United States Environmental Protection Agency Communications And Public Affairs (A-107) 21K-1012 October 1991 ------- Com photo by Nathan faib. CONTENTS 2 INTRODUCTION 4 New Directions For The 1990s: Voluntary Action 4 PEOPLE 8 WATER 11 New Directions For The 1990s: Protecting Natural Resources 14 New Directions for the 1990s: Economic Incentives 14 AIR 18 New Directions For The 1990s: Reducing Risks 18 CONTAMINANTS AND RADIATION 22 New Directions For The 1990s: Pollution Prevention 22 WASTE 26 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 28 THE ROLE OF SCIENCE 29 ENFORCING THE LAWS 30 LOOKING AHEAD 31 Appendix I EPA Regional Offices 31 Appendix II EPA Research Facilities 32 Appendix III National Hotlines and Clearinghouses ------- PRESERVING OUR FUTURE TODAY EPA's MISSION STATEMENT The people who work at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency are dedicated to improving and preserving the quality of the environment, both national and global. We work to protect human health and the productivity of natural resources on which all human activity depends. Highly skilled and culturally diverse, we are committed to using quality management processes that encourage teamwork and promote innovative solutions to environmental problems. In particular, we are committed to ensuring that: • Federal environmental laws are implemented and enforced effectively • U.S. policy, both foreign and domestic, fosters the integration of economic development and environmental protection so that economic growth can be sustained over the long term • Public and private decisions affecting energy, transportation, agriculture, industry, international trade, and natural resources fully integrate considerations of environmental quality • National efforts to reduce environmental risk are based on the best available scientific information communicated clearly to the public • Everyone in our society recognizes the value of preventing pollution before it is created • People have the information and incentives they need to make environmentally responsible choices in their daily lives • Schools and community institutions promote environmental stewardship as a national ethic ------- National Park Service. In the past few years there has been a dramatic shift in the way the people of the world think about their environment. Publication of the first color photo of Earth from space brought home the importance of careful stewardship of this small blue planet's natural resources. Environmental disasters—the Bhopal gas leak, the explosion of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor, the discovery of a growing hole in the stratospheric ozone layer—forced us to recognize some of the ways human actions threaten ecological systems across vast stretches of the globe. More recently, studies of the "greenhouse effect" have predicted that the byproducts of our industrial civilization could alter the world's climate within the next century. World leaders increasingly recognize that without major changes in human behavior, we risk doing serious and irreparable harm to our planet. Stated broadly, the job of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is to improve and preserve the quality of the environment, both national and global. EPA works to protect human health and the natural resources on which all human activity depends. America's continuing growth and prosperity depend on its ability to find effective, creative solutions to environmental problems. Through teamwork and scientific discipline, EPA is determined to find those solutions—and to make them work. ------- History: On July 9,1970, amid a growing public demand for cleaner water, air, and land, President Nixon submitted to Congress a reorganization plan proposing the establishment of a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as an independent agency in the executive branch of the federal government. The plan proposed bringing together 15 components from five executive departments and independent agencies. On December 2,1970, EPA began its operations, assuming responsibility for carrying out federal laws to protect the environment. Air-pollution control, solid-waste management, radiation control, and the drinking-water program were transferred from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now the Department of Health and Human Services). The federal program for controlling water pollution was taken from the Department of the Interior, as was part of a pesticide research program. From the Department of Agriculture, EPA gained authority to register pesticides and to regulate their use. From the Food and Drug Administration, the Agency inherited the responsibility to set tolerances, or legal residue limits, for pesticides in food. EPA was assigned some responsibility for setting standards for environmental radiation from the old Atomic Energy Commission, and it absorbed the duties of the Federal Radiation Council. When formed, EPA employed 5,400 people. It had a budget of $900 million and was responsible for a handful of major environmental laws. Today nearly 17,000 highly skilled, culturally diverse people work for EPA; and the Agency has a budget of more than $6 billion, parceled out among programs implementing 14 major laws that Congress has passed to protect the environment: • The Clean Air Act • The Clean Water Act • The Safe Drinking Water Act • The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, or "Superfund") • The Emergency Planning and Community Right- To-Know Act • The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act • The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act • The Toxic Substances Control Act • The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act • The Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act • The Indoor Radon Abatement Act • The Ocean Dumping Ban Act • The Coastal Zone Management Act • The Pollution Prevention Act A few of these programs receive most of the funding. For instance, $2.1 billion goes to sewage-treatment construction grants; $1.6 billion goes to the Superfund hazardous-waste cleanup program. Many of EPA's responsibilities are part of a new generation of environmental problems that first surfaced in the 1980s. Most notable is the whole range of global environmental concerns: climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, rainforest destruction, acid rain. Also important are such domestic issues as pollution prevention, radon contamination of homes, and pollution carried by run-off from lawns, farms, and highways. In many ways, these new problems are both more widespread and more complex than those of the past. Moving into the 1990s, EPA is grappling with the new agenda of environmental problems in bold and creative ways. It is supplementing traditional regulatory programs with market incentives and voluntary actions. The Agency's managers are trying to anticipate the environmental needs of the next century and to develop new policies and programs that will meet those needs. At the same time, EPA continues to improve its time-tested methods for dealing with older, long-standing environmental problems, including the all-important tasks of providing the nation's citizens with clean water and clean air. ------- Directions For The 1990s: VOLUNTARY ACT/ON By enforcing regulations based on federal environmental laws, EPA helps to make sure that people and institutions behave in ways that do not harm the environment. Over the past 20 years, however, an ethic of voluntary environmental stewardship has emerged among many citizens and business leaders. One important task EPA has set for itself in the 1990s is guiding that spirit of environmental voluntarism into beneficial projects and programs. For example, at EPA's urging, nine major petrochemical manufacturers have agreed to reduce their toxic air emissions voluntarily by changing procedures and materials used at 40 chemical plants in 14 states. By 1993, this voluntary effort will cut annual emissions of some toxic air pollutants by almost 83 percent. Another EPA-coordinated voluntary initiative— the "33/50" project—is now under way at nearly 200 companies nationwide. The goal these companies