mart Growth 11: $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- SMART GROWTH NETWORK International City/County Management Association icma.org Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the efforts of the writing and research team that put this publication together: Trent Frazier, Kevin Nelson, Lisa Nisenson, Mary Kay Santore, Lee Sobel, Eric Sprague, and Tim Torma of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and Dan Emerine, Eric Feldman, Amy Jiron, and Jennifer Walker of the International City/County Management Association (ICMA). Without their efforts and teamwork, this primer would not exist. In particular, Mary Kay Santore of EPA and Dan Emerine and Nadejda Mishkovsky of ICMA played a criti- cal role in reviewing text, coordinating the process and bringing the document to publication. Assistance was also provided by Laurence Aurbach, John Bailey, Charlie Bartsch, Noreen Beatley, Kathy Blaha, Kendra Briechle, Heather Deutsch, Paul Drake, Robert Freeman, DeLania Hardy, Maria Hollander, Stephanie Jennings, Leah Kalinosky, Dennis Leach, Deron Lovaas, Aarin Lutzenhiser, Barbara McMillen, Stuart Meek, Joe Molinaro, Steve Mouzon, Lisa Mueller, Nathan Norris, Lucy Rowland, Victor Rubin, Joe Schilling, Julia Seward, Ellen Shubart, Stuart Sirota, Benjamin Starrett, Megan Sussman, Peter Swift, Harriet Tregoning, Bill Wilkinson, Jessica Wilkinson, and Paul Zykofsky—all of whom provided excellent insight and review of the document as it was being developed. The many photographers and other colleagues credited throughout this primer provided valuable assistance by allowing the use of their images. Special thanks to Geoff Anderson, Lynn Desautels, and other staff members of EPA's Development, Community, and Environment Division for their role in providing comments, materials, and other assistance. We would also like to thank David Biggs, Mary Matheny, Jim McElfish, Johanna Nyden, Kenrick Pierre, Robert Puentes, Tom Steinbach, and the many others who submitted ideas for inclusion in this volume. Finally, Christian Kohler provided valuable assis- tance with proofreading and editing the text. Design and layout by Carol Earnest. This document was developed under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. EPA's Development, Community and Environment Division. Cover Credit Dover, Kohl & Partners; James Dougherty, Illustrator. Renderings from "Connecting Johnson City: A Master Plan for Johnson City." About the Smart Growth Network The Smart Growth Network is a network of private sector, public sector, and non- governmental partner organizations seeking to create smart growth in neighbor- hoods, communities, and regions across the United States. Partners in the network include the American Farmland Trust, American Planning Association, Association of Metropolitan Planning Organizations, Center for Neighborhood Technology, Congress for the New Urbanism, Conservation Fund, Environmental Law Institute, George Washington University Law School's Center for Sustainability and Regional Growth, Growth Management Leadership Alliance, Institute of Transportation Engineers, International City/County Management Association, Local Government Commission, Local Initiatives Support Corporation, National Association of Counties/United States Conference of Mayors Joint Center for Sustainable Communities, State of Maryland, National Association of Counties, National Association of Local Government Environmental Professionals, National Association of Realtors, National Multi-Housing Council, National Neighborhood Coalition, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Trust for Historic Preservation, National Wildlife Federation, Natural Resources Defense Council, Northeast-Midwest Institute, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, Scenic America, Smart Growth America, Surface Transportation Policy Project, Sustainable Communities Network, Trust for Public Land, Urban Land Institute, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Join the Smart Growth Network! The Smart Growth Network also includes hundreds of individual members from across the United States and around the world. SGN members are planners, devel- opers, elected and appointed officials, and community activists committed to making smart growth a reality. Individual memberships in the Smart Growth Network are $49 for the first year, and $29 for renewals. Membership information, along with publications and other information about smart growth, can be found online at www.smartgrowth.org. For more information, send an e-mail to smartgrowth@icma.org or call 202/962-3623. ------- INTRODUCTION Getting to Smart Growth II: 100 MORE POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION When we published the first volume of Getting to Smart Growth: 100 Policies for Implementation, we knew that there was an audience for the practical information it contained. We were surprised to learn just how big that audience was. Between January 2002, when the publication was released, and September 2003, roughly 20,000 hardcopies were distributed and over 68,000 copies were down- loaded. Requests for Getting to Smart Growth came from develop- ers, architects, planners and planning commissions, city and county managers, mayors and council members, citizens, and real- tors, as well people and groups less familiar with the movement toward smarter growth. The document has served as the organiz- ing principle for conferences, has been required reading for aca- demic coursework, has served as the basis of surveys, and has informed city councils, planning committees, and smart growth commissions across the country and around the world. It is even being translated into Spanish. Clearly, there is a demand for infor- mation that connects smart growth ideas with specific action. Getting to Smart Growth II picks up where the first volume left off. Like its predecessor, this volume shows that a wide variety of smart growth tools, policies, and approaches are available to create more livable communities. Each community has its own unique set of challenges, and smart growth demands a flexible response. Volumes I and H offer a menu of options that can be mixed and matched to fit local circumstances, local visions, and local values. There are some key differences between the two volumes. First and foremost, Getting to Smart Growth II presents all new policies. And, while it contains many actions for the public sector, it expands on our previous effort by also highlighting steps that the private sector can take to promote more livable communities. This volume is also more specific than the first. It discusses indi- vidual programs (occasionally specific applications of broader ideas presented in the previous work) and emphasizes case studies to show where the various policies, programs, and projects have been successfully implemented. In a few cases you will find poli- cies that are totally new and await their first application. Finally, in addition to "Practice Tips," we have included "Finance Tips" that illustrate important financial aspects of getting smart growth projects on the ground. These tips address an important fact about development: what gets financed is what gets built. Smart growth projects are now being financed in record numbers. Momentum for implementing smart growth continues to mount in both the public and private sectors. The Congress for the New Urbanism (GNU) estimates that between 2001 and 2002, the number of smart growth developments increased by 26 percent, and that by December 2002, 472 smart growth developments had been completed. In another study, the GNU estimated that up to one-third of the demand for new housing over the next couple of decades is likely to be for dense, walkable communities. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II SMART GROWTH PRINCIPLES ^^m 1- Mix land uses 2. Take advantage of compact building design 3. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices 4. Create walkable communities 5. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place 6. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas 7. Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities 8. Provide a variety of transportation choices 9. Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-effective 10. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions On the public side of the ledger, smart growth has received signifi- cant support. Seventeen governors issued 19 executive orders on planning, smart growth, and related topics between 1999 and 2001, as compared with 12 orders issued during the previous eight years combined. In the elections of November 2000, there were 553 state and local ballot measures related to some aspect of growth that went before voters: 78.2 percent of open-space measures passed, 71.4 percent of economic-development measures passed, and 74.7 percent of infrastructure measures were approved. These positive trends reflect the belief that communities can do more to ensure that development improves their economy, com- munity, and environment. They are questioning the wisdom of abandoning existing shopping centers only to have to later rebuild them on areas that used to be farmland. They are unhappy with development decisions that limit their choices and mobility by forcing them to drive long distances in heavy traffic. They are frustrated with current regulations that limit housing choices and drive up housing costs. They are increasingly aware of the tax and local budget impacts of neglecting existing infrastructure and rebuilding it on the community fringe. Typically, these issues have been debated in the form of growth-as-usual versus no-growth debates. The problem is that neither option solves the problems. The popularity of smart growth stems in large part from its focus on a more pragmatic question: "How and where should we grow?" By asking this question, communities have been able to capture the benefits of growth and to avoid many of its pitfalls. Current budget problems and competitions between localities for tax revenue have only made the question of how and where to grow more important. Budget shortfalls mean communities must get the most from every dollar invested while maximizing their economic development potential. Many communities that iden- tify opportunities to reduce traffic, preserve open space, and make better use of their tax dollars also find that outdated regulations, perverse subsidies, and arduous approval processes prohibit the market from delivering. Fortunately, the same dynamics that make smart growth popular also provide the political will to remove barriers and let the market function. Smart growth has been characterized in many ways, and some ini- tiatives—such as directing growth away from certain areas with- out identifying parcels appropriate for development, high-density projects without a mix of uses, and large-scale revitalization with- out affordable housing—have been incorrectly characterized as smart growth in order to capitalize on the popularity of the term. Such initiatives lack the combination of the many smart growth principles (see box) that create synergies and generate benefits. The most successful communities take a multipronged approach that incorporates many of smart growth's principles, and by doing so, they achieve many of smart growth's goals. New development adds value to the existing community. Localities get the most from their investments. Residents have a variety of transportation choices—walking, biking, transit, and driving—to get to conven- ient amenities (e.g., schools, shops, restaurants, and libraries) and jobs located close to their homes. A mix of housing and neighbor- hood types meets the needs of couples, singles, families, and sen- iors, thus fulfilling the many American Dreams that exist in the market place. One of the best indicators of the effectiveness of Volume I was the number of e-mails and letters we received in praise of how the book led to some meaningful action or policy change. We look forward to hearing more stories and feedback from users of Volume II. Please feel free to drop us an e-mail at smartgrowth@icma.org. We hope you enjoy this volume and that it helps to create a better future in your community and commu- nities across America. ------- I. MIX LAND USES 1 II. TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN 11 HI. CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES 21 IV. CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES 31 V. FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE 41 VI. PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS 51 VII. STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPM ENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES 61 VIII. PROVIDE A VARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS 71 IX. MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST EFFECTIVE 81 X. ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS 91 APPENDIX A: MATRIX-100 POLICIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION 100 APPENDIX B: DIRECTORY OF SMART GROWTH FUNDERS AND LENDING INSTITUTIONS 106 BIBLIOGRAPHY 112 LIST OF ACRONYMS . 114 ------- ------- Mix Land Uses A variety of uses—residential, commercial, open space, and institutional—is a critical component of any vibrant community. It pro- vides opportunity and convenience, and accom- modates many household types and needs. A mixed-use community enables a resident to walk from the house to the corner store to pick up some bread, grab a cup of coffee, or rent a movie, all while heading home from a play date with Fido in the dog park. This ease of walking to several distinct yet interrelated businesses and public places is the norm in a mixed-use community. One need not look far for examples. According to a recent study by the Philadelphia Daily News, Philadelphia's Center City boasts the largest number of downtown residents in the United States who walk to work—38,000 people, com- prising more than 50 percent of residents in $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: Town center districts are flexible zoning tools used in a variety of communities. In older, established towns and cities, town center dis- tricts are adopted to create incentives for developing or rede- veloping in the downtown of a central business district. In newer, greenfield sites they are used to create a unique, mixed-use, and denser pattern of development than the rest of the community. Both applications seek to create mixed-use communities through zoning controls. Examples of municipalities that have success- fully adopted town center dis- tricts include Gary, North Carolina; Washington Township, New Jersey; Anchorage, Alaska; and Swansea, Illinois. This loft-style development in Denver incorporates retail and residential uses. this area.1 The study reveals that people who cannot afford or do not want to own cars are among the biggest beneficiaries of mixed land use developments. The proximity of houses to businesses enables them to accomplish life's tasks without the added trans- portation costs. The elderly can also benefit from mixed land uses. Many seniors who live in communities with segregated uses depend on taxis, buses, or neighbors and family members to drive them to their daily routines. Those residing in mixed-use commu- nities, on the other hand, can walk to grocery stores, beauty salons, doctors, and social engagements, allowing them to lead healthier and more independent lives. It is in cities that people most commonly encounter a variety of uses in their individual neighborhoods. However, the benefits of mixed land uses can be achieved in a variety of settings, including downtowns, city neighborhoods, suburban enclaves, and rural towns. Suburban mixed-use communities like Reston Town Center in Virginia and Miami Lakes Town Center in Florida have become increasingly popular over the past decade and are one of the hottest real estate trends in the United States today. During the past 20 years, more than 30 mixed-use town centers have been completed or are now being built across the country. Town centers consistently surpass standard suburban real estate products in office and retail lease rates, house sales and apartment rents, retail sales and sales tax revenues, hotel room and occupancy rates, and onsite and adjacent property values.2 In addition, small cities, sub- urbs, and other established communities are looking to retrofit key parts of their communities. They have been strategically directing investment to create mixed-use downtowns where none existed before, and to create intensely developed mixed-use centers focused around transit. The nationwide trend of developing mixed land use projects is evi- dent in suburban communities and revitalized urban neighbor- hoods. All interested parties, including real estate developers, community residents, and government agencies, can benefit from the attributes of a built environment that provides more options for living, shopping, and working than conventional projects. The previous volume of Getting to Smart Growth placed an emphasis on removing the barriers to mixed use, especially zoning regulations, so that residential, commercial, and institutional buildings could legally exist within a single community. Adjusting zoning, how- ever, is only one step to creating mixed-use opportunities and con- necting a diversity of uses. Beyond changing the codes, adjusting ordinances, and providing financial incentives, community objec- tives to achieve a mix of land uses must be reflected in their com- prehensive plans and in neighborhood-led planning activities. I. Adopt comprehensive plans and sub-area plans that encourage a mix of land uses. Local governments generally update comprehensive plans every 5 to 10 years, depending on available resources and political will. These plans spell out the locality's goals for its future develop- ------- MIX LAND USES ment. Including an explicit goal to increase the mix of uses in spe- cific areas can be an important step in making it happen. Comprehensive plans may inform infrastructure decisions and economic development strategies that can be used to promote mixed uses. Developers can see more clearly the type of develop- ment the locality is looking for and what is likely to be approved. And, where conflicts arise, the comprehensive plan is often needed to justify a local government's action—such as a rezoning approval, requirements for housing in a downtown area, and other similar decisions. In addition to updating comprehensive plans more regularly, many municipalities use smaller sub-area plans to specify development aimed at achieving a mix of uses. For example, Houston, Texas, a city with no formal zoning codes, applies performance standards to ensure that incompatible uses do not exist in mixed land use areas.3 The city applies these performance standards in smaller area plans. Each plan describes the types of uses that can be located on a designated block or neighborhood, and these uses are permitted based on guidelines that specify an intended outcome, such as ensuring that residences are within walking distance to retail establishments or that office workers can access lunch options without having to use their cars. In other communities, such as Grand Rapids, Michigan, area-spe- cific plans are used to designate land uses on a neighborhood level. Area-specific plans assign appropriate land uses, promote compati- bility between new development and the existing neighborhood, and use standards and design guidelines to make sure that devel- opment is consistent with the comprehensive plan. The area-spe- cific plan can be used not only to designate the mixture of land uses, but to also provide a framework for how those land uses will be developed. For example, the North East Beltline Joint Development Plan describes the relationship of residential, com- mercial, and office land uses along an arterial corridor. A graphic and accompanying text designates the development of certain parcels with multiple land uses. This is different from standard plans that generically show an area of land to be mixed use with- out listing techniques by which the mix will be accomplished. Without this attention to detail, "mixed use" areas may end up being areas where uses are adjacent to one another but are not mixed from a functional or design perspective. 2. Use enhanced zoning techniques to achieve a mix of land uses. Many cities base planning and development decisions on outdated and antiquated zoning ordinances. Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, and Rochester have all taken necessary steps to revise their inef- fective zoning ordinances. For Chicago and New York, a whole- sale zoning update has been necessary to respond to contemporary development patterns. Due to the time and financial constraints of conducting a comprehensive zoning update, many communities revise their zoning ordinances in a piecemeal fashion to accommo- date site-specific developments or nonconforming uses. No matter the method, zoning ordinance updates now assume a variety of approaches. One example is the form-based code, a regulatory mechanism that sets requirements for building design and orienta- tion without being constrained by listing permitted and nonper- mitted uses. Form-based coding is founded on the idea that a community's physical form, rather than its land uses, is its most intrinsic and enduring characteristic. Arlington County, Virginia, has adopted a form-based code for redeveloping its Columbia Pike Corridor. Information regarding this code is available at http://www.co.arlington.va.us. The city of Largo, Florida, modified its zoning with performance measures. It includes a provision in its ordinance to provide zon- ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: The American Planning Association (APA) developed the Growing Smart Legislative Guidebook of model codes and statutes for planning that can help in developing mixed-use communities. The guidebook provides exam- ples of how communities can update their codes, ordinances, and planning techniques to encourage and facilitate land use development that is consis- tent with smart growth principles. A significant part of the document cov- ers issues related to state land use controls and the enforcement of land development regulations.The guidebook also provides examples for coordi- nating and streamlining their codes that can directly result in preserving open space, increasing investment in existing communities, and enhancing the feasibility of mixed land uses. For more information, contact the American Planning Association at www.planning.org. ing relief if certain aspects of development have been estab- lished and satisfied. For example, reduced yard setbacks can result in increased building heights. The net result is that the devel- opers are able to build denser mixed land-use projects. Largo's goal is to calibrate zoning pack- ages to allow and even encourage this type of development.4 Another example of innovative zoning is the addition of a Town Center Zoning District. This type of zoning helps a city or town revitalize a commercial dis- trict or downtown, and works best as a component of a conven- tional zoning ordinance. For example, the Village of Winfield, Illinois, has successfully designed and adopted a Town Center District that provides flexibility to encourage multiple land uses on a single parcel (or a consolidated group of parcels). Winfield's Town Center District Plan includes design guidelines and bulk regulations aimed at creating an area that is pedestrian friendly and accommodates a mix of uses where businesses and housing intersect. This type of zoning district allows various uses and den- sity types to exist in the same district without requiring variances from a typically homogenous zoning district. 3- Provide regional planning grants for projects that produce mixed land use. Regional planning grants can play a significant role in shaping the redevelopment of communities to include a mix of land uses. Since most suburban growth and development occurs as single uses on large acreage, localities may have little capacity to consider new forms of growth. Grants can provide the resources local govern- ments need to innovate. Once they gain experience with these types of projects and see examples on the ground, subsequent projects become easier. One example of this incentive is a program administered by the Metropolitan Council of Minneapolis-St. Paul called Livable Communities Opportunity Grants. The program provides grants to municipalities throughout the metropolitan region. Awards range from $10,000 to $75,000 to support smart growth initiatives before actual development. Funds support cleaning up polluted land for redevelopment, marketing land for affordable housing, or incorporating transportation options for developments. The rede- velopment of a 40-plus-acre site for West Panhandle Redevelopment in the community of Crystal promotes housing choice, more efficient land use, transit opportunities, natural envi- ronment enhancements, and increased livability. Other projects include redeveloping the Little Asia strip in Brooklyn Center into a mixed-use retail and residential development with an Asian theme and architecture, as well as creating the Spruce Street Development Plan for a 450-acre mixed-use site in the city of Farmington's historic downtown. Integrating design and development specifications, such as provid- ing shops within walking distance of homes and offices, into the grant-making process achieves a particular benefit for the commu- ------- MIX LAND USES nity. The incentive of a grant program enables regional planning authorities to single out best practices and entice other communi- ties to propose projects that meet the grant parameters. Even if not all projects are funded, the process may still inspire communi- ties to undertake mixed-use developments. Encourage the redevelopment of single uses into mixed-use developments. Single-use districts are a hallmark of current development pat- terns—so much so that the names themselves tell the story: strip centers, office parks, industrial parks, entertainment districts, malls. Creating a mix of uses in these single-use areas is a funda- mental challenge and tremendous opportunity. It is an opportunity because of the potential to make better use of infrastructure, increase the value of the investments, and provide more conven- ience for the users of these developments; a challenge because retrofitting is difficult. However, communities, seeing the poten- tial benefits, are taking on the challenge. The state of New Jersey's Office of Smart Growth seeks to address this issue through its Local Assistance Planning Grants as part of its State Development and Redevelopment Plan. These new grants provide design and technical guidance to local governments interested in transforming single-purpose sites into mixed-use centers. The state provides design guidelines and technical assis- tance to local governments that are interested in this type of development.5 The borough of Woodridge, New Jersey, received a planning grant to redevelop a 150-acre site containing the 36-acre Curtiss-Wright military aircraft warehouse into a mixed-use tradi- tional neighborhood. The state has also established a Governors Award Program to highlight successful examples. 5- Accommodate the reuse of closed, decommissioned, or obsolete institutional uses. Vast, outdated institutional structures, such as airports, military bases, and hospitals are being transformed into hubs of multiuse activities. These include Stapleton Airport in Denver, the Joliet Arsenal outside Chicago, and areas of the Baltimore Inner Harbor. For such development projects to occur, governments need to be creative in changing zoning and development guidelines. In sev- eral cases, the projects are of such a large size and complexity that a new zoning district must be crafted to promote varied uses within the derelict airport or the decommissioned military base. For example, the introduction of new zoning districts has allowed the redevelopment of Stapleton, Denver's longtime airport, into a mixed-use district that includes pedestrian-friendly residences, stores, and commercial uses. Other projects may require special planning efforts to coordinate the reuse of environmentally sensi- tive lands or to establish a marketing plan to redevelop the site. No matter the project, coordination among essential decision makers, regulators, and landowners is critical. As these sites are redeveloped, their mixture of uses should be integrated into the existing fabric of the community and its environment. New streets for the Stapleton project are designed to connect and align with streets of existing neighborhoods. Buildings, especially those along streets that make up the boundaries of the project, reflect and complement the style and design features of those of nearby com- munities. This ensures continuity between existing structures and the Stapleton project. In light of economic hardships, cities have been looking to create new opportunities in old and tra- ditional land use patterns. For instance, the city of San Francisco has recently converted vacant downtown office space —a legacy of the recent dot.com bust—into housing. Some critics state that I the $250 per square foot cost of conversion will result in unafford- able housing. Yet, proponents note that an increase in the housing supply will provide more options for downtown residents and attract much-needed services, such as grocery stores, to the downtown area. In Cambridge, Massachusetts, industrial build- ings are being adapted into hous- ing and retail uses. Modern pro- duction processes and pollution control technologies have made it easier for some industrial and res- idential uses to coexist. Cambridge is exploring opportuni- ties to mix land uses within exist- ing industrially zoned districts. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Mixing uses can be facilitated when buildings can be used as easily for residences as they can for busi- nesses. Upper Marlboro, Maryland. 6. Provide incentives for ground-floor retail and upper-level residential uses in existing and future development. Urban, suburban, and rural communities are realizing the benefits of mixing land uses, especially for those developments that com- bine residential and commercial uses in proximity to each other. This form of mixed-use development can be particularly attractive because it can provide more sales opportunities for local mer- chants, convenience for residents, and nearby housing for retail workers. While this type of development is common in some parts of the country, other communities are now just discovering its benefits. The city of Phoenix hopes to create dynamic commercial and mixed-use corridors and communities, and is currently look- ing at such examples in the Los Angeles area as models to increase the density and mixture of uses for some of its prominent thor- oughfares.6 Some localities believe that this type of development is such a vital component to their quality of life and economic competitiveness that they have taken steps to spur its creation. The city of Santa Cruz, an affluent community of over 50,000 on California's Monterrey Bay, has established a redevelopment agency to catalyze development in its commercial districts. One recently com- pleted project, 1010 Pacific Apartments, includes 70 market-rate housing units, 40 affordable units, nearly 10,000 square feet of first-floor retail, and 100 bicycle spaces. The project used tax increment financing, low-income tax credits, and deferred impact fees to finance the development.7 Redevelopment agencies have been utilized throughout California to lead develop- ment efforts and have been critical in realizing the potential for financing mixed-use projects. Elgin, Illinois, a city of 93,000 located approximately 35 miles northwest of Chicago, is undergoing a major rebirth and revital- ization by focusing its efforts on reinvigorating its downtown through city-sponsored financial incentives. Though not run through a redevelopment agency, the city offered tax abatement, facade improvement programs, and dollars for site improvements, such as upgrading roads and utilities. Since 1999, the city com- pleted 10 separate rehabilitation projects downtown, bringing resi- dents back to this once empty part of the city. These projects mostly focused on updating and modernizing underused commer- cial properties for residential and retail development. 7- Locate neighborhood stores in residential areas. Conventional subdivisions often designed with cul-de-sacs and winding roads force residents to drive into their development and then drive out again whenever they need to shop for even the smallest item, such as a carton of milk. Developers and local gov- ernments are starting to look at alternatives that include conven- ience shopping within walking distance of residential develop- ment. This arrangement can cut traffic and air pollution, make the neighborhood more convenient, and give neighbors another opportunity to meet one another. Most residential subdivisions include a public passive open space or a community gathering area such as a plaza or a landscaped entrance feature. Other developments may include tennis courts or a pool. With a little bit of planning and some creative redesign, ------- MIX LAND USES any of these public spaces can be reconfigured to include a small convenience store. The new town of Columbia, Maryland, features a version of this idea. Columbia was developed as a series of villages that included residences and a centrally located village square containing com- mercial, office, and public uses such as a school or swimming pool. Each resident lives no more than a mile from the village center and the amenities it provides; residents can walk, bike, or drive to village center services. Localities can actively encourage convenience retail or restaurants by asking developers to include land in their plans for such ameni- ties. However, the viability of small stores and restaurants is predi- cated in large part by having an adequate number of residences within proximity. Therefore, when localities seek to encourage such retail development they should be prepared to discuss density bonuses that will make those ventures more likely to succeed. 8. Use floating zones to plan for certain types of undetermined uses. Flexibility in development decision is critical for local government agencies as well as for private developers in encouraging innova- tive development. Innovative zoning tools such as planned unit developments (PUDs) and overlay districts have resulted in a mul- titude of creative mixed-use projects. These tools are based on providing flexibility within a designated zoning district. The dis- trict may be a PUD, which allows for a mix of uses and relaxation of setback and bulk regulations while emphasizing design control and preferences, or it may be an overlay zone, which supplements an existing zoning district.8 Alternatively, the community may indicate "floating" zones, which are zones that are defined in the zoning ordinance, but not used for a particular location until enacted for a specific project. Floating zones are "dropped" onto a zoning map to provide a community with greater flexibility in locating particular uses. In most cases, municipalities apply float- ing zones when the anticipated development is not yet known. These unspecified areas are a way to designate a discrete area without having to rezone an entire district or series of parcels. A vibrant Philadelphia neighbor- hood that includes residences above an Italian market. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Ames, Iowa; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and Montgomery County, Maryland, use floating zones to designate parcels for mixed-use development. Ames uses three types of floating zones: village resi- dential, suburban residential, and residential low density. Each of these floating zones provides for additional development within a larger district that allows greater densities or the location of retail and affordable housing nearby or, in some cases, on the same zon- ing lot. The possibilities for using floating zones are nearly as end- less as the possible locations for applying floating zones. Organize a variety of land uses vertically and horizontally. Sometimes the most effective mix of uses occurs within the same building. Noise can be a problem for downtown housing, particu- larly at the street level. Some localities that have sought to increase housing in their downtown areas have encouraged street- level retail, second- and third-story offices, and residential devel- opment on top levels. In September 2002, Washington, D.C., introduced an initiative to encourage developers to build vertically rather than horizontally.9 The city's Department of Planning drafted a publication called Trans-Formation: Recreating Transit-Oriented Neighborhood Centers in Washington, DC: A Design Handbook for Neighborhood Residents. The purpose of the publication was to illustrate ways to encourage transit-oriented development through design innovation and enhancements. Vertical development, which in many communities consists of at least six stories, can be achieved by incorporating additional permitted uses in zoning districts or by providing den- sity bonuses for developments that include a mixture of uses on one site. A jurisdiction can even offer financial incentives when a development includes one or more elements of a mixed-use devel- opment. These incentives might be tax abatements or increased dollars for facade improvement programs or site preparation and review proceedings. IO. Develop mixed-use university districts. Colleges and universities are important landmarks and institutions in the cities and towns in which they are located. They are major employers and often house hundreds of student residents on-site. Campuses are also part of a larger, existing neighborhood. More and more universities are developing new master plans that call for creating more attractive transitions into neighborhoods as well as providing the student body and nearby residents with mixed- use amenities such as restaurants and retail. Schools can take several approaches to incorporating a greater mix of uses into their campuses. In some instances, the school can use its real estate holdings to create mixed use centers. At the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, the school has con- structed Sansom Common, a 305,000-square-foot mixed-use development, which is part of the 2001 Campus Development Plan. The project is anchored by a university bookstore and also houses the Inn at Penn, an adjoining 2 59-room hotel, and 54,000 square feet of additional retail and restaurants. Graduate student housing will also be constructed as part of the project.10 Universities can also help to ensure that the new dormitories they build serve a number of functions. At Oregon's Portland State University, a $49 million student housing and mixed-use facility is under construction. The project will include one floor each of retail and classroom space, and eight floors of student housing with 384 studio apartments.11 ------- Finally, universities can work with local planners to support the goals of the community at large. In 1994, plagued by blight and safety concerns, the Ohio State University in Columbus estab- lished a University Area Improvement Task Force composed of faculty, staff and students, university community organizations, and the city of Columbus. The task force established a new non- profit redevelopment corporation, Campus Partners, to prepare a revitalization plan for the University District. In 1996, after working with representatives of community organizations, local government officials, and university officials, Campus Partners released the University Neighborhoods Revitalization Plan. The University, in partnership with the local government, developed 250 recommendations—including improving student rental hous- ing, increasing the level of homeownership in the University District, and revitalizing the retail market serving these neighbor- hoods. A major project, the South Campus Gateway, is expected In the new urbanist development of Kentlands in Gaithersburg, Maryland, residents can choose to reside in live-work units. to open in the summer of 2005. According to Campus Partners, the South Campus Gateway may be the largest mixed-use urban redevelopment project ever attempted in central Ohio.12 Mark Alan Hughes, "Philadelphia's Valuable Foot Fetish," Philadelphia Daily News, May 20, 2003. Charles Lockwood, "Raising the Bar: Town Centers are Outperforming Traditional Suburban Real Estate Products," Urban Land Magazine, February 2003. For details, see City of Houston, Department of Planning and Development, http://www.ci.houston.tx.us/planning.htm. For details, see City of Largo, Community Development Department, http://www.largo.com/index.cfrn?action=dept&drill=community. Paul Drake, New Jersey State Office of Smart Growth, phone conversation, August 18, 2003. Jon Talton, "How Commercial Arteries in L.A. Stay Healthy," Arizona Republic, April 29, 2003. Eugene Arner, City of Santa Cruz, Department of Planning and Community Development, e-mail, May 1, 2003. Bob Kindred, City of Ames, Iowa, Department of Community Development, phone conversation, May 1, 2003. Washington, D.C., Department of Planning: http://www.planning.dc.gov/documents/pdf/Trans-Principle5.pdf. See http://www.elkus-manfredi.com/sansom.html. Sheila Bacon. "Portland State University's Broadway Housing Creative Financing Speeds up Process." September 2003. http://northwest. construction. com/features/archive/0309_Featurel. asp Campus Partners, The Ohio State University. See http://www.osu.edu/ org/osucp/index.html. MIXED LAND USE PRACTICE TIP: Beyond the National Trust for Historic Preservation's Main Street Program, many local, state, and federal programs exist to direct funds for downtown and commer- cial district revitalization. Many villages and cities, such as Santa Cruz, California, have a Redevelopment Authority or a Redevelopment Division of the Department of Community or Economic Development. Statewide programs, funding through a Department of Commerce and/or Community Affairs can leverage additional grants that are avail- able. These funds can support pro- grams that ensure combined retail and residential land uses. ------- ------- Chapter 2 Take Advantage of Compact Building Design Although compact building design and den- sity are often met with stiff resistance in communities, changes in consumer preference and demographics are creating a demand for quality higher-density housing products and neighborhoods. Recent surveys suggest that Americans prefer a wider array of housing choices, including condominiums, duplexes or townhomes, and single-family detached hous- ing, than conventionally believed. Similarly, Americans prefer a diversity of neighborhood types, in particular those with shops and serv- ices within walking distance.1 According to another recent survey, 63 percent of Americans would like to walk to stores and other places.2 The same survey also found that 54 percent of Americans believed that there were too few shops or restaurants within walking distance of their homes. $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Compact development helps create communities with a variety of uses and transportation options. Higher-density development is a key element to creating walkable com- munities and providing more trans- portation options. From a retail standpoint, more density means more customers. A neighborhood that includes more compact develop- ment can support more stores and restaurants within its boundaries. Density also fosters more trans- portation choices. More riders in the same area mean that bus or rail serv- ice becomes more viable and con- venient. Whereas a low-density development may only justify a stop on the development's edge, a development with more people may attract a central transit stop within a short walking distance for all residents.3 The transportation choices created by density offer people the freedom to select from a variety of transportation modes—walking, bicycling, mass transit, automobile transit—to complete their daily routines, such as commuting to work or school, running errands, and taking their kids to daycare. Higher-density development can also contribute to a wider range of housing choices. Higher-density projects can reduce per-unit construction costs, allowing developers more flexibility to respond to the market and, thus, offer a range of housing types to a variety of consumers. Young singles can find smaller units with convenient access to entertainment, families can seek large yards and multiple bedrooms, and retirees who are tired of maintenance can downsize their yards in favor of housing with more amenities and services. Providing these options in the same neighborhood enables residents to change housing arrangements without having to move from the community. For households with limited income, higher densities mean more housing choices at different price points. Consumer desires for convenient neighborhoods with many amenities, as well as public sector efforts to address traffic and use public resources efficiently, are creating increased interest in more compact development. The following policies and strategies offer a number of ways to support compact building design within a community. I. Organize a compact development endorsement program. Many community members voice displeasure with development plans during the development process. However, with the emer- gence of smart growth, many organizations, from affordable housing advocates to environmental groups, are now supporting quality-development proposals. The Greenbelt Alliance supports quality projects through their Compact Development Endorsement Program. The alliance hopes that the program will make the development process easier for smart growth developers and thereby promote future develop- ment initiatives. The alliance endorses and supports residential, mixed-use, and commercial developments that are pedestrian-oriented and transit- accessible, use land efficiently, and provide affordable housing in the Bay Area.4 Alliance staff members use a variety of criteria to review potential endorsements. These criteria include housing affordability, pedestrian friendliness, and project density. After meeting the criteria, a developer receives a letter of support and active endorsement at public hearings and other forums. ------- In 2001, the alliance lent its support to the Gateway Senior Project in Santa Clara, a 42-unit apartment development. Located in the city center, the project will encourage walking and the use of transit. A train depot located five blocks away, near shops and services, is also on the property. One hundred percent of the development will comprise housing units built according to a compact design concept. In addition, the architectural motif of the project will be modeled after the 1930s Mission Revival style so that the housing units will fit in with existing neighborhood structures.5 2. Adopt a cottage housing development zoning ordinance. In communities across the country, rising demand accompanied by changing demographics is making the cost of housing too expen- sive for many citizens. As a result, officials are exploring various remedies to encourage development of additional housing without sacrificing the character of their respective communities. Many such communities are rediscovering the virtues of cottage housing and are implementing new ordinances called cottage housing development (CHD) zoning ordinances, which are designed to facilitate development of these time-honored housing types. Cottage houses are single-family detached units, usually less than 1,000 square feet in size, that incorporate many of the amenities associated with conventional single-family detached housing. Because of the style and size of cottage houses, developers can Third Street Cottages in Langley, Washington, provide affordable housing opportunities and use only a third of the land required under the original ordinances. cluster cottage housing onto smaller parcels of land without sacri- ficing the feel and character of detached housing. A CHD ordi- nance facilitates development of these units by designating spe- cific zones in the community where housing may be constructed within a specified range of footprints. Within such zones, com- munity officials may work with developers to establish applicable densities and design amenities. The community of Langley, Washington, a small town situated on Whidbey Island in Puget Sound, is already reaping the bene- fits of its recently implemented CHD ordinance. In the early 1990s, development pressures stemming from the nearby Seattle region offered new vitality to the Langley community but threat- ened to overwhelm its rural character. Consequently, in 1995, community officials adopted the region's first CHD ordinance to cluster additional housing comfortably into higher-density CHDs built according to the style of the surrounding village. Under the ordinance, housing built in the district could be clustered up to 12 units an acre and constructed on footprints between 650 and 975 square feet. Each unit would be fully detached and could incorporate many of the amenities found in larger housing types. To the surprise of some, local developers quickly capitalized on the new ordinance to create some of the most appealing housing in the area. The Third Street Cottages, the first development to emerge under the ordinance, quickly garnered admiration from local villagers and prospective purchasers alike. The units provide a variety of new housing to local buyers while consuming only a third of the land required under the original ordinances. TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: Conservation subdivisions have become a popular tool to preserve open space. However, they should be used with care as they may lead to further separation of uses and increased dependence on automo- biles and, in some cases, may spur leap-frog development, which fur- ther consumes land for develop- ment. In the context of a larger vision for the community, conserva- tion subdivisions can play a vital role, but as a piecemeal tool or solution they should be avoided. 