily, each from 8 to
10 hours. Otherwise the plants usually ran one 8 to 10 hour
shift or until the raw material supply was depleted.
Raw Waste Loadings
119
-------
Comparing the Alaskan crab whole cook and section process
summary. Table 36, to the Alaskan crab frozen and canned meat
process summary, Table 38, reveals significant differences
between the product types. The meat process uses approximately
twice as much water as the whole and section process, and the
BOD5 ratio is 60 percent higher for the meat process. These
differences can be attributed to the fact that mechanical pickers
are used to extract the meat from the shell in the canned and
frozen meat process. In the whole and section process after
removal of the viscera and gills the crabs are frozen whole or in
sections with the shell in place.
Tables 39 through 42 list the flows and waste loads from the four
section processes sampled without grinders. Tables 43 through 45
list the flows and waste loads from the three frozen and canned
meat processes sampled without grinders. Tables 46 and 47 show
the combined section and the combined freezing and canning
processes respectively with grinding; it can be seen that the
freezing load was significantly higher than that from the section
processes. The reason for this is that much more solid waste is
generated in the freezing and canning process and there is
typically one grinder in the butcher area and one grinder in the
meat separation area while in the section process, there is just
one grinder in the butcher area.
Tables 48 through 51 list the flows and waste loads from the four
section processes sampled with grinders. Tables 52 through 55
list the flows and waste loads from the four frozen and canned
meat processes sampled with grinders.
Alaskan Crab Meat Processing (Subcategories D and E)
Table 37 lists the combined averages obtained from sampling one
frozen and one canned meat process. It can be seen that the
frozen and canned meat process used about 100 percent more water
than the average whole cook or sections operation per kkg
processed.
Tables 43 and 44 show the waste loading from the frozen and
canned meat processes respectively. The water flow and waste
loadings per unit of rav; material were about the same for both
plants. Table 45 shows the waste characteristics from a frozen
meat process located in a remote area. Plant S-2. The water flow
per unit of raw material was very high compared to the other
plants sampled. This was due to the large amount of sea water
used for fluming and cooling. The incoming BOD5 was zero because
of the large amount of chlorine used to disinfect the salt water.
The apparent COD loading is relatively high because the water
coming into the process averaged 145 mg/1 COD. Chloride
interference in the COD analysis is discussed in Section VI.
Plant S-2 was omitted from the summary table because of its
unusually high flows.
120
-------
Table 31. Material balance - Alaska tanner and king crab
sections process and Alaska Dungeness crab whole cooks
(without waste grinding).
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 220 cu m/day (0.058 mgd)
Unit Operation
a) butcher
b) precook and cook
c) wash and cool
d) sort, freeze, pack
e) clean-up
% of Average Flow
5
15
60
10
10
Range, %
2-8
10 - 20
50 - 70
5-15
5-15
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 13.06 kkg/day (14.40 tons/day)
Output
Food product
By-product
Waste
% of Raw Product
64
34
2
Range, %
57 - 69
20 - 40
1-15
121
-------
Table 32. Material balance - Alaska tanner crab frozen
and canned meat process (without waste grinding).
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 341 cu in/day (0.090 mgd)
Unit Operation
a) butcher
b) precook and cook
c) cool
d) meat extraction
e) sort, pack, freeze
f) retort*
g) clean-up
% of Average Flow
2
5
20
37
11
15
10
Range, %
1-3
2-7
15 - 30
30 - 40
8-20
5-15
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 12.27 kkg/day (13.53 tons/day)
Output
Food product
By-product
Waste
% of Raw Product
14
84
2
Range, %
10 - 20
70 - 89
1-15
* Canning operation only
122
-------
Table 33. Material balance - Alaska tanner and king crab
sections process (with waste grinding).
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 364 cu m/day (0.096 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Range, %
a) butcher and grinding 26 15 - 40
b) precook and cook 19 15-25
c) wash and cool 36 20 - 50
d) sort, pack, freeze 9 5-12
e) clean-up 10 15 - 20
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 13.06 kkg/day (14.40 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food product 64 57-69
By-product 21 15-30
Waste 15 10 - 30
123
-------
Table 34. Material balance - Alaska tanner crab frozen
and canned meat process (with waste grinding).
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 440 cu in/day (0.116 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Range, %
a) butcher and grinding 30 25-45
b) precook and cook 3 1-5
c) cool 6 2-9
d) meat extraction 34 30 - 40
e) sort, pack freeze 7 5-10
f) retort* 10 5-15
g) clean-up 10 8-15
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 8.40 kkg/day (9.25 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food product 14 10-20
By-product 66 50-75
Waste 20 10 - 30
* Canning operation only
124
-------
Table 35. Alaska crab whole cook and section process
summary - without grinding (3 plants).*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
200
(0. 053)
16, 900
(4040)
2 7
tj • i
46
1300
22
210
3. 5
330
5.6
1200
21
710
12
30
0. 5
77
1.3
2. 9
0. 05
7.6
136
(0. 036 -
15,400
(3690
15
18
1. 0 -
4. 0
- - _
6.4 -
0.3
1. 1
0. 02 -
7.4
318
0. 084)
17, 800
4260)
100
25
8. 0
8. 0
_ _
19
0. 7
1. 8
0. 08
8.2
* process water only, table excludes
data from plant K8 (Table 39).
125
-------
Table 36. Alaska crab whole cook and section process -
without grinding (3 plants), including clean-up.*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
220
(0.058)
18,600
(4440)
2.8
52
1300
24
210
3.9
320
6.0
1200
23
700
13
30
0.56
75
1.4
2.8
0.053
_
__ '
: ::
_
•- — «•
: ::
_
_
: ::
-
_
PH
7.6
* Clean up water is included in this table. The values were arrived at
by adding a percentage to the flow rates and wasteload rations shown in
Table 35. The percentages are 10, 10, 14, 10.5, 11, 8, 8, 7, 12.5, 5.6,
6 from top to bottom respectively. The ratio was then converted to mg/1,
126
-------
Table 37. Alaska crab frozen and canned meat process
summary - without grinding.*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
310
(0. 082)
32, 700
(7840)
0.49
16
3700
120
170
5.6
270
8.9
400
13
430
14
22
0. 72
73
2.4
2.4
0. 08
7.4
Range
246
(0. 065 -
__
11
79
4.4 -
8.4
12
0. 65 -
1.8 -
0. 07 -
7.4
375
0.
--
22
157
6.
9.
--
16
0.
3.
0.
7.
099)
7
4
78
0
10
5
* process water only
2 plants
127
-------
Table 38. Alaska crab frozen and canned meat process—
without grinding—including clean-up.*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammon i a-N , rag/ 1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
341
(0.090)
36,000
(8620)
0. 5
18
3600
130
170
6.2
270
9.6
390
14
420
15
22
0.81
69
2. 5
2.4
0.085
_
_ •. _
_
mi mt -*
_
_
- .
w m, _
mi mi mm
-
-
PH
7.4
* Clean up water is included in this table. The values were arrived at
by adding a percentage to the flow rates and wasteload ratios shown in
Table 37. The percentages are 10, 10, 14, 10.5, 11, 8, 8, 7, 12.5, 5.6,
6 from top to bottom respectively. The ratio was then converted to mg/1.
128
-------
Table 39. Alaska Dungeness crab whole cook process
without grinding (plant K8).*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu in/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
280
(0. 074)
29, 900
(7160)
1. 1
33
370
11
67
2
800
24
- _
1500
44
27
0.8
67
2. 0
6.7
0.2
8.2
Range
_ _ _ _ _
— _ —
__
_ _ _ —
_
_ _ _ _ _
_ — _ _ _
__
--
_ _ _
-_
_-
process water only
1 sample
129
-------
Table 40. Alaska Dungeness crab whole cook process
without grinding (plant Kl).*
Parameter
Plow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Plow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean Range
144
(0.038)
17,400
(4160)
0.86 .. - -- -
15
1000
18
57
1.0
280
4.8
__
550
9.6
29
0.5
100
1.8
4.6
0.08
8.2
* process water only
1 sample
130
-------
Table 41. Alaska king crab sections process witnout.
grinding (plant
Parameter
Flow Rate/ cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
318
(0. 084)
15,400
(3690)
1.6
24
1600
24
100
1.6
260
4. 0
--
420
6.4
19
*• /
0.3
71
1. 1
1. 3
0. 02
7.4
284
(0.
12, 600
(3010
13
7
1.
3.
--
4.
0.
0.
0.
7.
Range
356
075 - 0. 094)
- 17, 600
- 4230)
35
35
2 - 2.6
0 5. 0
-
5 - 7.5
1 0.4
8 - 1.4
02 - 0. 03
1 - 7.7
* process water only
5 samples
131
-------
Table 42. Alaska tanner crab sections process without
grinding (plant K6).*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu in/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
136
(0. 036)
17, 800
(4260)
5.6
100
1400
25
450
8. 0
450
8. 0
1200
21
1100
19
39
0. 7
62
1. 1
2. 8
0. 05
7.6
132
(0.
14, 200
(3400
36
14
5.
1.
13
13
0.
0.
0.
7.
Range
144
035 - 0. 038)
- 21, 300
- 5100)
190
43
0 - 11
0 - 19
30
35
5 - 1.0
9 - 1.4
04 - 0. 7
5 - 7.8
* process water only
4 samples
132
-------
Table 43. Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process without
grinding (plant K6).*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean Range
375
(0.099)
32,700
(7840)
0.67
22
4800
157
130
4.4
290
9.4
--
370
12
20
0.65
92
3.0
3.0
0.10
7.5
process water only
1 sample
133
-------
Table 44. Alaska tanner crab canned meat process without
grinding (plant K8).*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
246
(0. 065)
32, 700
(7840)
0. 34
11
2400
79
200
6.7
260
8.4
400
13
490
16
24
0. 78
55
1.8
2. 1
0. 07
7.4
227
(0.
29,400
(7050
0.
63
4.
7.
9.
9.
0.
1.
0.
7.
Range
272
060 - 0. 072
- 36, 100
- 8650)
6 21
98
8 9.4
0 - 11
2 - 19
8 20
24 - 1.4
5 2.2
06 - 0. 08
4 - 7. 5
* process water only
4 samples
134
-------
Table 45. Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process without
grinding (plant S2).*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
1740 1620 - 2000
(0.459) (0.427 - 0. 528)
146, 000 125, 000
(35, 000) (30, 000
0.32
46
1400
210
57
8.3
340
50
11
1.6
7. 7
16
140
0. 8
32
0.9
7.2
-167, 000
- 40, 000)
76
290
12
77
2.4
7.8
* process water only
8 samples
135
-------
Alaskan Whole Crab and Crab Section Processing (Subcategories F
and G)
Table 35 lists the combined average obtained from sampling three
whole cook or sections processes.
Tables 39 and 40 show the waste loadings from the two whole cook
process sampled and Tables 41 and 42 show the two section
processes sampled. The water flow and the BOD5 and COD loads per
unit of raw material are quite similar except for the one whole
cook process sample (Plant K-8) which had much higher flows and
waste loads. Plant K-8 employed a brine freezing unit operation
while the other plants used blast freezing. This process was
sampled only one day and the sample was not included in the
summary table.
DUNGENESS AND TANNER CRAB PROCESSING IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES
(Subcategory H)
The waste characteristics data used to typify the Dungeness crab
industry outside of Alaska were taken from a study done by the
Department of Food Science and Technology at Oregon State
University (Soderquist, et al., 1972). The major differences
between Alaska and lower West Coast crab plants (Washington,
Oregon, California) are waste disposal and meat picking methods.
West Coast plants do not grind their waste as do the Alaska
plants and West Coast plants hand pick the meat rather than using
mechanical leg pickers as do the Alaska plants. No tanner crab
processes outside of Alaska were monitored during this study;
however, the operations are the same as in Alaska except for the
differences discussed above.
The previous study sampled three Dungeness whole and fresh frozen
meat processes in Astoria, Oregon for three months starting in
November, 1971. Two of the three plants sampled used solid waste
fluming systems. This was not considered to be typical of
"exemplary" processing plants. Therefore, composite samples were
taken with and without the flumed waste flows.
Wastewater Sources and Flows
A general description of the steps in a Dungeness crab processing
plant was presented in Section IV. All of the plants sampled
follow the same general steps except for two unit operations.
The first variation was in the bleed-rinse step. After the crabs
are butchered the crab pieces are either conveyed via belt below
a water spray or packed into large steel baskets and submerged in
circulating rinsewater. In either case a continuous waste water
flow results. There was no appreciable difference in the
characteristics of the waste streams from each method. The
second variation in processing is the cooling method following
136
-------
Table 46. Alaska crab section process summary with grinding
(4 plants).*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
331
(0. 088)
29, 000
(6960)
11
330
10, 000
300
760
22
1200
36
1600
47
2200
64
280
8.2
180
5. 1
4. 8
0. 14
7. 3
Range
155
(0. 041 -
17,600 -43,
(4220 - 10,
50
28
7
22
31
34
3
3.3
0. 09 -
7. 1
439
0. 116)
400
400)
750
470
32
44
63
80
15
6
0. 18
7. 5
process water only
137
-------
Table 47. Alaska crab frozen and canned meat process
summary with grinding (4 plants).*
Parameter
Flow Rate/ cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
400
(0. 106)
51, 700
(12,400)
12
640
16, 000
850
1000
54
1300
66
2300
120
1900
100
350
18
190
10
5. 0
0.26
7. 7
322
(0.
32,800
(7870
150
520
45
54
60
86
4
8
0.
7.
Range
507
085 - 0.
- 85, 500
- 20, 500)
- 1800
1200
67
89
180
140
31
13
2 - 0.
3 - 7.
134
35
9
* process water only
138
-------
Table 48. Alaska tanner crab sections process with
grinding (plant Kl).*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
363
(0.096)
35, 200
(8450)
1.4
50
800
2S
200
7
620
22
880
31
960
34
85
3
94
3. 3
2.6
0. 09
7.5
_ _
28, 600
(6860
10
9
2
8
13
14
0.
2.
0.
7.
Range
_ —
-41, 000
- 9820)
90
42
9
28
49
66
2 - 5
1 - 5. 0
07 - 0. 12
4 - 7. 7
process water only
4 samples
139
-------
Table 49. Alaska tanner crab sections process with
grinding (plant K3).*
Parameter
Flov» Rate, cu in/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
439
(0. 116)
43, 400
(10,400)
3. 0
130
7100
310
690
30
780
34
--
1800
80
340
15
140
6
4. 1
0. 18
7. 1
Range
344
(0. 091 -
28, 400 - 60,
(6800 - 14,
23
150
8
6. 1 -
--
30
5
2
0. 08 -
6.0 -
522
0. 138
500
500)
270
730
72
60
_ _
160
54
11
0.45
7. 7
* process water only
15 samples
140
-------
Table 50. Alaska tanner crab sections process with
grinding (plant K6).*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
155
(0. 041)
20, 000
(4790)
38
750
20, 000
410
1600
32
2200
44
3200
63
3200
63
400
8
250
5
8. 0
0. 16
--
148
(0. 039
15, 800
(3800
460
250
23
14
48
48
4
4
0. 1
--
159
0. 042)
- 23, 800
- 5700)
- 1100
620
40
65
77
84
14
6
0.2
_
process water only
4 samples
141
-------
Table 51. Alaska tanner crab sections process with
grinding (plant Kll).*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammon i a-N , mg/ 1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
367
(0.097)
17, 600
(4220)
22
380
27, 000
470
1100
20
2500
44
--
4500
80
400
7
340
6
8. 5
0. 15
--
333
(0. 088 -
14, 800
(3540
36
260
7
22
__
46
3
4
0.2
__
405
0. 107
19, 000
4560)
800
800
30
69
--
114
12
7
0. 5
--
process water only
5 samples
142
-------
Table 52. Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process
with grinding (plant Kl)*
Parameter
Flow Rate , cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio/ 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio,**kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
356
(0. 094)
46, 700
(11,200)
5.8
270
11, 000
520
1000
49
1400
64
1300
60
2000
92
620
29
210
10
6.4
0. 3
7.3
318
(0.
32, 900
(7880
29
120
4
17
13
14
2
4
0.
6.
Range
409
084 - 0. 108)
- 75, 100
- 18, 000)
750
1100
130
190
97
220
140
15
1 0. 7
6 - 8. 1
* process water only
**based upon 7 observations
22 samples
143
-------
Table 53. Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process
with grinding (plant K6)*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammon i a-N , mg/ 1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
412
(0. 109)
41, 600
(9960)
43
1800
29, 000
1200
1600
67
2100
89
4300
180
3400
140
740
31
310
13
8.4
0.35
--
310
(0. 082
33, 600
(8060
1300
720
40
34
160
110
10
10
0.25
--
454
0. 12C
- 53, 800
- 12, 900)
- 3100
- 2200
98
170
200
210
100
17
0. 57
-
process water only
7 samples
144
-------
Table 54. Alaska tanner crab canned meat
process with grinding (plant K8)*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
322
(0. 085)
32, 800
(7870)
9.8
320
27, 400
900
1400
45
1600
54
3400
110
2600
86
120
4
300
10
6. 1
0.2
7. 7
246
(0. 065 -
25, 900
(6200
110
680
28
19
— — —
52
2
6
0. 1
7. 5
341
0. 090)
40, 000
9600)
1800
1700
68
71
;:
130
8
16
0. 3
7.9
* process water only
12 samples
145
-------
Table 55. Alaska tanner crab frozen meat process
with grinding (plant K10)*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
507
(0. 134)
85, 500
(20, 500)
1.8
150
9000
770
650
56
650
56
1300
110
1100
97
82
7
94
8
2. 3
0.2
7.9
431
(0.
60, 900
(14, 600
65
470
31
18
80
49
4
4
0.
7.
Range
553
114 - 0. 146)
- 123,000
- 29,500)
300
- 1100
76
92
140
160
10
11
1 - 0.3
5 8.2
* process water only
8 samples
146
-------
cooking. Some plants employ a spray cool and others submerge a
steel basket containing the crabs in circulating rinse water.
The waste characteristics were unaffected by the cooling method.
Table 56 gives the breakdown of the flow from each unit operation
as a percentage of the total flow without fluming. The total
average flow observed for the three processes was about 120 cu
m/day (0.032 mgd). The only water from the butcher area was
washdown and contributed a relatively low flow and waste load.
The cooking flow was low in volume but high in strength. The
flow from the bleeding area was moderate and contributed a large
flow but very little waste. The cooling water contributed a
large flow but very little waste. The major source of waste came
from the brining operation which produced a high salt load.
The use of fluming to remove solids from the butchering and meat
picking area increased the water flow by about 70 percent and
produced a moderately high waste load.
Product Flow
The typical West Coast plant processed 5.U to 7.2 kkg (6 to 8
tons) of crab per day. There is little variability in the crab
processed. The size and sex restrictions as well as closure of
the harvest season by government agencies during the molting
season have standardized the raw material a great deal.
The influence of plant size on waste water values could not be
reliably demonstrated in this study because the three plants
monitored had similar production capacities. Comparison of waste
water characteristics, however, with those of Alaskan plants
indicates little effect.
Dungeness crab are prepared as whole cooked, or fresh, or frozen
meat. Whole cooked (cooked unbutchered) crab usually make up a
small percentage of the product; however, the contribution of
BODj> and COD from the whole cooker is relatively significant
because of the sodium chloride and citric acid added to the
cooking water. The crab are only whole cooked for special orders
and/or to supply the local retail outlets. Unlike the whole
cooks in Alaska which are brine frozen after processing, these
crab are only refrigerated prior to marketing.
Fresh meat is also not a large commodity. Like whole cooks, the
shelf life of the product is short because the meat is
refrigerated prior to marketing. The waste from this product is
similar to that produced by the frozen meat process.
Meat is hand picked with a food product recovery ranging from 17
to 27 percent. This variation is a function of animal maturity,
with yield increasing as the season progresses. Hand picking
results in a higher yield than the mechanical meat extraction
methods used in Alaska, where the yield is about 14 to 17 percent
147
-------
on tanner crab. The waste percentage shown in Table 56 was
determined from the total solids remaining after screening. By-
product was assumed to be the difference between 100 percent and
the sum of waste and food product recovery.
The shift length was fairly consistent for each plant throughout
the monitoring period. A normal shift consisted of about four to
six hours of butchering and cooking and eight hours of hand
picking. Those crab not picked by the end of the day were
refrigerated and picked the next morning.
Raw Waste Loading
Table 57 lists the average waste loads without fluming for all
three plants sampled. These values were influenced by both whole
cook and meat picking processes. However, the meat picking
process was by far the largest operation. The time average waste
load characteristics of a typical plant would be similar to that
generated by the meat picking process alone.
Tables 58 through 60 show the waste load for each plant. The
water flow and loadings per unit of raw material were fairly con-
sistent from plant to plant.
Samples from the waste flumes were composited with the other unit
operations in two plants. Table 61 shows that waste fluming at
Plant 2 increased the water usage 78 percent and the BOD5_, COD,
and suspended solids ratios 21 to 24 percent. Table 62 shows
that butcher waste fluming at Plant 3 increased water usage by 24
percent. The resultant waste loads increased for all parameters
by about 20 percent.
ALASKA SHRIMP PROCESSING (Subcategories I and J)
An estimate of the waste characteristics of the Alaska shrimp
industry was obtained by monitoring two processes during a period
from March through June, 1973. The number of plants sampled was
limited by the availability of raw material during the monitoring
period. One plant sampled employs all new equipment which
includes eight Laitram Model PCA peelers in conjunction with four
Laitram Model PCC washers and eight Model PCS separators. The
plant uses seawater and is located in a remote coastal region of
Alaska. This plant is probably more efficient than most because
of its new equipment. It is also larger than the plants around
Kodiak where the size varies from four to nine peelers, with six
to seven being average.
The other process monitored was a typical plant in Kodiak which
uses seven Model A peelers in conjunction with seven washers and
nine separators. This plant processes with fresh water.
148
-------
Table 56. Material balance - Oregon Dungeness crab whole
and fresh-frozen meat process (without fluming wastes)
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 95 cu in/day (0.025 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Range, %
a) butcher (clean-up) 8 4-11
b) bleed rinse 25 12 - 30
c) cook 3 2-4
d) cool 30 26 - 33
e) pick (clean-up) 7 5-8
f) brine and rinse 27 18 - 34
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 6.3 kkg/day ( 7.0 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food product 22 17-27
By-product 63 50-66
Waste 15 7-23
149
-------
Table 57. West Coast Dungeness crab process summary
without shell fluming (3 plants)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
95
(0.025)
19,000 14,800
(4,560) (3,560
84
1,600
140
2.7
430
I. 1
680
13
84
1.6
5. 3
0. 10
7. 4
1,300
11
- 21,300
- 5, 100)
2,000
2.6
6.6
2.9
11
1. 4
0. 075
7. 3
16
2.0
0. 14
7. 7
150
-------
Table 58. West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat
and whole cook process — without shell fluming (plant 1)
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
95
(0.025)
14, 800
(3,560)
88
1, 300
—
180
2. 7
440
6.6
--
740
11
__ _
94
1. 4
6. 1
0.09
7.3
Range
--
_ _ _
590 - 2,200
--
1.3 - 4.2
4.3 - 9.3
--
7. 3 16
--
0.86 - 2.1
0. 06 - 0. 14
7. 1 - 8. 5
8 samples
151
-------
Table 59. West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and
whole cook process — without shell fluming (plant 2)
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean Range
— _ _ _
21,300
(5,100)
94
2,000
--
120
2.6
320
6.8
--
520
11
— — — _ — — —
66
1.4
3.5
0.075
7.3 6.9 - 8.'
4 samples
152
-------
Table 60. West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and
whole cook process — without shell fluming (plant 3)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
--
20,900
(5,010)
72
1, 500
— _
--
140
2.9
530
11
__
570
16
_.
__
96
2. 0
6. 7
0. 14
7. 7
--
17, 600
(4, 220
__
1, 300
--
2.0
8. 5
--
14
--
1. 5
0. 08
7. 2
-
- 25, 000
- 5,990)
1, 800
~ —
4.
13
-
20
_
2.
0.
1
4
16
8.3
4 samples
153
-------
Table 61. West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and
whole cook process — with shell fluming (plant 2).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
Mean
;;
38,000
(9,100)
92
3, 500
--
82
3. 1
230
8. 7
--
370
14
::
47
1.8
2. 4
0.09
7. 3
Range
--
-
- - — - -
--
— - _ -
--
— _ —
— _ —
--
- - _ _ -
--
-_
4 samples
154
-------
Table 62. West Coast Dungeness crab fresh meat and
whole cook process — with shell fluming (plant 3)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
--
26, 000
(6,240)
69
1,800
--
120
3. 1
500
13
--
770
20
88
2. 3
5.0
0. 13
7. 6
__
22, 700 - 30, 100
(5,450 - 7,220)
1,600 - 2,200
__
2. 1 - 4. 4
12 - 15
15 - 24
— - —
1.7 2.8
0.08 - 0.18
__
4 samples
155
-------
Wastewater Sources and Flows
Figures 17 and 18 show the process flow diagrams associated with
frozen shrimp and canned shrimp processes respectively in Alaska.
The Model PCA peeler is normally associated with the frozen
product, while Model A peelers are used either for canned or
frozen commodities.
Either seawater or fresh water is used for processing, depending
on plant location with regard to water availability and quality.
Seawater is commonly used in the remote areas where good quality
water is available. Those plants located in high density pro-
cessing areas generally use city water. One plant in the Kodiak
area uses a salt water well. The plants using seawater normally
use more water than fresh water plants because the city water is
metered.
Table 63 lists the percentage of water used in each unit
operation of a typical shrimp plant (either sea or freshwater).
Tables 65 and 67 list average values for the process water of two
shrimp processing plants. Flows in the former plant were double
those in the latter. Trash fish removal and shrimp storage are
small contributors to the total plant flow, but add a moderate
waste load. Peelers are the biggest water user in the plant and
the largest waste load source. Washers and separators contribute
15 percent of the water and a moderate amount of the waste load.
Meat fluming and clean-up make up 29 percent of the water usage
and add a low to moderate load to the waste stream. Blanchers
and retort water (where applicable) are insignificant both in
volume and total waste contribution.
Product Flow
Table 63 shows the disposition of the raw material. The total
product recovery ranged between 13 and 18 percent with the
estimated by-product (solid waste) recovery estimated between 50
and 80 percent. The food product recovery varies seasonally
(Collins, 1973). Collins1 study indicated that the immature
shrimp processed in the spring have a higher waste load than the
larger, more mature shrimp processed later in the summer.
Jensen (1965) estimated a 15 to 22 percent food recovery using
mechanical peelers. The 15 percent recovery average from the
Jensen study may have been influenced by the fact that it may
have been conducted in the spring.
By-product recovery is a new concept in the Alaska shrimp in-
dustry. Tangential screens have been recently installed in
regions with solids disposal programs. The by-product percentage
shown in Table 63 was estimated by totaling the by-product
recovery as the difference between 100 percent and the sum of the
waste and food product. Screened solids measurements were not
used in this determination because of the trapped water, which
often causes the wet weight of screened solids to be heavier than
156
-------
Table 63. Canned and frozen Alaskan shrimp material balance,
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 1170 cu m/day (0.310 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Range/ %
a) fish picking and ageing 4 0-5
b) peelers 45 40 - 50
c) washers and separators 15 10 - 30
d) blanchers 2 1-5
e) meat flume 19 10 - 20
f) retort and cool* 5 3-8
g) clean-up 10 5-15
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 13.9 kkg/day (15.30 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food product 15 13 - 18
By-product 65 50 - 80
Waste 20 15 - 40
* Included in canning process only
157
-------
Table 64. Alaska frozen shrimp process summary (plants SI & K6)*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu in/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
1170
(0.310)
73,400
(17,600)
7.4
540
12, 000
860
2900
210
1800
130
2300
170
3700
270
230
17
150
11
6.8
0.50
_
—
_. _ _
-
— — —
_ _ _
_ _ _
: ::
— - -
: ::
: ::
PH
7. 7
* Average of Tables 68 and 66 with flow from Table 66 neglected,
158
-------
Table 65.
Alaska frozen shrimp process - Model PCA
peelers (plant SI) - sea water*
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammon i a-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
1,630 1,400 - 1,780
(0.430) (0.370 - 0.470)
138,000 108,000 -175,000
(33,000) (26,000 - 42,000)
4,
2,
1,
5. 5
760
800
670
100
290
000
140
360
420
190
60
- 1, 100
990
370
210
2,000
280
100
14
160
4. 5
360
18
7.6
7. 4
7.8
* process water only
8 samples
159
-------
Table 66. Alaska frozen shrimp process,
Model PCA peelers (plant SI) — Seawater, with clean-up.*
Parameter Mean Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day 1,790
(0.473)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg 152,000
(gal/ton) (36,300)
Settleable Solids, ml/1 5.8
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg 880
Screened Solids, mg/1 5,300
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg ' 800
Suspended Solids, mg/1 2, 100
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg 320
5 day BOD, mg/1 990
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg 150
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1 2,100
COD Ratio, kg/kkg 32o
Grease and Oil, mg/1 99
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg 15
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH 7. 6
* Clean up water is included in this table. The values were arrived at
by adding a percentage to the flow rates and wasteload ratios shown in
Table 65. The percentages are 10, 10, 16, 20, 12, 6, 9, 14, 7, 1, 39
from top to bottom respectively. The ratio was then converted to mg/1.
160
-------
Table 67. Alaska canned shrimp process - Model A
peelers (plant K2) - fresh water*
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio , kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
1,070
(0. 282)
66, 800
(16,000)
2. 7
180
11,000
760
1, 300
90
1, 300
90
2, 400
160
3,000
200
270
18
160
11
5. 4
0. 36
8. 1
Range
700
(0.185 -
54, 200
(13,000
13
200
70
30
80
100
6
1. 1
0. 25 -
7.6
1,440
0.380)
100, 000
24,000)
670
1, 300
120
200
270
410
53
19
0. 54
8. 5
* process water only
16 samples
161
-------
Table 68. Alaska canned shrimp process - Model A peelers
(plant K2) - fresh water, with clean up.*
Parameter Mean Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
1,180
(0.310)
73,500
(17,600)
2.8
210
12,000
910
1,400
100
1,300
95
2,300
170
3,100
230
260
19
150
11
6.8
0.50
8.1
--
— —
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
* Clean up water is included in this table. The values were arrived at
by adding a percentage to the flow rates and wasteload ratios shown in
Table 67. The percentages are 10, 10, 16, 20, 12, 6, 9, 14, 7, 1, 39
from top to bottom respectively. The ratio was then converted to mg/1.
162
-------
the raw weight of the shrimp. The 65 percent by-products figure
is slightly more conservative than the 70 to 75 percent
determined in a study by Peterson (1972).
The shift length at each plant varied with the availability of
the product. When raw material was available, the plant would
allow the shrimp to age the desired amount and then process the
shrimp as rapidly as possible to avoid spoilage. Two shifts of
from eight to ten hours daily were common.
Raw Waste Loadings
Table 66 summarizes the data from the Model PCA peeler plant
using seawater and Table 68 summarizes the data from the Model A
peeler plant using fresh water. The water flow per unit of raw
material was about twice as high in the seawater plant. The BOD5
and COD load per unit of raw material were 20 to 50 percent
greater at the PCA peeler plant while the settleable solids
(1/kkg) were four times that of the Model A plant. It is
difficult to determine on the basis of existing data whether the
increased load from the seawater plant was influenced more by the
use of a PCA versus a Model A peeler or by the additional fluming
used at this plant. Shrimp data for the West Coast indicated
that PCA peelers may produce less waste than a Model A peeler;
however, this was from a sample of one plant for each process.
Table 64 presents the Alaskan shrimp processing summary data with
the omission of the flow data from plant S-1.
SHRIMP PROCESSING IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES
Preliminary study of the shrimp processing industry showed the
Gulf and South Atlantic industry to be much more diverse than the
Alaskan or West Coast industry. Further study indicated that,
while the process variations for the Gulf and lower East Coast
were many, the industry could be divided into three main sections
as discussed in Chapter IV; Northern Shrimp Processing in the
Contiguous States, Southern Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous
States, and Breaded Shrimp Processing in the contiguous States.
Northern Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous States (Subcategory
K)
The shrimp processing industry in the Northern United States
including the New England ,Pacific-Northwest, and California
areas is similar to that in Alaska. Information from West Coast
processes was available for two plants from a study done by the
Oregon State University supported by funds from EPA Grant No.
801007, National Canners Association, and Oregon Agricultural
Experiment Station.
163
-------
Wastewater Sources and Flows
Figure 17 shows a typical West Coast shrimp process flow diagram
and Table 69 gives a breakdown of the water used in each
operation.
The two plants studied were located either over water or
partially over water, with liquid wastes being discharged
directly into adjacent waterways. The average plant flow was 472
cu m/day (0.125 mgd). The largest percentage of this flow (61
percent) was attributed to the mechanical peelers. Water used in
these plants for production was all city water. Due to the use
of a larger number of peelers the flow from Plant #2 (five
peelers) was twice as large as that from Plant #1 (two peelers).
Plant f2 used PCA peelers, which blanch the shrimp prior to
peeling. Plant #1 used the Model A peeler. Plant #2 recycled
approximately 10 percent of the total water flow. The water from
the separators and washers was used to flume the incoming shrimp
to the peelers.
Product Flow
West Coast shrimp are not beheaded at sea; the only preprocessing
done is to remove most of the debris and trash fish from the
catch. The debris and miscellaneous fish comprise between 3 and
8 percent of the raw weight of the freshly caught shrimp.
The average raw material input was about 9.0 kkg/day (9.9 tons/
day) with the average shift length being 9 hours. The percent of
raw material utilized for food was less than obtained from the
Gulf and lower East Coast canned and breaded shrimp and averaged
about 15 percent. The raw shrimp , when it arrived at the
plants, had seldom been held more than three days. The older
shrimp were processed first, and from qualitative observations
there seemed to be a definite correlation between shrimp age and
amount of waste produced. A difference in waste strength was
anticipated due to the strong enzymatic action (degradation) of
shrimp as a function of time. However, due to the plants
processing different ages of shrimp on the same days, the effect
of age on waste water strength could not be substantiated by the
data. The solid wastes which could be utilized for by-product
totaled about 70 percent of the input. This was captured either
by vibrating screens or trommel screens. In many cases the
wastes were transported by truck to a rendering plant, where they
were dried and added to fertilizers or used as supplements to
various feeds low in calcium.
Raw Waste Loading
Table 70 shows the summary and Tables 71 and 72 show the flows
and loadings from each of the two processes sampled. The PCA
peeler process had a higher flow but lower waste load than the
Model A peeler. This was contrary to the Alaska shrimp case
164
-------
Table 69. Canned West Coast shrimp material balance.
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 472 cu m/day (0.125 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Range, %
a) de-icing tanks 6 4-8
b) peelers (PCA & Model A) 61 57 - 78
c) washer and separator 12 10 - 13
d) blancher 2 1-2
e) grading line 2 1-2
f) can washer 3 0.002 - 6
g) retort and cooling 5 4-7
h) washdown 9 4-10
ProductMaterial Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 9.0 kkg/day (9.9 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food Product 15 12 - 18
By-product 70 65-75
Waste 15 12 - 17
165
-------
Table 70. West Coast canned shrimp process summary (2 plants)
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
Mean
472
(0.125)
60,000
(14, 400)
67
4,000
--
900
54
2,000
120
2, 500
150
3, 300
200
700
42
200
12
6.3
0.38
341
(0.
47, 100
(11, 300
2, 400
--
47
95
;:
160
39
--
0.
Range
602
090 - 0. 159)
- 73,000
- 17,500)
- 5, 600
-
60
140
_
230
44
-
32 - 0.45
pH
7. 4
7.3
7.6
166
-------
Table 71. West Coast canned shrimp (plant 1)
Parameter
Flow Rate/ cu in/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
341
(0.090)
47, 100
(11,300)
120
5,600
--
1,300
60
3,000
140
3, 200
150
4,900
230
830
39
250
12
9.6
0.45
7.3
_ _
38, 200
(9, 150
1, 700
--
23
100
110
130
--
6
0.
--
Range
: ::
- 68,800
- 16,500)
- 11,000
-
96
170
190
350
— _ _
19
23 - 1.0
-
12 samples
167
-------
Table 72. West Coast canned shrimp (plant 2)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
602
(0. 159)
73,000 54,200
(17,500) (13,000
- 117,000
- 28,000)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
33
2, 400 2, 100 - 2, 700
--
640
47 25 - 78
1,300
95
--
2,200
160 99 - 210
600
44
160
12 7.9 - 16
4.4
0.32 0.16 - 0.40
7.6
9 samples
168
-------
where the PGA process had the higher load; however, this may have
been due to the fact that fluming was used extensively at the PCA
plant in Alaska.
Southern Non-breaded Shrimp Prgeessing_in^themContiguous States
(Subcategory L)
Three Gulf Coast shrimp canning processes, considered to be
representative of the industry spectrum, were selected for
sampling. The plants were 25 to 30 years old and most still
employed floor gutters and holes in the wall for drainage. In
addition to the data collected, historical data were available
from one plant (Mauldin, 1973).
Wastewater Sources and Flows
Figure 22 shows a typical Gulf or lower East Coast canning
process flow diagram and Table 73 gives the breakdown of the
water used in each operation. In two of the three plants
sampled, well water was used for de-icing, peeling and cooling of
retorted cans. All other process waters (for belt washers, etc.)
were city water. The COD and suspended solids concentration in
the well water averaged approximately 55 mg/1 each.