have embraced is an ambitious one: to reduce total releases and transfers of 17 high- priority toxic chemicals by one third by 1992; and to cut them in half by 1995. EPA also is reaching out to individual citizens. Everyone's cooperation is needed to make a success of complex programs such as recycling. In conjunction with tlie Environmental Defense Fund and the Advertising Council, EPA helped pay for a recycling ad campaign that generated 90,000 public inquiries for recycling information. The Agency is now working with the U.S. Consumer Affairs Office and the Federal Trade Commission to set guidelines for environmental claims made on product labels. Ttu; goal is to help consumers make more informed shopping choices and to give them the assurance that terms such as "recyclable" and "recycled content" are being used properly. Protecting the environment and the public health is a huge task in which every one of us plays an important role. People rely on local governments or organizations to pick up trash, operate sewer systems, deliver drinking water, maintain roads, and regulate land use—all of which directly affect the environment. State governments, in turn, support such activities through their public health, agriculture, transportation, and environmental departments. America's Indian tribes have what is known as "tribal sovereignty" in dealing with environmental and other problems. There are also many private groups that focus on public health, safety, and the environment. Increasingly, private businesses are providing products and services that support environmental protection. As a result, EPA shares the job of maintaining environmental quality with a host of varied organizations and individuals. The list includes other federal agencies, states, tribes, localities, businesses, interest groups, and individual citizens. Without the help of all of these groups, environmental protection would not be possible. EPA's Role Depending on the source of pollution and where it ends up, EPA's role can vary from setting overall national goals and guidance (for example, suggesting safe radon levels in the home) to writing and enforcing very specific chemical-by-chemical or industry-by-industry standards. The laws passed by Congress define the Agency's role. The specific actions EPA takes to carry out these laws depend on, among other things, the best available scientific knowledge and technology. At EPA headquarters in Washington, DC, 5,700 people work to develop environmental policies, set national standards, manage a complex research and development program, and develop regulations for pesticides, toxic substances, hazardous waste, and water. EPA is headed by an Administrator, who is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of Congress. Some of EPA's air pollution control activities are run out of headquarters, but many are carried out at EPA facilities in Durham, North Carolina, and Ann Arbor, Michigan. Enforcement also has a headquarters component, but EPA's National Enforcement Investigations Center is located in Denver, Colorado, where it gathers most of the evidence needed to enforce environmental laws. Court cases are handled in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Justice and, in some cases, with state agencies. ------- Most of EPA's dealings with both the public and regulated industries are handled by the 11,000 EPA employees who work at offices in 10 geographic regions (see the map at the end of this booklet). These regional offices work directly with state and local officials, groups, and individuals to carry out environmental laws and regulations. The regional offices provide technical help to state, tribal, and local governments. They also review the environmental programs of these governments to make sure the programs are adequate and consistent with federal laws and regulations. Shirin Yousuff, a biological technician, at EPA's Duluth lab Roger LePage. AScI Corp. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Ad—ive Law Judges Executive Secretariat Uv" Hl9hts Science Advisory Board Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization Cooperative Environmental Management Office of the Administrator/Deputy Administrator Associate Administrators for Regional Operations and State/Local Relations Congressional and Legislative Affairs Communications and Public Affairs Assistant Administrator for International Activities International Cooperation Division International Issues Division Program Operations Division - Assistant Administrator for Administration and Resource Management Office of Administration Office of Administration and Resources Management Research Triangle Park NC Office of Administration and Resources Management Cincinnati, OH Office of the Comptroller Office of Human Resources Management Office of Information Resources Management Assistant Administrator for Enforcement Office of Compliance Analysis and Program Operations Office of Criminal Enforcement Office of Civil Enforcement Office of Federal Activities National Enforcement Investigations Center (NEC) Office of Federal Faculties Enforcement General Counsel Air and Radiation Division Grants, Contract, and General Law Division Inspector General Division International Activities Division Pesticides and Toxic Substances Division Solid Waste and Emergency Response Division Water Division Assistant Administrator for Policy, Planning and Evaluation Office of Pollution Prevention Office of Policy Analysis Office of Regulatory Management and Evaluation Inspector General Office of Audits Office of Investigations Office of Management and Technical Assessment Assistant Administrator for Water Policy and Resources Management Office Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water Office of Science and Technology Office of Waste Water Enforcement and Compliance Office of Wetlands Oceans and Watersheds Assistant Administrator for Solid Waste and Emergency Response Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office Technology Innovation Office Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (Superfund) Office of Solid Waste Office of Underground Storage Tanks Office of Waste Programs Enforcement Assistant Administrator for Air and Radiation Office of Program Management Operations Office of Policy Analysis and Review Office of Atmospheric and Indoor Air Programs Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (Research Triangle Park, NC) Office of Mobile Sources Office of Radiation Programs Assistant Administrator for Pesticides and Toxic Substances Office of Program Management Operations Office of Compliance Monitoring Office of Pesticide Programs Office of Toxic Substances ^__^^^_^Jm^^^g^^^^^^^^^l^^^^^^^^^^^lJlJl^lll^l^lJIIJIJll^lJIJI^ Region 1 Boston Region 2 New York Region 3 Philadelphia Region 4 Atlanta Region 5 Chicago Region 6 Dallas Region 7 Kansas City Region 8 Denver Region 9 San Francisco Region 10 Seattle Assistant Administrator for Research and Development Office of Research Program Management Office of Technology Transfer and Regulatory Support Office of Exploratory Research Office of Health Research Office of Environmental Processes and Effects Research Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology Demonstration Office of Health and Environmental Assessment Office of Modeling, Monitoring Systems, and Quality Assurance ------- How Governments Cooperate In general, environmental laws are not implemented directly by EPA. The Agency sets the standards and defines what needs to be done to comply with federal laws. In most cases, state, tribal, and local governments design and carry out the specific programs needed to make certain the laws are enforced. For example, to control air pollution, Congress passed a law requiring EPA to set standards for various air pollutants. EPA requires the states to create plans to ensure that these levels are achieved and maintained. EPA reviews and approves (or requires changes to) the state plans. EPA also requires state and local governments to monitor air quality. This ensures that the pollution- control goals set in the state plans actually are being met. EPA shares its information through technology- transfer programs, and