3- Use compact development coupled with onsite best manage- ment practices to improve environmental outcomes. Compact development offers environmental benefits. By support- ing greater transportation choices, higher densities can contribute to improvements in regional air quality. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) projected that Atlantic Station, a higher-density infill development in midtown Atlanta, will gener- ate 33 percent fewer emissions in comparison to the same devel- opment built at lower densities and located in a greenfield.6 Research also suggests that higher-density development can play an integral role in protecting water resources. Specifically, by consuming less land, higher-density development leaves lands free that would otherwise be developed, and such land can continue to perform its ecological functions. A 1995 study by the South Carolina Coastal Conservation League examined the water-quality impacts of two development alterna- tives for the 583-acre Belle Hall site in Mount Pleasant, South Carolina. The results concluded that the conventional low-den- sity scenario consumed eight times more open space and gener- ated 43 percent more runoff, four times more sediment, almost four times more nitrogen, and three times more phosphorous than the more compact, town-centered scenario.7 In some cases, however, compact development can create "hot spots" of pollution or adversely impact critical environmental areas if located in the wrong place. Best management practices (BMPs) can mitigate developmental impacts on adjacent environ- mental resources and reduce pollution originating from the devel- oped area. There are many BMPs available to communities, including buffer zones, narrower residential streets, and tree planting, and when incorporated into compactly designed areas, these can address any increased pollution.8 Use traditional neighborhood design. Mixed-use, pedestrian-friendly, compact developments are not new phenomena. These "traditional neighborhood design" (TND) developments were the predominant urban form in the U.S. up to and through World War II.9 The original TND devel- opments are still found in urban and rural locations such as Seattle, Washington, and Danville, Indiana, respectively. The Capitol Hill neighborhood in Seattle offers residents the oppor- tunity to walk to Volunteer Park or grab a cup of coffee along 15th Street; the town square in Danville provides neighborhood meeting places, such as the public library and Mayberry Cafe. However, from the mid-1940s to today, the predominant devel- opment pattern across the country has been single-use, low-den- sity, and auto-dependent designs characterized by pods of com- mercial, retail, office, and residential development. This new form of development has replaced lively neighborhoods with stretches of residential, commercial, and retail pockets. Within these contexts, compact development can impose unacceptable costs because the design, infrastructure, mix of uses, transporta- tion options, and other features that make density (and, more broadly, development) work well are not in place. Retrofitting existing neighborhoods and creating new ones with TND can help re-create functioning neighborhoods that benefit the econ- omy, community, and environment. TND involves developing neighborhoods that have definite cen- ters and edges, a mix of destinations within a short walk, a diver- sity of housing types and styles, and access to public transit.10 ------- TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN Denver, Colorado's Lower Downtown neigh- borhood has been successfully renovated from an underused warehouse district into a vibrant, compact destination. 5- Use compact design to create more secure neighborhoods. Well-designed compact developments can foster the sense of safety and security that every person desires in their community. By incorporating front porches, attractive common open space, and narrow streets with sidewalks into new or existing develop- ments, the community promotes safety and security by means of its own activity. This type of crime prevention is referred to as "eyes on the street," and is based on the idea that an active com- munity with people using the streets and watching the streets from their homes or yards can deter street crime. Jane Jacobs, the noted observer of neighborhood function, pointed out the crime- prevention benefits of density and compact building design in the early 1960s. She described the virtues of compact design as a means for providing a critical mass of individuals to use the streets, parks, and public spaces of the city.11 Throughout the country, neighborhood planners and community activists have begun to promote crime prevention through envi- ronmental design, or CPTED, in order to engage residents in endeavors to create safer communities. The establishment of defensible space, a key component of CPTED, occurs when com- munity residents take an interest in their surroundings and adopt community policing initiatives. In an existing neighborhood, this means enacting traffic-calming measures and providing or enhancing semiprivate courtyards to encourage residents to gather and, subsequently, monitor their surroundings. In pro- posed neighborhoods, streets should be narrow to encourage con- tact among neighbors. CPTED uses design to minimize the opportunities for crimes to be committed. Police stations around the U.S. are employing CPTED strategies to prevent crime. In the city of Norfolk, Virginia, 144 neighbor- hoods encompassing 40,000 residents are part of the police department's "Block Security" program. This program incorpo- rates the principles of CPTED and also includes site-plan reviews that focus on security issues, neighborhood watch programs, and a citizen security council. In an analysis of crime data, Norfolk found a 30 percent decrease in the burglary rate for areas in the block security program as compared with other areas in the city.12 6. Subdivide vacant warehouse space into residential units. One of the biggest trends from the second half of the 1990s and to the 2000s is the conversion of abandoned and vacant ware- houses into compact residential units. Most cities that experi- enced warehouse conversions during this time are located east of ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: For case studies on big boxes in urban areas, see Better Models for Superstores by Constance Beaumont. Available from the National Trust for Historic Preservation. the Mississippi River (e.g., Baltimore, Pittsburgh, and Chicago), but some jurisdictions, like Minneapolis and Denver, have also seen entire neighborhoods revitalize when derelict warehouses were reused as housing. Most of these warehouse districts, like Chicago's Near West Side and Denver's LoDo, or Lower Downtown, neighborhoods, have capitalized on their proximity to downtown by welcoming a wealth of new residents and businesses to these long-neglected sectors of the city. The city benefits by being able to put these structures back on the tax rolls, and with the extra income, residents, who get to live in a hip new area, enjoy maintained and improved munici- pal services. The other positive enhancement for the city is that the infrastructure for these buildings already exists. There can be lower outlay for streets and utilities in lieu of establishing new buildable sites. A majority of all warehouse conversions results in higher densities of residential living than the development of sin- gle family homes or many other types of projects. Minneapolis's Mill District, which in the 1920s and 1930s was the largest flour mill district in the country and was home to compa- nies like Gold Medal and Pillsbury, now hosts many young sin- gles, restaurants, and retail establishments. In the Mill District, which also includes the historic North Star Woolen Mill and the Crosby Washburn Mill Complex, city officials are using tax incre- ment financing and other public funds to pay for public redevel- opment activity. Since most warehouse conversions are compli- cated ventures that might include brownfields or other remedia- tion issues, it is important to develop a master plan for these properties and seek public-private partnerships to ensure that market demands and public requirements are satisfied.13 7- Ensure that big box stores locating in existing urban centers are appropriately scaled and designed. Big box stores, which typically range in size from 90,000 to 250,000 square feet, are popular shopping destinations for American consumers. Large inventories and low prices tend to drive the demand. Between 2001 and 2002, sales at warehouse clubs and superstores increased by $27.5 billion, or 16.7 per- cent.14 Between 1970 and 1998, retail space per capita increased from 32 to 38 square feet per person—a gain of 20 percent over the past 27 years—as a result of the growth of superstores and power centers.15 Architecturally, these stores are typically charac- terized by windowless, standardized, one-story buildings with an ample supply of parking—hence the moniker "big box." While it is crucial for communities to thoroughly review the pros and cons of big box retailing, including the impacts it may have on small businesses, it is also clear that many consumers have an appetite for it. While most big box establishments are located in the urban fringe, residents in urban areas are increasingly looking for compact versions of these stores. In addition, by encouraging these national chains to locate in older retail districts rather than suburban greenfields, it is possible to draw more customers to downtown areas. To make Main Street big box retail successful, communities need to ensure that new stores complement the existing retail district. There are design techniques that local governments may want to consider. • Prohibit blank walls. Allow no uninterrupted length of any facade in excess of 100 horizontal feet. If a facade is greater than 100 feet in length, it must incorporate recesses and projec- ------- TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN tions along at least 20 percent of the length of the facade. Windows, awnings, and arcades must total at least 60 percent of the facade length abutting a public street. • All facades of a building that are visible from adjoining proper- ties or public streets should contribute to the pleasing scale features of the building and encourage community integration by featuring characteristics similar to a front facade. • Do not locate more than 50 percent of the off-street parking area between the front facade of the building and the primary abutting street.16 8. Create compact office parks and corporate campuses. In many areas, office parks are isolated pods of commercial or industrial development surrounded by grass or trees and parking lots that are linked to other office buildings by a winding service road. Disconnected from any community fabric, these places require that workers drive to get lunch or run errands. According to a 2000 survey issued by the Brookings Institution, the suburban share of office space grew from 26 percent in 1979 to 42 percent in 1999. The survey also found that by 1999, 37 percent of all office space was found in highly dispersed, "edgeless" locations.17 Separating office activity from residences and commercial areas can create a jobs-housing imbalance. The consequences of this are readily apparent: commuters spend hours in traffic to reach isolated office destinations, arterial roadways are jammed at lunchtime, and workers have no nearby amenities. To deal with these issues and to create a more inviting environment for employers and employees, companies around the country are looking at more integrated approaches to office parks. They are connecting job centers to nearby train stations with feeder buses. Office parks are becoming places where people can live and shop as well as work. Rather than building detached, single story office buildings, companies are seeing the advantage of locating in more compact areas that support a range of amenities. In Piano, Texas, a city 20 miles from Dallas, Legacy Town Center has been constructed as an alternative to the traditional office park. More than 32,000 people work in the area, and it is the home to the headquarters of Electronic Data Systems, Frito Lay, and AT&T Wireless. Recognizing that employees are tired of long commutes and are looking for a better quality of life, the businesses of Legacy and the city of Piano embarked on the development of a town center in the middle of the existing business park. The pedestrian-ori- ented Town Center sits on 155 acres within the 2,660-acre office park and has over 600 units of housing, a child development cen- ter, a 57,000-square-foot fitness center, and shopping, restaurants, and other amenities. To accommodate the variety of uses, the city of Piano created a "mixed-use Town Center" zoning type for the area. Under this designation, special attention is paid to set-backs, green space, and architectural design. Major players in the real estate market are also beginning to rec- ognize the importance of more compact, amenity-filled office locations. In August 2003, Boston Properties, a large real estate investment trust, spent a record $205 million for two fully leased office buildings in Virginia's Reston Town Center, a compact sub- urban community outside of Washington, D.C. A senior vice president of the firm remarked in the Washington Post, "If you look at Northern Virginia overall, there's a lot of space available. But if you look at Reston Town Center and within a quarter mile of it, you have a vacancy rate of less than 5 percent," compared ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II with 23 percent overall in the Reston-Herndon high-tech enclave. "Even in a soft market, there's a flight to quality. Tenants want to be as close as possible to amenities, the restaurants and retail."18 Compact development makes these amenities possible. Strategically reduce or remove minimum lot size requirements. When faced with traffic, loss of open space, or rising demands on public services from new development, many communities seek to fix the problem by increasing minimum lot sizes. The thinking is straightforward. Larger lots mean more expensive houses and thus more tax revenues. Spreading out development will spread out traffic and reduce congestion. Put the same house on a larger piece of land and leave more open space. There is an intuitive appeal to this thinking. However, many communities have had counterintuitive results, with larger lot sizes sometimes exacerbat- ing the very problems they were meant to avoid. Here's why. While government requirements for large lots do drive up housing costs, the extra tax revenues may be offset by other factors. For instance, longer distances between houses mean extra infrastructure and higher capital costs—not only within the development (where the developer likely pays), but also between developments that the local government generally pays for. In addition, larger lots mean a development consumes more land than it would otherwise. When this land is farmland or other "working land," the locality loses a valuable taxpayer. Unlike houses, working lands almost always pay more in taxes than they demand in services. Finally, zoning exclusively for large lots and houses may mean that more incoming households will be families with school-age children. Schools are often the largest cost for local government. Zoning that provides for families, retirees, young couples just starting off, and singles can diversify the household base and thereby reduce school costs. In response, localities are now looking at the advantages that can come with strategic reductions, or in certain parts of a commu- nity, with the removal of minimum lot sizes. Like large lot zoning under 1 unit per 20 acres, zoning for smaller lots does not directly preserve open space. However, unlike larger lot zoning, smaller lot sizes can actually reduce market pressure on undeveloped land, providing communities with time to preserve important open space. In some cases communities have linked these two ideas, providing more building opportunities in one area in exchange for preservation in another through tradable develop- ment rights. For instance, in Montgomery County, Maryland, land in the more rural upcounty area was downzoned from 1 unit per 5 acres to 1 unit per 2 5 acres, and landowners were allowed to sell the difference in development rights to downcounty areas where greater density was allowed. IO. Manage the transition between higher- and lower-density neighborhoods. Providing a variety of housing, neighborhood, and transportation choices is one of smart growth's principal goals. To provide choices, a variety of development—including main streets with shops and townhouses, business centers with offices and apart- ments, and single-family neighborhoods with yards—is needed. Arlington County, Virginia, is an example of a community that has been able to successfully integrate higher- and lower-density development. Arlington's many neighborhood types meet a vari- ety of living preferences and economic means. Residents can choose to live in any number of amenity-rich neighborhoods that ------- TAKE ADVANTAGE OF COMPACT BUILDING DESIGN are a short walk or bike from shopping, parks, schools, and restaurants and a subway ride or drive from work and regional destinations. Arlington County has concentrated higher-density development on less than 7 percent of its land along its two rail transit corri- dors. This small portion of land area generates 70 percent of the county tax base. Integrating density in a concentrated area allows the county to offer urban living to some and protect suburban liv- ing for others while increasing property values and maintaining community character throughout. Arlington has used a variety of techniques to manage the transi- tions between areas of lower density and areas of higher density, including: • Establishing bull's-eye zoning around transit stations. This con- centrates the highest density around areas with the greatest transportation choices and gradually reduces density as you move away from the stations. In single-family neighborhoods, residents know that higher densities will be located elsewhere and that there will be developments of middling densities to transition from one neighborhood type to another. (For more information on bull's-eye zoning, see Principle 10, Policy 8.) • Stepping down building heights. Transitions between high and low density are mediated by middling densities. Midrange den- sity can take different forms, such as large buildings surrounded by parking or smaller buildings that make up more coherent neighborhoods. Arlington specifies that as you move from high-density to low-density areas, building heights should be reduced. Thus, low-rise buildings achieve moderate densities, provide sound barriers between busy centers and quiet neigh- borhoods, and create a consistent visual progression. • Citizen participation in the planning process. Arlington's resi- dents are very engaged in the planning process and have a good understanding of the development plan and goals. Their partic- ipation creates support for higher-density development in the transit corridor, and their input helps to ensure that new devel- opment adds value to the existing neighborhood. These are just a few of the techniques applied in Arlington. Many other techniques (such as strategic location of parks, matching building types across streets, stepping buildings back when they reach their upper stories, and matching local architectural styles) also provide effective means of accommodating higher density. Achieving higher-density development in some parts of a commu- nity is a key to providing amenities, housing choices, economic opportunities, and transportation options. Residents in Arlington have willingly accepted higher density because they have worked closely with local officials, because the development rules are clear, and, ultimately, because new development has improved the neighborhood and quality of life. Dowell Myers and Elizabeth Gearin, "Current Preference and Future Demand for Denser Residential Environments," Housing Policy Debate, 12 (2001): 637-639. Belden Russonello and Stewart, Americans' Attitudes Toward Walking and Creating Better Walking Communities (Washington, D.C.: Belden Russonello and Stewart, 2003), 4-5. John Holtzclaw, Sierra Club Home Page, June 1994, http://www.sierraclub. org/sprawl/articles/characteristics.asp (accessed 28 April 2003). http://www.greenbelt.org/whatwedo/prog_cdt_index.html http://www.greenbelt.org/whatwedo/prog_cdt_projectsummary.html US Environmental Protection Agency, "Transportation and Environmental Analysis of the Atlantic Steel Development Project," in Our Built and Natural Environments (Washington, D.C.: EPA Publication #231-R-01-002,2001):47. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II South Carolina Coastal Conservation League, EPA, NOAA, SC Department of Health and Environment, Town of Mount Pleasant, The Belle Hall Study: Sprawl vs. Traditional Town: Environmental Implications (South Miami, FL: Dover, Kohl, and Partners, 1995). The Center for Watershed Protection's Web site (http://www.cwp.org) provides many resources on developing BMPs, and EPA's stormwater office has developed a National Menu of Best Management Practices for Storm Water Phase II, which is online at http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/ stormwater/menuofbmps/menu.cfm. Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation (New York: North Point Press, 2000). Congress for New Urbanism. Online Tour, http://www.cnu.org/about/index.cfm?formaction=tour&CFID=3676916& CFTOKEN=15865508. For more information on developing communi- ties with TND principles, visit the Congress for New Urbanism's Web site at www.cnu.org. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Vintage, 1961). Norfolk Police Department Web site: http://www.norfolkva.us/police/ blockhtml (accessed August 25, 2003). For more information about the redevelopment of Mill District in Minneapolis, see http://www.ci.minneapolis.mn.us/council/2003- meetings/2 003 0 516/docs/06-West-Side-Milling-Dist. DougalM. Casey, 2002 U.S. Retail Sales, Mall Sales, and Department Store Sales Review (New York: International Council of Shopping Centers, April 2003). James Valente and Leslie Oringer, "Retail's Evolving Footprint," Urban Land.]n\j 1998. 30-35. Chris Duerksen and Robert Blanchard, "Belling the Box: Planning for Large Scale Retail Stores." Proceedings of the 1998 National Planning Conference. http://www.asu.edu/caed/proceedings98/Duerk/duerkhtml. Robert Lang, "Office Sprawl: The Evolving Geography of Business" (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. October 2000). Kenneth Bredemeier, "Record $205 Million Paid for Office Buildings." Washington Post, August 11, 2003. ------- 1! Chapter 5 Create a Range of Housing Opportunities and Choices A critical part of implementing smart growth is ensuring that a range of hous- ing options is available for varying income lev- els and demographic groups. As individuals pass through various stages of their lives, their hous- ing needs often change. Communities with smart growth policies meet these challenges by ensuring that a broad range of housing types is available for a variety of income levels. While many empty-nesters may be ready to scale down to smaller homes, others may want to remain in their homes as they age. Some indi- viduals may want to forgo the demands of a house and its inherent responsibilities for the ease of apartment or condo living. Some com- munity residents may lack the economic resources to purchase or maintain a home or even to find viable rental housing in their com- $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: The Fannie Mae Foundation's KnowledgePlex Web site is a com- prehensive, interactive resource for learning more about affordable housing and community develop- ment. It offers updates on housing legislation, innovations from around the country, and articles that address up-to-date topics and con- cerns. For more information, see http://knowledgeplex.org. munity. One of the primary goals of smart growth is to provide enough variety in housing types and price ranges to accommodate a vast array of needs and tastes. The supply of affordable housing is a concern in communities across the country. Throughout the late 1990s and into the new millennium, annual housing prices steadily increased 7 or 8 per- cent, with some markets like the Silicon Valley area of California showing 50-75 percent increases over the past five years.1 Housing price increases are caused by a number of interacting factors, including the supply and demand for housing, the price of inputs such as labor, materials and land, and the amount of choice in the housing market. Researchers have concluded that both conventional land use regulations (e.g., density limits, minimum square footage requirements, and bans against accessory dwelling units such as attached housing or granny flats) and growth man- agement policies can affect the affordability of housing. Yet, as researchers also note, smart growth policies can help improve the supply and the location of affordable housing as well as improve the community by providing mixed-use developments that offer nearby services and transportation choices. Such improvements, in turn, make the neighborhood more desirable and help main- tain housing values.2 Cities are recognizing that they need to house residents of all incomes. A recent poll conducted by the Chicago Tribune shows that six of ten Chicago metropolitan residents believe more affordable housing is needed in their local community, and two- thirds support building it in their own areas.3 Public- and private- sector policies and actions can enhance the availability of housing choice within a neighborhood and region. A range of housing styles and types on a Seattle, Washington, block. I. Establish an employer-assisted housing program. An adequate supply of affordable housing can be a major asset for regional economic development and a key to attracting talented employees. Where localities do not have housing choices for indi- viduals who work in entry-level jobs, employees must either choose between a long commute or moving to another commu- nity with more affordable housing. Many employers are recogniz- ing they can help improve this situation for their employees. In 2000, the Greater Minnesota Housing Fund (GMHF), created by the Twin Cities' Metropolitan Council, developed and imple- mented several innovative models to better match housing supply with housing demand. The fund works with employers to match down-payment assistance, leverage housing-development financ- ing, and provide technical assistance for communities interested in expanding their affordable housing.4 These programs serve a wide range of housing needs, from assisting a potential home- owner with closing costs to directing investment funds into com- munities that are designated for redevelopment. Successful employer-assisted housing strategies serve two essen- tial purposes: they increase the available housing stock in a com- munity and help employees to buy existing housing. Because of these strategies, a family can build equity and enjoy the security that a home brings. In addition, the employer benefits from increased employee loyalty, savings derived from the decreased need to train new employees, savings because wages do not need to be increased to retain and attract employees, reduced worker commuting times, and overall civic pride. ------- CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES 2. Streamline the development review process when units include affordable housing. Affordable housing production is often hampered by cost and time delays due to regulations and administrative oversight. These regulations determine the use of funding mechanisms and the design and construction of housing units. The land acquisi- tion process can also delay housing projects. Making the develop- ment review process as fast and simple as possible is one way to encourage construction of more affordable housing. Municipalities can ease the process by granting comprehensive zoning approval if a certain percentage of housing units in a development is affordable to lower-income households. Ensuring a high-quality product and engaging stakeholders to determine the rules for granting streamlined permits are key to the success of this strategy. In summer 2003, the Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NCPPC) announced the initiation of an expedited development approval process for affordable hous- ing projects in Montgomery County, Maryland, called the "green tape process for affordable housing."5 The Montgomery County Planning Board has often expressed concern about the critical need for more housing units that are affordable to citizens whose incomes prevent them from purchasing market-rate housing. Under the "Green Tape" program, the M-NCPPC will coordinate and streamline plan reviews to ensure an expedited approval process for affordable housing projects. Eligible projects include residential or mixed-use development that designates at least 20 percent of the total number of housing units to persons or families with incomes at or below the income level for moderately priced dwelling units as defined in the Montgomery County Code. Changes to be included in the Green Tape process are: • Modified application forms for subdivi- sions, project plans, and site plans to identify affordable housing projects • An expedited review process for applications • Improved communications between the reviewing agencies • Creation of a geographic information system map overlay of Green Tape applications for easy identification of these projects • Expedited construction permits and utilities permits processing.6 3- Create a regional program to encourage all communities to include a fair share of affordable and moderate-range housing. In many regions, the housing stock does not include a balance of housing types and prices across all communities. The efforts of one city to provide housing for lower-income residents may not address overall demand if neighboring communities do not make similar efforts. The need for a wide distribution of affordable housing within a region also relates to reducing commuting times and congestion, balancing jobs and housing, and mitigating concentrations of poverty. Planners around the country are try- ing several approaches to ensure that all communities through- out a metropolitan area achieve an adequate range of housing types and include a fair share of affordable and moderate-range Detached single-family homes in Grayslake, Illinois, feature garage alleys and face a large neighbor- hood park. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: The American Planning Associa- tion's new report Regional Approaches to Affordable Housing examines the results achieved to date in the regions or areas of the country where equity in housing opportunity is a planning priority. For more information, visit www.planning.org. housing. The following illustrates two examples of unique fair- share partnerships. All cities and counties in California are required by state law to have a general plan that includes a "housing element." Plans must be certified by the state, which can require changes if they don't comply with state mandates. Once adopted, the general plan has the force of law: a local government cannot legally act inconsis- tently with its general plan. While the law does not require cities and counties to build affordable housing themselves, their hous- ing elements must: • Establish housing programs and policies that encourage affordable housing for people of all incomes and those with special needs • Demonstrate that they have enough land zoned for multifamily housing to build all of the homes needed for lower-income families • Reduce obstacles to housing development • Describe how they will use available funding for affordable housing.7 Portland, Oregon, has adopted a Regional Affordable Housing Strategy (RAHS) that calls for local governments within the region to adopt "voluntary affordable housing production goals." The strategy also requires communities to submit a progress report that indicates the status of comprehensive plan amend- ments, land use tools, and supply of affordable housing. The spe- cific actions recommended in the RAHS focus on cost reduction, land use and regulatory issues, and the distribution of regional funds; all actions are voluntary. Because the Portland Metro Council accepted the RAHS in June of 2000, information regard- ing the effectiveness and outcomes of the approach were not available at the time of printing.8 Use transportation funds as an incentive to provide housing near transit. Many growing urban areas are experiencing both an acute short- age of housing and severe traffic-congestion issues. Local govern- ments seeking sales tax revenues tend to zone and create incentives for office space and retail development. Conversely, they may engage in efforts intended to keep out low-cost housing to avoid the associated fiscal burdens. This can create an imbalance between the number of jobs in a jurisdiction and the number of residential units, which, in turn, can worsen traffic congestion dur- ing peak hours and lead to lifeless commercial areas after hours. Officials in San Mateo County, California, knew their housing shortage was creating a jobs-housing imbalance and contributing to higher housing costs. The resulting long commutes increased traffic congestion and worsened air quality. To address this prob- lem, the City/County Association of Governments of San Mateo County (C/CAG) sponsored a countywide transit-oriented devel- opment (TOD) incentive program. C/CAG can allocate up to 10 percent of its state transportation improvement program funds as an incentive for local land use authorities to develop housing near transit stations. Under the program, a jurisdiction receives funds based on the number of bedrooms built near rail transit. Typically, eligible projects receive up to $2,000 per bedroom. To be eligible for the program, housing must be within one-third of a mile of a rail transit station, and density must be at least 40 units per acre. Funds can be used to support transportation improvements either ------- CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES on or off site, as determined by the land use agency. In addition to direct transportation improvements, the program permits some general improvements, such as landscaping, lighting, sidewalks, plazas, and recreational projects. For the first cycle, October 1999 to September 2001, C/CAG programmed $2.3 million to its TOD incentive program to sup- port development of 1,282 bedrooms in five projects. The second cycle, February 2002 to February 2004, has programmed over $2.9 million for 10 projects to facilitate the creation of 2,407 bed- rooms. San Mateo's success has inspired other communities to implement similar programs with their transportation funds. Through these local incentive-based programs, regional govern- ments are addressing housing shortages while decreasing traffic congestion and maximizing ridership on their transit systems. 5- Use housing to engender 24-hour cities in revitalization plans. Downtown revitalization projects often focus on creating new regional attractions, such as a stadium, an aquarium, a convention center, or a shopping plaza. There is often a belief that these kinds of projects will bring more money into the city by attracting large crowds and spin-off businesses like hotels and restaurants. Another common practice aimed at maximizing the government's return on tax dollars is to overbuild office space because workers require fewer services than residences. Revitalization efforts focused only on these kinds of developments, however, create downtowns where the activity occurs only during the business day or during special events on the weekends. In contrast, revitalization projects that incorporate housing as a critical component re-energize entire neighborhoods. With resi- dents living in a place around the clock, a new market is created for nightlife, services, and shopping. Housing creates the energy for a 24-hour city. Round-the-clock cities are consistently recom- mended as sound places for real estate investment. They are desirable locations for developers and real estate investors due to their higher barriers to entry, geographic amenities, transporta- tion and technology infrastructure, and cultural, entertainment, and retail opportunities. Within suburban locations, dense centers are beginning to evolve into 24-hour markets where residents can work, shop, dine, and entertain in a given neighborhood. In their annual publication Emerging Trends in Real Estate, PricewaterhouseCoopers and LendLease have favorably rated 24- hour markets for the past decade. As cities realize the potential of their downtown areas, many are trying to encourage more hous- ing there while maintaining affordable housing stock. Washington, D.C., for example, is reinventing itself as a 24-hour destination. Like many urban centers, D.C. had been losing pop- ulation for decades. By the mid-1990s its downtown was hollowed out, and after 5:00 p.m. it was largely abandoned. Then, changes in government, a thriving economy, regional traffic congestion, and demographic changes combined to make the city a desirable place to live. The District made the most of its popularity by encouraging residential housing development in downtown com- mercial areas. Between 2000 and 2002, the Office of Planning and Economic Development reported that 3,144 residential units were completed, while 5,725 were under construction and 10,194 were in predevelopment stages. Many of these units went into traditional commercial and office locations. Residential develop- ment in these areas has increased its safety after work hours and made it more profitable for businesses to stay open later. To increase city revenues and enliven the downtown, D.C.'s mayor has adopted a goal of increasing the residential population ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II by 100,000 persons by 2010. To meet that goal, the District is embarking on a new marketing campaign—"city living, dc style!" Targeting commuters, current renters, young professionals, and empty nesters, the city living campaign will highlight the oppor- tunities that accompany downtown living: housing for all incomes, recreation for all ages, and entertainment for every taste. 6. Integrate smart growth and housing programs. The most successful way of ensuring that a community supports a diversity of housing types and price ranges is to create a compre- hensive housing program reflective of smart growth principles. A typical place to start is to identify housing-opportunity zones within the general or comprehensive plan that are also consistent with smart growth goals. For instance, a diverse range of housing should be located near transit and/or job centers. This in turn creates not only more housing opportunities, but also transporta- tion choice and more balanced regional growth. Yet, by itself, a plan is not enough to guarantee the inclusion of affordable hous- ing. Using incentives in zoning processes and fee structures, cities and counties can more easily encourage developers to build affordable units in designated smart growth areas. Lack of affordable housing in California's Silicon Valley has forced low-income families to live far outside the center of the region or in overcrowded conditions. In 2000, the average price of a single-family home in Silicon Valley was $617,000, and in April 2001, the median monthly rent for a two-bedroom apart- ment in Santa Clara County was $1,800.9 In response to these concerns, San Jose's city-planning staff con- ducted a "Housing Initiative Study" to examine market demand and land supply for new housing in the Guadalupe light-rail tran- sit corridor. Finding that the area could accommodate up to 10,000 new, compact units, the city updated its general plan to allow substantially more housing along the transit line. As a result of this policy direction, 25 projects comprising 4,145 housing units have been built in existing transit corridors (both bus and rail) with city assistance. To finance the affordable com- ponents of these projects, San Jose typically uses 20 percent of tax increment financing receipts to fill the gap between conventional financing and available supplements, such as low-income housing tax credits and tax-exempt private activity bonds.10 Austin, Texas, developed a housing policy initiative called SMART (safe, mixed income, accessible, reasonably-priced,11 and transit-oriented), which requires that a certain number of units be affordable for families who earn no more than 80 percent of median family income. These units must be one-quarter mile or less from existing or planned transit and meet additional criteria. The program has a number of incentives to encourage developers to build housing that meets the SMART specifications, including a review process that is faster than traditional review times. Each project is assigned a city staff person to help move the project through review and inspection. SMART also waives fees associated with development, including review and inspection, water and wastewater capital recovery, and public-works construction inspection. The reduced fees operate on a sliding scale, as shown on page 27. Austin has certified over 6,000 new single-family or multifamily housing units that meet SMART program specifications.12 As both the programs in San Jose and Austin demonstrate, a com- prehensive approach is required to ensure that adequate supplies ------- CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES Reduced Fee Sliding Scak A builder provides 10 percent reasonably priced housing units 25 percent reasonably priced housing units 30 percent reasonably priced housing units 75 percent reasonably priced housing units City of Austin provides 20 percent fee waivers 40 percent fee waivers 50 percent fee waivers 100 percent fee waivers of reasonably priced housing are available. Municipalities can develop plans that target housing in specific smart growth areas and then create flexibility and time savings in the zoning and review processes. Financial incentives can also be introduced to encourage developers to produce affordable units. 