The plants in metropolitan areas pumped their waste waters di-
rectly to a sewage treatment facility whereas the other plants
merely pumped their waste to large bodies of water. The total
flow rates averaged about 788 cu m/day (0.208 mgd) and were very
similar for all the unit processes. The largest flows were from
the peelers, which also caused the largest flow variations. Some
days flows were reduced on peelers. This was due to the shrimp
being too fresh (caught the night before) which made peeling more
difficult. Flow was decreased so the shrimp would pass over the
rollers at a slower rate, thereby being cleaned more thoroughly.
These peelers usually averaged 170 to 227 1/min (45 to 60 gpm)
per peeler, but on days when a slow peel was desired, the flow
was sometimes lowered to 57 to 76 1/min (15 to 20 gpm).
All of the Gulf Coast canning operations plants sampled used
Model A peelers. The Gulf Coast and lower East Coast shrimp were
larger and easier to peel than the Alaskan or West Coast shrimp.
Product Flow
The Gulf Coast canning plants produced the same general type of
product, usually in the 6-1/2 oz size can. Brine was added to
all cans at each of the plants, but a combination of lemon juice
solution and brine was added mainly to "piece" cans (broken
shrimp). The average raw material input was about 23.9 kkg/day
(26.4 tons/day). The average shift length was 7-1/2 hours but
ranged from 4 to 9 hours. The yield of the shrimp utilized for
food is only about 20 percent (Table 73). The portion which
could be used for by-products was about 65 percent; however, not
169
-------
Table 73. Canned Gulf shrimp material balance.
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 787 cu m/day (0.208 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Range, %
a) peelers (Model A) 58 42 - 73
b) washers 9 8-10
c) separators 7 5-9
d) blancher 2 0.006 - 2
e) de-icing 4 0.005 - 7
f) cooling and retort 12 8-20
g) washdown 8 7-10
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 23.9 kkg/day (26.4 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food Product 20 15-25
By-product 65 58-71
Waste 15 13 - 18
170
-------
all plants had an available rendering plant. Many plants hauled
their solid wastes to the local dump. All three plants sampled
employed some form of screening to remove their large solids.
Two forms of screening were used: vibratory and tangential. One
of the plants sampled used a tangential screen which has a piston
drive solids compressor installed into the mechanism. This ram
squeezed the shells (eliminating 50 percent of retained water) ,
and bagged them into 25 to 30 Ib plastic bags, which were then
transported to the city dump.
Raw Waste Loading
Table 7U gives the average flow and loadings from all three of
the Gulf Coast canning processes sampled. It can be seen that
the water flow per unit of raw material was relatively uniform
with a mean of about 46,900 1/kkg. The COD loads were also
uniform with a mean of 109 kg/kkg. BOD5 was available only from
Plant #1 and averaged 46 kg/kkg.
Tables 75 through 78 show the waste characteristics from each of
the three plants sampled. The data collected by the field crew
on Plant #1 are given in Table 75 and the data obtained from
Mauldin (1973) are listed in Table 76.
Breaded Shrimp PrQcesging in the Contiguous States
(Subcategory M)
Two breaded shrimp processes, one on the Gulf and one on the
South Atlantic coast were sampled during November and December of
1972.
Waste Water Sources and Flows
Figure 23 shows a typical breaded shrimp process flow diagram and
Table 79 gives a breakdown of the water used in each operation.
The two plants sampled utilized both well and city water. The
average flow was about 653 cu m/day (0.173 mgd). The Johnson
(P.D.I. - peel, devein, inspect) peelers averaged 31 percent of
Plant #2's flow; this varied with the number of machines
operating. The Seafood Automatic peelers averaged 12.8 percent
of Plant #l's flow for comparable production. However, the waste
concentrations were very close between the two makes of machines,
even though three times as many Johnson peelers were in operation
as compared to Seafood Automatic peelers. This would seem to
indicate that the Seafood Automatic peelers generated a higher
waste load. Washdowns comprised one of the largest single daily
flows originating from these plants, averaging 51 percent of the
total. It appeared that this flow could be reduced significantly
with proper water management.
171
-------
Table 74. Gulf Shrimp canning process summary (3 plants)
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
787
(0. 208)
47, 200
(11,300)
11
520
—
800
38
970
46
--
2, 300
110
250
12
200
9. 5
10
0. 49
6. 7
Range
693
(0. 183 -
33,000 - 58,
(7,900 - 14,
180
__
16
__
__
65
5.4
1.9
0. 41 -
6.5
905
0.
400
000)
980
—
50
--
--
120
36
12
0.
7.
239)
60
0
172
-------
Table 75. Gulf shrimp canning process (plant 1A)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
855
(0.226)
33,000
(7,900)
5. 4
180
480
16
757
(0. 200 -
950
0.251)
32,100 - 45,900
(7,700 - 11,000)
180
16
190
17
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
2, 000
65
160
5.4
210
6.9
14
0. 46
7. 0
42
4.8
6. 1
0.42 -
--
93
6.4
8.0
0. 52
--
2 samples
173
-------
Table 76. Gulf shrimp canning process (plant IB)
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Mean
905
(0. 239)
41, 700
(10,000)
24
980
--
620
26
1, 100
46
--
2,600
110
860
36
46
1.9
Range
840
(0. 222 -
35, 500 - 58,
(8, 500 - 14,
750 - 1,
— — —
7
41
- - "*
87
22
1. 1
969
0. 256)
400
000)
100
--
30
51
--
120
53
2.9
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
6 samples
174
-------
Table 77. Gulf shrimp canning process (plant 2)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
693 473 - 1,190
(0. 183) (0. 125 - 0. 314)
45,900
(11,000)
13
580
1, 100
50
37,500
(9,000
480
- 50,100
- 12,000)
830
28
62
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
2, 600
120
150
6.8
260
12
13
0. 60
6.5
100
5.9
9.6
0. 47 -
--
130
8.6
13
0.67
--
4 samples
175
-------
Table 78. Gulf Shrimp process - screened (plant 3)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
787
(0. 208)
715
(0.189 -
1, 280
0.338)
58,400
(14,000)
6. 8
400
720
42
50, 100
(12, 000
320
- 66,800
- 16,000)
900
21
65
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
2, 100
120
140
8. 5
200
12
7.0
0. 41
7.0
93
4. 7
8
0. 22 -
__
140
12
13
0. 54
--
5 samples
176
-------
Product Flow
Since the breaded and fresh frozen shrimp were beheaded at sea,
the yield was substantially greater in this industry. The range
of the yield (Table 79) was 75 to 85 percent, depending on: type
of breading, method of peeling, size of shrimp, etc.
The raw material was generally in very good condition on arrival;
if caught locally they were kept iced and in coolers until pro-
cessed. Frozen shrimp are sometimes kept, if space is available,
until all the fresh shrimp are processed. Most of the imported
shrimp at the time of this study came from India, Saudi Arabia,
Mexico, and Ecuador. Some days at Plant #1 over 50 percent of
the shrimp processed were of foreign origin. The actual working
day ranged from a low of seven hours to a high of eleven hours.
Average raw material processed totaled 6.3 kkg/day (7.0
tons/day) .
Raw_Waste Loading
Table 80 shows the summary and Tables 81 and 82 show the flows
and loadings from each of the two breaded shrimp processes
sampled. The waste water flows and the loadings per unit of raw
material were very similar for the two processes and quite
similar to the Gulf and lower East Coast canned processes.
TUNA_PROCESSING (Subcategory N)
Seven tuna processing plants were monitored during May and June
of 1973. Three of the plants were located in Southern California
and the other four in Puerto Rico. In addition, data from a
study done by Oregon State University in the fall of 1972 at two
plants in the Northwest were included (Soderquist, et £l., 1972).
These nine plants represented a good cross-section of the tuna
industry with respect to size, age, and locality, and, in fact,
encompassed nearly 50 percent of the total U. S. tuna industry.
The sampling methods described in the introduction to this
section were employed at each of the plants. The
"end-of-the-pipe" total flow and unit processes were sampled
whenever possible. Most plants monitored included on-site pet
food lines, many incorporated meal plants and some operated
solubles plants, as well. In each case the "tuna process" flow
referred to in this report includes all secondary processes
on-site, with two exceptions: the barometric condensor flows and
the air scrubber flows, each representing high volumes of water
with neglegible contamination (in fact, these flows were
frequently single-pass sea water). If more than one outfall was
used a total plant effluent sample was obtained by mixing a flow
proportioned composite of all outfalls. Samples were collected
at various time intervals throughout the production day.
177
-------
Table 79. Breaded Gulf shrimp material balance.
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 653 cu m/day (0.172 mgd)
Unit Operation % of Average Flow Ranggj, %
a) hand peeling 5 3-7
b) thawing or de-icing 4 2-7
c) breading area 2 1-3
d) washdown 51 29 - 73
e) automatic peelers 38 34 - 55
Product Material Balance^..Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 6.3 kkg/day (7.0 tons/day)
Output % of Raw Product Range, %
Food Product 80 75-85
By-product 15 10-20
Waste 5 3-6
178
-------
Table 80. Breaded shrimp process summary (2 plants)
Parameter
Flow Rate , cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Mean
653
(0. 172)
116,000
(27,900)
16
1,800
--
--
800
93
720
84
860
100
1, 200
140
564
(0.
108, 000
(26,000
1, 500
--
_.
76
.» _
81
_.
--
_ w
Range
742
149 - 0. 196)
- 124,000
- 29,800)
_ - -
- 2,000
-
_
- _ _
110
™
-------
Table 81. Breaded shrimp process (plant 1)
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Mean
564
(0. 149)
124,000
(29,800)
16
2, 000
--
890
110
700
87
810
100
1, 100
140
416
(0.
91, 800
(22,000
1, 700
--
85
47
60
110
Range
746
110 - 0. 197)
- 150,000
- 36,000)
- 2, 400
_
130
120
140
160
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
44
5.4
0.69
0.086
7. 7
3. 3
0.075 -
7.9
0. 12
7 samples
180
-------
Table 82. Breaded shrimp process (plant 2)
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu in/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
742
(0.196)
704
(0.186 -
893
0. 236)
108,000
(26,000)
14
1, 500
700
76
750
81
1, 300
140
91,800
(22,000
790
70
65
100
- 117,000
- 28,000)
- 1,800
130
120
190
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
56
6. 1
1. 3
0. 14
7.9
5.3 - 8.5
0. 098 - 0. 22
__
7 samples
181
-------
As mentioned in Section IV, the techniques of tuna processing are
fairly universal for the industry; the flow diagram (Figure 25)
in that section applies to each of the plants with only slight
variations.
Wastewater Sources and Flows
The processing of tuna requires a considerable volume of fresh
water obtained from domestic sources and (usually) salt water
pumped directly from the ocean or from saline wells. The saline
water or domestic industrial water is used in direct contact with
the tuna in only those stages prior to the precook operation.
However, saline water may also be used in the latter stages where
contamination of the cooked fish would present a problem. Table
83 lists the average flow from each unit operation.
Total water use ranged from 246 cu m/day (0.065 mgd) to 11,700 cu
m/day (3.1 mgd) with an average of 3060 cu m/day (0.808 mgd),
where a day was defined as one 8 hour shift. Flow rates and the
ratio of water used to tons of raw material processed are
summarized for all plants on Table 84. The variation for the
flow ratio was relatively large and can be attributed to the wide
variation in the amounts of water used in the thawing operation.
A more detailed discussion of the wastes and waste flow from each
unit operation will be presented later.
Product Flow
The estimated breakdown of the raw material into food, by-
product and waste is shown on Table 83. The average raw product
input was about 167 kkg/day (184 tons/day) but the plants sampled
exhibited a wide range: from 25 to 350 kkg/ day. Food recovery
averaged 45 percent. Very little of the raw material was wasted.
The red meat was utilized for pet food: the viscera, head, fins,
skin and bone were reduced to fish meal and the stickwater and
press liquor from the reduction plant were sent to a solubles
operation which produced a concentrated fish solubles product, as
discussed in Section IV. The final waste represented only about
1 percent of the raw input.
Production in Southern California and the Northwest was usually
on a one shift basis lasting 8 hours with occasional fluctuations
of from 6 to 10 hours. Puerto Rico plants operated on a two
shift schedule, the last shift running somewhat shorter than the
first. For the purpose of data reduction and interpretation,
flows and waste characteristics apply to a standard 8 hour shift.
Combined Raw Waste Loadings
Table 84 shows average flows and loadings of the combined
effluent from all nine processes sampled. The amount of water
182
-------
used per unit of raw material varied considerably, as noted
earlier.
It was also noted that the waste loads in terms of screened
solids, BOD5 and COD were relatively low compared to other sea-
food processing industries, due to good by-product recovery.
Tables 85 through 93 show the average flows and waste water loads
of the combined effluent for each plant sampled.
Unit Operation Characterization
Several unit processes were considered, including: receiving,
thawing, butchering, cleaning, pak-shaping, can washing, re-
torting, and the plant washdown.
Receiving was normally a dry process with the exception of Plant
5 which used flumes to transport the fish to the scales and then
to the thawing tanks; the latter flow was separate, and was used
as the thaw water. This fluming water, pumped from the bay,
flowed at an average rate of IlO I/sec or 3168 cubic meters for
an 8 hour day and contained entrained organic wastes in the form
of blood, scales, and juices, with a corresponding BOD5 and
suspended solids concentration of 4.6 kg and 2.1 kg,
respectively, per kkg of fish unloaded. However, this plant is
presently in the process of converting the fluming system (with
its heavy use of water) to a dry system, as is used in other
plants.
Plant 5 was also unique in that the fishing vessels pumped water
from the bilges and brine holding tanks onto the docks where it
entered the plant waste stream. The amount of this water was
highly variable, as was the suspended solid concentration, which
varied from 20 mg/1 to 5830 mg/1.
The thawing process accounted for the largest water usage in this
subcategory, with a mean of 65 percent of the total volume, but
varied depending on whether the thaw took place under static or
continuous flow conditions. The organic waste load picked up in
this process included blood, juices, and scales. Separate flows
and corresponding waste concentrations were obtained for three of
the plants and are summarized on Table 94.
Because of the close proximity of the thawing and butchering
processes it was not always possible to measure these flows
separately, although several plants did the thawing at night,
temporarily segregating the two flows, which allowed one or the
other to be sampled. This temporal separation of flows was also
helpful in segregating other mixed flows. The average flow was
7389 1/kkg with a BOD5 of 2.96 kg/kkg, and 2.0 kg/kkg of
suspended solids, or 65 percent, 40 percent, and 24 percent
respectively, of the mean totals for these plants.
Approximately 10 percent of the flows came from the butchering
areas and contained blood, juices, small particles of viscera,
183
-------
meat and scales. As mentioned in Section IV, the butcher waste
flow arises from three sources: the wash screen, saw washer jet,
and the periodic hose down. This water may be either fresh or
salt, depending on the plant. The total use of water in
butchering is presently restricted to points of necessity.
Comprising 10 to 15 percent by weight, the potential waste load
from the butcher process is approximately 21 kkg/day from an
average plant processing 167 kkg/day. However, as mentioned in
Section IV, the viscera are saved and processed in either the
fish meal plant or the fish solubles plant. The data for the
waste loadings occurring in the butcher room from three plants
are summarized on Table 94.
For these plants the butchering process contributed 24 percent of
the suspended solids. Wastage also occurred as the butchered
fish lay in wire racks prior to being cooked; blood and juices
drained onto the floor and were hosed into one of several
collection drains. This contribution was not isolated and must
be considered under one of the unmeasured miscellaneous sources
which add to the total plant effluent. Leakage of stickwater
from the precookers presented a problem in that it, too, was not
available for measurement, and therefore must also be added to
the miscellaneous small flows. Stickwater was pumped from the
precookers for reduction or separate discharge by barging to open
sea; the latter was the case in only one plant sampled.
Stickwater contains large amounts of fats, oils, and
proteinaceous materials which could appreciably increase the
concentration of the waste discharged if it were not treated
separately. Samples of stickwater obtained from one of the
plants had an average BQD5 of 48.2 kg/kkg, COD of 123.5 kg/kkg,
and 33.7 kg/kkg of suspended solids.
After precooking, the tuna were allowed to cool for several hours
in a separate area between the precookers and cleaning rooms.
Although cooling was accelerated in one plant with a fine spray
of cold water, the fish were sufficiently leached of most of the
oils and liquids in the precook so that a significant waste
loading did not develop at this point. These wastes are grouped
with the miscellaneous sources, and except for the one plant that
used a spray mist, the air cooling process minimized waste
loadings at this point.
The cleaning process which follows cooling (as discussed in
Section IV) was a dry process with over 99 percent recovery of
the wastes generated. These collected wastes were conveyed to a
reduction plant which further processed them into various fishery
by-products. A quantification of the waste loading occurring in
this area is included in the washdown discussion since that is
the only time water enters this process.
A small flow was associated with the pak-shaping machines and
averaged 8720 I/per 8 hour day, which is less than 2 percent of
the total effluent flow, but contributed 16 percent of the
184
-------
Table 83. Tuna process material balance.
Wastewater Material Balance Summary
Average Flow, 3,060 cu m/day (0.81 mgd)
Unit Operation
a) thaw
b) butcher
c) pak-shaper
d) can washer
e) retort
f) washdown
g) miscellaneous
% of Average Flow
65
10
2
2
13
7
1
Range, %
35 - 75
5-15
1-3
1-3
6-19
5-10
0-2
Product Material Balance Summary
Average Raw Product Input Rate, 167 kkg/day (184 tons/day)
Output
% of Raw Product
Food Product 45
By-products
Viscera 12
Head, skin, fins, bone 33
Red meat 9
Waste 1
Range, %
40 - 50
10 - 15
30 - 40
8 - 10
0.1 - 2
185
-------
Table 84. Tuna process summary (9 plants).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N , mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio , kg/kkg
pH
Mean
3,737
(.987)
22,277
(5,338)
1.42
31.8
71
1.3
511
10.8
698.9
14.6
—
1,585.6
35
244
5.65
60.6
1.23
5.74
.145
6.75
246
(0
5,590
(1,340
7
0
3
6
—
14
1
0
0
6
Range
- 13,600
.065 - 3.59)
- 45,100
- 10,800)
.0 - 51
.95 - 1.7
.8 - 17
.8 - 20
_
64
.7 - 13
.75 - 3.0
.0052- .42
.2 - 7.2
186
-------
Table 85 . Tuna process (plant 1).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
f\
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH3
Mean
2120
(0.56)
25,700
(6160)
1.2
30.6
_.«_
477
12.3
777
19.9
mm — -~
1930
49.6
207
5.3
51.4
1.33
3.5
0.09
7.1
Range
2082-2158
.55-. 57
21,934-30,094
5260-7217
1.05-6.8
26.9-174.6
191-965
4.9-24.8
268-1097
6.9-28.2
1101-3155
28.3-81.1
101-393
2.6-10.1
48.6-58.4
1.25-1.50
2.7-42.8
.07-1.1
7.0-7.1
1 day = 8 hrs
2 weight of raw product
3 laboratory pH
5 samples
187
-------
Table. 86 . Tuna process (plant 2).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg2
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio , kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH4
Mean
4539
(1.19)
24,300
(5830)
1.8
46.8
67.1
1.66
701
17.4
421
9.98
—
1586
38.5
246
5.97
37.8
0.94
7.3
0.18
6.7
Range
3108
(.821-
19,707 -25
(4726
1.6 -
38.9 -
—
209
5.1 -
218
5.3 -
—
629
15.3 -
86.8 -
2.11 -
18.5 -
.45 -
3.7 -
.09 -
6.2 -
4542
1.20)
,616
6143)
11.0
267.4
—
1049
25.5
1008
24.5
—
3547
86.2
349
8.5
57.6
1.4
8.2
.20
7.1
1 day = 8 hrs
2 weight of raw product
3 dry weight
4 laboratory pH
12 samples
188
-------
Table 87
Tuna process (plant 3).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day-'-
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg2
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio , kg/kkg
PH3
Mean
4560
(1.21)
23,200
(5560)
1.21
28.5
—
708
16.1
752
17.5
—
2740
63.8
576
13.2
93.8
2.18
9.75
0.23
6.8
Range
3562
(.941-
5678
1.5)
20,508 -28,476
(4918 - (6829)
.7 -
16.2 -
— _
457
10.6 -
543
12.6 -
—
1233
28.6 -
250
5.8 -
61.6 -
1.43 -
5.6 -
0.13 -
6.7 -
6.1
141
—
948
22.0
931
21.6
__
3840
89.1
711
16.5
131
3.05
11.6
0.27
7.1
1 day = 8 hrs
2 weight of raw product
3 laboratory pK
5 samples
189
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Table 88 . Tuna process (plant 4).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu in/day^
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg2
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N , mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH4
Mean
2270
(0.6)
16,100
(3860)
1.6
24.5
59.9
0.95
477
7.69
608
9.79
—
1860
28.4
217
3.49
46
0.75
10.1
0.16
6.5
Range
1715
(0.453-
13,406 -17
(3215
0.1 -
1.6 -
—
173
2.8 -
172
2.77 -
— _
832
13.4 -
88
1.42 -
8.7 -
0.14 -
9.3 -
0.15 -
6.0 -
2547
0.673)
,680
4240)
2.5
40.2
—
913
14.7
930
14.98
—
2441
39.3
478
7.7
50.9
0.82
14.9
0.24
6.9
1 day = 8 hrs
2 weight of raw product
3 dry weight
4 laboratory pH
9 Samples
190
-------
Table 89. Tuna process (plant 5).
Parameter
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD , mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammon i a-N , mg/ 1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
Mean
13,600 9
(3.59)
45,100 35
(10,800). (8
0.228
10.3
—
202
9.12
428
19.3
1,060
47.6
101
4.57
26.3
1.19
9.29
0.419
6.70
,780
(2.59
,700
,550
0.377
17.0 .
—
103
4.64
236
10.6
362
16.3
53.7
2.42
20.6
0.927
6.86
0.310
6.44
Range
- 16,700
4.42)
- 53,100
- 12,700)
0.650
29.3
_
351
15.8
- 1,070
48.4
- 3,110
140
147
6.62
39.0
1.76
56.3
2.54
7.25
8 samples
191
-------
Table 90. Tuna process (plant 6).
Parameter •
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids , mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Mean
4,120 3
(1.9)
20,600 19
(4,930) (4
2.46
50.6
—
746
15.3
896
18.4
1,390 1
28.6
267
5.49
,900
(1.03
,000
,540
0.750
15.4
—
495
10.2
—
,050
21.7
144
2.95
Range
- 4,310
1.14)
- 22,000
- 5,280)
9.96
205
_
- 1,020
21.0
-
- 2,130
43.9
450
9.24
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
pH
6.46
6.27 -
6.75
5 samples
192
-------
Table 91. Tuna process (plant 7).
Flow
Flow
Parameter
Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Mean
1,850 1,840
(.488) (.488
17,200 16,800
(4,110) (4,040
Range
- 1,855
.492)
- 17,500
- 4,190)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
513
8.80
1,060
18.2
869
14.9
97.7
1.68
68.2
1.17
3.13
0.054
6.90
432
7.40 -
—
1,030
17.7
90.6
1.55 -
69.8
1.20 -
18.6
0.319 -
6.88 -
594
10.2
--
1,260
21.6
105
1.80
97.6
1.67
18.8
0.323
6.91
2 samples
193
-------
Table 92
Tuna process (plant 8) .
Flow
Flow
Parameter
Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
Ratio, 1/kkg2
(gal/ton)
Mean
246
(0.065)
10,730
(2570)
Range
140 - 461
(.037- '.I
6105 -20,328
(1464 - 4875)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N , mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH3
357
3.8
634
6.8
—
1310
14.1
—
80.2
0.86
2.5
0.0268
6.85
251
2.7 -
400
4.3 -
— — -
568
6.1 -
—
30.7 -
.33 -
1.86 -
.020-
6.7 -
615
6.6
755
8.1
—
2712
29.1
—
127.7
1.37
4.47
.048
7.1
1 day = 8 hrs
2 weight of raw product
3 laboratory pH
8 Samples
194
-------
Table 93
Tuna process (plant 9).
Parameter
Mean
Range
Flow Rate, cu m/day
(mgd)
2
Flow Ratio, 1/kkg
(gal/ton)
Settleable Solids, ml/1
Settleable Solids Ratio, 1/kkg
Screened Solids, mg/1
Screened Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids Ratio, kg/kkg
5 day BOD, mg/1
5 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
20 day BOD, mg/1
20 day BOD Ratio, kg/kkg
COD, mg/1
COD Ratio, kg/kkg
Grease and Oil, mg/1
Grease and Oil Ratio, kg/kkg
Organic Nitrogen, mg/1
Organic Nitrogen Ratio, kg/kkg
Ammonia-N, mg/1
Ammonia-N Ratio, kg/kkg
PH
348
(0.092)
159
568
(.042-
.150)
17,593
(4216)
1671
29.4
7919
(1899
-28,410
- 6813)
441
7.76
676
11.9
131
2.31 -
318
5.6 -
868
15.28
835
14.7
835
14.7
2916
51.3
79.9
1.41
3.2
.052
33.9 -
.597-
.74 -
.013-
336
5.72
11.6
.204
1 day " 8 hrs
2 weight of raw product
8 Samples
195
-------
suspended solids as calculated for one plant which used repre-
sentative packing machines. The load from the pak-shaper is
summarized in Table 94.
As described in Section IV the cans were washed in three places:
water from the first two was recirculated (solids and non-
emulsified fats being removed by screening and skimming); the
final phase usually flowed continuously. The holding tanks
varied from 1.9 cu m/day to 151 cu m/day and were dumped once or
twice per shift; this washwater plus overflow and final rinse
comprised roughly 2 percent of the total plant flow. The
entrained wastes had an average BOD5 of 0.65 kg/kkg, with 0.80
kg/kkg of suspended solids; the latter represents 9 percent of
the total suspended solids for the plants considered. The waste
load from the can washing operation is summarized on Table 94.
Retort cooling water comprised approximately 14 percent of the
total plant flow or 428 cu m/day for the average plant. Because
the cans were subjected to a three-phase rinse prior to being
retorted, the possibility of significant pollutional loading of
this water is greatly reduced. A sample of this cooling water
contained 0.0095 kg/kkg of suspended solids, contributing less
than 0.09 percent of the total suspended solids to the plant
effluent. A correspondingly low BOD5 of 0.14 kg/kkg and 0.18
kg/kkg of grease and oil was obtained.
The washdown or clean-up process accounted for 7 percent of the
total plant effluent, or approximately 220 cu m/day for the
average plant. The process occurred after the cleaning and
packing was completed and lasted from 2 to 6 hours, depending on
the size of the plant and the clean-up crew. Because of the
addition of caustic cleaning agents, the effluent pH was elevated
from a mean value of 6.17 to a value of 8.4. Waste from the
cleaning operation which had accumulated on the floors near
machinery was removed prior to the washing down of this area.
Small pieces of bone, skin, meat and fins which escape the
initial step were washed into drains and were removed by
screening. The resulting effluent from this process contained an
average of 1.39 kg/kkg BOD5 and 2.53 kg/kkg of suspended solids
or 18 percent and 32 percent respectively, of the total waste
loading. During the cleaning process 41 percent of the weight of
the tuna was removed; for the average plant processing 167
kkg/day, this represents 68 kkg of potential waste material. The
material entering the waste stream, however, totaled much less
than this. Most material was recovered and used in the
production of pet food (red meat) and by-products.
As indicated in the preceding discussion of each unit process,
segregation of these processes was not possible in each of the
nine plants in the sample group. Separate flow and waste
characterization was obtainable for each unit process in from 1
to 6 of the plants depending on the process. Therefore, the
percentage contribution of each parameter applies only to the
subsample group and therefore may or may not total 100 percent
for the sum of the process.
196
-------
Table 94 Percent of total plant waste by unit
process for BOD and suspended solids.
5
UD
Process
Thaw
Butcher
Pack Shaper
Can Wash
Retort
Washdown
Percent Total
Flow
65
10
2
2
14
7
Percent Total
BOD
5
40
20
14
8
<0.1
18
Percent Total
Suspended Solids
24
19
16
9
<0 .1
32
-------
-------
SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
WASTEWATER PARAMETERS OF POLLUTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
The waste water parameters of major pollutional significance to
the canned and preserved seafood processing industry are: 5-day
(20°C) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5J , suspended solids, and
oil and grease. For the purposes of establishing effluent
limitations guidelines, pH is included in the monitored
parameters and must fall within an acceptable range. Of
peripheral or occasional importance are temperature, phosphorus,
coliforms, ultimate (20 day) biochemical oxygen demand, chloride,
chemical oxygen demand (COD), settleable solids, and nitrogen.
On the basis of all evidence reviewed, no purely hazardous or
toxic (in the accepted sense of the word) pollutants (e.g., heavy
metals, pesticides, etc.) occur in wastes discharged from canned
or preserved seafoods processing facilities.
In high concentrations, both chloride and ammonia can be
considered inhibitory (or occasionally toxic) to micro- and
macro-organisms. At the levels usually encountered in fish and
shellfish processing waters, these problems are not encountered,
with one class of exceptions: high strength (occasionally
saturated) NaCl solutions are periodically discharged from some
segments of the industry. These can interfere with many
biological treatment systems unless their influence is moderated
by some form of dilution or flow equalization.
Rationale For Selection Of Identified Parameters
The selection of the major waste water parameters is based
primarily on prior publications in food processing waste
characterization research (most notably, seafood processing waste
characterization studies) (Soderquist, et al., 1972a, and
Soderquist, et al., 1972b). The EPA seafoods state-of-the-art
report "Current Practice in Seafoods Processing Waste Treatment,"
(Soderquist, et al., 1970), provided a comprehensive summary of
the industry. All of these publications involved the evaluation
of various pollutant parameters and their applicability to food
processing wastes.
The studies conducted at Oregon State University over the past
two years involving seafood processing wastes characterization
included the following parameters:
1. temperature
2. pH
3. settleable solids
4. suspended solids
5. chemical oxygen demand
199
-------
6. 5-day biochemical oxygen demand
7. ultimate biochemical oxygen demand
8. oil and grease
9. nitrate
10. total Keldahl nitrogen (organic nitrogen and ammonia)
11. phosphorus
12. chloride
13. coliform
Of all these parameters, it was demonstrated (Soderquist, et al.,
1972b) that those listed above as being of major pollutional
significance were the most significant. The results of the
current study (Section V) support this conclusion. Below are
discussions of the rationale used in arriving at those
conclusions.
1. Biochemical Oxygen Demand {BOD5)
Two general types of pollutants can exert a demand on the
dissolved oxygen regime of a body of receiving water. These are:
1) chemical species which exert an immediate dissolved oxygen
demand (IDOD) on the water body due to chemical reactions; and 2)
organic substances which indirectly cause a demand to be exerted
on the system because indigenous microorganisms utilizing the
organic wastes as substrate flourish and proliferate; their
natural respiratory activity utilizing the surrounding dissolved
oxygen. Seafood wastes do not contain constituents that exert an
immediate demand on a receiving water. They do, however, contain
high levels of organics whose strength is most commonly measured
by the BOD5 test.
The biochemical oxygen demand is usually defined as the amount of
oxygen required by bacteria while stabilizing decomposable
organic matter under aerobic conditions. The term "decomposable"
may be interpreted as meaning that the organic matter can serve
as food for the bacteria and energy is derived from this
oxidation.
The BOD does not in itself cause direct harm to a water system,
but it does exert an indirect effect by depressing the oxygen
content of the water. Seafood processing and other organic
effluents exert a BOD during their processes of decomposition
which can have a catastrophic effect on the ecosystem by
depleting the oxygen supply. Conditions are reached frequently
where all of the oxygen is used and the continuing decay process
causes the production of noxious gases such as hydrogen sulfide
and methane. Water with a high BOD indicates the presence of
decomposing organic matter and subsequent high bacterial counts
that degrade its quality and potential uses.
200
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Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a water quality constituent that, in
appropriate concentrations, is essential not only to keep
organisms living but also to sustain species reproduction, vigor,
and the development of populations. Organisms undergo stress at
reduced DO concentrations that make them less competitive and
able to sustain their species within the aquatic environment.
For example, reduced DO concentrations have been shown to
interfere with fish population through delayed hatching of eggs,
reduced size and vigor of embryos, production of deformities in
young, interference with food digestion, acceleration of blood
clotting, decreased tolerance to certain toxicants, reduced food
efficiency and growth rate, and reduced maximum sustained
swimming speed. Fish food organisms are likewise affected
adversely in conditions with suppressed DO. Since all aerobic
aquatic organisms need a certain amount of oxygen, the
consequences of total lack of dissolved oxygen due to a high BOD
can kill all inhabitants of the affected area.
If a high BOD is present, the quality of the water is usually
visually degraded by the presence of decomposing materials and
algae blooms due to the uptake of degraded materials that form
the foodstuffs of the algal populations.
The BOD5 test is widely used to determine the pollutional
strength of domestic and industrial wastes in terms of the oxygen
that they will require if discharged into natural watercourses in
which aerobic conditions exist. The test is one of the most
important in stream polluton control activities. By its use, it
is possible to determine the degree of pollution in streams at
any time. This test is of prime importance in regulatory work
and in studies designed to evaluate the purification capacities
of receiving bodies of water.
The BOD.5 test is essentially a bioassay procedure involving the
measurement of oxygen consumed by living organisms while
utilizing the organic matter present in a waste under conditions
as similar as possible to those that occur in nature. The
problem arises when the test must be standardized to permit its
use (for comparative purposes) on different samples, at different
times, and in different locations. Once "standard conditions"
have been defined, as they have (Standard Methods, 1971) for the
BODjJ test, then the original assumption that the analysis
simulates natural conditions in the receiving waters no longer
applies, except only occasionally.
In order to make the test quantitative the samples must be
protected from the air to prevent reaeration as the dissolved
oxygen level diminishes. In addition, because of the limited
solubility of oxygen in water (about 9 mg/1 at 20°C), strong
wastes must be diluted to levels of demand consistent with this
value to ensure that dissolved oxygen will be present throughout
the period of the test.
201
-------
Since this is a bioassay procedure, it is extremely important
that environmental conditions be suitable for the living or-
ganisms to function in an unhindered manner at all times. This
requirement means that toxic substances must be absent and that
accessory nutrients needed for microbial growth (such as
nitrogen, phosphorus and certain trace elements) must be present.
Biological degradation of organic matter under natural conditions
is brought about by a diverse group of organisms that carry the
oxidation essentially to completion (i.e., almost entirely to
carbon dioxide and water). Therefore, it is important that a
mixed group of organisms commonly called "seed" be present in the
test. For most industrial wastes, this "seed" should be allowed
to adapt to the particular waste ("acclimate") prior to
introduction of the culture into the BOD5 bottle.
The BOD5 test may be considered as a wet oxidation procedure in
which the living organisms serve as the medium for oxidation of
the organic matter to carbon dioxide and water. A quantitative
relationship exists between the amount of oxygen required to
convert a definite amount of any given organic compound to carbon
dioxide and water which can be represented by a generalized
equation. On the basis of this relationship it is possible to
interpret BOD5 data in terms of organic matter as well as in
terms of the amount of oxygen used during its oxidation. This
concept is fundamental to an understanding of the rate at which
BOD5 is exerted.
The oxidative reactions involved in the BOD5 test are results of
biological activity and the rate at which the reactions proceed
is governed to a major extent by population numbers and
temperature. Temperature effects are held constant by performing
the test at 20°C, which is more or less a median value for
natural bodies of water. The predominant organisms responsible
for the stabilization of most organic matter in natural waters
are native to the soil.
The rate of their metabolic processes at 20°C and under the
conditions of the test (total darkness, quiescence, etc.) is such
that time must be reckoned in days. Theoretically, an infinite
time is required for complete biological oxidation of organic
matter, but for all practical purposes the reaction may be
considered to be complete in 20 days. A BOD test conducted over
the 20 day period is normally considered a good estimate of the
"ultimate BOD." However, a 20 day period is too long to wait for
results in most instances. It has been found by experience with
domestic sewage that a reasonably large percentage of the total
BOD is exerted in five days. Consequently, the test has been
developed on the basis of a 5-day incubation period. It should
be remembered, therefore, that 5-day BOD values represent only a
portion of the total BOD. The exact percentage depends on the
character of the "seed" and the nature of the organic matter and
can be determined only by experiment. In the case of domestic
and some industrial waste waters it has been found that the BOD5
value is about 70 to 80 percent of the total BOD. This has been
202
-------
demonstrated (Section V) to be the case for seafoods processing
waste waters as well. This is considered to be a large enough
percentage of the total BOD so that 5-day values are used in many
instances, (Sawyer and Mccarty, 1967). Both the 5-day and the
20-day (ultimate) BOD tests were employed in this study with
reasonable success.
2. Suspended Solids
This parameter measures the suspended material that can be
removed from the waste waters by laboratory filtration but does
not include coarse or floating matter that can be screened or
settled out readily. Suspended solids are a vital and easily
determined measure of pollution and also a measure of the
material that may settle in tranquil or slow moving streams.
Suspended solids in the raw wastes from seafood processing plants
correlate well with BOD5_ and COD. Often, a high level of
suspended solids serves as an indicator of a high level of BOD5.
Suspended solids are the primary parameter for measuring the
effectiveness of solids removal systems such as screens,
clarifiers and flotation units. After primary treatment,
suspended solids no longer correlate with organics content
because a high percentage of the BOD5 in fish processing waste
waters is soluble or colloidal.
Suspended solids include both organic and inorganic materials.
The inorganic components may include sand, silt, and clay. The
organic fraction includes such materials as grease, oil, animal
and vegetable fats, and various materials from sewers. These
solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are often a
mixture of both organic and inorganic solids. They adversely
affect fisheries by covering the bottom of the receiving water
with a blanket of material that destroys the fish-food bottom
fauna or the spawning ground of fish. Deposits containing
organic materials may deplete bottom oxygen supplies and produce
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, and other noxious
gases.