provides funds and other resources to help state, tribal, and local efforts. Interest Groups Interest groups of various kinds play several important roles. They influence national, state, tribal, and local environmental laws. They help EPA shape environmental policy, and they help ensure compliance with the laws. In turn, EPA relies on these groups to promote compliance among their own members. They also help inform the public of Agency activities and actions citizens can take to help the environment. One of EPA's chief goals is to make sure its regulations will work. To this end, representatives of industrial and environmental interests often are major players in EPA's process for writing new rules. For example, when the Agency set air-pollution emission standards for wood-burning stoves, representatives of stove manufacturers, environmental groups, and EPA worked together to define the strictest standards possible. When all parties agreed, the standards took effect. As a result, many new wood-burning stoves on the market today not only reduce emissions into the air by more than 90 percent compared with older models, but they also are far more energy-efficient. Not every EPA "rulemaking" produces consensus; often affected groups challenge the Agency's actions in court. This happens when either the regulated industry, environmental groups, or both object so strongly to an EPA rule that they prefer to go to court rather than accept EPA's judgments. In those cases, the American judicial system either supports EPA's position, asks for changes to reflect an opposing position, or works out a compromise acceptable to all the parties. i & •v . In addition, some environmental laws allow citizens or public-interest groups to sue polluters, either on their own behalf or on behalf of government agencies. In this way public-interest groups can enhance the ability of EPA, state, tribal, and local officials to ensure that environmental laws are fully enforced. In several cases, lawsuits brought by outside groups have resulted in substantial fines and reduced pollution. Such court rulings also have stimulated insurance companies to insist that insured industries take steps to protect the environment. This is one way private industry can translate court decisions into economic incentives to reduce pollution. The Citizen's Role Environmental destruction is the sum of millions of individual actions. Changing the oil in a car, using pesticides, turning up the thermostat, or throwing out an empty bottle create ripples in the environment. Every one of us makes many ripples every day. The ripples from hundreds of millions of individuals can add up to a tidal wave of environmental problems. Each of us can do at least three important things to help preserve the environment. First, we can learn how our daily activities, at home, school, or work, can either harm or help the environment. Second, we can join local groups working to clean up and protect ------- Volunteers plant beach grass on a Delaware dune. \ , Tony Pratt. Delaware DAW. the environment. And third, we can make our environmental concerns known to our government and civic representatives. If we do all three, we will move a long way toward achieving a cleaner and healthier planet—even though many problems still will require government attention. One specific area where individuals can make a big difference is recycling, the conservation-oriented method of waste disposal that is catching on across the United States. (See page 23.) Your help is vital for recycling to succeed. Find out about recycling in your community, and then become an active participant. If your community doesn't have a recycling program, try to get one started. But don't forget other issues. If you see an environmental problem of any kind, be sure to report it. Start with your own town or county authorities. Then contact your state officials or EPA. Work with local environmental and public interest groups. If you need help, call your EPA regional office, which has exciting new environmental education programs that may be useful to you. Remember, nothing will get better unless we all help make it better. Get involved. ------- WATER SURFACE WATER America's rivers, lakes, and shorelines are less polluted now than they were two decades ago. Rivers no longer catch fire, as one did in Ohio in the late 1960s. There aren't as many "DANGER" signs warning people against contact with water. Foul-smelling algal blooms are fewer, and fish have returned to many former- ly lifeless areas. Our past investments in water pollution controls are starting to pay off, reduc- ing many kinds of contaminants. But despite this progress, one of our most significant continuing problems is the discharge of toxic substances into water from many different sources. Keeping It Clean Most water pollution comes from three sources: sewage treatment plants, industrial discharges, and water run-off from urban streets, suburban lawns, or rural farmland. EPA has long-standing programs to clean up each of these sources. Sewage: The first U.S. sewage treatment plant was built in New York City in 1890. Since then, more than 15,000 plants have been built, and thousands of miles of sewer lines have been laid to carry off the waste from millions of people. At first, these plants removed only organic solids: these wastes are called "floatables." Now the plants must remove at least 85 percent of many of the other pollutants before the wastewater is discharged. EPA manages programs that help pay for treatment plant improvements and provide research and training to improve plant design and operation. The Agency also brings legal action against localities that do not meet wastewater treatment requirements. Sewage-treatment plants are not designed to treat all contaminants. Some toxic pollutants sent into the sewage system by industries and households can damage the treatment plant or go through the system untreated. To control these discharges, EPA requires industries to "pre-treat" the waste before sending it into sewage systems. Pretreatment of wastewater helps to ensure that sewage sludge from treatment facilities can be recycled as fertilizer. This removes the expense and uncertainty of disposing of sludge as a hazardous waste. Industrial Discharges: EPA and the states use a water classification and "permitting" system to control water pollution from industries. When they are the permitting authority, the states must designate each of their surface-water resources as suitable for specific uses. For example, a state could identify one lake as a source of drinking water, while designating another as a cold-water fishery. All states must then adopt water-quality standards for each water body that protect its designated use. Once water bodies have been designated for specific uses, the permitting authority must develop plans to make sure water-quality standards are met. Permits are issued to every industry discharging waste into the water. These permits limit the amount of pollution that may be discharged into a body of water, and they require the industry to monitor discharges to make sure limits are not violated. Run-off: When rain falls on a city, water rushes into storm sewers—carrying with it all the oil, dust, and other wastes that have collected on the streets. In the same way, run-off from farms carries fertilizer and pesticides used by farmers. Pollution from these scattered sources is hard to control. In cities, for example, one storm can dump more polluted water into the sewer system than it can handle. When this happens, the excess flows directly into nearby rivers and streams with no treatment. Some of these sources are now being controlled through permits that specify ways to store run-off until it can be treated properly. To manage run-off, some cities are building giant holding areas to store water for later treatment. Chicago, for example, spent $4 billion to dig a series of enormous caverns deep below the city. They store the water surges from rain storms until they can be properly treated by the city's treatment plants. Solutions to run-off problems must be tailored to individual locations, and they often are expensive. Solutions