7- Adopt property tax exemption programs for mixed-income developments and low-income homeowners. Communities often struggle with finding ways to produce afford- able housing. Some developers claim that land is too expensive or that they cannot achieve a return on their investment if projects include affordable units. Other barriers include design guidelines and site-plan review costs. While many factors contribute to the expense of supplying affordable housing, communities can use tools that subsidize the cost to developers through tax exemp- tions. While providing such financial incentives for developers is important, communities should be sure to craft their programs around specific resident needs to achieve the best results. For example, Olympia, Washington, administers the Property Tax Exemption Program for multifamily housing. The city offers a 10-year property tax exemption as an incentive to developers who incorporate multifamily housing within building projects located in downtown Olympia and other eligible areas. To be eli- gible, projects must create at least four new or renovated multi- family units. Another stipulation is that the project cannot dis- place any existing residents.13 This program provides an incentive to build multiple-family developments in areas that previously had been devoid of housing for low-income residents and individ- uals living on fixed incomes. When creating property tax exempt programs of their own, com- munities should locate affordable housing in areas with significant lifestyle amenities. A downtown setting typically provides access to employment and shopping options while reducing the number of vehicle trips. Program terms, such as the length of the tax exemption and the amount of units per project, can vary. 8. Develop smart growth funds to promote development in underserved communities. In many parts of the country, growth and development in low- income neighborhoods is encouraged through grant programs, incentives, and tax abatement packages. Without these incentives, private investment would not likely occur in many places. The use of incentive programs, especially with federal dollars, is not new. However, setting aside funding for projects with a smart growth tilt is an increasingly popular trend. Establishing a smart growth fund is one of the most effective means of ensuring that smart growth projects are developed and funded in low-income communities. Either a public trust or a PRACTICE TIP PolicyLink, a nonprofit research and communications organization, offers the Equitable Development Toolkit, an Internet-based commu- nity resource, to help community leaders achieve equitable develop- ment: diverse, mixed-income neigh- borhoods that are strong, stable, and welcoming to all. For more information, see http://www.policy I ink.org/Equitable Development. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: The Affordable Housing Design Advisor is a tool produced by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. It helps the developers, sponsors, and users of affordable housing understand what constitutes quality design, why it is worth striving for, and how to achieve it in their own projects. For more information, see http://www.designadvisor.org/. consortium of private businesses can generate and manage this fund. Each city then adopts a priority funding area, which indi- cates the location where monies will be dispersed (for more infor- mation on priority funding areas, see Principle 7, Policy 2). Besides specifying the location for fund usage, the program ensures that home development will be concentrated near existing nodes of infrastructure and mass transit. The major benefit of this program is that it provides investment for affordable housing in communities that typically see little or no such investment. In several cases, the use of the smart growth fund mandates that developments cannot displace neighborhood residents. This requires that the fund manager work closely with community residents and leaders to establish housing projects that meet their needs. Because the fund provides the initial investment, each project supplies a return back to the fund and its investors. The Bay Area Smart Growth Fund, established in 2001, is a leading example of targeting resources for the production of affordable housing. This fund also finances market-rate housing and commercial proper- ties. Companies throughout the Bay Area, including Wells Fargo and Bank of America, have contributed. The fund was created by the Bay Area Council to leverage financial resources to invest in smart growth projects that take advantage of existing infrastruc- ture and amenities, such as transit. A council of community-based organizations and government representatives oversees the fund to ensure that the investments made by the fund return tangible benefits to the neighborhoods where the projects are developed. As money is invested into projects, contributing companies receive profits from successful projects. The Bay Area Council hopes that the good faith and marketability of these housing proj- ects will encourage investors to reinvest their profits in the fund, thus creating a steady stream of financing for future endeavors. Use different builders on contiguous blocks of land to ensure a diversity of housing styles. That homes appear to be indistinguishable from one another is a common criticism of newer residential developments. When driv- ing through such developments, the only variation one might dis- cern among each house is the placement of a door, or the color of the shutters, or the tone of the brick. This kind of homogeneity occurs because builders are able to achieve economies of scale by mass producing similar housing types and designs. In addition, housing in many subdivisions is constructed with factory-built components that may not allow for significant variation in design details that can make a place unique. An innovative way to avoid the creation of cookie-cutter subdivi- sions is to have different builders construct homes on the same block or, alternatively, to have different builders construct homes on different blocks. The master developer for the massive Stapleton project outside of Denver, Colorado, has hired 10 dif- ferent homebuilders. Each builder is sold finished lots one block at a time—a size large enough to ensure efficient home produc- tion. The same homebuilder is not sold contiguous blocks, and because different companies construct different models with vary- ing materials, styles, and colors, the result is a varied streetscape. Such an approach must be balanced with other considerations. Clearly, there can be increased logistics involved when dealing with more than one homebuilder. In addition, as the Stapleton example suggests, production of multiple units in the same loca- tion can create economies of scale, reducing production costs and thus the homebuyer's cost. Also, developers will likely want to provide some guidance on the style and feel of the neighborhood they are creating; otherwise a number of different builders work- ------- CREATE A RANGE OF HOUSING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHOICES Senior housing in Durham, North Carolina, converted from a mill. ing on the same site may create an eclectic hodge-podge of house designs. With these factors in mind, developers can successfully employ a number of builders within their development to create a full range of distinctive housing types. IO. Create a housing trust fund. Housing trust funds are distinct funds established by legislation, ordinance, or resolution to receive public revenues, which can only be spent on housing. The key characteristic of a housing trust fund is that it receives ongoing revenues from dedicated sources of public funding, such as taxes, fees, or loan repayments. Typically, legislation or an ordinance is passed that increases an existing revenue source, such as a real estate transfer tax, with the increase being committed to the housing trust fund. Housing trust funds provide a more secure way to fund needed housing. In addition, these funds enable middle-age residents to remain in their neighborhoods and young adults to purchase homes in com- munities where their parents reside by financing a variety of housing types and options. Today there are 280 housing trust funds throughout the country, with an effort under way to establish a national housing trust fund. Many trust funds include provisions requiring housing to remain affordable over an extended timeframe and require lever- aging local resources to maximize the potential benefit. On a statewide level, the Michigan Housing Trust Fund provided 146 loans to 68 organizations in 38 Michigan cities in 2002. These loans totaled over $11 million and have leveraged more than $43 million in other funding, thereby assisting in the production of over 1,200 affordable housing units.15 Nebraska's Affordable Housing Trust Fund distributes resources on a regional basis, with outlays of $24 million over the last six years. While many trust funds are established by states or large cities, counties such as Santa Clara, California, administer a housing trust fund to provide low-interest down payment/closing cost loans for first-time home- buyers, gap financing for affordable rental housing projects, and funds to assist the homeless in attaining stable housing. The Center for Community Change has published A Guide to Developing a Housing Trust Fund. This resource provides tips on how to manage the trust fund and use the resources to promote affordable housing.16 David Leonhardt, "Homes Prices Still Rising, But More Slowly." New York Times, June 3, 2003. C. Arthur Nelson et al., "The Link Between Growth Management and Housing Affordability: The Academic Evidence." Prepared for the Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy (Washington, D.C.: February 2002). FINANCE TIP: The Chicago Housing Authority (CHA) has undertaken a unique application of a Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) capital fund program to complete a $291 million bond sale to finance its senior and scattered site property-rehabilitation pro- gram. This is the first tax-exempt bond transaction to be secured solely by capital fund program grants. The CHA also recently approved the issuance of an addi- tional $20 million in bonds for the redevelopment of its Henry Horner Homes, an old public housing devel- opment on Chicago's west side. "CHA is very pleased with the con- tinued high rating," said CHA CEO Terry Peterson. "This shows that we are in a strong position to honor our financial commitments and to keep the promise we made to our residents-to create better living conditions in viable, healthy com- munities." As the first public hous- ing agency to utilize the HUD capi- tal fund program in this way, CHA was honored with the inaugural "Deal of the Year" award from Bond Buyer last year. H U D is now in negotiations with the Philadelphia Housing Authority to leverage funds in the same manner. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II "Chicago Metropolitan Area Residents Support More Affordable Housing," Chicago Tribune, April 11, 2003. For details, see Greater Minnesota Housing Fund, http://www.gmhf.com/. This program is a variation of Montgomery County's "Green Tape" review team described in Volume I of Getting to Smart, Growth. Information on the "Green Tape" program can be found at http://www.mc-mncppc.org/development/forms/green_tape.shtm. This summary of California's requirements is adapted from Shannon Dodge, "Organizing with the State on Your Side," Shelterforce Online, no. 121 (Jan/Feb 2002), http://www.nhi.org/online/issues.html. For more information on the RAHS, see http://www.metro-region.org/ article.cfm?ArticleID=417 Fannie Mae Foundation, Maxwell Awards of Excellence Program 2001-2002. Affordable Housing Awards finalist,: Eden Housing, Inc., 26-29, http://www.fanniemaefoundation.org/grants/ahd_eden.pdf For more information, consult http://www.ci.san-jose.ca.us/planning/ sjplan/. Reasonably priced means that a percentage of the units in the develop- ment must be available to families who earn no more than 80 percent of median family income for the city of Austin and who would spend no more than 30 percent of their family income on housing. All figures are from http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/ahfc/smart.htm. For details, see City of Olympia, Washington, http://www.ci.olympia.wa.us. Chicago Housing Authority, Office of Communications, personal communication, April 24, 2003. Michigan Housing Trust Fund Web site, http://www.mhtf.org. See http://www.communitychange.org for more information. ------- Chapter 4 Create Walkable Communities As mentioned in Chapter 2, recent surveys of potential homebuyers consistently reveal a significant desire for walkable commu- nities. Many in the transportation, develop- ment, and planning fields have interpreted this as a desire for recreational walking trails, which, indeed, are popular amenities and sell- ing points for some developments. However, as a strategy for smart growth, simply establishing walking trails falls far short of creating walkable communities. The test for what constitutes a walking community is based on one simple question: is walking an attractive option for accomplishing daily tasks? This simple question can lead communities in entirely new directions, and achieving walkabil- ity can go a long way toward creating conven- ient, attractive, livable communities. To make $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II walking an attractive option, a number of factors must be achieved: Destinations such as schools, corner stores, dry clean- ers, and restaurants must be close by; neighborhoods must include areas of more compact development to support such des- tinations; the walk must be safe from crime and traffic, which means designing defensible space and promoting "eyes on the street" (see Principle 2, Policy 5); road designs must accommo- date pedestrian traffic and provide many direct routes to destina- tions (i.e., good street or trail connectivity); and, lastly, walkable communities must be pleasant to walk in: street trees must pro- vide shade and buffer auto traffic, and walkers should have inter- esting frontages to look at (not blank walls or large expanses of surface parking). In short, if a community is successful in making walking an attractive option for regular activities, it's a good bet that other parts of smart growth are in place, too. There are numerous examples of jurisdictions around the world that have successfully created walkable communities. Because almost every trip requires some walking, we can all identify things that make walking pleasant or unpleasant in our individual envi- ronments. This chapter lists some specific recommendations for making neighborhoods more walkable. I. Develop a pedestrian master plan. When provided with access to sidewalks, trails, or other walkable features, residents are 28-55 percent more likely to choose walk- ing over other modes of transportation.1 However, communities are often designed without these basic elements and with little focus on how the neighborhood can accommodate pedestrian traffic. For most neighborhoods, public improvements that make walking a more attractive option are possible, but there is often no evaluation of these needs during the planning process. As a result, other infrastructure improvements often do not address walkability and, therefore, may perpetuate existing problems. A pedestrian master plan can help focus time and attention on improvements to pedestrian traffic. The pedestrian master plan should provide an approach to walka- bility that is consistent, yet allows flexibility, by adopting policies, prioritizing current and future funding mechanisms, and furnish- ing design and implementation guidelines for projects. The plan may include model codes and ordinances, technical guidelines, estimated project costs, public transit and automobile traffic coor- dination, and land acquisition and growth issues. Special attention should be given to highway and street design (including retro- fitting existing infrastructure), the distribution of parks and recre- ational facilities, and school location (see Principle 2, Policy 6). During the planning process, the entire community should be involved, with a special emphasis on getting the participation of senior citizens, children, people with disabilities, and people who do not use cars. The pedestrian master plan should encourage community feedback and review and inform adjacent local gov- ernments, developments, and neighborhoods of planned linkages between pedestrian destinations. The State of Oregon Transportation Planning Rule requires cities to adopt a pedes- trian master plan to be included in the regional transportation framework.2 The Portland Pedestrian Master Plan lays out action items, improvement projects, and funding options to pedestrian transportation over a 20-year timeframe. ------- CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES 2. Design communities so that kids can walk to school. According to a Centers for Disease Control HealthStyles survey, less than 20 percent of kids currently walk to school.3 Students living far away from school must be bused or driven to and from school and extracurricular activities. Even students who live within a short distance may opt not to walk if the route to school is indirect, lacks sidewalks and other safety features, or because parents perceive the route to school is unsafe (whether because of the danger from traffic or because of fears about other safety issues, such as crime). When walking is not an option and a par- ent or other adult is not available to drive, students who rely on buses may have to sacrifice important after-school activities. Communities can make it easier to walk to and from school by building or rehabilitating smaller schools one mile or less from surrounding neighborhoods. Larger, centralized suburban schools may offer larger facilities and more programs, but neighborhood schools offer more efficient land use and closer walking proximity for students, which ultimately translates to improved interaction among students, schools, parents, and other citizens. The sur- rounding community can benefit from joint use of theaters, sports fields, gyms, computer centers, libraries, and other resources dur- ing non-school hours. Smaller schools also can be located close to facilities that provide daycare, sports, music, and other after- school activities to supplement schools' formal programs and pro- vide additional convenience for parents and caregivers.4 Moreover, as residents see their neighbors' children walking to school, they provide eyes on the street to enhance the safety of those children. Another way to provide walking opportunities for students is to establish formal programs to improve safety for children who choose to walk. Throughout the U.S., transportation, safety, and school officials and parents are coordinating safer routes to school by conducting walkability checks, retrofitting existing streets, adding volunteer crossing guards, distributing safety manuals, and/or organizing walking school buses.5 Examples of these pro- grams include Chicago's walking school bus, in which several parents escort a group of local students to school each morning,6 and California's Walk-to-School Program Headquarters, which promotes walking to school by posting information in 13 different languages and highlighting methods for improving walking safety.7 3- Use trees and other green infrastructure to provide shelter, beauty, urban heat reduction, and separation from automobile traffic. All too often, the pedestrian environment can be inhospitable. There may be no shade from the sun or visual relief from the sameness of the buildings. When sidewalks are close to the street edge, pedestrians may feel exposed to oncoming traffic. Planting street trees and other green infrastructure can alleviate many of these issues and make for a pleasant, comfortable, and safe walk- ing experience. A good tree canopy creates a comfortable environment for pedes- trians. In some cities, highly paved areas can be six to eight degrees hotter than areas with greater vegetation. Vegetation also absorbs carbon dioxide and filters air and pollutants, thus increas- ing air quality, lessening asthma-related health problems, and reducing water treatment costs.9 Trees and other vegetation can also act as a buffer between pedes- trians and automobiles. To simultaneously create the shade PRACTICE TIP: The Centers for Disease Control's (CDC) Kids Walk-to-School Program provides funding and assistance to states for programs such as International Walk to School Day and the Walking School Bus. The CDC online Guide to Promote Walking to School at http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/ kidswalk/pdf/kidswalk.pdf provides a step-by-step checklist, safety tips, and funding recommendations to assist communities in efficiently implementing a kids-walk-to-school program. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: Trees Atlanta organizes urban tree planting projects specifically to improve the urban environment with shading to reduce the urban heat island effect. Guidelines for tree ordinances and information related to health, trees, and the urban environment are available at http://www.treesatlanta.org/ index.html. The pedestrian master plan of Cambridge, Massachusetts, shows careful attention to the use of street trees to create the pedes- trian environment. canopy and a buffer zone, many neighborhoods use a landscaped strip between the sidewalk and the street. In the urban core, a continuous landscaped strip may not be possible or desirable, but street trees can still be placed in tree boxes or cut-outs. Trees are not the only option for buffers. Planters made of concrete or other materials and filled with greenery or flowering plants are used on many streets. In addition, landscaped islands and medians can create refuges for crossing pedestrians and can slow through- traffic by narrowing the lanes of car travel. To protect these investments over the long term, communities should provide the policy framework and resources to properly maintain vegetation. Many communities have enacted tree ordi- nances that cover issues such as the placement, care, and mainte- nance of trees (as well as the selection of appropriate species). The International Society of Arboriculture has developed guide- lines for developing and evaluating tree ordinances, which can be found online at http://www.isa-arbor.com/tree-ord/. Some cities, such as Cambridge, Massachusetts,10 have incorporated trees and vegetated buffers into their pedestrian master plans (see Policy 1). Encourage safe pedestrian routes to transit. In terms of the level of development it can support, the level of ridership it can capture,11 or its effectiveness as a means of reducing vehicle emissions,12 transit works best when people can walk to it. Yet in many places in the U.S., an over- whelming majority of riders reach transit by car. There are two main obstacles that prevent people from walking to transit. The first is that street and sidewalk networks in transit corridors and around bus stops and rail stations are often not designed with pedestrians in mind. Many bus stops are located in unsafe locations, such as at dangerous intersections, on highway shoulders, or on streets with narrow or no sidewalks. A second problem is that many transit stations are surrounded by large parking lots. If the distance a typical person is willing to walk from transit to a destination is a quarter-mile, and half of that dis- tance is taken up by a parking lot, many walking trips have been effectively deterred. Although "park-and-ride" commuter transit stations can play a useful role in outlying areas, the parking requirements and design standards are different in urban settings. Communities may want to review their transit stations and deter- mine whether (1) there are ways to make parking less of a barrier to pedestrian access and (2) the land devoted to parking presents an opportunity for development that will bring more potential riders within walking distance of the station entrance. (See Principle 8, Policy 6.) Many states, local governments, and transit agencies are now pay- ing more attention to pedestrian safety and accessibility to transit. Through a collaborative approach, these decision makers can review the layout, location, lighting, and connectivity between existing neighborhoods, new developments, and rail stations and bus stops to increase safety, shelter, and convenience. New Jersey Transit has received an $810,000 Transportation and Community and System Preservation grant to upgrade pedestrian and bike connections between commuter rail stations and the surrounding townships. In the San Francisco Bay Area, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission's Housing Incentive Program has provided funds to construct sidewalks and improve lighting in housing developments within one-third of a mile of transit sta- ------- CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES tions. North American communities can also look abroad for examples. According to transit expert Robert Cervero, "the seam- less interface of bicycle paths and pedestrian ways with major bus and rail lines" is a major factor in the high transit-mode share of many European and Latin American cities.13 Bogota, Colombia, and Copenhagen, Denmark, stand out as cities that make transit easily accessible on foot or bike. Indeed, designers in Copenhagen have apparently been able to extend the length that a typical pedestrian is willing to walk to transit from an average of a quar- ter-mile to at least six-tenths of a mile.14 The city of Gresham, Oregon, created the "Ped-to-MAX" pro- gram to better integrate the light rail line, which bypassed down- town and two other destination areas, into retrofitted mixed-use neighborhoods. The program's objective was to create safe pedes- trian areas where traffic speeds are slowed and the streetscape is aesthetically appealing, thereby encouraging more pedestrian activity and increased transit ridership. More recently, the pro- gram (now called "Boulevards") has concentrated on removing access barriers and reducing pedestrian and auto conflicts while still accommodating traffic. Some roads are as much as nine lanes wide at certain intersections; one focus of the Boulevards program will be enabling pedestrians to cross these streets safely. Improvements include texturized crosswalks, widened sidewalks, off-street pathways, midblock crosswalks, intersection improve- ments, medians, curb extensions, street lighting, pedestrian plazas, and other amenities.15 5- Develop walking awareness and promotion programs. Due to a lack of available information, many residents may simply not know about existing safe and convenient pedestrian routes to their desired destinations. Communities with an effective pedes- trian information strategy can reduce the amount of land used for transportation, improve overall community health and reduce obesity, boost community interaction, and make neighborhoods attractive and livable. Walking awareness programs can inform community members about pedestrian infrastructure and services. Newsletters, maps, walking guides, and pedestrian-scaled signage may promote available and planned walking routes as well as the benefits of walking to nearby destinations. Collaboration among health, safety, building, transportation and land use planners, and community development stakeholders can facilitate an awareness cam- paign that touches upon a broad range of issues and reaches a diverse audience. Walking promotion programs can substantiate walking as an achievable and convenient means of transportation. Local walking events, street festivals, and community walking tours introduce community members to the available infrastruc- ture and can be an outlet for information about available routes, health benefits, safety, and pedestrian rights and responsibilities. Public and private entities can work together to provide 5 support and incentives for programs like walking | contests with prizes, step counters, and informa- § tion packets. Media can work with local govern- s ment officials and planners to specifically pro- mote and inform residents about available trails and routes. For example, the Boulder Daily Camera newspaper publishes "Get The Ped-to-MAX program made this intersection safer for pedes- trians in Gresham. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: Bricks are a popular choice in many communities because of their attractiveness. However, they require high maintenance, can cre- ate a tripping hazard for many pedestrians, and can serve as an obstacle for wheelchair users. Tinted, stamped concrete can serve as a substitute if care is taken to reduce gaps and bumps. If bricks are desired, designers might con- sider using them only to line the edges of a street or sidewalk in order to mark boundaries. For more information on designing facilities that are accessible for all pedestrians, see "Building a True Community" at www. access-board.gov. Out," a section dedicated to updating Boulder, Colorado, resi- dents about new local facilities, trails, laws affecting recreation, recreational programs, and more.16 6. Use modern technology to increase pedestrian safety. The primary focus of efforts aimed at making streets and side- walks safer and more accessible is on good engineering and design practices-narrower streets, pedestrian islands, curb extensions, and wider sidewalks. Undoubtedly, these are the areas where the greatest gains are to be had. Yet, new technology can also play a role and, in conjunction with better-designed streets and side- walks, can improve safety for pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorists. For example, crosswalks with automated in-pavement flashing lights can be used to notify drivers when pedestrians are crossing.17 Countdown signals mounted on crosswalk signs indi- cate to pedestrians the amount of time remaining to safely cross before the light gives automobile traffic the right of way. For areas of frequent pedestrian-automobile conflicts, the states of Florida and Washington have added roving or animated eyes to traffic lights. By "looking" in the direction of pedestrian activity or at the crosswalks, the eye images remind drivers to look out for people crossing or those who may be active on the side of the road.18 Infrared pedestrian detectors activate traffic signals and pavement flashers when the pedestrian passes the sensor on one side of the street until the pedestrian crosses the sensor on the other side.19 Similarly, when microwave sensors detect pedestrians as the light is about to change, they extend the light in six-second increments until they no longer detect the pedestrian.20 Audible signals are particularly useful for pedestrians with impaired vision, as well as for those who have been momentarily distracted from the common visual signals at crosswalks. 7- Use visual cues and design elements to indicate pedestrian rights of way and minimize conflicts. Automobile and pedestrian interactions can make a trip to the nearby grocery more like an obstacle course than a short errand. Sometimes drivers fail to look for nonmotorists when turning, or they sometimes stop in the middle of the crosswalk. At other times, poorly placed landscaping elements, signs, and utility equipment may obstruct views for passing walkers and approach- ing drivers. Pedestrians who do not find a crosswalk handy may unexpectedly enter traffic in order to cross a street. Pedestrians, bicyclists, and drivers alike are often unaware of existing traffic laws or fail to comply with them. Many traffic authorities are testing new crosswalk markings, sign placement, lighting, and other transportation design elements and methods to improve driver and pedestrian awareness. Traffic engi- neering studies can help determine where and why problem spots are occurring and what may be the proper remedy. Removing impediments to lines of sight, updating and educating travelers about traffic laws, and using well-articulated markings for pedes- trian-automobile interaction zones can reduce the threat of acci- dents. Dangerous intersections can be retrofitted by reducing curb radii to reduce vehicle speed or by allowing on-street parking or curb extensions. These strategies narrow street entrance and exit points and also improve safety for pedestrians by placing them where they can see the vehicles better (and where the drivers can see them) and by reducing the distance they need to travel to cross the street. Well-articulated street-level or overhead signs both warn pedestrians to watch for cars and emphasize the pedestrian right-of-way to approaching cars. Breaking up street continuity ------- CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES using colored pavements, signs, or highly visible crosswalks also can communicate frequent pedestrian activity to drivers. Policy makers can establish the framework for safe, accessible, walkable communities by enacting and revising pedestrian right- of-way laws, and posting information about the rules and fines for noncompliance on highly visible street signs. For example, San Francisco's right-of-way laws fine drivers $104 for failing to yield to pedestrians in a crosswalk or for not allowing them to clear the street before driving through a green light.21 8. Situate parking to enhance the pedestrian environment and facilitate access between destinations. Parking lot design may force pedestrians to take unsafe routes between parked and moving cars to reach nearby destinations without the benefit of sidewalks or other guidance. The design of large surface parking lots in urban centers may cause pedestrians to walk further to access otherwise adjacent buildings. Large parking areas located in front of buildings separate pedestrian traffic from businesses and leave walkers isolated in an unappeal- ing environment. Well-designed parking can actually enhance convenience and accessibility for those on foot. For example, on-street parking may reduce auto speed and function as a barrier between pedes- trians and cars. Parking that incorporates sidewalks, crossings, signs, and other pedestrian-scaled features and is situated in prox- imity to multiple destinations can provide a connection to a vari- ety of activities, instead of making it difficult to go from errand to errand. Many cities are now creating parking districts to raise funds to help solve urban parking problems; land for large parking areas may be too expensive for each business to provide individually, yet each business often must provide some parking spaces to remain competitive. Consolidated structured parking approaches may actually reduce the overall amount of parking needed in a business district. Another strategy is intercept parking, which can be used to relo- cate land-intensive parking from business centers and neighbor- hoods to cheaper neighboring areas and communities while main- taining walkable densities and reducing downtown traffic conges- tion. Individuals taking advantage of intercept parking should be provided with logically defined, safe, and continuously marked paths from parking spaces to final destinations.22 Local government ordinances can provide incentives for pedes- trian-friendly parking while restricting parking designs that limit or prevent pedestrian traffic. Parking standards for the city of Denton, Texas, prohibit locating large parking lots on the side or in front of buildings and give parking credits to those who develop on-street parking that is available to the general public. Additionally, the standards require pedestrian access along a path or sidewalk.23 Make places walkable for aging populations in response to new demographics and special needs. The aging of the U.S. population—by 2030, one in five adults will be over the age of 65—underscores the importance of creat- ing walkable communities with older adults in mind. Incorporating specialized community design strategies, such as changes in streetscape design, and pursing long-term options PRACTICE TIP: The city of San Diego created park- ing meter districts to raise revenue for a variety of strategies to con- front parking problems: parking garages, maintenance, informational distribution, parking advisory boards, etc. See http://www. sannet.gov/economic-development/ business-assistance/small-business/ districts.shtml. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Shade trees, benches, and attractive design make this river walk in Savannah, Georgia, a walkable environment for senior citizens and other members of the community. FINANCE TIP: Communities can use air quality standards as an incentive to fund pedestrian and bicycle facilities. "In Atlanta, poor air quality from traffic congestion forced the issue. The region could not spend federal transportation funds on new high- ways until it came up with a plan to improve air quality.'The only proj- ects we could build were the small projects geared toward the pedes- trian/ says Tom Weyandt of the Atlanta Regional Commission, the metro area's planning agency. 'So in a sense, we were sort of shocked into it/The region is spending $175 million to build 385 miles of side- walks by 2005. That's a small slice of the region's 16,000 miles of roads and highways. But $350 mil- lion more over 10 years will go to transportation projects tied to the development of higher-density, mixed-use areas. Those will be mostly pedestrian improvements, Weyandt says. related to housing, transportation, and land use can support walk- ability among senior citizens, enabling them to remain independ- ent, to foster better health, and to actively participate in commu- nity life. Attention to small design and functional details can significantly improve seniors' mobility on foot. For example, repairing uneven sidewalks can reduce the risk of falls. Providing sheltered benches at regular intervals (and at 90-degree angles to minimize twisting and turning) can provide resting and meeting places. Traffic engi- neering strategies—such as extending the duration of crossing signals and reducing crossing distances at intersections through traffic calming measures (e.g., "bulb-outs," refuge islands, and other techniques)—can make it easier and safer for older adults to cross streets. Moreover, since vision and contrast perception become impaired with age, communities should provide sufficient lighting and easy-to-read signage and minimize abrupt grade changes or steep inclines. On a larger scale, close attention to the needs of the aging in local regulations and as part of the development review process can also help to create walkable environments for older people. For instance, revising zoning codes to allow for accessory apartments, "elder cottages," and shared housing can create new opportunities for older adults to live within walking distance of family, friends, and basic services. In addition, localities should carefully consider the location and design of new facilities, such as retirement and assisted-living communities, to ensure that new developments are designed to provide walkable connections to nearby neighbor- hoods and services and provide infrastructure for walking on site. IO. Retrofit superblocks and cul-de-sac street networks. Cul-de-sac communities were originally designed to separate pedestrian and automobile traffic for safety and tranquility pur- poses.25 Unfortunately, most recent cul-de-sac communities pro- vide few services and contain paths that end abruptly at subdivi- sion boundaries, forcing pedestrians to take circuitous routes or cross busy arterials to reach destinations that otherwise are only a short distance from home. To address this problem, communities can remove barriers and connect sidewalks and trails to services and places to which residents would usually drive. The Legacy Plan, adopted by Forsyth County, North Carolina, which includes Winston-Salem, calls for greenways and paths that link mixed-use developments and reduce travel distance between resi- dences and other destinations.26 Wayfinding signage that displays the direction to and distance between destinations helps guide residents and alleviates traveling concerns about time and orien- tation (for more information, see Principle 5, Policy 4). ------- CREATE WALKABLE COMMUNITIES Many localities are retrofitting urban city centers by changing large blocks into several small blocks to attract foot traffic with comfortable and convenient routes between businesses and sur- rounding residential development. For example, in Kansas City, Missouri, and Des Moines, Iowa, designers are emphasizing pedestrian walkways and reinforcing the existing city grid to con- nect surrounding residential communities with downtown areas.27 RESOURCES: Howe, Deborah A. Aging and Smart Growth: Building Aging-Sensitive Communities. Translation Paper No. 7. Funders' Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, December 2001. Available online at http://www.giaging.org/aging%20paper.pdf. The National Center for Bicycling and Walking (http://www.bikewalk.org/index.htm) The Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center (http://www.walkinginfo.org/) provides a clearinghouse of information related to walking and community walkability. U.S. Department of Transportation, Accommodating Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel: A Recommended Approach, available at http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/community/pdf/PedBikeDesignGuide.pdf. Nancy Humpel, "Environmental Forces Associated with Adults' Participation in Physical Activity: A Review," American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 22, no. 3 (2002): 188-198. See http://www.trans.ci.pordand.or.us/plans/pedestrianmasterplan/ PedMasterPlan.pdf for Portland's pedestrian master plan. "Barriers to Children Walking and Biking to School: United States, 1999," MMWR Weekly, 51, no. 32 (August 16, 2002). North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, Making Current Trends in School Design Feasible (Raleigh, 2000). Available at www.schoolclearinghouse.org. California Safe Routes to School Clearinghouse, http://www.4saferoutes.org/about_us.html 6 See http://www.ci.chi.il.us/cp/AboutCAPS/HowCAPSWorks/ WalkingSchoolbus.html. See http://www.cawalktoschool.com/stickers.php. See http://www.walktoschool-usa.org/. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ ActionsLocalHeatIslandEffect.html? OpenDocument for a fact sheet on the heat island effect. More information on Cambridge's pedestrian master plan can be found at http://www.cambridgema.gov/~CDD/envirotrans/walking/pedplan/index. html. Research shows that in many cases, transit ridership is higher at stations that are oriented toward walkable communities with adequate pedestrian infrastructure. "Study Favors Denser Development Along Virginia's Orange Line," Washington Port, June 29, 2003, p. C8. A high proportion of vehicle emissions results from cold starts and during the first few minutes of an automobile trip. See http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/aqfactbk/factbkl 3 .htm. Robert Cervero, "Green Connectors: Off-Shore Examples," Planning, 69, no. 5 (May 2003): 25-29. 14 Ibid. Rebecca Ocken, Improving Pedestrian Access to Transit: City of Ores/jam's Ped-to-MAX Program, at http://nd.bts.gov/data/6_conference/ 00778496.pdf; and the program Web site at http://www.ci.gresham.or.us/ departments/cedd/tp/programs_projects.htm#ped. See http://www.dailycamera.com/bdc/get_out/. 