In raw water sources for domestic use, state and regional
agencies generally specify that suspended solids in streams shall
not be present in sufficient concentration to be objectionable or
to interfere with normal treatment processes. Suspended solids
in water may interfere with many industrial processes, and cause
foaming in boilers, or encrustations on equipment exposed to
water, especially as the temperature rises.
Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle to
the bed of the receiving water. These settleable solids
discharged with man's wastes may be inert, slowly biodegradable
materials, or rapidly decomposable substances. While in
suspension, they increase the turbidity of the water, reduce
light penetration and impair the photosynthetic activity of
aquatic plants.
203
-------
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing. When they
settle to form sludge deposits on the receiving water bed, they
are often much more damaging to the life in water, and they
retain the capacity to displease the senses. Solids, when
transformed to sludge deposits, may do a variety of damaging
things, including blanketing the receiving water and thereby
destroying the living spaces for those benthic organisms that
would otherwise occupy the habitat. When of an organic, and
therefore decomposable nature, solids use a portion or all of the
dissolved oxygen available in the area. Organic materials also
serve as a seemingly inexhaustible food source for sludgeworms
and associated organisms.
Turbidity is principally a measure of the light absorbing
properties of suspended solids. It is frequently used as a
substitute method of quickly estimating the total suspended
solids when the concentration is relatively low.
3. Oil and^Grease
Oil and grease exhibit an oxygen demand. Oil emulsions may
adhere to the gills of fish or coat and destroy algae or other
plankton. Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments can serve to
exhibit normal benthic growths, thus interrupting the aquatic
food chain. Soluble and emulsified material ingested by fish may
taint the flavor of the fish flesh. Water soluble components may
exert toxic action on fish. Floating oil may reduce the re-
aeration of the water surface and in conjunction with emulsified
oil may interfere with photosynthesis. Water insoluble
components damage the plumage and costs of water animals and
fowls. Oil and grease in a water can result in the formation of
objectionable surface slicks preventing the full aesthetic
enjoyment of the water.
Oil spills can damage the surface of boats and can destroy the
aesthetic characteristics of beaches and shorelines.
Although with the foregoing analyses the standard procedures as
described in the 13th edition of Standard Methods (1971), are
applicable to seafood processing wastes, this appears not
necessarily to be the case for "floatables." The standard method
for determining the oil and grease level in a sample involves
multiple solvent extraction of the filterable portion of the
sample with n-hexane or trichlorotrifluorethane (Freon) in a
soxhlet extraction apparatus. As cautioned in Standard Methods,
(1971) this determination is not an absolute measurement
producing solid, reproducible, quantitative results. The method
measures, with various accuracies, fatty acids, soaps, fats,
waxes, oils and any other material which is extracted by the
solvent from an acidified sample and which is not volatilized
during evaporation of the solvent. Of course the initial
assumption is that the oils and greases are separated from the
aqueous phase of the sample in the initial filtration step.
Acidification of the sample is said to greatly enhance recovery
204
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of the oils and greases therein (Standard Methods,1971). Oils
and greases are particularly important in the seafoods processing
industries because of their high concentrations and the nuisance
conditions they cause when allowed to be discharged untreated to
a watercourse. Floating oil may reduce the re-aeration of the
water surface and in conjunction with emulsified oil may
interfere with photosynthesis. Oil emulsion may adhere to the
gills of fish or coat and destroy algae or other plankton. Also,
oil and grease are notably resistant to anaerobic digestion and
when present in an anaerobic system cause excessive scum
accumulation, clogging of the pores of filters, etc., and reduce
the quality of the final sludge. It is, therefore, important
that oils and greases be measured routinely in seafood processing
waste waters and that their concentrations discharged to the
environment be minimized. Previous work with seafoods had
indicated that the Standard Methods (1971) oil and grease
procedure was inadequate for some species. In a preliminary
study the standard method recovered only 16 percent of a fish oil
sample while recovering 99 percent of a vegetable oil sample.
However, because alternative methods for seafood process waste
waters were not available, the Standards Methods (1971) oil and
grease analysis was used in this study.
Recent work (March, 1973) by the staff of the Fishery Products
Technological Laboratory of the National Marine Fisheries Service
in Kodiak, Alaska, indicates that a modification of the Standard
Mjiihods (1971) oil and grease analysis markedly improves recovery
from crab and shrimp processing effluents (Collins, 1972). The
method of Collins was designed to be an improved, simplified
replacement for the Standard Methods (1971) analysis, to be
practicable in most industrial laboratories without significant
investment in facilities. in addition to improving recovery,
Collins' method allows the filtration of significantly larger
samples, thereby increasing accuracy and reproducability of the
technique. One feature of that method apparently is the key to
its success: the filtration step employed. As mentioned above,
the oils and greases in the seafoods waste water samples cannot
be extracted by the organic solvent if they are not first
filtered out of the aqueous sample. It is, furthermore, implied
above that a significant portion of the oils and greases are not
removed in the filtration step in the standard method. To
improve recovery, Collins recommended a simple and fast
filtration technique using a filter aid and a slurry of filter
paper. This method appears to hold considerable promise and may
be the secret to improved recoveries in the analysis of greases
and oils in fish processing effluents.
**• J23» Acidity and Alkalinity
Acidity and alkalinity are reciprocal terms. Acidity is produced
by substances that yield hydrogen ions upon hydrolysis and
alkalinity is produced by substances that yield hydroxyl ions.
The terms "total acidity" and "total alkalinity" are often used
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to express the buffering capacity of a solution. Acidity in
natural waters is caused by carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly
dissociated acids, and the salts of strong acids and weak bases.
Alkalinity is caused by strong bases and the salts of strong
alkalies and weak acids.
The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the concentration of
hydrogen ions. At a pH of 7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl ion
concentrations are essentially equal and the water is neutral.
Lower pH values indicate acidity while higher values indicate
alkalinity. The relationship between pH and acidity or
alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.
Waters with a pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works
structures, distribution lines, and household plumbing fixtures
and can thus add such constituents to drinking water as iron,
copper, zinc, cadmium and lead. The hydrogen ion concentration
can affect the "taste" of the water. At a low pH, water tastes
"sour". The bactericidal effect of chlorine is weakened as the
pH increases, and it is advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.
This is very significant for providing safe drinking water.
Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or
kill aquatic life outright. Dead fish, associated algal blooms,
and foul stenches are aesthetic liabilities of any waterway.
Even moderate changes from "acceptable" criteria limits of pH are
deleterious to some species. The relative toxicity to aquatic
life of many materials is increased by changes in the water pH.
Metalocyanide complexes can increase a thousand- fold in toxicity
with a drop of 1.5 pH units. The availability of many nutrient
substances varies with alkalinity and acidity. Ammonia is more
lethal with a higher pH.
The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a pH of approximately 7.0
and a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the norm may result in eye
irritation for the swimmer. Appreciable irritation will cause
severe pain.
For these reasons pH is included as a monitored effluent
limitation parameter even though the majority of seafood
processing waste waters is near neutrality prior to treatment.
Of the minor parameters mentioned in the introduction to this
section, eight were listed: ultimate BOD, COD, phosphorus,
nitrogen, temperature, settleable solids, coliforms, and
chloride. Of these eight, two are considered peripheral and six
are considered of occasional importance. Of peripheral
importance are ultimate BOD and phosphorus. Phosphorus levels
are sufficiently low to be of negligible importance, except under
only the most stringent conditions, i.e. , those involving
eutrophication which dictate some type of tertiary treatment
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system. The ultimate BOD and phosphorus can be closely
approximated with the COD test.
1. Chemical Oxygen^Demand^JCOD)
The chemical oxygend demand (COD) represents an alternative
to the biochemical oxygen demand, which in many respects is
superior. The test is widely used and allows measurement of a
waste in terms of the total quantity of oxygen required for
oxidation to carbon dioxide and water under severe chemical and
physical conditions. It is based on the fact that all organic
compounds, with a few exceptions, can be oxidized by the action
of strong oxidizing agents under acid conditions. Although amino
nitrogen will be converted to ammonia nitrogen, organic nitrogen
in higher oxidation states will be converted to nitrates; that
is, it will be oxidized.
During the COD test, organic matter is converted to carbon
dioxide and water regardless of the biological assimilability of
the substances; for instance, glucose and lignin are both
oxidized completely. As a result, COD values are greater than
BOD values and may be much greater when significant amounts of
biologically resistant organic matter is present. In the case of
seafood processing wastes, this does not present a problem, as is
demonstrated by the data generated in this study and presented in
Section V. The BOD to COD ratio of seafood processing wastes is
approximately the same as the ratio for domestic wastes,
indicating that the two types of wastes are approximately equally
biodegradable. Another drawback of the COD test is its inability
to demonstrate the rate at which the biologically active material
would be stabilized under conditions that exist in nature. In
the case of seafood processing wastes, this same drawback is
applicable to the BOD test, because the strongly soluble nature
of seafood processing wastes lends them to more rapid biological
oxidation than domestic wastes. Therefore, a single measurement
of the biochemical oxygen demand at a given point in time (5
days) is no indication of the difference between these two rates.
The major advantage of the COD test is the short time required
for evaluation. The determination can be made in about 3 hours
rather than the 5 days required for the measurement of BOD.
Furthermore, the COD requires less sophisticated equipment, less
highly-trained personnel, a smaller working area, and less
investment in laboratory facilities. Another major advantage of
the COD test is that seed acclimation need not be a problem.
With the BOD test, the seed used to inoculate the culture should
have been acclimated for a period of several days, using
carefully prescribed procedures, to assure that the normal lag
time (exhibited by all microorganisms when subjected to a new
substrate) can be minimized. No acclimation, of course, is
required in the COD test. One drawback of the chemical oxygen
demand is analogous to a problem encountered with the BOD also;
that is, high levels of chloride interfere with the analysis.
Normally, O.U grams of mercuric sulfate are added to each sample
being analyzed for chemical oxygen demand. This eliminates the
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chloride interference in -the sample up to a chloride level of 40
mg/1. At concentrations above this level, further mercuric
sulfate must be added. However, studies by the National Marine
Fisheries Service Technological Laboratory in Kodiak, Alaska, on
seafood processing wastes have indicated that above certain
chloride concentrations the added mercuric sulfate itself causes
interference (Tenny, 1972).
With the possible exception of seawater samples, this does not
present a problem in the fish processing industry, because
organic levels are sufficiently high that dilution is required
prior to COD analysis. This dilution, of course, reduces the
chloride level in the sample as well as the organic level,
thereby eliminating or reducing the chloride interference
problem.
The possibility of substituting the COD parameter for the BOD5
parameter was investigated during a subsequent study of the
seafood industry which will be published in the near future. The
BODES and corresponding COD data from industrial fish, finfish,
and shellfish waste waters were analyzed to determine if COD is
an adequate predictor of BOD5 for any or all of these groups of
seafood. The analysis indicates tht the COD parameter is not a
reliable predictor of BOD5.
Moreover, the relationship between COD and BOD5 before treatment
is not necessarily the same after treatment. Therefore, the
effluent limitations guidelines will include the BOD5 parameter,
since insufficient information is available on the COD effluent
levels after treatment.
2. Settleable Solids
The settleable solids test involves the quiescent settling of a
liter of waste water in an "Imhoff cone" for one hour, with
appropriate handling (scraping of the sides, etc.). The method
is simply a crude measurement of the amount of material one might
expect to settle out of the waste water under quiescent
conditions. It is especially applicable to the analysis of waste
waters being treated by such methods as screens, clarifiers and
flotation units, for it not only defines the efficacy of the
systems, in terms of settleable material, but provides a
reasonable estimate of the amount of deposition that might take
place under quiescent conditions in the receiving water after
discharge of the effluent.
3. Ammonia and Nitrogen
Ammonia is a common product of the decomposition of organic
matter. Dead and decaying animals and plants along with human
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and animal body wastes account for much of the ammonia entering
the aquatic ecosystem. Ammonia exists in its non-ionized form
only at higher pH levels and is the most toxic in this state.
The lower the pH, the more ionized ammonia is formed and its
toxicity decreases. Ammonia, in the presence of dissolved
oxygen, is converted to nitrate (NO2I) by nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrite (NO2), which is an intermediate product between ammonia
and nitrate, sometimes occurs in quantity when depressed oxygen
conditions permit. Ammonia can exist in several other chemical
combinations including ammonium chloride and other salts.
Nitrates are considered to be among the poisonous ingredients of
mineralized waters, with potassium nitrate being more poisonous
than sodium nitrate. Excess nitrates cause irritation of the
mucous linings of the gastrointestinal tract and the bladder; the
symptoms are diarrhea and diuresis, and drinking one liter of
water containing 500 mg/1 of nitrate can cause such symptoms.
Infant methemoglobinemia, a disease characterized by certain
specific blood changes and cyanosis, may be caused by high
nitrate concentrations in the water used for preparing feeding
formulae. While it is still impossible to state precise
concentration limits, it has been widely recommended that water
containing more than 10 mg/1 of nitrate nitrogen (N03-N) should
not be used for infants. Nitrates are also harmful in
fermentation processes and can cause disagreeable tastes in beer.
In most natural water the pH range is such that ammonium ions
(NHj*+) predominate. In alkaline waters, however, high
concentrations of un-ionized ammonia in undissociated ammonium
hydroxide increase the toxicity of ammonia solutions. In streams
polluted with sewage, up to one half of the nitrogen in the
sewage may be in the form of free ammonia, and sewage may carry
up to 35 mg/1 of total nitrogen. It has been shown that at a
level of 1.0 mg/1 un-ionized ammonia, the ability of hemoglobin
to combine with oxygen is impaired and fish may suffocate.
Evidence indicates that ammonia exerts a considerable toxic
effect on all aquatic life within a range of less than 1.0 mg/1
to 25 mg/1, depending on the pH and dissolved oxygen level
present.
Ammonia can add to the problem of eutrophication by supplying
nitrogen through its breakdown products. Some lakes in warmer
climates, and others that are aging quickly are sometimes limited
by the nitrogen available. Any increase will speed up the plant
growth and decay process. Seafoods processing waste waters are
highly proteinaceous in nature; total nitrogen levels of several
thousand milligrams per liter are not uncommon. Most of this
nitrogen is in the organic and ammonia form. These high nitrogen
levels contribute to two major problems when the waste waters are
discharged to receiving waters. First the nitrification of
organic nitrogen and ammonia by indigineous microorganisms
creates a sizable demand on the local oxygen resource. Secondly,
in waters where nitrogen is the limiting element this enrichment
could enhance eutrophication markedly. The accepted methods for
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measurement of organic and ammonia nitrogen, using the macro-
kjeldahl apparatus as described in Standard Methods (1971), are
adequate for the analysis of seafoods processing wastewaters. It
should be remembered that organic strengths of seafood processing
waste waters are normally considerably higher than that of normal
domestic sewage; therefore, the volume of acid used in the
digestion process frequently must be increased. Standard^Methods
(1971) alerts the analyst to this possibility by mentioning that
in the presence of large quantities of nitrogen-free organic
matter, it is necessary to allow an additional 50 ml of sulfuric
acid - mecuric sulfate - potassium sulfate digestion solution for
each gram of solid material in the sample. Bearing this in mind,
the analyst can, with assurance, monitor organic nitrogen and
ammonia levels in fish and shellfish processing waste waters
accurately and reproducibly.
Nitrogen parameters are not included in the effluent limitation
guidelines because the extent to which nitrogen components in
seafood wastes is removed by physical-chemical or biological
treatment, remains to be evaluated. Furthermore, the need for
advanced treatment technology specifically designed for nitorgen
removal has not been demonstrated through this study.
U. Temperature
Temperature is one of the most important and influential water
quality characteristics. Temperature determines those species
that may be present; it activates the hatching of young,
regulates their activity, and stimulates or suppresses their
growth and development; it attracts, and may kill when the water
becomes too hot or becomes chilled too suddenly. colder water
generally suppresses development. Warmer water generally
accelerates activity and may be a primary cause of aquatic plant
nuisances when other environmental factors are suitable.
Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within the
water environment. It governs physiological functions in
organisms and, acting directly or indirectly in combination with
other water quality constituents, it affects aquatic life with
each change. These effects include chemical reaction rates,
enzymatic functions, molecular movements, and molecular exchanges
between membranes within and between the physiological systems
and the organs of an animal.
Chemical reaction rates vary with temperature and generally
increase as the temperature is increased. The solubility of
gases in water varies with temperature. Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances and the decay rate increases as the temperature of the
water increases reaching a maximum at about 30°C (86°F). The
temperature of stream water, even during summer, is below the
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optimum for pollution-associated bacteria. Increasing the water
temperature increases the bacterial multiplication rate when the
environment is favorable and the food supply is abundant.
Reproduction cycles may be changed significantly by increased
temperature because this function takes place under restricted
temperature ranges. Spawning may not occur at all because
temperatures are too high. Thus, a fish population may exist in
a heated area only by continued immigration. Disregarding the
decreased reproductive potential, water temperatures need not
reach lethal levels to decimate a species. Temperatures that
favor competitors, predators, parasites, and disease can destroy
a species at levels far below those that are lethal.
Fish food organisms are altered severely when temperatures
approach or exceed 90°F. Predominant algal species change,
primary production is decreased, and bottom associated organisms
may be depleted or altered drastically in numbers and
distribution. Increased water temperatures may cause aquatic
plant nuisances when other environmental factors are favorable.
Synergistic actions of pollutants are more severe at higher water
temperatures. Given amounts of domestic sewage, refinery wastes,
oils, tars, insecticides, detergents, and fertilizers more
rapidly deplete oxygen in water at higher temperatures, and the
respective toxicities are likewise increased.
When water temperatures increase, the predominant algal species
may change from diatoms to green algae, and finally at high
temperatures to blue-green algae, because of species temperature
preferentials. Blue-green algae can cause serious odor problems.
The number and distribution of benthic organisms decreases as
water temperatures increase above 90°F, which is close to the
tolerance limit for the population. This could seriously affect
certain fish that depend on benthic organisms as a food source.
The cost of fish being attracted to heated water in winter months
may be considerable, due to fish mortalities that may result when
the fish return to the cooler water.
Rising temperatures stimulate the decomposition of sludge,
formation of sludge gas, multiplication of saprophytic bacteria
and fungi (particularly in the presence of organic wastes), and
the consumption of oxygen by putrefactive processes, thus
affecting the esthetic value of a water course.
In general, marine water temperatures do not change as rapidly or
range as widely as those of freshwaters. Marine and estuarine
fishes, therefore, are less tolerant of temperature variation.
Although this limited tolerance is greater in estuarine than in
open water marine species, temperature changes are more important
to those fishes in estuaries and bays than to those in open
marine areas, because of the nursery and replenishment functions
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of the estuary that can be adversely affected by extreme
temperature changes.
Temperature is important in those unit operations involving
transfer of significant quantities of heat. These include
evaporation, cooking, cooling of condensers, and the like. Since
these operations represent only a minor aspect of the total
process and their waste flows are generally of minor importance,
temperature is not considered at this time to be a major
parameter to be monitored.
5. Chloride
The presence of the chloride ion in the waters emanating from
seafood processing plants is frequently of significance when
considering biological treatment of the effluent. Those
processes employing saline cooks, brine freezing, brine
separation tanks (for segregating meat from shell in the crab
industry, for instance) and seawater for processing, thawing,
and/or cooling purposes, fall into this category. In
consideration of biological treatment the chloride ion must be
considered, especially with intermittent and fluctuating
processes. Aerobic biological systems can develop a resistence
to high chloride levels, but to do this they must be acclimated
to the specific chloride level expected to be encountered; the
subsequent chloride concentrations should remain within a fairly
narrow range in the treatment plant influent. If chloride levels
fluctuate widely, the resulting shock loadings on the biological
system will reduce its efficiency at best, and will prove fatal
to the majority of the microorganisms in the system at worst.
For this reason, in situations where biological treatment is
anticipated or is currently being practiced, measurement of
chloride ion must be included in the list of parameters to be
routinely monitored. The standard methods for the analysis of
chloride ion are three fold: 1) the argentometric method, 2) the
mercuric nitrate method and 3) the potentiometric method. The
mercuric nitrate method has been found to be satisfactory with
seafood processing waste waters. In some cases, the simple
measurement of conductivity (with appropriate conversion tables)
may suffice to give the analyst an indication of chloride levels
in the waste waters.
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6. Coliforms
Fecal coliforms are used as an indicator since they have
originated from the intestinal tract of warm blooded animals.
Their presence in water indicates the potential presence of
pathogenic bacteria and viruses.
The presence of coliforms, more specifically fecal coliforms, in
water is indicative of fecal pollution. In general, the presence
of fecal coliform organisms indicates recent and possibly
dangerous fecal contamination. When the fecal coliform count
exceeds 2,000 per 100 ml there is a high correlation with
increased numbers of both pathogenic viruses and bacteria.
Many microorganisms, pathogenic to humans and animals, may be
carried in surface water, particularly that derived from effluent
sources which find their way into surface water from municipal
and industrial wastes. The diseases associated with bacteria
include bacillary and amoebic dysentery, Salmonella
gastroenteritis, typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, leptospirosis,
chlorea, vibriosis and infectious hepatitis. Recent studies have
emphasized the value of fecal coliform density in assessing the
occurrence of Salmonella, a common bacterial pathogen in surface
water. Field studies involving irrigation water, field crops and
soils indicate that when the fecal coliform density in stream
waters exceeded 1,000 per 100 ml, the occurrence of Salmonella
was 53.5 percent. Fish, however, are cold blooded and no
correlation has yet been developed between contamination by fish
feces and effluent (or receiving water) coliform levels.
In a recent study undertaken by the Oregon State University under
sponsorship of the Environmental Protection Agency, coliform
levels (both total and fecal) in fish processing waste water were
monitored routinely over a period of several months. Results
were extremely inconsistent, ranging from zero to many thousands
of coliforms per 100 ml sample. Attempts to correlate these
variations with in-plant conditions, type and quality of product
being processed, cleanup procedures, and so on, were
unsuccessful. As a result, a graduate student was assigned the
task of investigating these problems and identifying the sources
of these large variabilities. The conclusions of this study can
be found in the report; "Masters Project—Pathogen Indicator
Densities and their Regrowth in Selected Tuna Processing
Wastewaters" by H. W. Burwell, Department of Civil Engineering,
Oregon State University, July 1973. Among his general
conclusions were:
1. that coliform organisms are not a part of the natural
biota present in fish intestines;
2. that the high suspended solid levels in waste water
samples interferes significantly with subsequent
analyses for coliform organisms and, in fact, preclude
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the use of the membrane filter technique for fish waste
analysis;
3. that the analysis must be performed within foru hours
after collection of the sample to obtain meaningful
results (thus eliminating the possibility of the use of
full-shift composite samples and also eliminating the
possibility of sample preservation and shipment for
remote analysis);
4. that considerable evidence exists that coliform regrowth
frequently occurs in seafood processing waste water
processing wastes) and that the degree of regrowth is a
function of retention, time, waste water strength, and
temperature.
The above rationale indicated that it would be inadvisable to
consider further the possibility of including the coliform test
in either the characterization phase of this study or in the list
of parameters to be used in the guidelines.
7. Phosphorus
During the past 30 years, a formidable case has developed for the
belief that increasing standing crops of aquatic plant growths,
which often interfere with water uses and are nuisances to man,
frequently are caused by increasing supplies of phosphorus. Such
phenomena are associated with a condition of accelerated
eutrophication or aging of waters. It is generally recognized
that phosphorus is not the sole cause of eutrophication, but
there is evidence to substantiate that it is frequently the key
element in all of the elements required by fresh water plants and
is generally present in the least amount relative to need.
Therefore, an increase in phosphorus allows use of other, already
present, nutrients for plant growths. Phosphorus is usually
described, for this reasons, as a "limiting factor."
When a plant population is stimulated in production and attains a
nuisance status, a large number of associated liabilities are
immediately apparent. Dense populations of pond weeds make
swimming dangerous. Boating and water skiing and sometimes
fishing may be eliminated because of the mass of vegetation that
serves as an physical impediment to such activities. Plant
populations have been associated with stunted fish populations
and with poor fishing. Plant nuisances emit vile stenches,
impart tastes and odors to water supplies, reduce the efficiency
of industrial and municipal water treatment, impair aesthetic
beauty, reduce or restrict resort trade, lower waterfront
property values, cause skin rashes to man during water contact,
and serve as a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies.
Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic, and
subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as mercury.
Colloidal elemental phosphorus will poison marine fish (causing
skin tissue breakdown and discoloration). Also, phosphorus is
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capable of being concentrated and will accumulate in organs and
soft tissues. Experiments have shown that marine fish will
concentrate phosphorus from water containing as little as 1 ug/1.
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SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
IN-PLANT CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND PROCESSES
The concept of utilizing in-plant changes to reduce or prevent
waste and pollution requires a major change in thinking on the
part of industry and the consumer. Present waste and pollution
comes from the fishing boats (where soluble components accumulate
in the bilge and are often subsequently discharged into harbors
adjacent to the plants) as well as the discharge water from
plants, containing both solids and solubles. Not only do
solubles create an unacceptable pollution problem, but they
represent a valuable proteinaceous food material that should be
recovered. Likewise, much of the solid waste currently being
reduced to low-grade animal food or discarded as a waste product
can and should be upgraded to human foods or high-grade animal
feed components.
The seafood industry must rapidly reorient its efforts toward a
"total utilization concept," wherein much of the current waste
materials are viewed as "secondary raw materials." This
reorientation is not only necessary for maintaining and improving
environmental quality, but for utilization of the food that is
now being wasted. Many phases of the industry are not compatible
with the requirements of today's world and, even less, with those
of tomorrow. The current industry allows the majority of the 70
million metric ton (77 million ton) world catch to be either
reduced to low-grade animal feed or wasted, in the presence of an
ever-expanding protein-hungry world that needs the nutritional
components in the liquid and solid wastes.
One of the key points in trying to introduce conceptual changes
into the seafood industry is to increase our horizons to maintain
a broad perspective in terms of world fish production and
consumption. Considering that approximately 100 grams of fish
per day contains an adequate amount of animal protein to balance
a man's protein diet in many areas of deficiency, there is enough
animal protein in world seafood production to satisfy the protein
requirements of 1.8 billion people or approximately one-half of
the world's population.
At the present time more than two-thirds of the harvested seafood
is not being directly utilized as human food and approximately
one-half of this amount is being discarded. From a nutritional
point of view, this wasted portion is comparable to the portion
being marketed for human food and represents a tremendous
potential for increasing the supply of animal protein needed by
the world's population. Furthermore, effective utilization of
food materials requires familiarization with the world eating
habits. For example, ten years ago salmon eggs, which account
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for about five percent of the total weight of the fish, presented
a waste disposal problem. Today the Japanese are paying as much
as $6.00 per kg ($2.70 per Ib) for salmon eggs to be used for
caviar. On the other hand, people in the United States will not
eat salmon egg caviar. Hence, waste from one nation is
considered a delicacy by another.
Maintaining the theme of "total utilization," it is the object of
this discussion to analyze the various factors involved in
"closing the processing cycle" so that raw material is used to
the fullest extent possible with the subsequent minimization of
environmental pollution. The implementation of in-plant changes
to accomplish this goal is certainly more logical than spending
large amounts of money to simply treat food processing wastes at
the end of the effluent pipe.
Interdependence of rHarvestinq and Processing
The harvesting of fishery products can be divided into two broad
classifications, namely those involving the catching of large
masses in a single effort and those of catching or harvesting
individual animals. Mass harvesting of fish ordinarily requires
expensive and sophisticated equipment compared to the catching of
individual animals. Hence, the practice of mass harvesting,
particularly as applied to the high seas fisheries, is limited to
countries which can afford the expensive vessels and gear that
are required. On the other hand, many fisheries of the world do
not lend themselves to mass catch techniques, since the fish are
not concentrated in accessible areas. With the exception of
certain high seas longline operations that are used for catching
individual fish such as halibut or tuna, small vessels with
rather simple pole-and-line type fishing gear can be used in many
parts of the world for harvesting individual specimens.
Even marketing of highly desirable seasonal fish, such as salmon,
has been somewhat restricted by the gluts of raw material that
are available during a short period of the year. Although the
market demand and processor's profit are greater for quick-frozen
salmon, he has continued to can much of the pack because adequate
freezing and handling facilities have not been available.
Furthermore, if a company cannot diversify into other fisheries
and operate over a major portion of the year, capital investment
versus profit greatly limits the degree to which new freezing and
cold storage facilities can be purchased to handle larger
portions of the seasonal catch. Hence, extensive efforts are
being made by companies handling seasonal fish to diversify into
other fisheries to justify their capital investment. This
diversification should be beneficial to the environment in at
least two ways. First, the longer processing season should
justify increased capital expenditures on waste treatment systems
(as well as processing facilities); and secondly, more regular
and continuous processing schedules should increase the number of
options available to the waste treatment system design engineer.
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Furthermore, a constant supply of solid wastes may justify
installation of fish meal plants in areas where they are
currently economically infeasible.
Companies processing and marketing seafoods caught in small
quantities sometimes face the problem of labor costs being more
important than capital investment. Therefore, the fisheries that
involve greater harvesting effort and/or that require more manual
labor in processing generate products more costly to the
consumer. Unfortunately, many of the most desirable products,
such as shrimp, crabs, oysters, clams, and troll caught fishes,
fall into this category. In many cases, these species are not
only expensive to obtain, but represent dwindling resources.
Nutritiye_yalue and Total Utilizatign
Protein Foods
Meat, fish, and fowl are commonly placed in the category of
"animal protein" foods. Meats from these creatures, regardless
of origin, have similar nutritional properties. They contain 15
to 20 percent protein, which has significant amounts of all
essential amino acids.
Cereals and grains all contain protein. However, these proteins,
called "vegetable proteins," are all lacking in certain essential
amino acids. A large segment of the world's population,
obtaining essentially all of its proteins from vegetable sources,
suffers from various protein deficiencies. Furthermore, many
people subsisting on vegetable protein not only are deficient in
essential amino acids, but have a general low intake of total
amino acids, due to the low level of protein found in cereal and
grain products.
In general, areas of the world that consume animal protein as a
normal part of their diet seldom are afflicted with the disease
"kwashiorkor," caused by lack of protein (particularly the
essential amino acids).
Although the protein content of fish ranges from 6 to 28 percent
(on a wet basis), it usually lies between 12 and 18 percent. The
amino acid content of fish is very similar to that in mammalian
flesh. Hence, consumption of fish proteins represents a most
effective way to supply all amino acid requirements of man and
other animals. In the human diet, it is necessary to furnish
those amino acids which cannot be synthesized by the tissues or
organs of human beings. These essential amino acids occur
abundantly in fish.
Fish lipids consist of saturated, mono-unsaturated, and poly-
unsaturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids constitute
the major portion. A large part of the twenty-carbon fatty acids
of fish lipids is made up of pentenes (5 double bonds), whereas a
219
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large portion of the twenty-two carbon fatty acids consists of
hexenes (6 double bonds). The latter are present in considerably
greater amounts than the former in the phospholipids, a pattern
which appears to be typical of fish flesh. Hence, it can be seen
that fish flesh is not only highly desirable as a completely
balanced protein food, but has fats or lipids that are currently
in demand, since they are highly polyunsaturated.
A major problem in the marketing of fish as a protein food lies
in the fact that the desirable unsaturated lipids tend to oxidize
quite rapidly, resulting in rapid fish degradation. This problem
is minimized by filleting, since the trimmings usually have a
considerably higher lipid content and lower protein content than
does the edible portion. These differences can be quite
pronounced. Table 95 shows the approximate composition of
various portions of dover sole. Although it can be seen that the
edible flesh (the fillet) has a relatively small lipid content
and will probably be much more stable to oxidation than the non-
edible portion, it must also be pointed out that the non-edible
portion accounts for as much as 70 percent of the original whole
fish and contains almost as much protein as the original fish.
Hence, although fish is a highly desirable animal protein,
marketing techniques in the future must not only improve the
distribution and consumption of the so-called "edible portions,"
but must develop markets for the portions now being discarded or
reduced to animal feed supplements.
Supplementary Additives
The fact that such a large portion of the world seafood prod-
uction is being either discarded or used for animal feed has
directed much recent research work into developing techniques for
utilizing all portions of a fishery resource. One of the most
promising methods for utilizing whole fish or waste portions lies
in removing the lipid and water fractions, thus obtaining a high-
protein dried "flour" that can be used for supplementing diets
deficient in protein.
220
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Table 95. Proximate composition of whole fish, edible
flesh and trimmings of dover sole [Microstomus
pacificus (Stansby and Olcott, 1963) ]
Non-Edible
Whole Edible Portion
Constituent
Moisture
Lipid
Protein
Ash
Fish
81.9%
3.5%
12.7%
2.7%
Portion
83.6%
0.8%
15.2%
1.1%
/all parts
81
4
11
3
except
.2%
.4%
.7%
.5%
flesh)
The production of a concentrated fish protein has many advantages
in areas where animal protein supplementation is desired: 1) the
product can be inexpensive on a protein unit basis, thus making
it more attractive to developing countries; 2) removal of water
and lipid stabilizes the product so that it can be stored
indefinitely under many different climatic conditions; 3) many
populations of fish now considered to be scrap or industrial
fishes can be diverted into the human food market. The latter
not only utilizes a new source of protein, but expands or creates
harvesting and processing industries in the countries concerned.
Most discussions regarding the utilization of concentrated fish
proteins as food additives center around their use in developing
countries having severe protein shortages. On the other hand, it
is predicted that by 1980, of approximately one billion kilograms
(2.2 billion Ibs) of protein additives used in the United States,
0.86 billion kilograms (1.9 billion Ibs) will come from proteins
other than milk (Hammonds and Call, 1970). This means that soy,
egg, cottonseed, certain nut, chicken, and fish proteins will
become increasingly important. Since eggs and chickens are
strongly dependent on fish meal to keep their prices down and the
vegetable proteins are deficient in certain amino acids, fish
will undoubtedly play a most important role in filling these
future requirements. In fact, the processing of whole fish, as
well as fish waste, will be a major source of protein in the more
developed countries where this tremendous increase in
concentrated proteins will be needed to support fortified cereal
grain products, as well as prepared foods.
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Non-Edible Products
Protein portions of fish and shellfish have high nutritive value
and should be used in the totality for human or animal food.
Another major fraction of the various shellfish harvested is the
shell. The shell in several types of shellfish, particularly
crab and shrimp, has a chemical composition containing materials
that have potential as non-edible products for many phases of
commerce.
Shells from Crustacea, depending on species and time of year,
contain 25 to 40 percent protein, 40 to 50 percent calcium
carbonate, and 15 to 25 percent chitin. Chitin is an insoluble
polysaccharide that serves as the "binder" in the shell. Chitin,
or the deacytelated form, chitosan, has many outstanding
properties for use in flocculating, emulsifying, thickening,
coagulating, improving wet strength of paper, and many other
uses. The protein that can be reclaimed from the shell is high
quality and does not exhibit the amine odor found in fish flesh.
Another use for Crustacea (i.e., shrimp and crab) shell is as a
meal for animal feed. It is especially desirable for fish diets
since the pigment imparts a pink color to the flesh of captive
grown fish, increasing their market appeal. If effective means
of collecting shell from all Crustacea processed in the United
States were available, in excess of U5CO kkg (5000 tons) of
chitosan could be produced yearly. Even this amount would
satisfy only a small portion of the overall world demand
(Penniston, 1973) .
In-Plant Changes Directed Toward Total Utilization
The previous discussion points out the need for maximizing the
utilization of fishery products. Therefore, the optimal approach
to solving the waste and pollution problems in the seafood
industry is to utilize the raw material fully, rather than waste
most of it and subsequently treat that waste.
There are relatively few unit operations and unit processes used
in seafood processing. Furthermore, there are even fewer
components in the residual solids and liquids. Essentially all
fish waste components have desirable nutritional properties.
Based on this analysis, the approach to in-plant changes is to
analyze the various steps in each processing cycle, determine the
form and amount of material available in each step, and then
apply recovery techniques to produce marketable products from the
secondary raw material.
In general, all processing results in visceral protions having
essentially the same nutritive value and composition and in
effluent streams that vary primarily in suspended solids and
dissolved solids content. The dissolved solids vary from highly
nutritious proteins to low molecular weight degradation products
from the proteins. The breakdown products have limited or no
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nutritional value and increase, at the expense of the proteins,
with the age of the raw material and the severity of the process.
The solids and effluents from all fish and shellfish operations
consist of:
1. Hot and cold water (fresh or seawater) solutions containing
dissolved materials (proteins and breakdown products), suspended
solids consisting of bone, shell or flesh, and foreign material
carried into the plant with the raw material.
2. Solid portions consisting of flesh, shell, bone, cartilage,
and viscera. From the biological standpoint, all of these
materials are either inert or have sufficient nutritive value to
make them valuable as a food or food additive.
The in-plant changes that can be made to solve waste and
pollution problems do not involve extensive study and development
of each type of seafood processing procedure, but conversely, the
development of a few basic techniques that will be applicable to
any process. These include:
a. minimizing the use of water (thus minimizing loss of
solubles);
b. recovery of dissolved proteins in effluent solutions; and
c. recovery of solid portions for use as edible products.
Effective use of these three procedures would reduce pollutant
levels in effluents from seafood plants.
Minimizing Water Use
Without question the first step in improving the loss of
nutritive material in a fish processing plant is to reduce the
use of water. There are many areas in which this can be
accomplished at once.