that emphasize prevention are better. For example, forested wetlands can be used as buffer strips, significantly reducing pollution from storm run-off. Water from farmland is another tough challenge. Some states require farmers to preserve "greenbelts"—areas of native vegetation—between their fields and streams or lakes. Scientists think these areas filter out much of the pollution that can wash from fields. Other states have aggressive programs to limit the amount of fertilizers and pesticides farmers spread on the land. This is the only sure way to keep these contaminants from seeping into surface and ground water. Particles and ash emitted by the smokestacks of America's factories also introduce pollutants into rainfall run-off. Run-off often carries these substances into bodies of water when air currents do not transport them there on their own. The Clean Air Act is now trying to curb this water pollution problem, which is also helped by run-off control efforts. ------- Documerica. National Archives Sieve Delaney An oil slick floats on a lake surface. Sieve Delaney. —*J«C» Secondary bacterial treatment underway at a wastewater treatment plant in the District of Columbia ------- "Fit To Drink" About half our drinking water comes from surface sources, such as rivers and lakes. The rest is from underground sources—wells or springs. Water from any source, when provided by a public water system, must meet EPA's standards (called "maximum contaminant levels") for drinking water. These standards are based on our best scientific and technical judgment. Water suppliers must monitor their water to be sure it meets these standards. While EPA sets the acceptable water contaminant levels, the states have primary responsibility for enforcing them in most cases. States can set standards more stringent than EPA's, and they can regulate chemicals that are not regulated by the federal government. EPA also provides valuable technical help to water suppliers, especially the smaller systems. Because of the increased costs that normally go with tighter standards and monitoring requirements, small systems often do not have enough money to pay for them. EPA provides special workshops, design manuals, and innovative financing concepts to help these systems meet their expenses. Most rivers and lakes assessed by the states support fishing and swimming River miles Partially supporting-104,632 t supporting - 53,449 Lake acres Partially supporting - 2,701,577 ,Not supporting-1,591,391 The number of regulated drinking water contaminants is growing dramatically 200 Standards •150 •« SDWA enacted •100 -50 1970 1980 1990 2000 10 ------- New Directions For The 1990s: PROTECTING NATURAL RESOURCES Hatjortf Park Service In the 1970s and 1980s, EPA's primary mission was to protect human health from the adverse effects of various types of pollution. That work continues, but in the 1990s, the Agency is placing a new emphasis on protecting ecological systems that exist in America's estuaries and wetlands, forests and soil, rivers and lakes. In recent years these resources have been threatened by population and development pressures. The damage has been grave and sometimes irreversible: one third of the nation's shellfish beds are now closed due to pollution, and one fourth of our estuaries contain high levels of toxic substances. To safeguard these critical ecosystems, EPA has adopted policies and practices that respect the fragility of ecosystems everywhere. In particular, the Agency has targeted several major water bodies for special attention, including the Great Lakes, the Chesapeake Bay, and the Gulf of Mexico. All are plagued by pollution, and all are extremely important from an economic as well as an environmental standpoint. In these areas—which may become models for actions elsewhere—we are working in partnership with local government officials, business leaders, and concerned citizens on creative, broadly based approaches that will get lasting results. One especially imperiled natural resource is scattered throughout the United States: our nation's wetlands. These are swampy areas that help filter pollution and serve as a vital habitat for many species of birds, fish, and animals. (See page 12.) In 1991, EPA increased its spending for wetlands programs by 44 percent; the money is earmarked for identification of endangered wetlands areas, for enhancing state and local grassroots programs, and for developing the knowledge and technical know-how needed to prevent further deterioration. Under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, EPA has veto authority to stop development projects that would endanger wetlands. The Agency has recently exercised that authority in Rhode Island, Colorado, and Florida. 11 ------- Wetlands Not long ago, people thought wetlands were wastelands, fit only to be filled in or paved over. Now we have a better appreciation for the role of wetlands in the water cycle, as well as for the importance of all our natural resources. Preserving these vital resources is a key goal for EPA. Wetlands are part of nature's water purification system. Water filters through wetlands into streams and then into the ground. Wetlands also are valuable flood- and erosion-control devices; they provide habitat for migrating birds and other wildlife; they contribute to food production and commercial fishing; and they are popular for sport fishing and other recreation. The Clean Water Act requires anyone who wants to dispose of dredged or "fill" material to receive a permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps issues more than 8,000 of these permits every year. Developers and others who want to use wetlands to dispose of this material must first consider less environmentally disruptive alternatives. When disposal practices threaten to cause significant adverse effects on the environment, EPA can "veto" the issuance of the Corps' permit. Very few permits actually reach this stage. When problems are uncovered early in the review process, many projects are changed to reduce or eliminate their detrimental effects. State, tribal, and local governments, working with private businesses, can help protect wetlands and avoid pollution before it occurs. Using their planning and land-use management roles, these governments can designate and preserve wetland areas that combine a variety of benefits to a local community. Among these benefits are floodplain management, wildlife habitat, and recreation. Marine Debris Plastic debris in oceans and lakes can kill or harm marine life, damage boats, and mar the beauty and the economies of beach communities. To deal with this problem, EPA is developing a national program Over half of the wetlands acreage has been lost in the lower 48 states Remained in the mid 1980's 47% or 104 million acres to control the release of floating substances into the marine environment. The program will discover the sources and effects of marine debris and control it through education, prevention, and voluntary compliance, as well as with regulations and legislation. This project, like the National Estuary Program and the Near Coastal Waters Program (see below), is part of EPA's National Coastal and Marine Policy. EPA developed this policy to strengthen enforcement of the laws protecting America's coastal ecosystems. Where laws limit the Agency's ability to act, the policy encourages EPA to seek new solutions to existing problems. It also promotes aggressive programs to reduce the amount of waste disposed of in coastal and marine waters. The National Estuary Program An estuary is an arm of the sea that extends inland to meet the mouth of a river, mingling salt and fresh water. EPA's National Estuary Program is trying to protect estuaries where overdevelopment threatens the environmental balance. The program was set up to show how comprehensive, aggressive management programs can enhance the endangered living resources of estuaries. The program uses existing regulations, institutions, and financial resources to correct problems, but it often takes creative new approaches as well. There are now 17 estuaries in the National Estuary Program. Estuaries are chosen based on a state's ability to show that it can improve water quality in five years. 