17 Rock Miller, PE, PTOE and George Dore, PE, "In-Pavement Flashing Crosswalks—State of the Art." See http://www.katzokitsu.com/ ingroundflash.htm. See http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/news/nov02/SR99RovingEyesFlyer.pdffor a flyer publicizing a demonstration of this technology in Washington State. See http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsmart/plport.htmffinfrared for a description of this technology as it is used in Portland, Oregon. See http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsmart/nookit.htm. See http://www.sfsafe.org/bro_hr/ped_right.pdf ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Carfree.com offers an extensive compilation of information, ideas, and guidance on creating car-free districts and cities and describes methods used in existing car-free cities and districts around the world. East Lake Commons near Adanta, Georgia, envisions the use of intercept parking on the outskirts of the residential cohousing community to create a more ..... . , .. • 11 i -i i ri habitable environment tor residents, especially children. See http://www. easdakecommons.org/Ideals/vision.htm. See http://www.developmentexcellence.com/tools/docs/denton/ parking.pdf 24 Martha T Moor6; ..Q^ suburban designs could be bad for your health;» USAToday April 30 2003 25 http://www.radburn.org/genmfo/history.html & http://www.co.forsyth.nc.us/CCPB/SEAPfinal.pdf http://www.gouldevans.com/articles/art_urbanl and_2000.htm ------- Chapter 5 Foster Distinctive, Attractive Communities with a Strong Sense of Place Demand is growing for town centers, com- mercial corridors, public plazas, and tran- sit villages that create a sense of place and establish a unique identity for a community. Charles Bohl notes in Placemaking: Developing Town Centers, Main Streets, and Urban Villages that approximately 100 new town center proj- ects are planned or under construction and more than 6,000 main street and downtown revitalization projects are under way through- out the country.1 Developers and builders are finding that tenants and homebuyers are willing to pay a premium to live in a neighborhood that is attractive and pedestrian-oriented and that creates a sense of community. $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II In response, towns and cities are looking to develop more of the types of places that their residents can take pride in—the shop- ping districts and plazas where residents bring out-of-town visi- tors and frequent on the weekends, or well-designed, pedestrian- oriented gathering places that focus on historical, cultural, or nat- ural attributes—while creating opportunities to pursue a range of activities in a small area. Many existing communities have such features, and new developments can be designed to create central gathering places and areas of civic pride. By preserving and main- taining the buildings and natural environments that make our communities unique, we are creating places of lasting value that serve as focal points for the current community and future gener- ations. Historically, the public and private sectors have each played a critical role in creating attractive and memorable places. As the recommendations below suggest, this remains true today. I. Establish revolving loan funds for historic preservation. Historic sites and buildings play a valuable role in educating new generations about the nation's culture and heritage. Many of these places are unique and revered features in their communities. Oftentimes, funding for the preservation of historic properties, neighborhoods, and landmarks competes with budgetary allot- ments for libraries, parks, and other public amenities. Sometimes, preservation funding comes from a state program whose budget fluctuates from year to year and makes investing in the restoration and rehabilitation of structures less predictable and reliable. To ensure adequate and sustained funding for historic preserva- tion, some communities and preservation foundations are estab- lishing revolving loan funds. Frequently, these funds are capital- ized with an initial grant or with proceeds from a bond measure. Loans are made to nonprofit organizations and local govern- ments, and are dispersed with favorable interest rates and 10- to 20-year repayment terms. The principal and interest are then returned to the loan fund for continued historic preservation. New Jersey's revolving loan fund is run by the New Jersey Historic Trust (NJHT), a nonprofit historic preservation organi- zation for which the initial $3 million funding came from a 1987 bond act. The fund itself was established by the Historic Preservation Revolving Loan Fund Act, which was passed by the state legislature in 1991. Currently, NJHT will finance loans that range between $25,000 and $370,000. The interest rate on these loans is no more than 4 percent, and the term of the loan repay- ment period is up to 20 years, although the usual range is from 5 to 10 years.2 In Pennsylvania, the Pittsburgh History & Landmarks Foundation's revolving loan fund has been in existence since the 1960s. Rather than simply purchasing and restoring buildings, the foundation increasingly provides short-term loans and technical assistance to community-based organizations for historic building restoration projects that provide affordable housing.3 By creating revolving loan funds, communities have more assur- ance that funding for historic preservation will be available despite changing economic tides. 2. Create community greens. In older cities and towns, there is often a critical need for safe, recreational green space for city residents. One way to address this demand is through the creation of "community greens," which are shared parks incorporated into residential blocks. Often ------- FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE situated in vacant and blighted areas, these greens can provide accessible and safe places for children to play and can improve property values. Usually, these community parks are voluntarily established by households located adjacent to the vacant property or alley and are intended for their use only. Residents either apportion parts of their backyards into a larger shared yard or garden, or work with the city government to transform neglected alleys or other prop- erties into usable green space. In some new developments, shared yards or squares are incorporated in the overall project design. Local governments can encourage residents and/or nonprofit organizations to create community greens through matching grants, low-interest loans, design services, fence removal, and free or low-cost plant supplies. In a lower-income, ethnically diverse neighborhood just south of downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota, the Hope Community Development Corporation (CDC) began purchasing houses to create affordable rental units in the late 1980s. To create a sense of community and provide shared recreational space, the CDC removed private fences and developed a common area with a pavilion, playground, and garden. Without the use of gates or fences, the Hope Community used visual cues to establish privacy, promote safety, and discourage crime around the common area. In this instance, the open space is surrounded by homes fronting the property, thus allowing residents to observe activity through- out the day. 3- Turn underused highways into boulevards. Many urban highways created during the 1950s and 1960s were designed to move auto traffic quickly through downtowns. These roadways changed the character of many existing neighborhoods. In some cases, roadways were constructed with more capacity than was needed. This can be the result of demographics change, the addition of transit into an area, or other factors that caused less demand for the roadway than originally predicted. Rather than leave a large roadway with excess capacity, communities are retrofitting them, making them multimodal, aesthetically pleas- ing, and attractive to new development. Boulevards are intended to serve multiple modes—cars, buses, bicycles, pedestrians—efficiently and elegantly. Typically, a boule- vard has four vehicular through-lanes (two lanes for each direc- tion) with a wide, tree-lined central median. On the outer edges of the through-lanes are a pair of landscaped medians that sepa- rate the faster moving traffic from a slow-moving, one-way traffic lane for deliveries, bicycling, and parking. These secondary medi- ans can contain another sidewalk and create a refuge for pedestri- ans so that they do not have to cross seven lanes of traffic at once. Wide sidewalks run parallel to the parked cars and, coupled with the local traffic lane, provide a substantial buffer between adjacent buildings and the faster moving traffic in the boulevard. The cross-section shown at the right illustrates one example of a boulevard's configuration and the various widths associated with each lane. The schematic is of Octavia Boulevard, a roadway under reconstruction in San Francisco, California. PRACTICE TIP: Community Greens, a nonprofit organization based in Arlington, Virginia, is dedicated to helping communities create these small- scaled neighborhood backyards and has developed case studies, educa- tional materials, and technical assistance. For more information, see http://www.communitygreens. org/. Cross-section of the planned Octavia Boulevard in San Francisco, California. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: In its groundbreaking city plan, Blueprint 2020, Denver has pioneered a new concept of "zoning for streets." Conventionally, categorizing street function forms a hierarchy of streets, ranging from those that are primarily for travel mobility (arterials) to those that are primarily for access to prop- erty (local streets). This kind of classification ignores or de-emphasizes modes of travel other than cars and does not consider surrounding land uses. Under Denver's system, streets are defined by their relationship to adjacent land use and their function for pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit. In Denver, multimodal streets are zoned as residential streets, main streets, mixed-use streets, commercial streets, industrial streets, landmark streets, and one-way couplets. For example, a main street serves the highest-inten- sity retail and mixed land uses in the downtown and neighborhood centers. The streets typically have between two and four travel lanes with on-street parking. To create a pedestrian-friendly atmosphere, main streets will likely have wide sidewalks, street furniture (e.g., benches, information kiosks, trash receptacles, etc.), outdoor cafes, plazas, and other public spaces.4 . .. • Jfcfc.lA.fA ^. x In San Francisco, the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake severely damaged the elevated Central Freeway. For many years, the elevated freeway created a physi- cal divide in the neighborhoods. The freeway's traffic noises and visual barrier concerned resi- dents, and the overpass created an environment that limited the success of the neighborhood's commercial district. By 1998, residents voted against rebuild- ing the elevated freeway and in favor of constructing an at-grade thoroughfare on Octavia Boulevard, which runs next to the freeway. Octavia Boulevard is designed to carry relatively rapid and nonlo- cal traffic. It allows for easier through-driving than normally configured streets because slow- going traffic and parking maneu- vers are contained in the one- „ way traffic lanes on each side of the boulevard. To balance its | function as an arterial, Octavia's | Rendering of Octavia Boulevard, = San Francisco, California. pedestrian realms create a safe and inviting space for nonmotor- ized travel. Communities can work with their state Departments of Transportation (DOTs) and their local public works engineers to pursue opportunities to design streets that meet multiple goals. Context-sensitive design approaches are being implemented and supported throughout the country. Whether retrofitting an existing roadway or planning for mobility needs in the future, transporta- tion planners should look for opportunities to create streets that are inviting, serve all users, and create a quality urban environment. Develop a comprehensive wayfinding system in town centers. Whether a newcomer, a tourist, or a long-time resident, "wayfinders" not only help people find which direction they need to go to get to their destination, but they can also connect people to local history, unique neighborhood features and attractions, and the nearest transit stop. To be successful, wayfinding signs must work for both motorists traveling at fast speeds and slow- moving pedestrians who may be exploring sites along the way. They must organize a large amount of information in visually simplistic ways with consistency in size, graphics, and color. Designers of wayfinding systems use the signs as opportunities to promote the diverse activities in a city. In many downtowns, chambers of commerce and business improvement districts are discovering that wayfinding systems can increase attendance at featured venues.5 Pedestrians are often willing to walk farther if directional informa- tion is available and easy to understand. Walk! Philadelphia is a signage program geared toward pedestrians that includes neighbor- ------- FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE Walk! Philadelphia signs help pedestrians orient themselves downtown. Design by Joel Katz Design Associates, 1995. | hood maps illustrating * the street network and I locations of attrac- g tions and landmarks. 3 Funding for the proj- f ect was provided by grants and capital funds from the city budget. The city collects fees from the venues listed on the signs to fund annual maintenance. In these cases, and in many others around the country, wayfmding systems are about more than getting from point A to point B: they create an identity for the city, bring new visitors to attractions, and make it easier for people to get acquainted with the town. 5- Use distinctive public transit to increase the attractiveness of neighborhoods. Transit is not usually thought of as a tool for creating a sense of place, but in cities like Boulder, Colorado, and Portland, Oregon, new bus and streetcar systems are creating distinctive and unify- ing links in neighborhoods. In these places, the transit systems are designed to reflect the character of the neighborhoods, each with a unique identity and amenities. In 1989, Boulder's City Council allocated federal and city rev- enues to plan, implement, and operate a community-based transit system. GO Boulder, the city's transit agency, created the Community Transit Network (CTN), the mission of which was to run a fleet of small, colorfully designed buses with high-fre- quency, inexpensive, and direct service within the city. Presently, CTN sponsors six individual bus lines—Hop, Skip, Jump, Bound, Dash, and Stampede—each with distinctive identities. A citizen design panel developed community-based design guide- lines for each of the bus lines. All six of the fleets are comprised of neighborhood-scale-sized vehicles appropriate for Boulder's con- text. Each line is brightly colored and reflects various themes. For instance, the Skip Line, which serves riders who commute to work or school during the day and use the bus for a night out on the town, has graphics that show an energized commuter with a coffee cup. The Jump line, which travels semirural streets to a community outside of Boulder, displays cows, snowflakes, a wind- mill, and a cozy home—all things travelers would see on the route. In total, the CTN moves 15,000 passengers each day and continues to expand its system.6 In Oregon, a new system links the museums of Portland's down- town cultural district to the gal- leries, restaurants, and shops of the revitalized Pearl District and Northwest/Nob Hill neighbor- hood. The streetcar also travels through an emerging neighbor- hood, the River District, which has 34 acres of centrally located abandoned rail yards that will be transformed into new housing. The River District Vision, a plan | adopted by the city in 1992, | positions the streetcar as a cen- | tral feature to connect lofts, | apartments, condominiums, and | businesses in the district with f Streetcar Lofts Condominiums designed by Robert S. Leeb Architects + Planners. Copyright 2002 ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: The Project for Public Spaces (PPS), a nonprofit organization based in New York City, uses a "place audit" to get community input about the comfort and image of a place (which could refer to a street, plaza, or neighborhood cor- ner). Participants are asked to judge the assets and problems of the space and to identify the short- and long-term opportunities that they envision for the place. This experiential tool is easy to use and can engage the public in the plan- ning process to create a place that is both attractive and reflects the community's values. (For more information, see http://www. placematters.com/Placemaking/ Placemaking_vl.pdf.) the rest of downtown Portland and the city's light-rail system. The new streetcar has become such a defining feature of the area that one condominium project, the Streetcar Lofts, urges prospective buyers and residents to "go by streetcar."7 6. Highlight cultural assets through public art and event nights. The arts are an essential way of establishing a sense of place in a community. Whether through public sculptures woven into the streetscape, murals on building walls, or galleries sponsoring neighborhood walks, the arts bring vitality to urban areas in large and small towns alike. Art-related activities create a broader sense of community in neighborhoods and connect them to other places. For example, researchers Mark Stern and Susan Seifert found that most of Philadelphia's arts and cultural activity is con- centrated in neighborhoods near the center of the city. They dis- covered that these centrally located neighborhoods have a higher- than-average mix of incomes and professions, and that 80 percent of the people who participate in events there came from else- where in the region.8 In 1988, the city of Tucson, Arizona, adopted the Tucson Arts District Master Plan, which is managed by the nonprofit Tucson Arts District Partnership. The partnership represents citywide interests of the arts, businesses, economic development, tourism, historic preservation, and neighborhood communities. The dis- trict was created to funnel arts and cultural resources into a cen- tral area that would help to rejuvenate Tucson's core. To bring people to the district, the partnership hosts a variety of activities throughout the year, including art walks, street fairs, and free per- formances.9 Los Angeles, California, is often considered the mural capital of the world. Estimates calculate that there are more than 1,500 public murals painted on walls both indoors and outdoors. Over the decades, these murals have reflected the history and changing culture of the city. From publicly sponsored New Deal art to con- temporary grassroots scenes on the sides of buildings, murals have become an expression of the times in the city. As Los Angeles has realized the uniqueness of its public art, government institutions (such as public libraries, police stations, and the Metropolitan Transit Authority), corporations, and community organizations have begun to sponsor the upkeep and creation of new murals. These examples show that public art and artists' districts can be a powerful attraction for cities. By featuring art that occurs organi- cally or by sponsoring special events, towns and cities can highlight their unique character and bring joy to residents and tourists alike. 7- Use asset-based tools and resident engagement to reflect community values. Creating a sense of place can be a daunting task for a community. In underdeveloped, transitional, or blighted areas, residents may be overwhelmed by daunting challenges and may find it difficult to focus on the assets that are already there. "Community Asset Inventories" are tools that encourage residents to start with the resources that already exist in the community: the skills and abili- ties of residents, the work of neighborhood associations, and the existing institutions in an area. Using asset inventories can help residents focus on protecting and enhancing the people and the places they value while adopting new ideas to help them meet their goals. ------- FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE In Washington, D.C., the city's Office of Planning has embarked on the ambitious Strategic Neighborhood Action Plan (SNAP) program to focus on short-term goals identified by community residents throughout the District. Since January 2001, city plan- ners have met with residents in D.C.'s 39 neighborhood clusters, and the District has generated interest through public notices and listserve announcements. Through these multiple meetings, par- ticipants create action plans that detail the top priorities in each neighborhood (such as street cleaning and a greater police pres- ence.) The planning office then assigns the relevant city agency to implement the plans, and the mayor's office uses the SNAPs to inform and guide decisions on the city budget. SNAPs have given D.C. residents an opportunity to identify how they want to improve their neighborhoods and make them more attractive places to live, work, and play. Local governments and organizations can use asset inventories, larger neighborhood action-planning efforts, or place-based audits to provide a tangible and interactive experience for resi- dents. Through these mechanisms, distinctive and attractive places are created based on the values of the community. 8. Revitalize the waterfront. For the past several decades, communities have discovered that revitalized waterfronts are a considerable asset. Riverfronts that have been separated from neighborhoods by roadways, railways, or large-scale industrial development have been opened up and revitalized with parks, trails, housing, entertainment, and water- related activities. Cities can take the first step in recognizing this natural resource and work with communities, developers, parks departments, and civic organizations to make it a destination. By targeting state and federal brownfield, transportation, and eco- nomic development dollars to waterfront areas, cities can provide early funding for revitalization initiatives. Baltimore's Inner Harbor, once home to factories and maritime industries, began its long process of revitalization in the 1970s. Many of the parcels along the waterfront were contaminated by past industrial use, making their redevelopment even more chal- lenging. An aquarium, hotels, a convention hall, and a three-acre retail and entertainment complex called Harborplace—all of which capitalized on tourism as an economic development strategy—were the earliest parts of the Inner Harbor's transfor- mation. Recently the city has introduced a more diverse mix of uses to the area: residences, office space, and non-tourist-oriented retail. Through its ambitious brownfields program, assisted by Maryland's Voluntary Cleanup Program, many of the polluted industrial areas adjacent to the Inner Harbor have been cleaned up and are now being reused. As C. William Struever, head of Struever Bros., an infill development firm, noted, "Baltimore has a glorious opportunity created by the geography of the harbor, which brings the waterfront right into the heart of downtown. I don't think there's anyplace else that has the same intimacy and diversity and excitement—and all so close to the harbor. We've only begun to see what's possible. Water is a magic thing."10 In New York City, the 550-acre Hudson River Park has redefined the formerly commercial and industrial edge of the city as public open space complete with a bikeway/walkway, a marine sanctuary, 13 public piers, and new parklands. The trail that runs through the park and into northern Manhattan connects neighborhoods and brings residents and commuters to the once inaccessible river. In 1973, residents on the west side of Manhattan defeated propos- als to rebuild the West Side Highway as a tunneled major road- FINANCETIP: The Waterfronts Florida Partnership, launched by the Florida Coastal Management Program in 1997, helps participat- ing communities revitalize, renew, and promote interest in their waterfront districts. Between 1997 and 2001, the Florida's Department of Community Affairs designated nine Waterfronts Florida Partnership Communities. Each received two years of techni- cal and financial assistance, funded in part by state monies from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's coastal grant pro- gram. Results have included nearly 7,000 hours of volunteer services; $143,362 in private donations; and $7.4 million in other public invest- ment that resulted in completion of 16 capital projects, from creating boardwalk features to beach cleanups. (For more information, consult http://www.dca.state.fl.us/ fdcp/dcp/waterfronts/waterfront. htm.) ;/ ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Hudson River Bikeway, New York, New York. way built under fill extending into the Hudson River. Subsequent designs developed by the West Side Waterfront Panel called for a grand boulevard with a wide, planted median; safer pedestrian crossings; and a bikeway/walkway on the western edge, with a lin- ear park. These ideas were to become the basis for the current design of the park. In 1998, Governor Pataki signed into law the Hudson River Park Act, which formalized the creation of Hudson River Park and Hudson River Park Trust—a city/state partner- ship charged with the design, construction, and operation of the Hudson River Park. The popularity of this initiative is evidenced by the nearly one million visitors who explore the city's newest park every year.11 Office space or parkland, waterfront property is a limited asset in almost all communities. It requires judicious planning to make the most of precious space that is often inaccessible, neglected, or contaminated from prior industrial use. 9- Make retail centers distinctive and attractive destinations. In many places, stores are housed in cookie-cutter regional malls surrounded by surface parking or can be found in strip malls that appear at regular intervals along busy arterials. Increasingly, these developments are failing. Charles Bohl reports that "since the 1980s, 3 retail space has been growing five to six times faster § than retail sales: the United States is currently flooded 'H J f with almost 5 billion square feet of retail space of i which 500 million square feet is vacant."12 I I PricewaterhouseCoopers and LendLease pointed out | in a 2003 survey, "Emerging Trends in Real Estate," that "[fjamiliar problems, catalogued in past Emerging Trends, persist in many suburban markets [...], including [...] banal com- mercial strips and gasoline alleys and the demise of older, less strategically located regional malls."13 While shopping continues to be a great American pastime, people are looking for new, more attractive places to shop. In response, retailers have been locating stores on older main streets and in "lifestyle centers"—open-air shopping malls that are located in town centers. Today's attractive and successful retailing centers pay careful attention to the pedestrian experience. They also capi- talize on interesting architectural design to attract both retail ten- ants and surrounding office and residential development. Though constructed in the 1920s, the Country Club Plaza in Kansas City, Missouri, offers many lessons for contemporary retail design. This low-rise landmark, one of the first shopping centers in the country, is a pedestrian-oriented, open-air market designed with Spanish-style architecture and adorned with public art, plazas, and fountains. Next to the historic market, a 60-acre business district evolved over the following decades to both pro- vide jobs for residents in the high-density apartment blocks sur- rounding the area and create stronger market demand for the plaza's commercial development. Celebrating its 80th birthday in 2003, the plaza still endures as a shopping destination, even as additional retail, office, and parking projects have been added to the original center. The building's innovative design and high- quality construction have ensured that the shops stay leased with retail outlets and services. While the tenants may have changed over the years, the plaza is still a central gathering spot for locals and tourists alike. By the 1990s, Bethesda, Maryland, a first-ring suburb of Washington, D.C., had grown into a dense office and retail dis- ------- FOSTER DISTINCTIVE, ATTRACTIVE COMMUNITIES WITH A STRONG SENSE OF PLACE trict with no focal point. To create a vital town center, the Federal Realty Investment Trust embarked on a multiphased project called Bethesda Row. Nearing completion, the project is a mix of renovated and new structures that will house 600,000 square feet of retail and office space. Shops and restaurants are designed to evoke variety and uniqueness, featuring different storefront styles and a mix of national and local tenants. In developing the project, Federal Realty convinced county officials to establish a cafe zone between the street and the sidewalk and to create an inviting envi- ronment for diners and pedestrians. A fountain, outdoor seating, and shops are an attractive rest stop for cyclists and walkers who use the popular 11.5-mile Capital Crescent Trail that connects the District's Georgetown neighborhood to Bethesda. Creating attractive retail is a viable business strategy for develop- ers and a boon for the residents and consumers who shop there. The project becomes more than just a place to buy goods: it can become a centerpiece for the community. IO. Use transportation enhancements funds to create places of distinction. Established under the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA), the Transportation Enhancements (TE) program, administered by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), provides funding to state transportation agencies to develop transportation projects that improve community quality of life. The program directs state DOTs to allocate 10 percent of their Surface Transportation Program funds to transportation enhancements. Under the pro- gram, 12 activities are eligible for funding. They include provid- ing facilities for pedestrians and bicyclists, acquiring scenic ease- ments and scenic or historic sites, beautification projects, historic preservation, and rehabilitation of historic transportation struc- tures. According to FHWA, more than $2.4 billion has been invested around the country in over 12,000 projects since 1991. Communities across the country have used TE funding to improve streetscapes in town centers and to create attractive bridges and paths for nonmotorized travel that become local gathering places. In 1994, Minneapolis, Minnesota, used $2.2 million of TE funds to convert the Stone Arch Bridge, a historic rail bridge that connected the west side of the Mississippi River to markets outside of the city, into a bicycle, pedestrian, and trolley bridge connecting downtown to the University of Minnesota campus. From the popular bridge, travelers enjoy a view of the downtown skyline, St. Anthony Falls, and the old mills on the river's banks. The bridge, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, has spurred the redevelopment of the "Mill District," which will house a museum, offices, and residences and accentuate the area's industrial heritage. The bridge is also part of a larger heritage trail and hosts a summer arts festival that is widely attended. The bridge has become a valued landmark in the city of Minneapolis. For descriptions of many other TE projects, see the National Transportation Enhancements Clearinghouse at http://www.enhancements.org/. Charles C. Bohl, Placemaking: Developing Town Centers, Main Streets, and Urban Villages (Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 2002), 9. For more information, consult http://www.njht.org/. For more information, consult http://www.phlf.org/services/presloanfhd.html. For more information, consult http://www.denvergov.org/dephome.asp?depid=l 3 23. PRACTICE TIP: The Delaware Department of Transportation (DelDOT) modified its allocation of TE funds in order to make the program more efficient for local governments. DelDOT replaced the 20-percent municipal match with a sliding scale, under which municipal contribution goes down or up, depending on the pro- ject's size. DelDOT replaced the two-year project submission and review cycle with a rolling submis- sion policy that allows municipali- ties to submit projects for immedi- ate review and authorization at any time. Finally, DelDOT increased the maximum reimbursement for a project from $500,000 to $1 million. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Jeffry Corbin and Wayne Hunt, "A Single Voice," American City and For more information, consult http://www.tucsonartsdistrict.org/. County 118 (March 2003), 20-29. 10 Edward Gunts, "Rolling Out the Welcome Mat," Ba/ftmoreSra, January 9, For more information, consult 2000. http://www.ci.boulder.co.us/goboulder/html/transit/index.html. 11 http://www.hudsonriverpark.org For more information about the Streetcar Lofts, see Robert S. Leeb 12 charles c Boh]) piacemaking. Developing Town Centers, Main Streets, and Architects and Planners LLC Web site: Urban Villages (Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 2002), 17. http://www.rslarc.com/Index2.html. 13 n . ^ , T JT rrriT™?!? • T j • PricewaterhouseCoopers and LendLease LLP, 2003 Emerging Irends in Funders' Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, The Arts Heal Estate (New York- October 2002) 36 and Smart Growth: The Role of Arts in Place Making, Translation Paper No. 12 (April 2003). ------- Preserve Open Space, Farmland, Natural Beauty, and Critical Environmental Areas The U.S. Department of Agriculture esti- mates that as of 2001, only 7 percent of state, local, and private land area in the U.S. was developed into residential, commercial, and transportation uses.1 Of the remaining land, 28 percent remained forestland, 62 percent was farm and ranchland (working lands), and 3 per- cent was other rural land (e.g., marshland, bar- ren land, and farmsteads).2 These figures give the impression that the U.S. has an abundance of open space. Yet, the public continues to vote to allocate resources to preserve more open space and working lands. Since 2001, $11.7 billion have been added to public coffers.3 The magnitude of public support has placed open space preservation at the center of many state and local land-use programs.4 $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Why is there so much support for preserving open space and work- ing lands if the U.S. has 13 times more wetlands, forestland, and working lands than it has developed land?5 The answer relates to the close nexus between open space and quality of life, economic development, and environmental protection. The 2000 Census reported that over 80 percent of Americans live in metropolitan areas. For many of these people, undeveloped land in their area is their immediate concern. The relative abundance of undeveloped land nationally is of little comfort to the family who drives hours to get to the countryside or natural areas. This type of public concern led Sonoma County, California, to preserve local working lands and to create green "community separators" in order to direct growth to existing areas and to create a sense of place.6 Local governments across the country are also realizing that locally accessible open space can make a community an attractive location for potential employees, raise property values, and stimu- late tourism. Plentiful and accessible open space and working lands were factors in Hewlett Packard, Intel, and Hyundai's deci- sions to locate in Portland, Oregon.7 Open space and working lands also require fewer community services than residential or commercial development, which allows localities to save money for other fiscal priorities. Preservation efforts are also driven by the environmental impacts of losing open space and working lands. Forests, wetlands, mead- ows, and other natural areas provide essential ecosystem services such as filtering runoff, storing carbon emissions, and maintain- ing wildlife habitat. These and other ecoservices can be damaged as open space is replaced with parking lots, malls, office buildings, driveways, and other structures. When these ecosystem services are sufficiently degraded, communities are often forced to spend large sums of money to construct technologies, such as water treatment plants, that mimic natural functions. The following policies and strategies represent a broad range of tools to promote open space and the preservation of working lands as part of a community's larger development process. Each of these policies and strategies may not be applicable in all com- munities, but they can provide a starting point for communities to create and preserve special human and wildlife habitats. Furthermore, these policies are best used to create a regional open-space network that helps identify which lands should be preserved and which lands should be developed. I. Link land conservation with other smart growth principles. Open space conservation is closely tied with other principles of smart growth, such as Principle 3, "create a range of housing opportunities and choices," and Principle 7, "strengthen and direct development toward existing communities." It is important to implement these principles in combination with open-space preservation efforts. Without them, conservation efforts can push new demand into adjacent areas by simply shifting land conver- sion to other localities. Smart growth neighborhoods are impor- tant for effective land conservation because compact, mixed-use developments use less land than the same number of units devel- oped in the typical low-density pattern, thereby relieving growth pressures on open space.8 Reusing previously developed land has a similar impact. In 2002, President George Bush noted that "one of the best ways to arrest urban sprawl is to develop brownfields and make them productive pieces of land, where people can find work and employment. By one estimate, for every one acre of redeveloped ------- PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS brownfields, we save 4.5 acres of open space."9 St. Louis, Missouri, is attempting to make this connection throughout their metropolitan area. The city is working with the surrounding municipalities to preserve open space and direct growth to exist- ing communities.10 Their regional blueprint places a large focus on redeveloping brownfields to achieve their goals. The state of Massachusetts has connected several smart growth principles through its Community Preservation Act. The act pro- vides state matching funds to local governments that adopt fund- ing programs by local referendum. It requires that at least 10 per- cent of the combined state-local funds in each community must be expended on each of three categories of activity: affordable housing, open space, and historic and community preservation; the remaining 70 percent can be allocated to any of the three areas.11 By combining different goals within a single act, advocates for housing, community preservation, and open space protection begin to connect their interests and collaborate on allocations of money that will deliver multiple goals—projects that deliver housing, protect open space, and revitalize communities—instead of remaining indifferent or even opposed to one another's inter- ests. Achieving multiple goals through a single investment is a hallmark of smart growth. 2. Use land management techniques and acquisition to protect drinking water sources. A recent Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study fore- casted a need for capital spending of more than $150 billion over the next 20 years to ensure the continued provision of safe drink- ing water.12 The majority of this estimate was derived from the need to build water treatment, storage, and distribution infra- structure. Many communities are seeking to reduce the need for costly infrastructure by preserving and managing watershed lands for source water protection. Preserving open space upstream can help protect drinking water resources by filtering out contaminants and chemical pollutants before they enter the community's water system. Critical areas for water-quality protection include wetlands, buffer zones, riparian corridors, and floodplains. Wetlands are especially critical in main- taining water quality since they are natural filtration plants. As water's flow-rate slows, water is filtered as sediments settle out. Trace metals bound to clay carried in runoff also drop out and become sequestered in the soils and peat at the bed of the marsh. Thus, open areas can provide a natural mechanism for filtering out the pollutants from development and other human activities. Conservation groups and the cities of San Antonio and Austin, Texas, have been actively protecting these natural filtering func- tions. They are acquiring lands around Edward's aquifer, a source of drinking water for millions of residents. Land management tech- niques can also protect source water. Strips of vegetation along streams and around reservoirs provide important buffers. These buffer zones decrease the amount of pollu- tion entering the water sys- tem. Tree and shrub roots hold the bank in place, pre- venting erosion and its result- PRACTICETIP: For more information on land man- agement techniques to protect water resources, see the forthcom- ing EPA publication Protecting Water Resources with Smart Growth: 100 Policies at http:// www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/ publications.htm. Stream buffers are a proven strategy for safeguarding water resources. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: The Environmental Law Institute's Conservation Thresholds for Land Use Planners provides practical information on how to include land- scape ecology principles into the land-use decision-making process. See http://www.elistore.org/ reports_detail.asp?ID=10839 for more information. ing sedimentation and turbidity. Detritus and grasses slow the flow of runoff, giving the sediment time to settle and water time to percolate, filter through the soil, and recharge underlying groundwater. By identifying and preserving these critical ecologi- cal areas, communities are taking active steps to preserve and enhance their water quality and supply. 3- Use an array of financing techniques to preserve open space. A stable source of state government funding is the foundation of an effective land conservation program.13 State funds can help make long-term conservation goals clear and provide valuable leveraging funds for local governments. For more than 30 years, New Jersey's land acquisition program, Green Acres, has provided grants and loans to local governments and nonprofits. In 2003, the state announced that it would focus Green Acres conservation efforts on increasing grant and loan funding for recreational lands and parks in cities and older, densely developed suburban communities, and that it would provide greater state and local funding allocations focused on open spaces that protect water resources and critical wildlife habitat. In addition, New Jersey enacted more stringent measures to protect the original conservation purpose of all Green Acres lands.14 Local governments across New Jersey have been able to leverage various sources of money using Green Acres funding. In 2001, West Windsor Township, a community in west-central New Jersey, was able to blend local sources of funding and Green Acre monies with a low-interest loan for the New Jersey Environmental Infrastructure Trust, which is dedicated to pre- serving New Jersey's water supply. This transaction marked the first time that trust funds have been used to help finance open- space acquisition.15 The trust has traditionally been used to fund engineered solutions to water quality and supply issues such as stormwater retention. Establish priority-setting criteria for open space acquisition. Since 1998, nearly $20 billion has been approved for open-space preservation in local and state referendums.17 In many cases, how- ever, communities are passing these bond referendums and other financial instruments as a reactive measure to help preserve the "last wetland" or the "last community farm." While a reactive preserva- tion strategy can preserve critical lands, it often does so in a scatter- shot way. Small, disconnected fragments of conserved land have less ecological value as wildlife habitat, are less accessible to the public, and have reduced value in directing growth than larger parcels con- nected by a green infrastructure of corridors. Communities can get better bang for their buck by being strategic about which lands they acquire—especially those communities with limited funding. To help ensure that conservation efforts proactively enhance green infrastructure, communities can establish priority-setting criteria. Once a community has established an inventory of their regional resources and conservation goals, a prioritization scheme can help preserve land in a cost-effective way. It can be tailored to protect endangered wildlife and native habitats, as well as to pre- serve more elusive attributes, such as a sense of place. Prioritization systems can range from the simple to the complex but are used to best effect when connected to a regional conserva- tion plan. Maryland has combined its land acquisition programs and green infrastructure assessment to ensure that public funds are being expended on the most ecologically significant lands. Using geographic information systems and principles of land- ------- PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS scape ecology, Maryland developed a map of existing and poten- tial "hubs" and "corridors" to protect breeding habitat and routes for animal and plant migration.18 By itself, this green infrastructure assessment represents a good prioritization strategy for both local and state land conservation efforts. However, Maryland took it a step further by prioritizing hubs and corridors according to their ecological importance and their potential risk of loss to development. Hubs were ranked from best to worst according to a number of parameters, includ- ing proportion of natural cover, number of stream sources and junctions, and road density.19 Corridors were ranked similarly, fol- lowing criteria such as the ecological ranking of the connected hubs (as defined in the initial process), corridor length, and land cover surrounding the corridor.20 Using feedback from biologists and natural resource managers, the rankings were further refined to produce a final score of "ecological importance." These figures were also considered with a separate ranking for risk of develop- ment. All hubs and corridors of statewide significance are consid- ered ecologically important, but the relative rankings can be use- ful in prioritizing conservation efforts.21 5- Incorporate land conservation into transportation planning. The expansion of the nation's road network has provided many economic benefits, such as enhanced access to markets, increased tourism, and reduced costs of many goods. However, roads have ecological impacts as well. These impacts include animal mortal- ity from construction and collisions, alteration of surrounding habitat, spread of exotic plants and animals, and increased human use.22 To ensure that communities are able to maximize the bene- fits and minimize the costs of transportation, land conservation should be incorporated into the transportation planning process. Often, long-range land-use planning is not conducted until trans- portation systems have already been expanded or put into place. This strategy can have negative effects on the ecology and charac- ter of a community. In 2001, a unique partnership in McHenry County, Illinois, among local, state, and federal agencies worked to overcome these typical planning-process shortcomings. The goal of the partnership was to create an intergovernmental comprehen- sive transportation and land-use plan that accommodated develop- ment while preserving the integrity of the ecologically significant Kishawaukee River Watershed. The plan, funded by the Federal Highway Administration's Transportation and Community System Preservation (TCSP) grant program, developed the transportation plan for the Route 47/Kishawaukee River Corridor after a conser- vation-focused land-use plan was developed.23 A key part of the master plan was the development of growth models and sustainability indicators, which were based on commu- nity and technical input from surveys, meetings, and workshops. The models created scenarios depicting what land use in the Kishawaukee River Corridor currently looked like, what it would look like if it is built according to existing zoning codes, and what it could look like if conservation-based measures were adopted. The sustainability indicators were designed to measure whether the river corridor is being developed according to community- approved conservation, transportation, and growth goals. Some of the indicators were developed to address air-quality and light pol- lution questions, such as "How many nights in summer can you see the Milky Way?" Another indicator was based on the "number of successfully breeding pairs of Sandhill Cranes," which con- tribute to the overall health of the corridor ecosystem. Other indi- ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II cators of the ecosystem's health relate to the number of amphib- ians, the area water quality, and the amount of quality habitat. 