Prior to the heat denaturation of proteins (cooking), a water
soluble fraction can be dissolved that can remove as much as 15
percent of the total protein. As will be discussed later, this
protein can be recovered as a marketable product, but it is more
costly and produces a less desirable product than that originally
intended. The amount of protein loss by leaching is a function
of the amount or volume of water used per unit weight or volume
of seafood processed.
One of the first water-saving techniques employed should be to
eliminate the extensive use of flumes for in-plant transport of
product. There are few areas where dry handling of products
could not replace flumes with, incidental, significant increases
in product yields. Cleaning a dry belt or container requires a
small fraction of the water that would be used for fluming. Many
plants are now using pneumatic ducts rather than flumes for
moving small particles - dry material such as shell, and wet
screened solids.
223
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Another water-saving technique would be the use of spring-loaded
hose nozzles which automatically shut off when released by the
user. Much more water is being used in the average butchering
operation than is necessary. It is a common practice in a
butchering line to open the valve and let it run without control
even when no one is actively using the table position. Steam and
water valves are frequently not repaired, allowing the loss of
water and steam, and the discharge of condensate onto the floor.
Water commonly is allowed to run through unused machines,
overflow cleaning or cooling tanks, or pass through empty flumes.
Educating plant personnel to minimize water consumption is the
first step in the process of reducing the industry's environ-
mental impact.
Protein Recovery
Several techniques are available for reclaiming protein from the
portions of the products now being wasted. The protein can be
recovered in the wet form and made into high quality frozen items
or it can be recovered as a meal or flour, ranging from
tasteless-odorless fish flour to fish meal for animal feed. The
market for these items is virtually unlimited, and the choice of
process to be installed in a plant depends on such factors as
initial capital investment, length of operating season,
availability of transportation facilities and many other items
peculiar to the specific operation. Four types of processes are
either currently available or will be developed to the point of
commercial feasibility in the near future. These warrant
consideration in overall in-plant control programs and each are
discussed briefly below.
1. Conventional Reduction Processes
The conventional reduction process for converting whole fish or
fish waste to fish meal for animal feed has been used for many
years. Plant capacities range from the massive plants of 1450
kkg/day input (1600 ton/day) for processing anchovy in Peru and
Chile to the small package units for processing fish viscera and
trimmings from a fish canning or freezing plant. As shown in
Figure 29, a basic large production plant with a 18.2 kkg (20
ton) per hour input capacity costs about $600,000 for equipment,
while the essential facilities for batch-processing 0.9 kkg (1
ton) of waste in H or 5 hours is around $15,000. Of course,
there is a large variation in any plant investment depending on
the building and associated facilities required for a given
location. Frequently, the capital investment for a meal
operation in an existing plant could be greatly reduced if there
were building spaces, docks, steam and other items available for
the addition.
In general, the cost of producing meal depends on the number of
days per year in which the plant can be continuously operated.
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ro
ro
tn
800
8
•"600
UJ
2
CO
400|-
3
15
(T/HR)
20
i
10
J.
5 10 15
INPUT WASTE CAPACITY ( KKG/HR)
Figure 29
Convential meal plant capital costs
-------
INCINERATOR
DRYER
DISCHARGE
ro
ro
en
DRY MEAL
FROM SCREW
VAPOR
CONDENSING
TOWER
STICKWATER
HOLDING
TANK
TRIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR
SOLUBLES
TANK
Figure 30
Continuous fish reduction plant with soluble recovery and odor control.
-------
Of the categories currently under consideration, only large tuna
plants, such as those in Terminal Island, California and Puerto
Rico have sufficient waste material to justify continuous meal
plants with the required odor control and stickwater processing
facilities (Figure 30) where operating costs can be as low as $66
to $88 per kkg ($60 to $80 per ton) of product. Meal from these
plants is also in greater demand since the small batch plants do
not press the cooked fish to remove oil and the resulting product
has an extremely high oil content. The oil content is the
limiting factor in adding fish meal to an animal feed ration.
The limit for conventional fish meal is 15% of the ration. More
oily meals must be restricted to a lower level because the oil
flavor is carried over into the flesh of the animal.
Unfortunately, with the possible exception of areas like Kodiak,
Alaska, where some 14 plants can send both crab and fish waste to
a central reduction plant, there is not sufficient volume in
individual plants, especially those processing crab or shrimp, to
justify installation of conventional reduction facilities. For
example, the lowest cost batch reduction facility using the
simple three-step process shown in Figure 31 would handle
approximately 0.9 kkg (1 ton) of raw material producing about 182
to 200 kg (400 to 44C pounds) of meal in 4 to 5 hours. This
unit, weighing approximately 5000 kkg (11,000 pounds) would be
about 4.0 m (13 ft) long by 1.5 m (5 ft) wide by 2.0 m (6-1/2 ft)
high and cost $15,000 to $20,000. Steam equivalent to that from
a 7.5 kw (10 horsepower) boiler would also be required. The
waste from 15.9 kkg (17.5 tons) of dressed fish or 5.7 kkg (6.25
tons) of shellfish could be processed in 24 hours yielding
perhaps 0.9 kkg (1 ton) of fish meal and slightly more shellfish
meal. The three mandays required for operation would cost
considerably more than the sales price of crab or shellfish meal
which is approximately $55-$165 per kkg ($50-$150 per ton). With
the continuing high price of fish meal, however, prudent
selection of a small meal plant for catfish and other finned-fish
operations may be a less expensive means of waste disposal than
other methods. It is almost impossible to accurately cost
estimate fish meal operations at the present time since prices
are at an unrealistically high level. Peru, normally the
producer of one-half of the world's fish meal, has had greatly
reduced output in 1972 and 1973 due to an unusual ocean current
condition. Hence, there is essentially no fish meal available
today (i.e., imports from Peru in January through April were 55
kkg (60.5 tons) in 1972 and 5.4 kkg (5.9 tons) this year), and
the small stocks are selling up at to three or more times the
1971 prices. If this shortage continues, production of meal from
waste will be practical, but at normal prices, the operating of
small package plants to handle fish waste is marginal. It will
be late 1973 or early 1974 before ocean stock assessments will
allow accurate predictions of fish meal prices. However, the low
value of shellfish meal offers little hope for economical
disposal of crab and shrimp waste.
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SEAFOOD
WASTE
ro
ro
CO
BATCH
DRYER
GRINDING
BAGGING
BATCH REDUCTION
OF SEAFOOD WASTE
Figure 31
Low cost batch reduction facility.
-------
Since the batch process does not remove any oil from the fish,
the process makes a rather undesirable product from oily fish.
In this case the continuous or semi-continuous equipment should
be used whereby the cooked fish is pressed to remove some of the
oil. This approximately doubles the cost of a small plant.
Another drawback to a conventional meal plant is the odor caused
by the drier. In areas where large processing plants are
located, the odor problem has never been solved. Scrubbing has
been the most successful technique, but is expensive. Air from
the drier is frequently introduced into the furnace supplying
heat to the dryer, where the temperature is approximately 760°C
(1400°F), thus partially burning the malodorous materials left in
the process air. This air is then exhausted to the stacks. One
small plant might be acceptable in an area, but where there are
many reduction plants the cumulative effect, even under the best
control conditions, is quite obnoxious.
2. Aqueous Extraction
The only way that protein waste can be processed into a high
grade flour for human consumption is to remove the oil from the
product, thus preventing the development of a rancid flavor and
odor. Over the past ten years, considerable research effort has
been expended by government and industry to develop extraction
techniques for removing oil and other components from fish
proteins prior to drying them into flours. An excellent product
can be generated by some of the methods but they are all based on
organic solvent extraction, which is much too sophisticated and
expensive for installation in a seafood plant, especially a
seasonal one.
A recent development in oil extraction has involved changing from
an organic solvent to salt water or brine (Chu, 1971). The first
phase of this process can be carried out in small as well as
large processing plants with no highly skilled plant operators
required. In order to be practical for commercialization, this
process should be capable of handling any portion of fish scrap
as well as whole industrial fish. This would make the process
applicable to low grade fertilizer products, high grade animal
feed and fish protein concentrate for human consumption. The
process should also require only the low cost facilities avail-
able to small companies. It should, furthermore, not require
highly trained operating personnel and should not produce a waste
that will contribute to the pollution problem.
Figure 32 shows the general brine-acid process used for treating
the fish waste or raw fish which is presently being studied on a
pilot plant scale. The material is ground and homogenized in
various concentrations of water or brine and hydrochloric acid.
The sodium chloride tends to decrease the solubility of various
constituents and the acid minimizes the protein solubility.
After varying incubation times the material is then centrifuged
so that the lipid and water fractions separate from the solid
229
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residue. For animal feed this solid residue can then be dried
and ground to the necessary particle size. Further washing and
extracting is necessary if it is to be used for human
consumption. In fact, a high quality product can be obtained if
it is further extracted with an organic solvent to remove final
traces of taste and odor-causing components. The pre-extracted
product is much easier to extract with an organic solvent than is
fresh fish because there is no problem with water dilutions and
subsequent emulsions and loss of solubles in the solvent
fraction.
One distinct possibility for utilizing this process in remote
areas having limited drying capacity is to extract and separate
the solids for subsequent shipment to other areas where drying
facilities and refining equipment are available. It has been
found that the brine-acid press cake can be stored for some time
without serious degradation. Thus, it would be possible to
transfer damp press cake from many plants to one central
finishing area.
A major advantage of this process is that it can be adapted for
the output from any size plant that has an extremely variable
load. Since the major limitation to processing capacity is
drying, the extracted press cake can be bulk stored and shipped
to the central drying and finishing plant by normal surface
transportation. The primary extraction equipment consists of
stirred tanks, centrifuges and filters. Figure 33 indicates
approximate equipment costs for the extraction phase of the
process.
A relatively small volume of concentrated effluent, approximately
0.43 liter per kg of waste extracted (0.25 gal per pound), must
be treated to remove the high BOD5_ load that ranges from 40,000
mg/1 in stream 1 (Figure 32) to 5000 mg/1 in streams 2 and 3.
Much of the BOD5_ from stream 1 is solubilized protein which can
be removed almost stoichiometrically by precipitation with sodium
hexametaphosphate. A study of the complete chemical and
bi'ological treatment of the effluent streams will be completed by
the end of this year (Pigott, 1973).
Preliminary cost estimates from pilot plant studies indicate that
the operating cost for producing meal from the brine-acid process
will be between 11 and 18 cents per kg (5 and 8 cents per Ib).
This will be a high-grade meal that will not have many of the
present limitations of conventional fish meal. The lower oil
content will allow incorporation into animal and fowl diets at
higher levels than are currently possible without adversely
affecting the flesh flavor.
3. Enzymatic Hydrolysis Process
The use of enzymes to hydrolyze fish protein has been reported by
several laboratories. Tryptic digestive enzymes, pepsin
hydrolysis, papain, and many other enzymatic processes have been
230
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WATER
BRINE ACETIC ACID
ro
CO
WHOLE FISH
PRODUCT FLOW
WASTEWATER FLOW
Figure 32 Brine-acid extraction process,.
-------
ro
GO
ro
125-
^ ^
8
-DO
H-
UJ
s
fc
UJ
75-
0.
< 25
25
I
50
i
75
i
25 50 75
WASTE EXTRACTION CAPACITY (KKG/DAY)
(T/DAY)
100
100
Figure 33
Brine-acid extraction primary facility costs (excluding dryer)
-------
tried in an effort to produce a highly functional protein
concentrate. In general, pepsin digestion with continuous pH
control at 2.0 has proven to be one of the best procedures for
producing a high quality bacteria-free product (Tarky and Pigott,
1973).
The basic procedure consists of adding pepsin to a homogenized
fish waste substrate to which equal volumes of water have been
added. The pH is lowered to 2.0 with hydrochloric acid and the
mixture is then continuously stirred at 37°C (99°F). In general,
this procedure yields about 12 percent product based on the raw
material. The product has essentially no fat content and, when
spray dried, is a highly functional powder which is low in only
tryptophan. However, when added to vegetable proteins having
sufficient tryptophan, the total protein is extremely high in
quality.
The enzymatic hydrolysis process should be well developed within
the next decade and will yield a valuable product from fish
waste. If the FDA ever permits the use of waste portions for
human food, then a large portion of the future protein
supplements in prepared food dishes may come from this source.
The material is cheaper to produce than milk [current estimate,
40 to 55 cents/kg (18 to 25 cents/lb)] and equal or better in
protein value when added as a supplement. The process flow sheet
is shown in Figure 34.
This process will probably never be as effective as the brine
acid extraction technique for handling the large volumes of
seasonal protein waste in the seafood industry since it requires
longer times for the hydrolysis reaction and is a more
sophisticated technique. However, the future will see large
volumes of both fish waste and whole industrial fish processed in
this manner for high quality functional protein derivitives.
4. Protein Precipitation from Effluent Streams
Some streams of plant processing water and the effluent from the
brine-acid process have high concentrations of dissolved protein.
As previously discussed, laboratory work has shown protein to be
recoverable almost stoichiometrically by precipitation with
sodium hexametaphosphate. The protein phosphate complex is
highly nutritional and can be used as a high grade animal feed
supplement.
This process may have application in some streams of sufficient
concentration to warrant the treatment. This is especially true
for concentrated cooking and blanching solutions that have high
levels of proteins which have been solubilized during contact
with the product.
233
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ro
oo
FISH WASTEWATER
ACID
OIL AND SLUDGE
I
HEAT
HOMOGENIZER
ALKALI
NEUTRALIZER
SLUDGE
SPRAY DRYER
FUNCTIONAL
FPC
ULTRA FILTRATION PERMEATE
Figure 34 Enzymatic hydrolysis of solid wastes.
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Solids Recovery
As previously mentioned, shellfish waste consists of the shell
portion (which is a three component material) and the soft
portion which includes the meat and soft waste material that
adheres to the shell. The previously discussed methods of
recovering dried protein material are all applicable to the soft
portions which can be washed or mechanically removed from the
shell. However, the meal from the shell portion has relatively
little value and, in the forseeable future, it is not going to be
economically feasible to process shell into meal. This is
particularly the case in remote areas.
During the past two years a process for producing chitin and
other by-products from shellfish waste has reached the semi-
commercial pilot plant scale. As shown in Figure 35, the
chitosan process consists primarily of caustic extraction to
remove the proteins from the shell, followed by a hydrochloric
acid extraction to produce a calcium chloride brine from the
calcium salts normally found in the shell. The remaining
material, commonly called chitin, is the structural material that
holds the shell together.
The pilot plant is capable of processing several hundred
kilograms of shell per day, producing a chitosan product of the
following properties: less than ? percent ash; 8 percent or
greater nitrogen (dry basis); soluble in acetic acid, viscosity
of 12 centipoises (0.00025 Ib-sec/sq ft) in 1 percent solution of
0.5 N acetic acid at 25°C (77°F) .
The process begins when the incoming shell is conveyed from a
hopper into a grinder. This results in a coarsely ground
material of the proper size for further extraction and pro-
cessing. The ground shell is extracted in sodium hydroxide in a
trough screw conveyor. This solubilizes the protein so that the
resulting solid contains only calcium salts and chitin. The
solid is then placed in a wooden tank where the added
hydrochloric acid extracts the calcium chloride as a soluble
brine, leaving only chitin as a residue. Following washing and
basket centrifugation, the chitin particles are dried in a
rotating drum dryer. This primary product is then ground to the
desired particle size and packaged for market or further
processed to produce chitosan by deacetylation in hot caustic.
Through a cooperative effort with industry, the University of
Washington Sea Grant Program has made available sample quantities
of chitin and chitosan to research laboratories and industry for
their experimental use. A wide interest has developed for the
product which is stimulating the commerical demand for the
material in many areas. In addition, a good market exists for
calcium chloride and the protein derived from the shell.
On the near horizon are package units that can be put into a
large or small seafood plant for the purpose of pretreating shell
235
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HYDROCHLORIC
ACID STORAGE
00
CRAB SHELL
WATER
-^SODIUM ACETATE
WASTE TREATMENT
Figure 35
Chitin^chitosan process for shellfish waste utilization.
-------
ro
oo
500 -
1
468
PLANT CAPACITY (1000 KKG/YR)**
* Below 2,500 T/YR it is not economical for a complete processing plant.
Waste must be hauled to a central facility.
**
Based on full production for 3 to 4 months per year.
Figure 35
Approximate plant investment for extracting basic chemicals
from shellfish waste (Peniston, 1973)
-------
and then sending the partially extracted product to a centrally
located plant for final extraction and finishing. Selling all
three of the products produced from shell may prove a profitable
venture for both the packer and the owner of the central plants.
Although the data are preliminary. Figure 36 indicates the
estimated costs of producing chitin in various size plants.
Deboning and Extruding
One of the most successful developments in the seafood industry
in many years is the carcass deboning technique that will
effectively debone any piece of fish, leaving the meat separated
from a dry mixture of bone, scales, skin and cartilage. The
principle of the operation is to extrude the meat through
extremely small openings inaccessible to the unwanted components
in the carcass. A machine capable of producing up to 0.9 kkg
(one ton) of product per hour costs about $20,000.
Although processes utilizing the deboning machines are now being
used on fish, current developments will result, in the near
future, in techniques for processing shellfish waste, as well as
carcass waste, to yield ground meat often equal in quality to
that now being extracted from the raw material. This process
also stimulates the desire -for a processor to minimize the use of
water while handling his waste because dry raw material is easier
to debone than solids suspended in water. The waste from the
deboning operation is a dry material that is quite easy to
dispose of in conventional landfills or other acceptable disposal
methods. Also, the material can be dried and added to fish meal.
The deboned meat can be used in:
a. portion controlled extruded products;
b. battered and breaded items; and
c. molded and power-cleaved steaks.
Not only will deboning techniques improve the profitability of
many fish processors, but it will be a major factor in
alleviating waste disposal problems. For example, up to 25
percent of the total weight of fin fish is currently being
discarded in the waste since the meat is so located that it
cannot be removed from the carcass. Using deboning equipment,
this meat can be be removed and sold for a price approaching that
of the normal finished product.
Summary, and Conclusions - In-Plant Control Techniques and
Processes
It has been the purpose of this discussion to outline several of
the major in-plant developments that are either ready for use by
seafood processors or will be available within the next few
years. These techniques, combined with good management to
minimize water use and product wastage, should reduce most of the
238
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waste disposal problems now encountered by industry and will
utilize a much greater portion of raw material entering the
plants.
END-OF-PIPE CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND PROCESSES
Historically, seafood plants have been located near or over
receiving waters which were considered to have adequate waste
assimilative capacities. The nature of the wastes from seafood
processing operations are such that they are generally readily
biodegradable and do not contain substances at toxic levels.
There are even several instances where the biota seem to thrive
on the effluent, although there is generally a shift in the
abundance of certain species. Consequently, most seafood
processors have little, if any, waste treatment.
Increasing concern about the condition of the environment in
recent years has stimulated activity in the application of
existing waste treatment technologies to the seafood industry.
However, to date there are few systems installed, operational
data are limited and many technologies which might find appli-
cation in the future are unproved. The following section
describes the types of end-of-pipe control techniques which are
available, and discusses case histories where each have been
applied to the seafood industry on either a pilot plant or full-
scale level. Several techniques or systems are closely
associated with trade names. The mention of these trade name
systems, however, does not constitute endorsement; they are cited
for information purposes only.
Waste Solids Separation, Concentration and Disposal
Nearly all fish processors produce large volumes of solids which
should be separated from the process water as quickly as
possible. A study done on freshwater perch and smelt (Riddle,
1973) shows that a two hour contact time between offal and the
carriage water can increase -the COD concentration as much as 170
percent and increase suspended solids and BOD about 50 percent
(see Figure 37). Fish and shellfish solids in the waste streams
have commercial value as by-products only if they can be
collected prior to significant decomposition, economically
transported to the subsequent processing location, and marketed.
Many processors have recognized the importance of immediate
capture of solids in dry form to retard biochemical degradation.
Some end-of-pipe treatment systems generate further waste solids
ranging from dry ash to putrescible sludges containing 98 to 99.5
percent water. Sludges should be subjected to concentration
prior to transport. The extent and method of concentration
required depends on the origin of the sludge, the collection
method, and the ultimate disposal operation. The descriptions
which follow are divided into separation, concentration, disposal
(including recycling and application to the land), and wastewater
treatment.
239
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Separation methods
Screening and sedimentation are commonly used separation
techniques employing a combination of physical chemical forces.
Screening is practiced, in varying degrees, throughout the U.S.
fish and shellfish processing industries for solids recovery,
where such solids have marketable value, and to prevent waste
solids from entering receiving waters or municipal sewers.
Screens may be classified as follows:
a. revolving drums (inclined, horizontal, and vertical
axes) ;
b. vibrating, shaking or oscillating screens (linear
or circular motion);
c. tangential screens (pressure or gravity fed);
d. inclined troughs;
e. bar screens;
f. drilled plates;
g. gratings;
h. belt screens; and
i. basket screens.
Rectangular holes or slits are correlated to mesh size either by
geometry or performance data. Mesh equivalents specified by
performance can result in different values for the same screen,
depending on the nature of the screen feed. For example, a
tangential screen with a 0.076 cm (0.030 in.) opening between
bars may be called equivalent to a UO-mesh screen. The particles
retained may be smaller than 0.076 cm diameter, however, because
of hydrodynamic effects.
Revolving drums consist of a covered cylindrical frame with open
ends. The screening surface is a perforated sheet or woven mesh.
Of the three basic revolving drums, the simplest is the inclined
plane (drum axis slightly inclined). Wastewater is fed into the
raised end of the rotating drum. The captured solids migrate to
the lower end while the liquid passes through the screening
surface.
Horizontal drums usually have the bottom portion immersed in the
wastewater. The retained solids are held by ribs on the inside
of the drum and conveyed upward until deposited by gravity into a
centerline conveyor. Backwash sprays are generally used to clean
the screen. A typical horizontal drum is shown in Figure 38.
F.G. Claggett (1973) tested this type rotary screen using a size
34-mesh on salmon canning wastewater and also on bailwater from
herring boats. The results are listed in Table 96.
Inclined and horizontal drum screens have been used successfully
in several seafood industries, such as the whiting, herring
filleting, and fish reduction plants.
240
-------
w
3
200
100
x SMELT WASTE WATER
O PERCH WASTEWATER
COD
H
EH
H
W
CO
50
25
BOD5
55
H
W
W
100
50
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
20 40 60 80
TIME - MINUTES
100
120
Figure 37 Increase in waste loads throuah prolonged
contact with water. (Riddle, 1973).
241
-------
BACKWASH
WATER SPRAY
ro
-F*
ro
ROTARY SCREEN
Figure 33 Typical horizontal drum rotarv screen.
-------
At least one commercial screen available employs a rapidly
rotating (about 200 rpm) drum with a vertical axis. The
wastewater is sprayed through one portion of the cylinder from
the inside. A backwash is provided in another portion of the
cycle to clear the openings. Woven fabric up to 400-mesh has
been used satisfactorily. This unit is called a "concentrator"
since only a portion of the impinging wastewater passes through.
About 70 to 80 percent of the wastewater is treated effectively,
which necessitates further treatment of the concentrate. The
efficacy of this, and other systems, in treating shellfish and
seafood wastes have been investigated on a pilot scale in the
Washington salmon industry, and the Alaskan crab and shrimp
industries (Peterson, 1973b) with some success. The results of
these studies are shown in Table 97.
Vibratory screens are more commonly used in the seafood industry
as unit operations rather than wastewater treatment. The screen
housing is supported on springs which are forced to vibrate by an
eccentric. Retained solids are driven in a spiral motion on the
flat screen surface for discharge at the periphery. Other
vibratory-type screens impart a linear motion to retained
particles by eccentrics. Blinding is a problem with vibratory
screens handling seafood wastewaters. Salmon waste is difficult
to screen because of its fibrous nature and high scale content.
Crab butchering waste, also quite stringy, is somewhat less
difficult to screen.
Table 98 shows the results of the National Canners Association
study on salmon canning wastewaters which included tests using a
vibrating screen. It can be seen that the removal efficiencies
are lower than for the horizontal drum screen or the SWECO
concentrator. The vibratory screen was also more sensitive to
flow variations and the solids content of the wastewater.
Tangential screens are finding increasing acceptance because of
their inherent simplicity, reliability and effectiveness. A
typical tangential screen is shown in Figure 39. It consists of
a series of parallel triangular or wedgeshaped bars oriented
perpendicular to the direction of flow. The screen surface is
usually curved and inclined about 45 to 60 degrees. Solids move
down the face and fall off the bottom as the liquid passes
through the openings ("Coanda effect"). No moving parts or drive
mechanisms are required. The feed to the screen face is via a
weir or a pressurized nozzle system impinging the wastewater
tangentially on the screen face at the top. The gravity-fed
units are limited to about 50 to 60-mesh (equivalent) in treating
seafood wastes. Pressure-fed screens can be operated with mesh
equivalents of up to 200-mesh.
Tangential screens have met with considerable acceptance in the
fish and shellfish industry. They currently represent the most
advanced waste treatment concept voluntarily adopted by broad
segments of the industry. One reason for this wide acceptance
243
-------
Table 96 Northern sewage screen
test results.
Wastewater
Source
Percentage Reduction
In Total Solids
(34-mesh screen)
(Claggett, 1973)
Salmon canning
Herring bailwater
57
48
Table 97 SWECO concentrator test results.
Wastewater Source
Parameter
Percentage Reduction
165-mesh325-mesh
Salmon
. 1972c)
Shrimp peeler
(Peterson, 1973b)
Settleable solids
Suspended solids 53
COD 36
Settleable solids 99
Suspended solids 73
COD 46
100
34
36
Table 98 , SWECO vibratory screen performance
on salmon canning wastewaters
Parameter
Percentage
Reduction
(40-mesh screen)
Settleable solids
Suspended solids
COD
14
31
30
244
-------
has been the thorough testing history of the unit. Data are
available (although much is proprietary) on the tangential
screening of wastewaters emanating from plants processing a
variety of species. A summary of some recent work appears in
Table 99
Large solids should be separated before fine screening to improve
performance and prevent damage to equipment. One method is to
cover floor drains with a coarse grate or drilled plate with
holes approximately 0.6 cm (0.25 in.) in diameter. This coarse
grate and a magnet can prevent oversize or unwanted objects such
as polystyrene cups, beverage cans, rubber gloves, tools, nuts
and bolts or broken machine belts from entering the treatment
system. Such objects can cause serious damage to pumps and may
foul the screening system.
Salmon canneries utilize a perforated inclined trough to separate
large solids from the wastewater. The wastewater is fed into the
lower end and conveyed up the trough by a screw conveyer. The
liquid escapes through the holes while the solids are discharged
to a holding area. Inclined conveyors and mesh belts are
commonly used throughout the fish and shellfish industry to
transport and separate liquids from solid wastes.
A typical screening arrangement using a tangential screen is
shown in Figure 40. A sump is useful in maintaining a constant
wastewater feed rate to the screen. It also helps to decrease
fluctuations in the wastewater solids load such as occur in batch
processes. Some form of agitator may be required to keep the
suspended solids in suspension. Ideally, the sump should contain
a one-half hour or more storage capacity to permit repairs to
downstream components. The pump used is an important
consideration. Centrifugal trash pumps, of the open impeller
type, are commonly used, however, this type of pump tends to
pulverize solids as they pass through. During an experiment on
shrimp wastes the level of settleable solids dramatically
increased after screening (30-mesh screen) when the waste water
was passed through a centrifugal pump (Peterson, 1973). Positive
displacement or progressing cavity non-clog pumps are
recommended. Screens should be installed with the thought that
auxiliary cleaning devices may be required later.
Blinding is a problem that depends, to some extent, on the type
of screen employed, but to a greater extent on the nature of the
waste stream. Salmon waste is particularly difficult to screen.
One cannery has reduced plugging by installing mechanical brushes
over the face of their tangential screen.
Many of the screen types mentioned above produce solids con-
taining considerable excess water which must be removed either
mechanically or by draining. A convenient place to locate a
screen assembly is above the storage hopper so that the solids
discharge directly to the hopper. However, hoppers do not permit
good drainage of most stored solids. If mechanical dewatering is
245
-------
SURGE FLAP
OVERSIZE
TANGENTIAL
SCREEN
Figure 39 Typical tangential screen.
246
-------
WASTEWATER
SOLIDS
INFLUENT
WASTEWATER
IM
M
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
NON-CLOG PUMP
SOLIDS FROM PLANT
SCREENED WASTEWATER
TO NEXT TREATMENT SYSTEM
OR TO RECEIVING WATER
OR TO MUNICIPAL SYSTEMS
TO SOLIDS
DISPOSAL
OR BY- PRODUCT
RECOVERY
Figure 40 .Typical screen system for seafood processing operations,
-------
Table 99 . Tangential screen performance.
Percentage Reduction
Wastewater
Source
Sardines
(Atwell,
et at. ,
1972T
Salmon
(
1972)
Shrimp
(Peterson,
1973b)
Parameter
SS
BOD
Set. solids
SS
COD
Set. solids
SS
COD
30
mesh
26
9
_«
—
"™ ""
88
46
21
40 50
mesh mesh
w •• — —
— —
*• _ «_
— —
~ — "•" ~
93
43
18
100
mesh
^ ^
—
35
15
13
83
58
23
150
mesh
^m ^
—
86
36
25
^ ^
—
—
Salmon
(Peterson,
1973b)
Set. solids 50
SS 56
COD 55
King Crab
(Peterson,
1973b)
Set. solids 83
SS 62
COD 51
Salmon
(Claggett,
1973)
Total
solids
56
Herring
(Claggett,
1973)
Total
solids
48
248
-------
necessary, it may be easier to locate the screen assembly on the
ground and convey dewatered solids to the hopper.
Processing wastewaters from operations in seafoods plants are
highly variable with respect to suspended solids concentrations
and the size of particulates. On-site testing is required for
optimum selection in all cases.
Some thought should be given to installing multiple screens to
treat different streams separately within the process plant.
Some types of screens are superior for specific wastewaters and
there may be some economy in using expensive or sophisticated
screens only on the hard-to-treat portions of the waste flows.
Microscreens to effect solids removal from salmon wastewaters in
Canada have been tried. They were found to be inferior to
tangential screens for that application. Microscreens and
microstrainers have not, however, been applied in the United
States.
Screens of most types are relatively insensitive to discontinuous
operation and flow fluctuations, and require little maintenance.
The presence of salt water necessitates the use of stainless
steel elements. Oil and grease accumulation can be reduced by
spraying the elements with a fluorocarbon coating.
Screens of proper design are a reliable and highly efficient
means of seafood waste treatment, providing the equivalent of
"primary treatment." The cost of additional solids treatment,
approaching 95 percent solids removal by means of progressively
finer screens in series must, in final design, be balanced
against the cost of treatment by other methods, including
chemical coagulation and sedimentation.
Sedimentation
Sedimentation, or settling of solids, effects solids-liquid
separation by means of gravity. Nomenclature for the basins and
equipment employed for this process includes terms such as grit
chamber, catch basin, and clarifier, depending on the position
and purpose of the particular unit in the treatment train. The
design of each unit, however, is based on common considerations.
These include; the vertical settling velocity of discrete
particles to be removed, and the horizontal flow velocity of the
liquid stream. Detention times required in the settling basins
range from a few minutes for heavy shell fragments to hours for
low-density suspensions. Grit chambers to remove sand and shell
particles are common in the clam and oyster industries, however,
the current absence of settling basins or clarifiers in the fish
industries indicates the desirability of simple on-site settling
rate studies to determine appropriate design parameters for
liquid streams undergoing such treatment. Section V of this
study presents the results of settleable solids tests, which were
249
-------
determined using the Imhoff cone method, for each seafood process
monitored.
Removal of settled solids from sedimentation units is accom-
plished by drainoff, scraping, and suction-assisted scraping.
Frequent removal is necessary to avoid putrefaction. Seafood
processors using brines and sea water must consider the corrosive
effect of salts on mechanism operation. Maintenance of
reliability in such cases may require parallel units even in
small installations.
Sedimentation processes can be upset by such "shock loadings" as
fluctuations in flow volume, concentration and, occasionally,
temperature. Aerated equalization tanks may provide needed
capacity for equalizing and mixing wastewater flows. However,
deposition of solids and waste degradation in the equalization
tank may negate its usefulness.
Sedimentation tests run on a combined effluent from a fresh water
perch and smelt plant produced an average of approximately 20
percent BOD and 9 percent suspended solids removal after a 60
minute detention time (M.J. Riddle, 1972). The nature of most
fish and shellfish wastewater require that chemical coagulants be
added to sedimentation processes to induce removal of suspended
colloids.
A partially successful gravity clarification system was developed
using large quantities of a commercial coagulant called F-FLOK.
F-FLOK is a derivative of lignosulfonic acid marketed by Georgia
Pacific Corporation. In a test on salmon wastewater, reported by
E. Robbins (1973), the floe formed slowly but, after formation,
sedimentation rates of four feet per hour were achieved. Table
100 shows the results of the test.
Properly designed and operated sedimentation units incorporating
chemical coagulants can remove most particulate matter.
Dissolved material, however, will require further treatment to
achieve necessary removals.
It is important to note that the gravity clarifiers described
above, when operated with normal detention times, may lead to
strong odors due to rapid microbial action. This could also
produce floating sludge.
Major disadvantages of sedimentation basins include land area
requirements and structural costs. In addition, the settled
solids normally require dewatering prior to ultimate disposal.
Concentration methods
Although screenings from seafood wastewater usually do not
require dewatering; sludges, floats, and skimmings from sub-
sequent treatment steps must usually be concentrated or dried to
250
-------
Table 100 . Gravity clarification
using F-FLOK coagulant (Robbins, 1973).
Coagulant
Concentration
(mg/1)
5020
4710
2390
Total
Solids Recovery
(%)
68
60
47
Protein
Recovery
(%)
92
80
69
Table 101 Results of dispersed air flotation on tuna
wastewater (Jacobs Engineering Co., 1972).
Chemical Influent Reduction
Additive Parameter (mg/1) %
(Average of five runs)
Treto lite BOD 4400 47
7-16 mg/1 O&G 273 68
SS 882 30
(Average of eight runs)
Drew 410 BOD 211 47
3-14 mg/1 O&G 54 50
SS 245 30
251
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economize storage and transport. The optimum degree of
concentration and the equipment used must be determined in light
of transportation costs and sludge characteristics, and must be
tailored to the individual plant's location and production.
Sludges, floats, skimmings, and other slurries vary widely in
dewaterability. Waste activated sludges and floated solids are
particularly difficult to dewater. It is probable that most
sludges produced in treating fish processing wastes will require
conditioning before dewatering. Such conditioning may be
accomplished by means of chemicals or heat treatment. Anaerobic
digestion to stabilize sludges before dewatering is not feasible
at plants employing salt waters or brines. Aerobic digestion
will produce a stabilized sludge, but not one which is easy to
dewater. The quantity and type of chemical treatment must be
determined in light of the ultimate fate of the solids fraction.
For example, lime may be deposited on the walls of condensers.
Alum has been shown to be toxic to chickens at 0.12 percent
concentrations, and should be used with care in sludges intended
for feed byproduct recovery.
A large variety of equipment is available for sludge dewatering
and concentration, each unit having particular advantages. These
units include vacuum filters, filter presses, gravity-belt
dewaterers, spray dryers, incinerators, centrifuges, cyclone
classifiers, dual-cell gravity concentrators, multi-roll presses,
spiral gravity concentrators, and screw presses. Such equipment
can concentrate sludges from 0.5 percent solids to a semi-dry
cake of 12 percent solids, with final pressing to a dry cake of
over 30 percent solids. Units are generally sized to treat
sludge flows no smaller than 38 1/min (10 gpm). Because
maintenance requirements range from moderate to high, the
provision of dual units is required for continuity and
reliability.
In the seafood industry only fish meal plants currently use
solids dewatering and concentration equipment. Smaller
installations with flows under about 757 cum/day (200,000 gpd)
probably cannot utilize dewatering equipment economically.
Disposal methods
A high degree of product recovery is practiced by industries in
locations where solubles and meal plants are available. The pet
food, animal food and bait industries also use a considerable
amount of solids from some industries. Where such facilities do
not exist, alternative methods of solids disposal such as
incineration, sanitary landfill and deep sea disposal must be
considered.
Incineration of seafood solids wastes has not been tried in most
fish industries. Incineration by means of multiple-hearth
furnaces has been effective with municipal wastes and sludges,
252
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when operated on a continuous basis. Intermittent start-up and
shut-down is inefficient and shortens the useful life of the
equipment. A technique for incinerating solid wastes in a molten
salt bath is under development, with one unit in operation. The
by-products are CO2, water vapor, and a char residue skimmed from
the combustion chamber. This device may prove to be viable in
reasonably small units (Lessing, 1973).
Both types of incineration waste beneficial nutrients while
leaving an ash which requires ultimate disposal. Fuel costs are
also high and air pollution control equipment must be installed
to minimize emissions.
Sanitary landfill is most suitable for stabilized (digested)
sludges and ash. In some regions, disposal of seafood waste
solids in a public landfill is unlawful. Where allowed and where
land is available, private landfill may be a practical method of
ultimate disposal. Land application of unstablized, putrescible
solids as a nutrient source may be impractical because of the
nuisance conditions which may result. The application of
stabilized sludges as soil conditioners may have local
feasibility.
The practicality of landfill or surface land disposal is
dependent on the absence of a solids reduction facility, and -the
presence of a suitable disposal site. The nutritive value of the
solids indicates that such methods are among the least cost-
efficient currently available.