12 ------- The Near Coastal Waters Program Pollution of the waters near our coasts, already a critical national problem, gets worse each year as growing numbers of Americans move toward the water. EPA has created a Near Coastal Waters Program to focus federal and state attention on water problems along our coasts. As part of the program, all coastal EPA regions, and the states within those regions, are carrying out strategies to preserve the quality of these waters. Ocean Dumping The Ocean Dumping Ban Act requires EPA to protect the oceans from indiscriminate waste dumping. To do this, the Agency: • Determines the toxicity of the waste proposed for dumping • Designates safe sites for dumping • Issues dumping permits • Monitors to ensure the protection of the marine environment • Assesses penalties for improper dumping EPA has been able to stop dumping of industrial waste, and sewage sludge dumping is being phased out. The Agency is now looking at alternative ways to dispose of dredged material, to make sure that these byproducts of navigation projects are properly managed. GROUND WATER The health of America's ground water is threatened by run-off and contamination from a variety of other sources, such as seepage from hazardous-waste landfills and leaking underground storage tanks. Protection of aquifers—natural formations that store ground water—is one of the biggest environmental challenges of the 1990s. EPA has developed a strategy to safeguard ground water and has set up a separate office within its Office of Water to carry out this effort. The 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act also require creative approaches to assessing and protecting ground-water resources. The Wellhead Protection Program works to protect "recharge" areas of wells that supply public water systems. The program is developed and administered by the states. EPA issues technical guidance and helps finance state efforts. The Wellhead Protection Program is designed to protect ground water while letting states tailor their efforts to local conditions and geologic settings. At the same time, EPA is making every effort to carry out other programs within the context of federal and state strategies to protect ground water. For example, the Agency is working to set up a federal/state partnership to help prevent pesticide contamination of ground water. 13 ------- New Directions For The 1990s: ECONOMIC INCENTIVES EPA's regulations traditionally have followed a "command-and-control" approach. Polluters were ordered not to exceed a legally mandated level of emissions or releases, but they were offered no incentives to perform better than EPA guidelines dictated. In many cases, this approach proved to be rigid, costly, and even counterproductive. In the 1990s, EPA is working to supplement traditional "command-and-control" regulations with flexible, market-based regulations that enlist the power of the marketplace on behalf of the environment. The Clean Air Act of 1990 made maximum use of market incentives in ways that are expected to cut compliance costs by $1 billion. For instance, the Act includes an innovative system of emissions "allowances" for sulfur dioxide. Industries that reduce emissions below the sulfur dioxide standard build up a supply of allowances, or credits, that they can sell to other companies that are not doing as well. Thus, all regulated companies have an incentive to perform at the best possible level—the level least harmful to the environment. The Clean Air Act also includes other market-based innovations, such as tradable emission credits for manufacturers of clean-fuel vehicles, and for producers of certain kinds of clean-burning fuels. Another example of EPA's new sensitivity to market forces is the Enterprise-for-the-Americas initiative, begun in 1990, which is using economic incentives to help Latin American countries protect their endangered rainforests and other natural resources. The United States has told Latin American governments that their public debt owed to the U.S. government can now be renegotiated, at a discounted rate, and converted into local currency earmarked for environmental protection and conservation projects. Such "debt-for-nature" swaps will finance acquisition of land for parks and nature preserves. The money also can be used for pollution prevention or cleanup. AIR The nation has had a good deal of success in curbing air pollution since the original Clean Air Act took effect in 1970. Emissions of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds from the tailpipes of new cars have been cut by up to 90 percent. Lead emissions are down 99 percent. Many other improvements have been made. But we must do more. More than 100 million people still live in cities where ozone levels are higher than regulations allow (ozone is a smog ingredient). Carbon monoxide, mainly from automobiles, continues to be a problem in many cities. Many scientists believe that toxic air pollutants have never adequately been regulated under the Clean Air Act. Studies show that acid rain continues to fall over much of the nation. On September 15, 1990, President Bush signed the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. "Today," he said, "we add a long-awaited and long-needed chapter in our environmental history, and we begin a new era for clean air." This law is the most significant legislation yet passed to control air pollution. It directs the United States to carry out strong environmental policies and regulations that will guarantee cleaner air for every American. To achieve this goal, EPA will use traditional approaches to control air pollution. But it will also work to harness the power of the marketplace, to encourage local initiatives, and to emphasize pollution prevention. EPA will direct its efforts to achieve cost-effective environmental benefits while ensuring consistency with national energy and economic policies. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 signify a new era in environmental regulation in this country. The law offers solutions to some of the nation's most difficult environmental problems by promoting the use of creative approaches, both regulatory and non- regulatory. When fully in place, the new law will: • Remove 56 billion pounds a year of pollution from the air (224 pounds a year for every man, woman, and child in the United States) • Reduce by 50 percent the emissions causing acid rain • Reduce by 75 percent emissions and the resulting risks from toxic air pollution • Result in cleaner cars, fuels, factories, and power plants • Assure that all areas of the country meet the national ambient air quality standards • Reduce damage to lakes, streams, parks, and forests 14 Reduce oil imports significantly Reverse the decline in visibility in the country's most scenic areas ------- national Park Service. A statue stained by acid rain 15 ------- Smog blankets Denver, John T. While. EPA, EPA engineers^John Koupal, Rich Evans, and Line Wehrly—study vehicle exhaust emissions. Colorado Oepl. ol Health. Air Pollution Control Division. "Fit To Breathe" The goal of the Clean Air Act is to protect public health and welfare from the harmful effects of air pollution. Under the Clean Air Act, EPA has set maximum acceptable levels for pollutants in outdoor air, called National Ambient Air Quality Standards. There are two kinds, primary and secondary. Primary standards set limits that protect human health, including sensitive populations such as children, asthmatics, and the elderly. Secondary standards protect plants, animals, and building materials from the harmful effects of air pollution. EPA has set primary and secondary standards for six so-called "criteria" pollutants: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and particulates (smoke, dust, and other small particles). These standards are based on medical and scientific evidence of a pollutant's health and environmental effects. EPA must review this evidence every five years and analyze any new data available. If the review shows that changes are needed, EPA revises the standard. The Clean Air Act also requires EPA to set National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Pollutants, called "NESHAPS." These control the emission of substances that cause serious or irreversible health effects. EPA has established NESHAPS for asbestos, beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, benzene, arsenic, and radionuclides. 