6. Take advantage of nature's ecoservices. Nature provides many important services, ranging from water fil- tration to carbon sequestration to plant pollination. Yet, these essential public services are often undervalued in policy making in part because they do not have accepted monetary costs and bene- fits associated with them. Putting a value on ecoservices can be an effective way to encourage open-space preservation and environ- mental stewardship in a market-based economy.24 One innovative attempt to take advantage of the value of natural processes helped preserve one of the largest wetland complexes on the East Coast. In 2002, Allegheny Energy sold roughly 12,000 acres of land in the Canaan Valley to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for $16 million—a cost in line with past sales for comparable properties.25 However, Allegheny Energy was able to report to the IRS that the market value of the property was worth $32 million by incorporating the land's "ecological assets." This allows the energy company to claim a charitable contribution of around $16 million, potentially saving them several million dol- lars in taxes—a powerful incentive to dispose of the land for con- servation purposes. Allegheny Energy hired GreenVest, an environmental planning firm, to sum up the Canaan Valley property's eco-assets, which included the property's value as a mitigation bank, potential to sequester carbon (i.e., "store" carbon emissions in the environ- ment), and value as public open space. The Clean Water Act and other environmental statutes require companies or individuals that destroy wetlands or habitat in one area to restore and main- tain them elsewhere. In response, mitigation banks have been developed to allow developers to deposit and sell land rights to meet the regulatory requirements. Using industry standards for mitigation banks and comparables for the acquisition of open space, GreenVest was able to add $16 million to the Canaan Valley's property value. In addition, prior studies of carbon sequestration led the firm to include $15 per ton of stored carbon into the assessment, thus adding $7 million to the property's value. Hurdles remain before the deal is final. For example, the IRS needs to assess the type and the amount of ecological assets being included in Allegheny Energy's property value. The federal agency must also determine the legal authority of the Canaan Valley property to act as a mitigation bank. Regardless of the IRS's decision in this case, other energy companies have seen the potential in eco-asset valuations and have begun investigating the potential of eco-asset valuation to turn ecologically significant land from tax burdens into profitable and functioning habitats.26 In another example of using ecoservices to protect open space, Lee County, Florida, developed a plan to preserve open space to both protect against floods and provide drinking water. After a few rainy months, the county typically needs to drain stagnant water to protect the area's residents from flooding. However, this practice prevents the replenishment of drinking water supplies, which ultimately results in drinking water shortages during dry months. The county is now embarking on a plan to acquire flood- prone tracts to store water for later use and to open them for public recreation.27 After the buyout and relocation of several families are completed, the district will restore the land's natural characteristics and function, which will inhibit flooding, supply ------- PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS county residents with water in dry months, and provide recre- ational opportunities. 7- Support tree preservation through public-private partnerships. Trees are important components of a community's green infra- structure. A healthy population of trees offers substantial environ- mental benefits, including cleaner air and water, quieter streets, cheaper energy bills, cooler temperatures, and wildlife habitat.28 In addition, trees can provide numerous economic advantages, such as increased property values and lower air and water remedi- ation costs. As noted by American Forests, a nonprofit organiza- tion that promotes environmental restoration through tree plant- ing and urban forestry, "employing tree conservation and forest reforestation as a tool to clean up the air could save the country billions while improving the quality of life for its citizens."29 Like many other cities across the country, Albuquerque, New Mexico, is facing tight budget constraints and recently ceased replacing aging trees. In response, the city and a local nonprofit, Tree New Mexico, partnered to create the Albuquerque Tree Initiative. The mission of the program is to raise funds to replace trees and plant additional trees in parks and other public places. The partnership is working to increase the city's funds by secur- ing corporate and private donations and foundation grants, encouraging community ownership of parks and public spaces, and providing volunteer opportunities for local citizens, groups, and businesses through tree-planting events.30 (See Principle 4, Policy 3 for more information about trees in urban settings.) As forestry economics change,31 unique opportunities are arising for governments and corporations to partner with timber compa- nies to save forestland, maintain jobs, and promote sustainable tree-harvesting practices. For example, the state of Maryland, Conservation Fund, Forestland Group LLC, and the Glatfelter Corporation united in a partnership to protect 25,000 acres of the state's most ecologically significant areas. The acquisition will join together 23,000 existing acres of forestland, 26 major river sys- tems, and 89 watersheds. Eighty-seven percent of the land will remain working forests subject to conservation easements that extinguish development rights, ensure that sustainable forestry practices are used, and protect water quality and important resource features. The remaining acres are to be acquired by the Conservation Fund and then transferred to the state of Maryland once public funding is available.32 8. Allow land trusts to compete for conservation funds. Forging partnerships with land trusts can be an excellent strategy for government agencies to achieve strategic and efficient land conservation.33 Relative to government agencies, land trusts are often able to make land deals more cost effectively. Typically non- profit land trusts have more flexibility and discretion in deciding how to purchase land rights (e.g., fee simple and conservation easement). In addition, when compared with government agen- cies, land trusts may be better able to reduce transaction times and costs. However, land trusts and similar groups are often not eligible to receive conservation funds. As development pressures increase at the fringes of metropolitan areas, so does the price tag for acquiring critical environmental lands. Allowing land trusts to compete for local, state, and federal funds could allow for a greater quantity of land to be preserved for less money than if land trusts were excluded. PRACTICE TIP: For examples of urban tree ordi- nances, visit the U.S. Forest Service's South Region Web site at http://www.urbanforestrysouth.org/ ordinances/index.asp. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Farmers' markets can be a great strategy for supporting local farms and creating public awareness of the benefits of farmland. South Carolina's new Conservation Bank allows land trusts to compete with government agencies for the $8 million to $10 million of available state funds designated for land preservation.34 This state-run pro- gram was designed to ensure that the "best lands and best projects are selected."35 To prevent scattershot preservation, the bank includes selec- | tion criteria to determine the value of I proposals that are adjacent to large | ecosystems or protected lands and corridors between protected areas. Furthermore, to ensure accountabil- ity, the Conservation Bank is required to submit yearly descrip- tions of all approved grants and loans to the state, as well as all acquisitions of land or interests in land obtained with bank funds. Invest in the rural economy to preserve working lands. Increasing agricultural land conversion36 and economic hardships have made it difficult for many communities to preserve farms and working lands, thus jeopardizing the profitability of farms and the livelihood of farmers on the metropolitan fringe. If farm- ing is not profitable, development of the land becomes a much more attractive prospect. Moreover, with the farm population aging, even profitable farms are sold for development when new farmers cannot be found to purchase the land. Innovative preser- vation strategies that bolster local agricultural economies and pre- serve productive lands are important components of a smart growth plan. New entrepreneurial agriculture is taking advantage of the grow- ing market for high-quality, locally grown food and niche prod- ucts such as organics.37 These often small operations bypass the now common procedure of growing food products for large mar- kets with thin profit margins. Instead, they sell their products directly to nearby metro areas through farmers' markets, commu- nity-supported agriculture, and other local programs. The USDA reports that the number of farmers' markets has increased 79 per- cent from 1994 to 2002, with over 3,100 operating in 2002.38 The farmers' market renaissance is a promising strategy to keep farm- ers in business and to put productive farmland to work by stabi- lizing an area's economy. King County, Washington, supports local working lands by matching a new generation of farmers with landowners wishing to sell or lease their property for agriculture.39 The program, dubbed FarmLink, was created to preserve the area's small but cherished agricultural economy and remaining rural character. With 11 connections made since 2000, King County is hoping that FarmLink will introduce urban residents to working lands and therefore increase support for farmland preservation. As Steve Evans, the King County "Farmsbudsman," has noted, FarmLink also helps local farms to "protect habitat and water quality and to produce food that may be safer and that is fresher and tastes better."40 10. Use innovative permitting approaches to protect critical envi- ronmental areas. Long Branch, New Jersey, is using smart growth development to reinvest in their coastal community and preserve the ecological and economic benefits of their waterfront. This new direction ------- PRESERVE OPEN SPACE, FARMLAND, NATURAL BEAUTY, AND CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS began when the city received flexibility under the state's coastal zone management law to evaluate development plans on a com- prehensive (considering several lots simultaneously) basis rather than through traditional lot-by-lot reviews.41 This flexibility, known as sector-based permitting, allowed Long Branch to con- sider habitat protection and economic development together in determining the course of future waterfront projects. In 1995, a developer proposed a city plan for Long Branch focus- ing on creating several development sectors that would contain a mix of uses—residential, retail, office—along with a redeveloped pier.42 This plan was intended to help transform the waterfront into a year-round destination instead of a seasonal one. Creating mixed-use and compact development along the coast, the plan contended, would also concentrate development onto a smaller percentage of the waterfront. Therefore, it would preserve a greater area of coastal land than would be possible under the cur- rent plan. However, New Jersey's coastal management act was a barrier to creating the mixed-use plan because it prevented regulators from reviewing plans based on sectors. By using the state's redevelop- ment plan, Long Branch and the state planning commission were able to convince the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection that the dual objectives of preserving the ecological integrity of the waterfront and spurring economic development could both be achieved by the sector-based plan. Wetlands provide many important services, including filtering water, providing habitat, and mitigating flood damage. Since the Long Branch success, New Jersey has incorporated sec- tor-based permitting into its state regulations. The state has also received federal approval to make the permitting a part of its coastal management plan as governed by the U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Inventory, http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/land/nri01/. 2 Ibid. Trust for Public Land and Land Trust Alliance, Land Vote 2002: Americans Invest in Parks and Open Space (Boston: Trust for Public Land, 2003) Linda E. Hollis, AICP, and William Fulton, "Open Space Protection: Conservation Meets Growth Management" (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 2002). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Inventory, http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/land/nri01/. 6 Ibid. Trust for Public Land. The Economic Benefits of Parks and Open Space. (San Francisco: Trust for Public Land, 1999). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The Transportation and mpacts of Infill versus Greenfield Development: A Comparative Case Study Anahsis (Washington, D.C.: EPA, 1999). http://mvw.epa.gov/smartgrowth/pdf/infill_greenfield.pdf Office of the Press Secretary, White House. "President Signs Brownfields Bill." http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020111-3.html U.S. EPA. "Saving Open Space, Revitalizing Brownfields: St. Louis Development Corporation." http://www.epa. gov/smartgrowth/st_louis. htm Community Preservation Coalition, http://www.communitypreservation. org/PotentialUses2 .htm. U.S. EPA. "Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey." http://www.epa.gov/safewater/needs.html Chesapeake Bay Commission and Trust for Public Land. Keeping Our Commitment. (Richmond, Va.: Chesapeake Bay Commission, 2001) ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. "DEP Commissioner Campbell Announces New Green Acres Open Space Priorities." http://www.state.nj .us/dep/newsrel/releases/03_0107.htm. http://www.westwindsornj.org/opens pace_maneely.html. Steve Jandoli, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Green Acres Program. Discussion with the author, June 2003. Land Trust Alliance and Trust for Public Land (2003). Theodore Weber and John Wolf, "Maryland's Green Infrastructure— Using Landscape Assessment Tools to Identify a Regional Conservation Strategy," Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 63 (2000): 265-277. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Steven Trombulak and Christopher Frissell, "Review of Ecological Effects of Roads on Terrestrial and Aquatic Communities," Conservation Biology 14, no. 1, (2000) 18-30. Kishawaukee River Corridor Land Use and Transportation Plan, http://www.cdfinc.com/Rt%2047-Kish%20Report.htm. Robert Costanza et al., "The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital." Nature 387 (1997): 253-260. Katherine Ellison, "Land and Eco-Assets for Sale."Washington Post, January 24 2 002. Doug Lashley, President, Green Vest. Discussion with the author, June 2003. Chad Gillis. "Lee County Smart Growth Director: Less Drainage Would Be Helpful for Parts of County." Naples Daily News, June 15 2002 US Forest Service, Forestry Report R8-FR 17, http://www.dnr.state.md.us/forests/publications/urban.html. American Forests, Urban Ecosystem Analysis: Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, Calculating the Value of Nature (Washington, D.C.: American Forests, 2003). Tree New Mexico, http://www.treenm.com/6PROGRAM.htmttati. Associated Press, "For Sale: Prime Timberland in South," August 5, 2003, available at http://www.usforestcapital.com/index.htm. Christine Fanning, "Innovative Public-Private Partnership Will Conserve Sensitive Wildlife Habitat And Working Forest," The Conservation Fund (2002), http://www.conservationfund.org/?article=2675&back=true. For more information on how land trusts can be beneficial partners, see the first edition of Getting to Smart Growth: 100 Polices for Implementation. South Carolina Legislature, http://www.lpitr.state.sc.us/code/t48c059.htm Dominic Parker, Cost Effective Strategies for Conserving Private Land (Bozeman, MT: PERC, 2002). Between 1992 and 1997, an average of more than one million agricultural acres were developed per year. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Resource Inventory, http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/NRI/ 1997/summary_report/table8.html. Patty Cantrell and Jim Lively, The New Entrepreneurial Agriculture. Michigan Land Use Institute, 2002 USDA, Farmers' Market Facts, http://www.ams.usda.gov/farmersmarkets/ facts.htm Patty Cantrell, "Seattle Gets to Farmland Preservation Through Great Food," Michigan Land Use Institute (2002), http://www.mlui.org/ growthmanagement/fullarticle.asp?fileid=16376. Ibid. Peter Buchsbaum. Long Branch Permit Coordination Case Study (Cambridge, Mass.: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2002). Ibid. ------- Chapter 7 Strengthen and Direct Development toward Existing Communities Many communities have experienced rapid expansion at their edges, as growth has moved to newer developments on the urban fringe and away from the urban core and first- ring suburbs. A growing number of communi- ties are now recognizing the adverse conse- quences of abandoning neighborhoods, roads, schools, sidewalks, water and sewer services, and other infrastructure in urban centers and older suburbs, only to rebuild them further out. Smart growth directs development toward communities already served by infrastructure. The goal is to use resources that existing neigh- borhoods offer and to maintain the value of the public and private investment already made in those areas. Often, existing neighborhoods can $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II accommodate much of the growth that communities require through infill development, brownfield redevelopment, and the rehabilitation of existing buildings. However, there are a variety of barriers to development in exist- ing communities and incentives for developing on the metropoli- tan edge, making greenfield development comparatively attractive to developers. Land-use regulations, such as zoning and subdivi- sion requirements, often make it easier to build in greenfield areas. These areas may have little or no land-use regulation and few residents who may object to the new construction. The cost of greenfield development is often subsidized by the public sector through many avenues, including the provision of road, sewer, and water networks and the use of average-cost pricing, which can underestimate the true per-unit cost of expansion. A range of options exists to begin leveling the playing field between greenfield and infill development and to help direct new investment dollars to strengthen existing neighborhoods. The fol- lowing policies are designed to address some of these issues and to provide ideas and tools to strengthen and direct development toward existing communities. I. Encourage the creation of a business improvement district. Business improvement districts (BIDs) are frequently used as tools to encourage revitalization and investment in targeted areas. Although the state and local regulations required to implement such an approach vary, most BIDs are designed according to a common set of principles. Typically, local governments work closely with commercial property owners to form a special district within the community. Depending on the scope of the state and local laws that authorize BIDs, the local government or an inde- pendent, nonprofit organization then levies a special fee from the businesses. The proceeds from this levy are used to supplement existing public services and foster improvements for businesses within the BID. A board of directors comprising business and local government leaders generally governs the BID. Recently, in response to concerns expressed about the closed governance of some BIDs, BID charters have been drafted to ensure a transpar- ent community involvement process. Usually, BID activities include some form of maintenance or beautification, security improvements, and marketing of the district. Nonetheless, the BID's basic purpose is to enhance or revitalize the district and to foster additional business activity. In 1996, approximately 15,000 BIDs existed throughout the U.S.1 Some of the better-known examples include the Times Square BID in New York City2 and the Golden Triangle and the Downtown DC BIDs in Washington, D.C.3 In these districts, industrial and commercial interests joined city officials to foster extensive reinvestment in their respective areas. The usefulness of the BID model is not confined to large urban areas. There is already an existing familiarity with this tool in many small towns. BIDs continue to emerge in a wide range of communities, from mid-sized cities like downtown Milwaukee to smaller communities like Monterey Park, California; Norfolk, Virginia; and Yonkers, New York.4 2. Use priority funding areas to direct development toward existing communities. Where state and local officials allocate public funds can be as important as how they allocate those funds. Because private development relies on the public sector to supply infrastructure ------- STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES and transportation to support new developments, public funds can be a powerful tool in guiding and directing new development into existing communities. To fully harness this latent potential, some states and cities are developing priority funding areas (PFAs) to efficiently target public investments. The PFA approach is surprisingly simple. A governmental entity designates a geographic area as a "priority area" for receipt of infrastructure funding. This acts as an incentive to attract and retain market capital. While development is allowed outside of the PFAs, public resources do not subsidize it. This system has several advantages: Localities consider and prioritize areas for future development. These priorities send clear signals to the market as to where development will be supported, adding pre- dictability to the development process. Taxpayers benefit from more strategic use of public funds, which can increase return on investment and/or reduce costs. Both state and local governments can implement PFAs. In 1997, Maryland passed the Smart Growth Priority Funding Areas Act.5 Cities like Austin, Texas, and Sacramento, California, have also begun to implement variations of the PFA model to direct devel- opment into existing communities. Under the Maryland law, local officials designate areas where they want state investment to sup- port future growth. Thereafter, the specified areas receive priority for most of the state's funding programs, including money for transportation, water and sewer systems, and economic develop- ment. The legislation establishes clear criteria for designation of areas and distribution of public resources, and requires state plan- ners to maintain a current priority area map for the state. To ensure success, institutions that distribute public infrastructure resources, like water and sewer or transportation funds, must coordinate their actions and focus resources to ensure that PFAs receive priority for all specified resources. Without either coordi- nation or longevity, a PFA will be unlikely to attract significant private-sector investment in the designated areas. 3- Offer home equity assurance programs. Home equity assurance programs (HEAPs) have been used suc- cessfully in several communities to curb the tide of middle-class flight, restore homeowner confidence in the local housing market, and revitalize transitional communities by both retaining home- owners and attracting new residents and businesses. A HEAP is a tool communities can use to reassure homeowners that their biggest asset—their home—will not lose value due to changing demographics, revitalization efforts, infill development, or con- struction of transportation infrastructure. All HEAPs examined in a report by Liz Hersh for 10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania in 2001 were either administered as government programs or run by nonprofit community organizations.6 This short report is a valuable resource for local governments and other organizations interested in learning more about existing HEAPs and options for how one might be structured. The report concludes that Home Equity Assurance appears to be most effec- tive in relatively stable communities that are facing transition and where homeowners are the majority. In a HEAP, the administering entity designates areas that are either at risk of decline or targeted for additional development. Within those areas, existing residential properties are insured against devaluation. The term of the insurance is limited to a rea- sonable time period (typically five years) to allow changes or new developments to fully integrate into the fabric of the neighbor- hood. A HEAP can be financed with a variety of mechanisms, ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Developers in downtown Washington, D.C. are turning an old office tower into Terrell Place, a new mixed-use development. including bonds, general revenue, special property-tax levies, or even a partnership with the private sector. The first HEAP began in 1977 in Oak Park, Illinois, an older, inner-ring suburb outside Chicago, in response to concerns about changes in the demographics of the community (many residents thought increasing density would hurt their prop- erty values). Called the Home Equity Assurance Program, it relied on funds generated from a small property-tax levy on residential values to insure against devaluation caused by new development. Programs in Illinois are funded through a property tax levy that is assessed of all homeowners in the service area. The viability of a property tax levy as a funding base for HEAPs depends largely on whether the governing entity has the authority and will to tax. The range in rates in Illinois is from 0.08 to 0.12 percent. In par- ticipating areas, a majority of residents voted for the program by referendum.7 The Oak Park program has not had to pay on a sin- gle claim, and the community continues to thrive within the Chicago metropolitan region.8 HEAPs alone are not intended, and have not been shown, to reclaim neighborhoods with multiple problems already experienc- ing long-term decline. Baltimore's experience with Patterson Park showed that threats to quality of life were motivating people to leave the neighborhood, not an anticipated drop in the resale value of their homes. The program was not as effective as the founders hoped.9 However, HEAPs implemented as part of a larger package of community measures can help retain residents and facilitate planned changes in the community, such as increasing densities through infill development or incorporating additional transporta- tion facilities in or near residential neighborhoods. 4- Establish a land bank authority. In cities and towns throughout the country, many neighborhoods suffer the appearance of blight and decay as abandoned buildings and vacant properties languish. In communities with a large num- ber of vacant properties, one key barrier to returning such prop- erties to productive use is inefficient public foreclosure and dispo- sition procedures. Despite wide disparity among states governing such procedures, most disposition processes suffer from onerous time requirements as well as legal constraints that make transfer of clear title difficult.10 Consequently, many local officials leave lien-burdened properties vacant rather than undertaking the arduous task of returning them to productive use. As a result, such properties remain abandoned for many years, spreading blight throughout the community and draining the budgets of local government. One way of combating the problems presented by vacant and abandoned properties is to establish a land bank authority (LBA) designed to administer and return such properties to productive use. Depending on the state authorizing legislation, an LBA can serve as a clearinghouse for both publicly owned properties and properties burdened by some form of public lien, including tax liens and service fee liens, or by code violations. For publicly owned properties, the public entity possessing title can transfer ownership to the LBA for a nominal sum, allowing the LBA to transfer clear title back to interested private developers or indi- viduals. For burdened properties, the LBA can assume any public ------- STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES liens and undertake the proceedings necessary to foreclose on the lien, clear title, and make the property available to the private market. In either instance, the LBA acts as a type of public bro- ker, identifying available properties and automatically returning them to productive use. In addition, the LBA can "bank" proper- ties after establishing clear title in order to assemble larger parcels for future development. LBAs can be structured in a variety of ways: some are single jurisdiction; others are created by an agree- ment between a city and county. Several cities—including Atlanta, Georgia; Cleveland, Ohio; and Flint, Michigan—have established variations of the LBA model. Atlanta, in conjunction with surrounding Fulton County, estab- lished the Fulton County/City of Atlanta Land Bank Authority (also known as the Atlanta LBA) to inventory and dispose of properties in tax arrears throughout the region. As part of its mis- sion, the Atlanta LBA maintains a current inventory of all proper- ties in tax arrears throughout the region and provides current information to interested public and private parties. In addition, with passage of special enabling legislation, the Atlanta LBA now employs a special judicial proceeding to clear title to lien-bur- dened properties. Through this proceeding, it assures succeeding titleholders that proper notice and due-process procedures have been employed to protect them against subsequent challenges. The Atlanta LBA can provide such assurance while simultane- ously expediting the entire process, thus producing less risk and cost for potential community developers.11 5- Create a development finance insurance program. Older communities often initiate revitalization efforts through a series of catalyst projects, including major infrastructure pro- grams or commercial site development. The purpose of these projects is to spur community development by upgrading the physical environment. Unfortunately, such ventures typically involve expen- sive development projects financed largely by the community itself. Moreover, such projects can fail to create the kind of revitalization originally envisioned because they do little to build trust between the com- munity and the private lenders who possess sought- after capital funds. For most lenders, all aspects of development can be reduced to the ratio of risk to return. Consequently, officials seeking private capital investment in their communities must target their efforts, at least in part, to reducing the risks associated with development. A development finance insurance (DFI) program is one way to address the risk-return ratio without sacrific- ing extravagant amounts of public resources. A DFI program would operate on the same funda- mental principles that form the basis of any system of risk insurance. A local government would establish a source of capital and use it to insure private lenders against the risk of loss associated with construction financing for projects designated as catalysts for com- munity development. The key to the program is that a community's DFI fund is not directly expended on the project itself. Rather, the local government works in partnership with designated private lenders and developers to form a financing package that comprises private capital to pay for the cost of project develop- ment. The local government uses the DFI fund as a PRACTICE TIP: When planning for the reform of state or local property disposition procedures, incorporate at least the following stakeholders in the process: • Representatives of local tax-collection entities have experience with the system of foreclosure on public liens; thus, they are a valuable source of information on what requires change and what currently works. • Local government attorneys have information about existing statutory authority and current constitutional requirements for disposition pro- ceedings. • Representatives of local community-develop- ment entities will make the case for reform because of vacant property impacts. • Representatives of local title insurance compa- nies understand what measure of certainty title insurance companies will require of local dispo- sition proceedings before issuing insurance on the titles of properties disposed therein. Source: Frank S. Alexander, Renewing Public Assets for Community Development. A Report for the Local Initiatives Support Corporation (New York: LISC, October 1,2000). ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II form of escrow that lenders may draw upon in the event of default on a private construction loan. A DFI program offers a number of important benefits. The most obvious advantage to such programs is that they conserve scarce public funds while allowing communities to facilitate important development projects. Thus, where private lenders may balk at mixed-use development in older communities because of con- cerns generated from conventional lending practices, a DFI can bridge the gap between risk and return. As public officials develop a financial stake in reducing the risks associated with project development, they become better at com- municating with private interests who share their concerns. These programs are intended to motivate investment; however, by their nature, they tend to involve more players and result in a more complicated deal structure using multiple sources of equity, debt, etc. Care must be taken to ensure that the program does not ulti- mately result in a longer (and more costly) development time- frame, negating some of its advantages. A community DFI fund would serve as "gap filler" for projects where the value of the financed principal is greater than the value of the incomplete project site. In addition, city officials should incorporate risk-reduction policies into a DFI program to mini- mize risk through developer and project selection. DFI programs should incorporate a wide variety of stakeholders in the process, including lenders and private developers, representatives of non- profit and community interests, and representatives of the local commercial sector. By gathering input from these groups, city officials will help ensure that the DFI program fosters projects beneficial to the entire community with broad-based support. 6. Develop asset-driven market analysis to encourage commer- cial and retail investment in underserved communities. Many communities, particularly those that have experienced pop- ulation declines, have also lost commercial and retail investment, leaving markets underserved. This is largely the result of conven- tional market analyses that conclude that older communities with higher concentrations of moderate- to low-income households lack the buying power to support stores and businesses. These analyses often fail to take the population density of urban areas into account, focusing instead on average household income. In fact, retail is currently overbuilt in many suburban areas around the country and urban centers are an important untapped market. The urban market is underserved for everyday shopping needs and represents an opportunity for retailers. National retailers are beginning to make this realization and act accordingly. Michael Porter of the Harvard Business School notes that urban populations do not always have a high per-capita income, but they represent enormous net buying power. In a 1995 Harvard Business Review article, Porter examined the overlooked assets of older, centrally located communities: strategic location, local demand, integration within the regional cluster, and available human resources.12 According to Porter, these assets, when properly packaged, are key to educating commercial and retail interests on the latent opportunities of central cities and older-ring suburban markets.13 He notes that the central location of many older com- munities within the metropolitan region affords unique advan- tages for commercial interests, such as access to skilled labor mar- kets. Properly packaged and marketed, such information can attract investment and assist community leaders in overcoming obstacles to new business development. ------- STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES By analyzing the Austin community in the Chicago metropolitan region, for example, a research team at the Brookings Institution demonstrated that local residents generated nearly $98.2 million in grocery purchases outside the community because of the lack of available grocery retailers.14 This kind of information is valu- able in attracting additional grocery stores, a strong stabilizing presence for communities everywhere. 7- Encourage infill by adopting innovative stormwater regulations and practices. Development activities, both during construction and after a proj- ect has been built, are cited as factors that worsen the effects of stormwater runoff.15 Sediment from construction sites and debris and chemicals are carried to streams during heavy rainfalls. As more land in a watershed is built on, less rainfall soaks into the ground, increasing the amount of runoff that eventually makes its way to receiving waters. While localities still invest in storm drains, stormwater sewer sys- tems, and large containment areas, many also require developers to take measures with their projects to control stormwater. Stormwater retention ponds and infiltration areas are common practices that are written into local regulations. However, devel- opers in urban areas are finding that requirements stipulating that stormwater be managed on the project site are a barrier to rede- velopment and construction of infill and more compact projects. Land for onsite stormwater management is often not available or is prohibitively expensive. In addition, codes that limit the amount of impervious surface that can be built on a site discour- age both development in urban areas and compact development. Inflexible stormwater regulations applied in urban areas can have the unintended effect of worsening water quality by forcing development to undeveloped fringe areas. Fortunately, there are innovative options that foster redevelop- ment and control stormwater. In 2002, the city of San Diego adopted a policy of allowing infill redevelopers to share in the cost of stormwater abatement in lieu of onsite mitigation. Instead of requiring treatment of each individual project, the Standard Urban Stormwater Mitigation Plan allows developers to con- tribute to stormwater mitigation that serves the entire drainage basin. Engineers estimate that individual development projects can achieve savings of up to $40,000 by participating in a shared stormwater control program.16 The Low Impact Development Center, a nonprofit organization dedicated to protecting water resources through site-design techniques, is sponsoring research on low-impact development techniques that require less space.17 One technique is the use of soil amendments that allow compact landscaping to absorb and hold stormwater without causing flooding or damage to adjacent buildings.18 Local jurisdictions are learning about different ways to satisfy stormwater and drainage issues associated with development and are exploring offsite mitigation possibilities. The possibility of offsite mitigation makes smaller infill projects more feasible and provides an opportunity to locate mitigation facilities in a way that can serve multiple projects.19 In return for offsite mitigation, jurisdictions could increase allowable densities in downtown and designated areas. In such a case, the municipality would become accountable for maintaining water quality in that particular basin. PRACTICE TIP: In Minneapolis, a community mar- ket analysis was included as part of the 46th & Hiawatha Station Area Master Plan.The plan and the mar- ket analysis focus on land uses, urban design, public infrastructure, and amenities located within a half- mile of a light rail station, and a consultant was hired to evaluate the market support for various land uses within a half-mile radius of the planned 46th Street Light Rail Transit. This analysis identifies mar- ket opportunities for various land uses over time. Market conclusions and implementation considerations are summarized and addressed. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II 8. Increase transit-oriented development by adding infill stations on existing transit lines and retrofitting existing stations. Communities often overlook the potential of existing transit facil- ities to encourage additional development. Properly located and designed transit stations can boost surrounding property values and encourage additional residential, retail, and commercial development.20 Adding or upgrading stations is a cost-effective way to encourage transit-oriented development. Because the tran- sit line already exists, the capital-intensive process of developing a new system can be bypassed. Adding or improving stations gar- ners many of the same benefits for the community that a new transit system produces. Officials in Washington, D.C., have already begun to capitalize on the city's extensive Metro rail system to encourage additional development around many of the city's stations. Along the sys- tem's Red Line, officials are developing an additional Metro sta- tion at New York Avenue in the heart of downtown. The new sta- tion will connect local residents with downtown amenities and facilitate the growth of additional stores and businesses through- out the surrounding neighborhoods. The promise of a new station has already begun to attract capital investment in the surrounding neighborhoods, boosting property values and encouraging new residential growth. A group of pri- vate property owners agreed to collectively pay $25 million (through a 30-year special property tax assessment) to build the station, and they are also donating the land to the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). This money was supplemented with $31 million in federal funds and $34 million in city contributions. Public investment in the area includes $100 million in federal funds for the new national headquarters of the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives on vacant city-owned land adjacent to the Metro station. Officials believe that the goals to generate one billion dollars of public-pri- vate investment and 5,000 jobs by the time the Metro station opens in late 2004 will easily be surpassed. All of these consider- able benefits will be achieved using an existing transit line.21 Develop a revolving loan fund to support local independent businesses. Local independent businesses often suffer when the surrounding community faces decline—or enjoys revitalization. During decline, local businesses lose market share to large national chains that sprout up in the newer fringes of the metropolitan area. During revitalization, local businesses can be displaced when national chains move in. Consequently, local independent busi- nesses represent the most vulnerable link in an existing commu- nity's chain of commerce. To prevent the loss of such vital assets, community leaders can employ strategies to protect local busi- nesses. One such strategy is use of a revolving loan fund (RLF) to protect and support local independent businesses. An RLF is a capital fund designed to serve as a lender of last resort in high-risk transactions. The fund is initially capitalized out of a municipal/local government budget. Fund administrators use the RLF to provide financing to targeted community mem- bers at below-market interest rates and with tailored underwrit- ing. The returns generated by payments plus interest on the ini- tial loans "revolve" back into the lending pool for subsequent loans. Consequently, a properly managed RLF can continue to service a targeted population for a number of years without requiring additional capital from the community. ------- STRENGTHEN AND DIRECT DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXISTING COMMUNITIES RLFs often entail high-risk lending at intentionally low interest rates. Fund managers can mitigate risk of default by devoting resources up front to learning about the needs and limitations of the target population. Using this information, officials can imple- ment underwriting practices specifically tailored to the needs of the target population, reducing risk of default as well as the cost associated with the transaction itself. With proper research and planning, the RLF can supply a vast amount of capital to the community without proving an undue strain on local budgets. IO. Designate a vacant-properties coordinator to use code enforcement, provide incentives, and develop partnerships to minimize and abate vacant properties. One way to address issues associated with abandoned properties and vacant land without passing new laws or ordinances is to reorganize existing staff and revamp codes in a holistic fashion. One city that successfully used this approach is San Diego.22 In 1993, faced with a growing number of abandoned homes and boarded buildings, San Diego, under the leadership of the city manager, established a task force to design an action plan for addressing vacant properties. Representatives from lending insti- tutions, title insurance companies, community groups, and real estate and apartment owner associations joined the task force, along with city staff from code compliance, the city attorney's office, housing, economic development, and the planning depart- ments. The task force held several community meetings before making a set of recommendations to the city council's public serv- ices and safety committee. The recommendations included appointing the first vacant-properties coordinator to spearhead the city's efforts. From April 1995 through June 1997, the coordinator inventoried more than 400 vacant and boarded single-family multifamily, and commercial structures and, during that same period, worked with property owners and community groups to successfully rehabili- tate more than half of those structures. The coordinator provided owners with a self-help guide, information on matching rehabili- tation grants, real estate and contractor guidance, referrals to the county public administrator for title and probate assis- tance, and volunteer demolition resources. The coordinator also created a database to track information, including property char- acteristics, ownership information, financial encumbrances, tax delinquencies, and length of time in the city's inventory. She built strong relationships across essential city departments, especially with the city attor- ney's code enforcement unit. As a result of these close partnerships, the city revised its vacant properties abatement ordinance to require owners of vacant properties to sub- mit a statement of intent and a rehabilitation plan within 30 days of boarding up any abandoned building. San Diego became one of the first cities in California to consolidate its building, hous- | ing, and zoning inspectors into a neighbor- jf hood code compliance department (NCCD). | Because of its holistic management struc- ture, NCCD was then reassigned to the Through persistent application of enforcement procedures, San Diego Police Department Business SanHDiego's vacant properties coordinator succeeded in per- 8 ' suadmg recalcitrant property owners to bring their proper- Center, thus integrating vacant properties ties up to code. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II abatement with community-oriented policing strategies. In February 2001, San Diego received a California Code Enforcement Incentive Grant of $395,000 from the California Department of Housing and Community Development to sup- port these efforts. Overall, the appointment of a vacant-properties coordinator to facilitate the abatement and rehabilitation of vacant properties represents a relatively easy step that municipalities can take to strategically address this problem. Susan E Baer, The Case of a Milwaukee Business Improvement District: Politics and Institutional Arrangements. Prepared on behalf of the 2001 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 2001. For more information on the Times Square BID, see http://www.timessquarebid.org/. For more information on the Golden Triangle BIDs, see http://www.gtbid.com/. For more information on BID programs, see http://www.yonkersecondev.com/businessimprovement.php or http://www.downtownnorfolk.org/business_improvement_district.shtml. For more information on the Smart Growth Priority Funding Areas Act, see http://www.mdp.state.md.us/fundingact.htm. Liz Hersh, Report on Home Equity Assurance to the Urban Issues Task Force of 10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania (Fall 2001), http://www. 1 OOOOfri ends.org/We b_Pages/Resources/ HomeEquityAssuranceReportlO-01.doc. 7 Ibid. For information on other Chicago-area HEAPs, see http://www. swhomeequity.org/residents.htm. See Liz Hersh, Report on Home Equity Assurance to the Urban Issues Task Force of10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania (Fall 2001), http://www. 1 OOOOfri ends.org/We b_Pages/Resources/ HomeEquityAssuranceReportlO-01.doc. See Frank S. Alexander, Renewing Public Assets for Community Development. A Report for the Local Initiatives Support Coalition, October 1, 2000. For a variety of Web-based resources about reclaiming vacant properties and abandoned buildings, see the National Vacant Properties Campaign at http://vacantproperties.org/resources.html. See Michael E. Porter, "The Competitive Advantage of the Inner City," Harvard Business Review, May-June 1995. 13 Ibid. See Robert Weissbourd, The Market Potential of Inner-City Neighborhoods: Filling the Information Gap (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, March 1, 1999). For a discussion of the impacts of development practices on water quality, see Coastal Sprawl: The Effects of Urban Design on Aquatic Ecosystems in the United States, by Dana Beach of the South Carolina Coastal Conservation League for the Pew Oceans Commission: http://www.pewoceans.org/reports/water_pollution_sprawl.pdf. For more detailed information on the Localized Equivalent Area Drainage (LEAD), see http://www.sannet.gov/stormwater/pdf/watershed.pdf. For more information, see http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org/. For more information on low-impact development and uses in urban areas, see http://www.lid-stormwater.net/. Maupin, Miranda, and Theresa Wagner, Regional Facility vs. On-site Development Regulations: Increasing Flexibility and Effectiveness in Development Regulation Implementation (Seattle, Wash.: EPA, 2003), http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/nadstormwater03/22Maupin.pdf. For links to a variety of reports supporting this statement, see the American Public Transportation Association's Transit Resource Guide at http://www.apta.com/research/info/briefings/briefing_l.cfm. NOMA, "Mt. Vernon Square-Convention Center Metro Station," http://www.nomacenter.com/MetroMtVernonSquare_ConventionCenter. htm. Much of this section is adapted from an ICMA case study on San Diego's vacant property efforts, "The Revitalization of Vacant Properties: San Diego Case Study" by Joseph Schilling of ICMA. The case study and others on vacant property issues can be found at http://icma.org/ vacantproperties. ------- Chapter 8 A- '•A Provide a Variety of Transportation Choices A s more communities adopt smart growth _L\4)rinciples, the benefits of linking trans- portation, the workplace, and housing are becoming clearer. Even though most Americans still use a personal automobile for the majority of their trips, interest in improving all forms of transportation, including mass transit, biking, and walking, is on the rise. In a 2003 poll sponsored by the American Automobile Association (AAA) and the American Public Transportation Association, 71 percent of 1,032 randomly selected U.S. adults stated that it was important to have both good roads and viable alternatives to driving,1 including better support for bicycling and walk- ing.2 In another poll, 81 percent of 1,003 adults agreed that increased public investment in pub- lic transportation would strengthen the econ- $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II omy, create jobs, and reduce traffic congestion and air pollution. Both polls cited consistent support for investing in a variety of transportation options. Local officials, however, must balance the need for better trans- portation and related facilities in challenging financial environ- ments. Transportation professionals are looking for creative poli- cies that make the best use of existing transportation investments and systems that maximize both transportation and economic performance. This is where smart growth policies can provide an array of solutions. For example, many localities have teamed with transit agencies to adopt special planning and zoning districts for transit stations in order to increase ridership and raise revenue. Transportation officials and localities are also beginning to seek input from a wider array of community members. Among these community members, unexpected alliances are forming to sup- port better transportation and community development. The Boone County Smart Growth Alliance in Missouri, a partnership of environmental, community, and rural conservation groups, grants Smart Growth Awards to recognize development projects which take into account existing transportation infrastructure and promote walkable areas. Spurred by transportation problems, the busi- ness communities in Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago, Illinois; and California's Silicon Valley have led the way for implementing smarter growth. As the policies in this chapter suggest, both public- and private-sector strategies offer opportunities to create a range of transportation choices. The T in Boston, Massachusetts. I. Create programs and policies that support car sharing. Car-sharing programs, which allow members to reserve a car from a fleet of cars for short periods of time, are ideal for people who need a car infrequently or for families who would not like to own more than one car. The programs are typically operated by private companies, such as Flexcar (www.flexcar.com) and ZipCar (www.zipcar.com), although some successful programs, such as San Francisco's City CarShare, have been sponsored in part by local governments. In areas with a high share of alternative com- muters, businesses can also sponsor the practice so that employ- ees who do not drive to work can share a car for lunchtime errands or emergencies. The Commuter Challenge in the Seattle area (www.commuterchallenge.org) and Zev-Net in California (www.zevnet.org) are two programs that provide a fleet of cars for day use to commuters who do not drive to work. Businesses and local governments have also benefited from car-sharing programs by avoiding the costs associated with maintaining a fleet of cars to make client and service calls. Car sharing supports smart growth by reducing the number of vehi- cles on the road, even as it offers the advantages of car ownership for people who do not want to own a car. Flexcar estimates that each shared car replaces single ownership of up to six cars, which, by extension, reduces the amount of parking needed and therefore reduces potential development costs (since providing parking can cost up to $10,000 per space).3 Car-sharing programs work best where there is a high density of residents, a variety of transportation options, and limited parking (e.g., university campuses). Car-sharing programs can be encouraged through local policies that boost their appeal. For example, localities can reduce the number of parking spaces required for higher-density residential ------- PROVIDE AVARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES projects in exchange for a highly visible, preferred parking space for a shared car decorated with the car-sharing program's logo. Local governments can also assign certain public spaces, either on or off street, for a car-sharing fleet. Regional authorities, such as metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs), can also recognize car sharing in their transportation and air-quality programs. Car-sharing companies note that they measure success not by the number of members, but by how frequently the cars are used. The most successful programs, as found in Boston, Seattle, and Washington, D.C., are those that have robust residential, busi- ness, and local government use. Since these users tend to need the cars at different times of the day, the cars are in constant use. 2. Make sure transportation models and surveys accurately reflect all modes of transportation. Smart growth planning relies on forging good connections between development projects and transportation networks. Good planning relies on good predictions, and for predictions, planners turn to survey data, trend analysis, and computer mod- els. Unfortunately, the methods used in trend analysis and com- puter models often only estimate automobile-related outcomes and design strategies. Thus, trips made on foot or by bicycle are underestimated or discounted. As a result, conventional modeling results tend to overestimate traffic and parking requirements for smart growth projects. They also tend to underestimate the bene- fits that can accrue from improvements to the pedestrian, bicycle, and transit system. On a larger scale, transportation models are used to plan regional transportation projects and to ensure compliance with air-quality regulations. As with any form of modeling, a range of assump- tions, such as 20-year employment forecasts and population sta- tistics, is used to fill in knowledge gaps. Assumptions used in transportation/air-quality models are based on typical develop- ment patterns, such as separated uses, a single mode of trans- portation (automobile), and a hierarchy of streets.4 Communities trying to comply with pollution reductions face limited options tied to the modeling and what it measures, such as carpooling or vehicle fleet mixes, and often do not consider development pat- terns that encourage walking or biking. Because the transporta- tion performance of smart growth decisions cannot be credited under conventional models, local governments have fewer incen- tives to adopt smart growth policies. To better determine the transportation performance of smart growth projects and plans, models need to measure the effects of transit, walking, and bicycling on air quality. A set of data is emerging on the transportation and environmental performance of transit-oriented development, community design, and support- ing policies. Many localities would appreciate a system that gives regulatory credit for the air quality benefits of smart growth, but are unsure of how to account for the cumulative performance of numerous small projects over time. The Clean Air Counts project in Chicago (http://www.cleanaircounts.org) provides a good example of how to account for the air-quality benefits of numer- ous small actions. In an effort to lower ozone levels, the city spon- sors a web site that allows commercial painters and homeowners to enter how many gallons of low-VOC (volatile organic com- pounds) paints they have used. The city then tabulates the reduc- tion in VOC levels compared with estimated levels of using con- ventional, higher-VOC paints. In the same manner, regions could account for the environmental performance of transit-oriented development (TOD) compared with the air-quality profile of a PRACTICE TIP: In July of 2003, Washington, D.C., began offering the SmartCommute mortgage. The SmartCommute Initiative recognizes that homeown- ers who do not rely on a car for transportation have more financial resources available for housing. Potential homebuyers then can qualify for a larger mortgage for housing located near public transit. "Transportation costs are the sec- ond largest expense after mortgage or rent for many households, and the SmartCommute Initiative is a great way for people to reduce those costs and increase their home-buying power," said Tim Vogel, general manager of Flexcar's Washington, D.C., area operations. Flexcar is offering reduced membership fees and hourly rates to homebuyers who participate in SmartCommute. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II similar intensity of development under a conventional, non- transit-oriented plan. 3- Consult early with emergency responders when developing smart growth plans. One critical component of a community's transportation system is effective emergency response. In some instances, fire, ambulance, or police officials have expressed concerns with smart growth neighborhood street designs because of concerns about access. Specifically, they are worried that narrower streets, smaller inter- sections, or shorter curve radii will make turns difficult or will impede staging activities—particularly as the equipment used gets larger and larger. In some instances, communities have aban- doned plans for smart growth road and transportation improve- ments, such as multiuse streets or engineering techniques to calm traffic, after fire chiefs testified against the plans based on accessi- bility concerns. Some emergency-response officials have pointed out that, from a broader community-safety perspective, the wider streets and turns actually produce more safety problems than they solve, since they promote higher speeds and consequently more dangerous traffic accidents. Others note that residential street designs, such as cul- de-sacs and limited access points for private communities, also impede effective access. To achieve safer street networks, local governments should con- sult emergency responders during the design phase of a road improvement project instead of at the end of the process. By working together ahead of time, local governments and emer- gency responders can create designs that result in safer, more liv- able communities. For instance, by consulting with emergency teams on fire equipment-staging requirements, road designers can create midblock bulb-outs that provide adequate space for staging, parking can be moved further back from crucial intersec- tions, and shoulders and curbs can be designed for emergency equipment use. In some communities, arguments have been effec- tively resolved by taking equipment out for real-life tests or by driving emergency equipment through cones laid out to simulate the design of an intersection or street. The trend toward larger emergency response vehicles may be one reason that responders support wider roads and turns. However, a majority of calls to many fire departments are not for fires, but for automobile accidents. Smart growth street designs reduce the fre- quency or severity of these incidents and thus relieve some of the burdens on emergency responders. The Local Government Commission has developed materials on the nexus between safer streets and community design, which includes road design meas- ures, visual cues to slow traffic such as plantings and signage, and amenities to address pedestrian and bicycle safety.6 Thus, where innovative designs are insufficient to meet smart-growth and emergency-response needs, the solution may be to procure a smaller truck to service smart growth areas. In fact, given the cost savings associated with narrower streets and the potential for reductions in the frequency and severity of accidents, purchasing smaller equipment may be a savvy investment. Change state insurance policies so that pay-as-you-drive insur- ance can be implemented. Most automobile insurance rates are determined at the onset of an annual policy and are set without regard to actual miles driven. Once the policy is being paid, no consideration is given to the ------- PROVIDE AVARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES additional risk incurred with each additional mile driven. Since insurance companies reduce rates for drivers who adopt other types of risk-reduction measures, such as antilock brakes, it seems reasonable that drivers should get credit for reducing risk by driv- ing fewer miles. A pay-as-you-drive policy assigns insurance pre- miums based directly on how much a vehicle is driven. An insurer can meter a car's odometer to assess mileage, or require that a policy holder pay an approximate amount and later pay the differ- ence or get a refund if the actual mileage is less than estimated. In 2001, Texas passed legislation authorizing pay-as-you-go insur- ance, and several other states are now piloting policies. Barriers to wider use of pay-as-you-drive insurance policies include reluctance by insurers to change practice, concerns about drivers' accountability, and impacts on drivers in rural areas. Automobile insurance policies are governed by state rules; there- fore, changing state insurance policies is the step to establishing pay-as-you-drive alternatives. In crafting policies and regulations, states should consider industry and consumer groups' concerns to ensure that mileage is accurately read and accounted for and that different types of consumers (e.g., drivers in rural settings versus drivers in urban settings) pay rates that are equitably tailored to their driving habits and environments. For example, policies tai- lored to drivers in rural areas can be based on the average number risks per mile in rural settings instead of the average number of risks per average setting. 5- Consider transportation when developing rating systems for green buildings and programs. Over the past decade, interest in environmentally sensitive "green" buildings has grown exponentially. The potential for energy, water, and waste reduction has caught the attention of both the public and private sectors. Many jurisdictions now use a rating system for scoring a building's environmental benefits in development decisions, giving incentives and priority to green projects. The U.S. Green Building Council has developed the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system to assist developers and local governments in assessing a structure's "green-ness." Early versions of the scoring system considered fac- tors such as energy use, stormwater reduction, and use of green building materials. While environmental benefits were related to the structure itself, the system did not account for the energy, air quality, and water attributes of the building's location. Those tak- ing a broader view of a building's environmental impact pointed out that green buildings situated in remote areas could actually increase pollution since they were accessible only by driving long distances and may require large surface parking lots. As use of LEED scoring increased, observers began to think more about the energy needed to transport goods, materials, and people to and from the site. As a result, the latest generation of LEED ratings evaluates the environmental aspects of location. The LEED 2.0 scorecard includes a section on sustainable sites, including urban redevelop- ment, reduced building footprint, and proximity to transit and bicycle amenities. Extra points are given for "alternative trans- portation," including parking policies, transit benefits, and car sharing. Innovative building systems and smart growth strategies are also highly rated. For example, points under the green build- ing system are awarded for structures located in already-devel- oped areas and reuse of brownfields sites. The state of Maryland has translated its Smart Code into a LEED score. The Smart ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Codes program was developed to reduce code and permit barriers to renovating older buildings in developed areas. By renovating an existing building, for example, a builder can claim, at a mini- mum, credit for site selection (1 point), urban redevelopment (1 point), building reuse (3 points), and resource reuse (2 points), as well as meeting the prerequisite for reducing the amount of waste going to landfills. 6. Transform park-and-ride lots into multiuse facilities. Parking lots at transit stations are typically used only for parking. However, these large, undeveloped spaces offer opportunities for satisfying commuter needs without generating additional trips. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), more than two-thirds of all trips are non-commuting trips. In addition, the fastest growing share of trips is nonwork-related (e.g., shopping, recreation, and running errands). These smaller trips could be reduced by incorporating small grocery stores, dry- cleaning businesses, and banks into the area around the transit station parking lot so that people could complete their errands during their commuting trip. In addition, the local video store and library could supply drop-off boxes near the transit station. Local governments could also set up a small kiosk or satellite office to provide a small range of public services, such as answer- ing tax inquiries, handling car registration renewals, and report- ing city or county repair needs. A New Jersey Transit station in Maplewood provides a concierge service to link commuters with local service-providers and retailers so that everyday errands are taken care of while passing through the train station to and from work.7 The civic and retail development could be built within a small development footprint, making it ideal for areas where large-scale transit-oriented development could not be supported. Depending on the size and intensity of the development, as well as on prices charged for parking, the transit agency could gain revenue from leasing commercial space. As with any retail provider, customer-friendly location and hours are important considerations. Some transit authorities, such as the Metropolitan Transit Authority in New York City, have limited the types of goods available for sale to avoid trash and food-waste problems on trains and buses and in stations. In addition to retail, locating child care at the station, such as that offered at some stations in Washington State by Sound Transit, can offer a convenient alter- native to those parents without cars. Since development is likely to occur on land currently dedicated to parking spots, resistance from commuters may arise at crowded parking facilities. However, the spaces needed for shops and pub- lic services could be minimal. Moreover, the loss of a small num- ber of parking spaces must be weighed against the economic, air, and quality-of-life benefits that would likely occur as a result of the station's development. 7- Integrate goods movement and delivery into smart growth. Growing congestion on our highways and at our ports has spurred new thinking about goods movement, warehousing, and distribution. Innovative ideas are particularly needed since the volume of goods being delivered is also rising. Up until now, freight planners and the carrier community (e.g., trucking and delivery companies) have focused on a region's transportation network while overlooking complementary smart growth policies to develop delivery improvements. In most cases, however, improvements cannot be built anew from the ground up, so the carrier community needs to work with planners and infrastructure ------- PROVIDE AVARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES managers to identify improvements in existing delivery systems. In many cases, freight improvements can be found in redevelop- ment plans and by making better use of existing infrastructure and community assets. To make this a reality, carriers should be involved with localities in cities with high freight traffic to ensure that local decisions on transportation and land use are "freight friendly." Since much of our nation's freight is handled through entry points and distribu- tion centers (or hubs), location and efficient siting of these large facilities are important. Cities that prohibit distribution centers within their boundaries and business districts may be forcing longer delivery routes by creating "freight sprawl." Brownfields are often located along riverfronts, train lines, and major highways. These sites can offer good opportunities for locating distribution and consolidation centers. Freight planners can partner with state and local brownfields programs to assess the potential siting of freight handling and distribution centers on these locations. Once loads are prepared at a distribution center for delivery, cre- ative management of curbside space, parking lots, and routes is essential to facilitate efficient goods movement to retailers. Typically, cities have managed curbsides for cars, street trees, and parking meters. Increasingly, localities are finding it necessary to address competition for space near curbs by delivery companies, courier services, traffic, and commuter dropoff points. Given the high competition for curbside space, cities should rethink allot- ment of this space. Cities can institute value pricing, which assigns higher fees or parking meter rates during peak curbside use hours. If meters are not available, cities can use permit park- ing or assign various times dedicated to freight deliveries. The Foundation for Intermodal Research and Education's brochure e-Freight: Metropolitan Implications (http://www.intermodal.org/ FIRE/e-freight_brochure.html) describes policies that can be implemented to facilitate freight and deliveries. 8. Provide riders with customized transit information. Far too often, marketing strategies for transit agencies begin and end with printed posters and maps. While maps are essential for a transit system, simply putting maps out in a display case does lit- tle to improve ridership. One alternative is to provide customized information directly to potential riders, as successfully demon- strated by Portland, Oregon's recent pilot project. This project focused on delivering individualized information, including home visits, to people who expressed interest in alternatives to their automobiles. Those who got customized information reduced their automobile trips by 8 percent. In Perth, Australia, delivering customized information about travel alternatives directly to trav- elers decreased the amount they drove by 10-15 percent. Employers can also help. During the interview process, they can provide prospective employees with maps showing the most direct transit routes in the area. At this stage, the employee could make a more informed decision that considers the job, housing, and transportation all at once. This could be further enhanced if employers team up with real estate professionals or the local newspaper's real estate section to match a variety of transporta- tion alternatives with available housing. Technology is advancing to the point at which interactive kiosks can provide customized information. These computerized kiosks could be placed not only in transit stations, but also in other secure locations, such as libraries and hotels, and at major events and festivals. Interactive kiosks would also be valuable for com- PRACTICETIP: The Alameda Corridor, a 20-mile freight railway linking the Port of Long Beach and Los Angeles to downtown L.A., has helped to move goods more efficiently while elimi- nating many community hazards and improving the quality of life in the communities it traverses. Two hundred street-level railroad cross- ings will be eliminated, allowing trains to travel more quickly and easing traffic congestion. In addi- tion, the Alameda Corridor Transportation Authority has job training and placement for hun- dreds of residents in adjacent com- munities. For more information see:http://www. acta.org/home_ page.htm. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Map of Boston, Massachusetts' subway system. municating new routes in the event of unexpected route changes or in case of emergencies. Create comprehensive bicycling programs. Even though the use of bicycles for commuting and run- ning errands is increasing, the percentage of trips made on bikes is still small. According to a 2003 poll sponsored by the American League of Bicyclists, 52 percent of Americans would like to bike more often. Three-quarters of those polled said that providing safe bike paths and other amenities would prompt them to bike more. A comprehensive bicycle program can create the condi- s tions for bicycles to be a competitive transportation | option. A good plan considers all points in the trip, I including the destination point, and provides safe and convenient routing and facilities. Bicycles are made still more viable as transportation options when they are integrated into the transportation system writ large—as a mode connected to and coordinated with other modes. For instance, in some com- munities transit authorities place bike racks strategically for maxi- mum use, both on buses and rail cars as well as in transit stations with lockers and near connecting lines. In addition, recreational trails are increasingly being viewed as transportation facilities as well, designed intentionally to connect housing with services, entertainment, and employment. One of the barriers to wider bicycle commuting is limited access to showers and changing facilities. Some communities, such as Denver, Colorado, and Iowa City, Iowa, require bicycle parking for larger commercial buildings. In Sacramento, California, developments with 100 or more employees may reduce their parking requirement by providing shower and clothing locker facilities for bicycle commuting employees. Other communities have considered shower ordinances, but have been concerned about costs to developers. King County, Washington, has pro- vided grant monies for developers who build lockers and showers. If a requirement for full facilities for each development project is not feasible, developers can be encouraged to contribute to a shared facility or work with a health club to provide special bike commuter rates and packages. Portland, Oregon, sponsors a pro- gram called "Bike Central," a network of facilities that provide showers, lockers and bicycle racks to cyclists for a monthly fee of $35 or a daily fee of $2.50. Community bike programs are also growing. Tampa, Florida; Portland, Oregon; Madison, Wisconsin; Missoula, Montana; and Boulder, Colorado, offer bikes free and for charge in downtown districts. The most well-known shared bicycle programs are highly visible, with bikes painted a bright color, such as orange in Tampa or yellow in Decatur, Georgia. Montgomery County, Maryland, runs a borrow-a-bike program for employees who work for Rock Springs Park-area businesses. Bike racks on buses extend travel options for cyclists. ------- PROVIDE AVARIETY OF TRANSPORTATION CHOICES IO. Introduce value pricing. Congestion pricing, variable-rate tolls, and high-occupancy toll (or HOT) lanes are examples of value pricing for roadways. In value-pricing programs, drivers who use roadways during peak travel hours pay higher prices to use the roadway or certain lanes designated for their use. The idea is to lessen traffic volume by providing an incentive to shift travel times, increase carpooling, seek alternative routes, or use other forms of transportation. Debate over congestion pricing has been lively, and controversial, for some time. Opponents of congestion pricing contend that such fees place a relatively higher financial burden on those who make lower incomes, and that the administrative costs of imple- menting and maintaining the system will outweigh the benefits. Proponents argue that all users, regardless of their incomes, are financially burdened by contending with congested roadways, and that user fees are a fair way to allocate resources to transportation infrastructure. Proponents also note that buses become a more attractive transit option when they can reliably and quickly move through uncongested lanes. Variable pricing is now gaining wider acceptance given the need for additional transportation investments and the toll of time lost on congested roads. A recent General Accounting Office report supporting the use of congestion pricing8 and the widely publi- cized congestion charge levied in London, England, has added legitimacy to the concept. Growing support from a variety of environmental and smart growth groups, combined with techno- logical advances, is playing a crucial role in making congestion pricing feasible and publicly accepted. An overall smart growth strategy should combine congestion pricing with other policies to achieve better overall transportation performance and a variety of transportation options. Variable-rate pricing on roadways should be enhanced by an overall strategy that links housing, jobs, and transportation. The goal of variable- rate pricing is not toll collection, but to find a method to best use the transportation system's capacity. While traffic distribution is one objective of congestion pricing, some roads may not be able to handle, or should not handle, the shift. Planners should look not only at the road in question, but also at the likely network of alternative routes. Concern over the cost fairness of congestion pricing to lower- income drivers is valid. Policies can be developed to build fairness into the system. The equity of congestion pricing depends on the how the collected revenues are invested and the availability of travel alternatives. San Diego launched its Priced Express Lanes in 1998 to see if variable pricing would reduce congestion. After three years, the project now generates $1.2 million in annual rev- enues, about one-half of which is used to support transit service in the corridor. In follow-up surveys, San Diego found support is high across all income groups, with the lowest income group expressing stronger support than the highest income group (80 vs. 70 percent).9 The key in San Diego and London, and in all value pricing, is the existence of viable alterna- tives. If drivers can choose alternate means of transportation, then the charge is incurred at the driver's discretion; that is, the driver chooses to pay for the convenience. Otherwise, the charge simply becomes a tax. Where no alternatives exist, revenue from value pricing can be used to create alternatives. PRACTICE TIP: The League of American Bicyclists sponsors the Bicycle Friendly Community Campaign. The cam- paign is an awards program that recognizes municipalities that actively support bicycling. To see which communities are bike friendly, as well as the policies and ameni- ties they have established, see the website to learn more, http:// www.bicyclefriendlycommunity.org. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Press release dated April 4, 2003, see http://www.apta.com/media/releases/ congestion, cfin. Press release dated May 5, 2003, from the League of American Bicyclists. Results from a poll conducted by Belden Russonello and Stewart (BRS) and a press release from the Surface Transportation Policy Project dated April 1, 2003; see http://www.transact.org/report.asp. Victoria Transport Policy Institute, "Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis—Parking Costs" (updated June 2003), http://www.vtpi.org/tca/ tca0504.pdf. For a more complete explanation of modeling, see "Inside the Black Box: Making Transportation Models Work for Livable Communities" by Edward Beimborn, Rob Kennedy, and William Schaefer at http://www. environmentaldefense.org/documents/185 9_InsideBlackBox. pdf. Source: SmartCommute, press release, 7/23/03. Local Government Commission. For a summary of information, resources and references, see http://www.lgc.org/freepub/PDF/Land_Use/focus/ traffic_safety.pdf For more information, see http://www.maplewoodonline.com/concierge/ http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03 73 5t.pdf United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, "Value Pricing Pilot Program Project Descriptions" (updated June 5, 2003); see http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/otps/ projdesc.htm. ------- HARD • 23 new homes in Ohio Ci&y Neighborhood * Designed by award winning Architect van • Choose ffom three designs and various floor pUni Reservations being taken now call 216-6 • 1 Financed by Metropolitan Bank & Trust National City Community Develoi Village Capital Corp, Builder Capri Homes. Inc Developer Bailey Orchard Development Make Development Decisions Predictable, Fair, and Cost-Effective In the 1980s, if one wanted to see an example of smart growth, he or she had only a hand- ful of examples across the country from which to choose. In the 1990s, however, the majority of states had at least one smart growth project to showcase. Today, there are hundreds of smart growth projects across the nation that are either complete or under construction.1 Smart growth, as an investment opportunity, offers developers a diverse range of investment-grade options to choose from: brownfields, greyfields, urban infills, transit-oriented projects, pedes- trian-oriented projects, and traditional neigh- borhood development on greenfield sites. Still, these efforts have not come easily to fruition. For entrepreneurs, project execution $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II has had its share of risk and uncertainty. For local governments, the development process has required new laws, complex agree- ments, incentive packages, and personal sacrifice, and stakehold- ers who are committed to effecting change have oftentimes clashed over the direction of development. Many lessons have been learned from past successes and failures. Public incentives are becoming more refined. Local approval processes are becoming more streamlined. Developers have a bet- ter understanding of their product and how to attract end-users. New solutions are extending beyond individual sites to include districts and, in some cases, entire jurisdictions. Most importantly, there is a heightened level of knowledge, education, and experi- ence that exists for the benefit of all interested parties who seek to provide new choices in how people can live, work, play, and pro- tect the environment. To continue receiving attention from investors, lenders, devel- opers, and entrepreneurs, smart growth must be profitable. While no real estate venture is without challenges, there exists a higher degree of risk associated with smart growth development than with single-use projects found within conventional devel- opment patterns. In this regard, there is still a lot the public sec- tor can do to reduce barriers to development, level the playing field, and encourage smarter growth. It is not enough to focus attention on solutions at a specific site only to repeat the same process for an adjacent parcel. To increase development and reduce risk, local governments should act uniformly and consis- tently. Such a business practice can communicate a message to developers that greater certainty and predictability exist in the development process. I. Educate elected leaders and public officials about smart growth. Many communities are discovering smart growth. In these places, citizens expect their public officials to use smart growth to make their towns and neighborhoods better, more livable places. Prospects for smarter development are greatly enhanced when public leaders can clearly articulate a strong vision about how and where growth should occur. Elected and appointed leaders who know the importance of good urban design, scale, diversity, and proper integration of new proj- ects within the existing built environment can achieve higher- quality growth that retains value over time. Understanding these tools and learning how they encourage development require training and education. To meet this challenge, a number of state and national design centers around the country have emerged to teach elected leaders and public officials about smart growth. The Maine Smart Growth Institute in Augusta brings together local, regional, state, and federal officials with private-sector lead- ers to educate them about smart growth, land economics, market- place economics, and existing growth and development patterns. They receive training on smart growth concepts, design tech- niques, development principles, and development incentives, as well as the tools to train others. The Florida Public Officials Design Institute in Jupiter brings design and planning expertise to elected officials at specific community sites. Operated by Florida Atlantic University's Catanese Center, the design institute provides elected leaders with training and problem-specific tools, design options for better development, and concrete suggestions to implement smart growth. ------- MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST-EFFECTIVE At the national level, organizations are also training elected offi- cials about smart growth. The Joint Center for Sustainable Communities in Washington, D.C., helps local elected officials build sustainable communities by providing technical assistance, training, and educational forums. The Smart Growth Leadership Institute trains state and local elected leaders on how to effec- tively create and implement smart growth initiatives. The Mayor's Institute on City Design teaches mayors advocacy for good design through workshops and by recommending specific ways to make a substantial impact on the quality of development in their cities and towns. Graduates of these educational programs acquire the knowledge and tools necessary to green-light projects that become models for smart growth nationwide. Every day, elected leaders are called on to assist with large build- ing and development projects. They must approve special vari- ances, negotiate exceptions, and communicate with their con- stituents about the positive impacts of these projects on their communities. Every approved project serves as an opportunity to add value to a community, to make it ordinary, or to make it worse. Confusion about what is desired and what is finally approved can send mixed messages to developers, who may sim- ply opt to pursue another project where the process is easier and more transparent. Such outcomes can be avoided through leader- ship training and education. 