In addition to placement in or on the land and dispersal in the
atmosphere (after incineration), the third (and only remaining)
ultimate disposal alternative is dispersion in the waters. Deep
sea disposal of fish wastes can be a means of recycling nutrients
to the ocean. This method of disposal does not subject the
marine environment to the potential hazards of toxicity and
pathogens associated with the dumping of human sewage sludges,
municipal refuse and many industrial wastes. The disposal of
seafood wastes in deep water or in areas subject to strong tidal
flushing can be a practical and possibly beneficial method of
ultimate disposal. In some locations, the entire waste flow
could be ground and pumped to a dispersal site in deep water
without adverse effects. The U.S. Congress recognized the unique
status of seafood wastes when, in 1972, they specifically
exempted fish and shellfish processing wastes from the blanket
moratorium on ocean dumping contained in the so-called "Ocean
Dumping Act."
Grinding and disposing of wastes in shallow, quiescent bays has
been practiced in the past, but should be discontinued. Disposal
depths of less than 13 m (7 fathoms), particularly in the absence
of vigorous tidal flushing, may be expected to have a detrimental
effect on the marine environment and the local fishery, whereas
discharge into a deep site generally would not.
253
-------
The identification of suitable sites for this practice un-
doubtedly demands good judgment and detailed knowledge of local
conditions. Used in the right manner, however, deep sea disposal
is an efficient and cost-effective technique, second only to
direct solids recovery and by-product manufacture.
Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater treatment technology to reduce practically any
effluent to any degree of purity is available. The cost
effectiveness of a specific technology depends in part on the
contaminants to be removed, the level of removal required, the
scale of the operation, and most importantly on local factors,
including site availability and climate. Because these factors
vary widely among individual plants in the fish processing
industries, it is difficult to attempt to identify a technology
which may prove superior to all others within an industrial
subcategory.
The following general description is divided into physical-
chemical and biological methods for the removal of contaminants.
Physical-chemical treatment
Physical-chemical treatment is capable of achieving high degrees
of wastewater purification in significantly smaller areas than
biological methods. This space advantage is often accompanied by
the expense of high equipment, chemical, power, and other
operational costs. The selection of unit operations in a
physical-chemical or biological-chemical treatment system cannot
be isolated cost-effectively from the constraints of each plant
site. The most promising treatment technologies for the
industries under consideration are chemical coagulation and air
flotation. There is yet little practical application for
demineralization technology including reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis, electrolytic treatment, and ion exchange, or for
high levels of organic removal by means of carbon adsorption.
Chemical Oxidation
Chlorine and ozone are the most promising oxidants, although
chlorine dioxide, potassium permanganate, and others are capable
of oxidizing organic matter found in the process wastewaters.
This technology is not in common use because of economic
feasibility restrictions.
Chlorine could be generated electrolytically from salt waters
adjoining most processors of marine species, and utilized to
oxidize the organic material and ammonia present (Metcalf and
Eddy, 1972). Ozone could be generated on-site and pumped into
de-aerated wastewater. De-aeration is required to reduce the
build-up of nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the recycle gas
254
-------
stream. The higher the COD, the higher the unit ozone reaction
efficiency. Both oxidation systems offer the advantages of
compact size. The operability of the technology with saline
wastewaters, and the practicability of small units, have not been
evaluated in the seafood processing industry (McNabney and Wynne,
1971) .
Air Flotation
Air flotation with appropriate chemical addition is a physical
chemical treatment technology capable of removing heavy con-
centrations of solids, greases, oils, and dissolved organics in
the form of a floating sludge. The buoyancy of released air
bubbles rising through the wastewater lifts materials in sus-
pension to the surface. These materials include substantial
dissolved organics and chemical precipitates, under controlled
conditions. Floated, agglomerated sludges are skimmed from the
surface, collected and dewatered. Adjustment of pH to near the
isoelectric point favors the removal of dissolved protein from
fish processing wastewaters. Because the flotation process
brings partially reduced organic and chemical compounds into
contact with oxygen in the air bubbles, satisfaction of immediate
oxygen demand is a benefit of the process in operation. Present
flotation equipment consists of three types of systems for
wastewater treatment: 1) vacuum flotation; 2) dispersed air
flotation; and 3) dissolved air flotation.
1. Vacuum flotation: In this system, the waste is first
aerated, either directly in an aeration tank or by permitting air
to enter on the suction side of a pump. Aeration periods are
brief, some as short at 30 seconds, and require only about 185 to
370 cc/1 (0.025 to 0.05 cu ft/gal) of air (Nemerow, 1971). A
partial vacuum of about 0.02 atm (9 in. of water) is applied,
which releases some air as minute bubbles. The bubbles and
attached solids rise to the surface to form a scum blanket which
is removed by a skimming mechanism. A disadvantage is the
expensive air-tight structure needed to maintain the vacuum. Any
leakage from the atmosphere adversely affects performance.
2. Dispersed air flotation: Air bubbles are generated in this
process by the mechanical shear of propellers, through diffusers,
or by homogenization of gas and liquid streams. The results of a
pilot study on tuna wastewater are shown in Table 101 and
indicate that a dispersed air flotation system could be
successful. The unit was a WEMCO HydroCleaner with five to 10
minute detention time. The average percent reduction of five-day
BOD, grease and oil, and suspended solids was estimated using two
types of chemical additives. Each run consisted of one hour
steady state operation with flow proportioned samples taken every
five minutes. It should be noted that the average of five runs
with different chemical additions are presented rather than the
optimum.
255
-------
3. Dissolved air flotation: The dissolved air can be introduced
by one of the methods: 1) total flow pressurization; 2) partial
flow pressurization; or 3) recycle pressurization. In this
process, the wastewater or a recycled stream is pressurized to
3.0 to U.H atm (30 to 50 psi) in the presence of air and then
released into the flotation tank which is at ambient pressure.
In recycle pressurization the recycle stream is held in the
pressure unit for about one minute before being mixed with the
unpressurized main stream just before entering the flotation
tank.
The flotation system of choice depends on the characteristics of
the waste and the necessary removal efficiencies. Mayo (1966)
found use of the recycle gave best results for industrial waste
and had lower power requirements. Recycling flows can be
adjusted to insure uninterrupted flow to the flotation cell.
This can be very useful in avoiding system shutdowns. A typical
dissolved air flotation system is shown in Figure m, and a
typical dissolved air flotation unit is shown in Figure 42.
Air bubbles usually are negatively charged. Suspended particles
or colloids may have a significant electrical charge providing
either attraction or repulsion with the air bubbles. Flotation
aids can be used to prevent air bubble repulsion. In treating
industrial wastes with large quantities of emulsified grease or
oil, it is usually beneficial to use alum, or lime, and an
anionic polyelectrolyte to provide consistently good removal
(Mayo, 1966).
Emulsified grease or oil normally cannot be removed without
chemical coagulation (Kohler, 1969). The emulsified chemical
coagulant should be provided in sufficient quantity to absorb
completely the oil present whether free or emulsified. Good
flotation properties are characterized by a tendency for the floe
to float with no tendency to settle downward. Excessive
coagulant additions result in a heavy floe which is only par-
tially removed by air flotation. With oily wastewaters such as
those found in the fish processing industry, minimum emulsi-
fication of oils should result if a recycle stream only, rather
than the entire influent, were passed through the pressurization
tank. This would insure that only the stream (having been pre-
viously treated) with the lower oil content would be subjected to
the turbulence of the pressurization system. The increased
removals achieved, of course, would be at the expense of a larger
flotation unit than that which would be needed without recycle.
The water temperature determines the solubility of the air in the
water under pressurization. With lower water temperature, a
lower quantity of recycle is necessary to dissolve the same
quantity of air. The viscosity of the water increases with a
decrease in temperature so that flotation units must be made
larger to compensate for the slower bubble rise velocity at low
temperatures. Mayo (1966) recommended that flotation units for
256
-------
WASTE WATER
SOLIDS
CHEMICAL
FEED AIR
SCREENED
WASTEWATER
ro
cn
o
PUMP
CENTRATE (IF USED)
FROM SCREENED
SOLIDS HOPPER
SCREENED WASTEWATER
TO NEXT TREATMENT SYSTEM
OR TO RECEIVING WATER
OR TO MUNICIPAL SYSTEMS
TO SOLIDS
DISPOSAL
OR BY-PRODUCT
RECOVERY
Figure 41 Typical dissolved air flotation system for seafood processing operations.
-------
SCREENED
WASTEWATER
O1
00
SURGE TANK
•DRAIN
FLOTATION CELL
Figure 42 Dissolved air flotation unit (Carborundum Company)
-------
industrial application be sized on a flow basis for suspended
solids concentrations less than 5000 mg/1. Surface loadings
should not exceed 81 1/sq m/min (2 gal./sq ft/min). The air-to-
solids ratio is important, as well. Mayo (1966) recommended 0.02
kg of air per kg of solids to provide a safe margin for design.
Flotation is in extensive use among food processors for waste-
water treatment. Mayo (1966) presented data showing high
influent BOD and solids concentrations, each in the range of 2000
mg/1. Reductions reached 95 percent BOD removal and 99.7 percent
solids removals, although most removals were five percent to 20
percent lower. The higher removals were attainable using
appropriate chemical additions and, presumably, skilled
operation. A full scale dissolved air flotation unit was
recently installed at a tuna plant on Terminal Island,
California. Table 102 shows the results of the pilot plant study
that preceeded the full scale unit and Table 103 gives the
percent reductions calculated from the samples collected in 1973.
Operational difficulties are thought to have reduced the
effectiveness of the unit. The pilot plant treated a flow of 0.5
to 1.0 I/sec (7.5 to 15 gpm) with a constant recycle of 0.5 I/sec
(7.5 gpm). The full scale plant treated a flow of 28 I/sec (450
gpm) with no recycle.
Two more full scale dissolved air flotation units for tuna plants
have been ordered and are due to start in early 197 U according to
Robbins of Envirotech Corporation.
At least two significant pilot plant studies have been performed
on shrimp wastewater, one in Louisiana and the other in Alaska.
Table 104 and Table 105 list the results of the respective
studies.
The Louisiana shrimp study was conducted by Region VI E.P.A. and
Dominique, Szabo, and Associates, Inc. using a Carborundum
Company dissolved air flotation pilot unit which treated a 3.1
I/sec (50 gpm) flow using 1:1 recycle, and 170 1/hr (6 cu ft/hr)
air at a pressure of 2.7 atm (40 psig).
The Alaska shrimp study was conducted by the National Marine
Fisheries Service Technology center, using a Carborundum Company
dissolved air flotation pilot unit, which treated a 3.1 I/sec (50
gpm) flow using 10 percent recycle.
Preliminary indicators from the Louisiana shrimp show that alum
at 75 ppm and a polyelectrolyte at 0.5 - 5.0 ppm produce the best
removal efficiencies (see Figure 43) .
Various chemical additives and concentrators were tested in
Alaska with inconclusive results. All flocculants worked better
than no additives but none were significantly better than alum
alone at around 200 mg/1. Sea water apppeared to reduce the
effectiveness of the polyelectrolyte used during the test.
259
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Table 102 . Efficiency of EIMCO flotator pilot plant on tuna
wastewater (Jacobs Engineering Co., 1972).
Chemical
Additive
Lime (pH 10.0 -
Polymers :
Cationic, 0.05
Anionic, 0.10
Lime, 400 mg/1
Ferric chloride,
Influent Reduction
10.5)
mg/1
mg/1
45 mg/1
Parameter
(Based
BOD- 5
O&G
SS
BOD- 5
O&G
SS
(mg/1)
on one run)
3533
558
1086
%
65
66
66
22
81
77
Table 103 Efficiency of EIMCO flotator full scale plant
on tuna wastewater (Environmental Associates, Inc., 1973).
Chemical Influent Reduction
Additive Parameter (mg/1) %
Sodium Aluminate 120 mg/1
Polymer
Alum
Polymer
(Based on two runs)
COD 2850
SS 1170
(Based on one run)
COD 5100
SS 667
37
56
58
65
260
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During the summer of 1972 a study was conducted by the National
Marine Fisheries Service to investigate means of reducing waste
discharge problems as a result of fish meal and oil production.
Bailwater used to unload menhaden was treated using a pilot scale
dissolved air flotation unit. This treatment allowed increased
recirculation of bailwater, decreasing the soluble plant load.
The removal efficiencies are listed in Table 106. The plant
treated U.I I/sec (65 gpm) with 50 percent recycle and 50 psig.
The results showed that dissolved air flotation units can extend
bailwater re-use, but that sludge disposal must be resolved.
A full scale dissolved air flotation unit has also been installed
in the sardine industry, however, mechanical problems have
hindered operation thus far. Results are shown in Table 107.
The Canadians have constructed a demonstration wastewater
treatment plant capable of handling the estimated flow of 47
I/sec (750 gpm) from a salmon and ground fish filleting plant.
It was later modified to treat herring bailwater and roe recovery
operations as well. Results of the study by The Fisheries
Research Board of Canada on this operation are shown in Table
108.
The previous air flotation case studies have shown various
removal efficiencies depending on species, chemical additives and
effluent concentrations. One reason for the various removal
efficiencies reported appears to be due to the efficiency being a
function of influent concentration. Figure U4 plots the percent
removal versus COD concentration using the results of the
sardine, menhaden. Gulf shrimp and tuna air flotation studies.
The removals are probably a function of the species being
processed; however, there appears to be a strong tendency for the
efficiency to increase as the concentration increases. The tuna
and shrimp concentrations and removal efficiencies were lower
than the sardine and menhaden concentrations and removal
efficiencies. This relation also holds for the sardine
wastewater where the efficiency appears to increase about 25
percent as the COD concentration increases by a factor of four,
from 5000 to 20,000 mg/1. The case studies documented in this
report indicate that air flotation systems can provide good
removal of pollution loads from seafood processing wastewater,
however, the results are highly dependent on operating procedure.
In most cases, optimum removal efficiencies are yet to be
established, but it is expected that the technology should become
standardized over the next few years as an increasing number of
units are tested. It also appears that the COD removal
efficiency is a function of concentration, increasing as the
influent concentrations increase.
The air flotation technology can also be operated at lower
efficiencies to serve as "primary" treatment in advance of a
261
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Table 104 Efficiency of Carborundum pilot plant
on Gulf shrimp wastewater (Mauldin, 1973).
Chemical
Additive
Parameter
Influent
(mg/1)
Reduction
Acid (to pH 5)
Alum 75 mg/1
Polymer
(Average of five runs, one each with
5, 4, 2, 1, and 0.5 mg/1 polymer)
BOD-5
COD
SS
1428
3400
559
70
64
83
(Average of two runs, one each at 75
gpm and 25 gpm with 2 mg/1 polymer)
Acid (to pH 5)
Alum 75 mg/1
Polymer
COD
SS
O&G
3400
440
852
51
68
85
Table 105 Efficiency of Carborundum pilot plant
on Alaska shrimp wastewater
Chemical
Additive
Reduction
Parameter
(Average of twenty-two runs)
Alum 200 mg/1
Polymer
COD
SS
73
77
262
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Table 106 Efficiency of Carborundum pilot plant
on menhaden bailwater (Baker and Carlson, 1972).
Chemical Influent Reduction
Additive Parameter (mg/1) %
(Average of five runs)
Alum or COD 94,200 80
Acid pH 5-5.3 SS — 87
Polymer O&G — near 100
Note: SS and O&G determined by volume change.
Table 1^7 Efficiency of full scale dissolved air
flotation on sardine wastewater (Atwell, 1973).
Chemical
Additive
Alum
Polymer
Parameter
(Average of seven runs)
COD
O&G
SS
Reduction
%
74
92
87
263
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Table 108 Efficiency of full scale dissolved air
flotation on Canadian seafood wastewater (Claggett, 1972).
Chemical Removal Percentage
Additive Species BOD Oil SS
Salmon 84 90 92
Alum Herring 72 85 74
Polymer Groundfish 77 — 86
Stickwater — 95 95
Comments: Sludge represents about three percent of flow.
264
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en
CO
o
Ul
100 ..
75 --
50 ..
25 ..
K>
O
O
00
75 •
50 .
o
2
UJ
* 25
—-O
KEY
A 50 ppm ALUM
© 60 " "
• 75 " »
D 100 " "
O 150 "
10
12
PPM POLYMER (AMERICAN CYANAMIDE 835A)
Figure 43 Removal efficiency of DAF unit used in Louisiana
shrimp study - 1973 results (Dominique, Szabo Associates, Inc.)
265
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ro
cr>
o
O
UJ
Q
8
UJ
o
£T
UJ
90-
80.
70 .
so
50
D
A
A A
x X
A MAINE SARDINE
X MENHADEN BAILWATER
• GULF SHRIMP
D TUNA
}|000 5000 10,000 50,000 100,000 500,000
COD INFLUENT CONCENTRATION (mg/l)
Figure 44 Air flotation efficiency versus influent COD
concentration for various seafood wastewaters.
-------
physical-chemical or biological polishing step, if that mode
proves advantageous from the standpoint of cost-effectiveness.
Appendices A and B contain selected bibliographies of air
flotation use within the seafood industry and meat and poultry
industry, respectively.
Biological treatment
Biological treatment is not practiced in U.S. seafood industries
except for a small pilot project in Maryland at a blue crab
processing plant and full-scale systems at two shrimp plants in
Florida. Sufficient nutrients are available in most seafood
wastewaters, however, to indicate that such wastewaters are
amenable to aerobic biological treatment.
Primary stage removal of solids and oil and greases should
precede biological treatment. Without this pretreatment, several
problems can develop: 1) oil and grease can interfere with
oxygen transfer in an activated sludge system; and 2) solids can
clog trickling filters.
The salt found in nearly all wastewaters discourages the con-
sideration of anaerobic processes. Salt is toxic to anaerobic
bacteria, and although a certain tolerance to higher salt levels
can be developed in carefully controlled (constant input)
systems, fluctuating loads continue to be inhibitory or toxic to
these relatively unstable systems. Aerobic biological systems,
although inhibited by "shock loadings" of salt, have been
demonstrated at full scale for the treatment of saline wastes of
reasonably constant chloride levels. The effectiveness of any
form of biological oxidation, however, remains to be demonstrated
under the extreme variations common in the fish processing
industry.
Activated Sludge
The activated sludge process consists of suspending a concen-
trated microbial mass in the wastewater in the presence of
oxygen. Carbonaceous matter is oxidized mainly to carbon dioxide
and water. Nitrogenous matter is concurrently oxidized to
nitrate. The conventional activated sludge process is capable of
high levels of treatment when properly designed and skillfully
operated. Flow equilization by means of an aerated tank can
minimize shock loadings and flow variations, which are highly
detrimental to treatment efficiency. The process produces a
sludge which is composed largely of microbial cells, as described
above. Oily materials can have an adverse effect. A recent
study concluded the influent (petroleum-based) oil levels should
be limited to 0.10 kg/day/kg MLSS (0.10 Ib/day/lb MLSS).
267
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The nature of the waste stream, the complexity of the system and
the difficulties associated with dewatering waste activated
sludge indicate that for most applications the activated sludge
system of choice would be the extended aeration modification.
A typical extended aeration system which could be used for a
seafood processing operation is shown in Figure 45 and is similar
to conventional activated sludge, except that the mixture of
activated sludge and raw materials is maintained in the aeration
chamber for longer periods of time. The common detention time in
extended aeration is one to three days, in contrast to the
conventional six hours. This prolonged contact between the
sludge and raw waste provides ample time for the organic matter
to be assimilated by the sludge and also for the organisms to
metabolize the organics. This allows for substantial removals of
organic matter. In addition, the organisms undergo considerable
endogenous respiration, which oxidizes much of the cellular
biomass. As a result, less sludge is produced and little is
discharged from the system as waste activated sludge.
In extended aeration, as in the conventional activated sludge
process, it is necessary to have a final sedimentation tank.
The solids resulting from extended aeration are finely dispersed
and settle slowly, requiring a long period of settling. The
system is relatively resistant to shock loadings, provided the
clarifier has sufficient surface area to prevent the loss of
biomass during flow surges. Extended aeration, like other
activated sludge systems, requires a continuous flow of waste-
water to nurture the microbial mass. The re-establishment of an
active biomass in the aeration tank requires several days to a
few weeks if the unit is shut down or the processing plant ceases
to operate for significant periods of time.
Riddle (1972) studied the efficiency of biological systems on
smelt and perch wastewater. He found a 90 percent removal of
unfiltered BOD-5 after 10 days aeration, and 90 percent removal
of filtered BOD-5 after two days aeration in a batch reactor (see
Figures 46, 47). Tests in a continuous reactor showed that
maximum BOD-5 removal (80 percent soluble and 45 percent
unfiltered) could be achieved with a 7.5 hour detention time,
sludge recycle and a three day sludge age or a five day detention
time with no sludge recycle.
Robbins (1973) reports that an activated sludge plant in Japan
has been especially designed for fish wastes. The wastewater
flow is approximately 0.27 mgd and the 5 day BOD concentration
ranges from 1000 to 1900 mg/1. The results of pilot plant
studies conducted using a 10 hour separation time and the organic
and hydraulic loadings listed are shown in Table 109. Bulking
occurred when the organic loading rate exceeded 0.31 Ib/cu
ft/day.
268
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CT>
10
SCREENED
WASTEWATER
V
EQUALIZATION
TANK
• BOILER -
OPTIONAL
HEAT EXCHANGER
HI-SPEED FLOATING
1 1 — fc
p
V i — i
AERATION
TANK
X
RETURN SLUDGE ,^,
TREATED WASTEWATER
TO RECEIVING WATER
10' BELOW MEAN TIDE
SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
WASTE SLUDGE TO
•4
FLOATATION UNIT
HOLDING TANK
OR DISPOSAL
Figure 45 Typical extended aeration system for seafood processing operations,
-------
100
90
80
70
io 60
o
O
00
ui
50
o 40
UJ
z
Ul
o
(T
30
20
10
0
COMBINED WASTEWATER A
SMELT WASTEWATER *
PERCH WASTEWATER ©
246
SMELT
a
COMBINED
PERCH
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
TIME- DAYS
Figure 46 Removal rate of filtered BOD in a batch aeration
reactor.
270
-------
10
Q
O
CO
Q
UJ
OH
UJ
z
13
0
Z
Z
2
111
a:
UJ
O
DC.
UJ
a.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
COMBINED WASTEWATER 4
SMELT WASTEWATER X
PERCH WASTEWATER o
till
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
TIME - DAYS
Figure 47 Removal rate of unfiltered BOD in a batch aeration
reactor.
271
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Table Activated sludge
pilot plant results (Robbins, 1973).
Raw BOD Loading (Ib/cu ft/day)
Parameter Waste 0.075 0.14 0.21 0.26
BOD-5 (mg/1) 1000 5 10 13 27
% Removal -- 99.5 99.0 98.7 97.3
Table 110 Efficiency of Chromaglas package plant
on blue crab and oyster wastewater
Parameter Influent Percentage Reduction
BOD 400-1200 mg/1 80 - 90%
Suspended Solids — Effluent level =160 mg/1
272
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Although treatment units are available in all size ranges, it is
unlikely activated sludge will prove to be the most cost-
effective treatment where processing is intermittent, or plant
flows are so large that alternative systems of suitable scale are
available. The wide variation in quality of the small package
extended aeration systems now available dictates careful
selection of the equipment, if the process is to approach the
removals now achieved by well-operated municipal installations.
Table 110 shows the effectiveness of a package unit on wastewater
from a plant processing Atlantic oysters and blue crab. The flow
from this plant was quite low, averaging only 0.09 I/sec (2000
gpd) .
Rotating Biological Contactor
The Rotating Biological contactor (RBC), or Biodisc unit,
consists of light-weight discs approximately 1.3 cm (0.5 in.)
thick and spaced at 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 in.) on centers. The
cylindrical discs, which are up to 3.U m (11 ft) in diameter, are
mounted on a horizontal shaft and placed on a semicircular tank
through which the wastewater flows. Clearance between the discs
and the tank wall is 1.3 to 1.9 cm (0.5 to 0.75 in.). The discs
rotate slowly, in the range of five to 10 rpm, passing the disc
surface through the incoming wastewater. Liquid depth in the
tank is kept below the center shaft of the discs. Reaeration is
limited by the solubility of air in the wastewater and rate of
shaft rotation.
Shortly after start-up, organisms begin to grow in attached
colonies on the disc surfaces, and a typical growth layer is
usually established within a week. Oxygen is supplied to the
organisms during the period when the disc is rotating through the
atmosphere above the flowing waste stream. Dense biological
growth on the discs provides a high level of active organisms
resistant to shock loads. Periodic sloughing produces a floe
which settles rapidly; and the shear-forces developed by rotation
prevents disc media clogging and keeps solids in suspension until
they are transferred out of the disc tank and into the final
clarifier. Normally, sludge recycling shows no significant
effect on treatment efficiency because the suspended solids in
the mixed liquor represent a small fraction of the total culture
when compared to the attached growth on the disc.
Removal efficiency can be increased by providing several stages
of discs in series. European experience on multi-stage disc
systems indicates that a four stage disc plant can be loaded at a
30 percent higher rate than a two stage plant for the same degree
of treatment. Because the BOD removal kinetics approach a first
order reaction, the first stage should not be loaded higher than
120 g BOD/day/sq m disc surface. If removal efficiencies greater
than 90 percent are required, three or four stages should be
installed. Mixtures of domestic and food processing wastes in
273
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high BOD concentrations can be treated efficiently by the RBC-
type system.
Because 95 percent of the solids are attached to the discs, the
RBC unit is less sensitive to shock loads than activated sludge
units, and is not upset by variations in hydraulic loading.
During low flow periods the RBC unit yields effluents of higher
quality than at design flow. During periods of - no flow,
effluents can be recycled for a limited time to maintain
biological activity.
Both the Rotating Biological Contactor and the trickling filter
systems utilize an attached culture. However, with the rotating
disc the biomass is passed through the wastewater rather than
wastewater over the biomass, resulting in less clogging for the
RBC unit. Continuous wetting of the entire biomass surface also
prevents fly growth, often associated with conventional trickling
filter operations.
The RBC system requires housing to protect the biomass from
exposure during freezing weather and from damage due to heavy
winds and precipitation.
A pilot RBC system has been studied in Canada on salmon canning
wastewater, which had previously been treated by an air flotation
system (Claggett, 1973). The pilot plant was obtained from
Autotrol Corporation and was rated at about 0.44 I/sec (7 gpm).
The pilot system consists of a wet well, a three stage treatment
system and a secondary clarifier with a rotating sludge scoop.
In general, the unit performed quite well, with reductions of
over 50 percent in COD being obtained two days after start-up.
The discs reached a steady state condition in one week. The unit
operated satisfactorily at loadings up to 20 Ibs COD/1000 sq
ft/day, showing good stability in the face of fluctuating loads.
Under light solids loading algal growth developed in the
clarifier and the last disc section. Consequently, all effluent
samples were filtered prior to COD analysis. Under moderate flow
conditions the clarifier functioned well, but occasionally the
suspended solids level rose about 50 mg/1, indicating some
problems in this area. This carry-over became very pronounced
under heavy solids loading. About 80 percent removal of applied
COD was obtained for loadings of up to 20 Ibs COD/1000 sq ft/day.
Removal of COD at each stage is highly variable, and does not
appear to be a function of the applied load. In general, up to
one-half of the COD removal was achieved in the first section, up
to 20 percent was removed in the second stage, and up to 15
percent removed in the third stage.
High-Rate Trickling Filter (HPTF)
A trickling filter consists on a vented structure of rock,
fiberglas, plastic, or redwood media on which a microbial flora
develops. As wastewater flows downward over the structure, the
274
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microbial flora assimilates and metabolizes the organic matter.
The biomass continuously sloughs and is readily separated from
the liquid stream by sedimentation. The resulting sludge
requires further treatment and disposal as described previously.
The use of artificial media promotes air circulation and reduces
clogging, in contrast to rock media. As a result, artificial
media beds can be over twice as deep as rock media beds, with
correspondingly longer contact times. Longer contact times and
recirculation of the liquid flow enhance treatment efficiency.
The recirculation of settled sludge with the liquid stream is
also claimed to improve treatment.
The system is simple in operation, the only operational variable
being recycle rate. The treatment efficiency of a well-designed
deep-bed trickling filter tower of 14 ft or more with high
recycle can be superior to that of a carelessly operated
activated sludge system. The system is not particularly
sensitive to shock loadings but is severely impaired by
wastewater temperatures below 73°C (45°F) . Below 2°C (35°F),
treatment efficiency is minimal. The effect of grease and oil in
trickling filter influent has not been evaluated. They would
likely be detrimental.
Ponds and Lagoons
The land requirements for ponds and lagoons limit the locations
at which these facilities are practicable. Where conditions
permit, they can provide reasonable treatment alternatives.
Lagoons are ponds in which wastewater is treated biologically.
Naturally aerated lagoons are termed oxidation ponds. Such ponds
are 0.9 to 1.2 m (3 to 4 ft) deep, with oxidation taking place
chiefly in the upper 0.45 m (18 in.). Mechanically aerated
lagoons are mixed ponds over 1.8 m (6 ft) and up to 6.1 m (20 ft)
deep, with oxygen supplied by a floating aerator or compressed
air diffuser system. The design of lagoons requires particular
attention to local insulation, temperatures, wind velocities,
etc. for critical periods. These variables affect the selection
of design parameters. Loading rates vary from 22 to 112 kg
BOD/day/ha (20 Ib to 100 Ib/day/acre), and detention times from
three to 50 days. A typical aerated lagoon system which could be
used for a seafood processing operation is shown in Figure 48.
Although not frequently used in the fish processing industry,
lagoons are in common use in other food processing industries.
Serious upsets can occur. The oxidation pond may produce too
much algae, the aerated lagoon may turn septic in zones of
minimal mixing, etc.; and recovery from such upsets may take
weeks. The major disadvantage of lagoons is the large land
requirement. In regions where land is available and soil con-
ditions make excavation feasible, the aerobic lagoon should find
application in treating fish wastes. Where the plant discharges
275
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no
WOODEN BAFFLE
^ HI-SPEED ^
FLOATING AERATORS
PLAN VIEW AT WATERLINE
SLOTTED
f BAFFLE
INFLUENT
WASTEWATEi
TO R.W.
PUMP
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
Figure 48. Typical aerated lagoon system.
-------
no salt water, anaerobic and anaerobic-aerobic types of ponds may
also be utilized. Aerated lagoons are reported to produce an
effluent suspended solids concentration of 260 to 300 mg/1,
mostly algae, while anaerobic ponds produce an effluent with 80
to 160 mg/1 suspended solids (Metcalf and Eddy, 1972, p. 557). A
combined activated sludge lagoon system in Florida is reported to
remove 97 percent of the BOD and 94 percent of the suspended
solids from shrimp processing wastewater.
Land disposal
"Zero-discharge" technology is practicable where land is
available upon which the processing wastewaters may be applied
without jeopardizing groundwater quality. The site, surrounded
by a retaining dike, should sustain a cover crop of grass or
other vegetation. Where such sites exist, serious consideration
can be given to land application, particularly spray irrigation,
of treated wastewaters.
Wastes are discharged in spray or flood irrigation systems by: 1)
distribution through piping and spray nozzles over relatively
flat terrain or terraced hillsides of moderate slope; or 2)
pumping and disposal through ridge-and-furrow irrigation systems,
which allow a certain level of flooding on a given plot of land.
Pretreatment for removal of solids is advisable to prevent
plugging of the spray nozzles, or deposition in the furrows of a
ridge-and-furrow system, which may cause odor problems or clog
the soil.
In a flood irrigation system the waste loading in the effluent
would be limited by the waste loading tolerance of the particular
crop being grown on the land. It may also be limited by the soil
conditions or potential for vector or odor problems. Wastewater
distributed in either manner percolates through the soil and the
organic matter in the waste undergoes biological degradation.
The liquid in the waste stream is either stored in the soil or
discharged into the groundwater. A variable percentage of the
waste flow can be lost by evapotranspiration, the loss due to
evaporation to the atmosphere through the leaves of plants. The
following factors affect the ability of a particular land area to
absorb wastewater: 1) character of the soil; 2) stratification of
the soil profile; 3) depth to groundwater; 4) initial moisture
content; 5) terrain and groundcover; 6) precipitation; 7)
temperature; and 8) wastewater characteristics.
The greatest concern in the use of irrigation as a disposal
system is the total dissolved solids content and especially the
sodium content of the wastewater. Salt water waste flows would
be incompatible with land application technology at most sites.
Limiting values which may be exceeded for short periods but not
over an entire growing season were estimated, conservatively
(Talsma and Phillip, 1971) , to be 450 to 1000 mg/1. Where land
application is feasible it must be recognized that soils vary
277
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widely in their percolation properties. Experimental irrigation
of a test plot is recommended in untried areas. Cold climate
systems may be subjected to additional constraints, including
storage needs.
The long-term reliability of spray or flood irrigation systems
depends on the sustained ability of the soil to accept the
wastewater. Problems in maintenance include: 1) controlling
salinity levels in the wastewater; 2) compensating for climatic
limitations; and 3) sustaining pumping without failure. Many
soils are improved by spray irrigation.
Multi-Process Treatment Design Consideration
Waste characterization studies reveal the general ranges and
concentrations of each specific processing subcategory; however,
for design purposes it may often be necessary to know the nature
of the combined waste stream from several commodities being
processed simultaneously. Short term on-site waste and
wastewater investigations are suggested so that any synergistic
and/or antagonistic interactors can be determined. A combined
waste stream could conceivably be more amenable to treatment than
a single source because of possible smoothing of peak hydraulic
and/or organic loading, neutralization of pH or dilution of
saline conditions.
Each stream may individually dictate the design considerations.
For instance, the fibrous nature of salmon canning waste will
likely dictate the screening method used or a waste stream with
high flow will likely dictate hydraulic loading of the system.
Another design problem is caused by sequential seasonal pro-
cessing of different commodities. This condition is also
prevalent in the seafood industry. Optimum waste treatment
design conditions for one effluent will normally not be identical
to those for the next. As an example, the sequential processing
of shrimp and oysters would cause problems. Even though their
effluent concentrations are similar, the wastewater flow volume
is approximately eight times higher in the typical shrimp
processing plant. Problems such as this will necessitate
adaptations to normal design procedures or perhaps even demand
the use of more than one treatment train.
During on-site waste management studies consideration should also
be given to segregation of certain unit process streams.
Significant benefits may be realized by using this technique.
For example, treatment of a high concentrated waste flow can be
more efficient and economical. In addition, by-product
development normally centers on the segregation and concentration
of waste producing processes. Uncontaminated cooling water
should remain isolated from the main wastewater effluent. This
water could either be reused or discharged directly.
278
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TREATMENT DESIGN ALTERNATIVES
A summary of the equipment efficiencies and design assumptions
for the technology alternatives is presented in Table 111.
Farm-Raised Catfish
Figures 45, 49, 50, and 51 depict the proposed treatment schemes,
screening, aerated lagoon-oxidation pond, extended aeration, and
aerated lagoon-spray irrigation alternatives for final disposal
of the treated catfish processing waste waters. The designs were
based on the waste water characteristics and volumes for a
typical well-controlled catfish processing plant. Other bases
included:
1) 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day, 5 days per week
operation;
2) production volume of 13.6 kkg per day (15 tons per day);
3) further growth experienced during the design period (10
years) would be balanced partially by anticipated water use
reduction realized through increased in-plant control;
4) availability of adequate land area; and
5) availability of adequate labor.
The basis for the designs and the estimates of effluent levels
from the lagoons for catfish were 100 mg/1 BOD5 and 250 mg/1
suspended solids. These numbers were chosen in consideration of
the fact that under the climatic conditions in that part of the
country large concentrations of algae will be a continuing
problem, and also many of the lagoons will contain catfish.
The design for the extended aeration alternate assumed an
effluent quality of 60 mg/1 BOD5 and 60 mg/1 suspended solids.
An obtainable 25 percent reduction of grease and oil was assumed
through the use of simple grease traps. A 90 percent reduction
was assumed for grease traps coupled with subsequent treatment
systems.
Conventional Blue Crab
Figures 40, 45, and 48 depict the proposed serening, extended
aeration, and aerated lagoon alternative treatment schemes for
conventional blue crab processors. The designs were based on the
waste water characteristics and volumes for typical well-
controlled processing plants. Assumptions included:
279
-------
TABLE 111
EQUIPMENT EFFICIENCY AND DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
Segment and Technology
Alternatives
Effluent Concentration or Percent Induction
of Screened Sample Data
Catfish
Screen (2)
Stabilization Ponds
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
Land Irrigation (7)
Conventional Blue Crab
Screen (2)
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
Mechanized Blue Crab
Screen (2)
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
Alaskan Crab Meat
Screen (2)
Air Flotation (4)
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
Alaskan Whole Crab and Crab
Screen (2)
Air Flotation (4)
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
BPCTCA + NSPS
BOD TSS O&G (1)
25%
100 mg/1 150 mg/1 90%
100 mg/1 250 mg/1 90%
— — —
25%
125 mg/1 375 mg/1 75%
25%
80 mg/1 200 mg/1 75%
25%
Section
25%
BOD
100 mg/1
60 mg/1
125 mg/1
100 mg/1
80 mg/1
60 mg/1
40%
80 mg/1
60 mg/1
40%
80 mg/1
60 mg/1
BATEA
TSS
250 mg/1
60 mg/1
375 mg/1
100 mg/1
200 mg/1
60 mg/1
70%
200 mg/1
60 mg/1
70%
200 mg/1
60 mg/1
O&G (1)
90%
90%
75%
90%
75%
90%
(3)
5 mg/1
5 mg/1
(3)
5 mg/1
5 mg/1
Dungeness & Tanner Crab in the
Contiguous States
Screen (2)
Air Flotation (5)
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
40%
70%
25%
(3)
75% 90% (6)
80 mg/1 200 mg/1 5 mg/1
60 mg/1 60 mg/1 5 mg/1
Alaskan Shrimp
Screen
Air Flotation
Lagoon System
(4)
40%
80 mg/1
70%
200 mg/1
(3)
5 mg/1
280
-------
TABLE 111 (cont.)