16 ------- Air pollution comes either from mobile sources, such as automobiles, buses, trucks, locomotives, and airplanes, or from stationary sources—factories, power plants, and smelters. To control pollution from mobile sources, the Clean Air Act and supporting regulations provide for tighter emission controls as technology improves. EPA also regulates the quality of the fuel used in these vehicles. One major environmental success has been the nearly complete elimination of lead from gasoline. To help control pollution from stationary sources, EPA sets New Source Performance Standards. These limit emissions allowed from new industrial plants and existing plants that are "substantially modified." By requiring uniform emission limits on new sources regardless of where they are located, Congress has kept air pollution controls from becoming a source of regional rivalry. National standards are now in effect for most major industries. Since national performance standards apply only to new or modified plants, these controls by themselves generally do not ensure acceptable air quality. State governments also must draw up and enforce state implementation plans, or "SIPs," which spell out other steps that will be taken to attain acceptable air quality. Typically, these include controls on older industrial plants and other stationary sources of pollution. They also include measures to cut back on traffic or otherwise reduce motor vehicle emissions. SIPs are subject to EPA approval. If a state plan is not acceptable, EPA must draw up an implementation plan that the state must then enforce. Overall, the nation's air quality is considerably better than it was 20 years ago. Some areas, however, still fall short of the standards because of concentrations of pollution sources, geography, or weather. In these areas, states are working to achieve additional emission reductions. State programs include vehicle emission tests, special nozzles at gasoline stations to collect fumes, systems to reduce traffic, and reduced use of solvents. These state efforts will require the understanding and cooperation of the public. This is especially important when the plans affect individually small emission sources: bakeries, wood stoves, dry cleaners, and homeowners using solvents. Together, these sources can produce significant amounts of pollution. In some areas, even more stringent measures may be needed to achieve healthful air quality. State plans also must contain provisions to prevent the "significant deterioration" of air quality. That means they must limit the worsening of air quality in areas that are now cleaner than the national standards require. The plans also must improve visibility where it has been impaired (and prevent future impairment) in pristine federal lands, such as national parks and wildernesses. Comparison of 1970 and 1989 emissions of conventional air pollutants Thousand metric tons/yr TSP SOx Total Sulfur Suspended Oxides Particulates CO NOx VOC Carbon Nitrogen Volatile Monoxide Oxides Organic Chemicals Lead Acid Rain Acid rain occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide change in the atmosphere to form harmful compounds that fall to earth in rain, fog, and snow. Acid rain damages lakes and streams, as well as forests, buildings, and monuments. It affects visibility and health. About 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide are emitted every year in the United States. Three-quarters comes from the burning of fossil fuels by electric utilities; 20 percent comes from other, more widely dispersed industrial sources; and 5 percent is from transportation sources. Since the sources of acid rain often are hundreds of miles from the affected areas, an aggressive effort to control acid rain has been difficult to achieve. Nevertheless, the Clean Air Act amendments recently passed by Congress propose, by the end of the century, to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions by 10 million tons per year from 1980 levels and significantly to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions. 17 ------- New Directions For The 1990s: REDUCING RISKS During its first two decades, EPA's regulatory agenda was dictated by a series of separate laws, each dealing with a different pollution problem. No attempt was made to rank those problems in relative order of importance. The Agency is committed to enforcing all the laws under its jurisdiction, but as the 1990s begin, a major effort is also being made to target more of EPA's funds and efforts at the most serious environmental problems facing the nation. The Agency is trying to identify the most significant environmental risks through a strategic planning process based on comparative assessments of relative risk. Those risk assessments have become a vital management tool at EPA. The concept of risk-based management was strongly endorsed in Reducing Risk, a September 1990 report by EPA's Science Advisory Board. (See page 28.) Seeking a better way of targeting its resources, EPA has begun a major effort to carry out the report's key recommendations. EPA program offices have developed four-year strategic plans that are geared toward dealing with high-risk problems and taking actions that contribute most effectively to reducing risk. In addition, EPA's budget now reflects the risk-based priorities set in these strategic plans. Although many substances are relatively harmless, several have caused real and continuing damage to ^health and the environment. For example, asbestos and PCBs, two harmful contaminants that decompose slowly, were widely used until a decade or so ago. Although most uses of these substances have been banned, both will remain in the environment for years to come. Destroying or cleaning up their residues costs millions of dollars a year. The goals of EPA's toxic substances program are to keep new chemicals from becoming an environmental hazard, and to make sure that existing chemicals are safely used. Compared with its reliance on state, tribal, and local governments to carry out water pollution programs, EPA plays a larger and more direct role in regulating toxic substances and pesticides. The Agency works directly with the industries involved, which report straight to EPA on many matters. (This does not apply in states that have cooperative agreements with EPA; those states work directly with industry.) 18 ------- AND RADIATION A helicopter sprays fungicide over a Florida orange grove. Fred S. While. USOA Chemicals When a manufacturer wants to market a new chemical, it must first notify EPA. The Agency reviews both the new substance and its proposed uses to determine if they present an environmental hazard. EPA can require the manufacturer to test the substance for toxicity or other effects before approving its widespread use. New chemicals found to be harmful may be regulated in several ways, ranging from labeling requirements to outright bans. For existing chemicals, a federal interagency testing committee of experts advises EPA as to which ones should be tested. There are some 68,000 chemicals in commercial use in this country. As required by the Toxic Substances Control Act, EPA maintains a comprehensive inventory of all these chemicals. The inventory, which is based on information submitted by chemical manufacturers, processors, and importers, provides an overview of national commerce in chemicals. EPA also is using its authority to keep a close watch on developments in biotechnology. Biotechnology is the manipulation of biological processes to produce chemicals or living organisms for commercial use. The Agency is focusing its attention on industry plans to use natural organisms in new ways or in unfamiliar habitats, and on efforts to manufacture and use genetically altered microorganisms. Pesticides Pesticides are substances that prevent, kill, or otherwise disable pests. Pests include undesirable