2. Direct development along corridors to create stronger districts. Corridors can function as multipurpose districts that unify a diverse range of neighborhood uses with civic space, link town centers, capitalize on existing infrastructure, and build stronger commercial districts. High-density projects are more appropriately located along corridors, where transportation capacity is greater. Corridors should be planned to conveniently link town centers. This can be accomplished by transit stops for passenger rail, bus, or light rail along boulevards (intra-city) or avenues (inner-city). Well-designed avenues with frequent intersections provide an environment for area residents to walk or bike to local destination nodes. As transportation modes increase, so does commuter access to corridor employment. Transportation planning can position the corridor as a job center to attract new business. A primary benefit of corridor planning is to create an economic district that is stronger than the sum of its component parts (i.e., the smaller individual centers). Merchants, especially national retailers, select new markets based on local demographics, day- time population, transportation options, accessibility, parking, and the prospect for retail synergy. Similarly, office markets are best defined when office buildings are located close to one another. Rather than scattering strip retail centers and office buildings in a random fashion throughout a region, the corridor extends development beyond individual centers while still focus- ing it within established markets. This type of growth reinforces the viability of the individual centers, provides direction for new development, and creates a stronger business district while being more cost-effective for the region. Over 30 years ago, Arlington County, Virginia, began a planning process for the two-square-mile area encompassing the Rosslyn and Ballston neighborhoods. Almost immediately, several devel- opment projects were initiated that set the course for higher-den- sity projects and intense commercial uses on major streets that linked five new Metro rail stations. Today, some sections of the corridor are undergoing a second wave of development. Between 1999 and 2002, more than 2,500 apartments and condominiums ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II This partial image of the Rosslyn- Ballston Metro Corridor illustrates Arlington, Virginia's success in link- ing several town centers to create a larger district through corridor planning. were constructed, and 1.5 million square feet of office space and 379,000 square feet of retail space have been built. The corridor contributes more than 33 percent of the county's real estate tax revenue, yet encompasses less than 10 percent of the county's land area. Under typical suburban conditions, the corridor's density would be spread out over 14 square miles of open space. Such concentration and synergy of uses have contributed to its remark- able market resiliency, despite a sagging economy. In 2002, Arlington County's Rosslyn-Ballston Metro Corridor Project was honored with one of the U.S Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Awards for Smart Growth. 3- Create pattern books to stream- line construction and enhance s project marketability. I A pattern book is an old concept | used by builders to establish the | basic form of buildings and to f provide key architectural ele- | ments and detail. Such books pro- | vide builders with a variety of i renderings and images of accept- § able treatments necessary to build I a house. By varying the different 1 details and options, builders can i create an unlimited number of ^ housing patterns within a com- mon architectural standard, thereby providing each unit with its own unique flair. Such places, both old and new, are highly desirable to homebuyers, and pat- tern books help ensure the quality and variety of new homes on the market. Developers are beginning to re-enlist pattern books to assist pro- duction builders in the construction of new housing units in smart growth projects. This tool serves as an instruction book for builders who traditionally work from their own standard subdivi- sion home plans. Pattern books assist the builder in executing the development's concept as articulated in the project's architectural and design codes. Not only are pattern books advantageous in the construction process, but developers are finding that they are also a key component of the overall sales marketing program. Pattern books allow for a greater number of housing variations to be cre- ated than is commonly found in conventional subdivisions. As a result, consumers have more choices and often like the unique- ness of the product—aspects that distinguish pattern book neigh- borhoods from cookie-cutter subdivisions that have a small num- ber of product types. Pattern books are also becoming advantageous to developers during the approval process, as new projects require more com- munity input. Pattern books can help to communicate the pro- posed master plan's character to the community and approving officials, and can be used to assure them that "what they see is what they'll get." Once general consensus has been reached on a master plan, the pattern book serves as a means to implement it. This process engages builders, developers, architects, and real estate professionals in a more technical process. If prepared correctly, a pattern book can reduce misunderstandings between homeowners, the developer, builders, and subcontractors. Pattern books enable all participants to understand, embrace, and build from a shared vision.2 ------- MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST-EFFECTIVE Make zoning codes and other land development regulations simple to use and easy to read. When considering her options under most conventional zoning codes, a developer may spend a great deal of time and expense merely working out what activities or changes are permitted and what are not. In some cases, the code may be written in compli- cated "legalese" that is difficult for developers (and citizens) to decipher. In others, the code may contain confusing cross-refer- ences to other sections of the code, or permitted uses may be spread out in long sections of repetitive text. Simplicity and ease of use benefits all interested parties, because everyone can quickly understand the rules of the game. One reason for this complexity is that many codes are amended several times over many decades, without undergoing a complete update. In the case of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the code had become, over time, "a collection of Post-It notes." Among other oddities, the old code had more than 125 different zoning dis- tricts, many of which were never used. After a four-year revision process begun in 1997, the city council adopted many of the changes proposed by city staff and an appointed task force. The changes were dramatic. The code was slimmed down from 25 sections to only 10, unnecessary districts were eliminated, and a Computerized Zoning Ordinance is now available and searchable through the Web. The code now conforms closely to the zoning A page from the pattern book for Providence, a new traditional town in Huntsville, Alabama, provides examples of vernacular roofs and eaves for bungalow models within the development. map (see Policy 8), and the zoning map was updated to better reflect current patterns of development. Due to the simplification of administrative procedures, developers no longer have to go through a cumbersome process at the board of zoning appeals. Review time at the board of zoning appeals was reduced from an average of 27 weeks per case in 1998 to 6 to 8 weeks in 2001.3 Several other localities have undergone similar revisions to make their codes more user-friendly, including Detroit, Chicago, and Honolulu. Simplicity is not an easy goal to achieve. After the city of Dayton undertook an effort to update its code, one consultant involved in the process noted that officials always had to be mind- ful of that goal, "because every time we thought of a new good idea to include, that could increase complexity."4 5- Create a multimunicipal planning strategy to provide for devel- opment in rural markets while maintaining rural character. Some states require their municipalities to create individual land use plans that include all possible zoning uses within its jurisdic- tion. This challenge can be quite daunting, and for many rural towns such legal requirements can have unintended consequences that impact the rural character of a region. By zoning for all uses, rural communities are placed in a precarious position. The municipalities must designate the future removal of valuable open space for noncompatible uses in rural areas (such as apartments, offices, or industrial complexes), and, moreover, the nonrural uses often diminish the spirit of the community. Under today's plan- ning measures, these nonrural uses are located in rural regions far from existing centers. The location of such development requires new infrastructure that is costly to implement and maintain. Municipalities throughout Pennsylvania and New Jersey are con- PRACTICE TIP: In Smart Growth Zoning Codes: A Resource Guide, author Steve Tracy provides several tips for writing smart growth codes that are easy to use.These include: Use straightforward language and terms that are unambigu- ously defined and used consis- tently. • Provide simple explanations that avoid unnecessary complexity. Try to keep each section of the code self-contained and avoid confusing cross references, exceptions, and footnotes. • Use tables or graphics to com- municate zoning criteria and development standards, and avoid lengthy and repetitive text....List setbacks for different zones and building types in tables rather than repeating the same phrase over and over with different numbers.5 ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II sidering other planning solutions as a means to enhance economic development while preserving rural character.6 One tool is multi- municipal planning (multiplanning), which is being utilized as an effective tool for rural regions to foster economic growth with minimal impact on their rural value. Multiplanning affords rural communities the opportunity to work together to benefit from growth while protecting rural priorities. The multiplanning strategy blunts some of the distortions intro- duced by the requirement to plan for all uses. It can reduce the cost of infrastructure by concentrating high-intensity and dense uses in fewer areas. It can also preserve agricultural land and other critical open spaces across jurisdictions. From a regional perspective, multiplanning facilitates tax revenue sharing, thus reducing the need for municipalities to compete against one another for commercial development. This allows municipalities to conserve land while still benefiting from nearby commercial or industrial development. Additionally, multiplanning can provide for a consistent set of rules within the planning region, thereby making development more attractive. There are also a number of incentives for municipalities partici- pating in multiplanning that vary according to state law. In Pennsylvania, participating municipalities do not need to provide for every type of possible use but may collectively spread those uses over regional geographic areas. The municipalities can receive state agency priority funding for such planning and imple- mentation, and there is a greater likelihood that state agencies will rely on multiplanning to make funding and permitting decisions. To the benefit of developers and investors, multiplanning outlines where the designated growth areas are for an entire region and where rural growth boundaries begin. It saves the developer and investor from fighting individual development battles in each municipality in the multiplan. It also ensures adequate infrastruc- ture to sustain development where it is deemed appropriate. 6. Establish a state- or regional-level "smart growth cabinet." Development patterns and practices are influenced by many gov- ernment actions, including transportation projects, infrastructure decisions, housing policies, economic development programs, and environmental protection strategies. Without clear direction and coordination, these agencies, policies, and programs can send con- tradictory messages to the development market. This can be espe- cially true for smart growth development given that existing zoning codes, regulations, and ordinances do not accommodate smart growth practices as a matter of course. Currently, the approval process for smart growth development requires variances and intradepartmental agreement. To make smart growth innovation easier than, and more competitive with, conventional development, states have created "cabinets" that are made up of state-level cabi- net members and top executives of agencies and departments. States that have smart growth cabinets serve various purposes and have numerous goals; yet, they do have commonalities. In some form or another, these cabinets set smart growth policy, coordi- nate interdepartmental procedures and programs, review pro- grams for adherence to smart growth principles, and resolve con- flicts among agencies and departments in the implementation process. Many of these states have adopted smart growth princi- ples for guidance. It is common to find these cabinets focusing on comprehensive state development programs in addition to the spe- cific interests of the state, such as brownfields redevelopment, the strengthening of existing centers, economic development, trans- portation and mobility, pollution, and open space conservation. ------- MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST-EFFECTIVE Regardless of political party or geographic location, governors are looking at smart growth to help conserve land and fiscal resources, reduce pollution, and plan for growth. Smart growth "cabinets" can assist by creating consistent investment and incen- tive policies at the state level, monitoring state progress in devel- opment and conservation, assisting local governments in their smart growth efforts, streamlining statewide implementation, and removing barriers to better growth. 7- Create an "incentives expert" for developers and businesses when an area has been designated for development/ redevelopment. Many developers are not aware of all the available incentives when considering a smart growth project. An incentives expert guides developers though the existing toolkit, recommending incentive options, explaining programs, and providing other advice. If not a specifically created position, this role could be ful- filled by a knowledgeable municipal planner or economic- or community-development director. Making the development process fair and predictable for develop- ers does not require sophisticated technology but can be accom- plished by using available resources more effectively and by mini- mizing obstacles. The existence of incentives in an area targeted for development welcomes developers. However, even when valu- able incentive programs exist, developers often have difficulty navigating the complex maze of paperwork and understanding eli- gibility requirements. One way to assist the development process for entrepreneurs is to designate a professional for all inquiries and marketing of incen- tives. This individual may be assigned to active developers or specifically identified develop- ment sites or may serve as a liai- son to investors who are consid- ering developing properties that the town desires to have rebuilt. The incentive expert should be well versed in the incentives, the community's strengths, and the type of development desired. Empire State Development of New York provides businesses and investors with such informa- tion for new projects and relocat- ing businesses. They also assist decision makers with bond pro- grams, tax and finance incentives, and energy-saving measures, as well as opportunities in different incentive zones.7 A local govern- ment liaison should also possess a list of sites qualified to receive incentives and market those sites accordingly. Developers perform a complex series of calculations before com- mitting to a project. Some of the factors they consider include financing, market opportunities, ease of entry, timing, and work- force availability. Although a town cannot control many of PRACTICE TIP: A number of states (e.g., Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kentucky, North Dakota, and Utah) have adopted smart growth initiatives. In addi- tion to their own state initiatives, Colorado, New Jersey, and Maryland have also established state smart growth offices.To date, only Maryland has had a state-level cabinet position for its smart growth executive. The following seven states and one regional authority have cabinets that pursue smart growth policies: Illinois Balanced Growth Cabinet Office of the Governor http://www.state.il.us/state/balanced/cabinet.htm Maine Smart Growth Coordinating Committee Maine State Planning Office http://www.state.me.us/spo/landuse/tfandcomm/sgcc/index/php Maryland Smart Growth Subcabinet Maryland Governor's Office of Smart Growth http://www.smartgrowth.state.md.us/ Massachusetts Commonwealth Development Coordinating Council Office of the Governor http://mass.gov Michigan Land Use Leadership Council Department of Environmental Quality Environmental Science & Service http://www.michiganlanduse.org/ New Jersey Smart Growth Policy Council Office of Smart Growth, New Jersey Dept. of Community Affairs http://www.nj.gov/dca/osg/commissions/sgpc.shtml Pennsylvania Interagency Land Use Team Governor's Center for Local Government Services Department of Community and Economic Development http://www.landuseinpa.org Great Lakes Sustainable Land Use Commission http://www.glc.org/bridges/ ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: • Provide your contact person with the tools necessary to launch a successful project. • Create a fact sheet about the incentive programs. • Include relevant names and phone numbers of town officials, local lenders, and local agencies, as well as contact information for relevant state or other offi- cials. • Create a notebook that includes all documents previously used for a variety of successful proj- ects as samples of accurate preparation. • Develop a list of the most com- mon, and most expensive, mis- takes that developers have made. these factors, it may have already created incentives to reduce the amount of hurdles. An incentives expert can clearly communicate with potential investors and streamline the incentive process, thereby increasing the community's chances of attracting the type of development it wants.8 8. Implement geographic information system-based planning into the development process. Geographic information systems (GIS) are already impacting planning and development review. When used creatively, GIS can speed up the development review process and measure character- istics such as walkability and mix of uses. GIS are a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing large amounts of datasets, including land use, employment, transporta- tion, and environmental layers. GIS can be used to quickly ana- lyze the environmental characteristics of any potential building site. Some of these characteristics may include soil type, aquifer capacity, steep slopes, floodplains, wetlands, buffer zones, and view sheds. The accessibility of a site to transportation and utility infrastructure may be evaluated. Urban and transportation plan- ners aggregate these and other measurements to develop projec- tions for the future requirements and impacts of various land uses. Planning and zoning departments around the U.S. are reviewing an increasing number of development proposals with fewer staff and resources. GIS can help ease this burden by providing the means to quickly and easily evaluate plan reviews. Timely reviews provide an attractive business climate for developers because of the increased certainty in the development review process. The city of San Diego invested heavily in GIS (Process 2000) in order to streamline their development review process. On average, waiting times for certain permits have been reduced by as much as nine months.9 Map Milwaukee combines GIS with public data to provide com- prehensive information about site location, zoning, parcel data, and property ownership. The maps can be useful to Milwaukee developers by providing information for the planning and permit- ting of new and remodeled buildings. A developer is able to determine, among other things, if a parcel is located in a business improvement district or a targeted investment neighborhood or if it is an improved property that is for sale. To further advance smart growth, GIS can add certainty to—and can accelerate—the approval process. Localities can set and make public community-specific development standards similar to the smart growth scorecards in use around the country (see Principle 8, Policy 5). GIS provide a way to objectively measure a develop- ment's performance on many measures, such as walkability and access to transit or open space, thus removing some of the uncer- tainty from the process. In this way, speedy reviews can be com- bined with development performance measures, and developers have a clearer idea as to the standards that must be met, how they will be judged, and, potentially, what benefits come with different levels of excellence. Streamline brownfield redevelopment approval processes. Many barriers have traditionally discouraged investment in con- taminated properties. Prospective property developers and own- ers often choose to develop uncontaminated greenfields rather than risk liability, costs of cleanup, and uncertainty associated with redeveloping brownfield properties. Since the 1990s, a growing understanding of the potential benefits of brownfield ------- MAKE DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS PREDICTABLE, FAIR, AND COST-EFFECTIVE redevelopment to surrounding communities and regions has led policy makers to create incentives for brownfield redevelopment. In particular, state-initiated voluntary cleanup programs (VCPs) have played an important role. Almost every state has enacted some type of VCP to encourage owners, developers, and munici- palities to initiate site cleanups. In addition, many municipalities have adopted their own brownfields redevelopment incentives. States and municipalities often combine incentives, such as finan- cial assistance, reduced liability, and other measures. Streamlined approval processes, which can be accomplished by incorporating simplified, more efficient administrative procedures and by encouraging community participation, may be the next frontier.10 Milwaukee, a city with a highly industrial past and home to many brownfields properties, is targeting its brownfields redevelopment in four state-designated development zones. Key components of their revitalization program include: • Predevelopment roundtables for large projects where public agencies and developers identify potential hurdles and preempt regulatory delays • Arranging for land assembly and acting as a liaison to state regulators • A city-run development center that provides a single point of contact and assistance for obtaining construction and building permits.11 Agencies can also streamline approval by setting specific review timelines to ensure that the review of an application will be com- plete within a certain number of days after the time of submis- sion. In addition, public entities can also facilitate redevelopment by providing informational support, low-cost consulting, techni- cal assistance, GIS analysis, and records of past uses. These proce- dures and forms of administrative support reduce delays in brownfield cleanup, clarify requirements, and provide informa- tion to prospective developers and property owners. They are important in addressing critical barriers to redevelopment, such as high transaction costs. The relatively inexpensive state assis- tance programs associated with reducing decision-making costs may actually have more impact than far more expensive financial subsidies that are intended to increase returns or, in comparison to risk-based standards, that may raise environmental justice or health concerns.12 IO. Create investment funds for smart growth projects. A growing number of developers and investors who have com- pleted smart growth projects are looking for additional opportu- nities. Because of their experience, investors are becoming more knowledgeable in identifying the components of a smart growth project. Their experience also provides developers with a solid understanding of what to expect in the development process. In short, smart growth is becoming more predictable for the sea- soned real estate professional. These investors are now poised to identify, through smart growth investment funds, opportunities in bulk that produce a "double bottom line"—one that is profitable to investors and supports the goals of smart growth. CalPERS, the largest public pension fund in the U.S., has two smart growth programs totaling $300 million. The Northern California Urban Infill Investment Program has a $100 million equity fund that increased to $200 million the year it was funded. Bridge Housing Corporation and RREEF, two real estate firms, each manage $100 million of the fund's allocation. CalPERS also has a similar fund, managed by CommonWealth Partners, LLC, ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II FINANCE TIP: A number of lending sources have funding initiatives for smart growth projects that help create livable communities, support transporta- tion options, and foster sustainable patterns of land use. Other funders support affordable housing and community development, specialize in programs that support low- income and minority communities, or fund the protection of open space. These funders help make development decisions more pre- dictable by providing a stream of capital to developers and communi- ties when conventional funding sources cannot be relied upon. See Appendix B for a comprehensive directory of lenders and founda- tions that have supported, or can be used to support, smart growth. valued at $100 million dollars aimed at Southern California. Both programs apply smart growth investment strategies that focus on new and rehabilitative construction.13 American Ventures, a Coral Gables, Florida-based investment firm, has recently launched two real estate investment funds targeting urban neighborhoods in Miami and Albuquerque, N.M. Fund managers will have $50 million to $100 million to invest for each city. The funds will target mixed-use projects within the central business districts. Albuquerque and Miami were selected because of the pro-development attitude of elected officials and the desire of each to improve neglected communities. The initiative is expected to attract investment from private foundations committed to a mis- sion of revitalizing depressed communities. The funds will work with state pension and permanent funds and federal banks and S&Ls subject to the Community Reinvestment Act. Robert Steutiville, "New Urban Projects on a Neighborhood Scale in the United States," New Urban News 7, no. 8 (2002). Urban Design Associates, "Pattern Books and Design Guidelines" (May 14, 2003), 1: http://www.urbandesignassociates.com/servicespattern.html Proceedings of "Reforming Codes, Revitalizing Communities: An ICMA Regional Forum on Revising Codes to Achieve Smart Growth" (Washington, D.C.: International City/County Management Association, forthcoming). Ibid. Steve Tracy, Smart Growth Zoning Codes: A Resource Guide (Sacramento: Local Government Commission, 2003). Pennsylvania Municipalities Planning Code, Act 247 of 1968; the "Growing Smarter" Amendments, Acts 67 & 68, 2000; and New Jersey Municipal Land Use Law, Section 40:55D-77. For details, see http://www.empire.state.ny.us/nysdc/. Much of this section is adapted from Terry Richman, "Is Your Town Developer Friendly?" http://www.cardi.Cornell.edu/cd_toolbox_2/tools/dev_friendly_town.cfrn. Reprinted from "Towns & Topics," Association of Towns of State of New York (September-October, 2002). George Arimes, "Doing the Job in Double Time," Planning (March 1997). For more information, see the U.S. EPA report Redevelopment: Economic Engine and Environmental Opportunity. An electronic version of the report and information for ordering a hardcopy can be found at http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth. Angela E. Vitulli, Charlotte Dougherty, and Dan Hutch, "Urban Competitive Advantage and Brownfields Redevelopment," Brownfields 2002 Conference Proceedings (Charlotte, NC, November 13-15, 2002), http://www.brownfields2002.org/proceedings2000/5-07v.pdf. Peter B. Meyer, "Approach to Brownfield Regeneration: The Relative Value of Financial Incentives, Relaxed Mitigation Standards and Regulatory Certainty" (working paper; Louisville, KY: Center for Environmental Policy and Management, University of Louisville, 2000). The CalPERS Web site at http://www.calpers.ca.gov/ details both funds and their "Smart Growth" investment strategy. ------- Chapter 10 Encourage Community and Stakeholder Collaboration in Development Decisions The current development process satisfies neither citizens nor the development community, even though process changes that can benefit both parties can be identified by collaborating on development decisions. After undergoing a lengthy, exhaustive visioning process, citizens can become frustrated and dis- illusioned when their expectations for outlined plans, codes, and, ultimately, development are not met. Like the development community, the overall community benefits from a clear, open, and predictable development process. Lessons on how to better engage stakeholders are coming to light as more communities adopt smart growth. First, communities need to be engaged at or near the beginning of the $MART GROWTH NETWORK ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II process. When community members are brought in late, the process and development plans are not likely to be inclusive and, subsequently, are viewed by the community with distrust. In addi- tion, the plans may be so far along in the design process that con- structive suggestions cannot be easily integrated at a later stage. Second, new tools to envision a project's impact and to tap into stakeholders' creativity are constantly being developed. State-of- the-art tools and technologies, such as a visual-preference survey or a computer tool to illustrate a proposed project in its setting, have enabled developers to create interactive, virtual models of proposed plans for development. Such tools help developers cre- ate design details that are beneficial to both the community and the project. Providing community members with user-friendly information on plans and projects is also important. Media outlets, such as local newspapers and news stations, are skilled at delivering commu- nity-related information to a diverse audience, and local colleges and businesses are also key resources to conveying information pertinent to the community planning process. Finally, involving the full range of stakeholders in the develop- ment process, though difficult, is one of the best ways to ensure that growth will result in a more livable, more vibrant community that accurately reflects local needs and values. The policies pre- sented below are intended to assist in engaging all stakeholders in the development process. I. Use third-party groups to make sure a range of stakeholder views is expressed. Often, the development approval process results in a heated exchange between the developer and representatives of adjacent neighborhoods. Consequently, the only issues presented to deci- sion officials tend to underscore potential negative impacts to neighboring properties and to reiterate what the developer is will- ing to build. Because development decisions rarely affect the neighboring community or builder only, introducing other com- ments, or third-party testimonies, on the potential positive and negative impacts can shape a better vision for the final project. For example, a local chamber of commerce may offer comments on a housing and jobs mix that other stakeholders feel uncomfort- able addressing due to other priority areas or lack of expertise. Third-party analysis and testimony have typically advocated affordable housing. In recent years, however, third-party testi- monies have commonly supported compact development, a wider range of density, and mixed uses. Third-party views are typically useful for projects that may be viewed with skepticism by neigh- borhood residents (e.g., where commercial uses or apartments are to be introduced in residential neighborhoods). To be credible, third-party groups need to rooted in the commu- nity and must represent an array of community interests. For example, in the San Francisco Bay area, the Transportation and Land Use Coalition is made up of 90 local organizations that sup- port better transportation, affordable housing, and participatory community design. In addition to including environmental and transportation advocates, the coalition includes church officials and representatives of the elderly. This group has expertise in transportation and jobs/housing links. ------- ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS Third-party groups | s also need to establish project criteria for a 11 development so that 11 the group's endorse- ment is not seen as arbitrary and subjective. For example, the Washington Smart Growth Alliance in the District of Columbia sponsors a Smart Growth Recognition Program. The team, made up of developer, civic, and environmental interests, reviews commercial and resi- dential development proposals and writes letters of support and testimony if a project meets the program's criteria. Among other requirements, the planned development must be located in or adjacent to developed areas, have sufficient density, provide trans- portation options, and generate benefits for the surrounding area.1 2. Use nonprofit groups as smart growth consultants. Bringing together all of the stakeholders in the development process can be a large undertaking. Many communities find that they do not have inhouse planning expertise or the funds to hire a consultant. Increasingly, smart growth groups, which typically comprise supporters who have a variety of backgrounds (e.g., transportation, zoning, watershed protection, etc.), are filling this gap by offering their services. The American Farmland Trust, a Washington, D.C., nonprofit that advocates farmland preservation, is one leader in this field. Its Community Farmland Protection Consulting Services group helps neighborhoods and towns estimate the costs of services for various development patterns, identify valuable resource lands, and engage the public in planning and creating purchase-of- development rights.2 To find similar organizations, communities can consult state and local smart growth groups, watershed-pro- tection organizations, and land conservancies to learn about who may have expertise in planning, leading workshops, or conducting site analyses. Universities can also provide valuable consulting services. The state of Delaware tapped the University of Delaware's Institute for Public Administration to help smaller communities develop com- prehensive plans under the state's "Livable Delaware" initiative. A common thread among smart growth organizations that pro- vide consulting services is the ability to connect core areas of expertise, such as farmland protection or schools, with related dis- ciplines to develop comprehensive plans for communities and regions. Nonprofit organizations can provide services or help a community focus on key growth and planning needs prior to hiring a consultant. 3- Use a "kick the tires" trip to take local government officials and residents to visit smart growth communities. Often, local officials and neighborhood activists have little experi- ence or previous exposure to smart growth. While graphics and architectural renderings can give a rough picture of what projects look like, a better way to demonstrate smart growth's potential is to actually walk through a traditional neighborhood development or completed smart growth project. The idea of taking key stakeholders to view actual projects is not new. The Marshall Fund, for example, sponsors exchange trips so that U.S. and European delegations can view best practices in environmental and transportation projects. A smart growth varia- PRACTICETIP: The nonprofit National Charrette Institute (NCI) was founded in 2001 to help communities develop more livable communities through collaborative planning processes. The French word "charrette" means "little cart" and is used to describe the final, intense work effort expended by art and archi- tecture students to meet a project deadline. The term has now evolved to describe a rigorous and inclusive process that produces the strategies and implementation documents for complex and difficult design and planning projects. Charrettes include intense sessions held over several consecutive days. The prod- uct is a consensus plan on how a community should develop and grow. NCI was formed to foster broader use of holistic, collabora- tive planning processes in commu- nity design. For more about NCI and what they offer, see http://www.charretteinstitute.org/. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: In 1999, researchers from Kalamazoo College brought a group of community leaders from the Kalamazoo, Michigan, region on a study trip to Portland, Oregon, to study growth management policies and issues. The trip kicked off a year-long project called "Convening Our Community" that built the political will to solve a number of previously intractable and con- tentious land use issues in western Michigan. tion of exchange programs is a great way to let local officials see how density, design, and transportation all work together in cities that have implemented smart growth. An actual project can debunk common myths and misunderstandings about traffic, parking, and public services. To be successful, a smart growth tour organizer will include a presentation of supporting growth princi- ples and policies, interviews with various stakeholders, and any "lessons learned" to inform the planning and implementation of similar projects. To understand the real-world implications of smart growth, rep- resentatives from a community do not need to travel abroad but can find model projects in their own region. A first step in finding these projects is to look at awards or smart growth certification programs, such as the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) smart growth awards. Development organizations, such as the Urban Land Institute and the Congress for New Urbanism, also sponsor awards for smart growth design and transportation. The American Planning Association has added a special smart growth category to its list of annual awards. 4- Establish context-sensitive design training courses that focus on community-involvement strategies for traffic engineers. Context-sensitive design (CSD) is defined as a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach that involves all stakeholders in devel- oping transportation facilities that support a range of community needs. In addition to promoting safety and mobility, this approach considers a community's scenic, aesthetic, historic, and environ- mental resources. CSD arose from the recognition that trans- portation systems and their facilities affect a wider area than a road or rail line's immediate surroundings. Transportation offi- cials also recognize that existing facilities are a prime focus for improving communities as well as transportation networks. However, balancing transportation and community needs is cer- tain to pose trade-offs. Transportation engineers will find them- selves in the unfamiliar territory of considering community build- ing, historic preservation, and public art. Even where transporta- tion officials are well versed in community design, they may need help conveying transportation needs to a nontechnical audience or in translating a wide array of transportation needs into tradi- tionally inflexible design standards. To ease this process, communities can develop an outreach pro- gram that engages transportation engineers and officials with neighborhood residents, landscape architects, and community development representatives to develop collaborative design strategies specifically geared to transportation facilities. The Project for Public Spaces (PPS) in New York City has developed an excellent three-day course on engaging communities for CSD. For more information, see http://www.pps.org. 5- Use quick-response teams to gain approvals for smart growth developments. Newspapers from around the country are filled with stories on how cities are coming back, boosted by housing, retail, and entertain- ment districts. However, proposing an infill or redevelopment proj- ect can be challenging. Outdated regulations, poor maps, design challenges, and overlapping zoning codes are some of the barriers faced by developers who may ultimately consider greenfield devel- opment an easier alternative. To level the development playing field, localities and states have instituted multidisciplinary quick- response teams to help guide proposals through the application ------- ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS process. To ensure that these teams don't bypass the stakeholder involvement process, choosing a representative team is important. Oregon's Transportation and Growth Management (TGM) pro- gram is a joint project between the Departments of Transportation and Land Conservation and Development. A major component is the Quick Response Program, which addresses community requests with planning and design services to implement smart growth goals, plans, and projects—usually within two weeks. In response to local requests, developers, prop- erty owners, local/state officials, and affected stakeholders come together to review development proposals, develop innovative design solutions, and overcome regulatory obstacles to land use, transportation, and design issues. The program also provides eco- nomic and market-feasibility analysis. The state contracts with experienced design and planning firms to deliver plans, analyses, and recommendations for code reform. In one example a community was dissatisfied with a redevelop- ment plan that would create a one-story retail center with surface parking. With the Quick Response team's assistance, and in coor- dination with the city, the block was transformed into a mixed-use project with street-level retail and upper-story condominiums and townhomes with underground parking. The rear of the building is lined with two-story townhomes, in response to the commu- nity's concern that the project blend in with the scale of the adja- cent historic Irvington neighborhood.4 6. Conduct place audits to determine barriers and opportunities for smart growth. Many communities spend a lot of time trying to predict the impacts of individual development projects without first under- standing how their neighborhood works. A place, or community, audit can help assess community functions by analyzing the com- bination of small details that affect common concerns like traffic, recreational space, housing, and safety. While smart-growth or zoning-code audits focus specifically on codes and regulations, a place audit focuses on how community assets, regulations, and the built environment relate to each other. A community-develop- ment organization may want to sponsor a neighborhood audit as a community-building activity and as a means to get neighbors more involved in the planning process. One type of place audit is a walking audit. Geared toward looking at the quality of the pedestrian environment, a walking audit looks at the details of sidewalk width, curb heights, corners, and cross- walks. A place audit can look at these elements as well as the way that parks, buildings, and streets are constructed within a neighbor- hood. This helps residents understand the factors and design varia- tions that affect traffic speeds, pedestrian safety, and design needs. Although every place audit is a little different, each usually includes the following key elements: • A local presenter who describes a particular local problem or situation • A visual introduction to community design • A walk in the community to identify good and bad conditions • A discussion of people's observations on the walk • Agreement on possible action items and/or proposed improvements.5 A community can develop other types of neighborhood audits dur- ing a planning process. For example, when a community is consid- ering alternative locations for senior housing, stakeholders should ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II PRACTICE TIP: The Baltimore Neighborhood Indicators Alliance has used census data and information from the city- planning office to develop a set of indicators around housing and com- munity development, children's health, safety, workforce develop- ment, economic development, the urban environment, transit, educa- tion, and youth. See http://www. bnia.org for more information. conduct a special community audit to consider how the new resi- dents will get around in their new neighborhood. The walk should pose questions on features that many younger community mem- bers take for granted. Are there curb cuts? Are the signs printed and located so that elderly persons can easily find their way? Are the services and goods purchased by senior citizens located nearby? While audits can be devised to address an array of community issues, their key feature is getting neighbors out to look at actual conditions and problems. Basing the discussion in the neighbor- hood has a way of putting aside philosophical, rhetorical, or ideo- logical arguments in favor of a more practical, solution-based dis- cussion. Making the physical neighborhood the context can sometimes go a long way toward finding agreement among disparate viewpoints. 