EQUIPMENT EFFICIENCY AND DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
Segment and Technology
Alternatives
Effluent Concentration or Percent reduction
of Screened Sample Data
Northern Shrimp
Screen (2)
Air Flotation (5)
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
Southern Non-breaded Shrimp
Screen (2)
Air Flotation (5)
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
BPCTCA + NSPS
BCD TSS O&G (1)
!!•
- - -
40% 70% (3)
_ _ _
40% 70% (3)
BCD
75%
80 mg/1
60 mg/1
75%
80 mg/1
60 mg/1
BATEA
TSS
90%
200 mg/1
60 mg/1
90%
200 mg/1
60 mg/1
O&G (1)
(6)
5 mg/1
5 mg/1
(6)
5 mg/1
5 mg/1
Breaded Shrimp
Screen (2)
Air Flotation (5)
Lagoon System
Extended Aeration
Tuna
Air Flotation (5)
Roughing Filter
Activated Sludge
40%
40%
70%
70%
(3)
(3)
75% 90% (6)
80 mg/1 200 mg/1 5 mg/1
60 mg/1 60 mg/1 5 mg/1
75%
260 mg/1
40 mg/1
90% (6)
100 mg/1 5 mg/1
40 mg/1 5 mg/1
(1) The numbers include removals due to in-plant recovery such as sumps and
grease traps coupled with the end-of-pipe technology.
(2) The design assumptions are based on the summary of sampling data which
were screened prior to analysis. No further reduction was assumed for
plant scale screening.
(3) Eighty-five percent (85%) removal or the level of detection (5 mg/1) of
the oil and grease test, whichever is higher.
(4) Reductions are based on operation as a non-optimized chemical system.
(5) Reductions are based on operation as a non-optimized chemical system for
1977, and an optimized chemical system for 1983.
(6) Ninety percent (90%) removal or the level of detection (5 mg/1) of the oil
and grease test, whichever is higher.
(7) The assumptions for catfish are based on spray irrigation of process
wastewater and partial recycle of live fish holding tank water with
overflow and discharge to fish holding ponds.
281
-------
FISH HOLDING TANK OVERFLOV^
TO RECEIVING WATER
ro
00
ro
INFLUENT
SETTLEABLES
SCREENED WASTEWATER <
4" 0 CONC '
SOLIDS TO RENDERING
OR ANIMAL FOOD PLANT
Figure 49
Catfish processing,
initial treatment,
-------
ro
CO
GO
SCREENED
WASTEWATER
AERATED LAGOON
WITH SETTLING CHAMBER
O
O
2-10 tf AERATORS
FLOATING HI-SPEED
WOOD
BAFFLE
OXIDATION POND*2
SEALED W/ CLAY IN PERVIOUS SOILS
NO SCALE
Figure 50 Catfish processing,
oxidation pond alternative,
-------
INS
CO
AERATED LAGOON
SCREENED
WASTE WATER _
- ^1
WITH SETTLING CHAMBER
O "• » O
a-IOH5 AERATORS
FLOATING HI -SPEED
N. ,
WOOD
BAFFLE
V
BORROW DITCH
BERN RUNOFF PROTECTION
1/2
SUMP
-c
5H>
HP M.H.
PUMP
I
\
J
PUMP
SOLID SET IRRIGATION SYSTEM TOO
r^
7
c
y
^ ^ —
i^,"1 /
^-i
K
XI
,
f
|
1'
1
"J-« DITCH DRAINAGE
K. .
5-1 ACRE AREAS
W/IOO FT BUFFER STRIP
NO SCALE
Figure 51 - Catfish processing,
spray irrigation alternative.
-------
1) 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day, 5 days per week
operation;
2) a production volume of 5.5 kkg/day (6 tpd)
3) further growth experienced during the design period (10
years) would be partially balanced by anticipated water use
reductions realized through increased inplant control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
With the aerated lagoon system it was assumed that BOD5 would be
about 125 mg/1 and suspended solids 375. With the extended
aeration process and the difference in the basic biota of the
systems and the prevalence of endogenous respiration,
concentrations of 100 mg/1 BOD5 and 100 mg/1 suspended solids
were assumed.
The grease and oil removal due to sumps and simple grease traps
was assumed to be 25 percent. A total reduction of 75 percent
was assumed for the aerated lagoon system and 90 percent for the
extended aeration system.
Mechanized blue^crab
Figures 40, 45 and 48 depict the proposed serening, extended
aeration, and aerated lagoon alternative treatment schemes for
mechanized blue crab processors. The designs were based on the
waste water characteristics and volumes for typical well-
controlled processing plants. Assumptions included:
1) 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day, 5 days per week
operation;
2) a production volume of 10.9 kkg/day (12 tpd);
3) further growth experienced during the design period (10
years) would be partially balanced by anticipated water use
reductions realized through increased inplant control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
Water use reduction was first considered in the design basis. It
was assumed that a 15 percent reduction in water use could be
effected for the 1983 and new source guidelines, which would
result in about a 5 percent overall BOD5 reduction. Then,
considering the aerated lagoon alternative for mechanized blue
crab, it was assumed that an aerated lagoon could achieve about
80 mg/1 BOD5 and 200 mg/1 suspended solids. Extended aeration
was assumed to achieve an effluent concentration of 60 mg/1 BOD5
and 60 mg/1 suspended solids.
285
-------
ro
co
5 STEEL
TO TIE WITH
OUTFALL LINE
2-40K>
LOW PRESSURE
POSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT
AIR COMPRESSORS
2-5 H=
EFFLUENT FROM:
FLOTATION UNIT
SUBMERGED DIFFUSED AJR
DISTRIBUTO
1
3"STEEL
2" STEEL
5 STEEL
Figure 52 Alaska crab processing, aerated lagoon alternative
-------
The grease and oil removal due to sumps and simple grease traps
was assumed to be 25 percent. A total reduction of 75 percent
was assumed for the aerated lagoon system and 90 percent for the
extended aeration system.
Alaskan Crab^Meat^PrQcessing
Figures 40, 41, 45, 52, and 53 depict the proposed screening,
dissolved air flotation, extended aeration, aerated lagoon, and
grinding alternative treatment schemes for Alaskan Dungeness,
tanner and king crab processors. Assumptions for the designs
included:
1) 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day, 5 days per week
operation;
2) a production volume of 45.4 kkg/day (50 tpd);
3) further growth experienced during the design period (10
years) would be partially balanced by anticipated water use
reductions realized through increased inplant control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
Alaskan crab processing plants are larger-scale operations than
those in the "lower 48" states, but the waste waters are still
intermittent, seasonal and of relatively high strength.
The design basis assumed complete retention of the 20-mesh
screenable solids on a screen in a full-scale operation. As
discussed in Section V, the plant samples were screened on a 20-
mesh sieve in order to create a base level for comparing data
among plants. It was assumed that 90 percent of the remaining
suspended solids would be removed in the flotation unit and that
the BOD5 removal would be 75 percent. This assumes significant
removals on a screen prior to flotation, so overall BOD5 removals
would be considerably higher.
For the 1983 and new source guidelines the in-plant modifications
were assumed to effect a 50 percent water reduction with a
commensurate 15 percent BOD5_ reduction.
The extended aeration alternative design was based on the re-
search and development efforts of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Anchorage, Alaska. Their experience with biological
waste treatment was limited to domestic waste only, as was the
case throughout Alaska. It was assumed that, with proper design,
concentrations of 60 mg/1 BOD5 and 60 mg/1 suspended solids could
be achieved.
The aerated lagoon alternative in Alaska is not going to perform
as well as an extended aeration system. This is due mainly to
two factors: one is algae growth, because of the longer
287
-------
RAW PROCESSING
WASTES HOLDING TANK
DRY CAPTURED
SHELLS 8 VISCERA
GR
2 GRINDERS OR
COMMINUTORS
8" » HD POLYETHYLENE
DEEP WATER DISCHARGE OF
COMMINUTED PROCESSING WASTES
PUMPED TO 15 FATHOM DEPTH AT
MEAN LOW TIDE.
Figure 53 Alaskan physical treatment alternative, remote
plants with adequate flushing available.
288
-------
retention time in the system, the exposure to the long days of
sunlight during the summertime; and the poor settleability of the
type of floe that is developed in an aerated lagoon as compared
to an extended aeration system. It was assumed that the aerated
lagoon alternative for Alaska would produce an effluent
concentration of 80 mg/1 BOD5 and 200 mg/1 suspended solids.
The grease and oil removal was assumed to be 25 percent due to a
sump prior to screening, an overall 85 percent after air
flotation, and removal to the level of detection for the grease
and oil test, 5 mg/1, after the biological systems.
An alternative for the remote, isolated processor includes
grinding and discharge to deepwater where adequate flushing is
available.
Alaskan Whole Crab and Crab Section Processing
Figures 40, ttl, 45, 52, and 53 depict the proposed screening,
dissolved air flotation, extended aeration, aerated lagoon, and
grinding alternative treatment schemes for Alaska Dungeness,
tanner and king crab processors. All of the design assumptions
are the same as in the pervious section for Alaskan Crab Meat
Processing.
Dungeness and Tanner Crab Processing in^the^Contigugus^States
Figures 40, 41, 45, and 48 depict the proposed screening,
dissolved air flotation, extended aeration, and aerated lagoon
alternative treatment schemes for Dungeness and tanner crab
processors in the contiguous states. Assumptions for the design
included:
1) 8 hours shift, 2 shifts per day, 5 days per week
operation;
2) a production volume of 12.7 kkg/day (14 tpd) ;
3) further growth (if any) experienced during the design
period (10 years) would be partially balanced by anticipated
water use reductions realized through increased in-plant
control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
The effluent design assumptions are the same as in previous
sections. For dissolved air flotation the assumed reductions
were 40 percent for BOD5 and 70 percent for suspended solids for
the 1977 and new source guidelines. It was assumed for the 1983
guidelines that the operation of the flotation unit between 1977
and 1983 would be significantly improved due to increased
operator skill, optimization of chemical type and dosage, and
development of new chemical coagulants and flocculents. It was
289
-------
estimated that by 1983, a 75 percent BOD5 removal in the
flotation unit, and 90 percent suspended solids removal would be
obtainable. The extended aeration process assumed a design
effluent quality of 60 mg/1 BOD5 and 60 mg/1 suspended solids;
the effluent quality for aerated lagoons was assumed to be 80
mg/1 BOD5 and 200 mg/1 suspended solids.
The 1983 and new source in-plant modifications were assumed to
effect a 40 percent waste water flow reduction with a
commensurate 15 percent BOD5 reduction.
The grease and oil removal was assumed to be 25 percent due to
sumps and simple grease traps, on overall 85 percent or the level
of detection of the grease and oil test, (5 mg/1), whichever was
higher after the flotation systems and the level of detection
after the biological systems.
The historical data for Dungeness and tanner crab processing did
not include the oil and grease parameter. Because of the
similarity of the waste water characteristics for similar
processing techniques of the Alaskan and Pacific Northwest
Dungeness and tanner crab operations, the value for the oil and
grease parameters of the Pacific Northwest process was
extrapolated from the Alaskan process.
Alaskan Shrimp Processing
Figures 40, 41, 45, 48, and 53 depict the proposed screening,
dissolved air flotation, extended aeration, aerated lagoon, and
grinding treatment alternatives for Alaskan shrimp processors.
The designs were based on wastewater characteristics and volumes
for a typical medium-size plant. Assumptions for design
included:
1) 8 hours per shift, 2 shift per day, 5 days per week
operation;
2) a production volume of 31.8 kkg/day (35 tpd);
3) further growth experienced during the desgin period (10
years) would be partially balanced by anticipated water use
reductions realized through increased inplant
control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
The effluent design assumptions are the same as in previons
sections. For disolved air flotation the assumed reductions were
75 percent for BOD5_ and 90 percent for suspended solids for the
1983 guidelines. The extended aeration process assumed a design
effluent quality of 60 mg/1 BOD5 and 60 mg/1 suspended solids;
290
-------
the effluent quality for aerated lagoons were assumed to be 80
mg/1 BOD5 and 200 mg/1 suspended solids.
The 1983 and new source in-plant modifications were assumed to
effect a 40 percent waste water flow reduction with a
commensurate 13 percent BOD5 reduction.
The grease and oil removal due to sumps and simple grease traps
was assumed to be negligible because of the emulsified nature of
the shrimp processing greases and oils. A 90 percent removal was
assumed for the air flotation effluents, and removal to the level
of detection, 5 mg/1, after the biological systems.
Northern Shrimp Processing in^the Contiguous States
Figures 40, 41, 45, and 48 depict the screening, dissolved air
flotation, extended aeration, and aerated lagoon alternative
treatment schemes. The designs were based on waste water
characteristics and volumes for typical medium-size plants. (The
same treatment train is applied to northern shrimp processing,
southern shrimp processing and breaded shrimp processing in the
contiguous states. Only the sizes of the systems require
changing.) Assumptions included:
1) 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day, 5 days per week
operation;
2) a production volume of 18.2 kkg/day (20 tpd) for northern
shrimp processing;
3) further growth experienced during the design period (10
years) would be partially balanced by anticipated water use
reductions realized through increased in-plant control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
The design basis assumed complete retention of the 20-mesh
screenable solids on a screen in a full-scale operation. As
discussed in Section V, the plant samples were screened on a
20-mesh sieve in order to create a base level for comparing data
among plants. It was assumed that 90 percent of the remaining
suspended solids would be removed in the flotation unit. At the
same time that the flotation unit will reduce the suspended
solids by 90 percent, it was estimated that the BODJ5 removal will
be 75 percent. This assumes significant removals on a screen
prior to flotation, so overall BOD5 removals would be
considerably higher.
The 1983 and new source in-plant modifications were assumed to
effect a 20 percent waste water flow reduction with a
commensurate 10 percent BOD^ reduction.
291
-------
The extended aeration process assumed a design effluent quality
of 60 mg/1 BOD£ and 60 mg/1 suspended solids; the effluent
quality for aerated lagoons was assumed to be 80 mg/1 BOD5 and
200 mg/1 suspended solids.
An overall grease and oil removal of 90 percent was assumed for
the flotation system and reduction to the level of detection for
the biological systems. The grease and oil removal due to sumps
and simple grease traps was assumed to be negligible because of
the emulsified nature of the shrimp processing greases and oils.
Southern Shrimp Processing in the Contiguous States
Figures WO, 41, 45 and 48 depict the proposed screening,
dissolved air flotation, extended aeration, and aerated lagoon
treatment schemes. The designs were based on waste water
characteristics and volumes for typical medium-size plants.
Assumptions included:
1) 8 hours per shift; 2 shifts per day; 5 days per week
operation;
2) a production volume of 36.4 kkg/day (40 tpd) for southern
shrimp processing;
3) further growth experienced during the design period (10
years) would be partially balanced by anticipated water use
reductions realized through increased in-plant control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
The effluent design assumptions are the same as in the previous
section on northern shrimp processing for the treatment
alternatives.
The 1983 and new source in-plant modifications were assumed to
effect a 20 percent waste water flow reduction with a
commonsurate 10 percent BOD5 reduction.
Breaded shrimp Processing in the Contiguous States
Figures 40, 41, 45, and 48 depict the proposed screening,
dissolved air flotation, extended aeration, and aerated lagoon
treatment schemes for breaded shrimp processing. The designs
were based on waste water characteristics and volumes for typical
medium-size plants.
1) 8 hours per shift; 2 shifts per day; 5 days per week
operation;
292
-------
2) a production volume of 12.7 kkg/day (14 tpd) for breaded
shrimp processing;
3) further growth experienced during the design period (10
years) would be partially balanced by anticipated water use
reductions realized through increased in-plant control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
The effluent design assumptions are the same as in the previous
section on northern shrimp processing for the treatment
alternatives.
The 1983 and new source in-plant modifications were assumed to
effect a 50 percent waste water flow reduction with a
commensurate 2C percent BODj> reduction.
No data was available for the grease and oil content of the
breaded shrimp processing waste water effluent. However,
considering the fact that similar species are processed in the
southern shrimp subcategory the same level was assumed for the
breaded shrimp grease and oil summary.
Tuna Processing
Figure 54 depicts the proposed screening, dissolved air
flotation, roughing filter, and activated sludge treatment
schemes for the tuna processing 1977, 1983, and new source
guidelines. The designs were based on wastewater characteristics
and volumes for a typical medium-to-large size plant. Because
production levels of this order are currently found in the
industry, the size was designated a "full size" plant for
purposes of design and cost estimation. Design assumptions
included:
1) 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day, 5 days per week
operation;
2) a production volume of 340 kkg/day (375 tpd);
3) further growth experienced during the design period (10
years) would be partially balanced by anticipated water use
redution realized through increased in-plant control; and
4) skilled treatment system operators would be available.
The 1983 and new source in-plant modifications were assumed to
effect a 30 percent waste water flow reduction with a
commensurate 10 percent BOD5 reduction.
The effluent design assumptions are the same as in previous
sections. For dissolved air flotation the assumed reductions
were 40 percent for the 1977 and new source guidelines. It was
293
-------
ro
FLOTATION TANK EFFLUENT
TUNA PROCE
SANITARY RETURN
SEWER FLOW
(NON
PROCES
SALT
WATER
L
ca
' *- FILTER
RECIRCULAT
,_ SUMP
IL
•* KOUGHIN
FILTER
44,000 Cl.
WASTE
SLUDGE ACTIVATED
2 SOLIDS
CONCENTRATORS 1^
SOLIDS LIQUIDS
-ss RAW PROCESS 6 TANGENTIAL SCREENED SUMP
SUMP SCREENS 1 I20.0OOGAL
, - I20.0COGAL — /f^V*- 6 V "TTV
I ^ SCREW t *=*•
PHOCtSb CONVEYOR
WASTEWATER
TUNA AND I SOLIDS 1
PETFOOD k^^mx1
S ^^.s^
SCREW ^_ \-. o
CONVEYOR II ' Q
SOLIDS TO REDUCTION "to
EVEL PLANT OR LANDFILL
1
ION SPyJvTER AERATION SPLITTER
Bm BASINS BOX
— — ^ — ^ ^- •
WR)
58tf>
G
)FT
i SLUDGE
3 SLUDGE TANKS
30,000 GAL
FLOW EQUALIZATION
. TANK
4 1.6 MG
2 CLARIFIERS
40' DIA
^
6
i
FLOTATION UNIT
FLOTATION TANK
26' DIA
V PRESSURIZATION
1 CELL
Q^ ^
18" 6 CONC
8' PVC
i
OUTFALI
DIFFUSI
SECTIOh
Figure 54
Tuna processing
-------
assumed for the 1983 guidelines that, the operation of the
flotation unit between 1977 and 1983 would be significantly
improved due to increased operator skill, optimization of
chemical type and dosage, and the development of new chemical
coagulants and flocculents. It was estimated that by 1983, a 75
percent BOD5 removal in the flotation unit, and 90 percent
suspended solids removal would be obtainable.
The roughing filter was assumed to effect a 40 percent BOD5
reduction and the clarifier about a 15 percent suspended solids
reduction to reach 260 mg/1 BODJ5 and 95 mg/1 suspended solids.
The activated sludge system was assumed to produce an effluent of
about 40 mg/1 BOD5 and 40 mg/1 suspended solids.
The overall grease and oil removal was assumed to be 85 percent
for the flotation system and 90 percent for the biological
systems or the level of detection, whichever was higher.
295
-------
-------
SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS SUMMARY
The waste waters from seafood processing plants are, in general,
considered to be amenable to treatment using standard physical-
chemical and biological systems. Wastewater management in the
form of increasing by-product recovery, in-plant control and
recycling is not practiced uniformly throughout the industry. Of
all the types of seafood processing monitored during this study,
the most exemplary from this viewpoint was the tuna industry.
Even in this case there was a relatively wide range in the amount
of water used per unit of raw material. The concepts of water
conservation and by-product recovery are at early stages in most
parts of the industry. Therefore, in addition to applying
treatment to the total effluent, there is much room for the
improvement of water and waste management practices. These will
reduce the size of the required treatment systems or improve
effluent quality, and in many cases, conserve or yield a product
that will help offset or often exceed the costs of the changes.
Typical in-plant control costs and benefits in terms of BOD5
reduction and waste water flow are summarized in Tables 112 and
113 for each subcategory. It can be seen that for some cases a
relatively moderate investment can result in a significant
reduction in water used. The BOD5 reduction represents the
amount of BOD5_ input avoided by reducing the product-water con-
tact time through decreased water use.
Typical treatment costs and benefits in terms of BOD5 remaining
in the effluent per unit of product are listed in Table 113 and
shown in Figures 55 through 65. It is possible, using these
figures, to get an indication of the marginal costs and benefits
associated with each level of treatment. Depending on the value
placed on the quality of the effluent, the marginal cost and
benefit curves can be used to determine the most cost-effective
treatment alternative.
The operation and maintenance costs (O and M costs) for each
treatment level for each subcategory are listed with the capital
costs in Table 113. The O and M costs tend to increase with
level of treatment but are also dependent on the type of
treatment selected. O and M costs are from 50 percent to 300 to
100 percent higher for the 1983 alternatives than the 1977
alternatives depending on the industry and the alternative.
Energy costs are included in the O and M costs and are not
considered to be a significant factor except in remote areas of
Alaska where biological systems may require heat inputs at
certain times of the year. The cost of electrical energy in
Kodiak, Alaska is about 10 times the cost in the "lower 48" and
in remote areas of Alaska it is 20 times as much.
297
-------
Table 112 Estimated practicable in-plant
wastewater flow reductions and associated pollutional loadings
reductions
Subcategory
Catfish
Conventional blue crab
Mechanized blue crab
Alaskan crab meat
Alaskan whole crab and sections
Other Dungeness and tanner crab
Alaskan shrimp
Northern shrimp
Southern canned, frozen and fresh shrimp
Breaded shrimp
Tuna
Wastewater Flow
Reduction,
% of Total
0
0
15
50
50
40
40
20
20
50
30
BOD
Reduction,
% of Total
0
0
5
15
15
15
13
10
10
20
10
298
-------
TABLE
113
TREATMENT EFFICIENCIES AND COSTS
EFFLUENT
BOD
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES KG/KKG
Farm-Raised (Processing Rate)
Catfish Present
S, GT
S, GT, AL
S, GT, AL, LI
S, GT, EA
ro Conventional (Processing Rate)
to Blue Crab Present
S, GT
S, GT, AL
S, GT, EA
Mechanized (Processing Rate)
Blue Crab Present
S, GT
S, GT, AL
S, GT, AL, IP
S, GT, IP, EA
9.9
7.9
2.3
0.1
1.4
7.5
5.2
0.15
0.12
33
22
3.0
2.5
1.9
COSTS 1971 $
CAPITAL COSTS
(lOtpd)
0
13,000
71,300
98,000
72,900
(12tpd)
0
$5,900
9,100
44,000
(24tpd)
0
8,900
23,000
26,800
181,000
(5tpd)
0
8,000
47,100
65,100
48,100
(8tpd)
0
$4,600
7,100
34,500
(12tpd)
0
5,900
15,200
17,700
119,500
(3tpd)
0
6,000
34,600
47,400
35,400
(4tpd)
0
$3,000
4,700
22,700
(6tpd)
0
3,800
10,000
11,700
78,000
DAILY O & M COSTS
(lOtpd)
0
5
24
26
27
(12tpd)
0
3
9
20
(24tpd)
0
5
14
14
36
(5tpd)
0
3
16
18
18
(8tpd)
0
2
7
15
(12tpd)
0
3
9
9
24
(3tpd)
0
2
11
12
13
(4tpd)
0
2
5
10
(6tpd)
0
2
6
6
16
-------
TABLE 113 (cont.) TREATMENT EFFICIENCIES AND COSTS
EFFLUENT
Alaska Crab
(meat process)
Alaska Crab
(whole + sec-
tions processes)
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
(Processing Rate)
Present
S, GT
S, GT, barge solids
S, GT, reduce solids
S, GT, IP
S, GT, IP, DAF, barge
S, GT, IP, DAF, AL, barge
Grind and deep outfall
(1500 ft. of pipe)
(Processing Rate)
Present
S, GT
S, GT, barge solids
S, GT, reduce solids
S, GT, IP
S, GT, IP, DAF, barge
S, GT, IP, DAF, AL, barge
BOD
KG/KKG
19
9.6
9.6
9.6
8.1
2.0
1.4
"~
12
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.1
1.3
0.74
COSTS 1971
CAPITAL COSTS
(18tpd)
0
102,000
273,000
730,000
135,000
1,168,000
2,648,000
96,000
(25tpd)
0
84,000
225,000
408,000
124,000
961,000
2,178,000
(12tpd)
0
80,000
214,000
572,000
106,000
916,000
2,076,000
75,000
(lltpd)
0
51,000
137,000
249,000
75,000
587,000
1,330,000
(8tpd)
0
63,000
168,000
449,000
83,000
718,000
1,628,000
59,000
(5tpd)
0
32,000
86,000
155,000
47,000
366,000
829,000
$
DAILY O & M COSTS
(18tpd)
0
100
248
567
100
372
809
33
(25tpd)
0
84
204
324
84
306
665
(12tpd)
0
80
194
445
80
292
634
25
(lltpd)
0
51
125
198
51
187
406
(8tpd)
0
63
152
349
63
228
497
20
(5tpd)
0
32
78
123
32
117
253
Grind and deep outfall
(1500 ft. of pipe)
117,000
71,000
45,000
40
24
15
-------
TABLE 113 (cont.) TREATMENT EFFICIENCIES AND COSTS
GO
O
EFFLUENT
Dungeness &
Tanner Crab (in
the contiguous
states)
Alaskan Shrimp
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
(Processing Rate)
Present
S, GT
S, GT, IP,
S, GT, IP, DAF
S, GT, IP, DAF, AL
(Processing Rate)
Present
S
S, barge solids
S, reduce solids
S, IP
S, IP, DAF, barge
S, IP, DAF, AL, barge
Grind and deep outfall
(1500 ft. of pipe)
BCD
KG/KKG
13
8.1
6.9
1.7
0.9
212
130
130
130
113
28
3.5
-
COSTS 1971
CAPITAL COSTS
(15tpd)
0
26,000
68,000
153,000
210,000
(44tpd)
0
297,000
652,000
1,238,000
343,000
2,182,000
3,307,000
220,000
(6tpd)
0
15,000
39,000
88,000
121,000
(20tpd)
0
185,000
406,000
771,000
214,000
1,360,000
2,061,000
137,000
(2tpd)
0
8,000
20,000
45,000
63,000
(lOtpd)
0
122,000
268,000
509,000
141,000
897,000
1,360,000
90,000
$
DAILY O & M COSTS
(15tpd)
0
6
6
35
45
(44tpd)
0
298
502
995
298
8
870
94
(6tpd)
0
4
4
20
26
(20tpd)
0
186
313
620
186
542
542
57
(2tpd)
0
2
2
11
13
(lOtpd)
0
123
207
408
123
357
357
39
-------
TABLE 113 (cont.) TREATMENT EFFICIENCIES AND COSTS
EFFLUENT
BCD
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES KG/KKG
Northern Shrimp
(in the contigu-
ous states)
CO
o
ro
Southern Non-
Breaded Shrimp
(in the contigu-
ous states)
(Processing
Present
S
S, IP
S, IP, DAF
S, IP, DAF,
S, IP, DAF,
(Processing
Present
S
S, IP
S, IP, DAF
S, IP, DAF,
S, IP, DAF,
Rate)
AL
EA
Rate)
AL
EA
145
120
108
27
3.8
2.9
58
46
41
10
3.0
2.3
COSTS 1971
CAPITAL COSTS
(70tpd)
0
93,000
114,000
311,000
382,000
969,000
(lOOtpd)
0
107,000
124,000
351,000
433,000
1,109,000
(35tpd)
0
62,000
76,000
206,000
252,000
639,000
(SOtpd)
0
71,000
82,000
232,000
286,000
591,000
(20tpd)
0
44,000
54,000
147,000
180,000
457,000
(25tpd)
0
47,000
55,000
154,000
186,000
422,000
$
DAILY O
(70tpd)
0
11
11
40
61
76
(lOOtpd)
0
12
12
46
71
88
& M COSTS
(35tpd)
0
7
7
27
41
50
(SOtpd)
0
8
8
31
47
50
(20tpd)
0
5
5
19
29
36
(25tpd)
0
5
5
20
31
34
-------
•TABLE 113 (cont.) TREATMENT EFFICIENCIES AND COSTS
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
Breaded Shrimp (Processing Rate)
Present
S
S, IP
S, IP, DAF
S, IP, DAF, AL
S, IP, DAF, EA
Tuna (Processing Rate)
Present
S, DAF
S, DAF, IP
S, DAF, IP, HRTF, AS
EFFLUENT
BOD
KG/KKG
105
84
67
17
4.6
3.5
15
2.25
2.0
0.52
COSTS 1971
CAPITAL COSTS
(22tpd)
0
104,000
183,000
407,000
476,000
599,000
(450tpd)
0
471,000
537,000
1,653,000
(8tpd)
0
56,000
99,000
222,000
259,000
326,000
(ISOtpd)
0
244,000
279,000
855,000
(2tpd)
0
25,000
44,000
97,000
113,000
142,000
(40tpd)
0
110,000
126,000
387,000
$
DAILY :O & M COSTS
(22tpd)
0
26
26
104
127
153
(450tpd)
0
178
178
547
(8tpd)
0
14
14
56
69
84
(ISOtpd)
0
92
92
283
(2tpd)
0
6
6
25
30
36
(40tpd)
0
42
42
128
S = screen; GT = grease trap; AL = aerated lagoon; IP = in-plant changes; LI = land irrigation;
EA = Extended aeration; DAF = dissolved air flotation; HRTF = high rate trickling filter;
AS = activated sludge
-------
Since solids disposal can be a significant problem in some areas,
several of the treatment levels have different solids disposal
alternatives. The costs of each of these is shown in Table 113.
The use of biological treatment systems, such as aerated lagoons
and oxidation ponds can cause problems, if not operated properly.
It is important that trained personnel be associated with these
installations.
Typical Plant
Hypothetical system engineering designs were developed for each
alternative of each treatment level for each seafood processing
subcategory. Each design was based on a two shift production
rate using waste parameters determined from the monitoring
program. The waste water characteristics of each industry
subcategory were reviewed in order to estimate the treatment
efficiency of various technological systems, at each level of
application. Where operating data or published results from
other seafood waste facilities were absent, the probable effluent
reductions were estimated. The assumptions were based on
engineering experience with industrial waste treatment, practical
familiarity with alternative treatment operations and the
variables which affect their performance, and extensive working
knowledge of seafood processing methods and systems. Schematic
drawings of each treatment design are presented and discussed in
Section VII.
The capital costs of each of these designs were then computed
based on 1971 Seattle construction costs as shown in Table 114.
The costs were then scaled for different geographical areas, such
as Alaska, using the U. S. Army corps of Engineers Geographical
Index (Table 115). Operation and maintenance costs given for
each design include labor, power, chemical, and fuel prices and
are based on the costs shown in Table 116. Costs for other size
facilities were computed using an exponential scale factor of 0.6
and listed in Table 113.
For reference, the raw material processing rates in tons per day
are listed for each subcategory. These rates are an index of the
scale of production assumed for design and cost estimation
purposes. The costs, however, are suitable chiefly for comparing
the cost-efficiencies of alternatives. Their use for estimating
construction costs of a proposed treatment facility, referenced
to a known raw production scale, is not recommended. The actual
costs of construction are intimately tied to terrain, climate,
transport, labor, land availability, and other site constraints,
which are best evaluated on an individual basis by experienced
professionals in the field. Every precaution has been taken to
gear the design costs to representative conditions within each
subcategory, yet each plant has unique constraints which
distinguish it from the hypothetical, average plant.
To aid in visualizing the relative cost-effectiveness of
alternatives, the tabulations of Table 113 are shown in graphical
304
-------
Table 114
1971 Seattle construction costs.
Item
1971 Seattle Cost
Earthwork
Piers
300 PSF Loading
1000 PSF Loading
Concrete (linear sliding scale)
Less than 1 cu yd
Over 50 cu yd
Buildings
Process piping
Metal work and equipment
1. steel tanks
2. hoppers and package units
motors, pumps, mechanisms
Outfall lines
Electrical
Land
$ 1.75/cu yd
20.00/sq yd
32.00/sq yd
500.00/cu yd
200.00/cu yd
9.00/sq ft
18.00/sq ft
0.25/gal
from manufacturers
20.00/ft
8% of concrete
buildings, process
piping, metal work,
and equipment
Not included in
the estimate
305
-------
Table 115 U. S. Army Geographical Index*
Area Index
Washington, D. C. 1.0
Seattle, Washington 1.15
Kodiak, Alaska 2.5
Remote Alaska 2.6
Texas 0.96
Louisiana 0.96
Los Angeles, California 1.7
San Francisco, California 1.2
Delaware and Maryland 1.06
Maine 0.95
*Relative Prices Around The World. Civil Engineering,
October, 1971, pp. 91, 92.
306
-------
Table
Operation and maintenance costs,
Item
Cost
Location
Power
Labor
Treatment
chemicals
Equipment
maintenance
$0.01/kwh
0.10/kwh
0.20/kwh
7.00/hr
5.00/hr
0.10/1000 gal
0.20/1000 gal
48 states
Kodiak, Alaska;
Hawaii; Samoa
Outside Kodiak
Alaska
48 states
48 states
Alaska
5% of equipment capital cost/year
307
-------
form in Figures 55 through 65. The marginal cost is indicated by
the slope of the curve. An attempt has been made to illustrate
the point that improved effluent quality is achieved in discrete
steps as opposed to a smoothly increasing cost as a function of
treatment level desired. The convex line attempts to indicate
that a large incremental investment is usually required in order
to move to the next "quantum" level of performance. The
treatment system, when operating properly, should achieve the
removal rates indicated at the point where the next level starts.
However, it is possible, when the system is not operated or
maintained correctly, that it will operate off the curve to the
left.
BOD5 was selected as the parameter of greatest environmental
significance for most wastes and receiving waters. The
percentage removal of solids and grease in most technologies
listed is roughly (but not consistently) parallel to that of
BOD5. Other common contaminants such as phosphate, pathogens,
total dissolved solids, and toxins are not present in sufficient
concentrations to be of concern in the seafood industry.
Such parameters may require attention where water recycling
within a processing plant is contemplated. Processors have not
yet found such recycling to be cost-effective for most
operations. Furthermore, federal regulations (FDA) restrict
movement in this direction.
In general, the total cost curves show that the marginal cost
curves resemble a series of peaks with the height of the peak
generally increasing as the level of treatment increases. This
is in agreement with published data (e. g. Metcalf and Eddy,
1972). The highest levels of treatment have the highest marginal
costs requiring that a higher value be put on the benefit of
improved water quality in order to have a cost-effective system.
Solids
The costs of solids disposal are frequently regarded as
supplemental costs and estimated separately. In the estimates
given in Tables 112 and 113, however, solids volumes were
calculated and their handling costs are included. The reason for
this is that the solids handling costs can be extremely variable.
For example, the costs of barging solids to a reduction plant
from a remote point in Alaska would be much higher than the
typical costs. In some cases the location of a solids reduction
process near the food processing plant can be an alternative for
solids disposal.
The nutritive value of seafood solids, and their importance in
the world food balance, have been discussed in Section VII. It
is estimated that solids disposal at Koiak, Alaska can be ac-
complished at a profit of $ .70 per kkg ($ .75 per ton).
308
-------
Air^Quality
The maintenance of air quality, in terms of participates, is
unaffected by waste water treatment facilities except when
incineration is practiced. To reduce solids the alternative for
solids disposal is not consistent with the conservation of
valuable nutrients and is also not cost-effective on a small
scale with suitable effluent control.
Odor from landfills, from lagoons, and from oxidation ponds can
be a problem when these systems are not operated or maintained
properly. Covers or enclosures can be used in some cases to
localize a problem installation.
Noise
Principal noise sources at treatment facilities are mechanical
aerators, air compressors, and pumps. By running air compressors
for the diffused air system in activated sludge treatment below
their rated critical speed and by providing inlet and exhaust
silencers, noise effects can be combated effectively. In no
proposed installation would noise levels exceed the guidelines
established in the Occupational Safety and Health Standards of
1972.