plants, insects, rodents, fungi, and molds. Pesticides, by definition, are usually toxic. Some can be extremely toxic to people and to the environment. Under the authority of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), last amended in 1988, EPA registers or licenses pesticide products; about 20,000 of these products have been registered so far. "Registration" means that EPA has examined scientific data about a pesticide's effects, and has required product labeling. The purpose is to make sure that the pesticide can be used without posing unreasonable risks to human health or the environment. FIFRA requires the Agency to consider economic, social, and environmental costs and benefits when deciding about pesticides. This balancing of risks and benefits underlies every basic regulatory decision under this particular law. Pesticide registration is a pre-market review and licensing procedure that is required for every pesticide marketed in the United States, no matter where it is manufactured. EPA bases registration decisions for a new pesticides on test data (provided 19 ------- by the pesticide registrant) that show whether it can cause adverse effects on people or the environment. The potential human health risks of pesticides range from short-term, reversible effects like skin and eye irritation to long-term, chronic, irreversible effects—cancer, birth defects, and reproductive system disorders. Data on "environmental fate," or how a pesticide behaves in the environment, also are required. This information lets EPA determine, among other things, whether a pesticide poses a threat to ground water or to "non-target" species (species other than those it is meant to control). Through the "reregistration" process, EPA also is examining pesticides registered before the creation of current scientific and regulatory standards. This is to make sure that older chemicals meet the same standard ("no unreasonable adverse effects") that applies to new pesticides. Since 1988, the timetable for these reregistrations has been accelerated. Whenever new data on an old pesticide suggest that it may be causing unreasonable risks, EPA can begin a public "special review" process to determine whether action is warranted. At the end of a special review, EPA can decide to continue, to restrict, or to cancel the pesticide uses under consideration. EPA can designate certain pesticides for "restricted use." Restricted-use pesticides are those with clear-cut economic benefits that pose potentially serious hazards to the environment or the person using them. They can be used only by people who are trained and certified in their proper use. States usually are responsible for applicator certification and training as well as pesticide enforcement. Under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, EPA sets "tolerances," or maximum legal limits, for pesticide residues remaining on food and feed sold in the United States. The tolerance helps ensure that U.S. consumers are not exposed to unsafe levels of pesticides in or on their food. The Agency sets a tolerance only if chemical and lexicological data show that there is no unreasonable risk to consumers from eating food containing low- level residues of the pesticide—even over an entire lifetime. The Food and Drug Administration and the U.S. Department of Agriculture are responsible for enforcing tolerances for food and feed commodities in interstate commerce. Any domestic or imported commodities containing pesticide residues above U.S. tolerance levels can be seized and destroyed. A Pennsylvania homeowner inspects an air pump system that helps eliminate radon. NYT Pictures. Radiation Ionizing and Non-Ionizing Radiation: Radiation from radioactive materials (known as "ionizing" radiation) can be present in air, water, soil, and food. EPA and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission share responsibility for protecting the public from harmful exposure to ionizing radiation. Another type of radiation is an emerging public concern: "non- ionizing" radiation from electromagnetic fields, which might also pose a health risk. EPA has set standards that limit the release of ionizing radiation into the air by several industrial and commercial sources. There are also standards for uranium mining and processing waste, radioactivity in drinking water, and water contamination from inactive sites where mill tailings from uranium mining have been dumped. EPA is working on setting exposure limits for low- level and high-level radioactive waste. The Agency 20 ------- US Dept. at Energy. also provides federal guidance on permissible levels of radiation exposure for workers and the public. EPA has developed guidance on the diagnostic use of X-rays, another form of ionizing radiation. Work is now being done to determine the health effects of non-ionizing radiation, with emphasis on power transmission lines. EPA can respond to emergencies involving ionizing radiation. It has mobile equipment, laboratory vehicles, and staff trained to monitor conditions and collect data. EPA publishes Protective Action Guides on emergency shelters, evacuation, and techniques for maintaining the safety of water supplies. The Agency helps other federal and state agencies clean up contaminated sites and participates in emergency response planning and exercises. Radon: The most common source of public exposure to ionizing radiation is radon, a naturally occurring gas formed by the decay of certain geological materials. Radon gas can seep into buildings from the ground and from running tap water and then build up to harmful levels. EPA's Radon Program works to alert the public to the dangers of radon. It also provides technical assistance and support to states, distributes information on home testing, develops guidance for reducing levels in existing structures, and promotes new construction practices that diminish the risk from radon. 21 ------- New Directions For The 1990s: POLLUTION PREVENTION In the past, America's environmental programs have focused almost exclusively on "end-of-pipe" pollution control and cleanup. This traditional approach is best suited to large, easily identifiable sources such as smokestacks and sewer outlets. It is much less effective in dealing with scattered sources of pollution such as run-off from farms and streets. Even more important, this approach fails to weigh the merits of pollution prevention as an end in itself, as a means of preserving resources and improving efficiency. Congress, by passing the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, has declared that from now on, America's first priority should be to prevent or reduce pollution at the source wherever possible. Pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmentally safe manner. If prevention or recycling is not possible, pollution should be treated. Disposal or other release into the environment should be used only as a last resort. EPA is now taking steps to incorporate the principles of pollution prevention in all of its programs. For example, two percent of every EPA program's budget for 1991 and 1992 has been set aside to fund pollution- prevention demonstration projects. EPA's "Agenda for Action" has set an ambitious national goal for 1992: the recycling of at least 25 percent of municipal solid waste. In addition, the Agency's newly created Office of Pollution Prevention has created an information clearinghouse that already has handled over 6,000 inquiries from industries, businesses, universities, and government agencies. EPA's "Green Lights" program is a classic example of pollution prevention in action. Since January 1991, the Agency has been working with major U.S. corporations to make sure they have the information and the technical support they need to install energy- efficient lighting designs and technologies. When a company joins the Green Lights program, it agrees to survey all its facilities and install new lighting systems that save energy, to the extent that the new systems do not increase costs or compromise lighting quality. As of August 12, 1991, 93 leading American corporations had become Green Lights partners. If all U.S. businesses and industries participated, the program