7- Develop community indicators to make sure that development is meeting community goals. Indicators are identifiable measures that can be used to assess your community's health. Many financial, transportation, and census indicators are already widely collected and used by locali- ties as benchmarks, such as income, home-ownership rates, and miles of bicycle trails. However, these common measures might not tell the entire story of how a community is reaching wider, long-term goals. For example, a community might have a high home-ownership rate, but may still be struggling to meet its housing goals for city or service-industry employees. Using this example, a community may want to track other housing statistics, such as the percentage of employees who live outside of the juris- diction or the percentage of apartments that have been converted to condominiums. Jurisdictions with such indicator projects include Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Boulder County, Colorado; and Santa Barbara, California. Each uses different types of indicators that were devel- oped with public participation. Indicators should come from reliable data sources, measure out- comes, and be easily understood. Be prepared to support your measurements with background material and context. Tracking indicators means a community will, at some point, likely face poor results or declines in perform- ance. When developing indicators, a community should think about the range of likely outcomes (both good and not so good), those factors that are under its control, and the community's abil- ity to respond and correct course. The objective of an indicators project is to understand the factors that are valuable to the com- munity and use the information to inform development decisions. A wide range of stakeholders should be consulted when choosing the appropriate indicators and how those indicators are worded in a statement. For example, mud and sediment washing into streams and lakes is a common water-quality problem. The decision to word the water-quality indicator as "sediment coming from con- struction sites" could unfairly single out certain stakeholders (e.g., local homebuilders), while preventing the community from identi- fying and addressing other sources of the problem. 8. Use color-coded maps to establish a planning and zoning framework for future planning decisions. It may sound impossible, but several communities have boiled down their land-use plans to one piece of paper. For stakeholder involvement, maps can be the best way to communicate informa- ------- ENCOURAGE COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT DECISIONS tion to people with diverse backgrounds and technical abilities. Graphics or color-coded maps can serve as the single reference for all of the stakeholders involved. Planning is a complex process that typically results in at least one large document spelling out the land-use history of an area, future trends, legal requirements, and design details. As useful as these documents are, they tend to be ineffective when a quick reference or succinct planning statement is needed. That's when maps can be incredibly useful in spelling out planning areas, current zon- ing, or a visual representation of completed projects. Maps are also extremely useful for depicting where a community wishes to direct development or, conversely, for pinpointing which areas are designated for low-density or open space. Arlington County, Virginia, outside Washington, D.C., developed a general land use plan (GLUP) in the 1960s as its Metro rail sta- tions were being planned. The county wanted to achieve two goals at once: direct high-density development to transit corridors and preserve older, lower-density neighborhoods. To get citizen approval for the high-density development, the county instituted "bull's-eye" zoning to taper densities down toward the neighbor- hoods. It also drew boundaries to separate the older neighbor- hoods from the denser redevelopment areas. The resulting GLUP map, superimposed over the county's street network, shows this planning nicely. Footnotes in the plan are used to denote future planning exercises, special exceptions, and other details. In Austin, Texas, stakeholders developed a similar but slightly dif- ferent strategy using what they call a future land use map (FLUM) to guide future development decisions. The FLUM is developed during the neighborhood-planning process. Participants first look at a map showing current uses, current zon- ing, and the neighborhood's boundary lines. They then think about what they would like to see in the future within the com- munity boundaries. The city then overlays the zoning map with the FLUM to demarcate where zoning changes, community investments, or other process changes will be required.6 Illustrate complex concepts with photographs and imagery. For community members getting involved in the zoning and planning process, thick zoning documents complete with refer- ences of floor-area ratios and massing requirements are not the best materials to initiate stakeholder involvement sessions. Even when the documents are condensed, complicated planning and zoning materials, confusing legal language, and footnotes can be a barrier to achieving broad public participation. This is where a visual representation of complex concepts can be helpful. For instance, typical zoning specifies different land uses, such as residential, commercial, or institutional, and allowable densities. For example, an "R-2" category might be two houses per acre, while "R-6" establishes six residential units on an acre. Those six units might be single-family homes or attached units. Several pic- tures can illustrate variations of how the units can be arranged on an acre and can give better information on some of the trade-offs of open space, tapering, and height. Another innovative way to use imagery is to compare pictures of stakeholders' favorite places against a particular zoning code. For example, residents who are opposed to eight residential units per acre may be surprised to find that Cape Cod, Massachusetts; Charleston, South Carolina; or even their local downtown are built according to densities that are eight units (or more) to an acre. The pitfall associated with this approach is that much of what people react to in pictures is the design of the development ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II (as opposed to the number of units per acre). Yet this approach can help to quell fears and stereotypes about higher densities. In developing pictures or choosing photographs, you should make sure to emphasize that the depictions are only examples of possi- ble scenarios. If the depictions are included as part of a form- based zoning code, a developer may think he or she is bound by the visual code to duplicate the exact house or plan, when your intention is focused on general features. (For more information on pattern books, see Principle 9, Policy 3.) IO. Create and distribute free videos to illustrate local planning goals. Technology and computer-assisted tools to communicate plan- ning options and decisions are expanding. For example, the city of San Jose, located in California's Silicon Valley, has developed a sophisticated computer-assisted design system that allows archi- tects, planners, and local government officials to change drawings, add landscaping, and modify building types on a computer screen in front of hundreds of people. While not every locality has the resources or expertise to create such an interactive display, even simple videos can be effective means of illustrating smart growth plans. One cost-effective way of creating such a tool is to enlist filmmaking students at a local high school, community college, or university to document neighbor- hoods and streets or to conduct resident interviews as part of a class project. Local smart growth groups may also be willing to custom-design a video to address local smart growth issues. If you do not have access to local filmmakers, you can also make a compelling case for your planning goals by purchasing videos that have already been made. One Thousand Friends of Florida has reviewed many smart growth videos on its Web site, which also provides a short review of the contents of each video and the nec- essary ordering information.7 Other nonprofit organizations, including the Local Government Commission and American Planning Association, have bookstores that provide videos for free or at little cost. An outreach and distribution plan for the video is as important as its contents. Have videos translated if you need to reach out to diverse communities. While local libraries and schools are natural places to show and distribute the videos, video stores, movie houses, farmers markets, and neighborhood street fairs are also possible venues. The city of Portland, Oregon, arranged to have informational videos distributed to local video stores. If there is a specific audience you want to reach, match the distribution plan to the audience. For example, if your locality wants to expand bus service, make sure that higher-density residential areas, major job centers, and senior citizens are all involved in the process so that the bus route selected meets the needs of both current and poten- tial riders. See http://washington.uli.org/sga/ See http://www.farmland.org/consulting/index.htm. Kiran Cunningham and Hannah McKinney. Regional Community The Kalamazoo, Michigan, Experience. (Washington, D.C.: ICMA, September 2001). For more information about the Quick Response Program, see http://www.lcd.state.or.us/tgm/quickresponse.htm. See http://www.walkinginfo.org/insight/features_articles/silicon/ sil_good_audits.htm. The City of Austin Texas, "Developing a Community Plan," http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/test/zoning/dev_np.htm. Go to http://www. 1000friendsofflorida.org/Other_Info_Sources/ Smart_Growth_Videos.asp. ------- 100 Policies for Implementation ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II 100 Policies for Implementation I. Mix land uses State Local Mix land Take Create a range Create uses advantage of housing walkable Foster distinctive, Preserve open Strengthen and attractive of compact opportunities building and choices design space, farmland, direct communities communities with natural beauty, development a strong sense of place and critical toward existing environmental communities areas II III IV V VI VII Provide a Make Encourage variety of development community and transportation decisions stakeholder choices predictable, collaboration fair, and cost- in development effective decisions VIII IX X 1. 1. Adopt comprehensive plans and sub-area plans that encourage a mix of land uses. 2. Use enhanced zoning techniques to achieve a mix of land uses. 3. Provide regional planning grants for projects that produce mixed land use. 4. Encourage the redevelopment of single uses into mixed-use developments. 5. Accommodate the reuse of closed, decommis- sioned, or obsolete institutional uses. 6. Provide incentives for ground-floor retail and upper-level residential uses in existing and future development. 7. Locate neighborhood stores in residential areas. 8. Use floating zones to plan for certain types of undetermined uses. 9. Organize a variety of land uses vertically and horizontally. 10. Develop mixed-use university districts. II. Take advantage of compact building design Organize a compact development endorsement program. Adopt a cottage housing development zoning ordinance. Use compact development coupled with onsite best management practices to improve environmental outcomes. Use traditional neighborhood design. 5. Use compact design to create more secure neighborhoods. 6. Subdivide vacant warehouse space into residential units. Ensure that big box stores locating in existing urban centers are appropriately scaled and designed. 8. Create compact office parks and corporate campuses. 9. Strategically reduce or remove minimum lot size requirements. 10. Manage the transition between higher- and lower-density neighborhoods. ------- State Local Mix land uses Take advantage of compact building design II Create a range of housing opportunities and choices III Create walkable communities IV Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place V Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a space, farmland, direct variety of natural beauty, development and critical toward existing environmental communities Make Encourage development community and VI VII transportation decisions stakeholder choices predictable, collaboration fair, and cost- in development effective decisions VIII IX X III. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices 1. Establish an employer-assisted housing program. 2. Streamline the development review process when units include affordable housing. 3. Create a regional program to encourage all communities to include a fair share of affordable and moderate-range housing. 4. Use transportation funds as an incentive to provide housing near transit. 5. Use housing to engender 24-hour cities in revitalization plans. 6. Integrate smart growth and housing programs. 7. Adopt property tax exemption programs for mixed-income developments and low-income homeowners. 8. Develop smart growth funds to promote develop- ment in underserved communities. 9. Use different builders on contiguous blocks of land to ensure a diversity of housing styles. 10. Create a housing trust fund. Create Walkable Communities Develop a pedestrian master plan. 2. Design communities so that kids can walk to school. 3. Use trees and other green infrastructure to provide shelter, beauty, urban heat reduction, and separa- tion from automobile traffic. 4. Encourage safe pedestrian routes to transit. 5. Develop walking awareness and promotion programs. 6. Use modern technology to increase pedestrian safety. Use visual cues and design elements to indicate pedestrian rights of way and minimize conflicts. 8. Situate parking to enhance the pedestrian environ- ment and facilitate access between destinations. 9. Make places walkable for aging populations in response to new demographics and special needs. 10. Retrofit superblocks and cul-de-sac street networks. ------- State Local Mix land uses Take advantage of compact building design II Create a range of housing opportunities and choices III Create walkable communities IV Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place V Preserve open Strengthen and Provide a space, farmland, direct variety of natural beauty, development and critical toward existing environmental communities Make Encourage development community and VI VII transportation decisions stakeholder choices predictable, collaboration fair, and cost- in development effective decisions VIII IX X V. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place 1. Establish revolving loan funds for historic preservation. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Create community greens. * * * * * * * Turn underused highways into boulevards. / / / / / / Develop a comprehensive wayfinding system in / / / / town centers. Use distinctive public transit to increase the attractiveness of neighborhoods. */ S S S Highlight cultural assets through public art and / / / / / event nights. Use asset-based tools and resident engagement to */ S S S reflect community values. Revitalize the waterfront. Make retail centers distinctive and attractive j j j j j j destinations. 10. Use transportation enhancements funds to create places of distinction. VI. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas 1. Link land conservation with other smart growth principles. 2. Use land management techniques and acquisition to protect drinking water sources. 3. Use an array of financing techniques to preserve open space. 4. Establish priority-setting criteria for open space acquisition. 5. Incorporate land conservation into transportation planning. 6. Take advantage of nature's ecoservices. 7. Support tree preservation through public-private partnerships. 8. Allow land trusts to compete for conservation funds. 9. Invest in the rural economy to preserve working lands. 10. Use innovative permitting approaches to protect critical environmental areas. ------- State Local Mix land uses I Take advantage of compact building design II Create a range of housing opportunities and choices III Create walkable communities IV Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place V Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas VI Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities VII Provide a variety of transportation choices VIII Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost- effective IX Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions X VII. Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities 1. Encourage the creation of a business improvement district. 2. Use priority funding areas to direct development toward existing communities. 3. Offer home equity assurance programs. 4. Establish a land bank authority. 5. Create a development finance insurance program. 6. Develop asset-driven market analysis to encourage commercial and retail investment in underserved communities. 7. Encourage infill by adopting innovative stormwater regulations and practices. Increase transit-oriented development by adding infill stations on existing transit lines and retro- fitting existing stations. 9. Develop a revolving loan fund to support local independent businesses. 10. Designate a vacant-properties coordinator to use code enforcement provide incentives/ and develop partnerships to minimize and abate vacant properties. VIII. Provide a variety of transportation choices 1. Create programs and policies that support car sharing. 2. Make sure transportation models and surveys accurately reflect all modes of transportation. 3. Consult early with emergency responders when developing smart growth plans. 4. Change state insurance policies so that pay-as- you-drive insurance can be implemented. 5. Consider transportation when developing rating systems for green buildings and programs. 6. Transform park-and-ride lots into multiuse facilities. 7. Integrate goods movement and delivery into smart growth. 8. Provide riders with customized transit information. 9. Create comprehensive bicycling programs. 10. Introduce value pricing. ------- State Local Mix land uses I Take advantage of compact building design II Create a range of housing opportunities and choices III Create walkable communities IV Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place V Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas VI Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities VII Provide a variety of transportation choices VIII Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost- effective IX Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions X IX. Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-effective Educate elected leaders and public officials about smart growth. 2. Direct development along corridors to create stronger districts. Create pattern books to streamline construction and enhance project marketability. 4. Make zoning codes and other land development regulations simple to use and easy to read. 5. Create a multimunicipal planning strategy to pro- vide for development in rural markets while main- taining rural character. 6. Establish a state- or regional-level "smart growth cabinet." 7. Create an "incentives expert" for developers and businesses when an area has been designated for development/redevelopment. 8. Implement geographic information system-based planning into the development process. 9. Streamline brownfield redevelopment approval processes. 10. Create investment funds for smart growth projects. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions 1. Use third-party groups to make sure a range of stakeholder views is expressed. 2. Use nonprofit groups as smart growth consultants. 3. Use a "kick the tires" trip to take local govern- ment officials and residents to visit smart growth communities. 4. Establish context-sensitive design training courses that focus on community-involvement strategies for traffic engineers. 5. Use quick-response teams to gain approvals for smart growth developments. 6. Conduct place audits to determine barriers and opportunities for smart growth. 7. Develop community indicators to make sure that development is meeting community goals. 8. Use color-coded maps to establish a planning and zoning framework for future planning decisions. 9. Illustrate complex concepts with photographs and imagery. 10. Create and distribute free videos to illustrate local planning goals. ------- Directory of Smart Growth Funders and Lending Institutions ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Directory of Smart Growth Funders and Lending Institutions The Acushnet Foundation c/o Seamark Fin. Svcs. P.O. Box 1498 Mattapoisett, MA 02739 (508) 758-6159 Contact:William Blasdale Giving generally limited to the greater New Bedford, MA, area funding building/renovation projects that support chil- dren, human services, health, and historic preservation. Adirondack Community Trust 105 Saranac Ave. Lake Placid, NY 12946 (518) 523-9904 Contact: Cali Brooks, Exec. Dir. info@generousact.org http://www.generousact.org Giving focused in the Adirondack region of NY funding build- ing/renovation projects that support community development, health care, and historic preservation. Allegheny Foundation 301 Grant St., Ste. 3900 Pittsburgh, PA 15219-6401 (412) 392-2900 Contact: Exec. Dir. http://www.scaife.com Giving primarily in western PA, with emphasis on Pittsburgh focusing on community development, youth development, and historic preservation. Bank of America 315 Montgomery St. San Francisco, CA 94104-1866 (404) 607-4173 Contact: Candace C Skarlatos, SVP, Outreach Specialist; or Randy Muller (environmental projects) http://www.bankofamerica.com/environment/index.cfm? Menu_Sel=public&oth=smartgrowth http://www.bankofamerica.com/environment/index.cfm? template=env_comm_outreach Lending for smart growth redevelopment, infill projects, and mixed-use. Bank of America 10 Light St., 19th Floor MD4-302-19-02 Baltimore, MD 21201 (888) 488-9802 $350 Billion Commitment http://www.bankofamerica.com/community/index.cfm? template=cdb_threefiftybillion State-by-state funding: http://www.bankofamerica.com/community/index.cfm? temp I ate=cdb_localef forts Bank of America, Community Development Banking 600 Peachtree St., 14th Floor Atlanta, GA 30308 (404) 607-6245 Contact: Ms. Laura Keenan, GA Development Manager laura.keenan@bankofamerica.com Develops and finances affordable housing in metro Atlanta: http://www.chrcatlanta.org/directry/BACDC.htm Bank of New York, NY One Wai I Street New York, New York 10286 (212) 635-7714 Community development lending: http://www.bankofny.com/pages/acdb.htm Bank One 1 Bank One Plaza Chicago, IL 60670 (877) 226-5663 Economic empowerment: http://www.bankone.com/answers/BolAnswersDetail.aspx7top =all&segment=ABO&topic=CorporateContributions.WhatWe Fund&item=Economic Empowerment Bay Area Community Foundation 703 Washington Avenue Bay City, MI 48708-5717 (989) 893-4438 Contact: Roger Merrifield, C.E.O. (800) 926-3217 bacfnd@bayfoundation.org http://www.bayfoundation.org/comminit.html Giving limited to Bay and Arenac counties, MI, focusing on investments that enhance and sustain the Bay Area Community. Norwin S.and Elizabeth N.Bean Foundation c/o New Hampshire Charitable Foundation 37 Pleasant St. Concord, NH 03301-4005 (603) 225-6641 Contact: Nike F. Speltz, Senior Program Office Giving limited to Amherst and Manchester, N H, focusing on building/renovating to provide low-income housing. ------- APPENDIX B: DIRECTORY OF SMART GROWTH FUNDERS AND LENDING INSTITUTIONS Bernstein Family Foundation (formerly Leo M. Bernstein Family Foundation ) 3299 K St., N.W.,Ste. 700 Washington, DC 20007 (202) 965-0737 Contact: Ami Ann Becker, Exec.V.P. and Managing Dir. Giving limited to charitable organizations located in or serv- ing areas within a 100-mile radius of Washington, DC, focus- ing on community development and housing. Broadway Federal Bank, CA Community Development Account Representative 4800 Wilshire Blvd. Los Angeles, CA 90010 (866) 883-0283 Contact: Eric Johnson Community Development Accounts serving South Central Los Angeles http://www.broadwayfed.com/communit.htm Annie E. Casey Foundation 701 St. Paul St. Baltimore, MD 21202 (410) 547-6600 Funds projects that enhance troubled neighborhoods. Family Economic Success: Provides funding for housing and business development in distressed communities. http://www.aecf.org/initiatives/fes/fes/investments.htm Citigroup 850 Third Ave., 13th Floor New York, NY 10022 (212) 559-9007 Contact: Kim Latimer-Nelligan, Citigroup CCDE Center for Community Development Enterprise http://www.citigroup.com/citigroup/citizen/community/data/02 ccde.pdf Community Development mission: http://www.citigroup.com/citigroup/citizen/community/index.htm City National Bank, CA City National Corporation City National Center 400 North Roxbury Dr. Beverly Hills, CA 90210 (800) 773-7100 Economic development and affordable housing: http://www.cityntl.com/infocenter/community/ DTE Energy Foundation (formerly Detroit Edison Foundation ) 2000 2nd Ave., Rm. 1046 WCB Detroit, MI 48226-1279 (313) 235-9416 Contact: Karla Hall, Secy. http://www.dteenergy.com/community/foundation/index.html Funds projects that understand the connection between envi- ronmental protection and sustainable development, focusing on brownfield redevelopment, commercial development, and affordable housing; covers pre-development costs associated with environmental assessment and cleanup. Funds primarily SE Michigan. DuPage Community Foundation 110 N. Cross St. Wheaton, IL 60187-5318 (630) 665-5556 Contact: David M. McGowan, Exec. Dir. http://www.dcfdn.org Giving primarily in IL for building/renovation supporting com- munity development, the environment, and health care. J.Tom Eady Charitable Trust c/o Corsicana National Bank & Trust P.O. Box 624 Corsicana,TX 75151 (903) 654-4500 Contact: Les Leskoven, Sr. V.P. and Trust Off. Giving primarily in Navarro County,TX, funding construc- tion/renovation projects supporting community development and human services. Federal Home Loan Bank of Cincinnati, OH 221 East 4th St. 1000 Atrium Two Cincinnati, OH 45202 (513) 852-7615 Contact: Carol M. Peterson, Senior Vice President and Community Investment Officer Affordable housing program: http://www.fh I bcin.com/05_AffHou Pro.asp First Tennessee Bank.TN First Tennessee Housing Corporation P.O. Box 84,10th Floor Memphis,TN 38101 (901) 523-4444 First Tennessee Housing Corporation http://www.firsttennessee.com/ft_docs/cfm/2col.cfm?setion= company_information&menu=comp_info_housing_corp& body=housing_corporation Fleet Boston 100 Federal St., 10034F Boston, MA 02110 (617) 434-2200 Community Investment Group: http://www. fleet.com/about_cig_overview.asp Neighborhood revitalization across the Northeast: http://www.fleet.com/communityreport/2002/economic.html Community Partnerships in Massachusetts: http://www.fleet.com/communityreport/2002/pdfs/Comm InsertMA.pdf Community Partnerships in New Jersey: http://www.fleet.com/communityreport/2002/pdfs/Comm InsertNJ.pdf Ford Foundation 320 East 43rd St. New York, NY 10017 USA (212) 573-5000 Community Development: http://www.fordfound.org/program/asset_units.cfm?unit_name =community_development ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II The Foundation Center http://www.foundationcenter.org Lists information on over 70,000 grants and provides valuable information to assist grant applications. A paid subscription allows you to access everything online or go to a Cooperating Collection, available in all 50 states, to access grant information for free. http://www.foundationcenter.org/coI lections/index.html;jses- sionid=V3WNGFMRSWKR2P5QALRSGW15AAAACI2F Mertz Gilmore Foundation 218 East 18th St. New York, NY 10003-3694 (212) 475-1137 Contact: Bethany Wall, Program Officer bwall@mertzgilmore.org Funds historic preservation, community development, and planning in low-income neighborhoods in NYC: http://www.mertzgilmore.org/www/default2.asp?section=nyc The James Irvine Foundation One Market, Steuart Tower, Suite 2500 San Francisco, CA 94105 (415) 777-2244 http://www.irvine.org/framesetl6.htm Supports demonstration projects in California that promote sustainable patterns of land use, revitalize urban areas, and conserve land. JSJ Foundation 700 Robbins Rd. Grand Haven, MI 49417-2651 (616) 842-6350 Contact: Lynne Sherwood, Secy.-Treas. http://www.jsjcorp.com. Giving primarily in areas of company operations in FL, MI, TX, and WI funding construction/renovation projects focusing on social services and health. Junior Hospitality Club P.O. Box 20393 Oklahoma City, OK 73156-0393 (405) 840-9978 Contact: Mary Tyson, Projects Chair. Giving primarily in Oklahoma County, OK, funding renovation/ construction projects that support community development. Living Cities: The National Community Development Initiative 330 West 108th Street New York, New York 10025 (212) 663.2078 Partnership of foundations, financial institutions, non-profits, and the federal government funding CDCs. http://www.livingcities.org/ Louisville Community Development Bank, KY Louisville Real Estate Development Company 2901 West Broadway Louisville, KY 40211 (502) 778-7000 Louisville Real Estate Development Company: http://www.morethanabank.com/lredc.htm Lyndhurst Foundation 517 East Fifth St. Chattanooga,TN 37403-1826 (423) 756-0767 Affordable housing, urban planning, and revitalization in Tennessee: http://www.lyndhurstfoundation.org/prioritf.html John D.and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation 140 S. Dearborn St. Chicago, IL 60603-5285 (312) 726-8000 Loans and grants to support low-income housing preservation: http://www.macfound.org/programs/pri/af fordable_housing.htm The McKnight Foundation 710 Second St. S. Ste. 400 Minneapolis, MN 55401 (612) 333-4220 Contact: Rip Rapson, President info@mcknight.org http://www.mcknight.org Limited to M N, providing grants for projects that encourage developments that create more livable sustainable communi- ties, foster economic development, increase affordable hous- ing, preserve open space and provide transportation options. http://www.mcknight.org/cfc/region.asp Living Twin Cities: Encourages smarter growth and tries to diminish the harm caused by unmanaged growth to create a vibrant metropolitan region, http://www.mcknight.org/environ- ment/living.asp Merrill Lynch California Partnership for Economic Achievement 4695 MacArthur Court, Suite 1540 Newport Beach, CA 92660 (949) 223-6281 Contact: Cathy Paredes, Community Development Manager California Partnership for Economic Achievement http://www.californiapartnership.ml.com http://www.californiapartnership.ml.com/pdf/april2003 announcement.pdf ------- APPENDIX B: DIRECTORY OF SMART GROWTH FUNDERS AND LENDING INSTITUTIONS J.R Morgan Chase & Company 270 Park Ave. New York, NY 10017-2070 (585) 258-5454 Contact: Edward Sigler, Real Estate Lending Department Commercial lending and investing: http://www.jpmorganchase.com/cm/cs?pagename=Chase/Href &urlname=jpmc/community/cdg/clu/overview Grants for housing and economic development: http://www.jpmorganchase.com/cm/cs? pagename=Chase/Href &urlname=jpmc/community/grants Supporting homeownership opportunities: http://www.jpmorganchase.com/cm/cs?pagename=Chase/Href &urlname=jpmc/community/cdg/rlu Supporting the revitalization of low- and moderate-income communities: http://www.jpmorganchase.com/cm/cs? pagename=Chase/Href &urlname=jpmc/community/cdg/rel National Community Reinvestment Coalition 733 15th Street, NW, Ste. 540 Washington, D.C. 20005 (202) 628-8866 http://www.ncrc.org For a list of banks participating in sub-prime lending. The Parodneck Foundation for Self-Help, Housing & Community Development, Inc. (formerly The Consumer-Farmer Foundation, Inc.) 121 6th Ave., Ste. 501 New York, NY 10013 (212) 431-9700 Contact: Harold DeRienzo, Pres. Giving limited to New York, NY, focusing on low-income hous- ing, planning, and community development with emphasis on senior citizens. PNC Bank One PNC Plaza, 29th Floor 249 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15222 Contact: Mia Hallett, Vice President and Manager PNC Foundation Foundations@pncbank.com Community development funding: http://www.pnc.com/aboutus/charitablecontributions.htmlttcdv The Schumann Fund for New Jersey, Inc. 21 Van Vleck St. Montclair, NJ 07042 973) 509-9883 Contact: Barbara Reisman, Exec. Dir. http://fdncenter.org/grantmaker/schumann/ Supports coordinated land use planning and funds brownfield redevelopment primarily in New Jersey. Seedco and Non-Profit Assistance Corporation 915 Broadway, Ste. 1703 New York, NY 10010 (212) 473-0255 Contact: William J. Grinker, Pres. http://www.seedco.org Supports low-income revitalization projects focusing on hous- ing and economic development. Shorebank 7054 S. Jeffery Boulevard Chicago, IL 60649 realestate@sbk.com (773) 420-4824 Contact: Jack Crane Green historic rehabilitation in Ohio: http://www.clevelandgbc.org/cec/ Financing focused on rehabilitation and multi-family residential: http://www.sbk.com/livesite/realestate/realestate.asp City of Cleveland, Neighborhood Revitalization Initiative: http://www.shorebankcleveland.com/reaLestate/ Silicon Valley Bank, CA 3003Tasman Dr. Santa Clara, CA 95054 (415) 344-6223 Contact: Christine Carr, Senior Relationship Manager, Community Development Finance ccarr@svbank.com Community development finance: http://www.svb.com/bus_serv/lending/cdf.html Sovereign Bank, PA CRA Community Development Office Mail Code: 10-6438-CD8 P.O. Box 12646 601 Penn St. Reading, PA 19601 (877) 768-9121 Community Development http://www.sovereignbank.com/companyinfo/comdev.asp Morgan Stanley Community Affairs 1601 Broadway, 12th Floor New York, NY 10019 (212) 259-1235 Community Development Giving: http://a992.g.akamai.net/7/992/770/d9al8c587ddb79/www. morganstanley.com/about/inside/charitable_annual 2 002.pdf SunTrust Mail Code HDQ 4109 P.O. Box 85024 Richmond, VA 23285-5024 (800) 279-4824 SunTrust Community Development Corporation http://www.suntrust.com/common/AboutST/diversity/ community_diversity_efforts.asp SunTrust and the Florida Community Loan Fund http://www.fclf.org/floridaSolutionsInvestorStories.cfm ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Surdna Foundation 330 Madison Ave., 30th Floor New York, NY 10017 (212) 557-0010 http://www.surdna.org/programs/environment.html Smart growth development, transportation and urban/subur- ban land use issues. Turner Foundation, Inc. One CNN Center Suite 1090 South Tower Atlanta, GA 30303 (404) 681-9900 http://www.turnerfoundation.org/grants/pa.asp Funds air quality, energy, and transportation policies that sup- port sustainable land use. U.S. Bancorp U.S. Bancorp Center 800 Nicollet Mall Minneapolis, MN 55402 Community development: http://www.usbank.com/about/com- m u nity_re I ations/com muni ty_invest.htm I Wachovia 565 5th Ave. New York, NY (212) 983-0651 Contact: Jane Henderson, Senior Vice President Director of Community Development contact.community@wachovia.com Statewide initiatives: http://www.wachovia.com/inside/page/0,,139_413_424,00.html Wachovia Foundation: http://www.wachovia.com/inside/page/0,,139_414_430,00.html Affordable housing initiatives: http://www.wachovia.eom/i nside/page/0,,139_413_419_428, 00.html Wells Fargo Wells Fargo Housing Foundation 6th and Marquette, Suite 1900 Minneapolis, MN 55479 (612) 667-2146 Local initiatives: http://www.wellsfargo.com/about/charitable/index.jhtml Wells Fargo Housing Foundation, homeownership for low- income families: http://www.wellsfargo.com/about/wfhf_oview.jhtml ------- Bibliography | List of Acronym ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II Bibliography Alexander, Frank S. Renewing Public Assets for Community Development. A Report for the Local Initiatives Support Coalition, October 1, 2000. American Planning Association. Regional Approaches to Affordable Housing, Chicago, IL. February 2003. American Planning Association, Planning for Smart Growth, 2002 State of the States, Chicago, IL: APA, February 2002. Baer, Susan F. The Case of a Milwaukee Business Improvement District: Politics and Institutional Arrangements. Prepared on behalf of the 2001 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 2001. Beaumont, Constance. Better Models for Superstores. Washington, D.C.: National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1997. Beimborn, Edward, Rob Kennedy, and William Schaefer. Inside the Black Box: Making Transportation Models Work for Livable Communities. New York: Environmental Defense, http://www.environmentaldefense.org/documents/! 859_InsideBlackBox.pdf. Bodaken, Michael. "The Increasing Shortage of Affordable Rental Housing in America: Action Items for Preservation." Fannie Mae Foundation: Housing Facts ly Findings 4, issue no. 4. Bohl, Charles C. Place-making: Developing Town Centers, Main Streets, and Urban Villages. Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 2002. Brookings Institute. Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy. www.brookings.org/es/urban/urban.htm. CalPERS Web site, www.calpers.ca.gov/. Carestens, Diane Y. Site Planning and Design for the Elderly: Issues, Guidelines, and Alternatives. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, December 1997. Casey, Dougal M. 26*6*2 U.S. Retail Sales, Mall Sales, and Department Store Sales Review. New York: International Council of Shopping Centers, April 2003. CB Richard Ellis, Inc. Washington, D.C., Metro Area Office Market, End of Year Report-2002. Center for Community Change, www.communitychange.org. City of Austin, Texas, "Developing a Community Plan." www.ci.austin.tx.us/test/zoning/dev_np.htm. Congress for the New Urbanism. Civilizing Downtown Highways: Putting New Urbanism to Work on California's Highways. San Francisco, CA: CNU, 2002. Congress for the New Urbanism, The Coming Demand. 2001. http://www.cnu.org/cnu_reports/Coming_Demand.pdf. Congress for the New Urbanism, Grey fields Into Goldfields. 2001. Corbin, Jeffry and Wayne Hunt. "A Single Voice." American City and County 118, issue no. 3 (March 2003), 20-29. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Regulatory Barriers Clearinghouse, www.huduser.org/rbc/. Duany Andres, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. Suburban Nation. New York North Point Press, 2000. Duerksen, Chris, and Robert Blanchard. "Belling the Box: Planning for Large Scale Retail Stores." Proceedings of the 1998 National Planning Conference. www.asu.edu/caed/proceedings98/Duerk/duerkhtml. Fannie Mae Maxwell Awards of Excellence Program 2001-2002. www.fanniemae- foundation.org/grants/. Federal Highway Administration. "Context Sensitive Design/Thinking Beyond the Pavement." www.fhwa.dot.gov/csd/index.htm. Funders' Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities. The Arts and Smart Growth: The Role of Arts in Place Making. Translation Paper No. 12 (April 2003). Greater Minnesota Housing Fund, www.gmhf.com/. Gunts, Edward. "Rolling Out the Welcome Mat." Baltimore Sun. January 9, 2000. Hollis, Linda, and William Fulton. Open Space Protection: Conservation Meets Growth Management. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 2002. http://www.brookings.org/es/urban/publications/hollis- fultonopenspace.htm. Howe, Deborah A. Aging and Smart Growth: Building Aging-Sensitive Communities. Funders' Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities. Translation Paper No. 7 (December 2001). www.giaging.org/aging%20paper.pdf. Howe, Deborah A., Nancy J. Chapman, and Sharon A, Baggett. Planning for an Aging Society. PAS Report no. 451. American Planning Association Planning Advisory Service, 1994. Jacobs, Jane. The Death andLife of Great American Cities. New York: 1961. Lang, Robert. Office Sprawl: The Evolving Geography of Business. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institute, October 2000. ------- BIBLIOGRAPHY Leonhardt, David. "Homes Prices Sail Rising, But More Slowly." New York Times. June 3, 2003. Lockwood, Charles. "Raising the Bar: Town Centers Are Outperforming Traditional Suburban Real Estate Products." Urban Land Magazine (February 2003). Maryland Department of Transportation. "When Main Street Is a State Highway: Blending Function, Beauty, and Identity." 2001. www.marylandroads.com. Meyer, Peter B. Approach to Brownfield Regeneration: The Relative Value of Financial Incentives, Relaxed Mitigation Standards and Regulatory Certainty. Working paper. Louisville, KY: Center for Environmental Policy and Management, University of Louisville, 2000. Michigan Housing Trust Fund, www.mhtf.org. Myers, Dowell, and Elizabeth Gearin. "Current Preference and Future Demand for Denser Residential Environments." Housing Policy Debate 12 (2001), 637-639. National Charrette Institute, www.charretteinstitute.org/. National Transportation Enhancements Clearinghouse. "Enhancing America's Communities: A Guide to Transportation Enhancements." Washington, D.C.: NTEC, 2002. National Trust for Historic Preservation's Main Street Center, www.mainst.org/. Nelson, C. Arthur, et al. The Link Between Growth Management and Housing Affordability: The Academic Evidence. Prepared for the Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy. Washington, D.C.: February 2002. "New Urban Projects on a Neighborhood Scale in the United States." New Urban Neivs 7, issue no. 8 (2002). Pacific Coast Capital Partners, LLC. www.paccoastcapital.com/. Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center, www.walkinginfo.org/, www.bicyclinginfo.org/. PolicyLink Equitable Development Toolkit. www.policylink.org/EquitableDevelopment/. Porter, Michael E. "The Competitive Advantage of the Inner City." Harvard Business Review (May-June 1995). Project for Public Spaces, www.pps.org. Putnam, Robert. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000. Smart Growth America, www.smartgrowthamerica.org Smart Growth Network, www.smartgrowth.org Surface Transportation Policy Project. "Driven to Spend." March 2000. www.transact.org. Urban Design Associates. "Pattern Books and Design Guidelines." www.urbandesignassociates.com/servicespattern.html. Urban Land Institute. Smart Growth Case Studies Web site. http://research.uli.org/DK/CaStd/re_CaStd_SmrtGrthCsStd_fst.html. US Environmental Protection Agency. Our Built and Natural Environments. EPA Publication #231-R-01-002. Washington, D.C.: EPA, 2001. Washington, DC Department of Planning. "Principle 5: Mix of Uses. Providing a Diversity of Uses for a Vibrant Center." www.planning.dc.gov/documents/pdf/Trans-Principle5.pdf. Weissbourd, Robert. The Market Potential of Inner-City Neighborhoods: Filling the Information Gap. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, March 1, 1999. Wigfall, La Barbara, and Wendy Griswold. Community Participation in Brownfield Redevelopment. Manhattan, KS: Department of Landscape Architecture and Community and Regional Planning, Kansas University, 1999. ------- GETTING TO SMART GROWTH II List of Acronyms ARC - Atlanta Regional Commission BID - business improvement district BMP - best management practice C/CAG - City/County Association of Governments of San Mateo County CDC - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CHA - Chicago Housing Authority CHD - cottage housing development COAH - Council on Affordable Housing COG - council of governments CPTED - crime prevention through environmental design CSD - context-sensitive design CTN - Community Transit Network DPI - development finance insurance DOT - Department of Transportation EPA - Environmental Protection Agency HEAP - home equity assurance program HUD - Department of Housing and Urban Development GIS - geographic information systems LBA - land bank authority LCI - Livable Centers Initiative LEED - Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design M-NCPPC - Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission MPO - metropolitan planning organization NJHT - New Jersey Historic Trust PEA - priority funding area PUD - planned unit development RAHS - Regional Affordable Housing Strategy RLE - revolving loan fund SMART - safe, mixed income, accessible, reasonably priced, and transit-oriented SNAP - Strategic Neighborhood Action Plan TCRPC - Treasure Coast Regional Planning Council TE - transportation enhancements TND - traditional neighborhood design TOD - transit-oriented development VCP - voluntary cleanup program VOC - volatile organic compounds ------- ------- ------- |