309
-------
70
S, GT, AL, LI
60
o 50
§
HI
fe 40
c
re
o. Si
< 30
in
>
<
20
u
10
9.9
10
S, GT,,
'S,GT
I
I 1
I
20
I
30 40 50 60 70
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
80
I
S, GT, EA
90
100
II
7.9 2.3
BOD5 REMAINING (KG BOD5/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 55
Catfish treatment efficiencies and costs
1.4
0.100
310
-------
40
« 30
LU —
II
it
(- +*
1£
o
2
20
10
7.5
S. GT, EA
I I I I I
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
I
5.2
S, GT, AL
I I
100
_J
.15 .12
BOD5 REMAINING (KG BODg/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 56
Conventional blue crab treatment efficiencies and costs
311
-------
120
110
90
80
£ 70
ULI
5
co
~ 60
o
III
>
] «
u
30
20
10
I
S,GT, IP. EA,
S, GT. AL. IP
I
40 50 60 70 80 90
PERCENT BOD5REMOVAL
I
95 100
I
33 22 3 2.5
BOO5 REMAINING (KG BODg/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 57
Mechanized blue crab treatment efficiencies and costs
1.9
312
-------
2000
I
1000
900
800
700
600
? -2 500
5 -400
u
01
>
< 300
D
D
0 200
100
75
50
25
S, GT.REDUCE SOLIDSO
S,GT, BARGE SOLIDS <
GRIND & DEEP OUTFALL
I
I I
I
S, GT, IP. DAF, AL
BARGE
S, GT, IP, DAFj
BARGE
(S.GT, IP
I 1 I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
I I I I I
19 9.6 8,1
BODg REMAINING (KG BODg/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 58
Alaska crab meat treatment efficiencies and costs
2.0 1.4
313
-------
1500
1000
o
o 500
/vyv
>
<
S
o
150
100
50
S, GT, REDUCE SOLIDS
S, GT, BARGE SOLIDS
GRIND & DEEP
OUTFALL
S, GT, IP. DAF, AL
BARGE
S, GT, IP
S, GT
I I
SGT, IP, DAF
BARGE
10
20
30
40
50
60 70
80
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
I
I
I
90
I I
12
.74
6 5.1 1.3
BOD5 REMAINING (KG BODg/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 59
Alaska crab whole and sections treatment efficiencies and costs
100
314
-------
130
10 20
30
I
40 50 60 70 80
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
I I
I
I
100
I
13 8.1 6.9 1.7 0.9 0
BOD5 REMAINING (KG BOD5/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 60
Dungeness and tanner crab other than Alaska treatment efficiencies and costs
315
-------
GRIND & DEEP
OUTFALL
40
50
60 70
80
90
PERCENT BODg REMOVAL
I
I
212 130 113 28
BODg REMAINING (KG BOD5/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 61
Alaska shrimp treatment efficiencies and costs
316
100
I I
3.5 0
-------
t-
ui
1
650
600
550
500
450
400
-. 350
£ 300
250
— 200
/%
+•
100
£ 90
<
3 80
70
60
50
40
S, IP, DAF, EA.
(_
145
S, IP, DAF, AL
I 1 I I I I
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
I I I
90
I I
100
I
120 108 29 3.8 2.9
BOD5 REMAINING (KG BOD5/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 62
Northern shrimp treatment efficiencies and costs
317
-------
600
40
20 30 40 50 60
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
1 I
70
80
90
100
I
I LJ
58
46 41 10
BOD5 REMAINING (KG BOD5/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 63
3.0 2.3 0
Southern non-breaded shrimp treatment efficiencies and costs
318
-------
350
40
80
90
100
PERCENT BOD_ REMOVAL
o
L
105
1
84
1
67
1
17
1 1 (
4.6 3.5 0
BOD5 REMAINING (KG BODg/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 64
BREADED SHRIMP TREATMENT EFFICIENCIES AND COSTS
319
-------
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
550
_ 500
UJ g
> I
z a
I?
o
UJ
>
<
S
u
450
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
S, DAF. IP
HRTF, ASj
> S, DAF, IP
I I
I I
0 10 20 30 40 50
60 70 80
PERCENT BOD5 REMOVAL
90
100
15 2.25 2.0
BOD5 REMAINING (KG BODR/KKG PROCESSED)
Figure 65
Tuna treatment efficiencies and costs
320
0.52
-------
SECTION IX
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY
AVAILABLE, GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS
For each subcategory within the canned and preserved seafood
processing industry, the "best practicable control technology
currently available" (BPCTCA) must be achieved by all plants not
later than July 1, 1977. The 1977 technology is not based on
"the average of the best existing performance by plants of
various sizes, ages and unit processes within each...
subcategory," but, rather, represents the highest level of
control that can be practicably applied by July 1, 1977 because
present control and treatment practices are generally inadequate
within the farm-raised catfish, crab, shrimp, and tuna segments
of the canned and preserved fish and seafood processing industry.
Consideration of the following factors has been included in the
establishment of BPCTCA:
1) the total costs of application of technology in relation
to the effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from
this application,
2) the age of equipment and facilities involved,
3) the processes employed,
1) the engineering aspects of the application of various
types of control techniques,
5) process changes, and
6) non-water quality environmental impact.
Furthermore, the designation of BPCTCA emphasized end-of-pipe
treatment technology, but included "good housekeeping" practices
which are considered normal practice within the seafood
processing industry, such as turning off faucets and hoses when
not in use or using spring-loaded hose nozzles, and do not assume
significant equipment changes. The large variation in water
usage for the same process configuration among different plants
indicated that there was ample opportunity for the reduction of
water usage without adversely affecting the quality of the
product.
An important consideration in the designated process was the
degree of economic and engineering reliability required to
determine the technology to be "currently available." In this
industry, the reliability of the recommended technologies was
established based on pilot plants, demonstration projects, and
technology transfer, the latter mainly from the meat packing
industry, municipal waste treatment systems and other segments of
the seafood as well as the food processing industries.
Because there are little or no existing waste water treatment
facilities at the plant level, the 30-day and the daily maximum
321
-------
limitations are based on engineering judgment and the
consideration of the operating characteristics of similar
treatment systems as mentioned in the previous paragraph. The
daily maximum limitation for the screening systems is three times
the thirty day limitation; for air flotation systems, 2.5 times
the thirty day limitation; for aerated lagoon systems, two times
the thirty day limitation; for extended aeration system; three
times the thirty day limitation; and for activated sludge
systems, 3.5 times the thirty day limitation. An exception for
the total suspended solids for screening in the Alaskan shrimp
processing subcategory was made due to the high initial level of
the parameter. The daily maximum limitation of total suspended
solids for the Alaskan shrimp processing subcategory is 1.5 times
the thirty day limitation.
Application of the effluent limitations to the single product and
the multiproduct processing plant: A primary reason for
establishing effluent limitations guidelines on the basis of
production of raw material, is to provide the means to consider
the single product as well as the multiproduct seafood processor
without setting separate guideline numbers for every possible
combination of species and processing rates.
When a plant is subject to effluent limitations covering more
than one subcategory, the plant's effluent limitation shall be
the aggregate of the limitations applicable to the total
production covered by each subcategory. For example, if a plant
processes several species concurrently, then the plant's effluent
limitation may be the sum of the products of the volume of each
species processed and the respective effluent limitation. If a
plant processes several species in series, then the effluent
limitation may be based on the subcategory classification of the
individual species while it is beging processed. In other words,
the aggregate effluent limitation guideline number may vary as a
function of the product mix at any particular point in time.
Since publication of the proposed effluent limitations in the
Februay 6, 1974 Federal Register (39 F.R. 4708), the Agency has
received substantial economic and financial data. A reevaluation
of the economic impact of the proposed regulations produced
changes in the final effluent limitations which are based on
economic consideration discussed in detail in the "Economic
Analysis of Effluent Limitations Guidelines For Selected Segments
of the Seafood Processing Industry - Catfish, Crab, Shrimp and
Tuna," June, 1974.
The proposed 1977 regulations for large shrimp processors in the
contiguous states were based on dissolved air flotation as the
best practicable control technology currently available.
After careful reevaluation of available data and consultation
with recognized seafood waste water treatment experts, the Agency
believes that dissolved air flotation can be regarded as best
practicable control technology currently available for shrimp
322
-------
processing facilities in the contiguous States. The technology
is "available" and "transferrable" as evidenced by pilot plant
work discussed in Section VII. However, several organizations
question whether the total number of shrimp processing plants
affected can design, secure, construct, and line-out this
particular equipment alternative by July 1, 1977. For this
reason, the Agency has combined the respective, proposed
subcategories for the large and small shrimp processors in the
contiguous States and based the final July 1, 1977 effluent
limitations guidelines on screening systems instead of dissolved
air flotation systems.
Ea£H!~Bli§§^ Catfish Processing (Suhcategory A]_
The effluent limitations for farm-raised catfish processing
facilities are presented in Table 117. The best practicable
control technology currently available includes efficient in-
plant water and waste water management, partial recycle of live
fish holding tank water, solids or by-product recovery, screening
of the waste water effluent, and simple grease traps as discussed
in Section VII and illustrated in Figure 49.
CONVENTIONAL BLUE CRAB PROCESSING (Subcategory B)
The effluent limitations for conventional blue crab processing
are presented in Table 117. The best practicable control
technology currently available includes efficient in-plant water
and waste water management, simple grease traps, screening of the
waste water effluent, and solids or by-product recovery as
discussed in Section VII and illustrated in Figure 40.
MECHANIZED^BLUE CRAB PROCESSING (Subcategory C)
The effluent limitations for mechanized blue crab processing are
presented in Table 117. The best practicable control technology
currently available includes efficient in-plant water and waste
water management simple grease traps, screening of the waste
water effluent, and solids or by-product recovery as discussed in
Section VII and illustrated in Figure 40.
NON-REMOTE ALASKA CRAB MEAT PROCESSING (Subcategory D)
The effluent limitations for non-remote Alaskan crab meat
processing are presented in Table 117. The best practicable
control technology currently available consists of efficient in-
plant water and waste water management, by-product recovery or
ultimate disposal of solids, simple grease traps, and screening
of the waste water effluent as illustrated in Figure 40. It is
important, in considering "best practicable" treatment schemes,
323
-------
Subcategory
A Farm-Raised Catfish
B Conventional Blue Crab
C Mechanized Blue Crab
D Non-Remote Alaskan
Crab Meat
E Remote Alaskan Crab Meat
F Non-Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
G Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
H Dungeness + Tanner Crab
in the Contiguous States
I Non-Remote Alaskan
Shrimp
J Remote Alaskan Shrimp
K Northern Shrimp
L Southern Non-Breaded
M Breaded Shrimp
N Tuna
Table
Technology
Basis
S, GT
S, GT
S, GT
S, GT
Comminutors
S, GT
Comminutors
S, GT
S
Comminutors
S
S
S
S, DAF
July 1, 1977 Guidelines
Parameter (kg/kkg or lbs/1000 Ibs liveweight processed)
Max 30-day
Average
_
-
-
-
*
-
*
-
-
*
_
-
-
9.0
BOD
Daily
Max
_
-
-
-
*
-
*
-
-
*
_
-
-
23
Max 30-day
Average
9.2
0.74
12
6.2
*
3.9
*
2.7
210
*
54
38
93
3.3
TSS
Daily
Max
28
2.2
36
19
*
12
*
8.1
320
*
160
114
280
8.3
Max 30-day
Average
3.4
0.20
4.2
0.61
*
0.42
*
0.61
17
*
42
12
12
0.84
0+G
Daily
Max
10
0.60
13
1.8
*
1.3
*
1.8
51
*
126
36
36
2.1
* No pollutants may be discharged which exceed 1.27 cm (0.5 inch) in any
dimension
S = screen; GT = simple grease traps; DAF = dissolved air flotation;
-------
to strongly emphasize the unique physical situation of the
Alaskan processor when recommending effluent levels.
Alaskan crab processing plants are larger-scale operations than
those in the "lower 48" states, but the waste waters are still
intermittent, seasonal, and of relatively high strength. Many
processing plants are located along very rugged, mountainous
coasts, frequently with no level land available. Thus, treatment
facilities would have to be located on dock area constructed on
piling over water.
Foundation conditions often involve solid rock—adding to the
expense of dock facilities or excavation for basins or lagoons.
Shipping costs for construction materials, chemicals and fuel are
high. The rigorous climate, particularly the low temperatures
(including the waste water temperatures) inhibits the
applicability of biological treatment, especially when compounded
with the intermittent and highly seasonal flows. High winds and
large tidal fluctuations contribute to the difficulties of
constructing and operating treatment facilities.
Neither solids reduction plants nor suitable sites for landfills
or lagoons are generally available for solids disposal; and the
number of technically qualified personnel is severely limited.
REMOTE ALASKAN CRAB MEAT PROCESSING (Subcategory E)
The effluent limitations for remote Alaskan crab meat processing
are presented in Table 117. The best practicable control
technology currently available consists of physical treatment of
the pollutants to reduce particle sizes through the use of
comminutors or grinders as discussed in Section VII and
illustrated in Figure 53.
NON-REMOTE ALASKAN WHOLE CRAB AND CRAB SECTION PROCESSING
(Subcategory F)
The effluent limitations for non-remote Alaskan whole crab and
crab section processing are presented in Table 117. The best
practicable control technology currently available consists of
efficient in-plant water and waste water management, by-product
recovery or ultimate disposal of solids, simple grease traps, and
screening of the waste water effluent as illustrated in Figure
40.
As discussed in previous sections, it is important, in
considering "best practicable" treatment schemes, to strongly
emphasize the unique physical situation of the Alaskan processor
when recommending effluent levels.
REMOTE ALASKAN WHOLE CRAB AND CRAB SECTION PROCESSING
(Subcategory G)
325
-------
The recommended effluent limitations for remote Alaskan whole
crab and crab section processing are presented in Table 117. The
best practicable control technology currently available consists
of physical treatment of the pollutants to reduce particle sizes
through the use of comminutors or grinders as illustrated in
Figure 53.
DUNGENESS AND TANNER CRAB PROCESS IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES
(Subcategory H) ~
The effluent limitations for Dungeness and tanner crab processing
in the contiguous states are presented in Table 117. The best
practicable control technology currently available consists of
efficient in-plant water and waste water management, simple
grease traps, solids or by-product recovery techniques, and
screening of the waste water effluent as discussed in Section VII
and illustrated in Figure 40.
NON-REMOTE ALASKA SHRIMP PROCESSING (Subcategory H)
The effluent limitations for non-remote Alaskan shrimp processing
are presented in Table 117. The best practicable control
technology currently available consists of efficient in-plant
water and waste water management, by-product recovery or ultimate
disposal of solids, and screening of the waste water effluent as
illustrated in Figure 40 and discussed in Section VII.
As discussed in the previous sections on Alaskan crab processing,
it is important, in considering "best practicable" treatment
schemes, to strongly emphasize the unique physical situation of
the Alaskan processor when recommending effluent levels.
REMOTE ALASKAN SHRIMP PROCESSING (Subcategory J)
The effluent limitation for remote Alaskan shrimp processing are
presented in Table 117. The best practicable control technology
currently available consist of physical treatment of the
pollutants to reduce particle sizes through the use of
comminutors or grinders as shown in Figure 53.
NORTHERN SHRIMP PROCESSING IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES (Subcategory
K)
The effluent limitations for northern shrimp processing
facilities in the contiguous states are presented in Table 117.
The best practicable control technology currently available for
this subcategory consists of efficient in-plant water and waste
water management, and screening systems for removal of solids
from the effluent stream as illustrated in Figure 40.
326
-------
SOUTHERN NON-BREADED SHRIMP PROCESSING IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES
(Subcategory L)
The effluent limitations for southern non-breaded processing
facilities in the contiguous states are presented in Table 117.
The best practicable control technology currently available for
this subcategory consists of efficient in-plant water and waste
water management and screening systems for removal of solids from
the effluent stream as shown in Figure 40.
BREADED SHRIMP PROCESSING IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES (Subcategory
M)
The effluent limitations for breaded shrimp processing facilities
in the contiguous states are presented in Table 117. The best
practicable control technology currently available for this
subcategory consists of efficient in-plant water and waste water
management, and screening systems for removal of solids from the
effluent stream as shown in Figure 40 and discussed in Section
VII.
The effluent limitations for tuna processing are presented in
Table 117. The best practicable control technology currently
available consists of efficient in-plant water and waste water
management, solids and by-product recovery techniques screening
of the waste water effluent and dissolved air flotation systems
as shown in Figure 54.
Tuna processing is a very large scale operation compared to the
other seafood processes studied. Generally, tuna plants
incorporate a high degree of in-plant by-product processing
whereby much of the otherwise undesirable meat, other solids and
oils are recovered. As a result these waste waters tend to be of
medium strength though large in volume.
327
-------
-------
SECTION X
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE, GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS
For each subcategory within the canned and preserved seafood
processing industry, the "best available technology economically
achievable" (BATEA) must be realized by all plants not later than
1 July 1983. The 1983 technology is, for this industry, not ". .
the very best control and treatment technology employed by a
specific point source within the industrial category or
subcategory . . .," but represents technology based on pilot
plants, demonstration projects, technology transfer, the latter
mainly from the meat packing industry, municipal waste treatment
systems, and other segments of the seafood as well as the food
industry. This was necessary because present waste water control
and treatment practices are generally inadequate within the
farm-raised catfish, crab, shrimp, and tuna segments of the
canned and preserved seafood processing industry.
Consideration of the following factors has been included in the
establishment of BATEA:
1) equipment and facilities age,
2) processes employed,
3) engineering aspects of various control technique
applications,
4) process changes,
5) costs of achieving the effluent reduction resulting from
the application of BATEA, and
6) non-water quality environmental impact.
Furthermore, much greater emphasis in the designation of 1983
technology was given to in-plant controls, than has been
considered as BPCTCA. Those in-process and end-of-pipe controls
recommended for 1983 were subjected to the criterion that they be
demonstrated at the pilot plant, semi-works, or other level to be
technologically and economically justifiable. This is not to say
that a complete economic analysis of each proposed system and its
relationship to one or more subcategories has been undertaken.
Rather, sound engineering judgment has been applied in the
consideration of all alternatives and those with a reasonable
chance of "viability" in application to a significant number of
actual processing plants within a subcategory have been
considered in detail.
The waste water treatment technology and in-process changes which
serve as the basis for the effluent limitations represents only
one of many treatment alternatives open to the processor.
Innovations in by-product recovery, water and waste water
management, and treatment technology during the interim before
July 1, 1983 may eliminate the necessity of employing biological
treatment in order to comply with the 1983 effluent limitations.
329
-------
Table 118
July 1, 1983 Guidelines
o
Subcategory
A Farm-Raised Catfish
B Conventional Blue Crab
C Mechanized Blue Crab
D Non-Remote Alaskan
Crab Meat
E Remote Alaskan Crab Meat
F Non-Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
H Dungeness + Tanner Crab
in the Contiguous States
I Non-Remote Alaskan
Shrimp
J Remote Alaskan Shrimp
K Northern Shrimp
L Southern Non-Breaded
Shrimp
M Breaded Shrimp
N Tuna
Technology
Parameter (kg/kkg or lbs/1000 Ibs liveweight processed)
Basis
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
S,
GT,
GT,
GT,
DAF
GT,
DAF
GT,
DAF
DAF
IP
DAF
DAF
DAF
DAF
AL
AL
AL, IP
, IP
IP
, IP
IP
, IP
, IP
, IP
, IP
, IP
, AS, IP
Max 30-day
Average
2.3
0.15
2.5
2.0
_
1.3
-
1.7
28
_
27
10
17
0.62
BOD
Daily
Max
4.
0.
5.
5.
_
3.
-
4.
71
_
68
25
43
2.
6
30
0
0
3
3
2
Max 30-day
Average
5
0
6
0
5
0
3
0
18
180
4
3
7
0
.7
.45
.3
.53
.3
.33
.3
.23
.9
.4
.4
.62
TSS
Daily
Max
11
0.90
13
1.3
16
0.83
9.9
0.58
46
270
12
8.5
19
2.2
Max 30-day
Average
0.
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
15
3.
1.
1.
0.
45
065
3
82
52
048
36
07
5
8
1
0
077
O+G
Daily
Max
0.90
0.13
2.6
0.21
1.6
0.12
1.1
0.18
3.8
45
9.5
2.8
2.5
0.27
S = screen; GT = simple grease trap; Al = aerated lagoon;
DAF = dissolved air flotation; AS = activated sludge system
IP = in-plant change;
-------
This section of the report sets forth the 1983 guidelines and
limitations as developed from studies and consultations
conducted, data developed and literature available. The material
is presented below by subcategory, as was done in Section IX.
The operating characteristics of the specific treatment system
which provided the basis for the effluent limitations were
considered in establishing the daily maximum limitations. The
factors are the same as in the previous chapter.
FARM-RAISED CATFISH PROCESSING (Sutcategory A)
The effluent limitations for farm-raised catfish processing are
presented in Table 118. The best available technology
economically achievable includes efficient in-plant water and
waste water management, partial recycle of live fish holding tank
water, solids or by-product recovery as illustrated in Figure 49,
and aerated lagoon systems as illustrated in Figure 50.
Those catfish processors employing live hauling and holding tanks
should consider the use of iced delivery and storage. A recent
study, soon to be published by Boggess, et al. (1973), indicates
that iced storage causes skinning problems not encounterd with
live-tank stored fish; however, the water consumption decrease
realized (40 to 50 percent) may justify the action. It must be
noted that little, if any, BOD5 reduction would accrue from this
change, since the BOD5 contribution of the holding tanks to the
total plant effluent is only about 5 percent. It should further
be mentioned that a large number of processors now employ iced
storage, so this recommendation will not have a profound effect
on the industry.
Few specific further in-plant water reduction techniques can
reasonably be expected of the catfish industry, because the
average plant processing and clean up water consumption is
already extremely low. Installing squeeze-nozzles and turning
off water flows during work breaks should reduce waste water
flows by at least 1900 1 (500 gal) per shift.
CONVENTIONAL BLUE CRAB PROCESSING (Subcategory B)
The effluent limitations for conventional blue crab processing
are presented in Table 118. The best available technology
economically achievable is based on solids or by-product recovery
and on aerated lagoon systems as illustrated in Figures 40 and 48
and discussed in Section VII.
The conventional blue crab process uses less water than any other
industry subcategory reviewed in this study. Average plant flows
are well under 3.8 cu m (1000 gal) per shift. Although
inadvertently, the industry is a model of water conservation.
331
-------
MECHANIZED BLUE CRAB PROCESSING (Subcategory C)
The effluent limitations for mechanized blue crab processing are
presented in Table 118. The best available technology
economically achievable is based on solids or by-product
recovery, in-process modifications which promote efficient water
and waste water management, and an aerated lagoon system as
illustrated in Figures 40 and 48 and discussed in Section VII.
The mechanized blue crab process uses water freely—in product
fluming, in shell separation, and in spray-washing of brine from
the meat. Redesign of the meat-shell separation system and
subsequent spray washing network, plus elimination of the few
flumes existant in the industry should effect the 15 percent
water use reduction (with concomitant 5 percent BOD5> reduction)
reflected in the 1983 effluent limitations guidelines listed in
Table 118. An ultimate goal should be the elimination of the
brine flotation system entirely; perhaps through replacement by a
pneumatic system such as is used as a final loose peel remover in
some shrimp plants, or another suitable device.
ALASKAN CRAB MEAT PROCESSING
The effluent limitations for non-remote and remote Alaskan crab
meat processing, subcategories D and E respectively are presented
in Table 118. The best available technology economically
achievable is based on by-product recovery or ultimate disposal
of solids, in-process modifications which promote efficient water
and waste water management, and an air flotation system as
illustrated in Figures 40 and 41 and discussed in Section VII.
Air flotation offers the possibility of effective treatment
while still being able to cope with the problems of intermittent
and variable waste water flows and rigorous climatic, geographic
and isolation conditions. Secondary treatment processes (Figures
41 and 52) could not be expected to perform adequately under
these limitations.
The Alaskan crab meat industry is a large water user, compared to
the other industries in this study. Elimination of fluming,
additional employment of dry capture techniques, redesign of
process flow patterns and general in-plant emphasis on water
conservation should effect the 50 percent water use reduction
(with resulting 15 percent BOD5 reduction) reflected in the 1983
effluent limitations guidelines.
ALASKAN WHOLE CRAB AND CRAB_SECTION PROCESSING
The effluent limitations for Alaskan whole crab and crab section
processing, subcategories F and G respectively, are presented in
Table 118. The best available technology economically achievable
is based on by-product recovery or ultimate disposal of solids,
in-process modifications which promote efficient water and waste
332
-------
water management, and an air flotation system as illustreated in
Figures 40 and 41 and discussed in Section VII.
As discussed in the previous section, air flotation offers the
possibility of effective treatment while still being able to cope
with the problems of intermittent and variable waste water flows
and rigorous climate, geographic and isolation conditions.
Elimination of fluming, additional employment of dry capture
techniques, redesign of process flow patterns and general
in-plant emphasis on water conservation should effect the 50
percent water use reduction (with resulting 15 percent BOD5_
reduction) reflected in the 1983 effluent limitations guidelines.
listed in Table 118.
DUNGENESS AND TANNER CRAB PROCESSING
IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES (Subcategory H)
The Dungeness and tanner crab industry outside of Alaska is
somewhat more conservative in water use practices than their
northern counterpart. Nonetheless, considerably more attention
could be paid to water conservation in the industry, along the
same lines as outlined for the Alaskan crab industry in the
previous subsections. Employing good water management in-plant,
the industry should be capable of effecting a 40 to 50 percent
reduction in water consumption, and thereby reduce waste water
BODjj loadings by at least 15 percent. These reductions, together
with the expected improved treatment efficiencies due to
optimization of dissolved air flotation as a chemical treatment
system as discussed in Section VII , were the bases for the
development of the 1983 effluent limitations guidelines listed
in Table 118.
It should be mentioned that the majority of processors in this
subcategory are located in or near population centers of suf-
ficient size to justify construction of municipal treatment
facilities. In such cases the processors will likely elect to
cooperate with the municipalities in a joint treatment scheme.
These industrial wastes are expected to be compatible with
domestic biological treatment systems.
ALASKAN SHRIMP PROCESSING
As proposed for Subcategories D, E, F, and G - Alaska crab,
above; for non-remote and remote Alaska shrimp, Subcategories I
and J respectively, proposes flotation as the process of choice
(see Figures 40 and 41). Rationale for this selection parallels
that for Alaskan crab meat and whole crab section processing.
The Alaska shrimp industry, like their counterpart crab industry,
is a heavy water user. In fact, even a moderately well-con-
trolled shrimp plant in Alaska uses about three times the water
333
-------
per pound of raw material that a crab plant does. This is at-
tributable largely to the fact that the shrimp process is con-
siderably more mechanized, especially in the peeling phase. From
40 to 70 percent of the total plant flow passes over the Model A
or PCA peelers.
As a consequence, shrimp plants have not the opportunity to cut
water consumption as dramatically and drastically as crab plants.
Nevertheless, reduction of water use by 40 percent (and more, in
plants which employ considerable fluming) are achievable by 1983.
Concomitant BOD5 reductions of at lease 13 percent can be
expected. These values, plus the improvements in flotation
systems efficiency mentioned earlier, form the bases for the
effluent limitations guidelines outlined in Table 118.
NORTHERN SHRIMP PROCESSING IN THE CONTIGUOUS STATES
The effluent limitations for northern shrimp processing in the
contiguous states (Subcategory K) are presented in Table 118.
The best available technology economically achievable is based on
solids or by-product recovery, in-process modifications which
promote efficient water and waste water management, and dissolved
air flotation systems as illustrated in Figures 40 and 41 and
discussed in Section VII.
Even though the northern shrimp processor uses considerably less
water, on the average, than the typical Alaskan processor, water
use reductions of 20 percent are achievable by 1983. Concomitant
BODJ5 reduction of at least 10 percent can be expected. These
reductions, together with the expected improved treatment
efficiencies due to optimization of dissolved air flotation as a
chemical treatment system, were the bases for the development of
the 1983 effluent limitations guidelines.
SOUTHERN NON-BREADED SHRIMP PROCESSING
IN~THE CONTIGUOUS STATES
The effluent limitations guidelines for southern non-breaded
shrimp processing in the contiguous states (Subcategory L), Table
118, are based on the same technology and follow the same
rational as presented in the previous section for northern shrimp
processing.
BREADED SHRIMP PROCESSING IN THE
CONTIGUOUS STATES
The effluent limitations guidelines for breaded shrimp in the
contiguous states (Subcategory M), Table 118, are based on the
334
-------
same technology and follow the same rational as presented in the
section for northern shrimp processing.
The breaded shrimp industry is a heavy water user, employing
twice as much water per pound of raw material as northern and
southern non-breaded shrimp processors. A water use reduction of
50 percent (and more, in plants which employ considerable
fluming) is achievable by 1983. Concomitant BOD5 reductions of
at least 20 percent can be expected.
TUNA PROCESSING (Subcategory N)
Tuna was the only high seas species covered. The typical
processing plant is several orders of magnitude larger than those
found in the blue crab or catfish industries. Tuna companies
were found to operate more like the large industrial concerns
they are, rather than in the provincial manner in which some
small processors were managed. Accordingly, their waste streams
flowed more continuously, broadening the scope of available
treatment alternatives.
BATEA (see Figure 5t) for the tuna processing industry proposes
roughing trickling filters combined with conventional activated
sludge because this combination of biological processes can
result in compactness, flexibility, and ability to handle
variable loads.
On a relative scale the tuna industry is clean. By-product
development in the form of pet food, fish meal, solubles and
stick water recovery have been developed to a high degree.
Areas in which improvements could be made (in some plants) in-
clude adoption of dry receiving, rather than fluming of the fish
from the boat to the plant, installation of bilge water handling
systems to prevent the pumping of bilges into the local waters,
adoption of air cooling of the tuna following the precook, and
development of recirculating (immersion) thaw tank water systems.
Utilization of some or all of these concepts, together with
conservation programs, could lead to water consumption savings of
30 percent, with concomitant BOD5 reductions of 10 percent.
Realization of these goals, together with the progressive im-
provement of treatment system efficiencies, provides the basis
for the effluent levels listed in Table 118 for the tuna
industry.
335
-------
-------
SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The effluent limitations that must be achieved by new sources are
termed "Performance Standards." The New Source Performance
Standards apply to any source for which construction starts after
the publication of the proposed regulations for the standards.
The standards were determined by adding to the consideration
underlying the identification of the "Best Practicable Control
Technology Currently Available" a determination of what higher
levels of pollution control are available through the use of
improved production processes and/or treatment techniques. Thus,
in addition to considering the best in-plant and end-of-process
control technology, New Source Performance Standards are based on
an analysis of how the level of effluent may be reduced by
changing the production process itself. Alternative processes,
operating methods, or other alternatives were considered. A
further determination made was whether a standard permitting no
discharge of pollutants is practicable.
Consideration must also be given to:
1) operating methods;
2) batch as opposed to continuous operations;
3) use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw
materials;
4) use of dry rather than wet processes (including a
substitution of recoverable solvents for water); and
5) recovery of pollutants as by-products.
With the exception of the Alaskan crab and shrimp subcategories,
the new source performance standards are based on a level of
technology above screening. Aerated lagoon systems form the
basis of the effluent limitations for the catfish and
conventional and mechanized blue crab subcategories. "Non-
optimized" dissolved air flotation systems form the basis of the
effluent limitations of the Dungeness and tanner crab, northern
shrimp, southern non-breaded shrimp, breaded shrimp and tuna
subcategories. Optimization of dissolved air flotation
performance is not required until 1983 because the technology is
relatively new for most of the seafood processing industry and
requires careful selection of chemicals and dosages, as well as
skilled operation for optimum pollution abatements. These new
source performance standards which are based on dissolved air
flotation reflect the Agency's best engineering assessment of the
effluent reduction attainable by this technology without chemical
optimization. Because of the unique physical problems
encountered in Alaska, discussed in previous Sections, the new
source performance standards are based on screening systems for
the remote and non-remote Alaskan crab and shrimp subcategories
rather than on a higher level of technology.
337
-------
Table 119
New Source Performance Standards
A
B
C
D
E
F
CO LI
CO *•*
00
I
J
K
L
M
N
Subcategory
Farm-Raised Catfish
Conventional Blue Crab
Mechanized Blue Crab
Non-Remote Alaskan
Crab Meat
Remote Alaskan Crab Meat
Non-Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
Remote Alaskan Whole
Crab and Crab Sections
Dungeness + Tanner Crab
in the Contiguous States
Non-Remote Alaskan
Shrimp
Remote Alaskan Shrimp
Northern Shrimp
Southern Non-Breaded
Shrimp
Breaded Shrimp
Tuna
Technology
Basis
S, GT, AL
S, GT, AL
S, GT, AL, IP
S, GT, IP
S, GT, IP
S, GT, IP
S, GT, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, IP
S, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, DAF, IP
S, DAF, IP
Parameter
Max 30-day
Average
2.3
0.15
2.5
-
-
4.1
-
62
25
40
8.1
(kg/kkg or lbs/1000 Ibs liveweight processed)
BOD
Daily
Max
4.6
0.30
5.0
-
-
10
• -
155
63
100
20
Max 30-day
Average
5.7
0.45
6.3
5.3
5.3
3.3
3.3
0.69
180
180
15
10
22
3.0
TSS
Daily
Max
11
0.90
13
16
16
9.9
9.9
1.7
270
270
38
25
55
7.5
Max 30-day
Average
0.45
0.065
1.3
0.52
0.52
0.36
0.36
0.10
15
15
5.7
1.6
1.5
0.76
O+G
Daily
Max
0.90
0.13
2.6
1.6
1.6
1.1
1.1
0.25
45
45
14
4.0
3.8
1.9
S = screen; GT = siirple grease trap;
DAF = dissolved air flotation
Al = aerated lagoon; IP = in-plant change;
-------
The new source performance standards are presented in Table 119.
Pretreatment
No constituents of the effluents discharged from plants within
the farm-raised catfish, crab, shrimp and tuna industries have
been found which would (in concentrations found in the effluent)
interfere with, pass through (to the detriment of the
environment) or otherwise be incompatible with a well-designed
and operated publicly owned activated sludge or trickling filter
waste water treatment plant. The effluent, however, should have
passed through the equivalent of "primary treatment" in the plant
to remove settleable solids and a large portion of the greases
and oils. Furthermore, in a few cases, it should have been mixed
with sufficient wastewater flows from other sources to dilute out
the inhibitory effect of any sodium chloride concentrations which
may have been released from the seafood processing plant. The
concentration of pollutants acceptable to the treatment plant is
dependent on the relative sizes of the treatment facility and the
processing plant and must be established by the treatment
facility.
339
-------
-------
SECTION XII
Acknowledgements
The Environmental Protection Agency wishes to acknowledge the
contribution to this project by Environmental Associates, Inc.,
Corvallis, Oregon. The work at Environmental Associates was
performed under the direction of Michael Soderquist, Project
Manager, assisted by Michael Swayne, Electrical Engineer. Other
contributing Environmental Associates staff members included
Edward Casne, Chemical Engineer, Bruce Montgomery, Fisheries
Scientist, William Hess, Chemist, David Nelson, Biologist,
William Parks, Fisheries Scientist, Joan Knowles, Chemist,
Margaret Lindsay, Nurtirionist, Charles Phillips, Electrical
Engineer, James Reiman, Food Scientist, William Stuart,
Metallurgical Engineer, Joan Randolph, Leith Robertson, Lily To,
and John Gorman.
Appreciation is expressed to those in the Environmental
Protection Agency who assisted in the performance of the project:
K.A. Dostal, OR&D, NERC, Corvallis; Brad Nicolajsen, Region IV,
Robert Hiller, Region VI; Allen Cywin, Ernst P. Hall, and George
R. Webster, Effluent Guidelines Division; Ray McDevitt, OGC,
Headquarters and many others in the EPA regional offices and
research centers who assisted in providing information and
assistance to the project. Special appreciation is expressed to
Jane Mitchell, Barbara Wortman, Karen Thompson, and others on the
Effluent Guidelines Division secretarial staff who contributed to
the completion of the project.
Acknowledgement is made of contributions .by consultants Dale
Carlson, George Pigott, and Wayne Bough.
In addition, the advice of many experts in industry, government
and academia was solicited. Major contributors from government
included Jeff Collins and Richard Tenney of the Kodiak Fishery
Products Technology Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries
Service; Bobby J. wood and Melvin Waters of the Pascagoula
Laboratory of the National Marine Fisheries Service and David
Dressel of the Washington Office of the National Marine Fisheries
Service.
University personnel who were consulted on the project included
Michael Paparella, University of Maryland; Roy Carawan, Frank
Thomas, and Ted Miller of North Carolina State University; Arthur
Novak, Samuel Meyers, and M.R. Rao of Louisiana State University;
and Ole Jocob Johansen of the University of Washington; Kenneth
Hilderbrand and William Davidson of Oregon State University;
Gerald Rohlich of the University of Texas; and Thomas Boggess,
and J.R. Russell of the University of Georgia.
341
-------
Industry representatives who made significant contributions to
this study included A.J. Szabo and Frank Mauldin of Dominque
Szabo and Associates, Inc. Of particular assistance in the study
were Roger DeCamp, Walter Yonker, and Walter Mercer of the
National Canners Association, Charles Perkins of the Pacific
Fisheries Technologists; and Charles Jensen of the Kodiak Seafood
Processors Association. Other industrial representatives whose
inputs to the project were strongly felt included Roy Martin of
the National Fisheries Institute; Ken Robinson and Vic Blearo of
the American Shrimp Canners Association; Everett Tolley of the
Shellfish Institute of North America; Jim Barr of the Tuna
Research Foundation; Richard True of the American Catfish
Marketing Association; Porter Briggs of the Catfish Farmers
Association; and Robert Prier of the Chesapeake Bay Seafood
Industries Association.
Of particular value was the advice provided by Ed Pohl, Research
Director, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District, and
Leroy Reid, Senior Sanitary Engineer, Arctic Health Research
Laboatory.
Several Canadian experts were also consulted on the study and
their cooperation is greatfully acknowledged. These included
Fred Claggett, Martin Riddle, and Kim Shikazi of the Canadian
Environmental Protection Service.
It goes without saying that the most valued contributions of all
in this endeavor came from the cooperating industrial concerns
themselves. Although listing all of their names would be
prohibitive, their assistance is greatfully acknowledged.
342
-------
SECTION XIII
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N.M.F.S., 1972
Tenney, R. D., Personal Communication. 1973
364
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Terney, R. D., Shrimp Waste Streams and COD^ Unpublished
Technical Report No. .1V4. Kodiak: Fishing Products Technology
Laboratory. N.M.F.S., 1973
Tetsh, E.r "Separators for Light Mateiral in Waste Waters,
Technique with Special Reference to Waste Waters from the Fish
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Thomas, F. B., Personal Communication. 1973
Thurston, C. E. and MacMaster, P. P., "The Carbonate Content of
Some Fish and Shellfish Meals." Journal of the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists, 42:699-702. 1959
Thurston, C. E., Ousterhout, L. E. and MacMaster, P. P., "The
Nutritive Value of Fish Meal Protein: A comparison of Chemical
Measurements with a Chick Feeding Test." Journal of the
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Thurston, C. E., "Proximate Composition of Nine Species of Sole
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Technical Report NoA 87, March
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SECTION XIV
GLOSSARY
Activated Sludged/Process ; Removes organic matter from sewage by
saturating it with air and biologically active sludge.
Aeration Tank ; A chamber for injecting air or oxygen into water.
Aerobic _ Organism: An organism that thrives in the presence of
oxygen.
Algae __ jAlga^ ; Simple plants, many microscopic, containing
chlorophyll. Most algae are aquatic and may produce a nuisance
when conditions are suitable for prolific growth.
Ammonia^ Stripping; Ammonia removal from a liquid, usually by
intimate contacting with an ammonia-free gas such as air.
Anaerobic : Living or active in the absence of free oxygen.
Anexuyiant; With reference to crab, meaning without the backs
(after "backing") .
Bacteria: The smallest living organisms which comprise, along
with fungi, the decomposer category of the food chain.
Bar ome tr ic_Leg : Use of moving streams of water to draw a vacuum;
aspirator.
Batch _ Cooker ; Product remains stationary in cooker (water is
periodically changed) .
Benthic Region: The bottom of a body of water. This region
supports the benthos, a type of life that not only lives upon but
contributes to the character of the bottom.
Benthos ; Aquatic bottom-dwelling organisms. These include: (1)
Sessile Animals, such as the sponges, barnacles, mussels,
oysters, some of the worms, and many attached algae: (2) creeping
forms, such as insects, snails and certain clams; and (3)
burrowing forms, which include most clams and worms.
Bi furcation : A site where a single structure divides into two
branches.
Biological _ Oxidation: The process whereby, through the activity
of living organisms in an aerobic environment, organic matter is
converted to more biologically stable matter.
Biological __ Stabilization : Reduction in th net energy level of
organic matter as a result of the metabolic activity of
organisms, so that further biodegradation is very slow.
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Biological Treatment: Organic waste treatment in which bacteria
and/or biochemical action are intensified under controlled
conditions.
Blood Water (Serum): Liquid remaining after coagulation of the
blood.
Slowdown: A discharge of water from a system to prevent a
buildup of dissolved solids in a boiler or clarifier.
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand}; Amount of oxygen necessary in
the water for bacteria to consume the organic sewage. It is used
as a measure in telling how well a sewage treatment plant is
working.
BODJ5): A measure of the oxygen consumption by aerobic organisms
over a 5-day test period at 20°C. It is an indirect measure of
the concentration of biologically degradable material present in
organic wastes contained in a waste stream.
Botulinus Organisms: Those that cause acute food poisoning.
Breaded^Shrimp: Peeled shrimp coated with breading. The product
may be identified as fantail (butterfly) and round, with or
without tail fins and last shell segment; and as portions,
sticks, steaks, etc., when prepared from a composite unit of two
or more shrimp pieces, whole shrimp, or a combination of both
without fin£ or shells.
Breading: A finely ground mixture containing cereal products,
flavorings and other ingredients, that is applied to a product
that has been moistened, usually with batter.
Brine: Concentrated solution which remains liquid down to 5°F;
used in freezing fish.
Btu: British thermal unit, the quantity of heat required to
raise one pound of water 1°F.
Building Drain: Lowest horizontal part of a building drainage
system.
Building Drainage System: Piping provided for carrying waste-
water or other drainage from a building to the street sewer.
Bulking Sludge: Activated sludge that settles poorly because of
low-density floe.
Canned Fishery Product: Fish, shellfish, or other aquatic
animals packed singly or in combination with other items in
hermetically sealed, heat sterilized cans, jars, or other
suitable containers. Most, but not all, canned fishery products
can be stored at room temperature for an indefinite period of
time without spoiling.
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Carbon^ Adsorption: The separation of small waste particles and
molecular species, including color and odor contaminants, by
attachment to the surface and open pore structure of carbon
granules or powder. The carbon is "activated," or made more
adsorbent by treatment and processing.
Case: "Standard" packaging in corrugated fiberboard containers.
Chemical Precipitation; A waste treatment process whereby
substances dissolved in the waste water stream are rendered in-
soluble and form a solid phase that settles out or can be removed
by flotation techniques.
Clarification; Process of removing undissolved materials from a
liquid. Specifically, removal of solids either by settling or
filtration.
Clarifier: A settling basin for separating settleable solids
from waste water.
Cluster Sampling: A method that is useful for increasing
sampling efficiency and reducing error when the universe can be
partitioned into groups such that the objects in a group are more
heterogeneous within than between.
Coagulant; A material, which, when added to liquid wastes or
water, creates a reaction which forms insoluble floe particles
that adsorb and precipitate colloidal and suspended solids. The
floe particles can be removed by sedimentation. Among the most
common chemical coagulants used in sewage treatment are ferric
chloride, alum and lime.
Coagulation: The clumping together of solids to make them settle
out of the sewage faster. Coagulation of solids is brought about
with the use of certain chemicals such as lime, alum, or
polyelectrolytes.
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand^; A measure of the oxygen required
to stabilize that portion of organic matter in a sample that can
be oxidized by a strong chemical oxidizing agent.
Coefficient^of Variation: A measure used in describing the
amount of variation in a population. An estimate of this value
is S/X where "S" equals the standard deviation and X equals the
sample mean.
Coliform: Relating to, resembling, or being the colon bacillus.
Comminutor: A device for the catching and shredding of heavy
solid matter in the primary stage of, waste treatment.
Concentration: The total mass (usually in micrograms) of the
suspended particles contained in a unit volume (usually one cubic
meter) at a given temperature and pressure; sometimes, the
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concentration may be expressed in terms of total number of
particles in a unit volume (e.g., parts per million); con-
centration may also be called the "loading" or the "level" of a
substance; concentration may also pertain to the strength of a
solution.
Condensate; Liquid residue resulting from the cooling of a
gaseous vapor.
Contamination: A general term signifying the introduction into
water of microorganisms, chemical, organic, or inorganic wastes
or sewage, which renders the water unfit for its intended use.
Cook: May be referred to as the second cook of a two cook
operation.
Crustacea: Mostly aquatic animals with rigid outer coverings,
jointed appendages, and gills. Examples are crayfish, crabs,
barnacles, water fleas, and sow bugs.
Dentrification; The process involving the facultative conversion
by anaerobic bacteria of nitrates into nitrogen and nitrogen
oxides.
Deviation, Standard Normal: A measure of dispersion of values
about a mean value; the square root of the average of the squares
of the individual deviations from the mean.
Digestion; Though "aerobic" digestion is used, the term diges-
tion commonly refers to the anaerobic breakdown of organic matter
in water solution or suspension into simpler or more biologically
stable compounds or both. Organic matter may be decomposed to
soluble organic acids or alcohols, and subsequently converted to
such gases as methane and carbon dioxide. Complete destruction
of organic solid materials by bacterial action alone is never
accomplished.
Dissolved Air^Flotation; A process involving the compression of
air and liquid, mixing to super-saturation, and releasing the
pressure to generate large numbers of minute air bubbles. As the
bubbles rise to the surface of the water, they carry with them
small particles that they contact.
Dissolved Oxygen JD.Q.): Due to the diurnal fluctuations of
dissolved oxygen in streams, the minimum dissolved oxygen value
shall apply at or near the time of the average concentration in
the stream, taking into account the diurnal fluctuations.
Ecology: The science of the interrelations between living
organisms and their environment.
Effluent: Something that flows out, such as a liquid discharged
as a waste; for example, the liquid that comes out of a treatment
plant after completion of the treatment process.
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ElectxodialYsis: A process by which electricity attracts or
draws the mineral salts from sewage.
Environment: The physical environment of the world consisting of
the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere. The
biosphere is that part of the environment supporting life and
which is important to man.
Estuary._: Commonly an arm of the sea at the lower end of a
river. Estuaries are often enclosed by land except at channel
entrance points.
Eutrophication; The intentional or unintentional enrichment of
water.
Eutroghicu-Waters: Waters with a good supply of nutrients. These
waters may support rich organic productions, such as algal
blooms.
Extrapolate: To project data into an area not known or exper-
ienced, and arrive at knowledge based on inferences of continuity
of the data.
an
Facultative Aerobe: An organism that although fundamentally
aerobe can grow in the presence of free oxygen.
Facultative TAnaerobe: An organism that although fundamentally an
anaerobe can grow in the absence of free oxygen.
Facult_atiy e _Decompos jit ion: Decomposition of organic matter by
facultative microorganisms.
FishFillets: The sides of fish that are either skinned or have
the skin on, cut lengthwise from the backbone. Most types of
fillets are boneless or virtually boneless; some may be specified
as "boneless fillets."
Fjsh Meal: A ground, dried product made from fish or shellfish
or parts thereof, generally produced by cooking raw fish or
shellfish with steam and pressing the material to obtain the
solids which are then dried.
Fish_Oil: An oil processed from the body (body oil) or liver
(liver oil) of fish. Most fish oils are a by-product of the
production of fish meal.
Zish_Solubles: A product extracted from the residual press
liquor (called "stick water") after the solids are removed for
drying (fish meal) and the oil extracted by centrifuging. This
residue is generally condensed to 50 percent solids and marketed
as "condensed fish solubles."
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Filtration; The process of passing a liquid through a porous
medium for the removal of suspended material by a physical
straining action.
Floe: Something occurring in indefinite masses or aggregates. A
clump of solids formed in sewage when certain chemicals are
added.
Flocculatjon: The process by which certain chemicals form clumps
of solids in sewage.
Flpc Skimmings: The flocculent mass formed on a quieted liquid
surface and removed for use, treatment, or disposal.
Grab Sample; A sample taken at a random place in space and time.
Heterotrophic Organism: Organisms that are dependent on organic
matter for food.
Identify: To determine the exact chemical nature of a hazardous
polluting substance.
Impact: (1) An impact is a single collision of one mass in
motion with a second mass which may be either in motion or at
rest. (2) Impact is a word used to express the extent or
severity of an environmental problem; e.g., the number of persons
exposed to a given noise environment.
Incineration: Burning the sludge to remove the water and reduce
the remaining residues to a safe, non-burnable ash. The ash can
then be disposed of safely on land, in some waters, or into caves
or other undergound locations.
Influent; A liquid which flows into a containing space or pro-
cess unit.
Ion Exchange; A reversible chemical reaction between a solid and
a liquid by means of which ions may be interchanged between the
two. It is in common use in water softening and water
deionizing.
Kg; Kilogram or 1000 grams, metric unit of weight.
Kleldahl Nitrogen: A measure of the total amount of nitrogen in
the ammonia and organic forms in waste water.
KWH: Kilowatt-hours, a measure of total electrical energy
consumption.
Lagoons: Scientifically constructed ponds in which sunlight,
algae, and oxygen interact to restore water to a quality equal to
effluent from a secondary treatment plant.
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LandincjSLt Commercial; Quantities of fish, shellfish and other
aquatic plants and animals brought ashore and sold. Landings of
fish may be in terms of round (live) weight or dressed weight.
Landings of crustaceans are generally on a live weight basis
except for shrimp which may be on a heads-on or heads-off basis.
Mollusks are generally landed with the shell on but in some cases
only the meats are landed (such as scallops).
Live Tank; Metal or wood tank with circulating seawater for the
purpose of keeping a crab alive until processed.
M; Meter, metric unit of length.
Mm; Millimeter = 0.001 meter.
Mg/1; Milligrams per liter; approximately equals parts per
million; a term used to indicate concentration of materials in
water.
MGD: Million gallons per day.
Meruis: Largest section of crab leg closest to crab body.
Microstrainer/microscreen; A mechanical filter consisting of a
cylindrical surface of metal filter fabric with openings of 20-60
micrometers in size.
Mixed Liquor; The name given the effluent that comes from the
aeration tank after the sewage has been mixed with activated
sludge and air. Mortality The ratio of the total number of
deaths to the total population, or the ratio of the number of
deaths from a given disease to the total number of people having
the disease.
Municipal Treatment; A city or community-owned waste treatment
plant for municipal and, possibly, industrial waste treatment.
Nitrate, Nitrite; Chemical compounds that include the NO(3)
(nitrate) and NO (2) (nitrite) ions. They are composed of
nitrogen and oxygen, are nutrients for growth of algae and other
plant life, and contribute to eutrophication.
Nitrification; The process of oxidizing ammonia by bacteria into
nitrites and nitrates.
Organic Content; Synonymous with volatile solids except for
small traces of some inorganic materials such as calcium
carbonate which will lose weight at temperatures used in
determining volatile solids.
Organic Detritus: The particulate remains of disintegrated
plants and animals.
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Organic Matter: The waste from homes or industry of plant or
animal origin.
Qrganpleptic; Involving the employment of the sense organs.
Oxidation Pond: A man-made lake or body of water in which wastes
are consumed by bacteria. It is used most frequently with other
waste treatment processes. An oxidation pond is basically the
same as a sewage lagoon.
Peeler: Removes the greatest portion of the shell from shrimp.
Percolation: The movement of water through the soil profile.
Per C§pita Consumption: Consumption of edible fishery products
in the United States, divided by the total civilian population.
]DH: The pH value indicates the relative intensity of acidity or
alkalinity of water, with the neutral point at 7.0. Values lower
than 7.0 indicate the presence of alkalies.
Plankton (Plankter^; Organisms of relatively small size mostly
microscopic, that have either relatively small powers of loco-
motion or that drift in that water with waves, currents, and
other water motion.
Pollutant; a substance which taints, fouls, or otherwise renders
impure or unclean.
Pollution: Results when something—animal, vegetable, or
mineral—reaches water, making it more difficult or dangerous to
use for drinking, recreation, agriculture, industry, or wildlife.
Polishing: Final treatment stage before discharge of effluent to
a water course, carried out in a shallow, aerobic lagoon or pond,
mainly to remove fine suspended solids that settle very slowly.
Some aerobic microbiological activity also occurs.
Ponding: #A waste treatment technique involving the actual holdup
of all waste waters in a confined space with evaporation and
percolation the primary mechanisms operating to dispose of the
water.
Ppm: Parts per million, also referred to as milligrams per liter
(mg/1). This is a unit for expressing the concentration of any
substance by weight, usually as grams of substance per million
grams of solution. Since a liter of water weighs one kilogram at
a specific gravity of 1.0, one part per million is equivalent to
one milligram per liter.
Press Liguor: Stick water resulting from the compaction of
recovered fish waste solids.
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Primary Treatment: Removes the material that floats or will
settle in sewage. It is accomplished by using screens to catch
the floating objects and tanks for the heavy matter to settle in.
Process Water: All water that comes into direct contact with the
raw materials, intermediate products, final products, by-
products, or contaminated waters and air.
Processed ^Fishery Products: Fish, shellfish and other aquatic
plants and animals, and products thereof, preserved by canning,
freezing, cooking, dehydrating, drying, fermenting, pastuerizing,
adding salt or other chemical substances, and other commercial
processes. Also, changing the form of fish, shellfish or other
aquatic plants and animals from their organic state into a form
in which they are not readily identifiable, such as fillets,
steaks, or shrimp logs.
Pur_se Seiner; Fishing vessel utilizing a seine (net) that is
drawn together at the bottom forming a trap or purse.
Receiying_Waters: Rivers, lakes, oceans, or other water courses
that receive treated or untreated waste waters.
Recycle: The return of a quantity of effluent from a specific
unit or process to the feed stream of that same unit. This would
also apply to return of treated plant waste water for several
plant uses.
Regression: A trend or shift toward a mean. A regression curve
or line is thus one that best fits a particular set of data
according to some principle.
Retort: Sterilization of a food product at greater than 248°F
with steam under pressure.
Reuse: Water reuse, the subsequent use of water following an
earlier use without restoring it to the original quality.
Reverse Osmosis: The physical separation of substances from a
water stream by reversal of the normal osmotic process, i.e.,
high pressure, forcing water through a semi-permeable membrane to
the pure water side leaving behind more concentrated waste
streams.
Rotating Biological Contractor; A waste treatment device in-
volving closely spaced light-weight disks which are rotated
through the waste water allowing aerobic microflora to accumulate
on each disk and thereby achieving a reduction in the waste
content.
Round (Live) Weight: The weight of fish, shellfish or other
aquatic plants and animals as taken from the water; the complete
or full weight as caught.
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Samplef Composite: A sample taken at a fixed location by adding
together small samples taken frequently during a given period of
time.
Sand Filter; Removes the organic wastes from sewage. The waste
water is trickled over the bed of sand. Air and bacteria
decompose the wastes filtering through the sand. The clean water
flows out through drains in the bottom of the bed. The sludge
accumulating at the surface must be removed from the bed
periodically.
Sanitary Sewers; In a separate system, are pipes in a city that
carry only domestic waste water. The storm water runoff is taken
care of by a separate system of pipes.
Secondary Treatment: The second step is most waste treatment
systems in which bacteria consume the organic parts of the
wastes. It is accomplished by bringing the sewage and bacteria
together in trickling filters or in the activated sludge process.
Sedimentation Tanks; Help remove solids from sewage. The waste
water is pumped to the tanks where the solids settle to the
bottom or float on top as scum. The scum is skimmed off the top,
and solids on the bottom are pumped out to sludge digestion
tanks.
Seine: Any of a number of various nets used to capture fish.
Separator; Separates the loosened shell from the shrimp meat.
Settleable rMatteri^(solids); Determined in the Imhoff Cone Test
will show the quantitative settling characteristics of the waste
sample.
Settling Tank: Synonymous with "Sedimentation Tank."
Sewers: A system of pipes that collect and deliver waste water
to treatment plants or receiving streams.
Shaker Blower; Dries and sucks the shell off with a vacuum,
leaving the shrimp meat.
Shock Load; A quantity of waste water or pollutant that greatly
exceeds the normal discharged into a treatment system, usually
occuring over a limited period of time.
Sludgg; The solid matter that settles to the bottom of sedi-
mentation tanks and must be disposed of by digestion or other
methods to complete waste treatment.
Slurry.; A solids-water mixture, with sufficient water content to
impart fluid handling characteristics to the mixture.
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Species (Both Singular ^and Plural)_: A natural population or
group of populations that transmit specific characteristics from
parent to offspring. They are reproductively isolated from other
populations with which they might breed. Populations usually
exhibit a loss of fertility when hybridizing.
Stationary; Process with statistics which are independent of a
time translation.
Stick Water: Water which has been in close contact with the fish
and has large amounts of organics entrained in it.
sioichiometric__Amount: The amount of a substance involved in a
specific chemical reaction, either as a reactant or as a reaction
product. Stratification; A partition of the universe which is
useful when the properties of sub-populations are of interest and
used for increasing the precision of the total population
estimation when stratum means are sufficiently different and the
within stratum variances are appreciably smaller than the total
population variance.
Suspended_SQlids: The wastes that will not sink or settle in
sewage.
Surface Water; The waters of the United States including the
territorial seas.
Synergism; A situation in which the combined action of two or
more agents acting together is greater than the sum of the action
of these agents separately.
Tertiary Waste Treatment; Waste treatment systems used to treat
secondary treatment effluent and typically using physical-
chemical technologies to effect waste reduction. Synonymous with
"Advanced Waste Treatment".
Total Dissolved ^Solids [TDS].: The solids content of wastewater
that is soluble and is measured as total solids content minus the
suspended solids.
Trickling Filter; A bed of rocks or stones. The sewage is
trickled over the bed so the bacteria can break down the organic
wastes. The bacteria collect on the stones through repeated use
of the filter.
Universe; The collection of objects or a region of time or space
of which it is desired to determine the collective properties or
attributes.
Viscus (pi. Viseera); Any internal organ within a body cavity.
Washer; Shrimp are vigorously agitated to loosen the remaining
shell and wash the shrimp meat.
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Zero Discharge; The discharge of no pollutants in the wastewater
stream of a plant that is discharging into a receiving body of
water.
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Appendix A
Selected Biblography
Air Flotation Use Within the Seafood Industry
1. Atwell, J.S., R.E. Reed and B. A. Patrie. 1972 "Water
Pollution Control Problems and Programs of the Maine Sardine
Council." Proceedincj! of the 27th Industrial Waste Conference.
Lafayette: Purdue University, 1972
2. Baker, D.W. and C. J. Carlson. 1972. "Dissolved Air
Flotation Treatment of Menhaden Bail Water." Proceedings of the
.12 £h Annual Atlantic_ Fisheries Technology Conference (AFTQ .
Annapolis, Maryland.
3. Claggett, F.G., and Wong, J., Salmon Canning Wastewater
Clarification^ Part I. Vancouver: Fisheries Research Board of
Canada, Laboratory, 1968
4. Claggett, F. G., and Wong, J., Salmon Canning Wastewater
Clarification, Part II. Vancouver: Fisheries Research Board of
Canada, Laboratory, February 1969.
5. Claggett, F. G., A Proposed Demonstration Waste Water
Treatment Unit... Technical RejDort No,. J.97_0. Vancouver: Fisheries
Research Board of Canada, Vancouver Laboratory, 1970
6. Claggett, F. G., Demonstration Waste Water Treatment Unit,
Interim Report J.^7_1 Saj.mon Season. Technical Report No^ 286
Vancouver: Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 1972
7. Claggett, F. G., The Use of Chemical Treatment and Air
Flotation for the Clarification of Fish Processing Plant Waste
Water. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Vancouver Laboratory,
Vancouver, British Columbia, 1972.
8. Claggett, F. G., Treatment Technology iQ Canada, Seattle,
Environmental Protection Agency, Technology Transfer Program,
Upgrading Seafood Processing Facilities to Reduce Pollution, 1974
9. Jacobs Engineering Co. Pollution Abatement Study for the
Tuna Research Foundation, Inc. 120 pp. May 1971.
10. Jacobs Engineering Co. Plant Flotation Tests for Waste
Treatment Program for the Van Camp Seafood Co. 27 pp. June
1972.
11. Mauldin, A. Frank. Treatment of Gulf Shrimp Processing and
C^SBisa WasteA Seattle, Environmental Protection Agency7
Technology Transfer Program, Upgrading Seafood Processing
Facilities to Reduce Pollution, 1974
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12. Mauldin, Frank A., Szabo, A. J. Unpublished Draft Report-
Shrimp Canning Waste Treatment Study, EPA Project No. S 800 90 4,
Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, February 1974.
13. Peterson, P.L. Treatment of Shellfish Processing Wastewater
fey. Dissolved Air Flotation. Unpublished report. Seattle:
National Marine Fisheries Service, U.S.B.C. 1973
14. Snider, Irvin F. "Application of Dissolved Air Flotation in
the Seafood Industry." Proceedings of the 1.7th Annual Atlantic
Fisheries Technology Conference (AFTC[. Annapolis, Maryland,
1972.
15. Kato, K., Ishikawa, S. "Fish Oil and Protein Recovered From
Fish Processing Effluent" S.. Wat... Sewage Wks^ 1969.
"At a fish processing plant in Shimonoseki City, Japan, two
flow lines (for horse mackerel, scabbard fish, and yellow
croaker) produce waste waters amounting to 1800 tons daily from
which purified oil and protein are recovered. Oil, first
separated by gravitational flotation, passes through a heater and
is then purified by two centrifugal operations. Underflow from
the oil separator is coagulated and transferred to pressure
flotation tanks to separate proteins which are finally dewatered
by vacuum filtration. Data on the characteristics of the
effluent, results of tests, and design specifications are
described fully. The process removes about 86 percent of the
suspended solids and about 77 percent of the BOD." ("Water
Pollution Abstracts" 1970, (43), Abstract No. 787, London: Her
Majesty's Stationery Office).
16. Vuuren, L.R.J., Stander, G.J., Henzen, M.R., Blerk, S.H.V.,
Hamman, P.F. "Dispersed Air Flocculation/Flotation for Stripping
of Organic Pollutants from Effluent" Wat^. Res. 1968.
"The principles of the dispersed air flotation system which
is widely used in industry are discussed. A laboratory scale
unit was developed to provide a compact portable system for use
in field investigations, and tabulated results are given of its
use in the treatment of sewage-works effluents and waste waters
from fish factories, pulp and paper mills, and abattoirs showing
that their polluting load was greatly reduced." ("Water Pollution
Abstracts, 1968 (41)).
17. E.S. Hopkins, Einarsson, J. "Water Supply and Waste Disposal
At a Foot Processing Plant... J. Industrial Water and Wastes.., 1961
"The water supply system and waste treatment facilities
serving the Coldwater Seafood Corporation plant at Nanticoke,
Md., are described. Waste waters from washing equipment and
floors, containing fish oil, grease and dough pass to a grease
flotation tank, equipped with an "Aer-o-Mix" aeration unit. The
advantages of the facilities are discussed." ("Water Pollution
Abstracts," 1961 (34), London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office).
380
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18. Shifrin, S.M. et al., "Mechanical Cleaning of Waste Waters
From Fish Canneries" Chemical Abstracts 76 1972
"Shifrin et al presented the results of studies on fish
cannery waste treatment in the U.S.S.R. using impeller-type
flotators. With a waste containing 603 mg/1 of fats, 603 mg/1 of
ssf and 2,560 mg/1 of COD, mechanical flotation reduced these
values by 99.8, 86.5 and 59.8 percent, respectively. The
flotators were claimed to be more effective than settlers
operating with or without aeration. ("Journal Water Pollution
Control Federation," 1973, (45), No. 6, p. 1117.)
381
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APPENDIX B
Selected Bibliography
Air Flotation Use Within the Meat and Poultry Industry
1. Wilkinson, E.H..P. "Acid coagulation and dissolved air
flotation." Proc. 13th Meat Ind. Res. Conf., Hamilton, N.Z.,
1971, M.I.R.I.N.Z. No. 225,
"A process developed by the Meat Industry Research Institute
of New Zealand for removal of colloidal proteins from meat trade
waste waters comprises cogulation with acid followed by air
flotation. Pilot-plant trials have achieved removals of 85-95
percent suspended solids, 70-80 percent BOD and COD, and 99
percent coliform organisms." ("Water Pollution Abstracts" 1972,
(45), Abstract No. 478, London: Her Majesty's Stationery
Office) .
2. Woodard, F.E., Sproul, O.J., Hall, M.W., and Glosh, M.M.
"Abatement of pollution from a poultry processing plant." J^. Wat.,
Pgllut. Control Fed^, 1972, (44), 1909-1915."
"Details are given of the development of waste treatment
scheme for a poultry processing plant, including studies on the
characteristics of the waste waters, in-plant changes to reduce
the volume and strength of the wastes, and evaluation of
alternative treatment methods. Dissolved air flotation was
selected as the best method, after coagulation with soda ash and
alum, and the treated effluent is chlorinated before discharge;
some results of operation of the plant are tabulated and
discussed." Typical operating data from a full-scale plant show
removals of 74-98 percent BOD, 87-99 percent suspended solids,
and 97-99 percent grease. ("Water Pollution Abstracts" 1972,
(45), Abstract No. 1788, London: Her Majesty's Stationery
Office) .
3. Steffen, A.J. "The new and old in slaughter house waste
treatment processes." Wastes Engng., 1957, (28).
"Methods of treating slaughterhosue waste waters by
screening, sedimentation, the use of septic tanks, intermittent
sand filtration, biological filtration and chemical treatment are
discussed. Brief descriptions of the newer methods of treatment
including the removal of solids and grease by flotation,
anaerobic digestion, and irrigation are given." ("Water Pollution
Abstracts," 1957, (30), Abstract No. 2414, London: Her Majesty's
Stationery Office).
4. Meyers, G.A. "Meat packer tucks wastes unit in abandoned wine
cellar." Wastes Engng., 1955, (26)
"At a plant of the H.H. Meyer Packing Co. at Cincinnati,
Ohio, processing pork products treatment of the waste waters by
dissolved air flotation reduces the amount of grease in the waste
waters by about 80 percent and the concentration of suspended
solids by 90 percent." ("Water Pollution Abstracts," 1955, (28),
Abstract No. 1123, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office).
383
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5. Farrell, L.S. "The why and how of treating rendering plant
wastes." Wat. 6 Sewage Wks., 2953, (100).
"In a paper on the treatment of waste waters from plants
rendering meat wastes, preliminary treatment by fine screening,
sedimentation, and pressure flotation is considered. Screening
is economical if recovery of fats is not required. Pressure
flotation, which is described fully, is the most efficient method
of treatment as judged by the recovery of by-products and
conservation of water. Air and coagulants are added to the waste
waters in a tank maintained under pressure for solution of air
and the waste waters then pass to the flotation unit at
atmospheric pressure where dissolved air is liberated carrying
solids to the surface. In a typical plant, a removal of 93
percent of the BOD and 93-99 percent of the total fat is
achieved. If sedimentation is combined with flotation 93 percent
of suspended solids is removed." ("Water Pollution Abstracts"
1953, (26), London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office).
6. Hopkins, E.S., Dutterer, G.M. "Liquid Waste Disposal from a
Slaughterhouse." Water and Sew.. Works^ 117, 7, (July 1970).
"Hopkins and Dutterer reported the results of treating liquid
slaughterhouse wastes in a system consisting of screening, grease
separation by air flotation and skimming, fat emulsion breaking
with aluminum sulfate (26 mg/1) and agitation, oxidation in a
mechanical surface oxidation unit provided with extended aeration
(24-hr detention time), overflow and recycle of activated sludge,
and a final discharge to a chlorination pond (30-min contact).
For an average discharge of 23,499 gpd (88.9 cu m/day), the BOD
of the waste was reduced from 1,700 to 10.1 mg/1, and most
probable number (MPN) coiform counts averaged 220/100 ml."
("Journal Water Pollution Control Federation," 1971, (43), No. 6,
p. 949) .
7. Dirasian, H.A. "A Study of Meat Packing and Rendering
Wastes." Water 8 Wastes Eng, 7, 5, (May 1970). sides and
quarters delivered from slaughterhosues, Dirasiar found that
pressure flotation assisted by aluminum sulfate as a flocculation
aid removed grease effectively.
"In a study of a plant that processes finished beef and pork
from A recirculation ratio of 4:1 and a flotation period of 20
min were used in these studies. The final effluent showed a 98.5
percent removal of suspended solids (SS) (including grease) with
the exception of influent samples containing less than 140 mg/1
of SS. In all cases the SS in the effluent was less than 35
mg/1. ("Journal Water Pollution Control Federation," 1971, (43),
No.6, p. 949.)
384
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APPENDIX C
List of Equipment Manufacturers
Automatic Analyzers
Hach Chemical Company, P. O. Box 907, Ames, Iowa 50010.
Combustion Equipment Association, Inc., 555 Madison Avenue
New York, N.Y. 10022.
Martek Instruments, Inc., 879 West 16th Street, Newport
Beach, California 92660
Eberbach Corporation, 505 South Maple Road, Ann Arbor,
Michigan 48106
Tritech, Inc., Box 124, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514
Preiser Scientific, 900 MacCorkle Avenue, S. W., Charleston,
West Virginia 25322
Wilks Scientific Corporation, South Norwalk, Connecticut 06856
Technicon Instruments Corporation, Tarrytown, New York 10591
Bauer - Bauer Brothers Company, Subsidiary combustion
Engineering, Inc., P. O. Box 968, Springfield, Ohio 45501
Centrifuges
Beloit-Passavant Corporation, P. O. Box 997, Jonesville,
Wisconsin 53545
Bird Machine Company, South Walpole, Massachusetts 02071
DeLaval Separator Company, Poughkeepsie, New York 12600
Flow Metering Equipment
Envirotech Corporation, Municipal Equipment Division,
IOC Valley Drive, Brisbane, California 95005
Laboratory Equipment and Supplies
Hach Chemical Company, P. O. Box 907, Ames, Iowa 50010
Eberbach Corporation, 505 South Maple Road, Ann Arbor,
Michigan 48106
National Scientific Company, 25200 Miles Avenue, Cleveland,
Ohio 44146
385
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Preiser Scientific, 900 MacCorkle Avenue S.W. , Charleston,
West Virginia 25322
Precision Scientific Company, 3737 Cortlant Street, Chicago,
Illinois 60647
Horizon Ecology Company, 7435 North Oak Park Avenue, Chicago,
Illinois 60648
Markson Science, Inc., Box NPR, Del Mar, California 92014
Cole-Parmer Instrument Company, 7425 North Oak Park Avenue,
Chicago, Illinois 60648
VWR Scientific, P. O. Box 3200, San Francisco, California
94119
Sampling EguiEment
Preiser Scientific, 900 MacCorkle Avenue S.W. , Charleston,
West Virginia 25322
Horizon Ecology Company, 7435 North Oak Park Avenue, Chicago,
Illinois 60648
Sigmamotor, Inc., 14 Elizabeth Street, Middleport, New
York 14105
Protech, Inc. , Roberts Lane, Malvern, Pennsylvania 19355
Quality Control Equipment, Inc., 2505 McKinley Avenue,
Des Moines, Iowa 50315
Instrumentation Specialties Company, P. O. Box 5347,
Lincoln, Nebraska 68505
N-Con Systems Company, Inc., 410 Boston Post Road, Larchmont,
New York 10538
Screening EQuipment
SWECO, Inc., 6033 E. Bandine Boulevard, Los Angeles,
California 90054
Bauer-Bauer Brothers Company, Subsidiary Combustion
Engineerina, Inc. , P. O. Box 968, Springfield, Ohio
45501
Hydrocyclonics Corporation, 968 North Shore Drive, Lake
Bluff, Illinois 60044
Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, 961 North 4th Street,
Columbus, Ohio 43216
386
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Dorr-Oliver, Inc., Havemeyer Lane, Stamford, Connecticut
06904
Hendricks Manufacturing Company, Carbondale, Pennsylvania
18407
Peobody Welles, Roscoe, Illinois 61073
Clawson, F. J. and Associates, 6956 Highway 100, Nashville,
Tennessee 37205
Allis-Chaliners Manufacturing Company, 1126 South 70th Street,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53214
DeLaval Separator Company, Poughkeepsie, New York 12600
Envirex, Inc., 1901 South Prairie, Waukesha, Wisocnsin 53186
Liak Belt Enviornmental Equipment, FMC Corporation,
Prudential Plaza, Chicago, Illinois 60612
Productive Equipment Corporation, 2924 West Lake Street,
Chicago, Illinois 60612
Simplicity Engineering Company, Durand, Michigan 48429
Waste Water Treatment Systems
Cromaglass Corporation, Williamsport, Pennsylvania 17701
ONPS, 4576 SW 103rd Avenue, Beaverton, Oregon 97225
Tempco, Inc., P. O. Box 1087, Bellevue, Washington 98009
Zurn Industries, inc., 1422 East Avenue, Erie, Pennsylvania
16503
General Environmental Equipment, Inc., 5020 Stepp Avenue,
Jacksonville, Florida 32216
Envirotech Corporation, Municipal Equipment Division,
100 Valley Drive, Brisbane, California 95005
Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, 961 North 4th Street,
Columbus, Ohio 43216
Carborundum Corporation, P. O. Box 87, Knoxville, Tennessee
37901
Graver, Division of Ecodyne Corporation, U. S. Highway 22,
Union, New Jersey 07083
Beloit-Passavant corporation, P. O. Box 997, Janesville,
Wisconsin 53545
3S7
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Black-Clawson Company, Middletown, Ohio 54042
Envirex, Inc., 1901 S. Prairie, Waukesha, Wisconsin 53186
Environmental Systems, Division of Litton Industries, Inc.,
354 Dawson Drive, Camarillo, California 93010
Infilco Division, Westinghouse Electric Company, 901 South
Campbell Street, tuscon, Arizona 85719
Keene Corporation, Fluid Handling Division, Cookeville,
Tennessee 38501
Komiine-Sanderson Engineering Corporation, Peapack, New
Jersey 07977
Permutit Company, Division of Sybron Corporation, E. 49
Midland Avenue, Paramus, New Jersey 07652
388
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Conversion Table
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)
English Unit
Abbreviation
by TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
Conversion Abbreviation Metric Unit
CO
00
vo
acre ac
acre - feet ac ft
British Thermal Unit BTU
British Thermal Unit/pound BTU/lb
cubic feet/minute cfm
cubic feet/second cfs
cubic feet cu ft
cubic feet cu ft
cubic inches cu in
degree Fahrenheit °F
feet ft
gallon gal
gallon/minute gpm
horsepower hp
inches in
inches of mercury in Hg
pounds Ib
million gallons/day mgd
mile mi
pound/square inch (gauge) psig
square feet sq ft
square inches sq in
tons (short) ton
yard y d
* Actual conversion, not a multiplier
0.405
1233.5
0.252
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3785
1.609
(0.06805 psig+1)*
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
ha hectares
cu m cubic meters
kg cal kilogram - calories
kg cal/kg kilogram calories/kilogram
cu m/rcin cubic meters/minute
cu m/min cubic meters/minute
cu m cubic meters
1 liters
cu cm cubic centimeters
°C degree Centigrade
m meters
1 liters
I/sec liters/second
kw kilowatts
cm centimeters
atm atmospheres
kg kilograms
cu m/day cubic meters/day
km kilometer
atm atmospheres (absolute)
sq m square meters
sq cm square centimeters
kkg metric tons (1000 kilograms)
m meters
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