would bring about a five percent reduction in the air pollution generated by the plants that power U.S. lighting systems. WASTE Recycling at the University of Wisconsin/Stevens Point 22 ------- Two decades ago, there were more than 10,000 municipal waste dumps in this country, and tens of thousands of other places where industry also dumped its waste. Many of these were near surface water or above aquifers. Very few had adequate controls to ensure that the contaminants in the waste did not seep into the soil or water. Today, landfills are more carefully controlled to reduce the chances of environmental contamination. The disposal of a wide range of hazardous substances on the land has been outlawed. The problems caused by yesterday's poor waste-disposal practices are being dealt with. Even more importantly, Americans are beginning to cut back on the amount of waste they throw away. Recycling Proper disposal of waste is becoming increasingly expensive. Citizen opposition to new waste-handling facilities has caused many cities and industries to cart their waste hundreds of miles for disposal. Costs probably will continue to rise as existing landfills run out of room. What's the alternative? Create less waste. Prevent pollution before it occurs. One way municipalities can do this is through recycling. Recycling is a program in which every individual counts, because successful recycling depends on the participation of most of the population. See page 7. There is ample reason for all of us to participate. Cost-effective recycling not only protects the environment; it can also save money by salvaging valuable materials such as aluminum, glass, paper, and plastic. As a result, recycling makes good business sense to industry. Unfortunately, in some cases the growing public enthusiasm for recycling has outpaced the ability of industry to use some types of recycled materials. For a while, some areas will find themselves with too little demand for the collected material. But as disposal costs rise and consumer demand for recycled products increases, a healthy market should develop for many substances that were once considered waste. Waste Reduction It can cost more than $1,200 to dispose safely of a single drum of some hazardous wastes. That may seem like a lot—until you realize it can cost ten to a hundred times that much to clean up the same waste after it has been disposed of improperly. Responding to these growing costs, many companies are taking a hard look at both their products and their processes to find ways to reduce the amount of waste they produce. Several firms already have discovered that changes in products or processes not only reduce waste, but they also can save money. (See page 22.) EPA supports an information exchange program to help firms develop pollution prevention programs. The Agency also holds workshops and training sessions for state inspectors and industry representatives to help them find new ways to ease the waste-disposal burden. Abandoned Waste Superfund: Cleaning up hazardous waste dumps created by the careless practices of the past will cost billions of dollars and take several decades. Much of the money will come from private firms. The federal government, however, will have to clean up military waste sites as well as the worst sites where the responsible parties can't pay the bill. The high cost of future cleanups is a strong incentive for proper waste management and pollution prevention today. Launched in 1980, EPA's Superfund program—with help from the states—already has evaluated almost 32,000 potential waste sites. From among those sites, EPA has identified about 1,200 that need Superfund action, and the Agency has started cleanup efforts at most of these sites. EPA expects to have completed cleanups at several hundred sites by the year 2000. Waste sites requiring Superfund action are identified on the National Priorities List (NPL). This is EPA's list of hazardous-waste sites that warrant federally sponsored long-term cleanup, known as "remedial action." Under the Superfund remedial action program, EPA's long-term cleanup actions are geared toward eliminating or subtantially reducing releases of hazardous substances. In addition, EPA performs emergency "removal actions" at NPL sites when necessary to control an immediate threat. The Agency also takes emergency actions at non-NPL sites where there have been spills or accidental releases of hazardous substances. Potential NPL sites are discovered through, among other ways, routine site inspections and citizens' reports. Once a potential site is identified, EPA or state officials conduct a preliminary assessment by reviewing available documents about the site. Then they conduct a site inspection to gather additional evidence of any potential problems. Using information from the site inspection, EPA estimates the potential risk posed by the site to identify those that may pose the highest risk. These are added to the National Priorities List. Once a site is on the NPL, EPA or the state can conduct a more thorough site investigation. A "remedial investigation and feasibility study" pinpoints the nature of the problem and weighs 23 ------- different cleanup methods. During the study, EPA or the state collects and analyzes additional information to learn the extent and nature of contamination. Then comes the "feasibility study"; this identifies several possible remedies which are evaluated by EPA, responsible parties, and interested citizens. With concurrence of the state and after considering public comment, EPA chooses a remedy that meets the requirements of the Superfund law and the National Contingency Plan (the federal regulation that guides the Superfund program). Design of the remedial action, as well as on-site construction, are supervised by EPA and the Army Corps of Engineers. Or, a state can manage all site activities on its own if it chooses. EPA encourages private parties who are responsible for dangerous hazardous waste sites to clean them up voluntarily. The government will monitor the cleanup. If the responsible parties aren't willing or able to do this, EPA will issue an administrative order or take them to court Jo require them to clean up the site. If the responsible parties ignore an EPA cleanup order, and EPA must conduct the cleanup, the responsible parties can be liable for punitive damages up to triple the costs of federal cleanup work. If the responsible parties are insolvent or unknown, EPA and the states will pay for the work. States play many key roles in toxic waste management. When EPA and a state work together on a cleanup, the state contributes 10 percent of the costs for work at privately owned facilities. The state contribution is 50 percent if the facility is operated either by the state itself or by one of its political subdivisions, such as a city or county. Along with cost-sharing, states help pick sites, set cleanup priorities, and choose cleanup methods. Remedies must meet any state requirements that are stricter than federal standards. States also must show that they can manage hazardous waste generated within their boundaries. MEIMT EPA's waste management system, created by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), includes five separate but related programs. They are designed to protect human health and the environment; reduce waste and conserve energy; and reduce or end hazardous waste generation. The programs set requirements for managing municipal solid waste (garbage); managing hazardous waste; storing petroleum products and hazardous substances in underground tanks; managing medical waste; and dealing with accidental releases of hazardous substances. Municipal Solid Waste A principal goal of EPA's municipal solid waste program is to help the states carry out comprehensive management plans to handle garbage. The plans should include reducing and recycling solid waste and upgrading—or closing—all environmentally unsound dumps. Because the volume of solid waste is growing, solid-waste management has become a key issue for many localities and states. To help these officials, EPA issued new standards that apply to municipal solid-waste landfills and to municipal solid waste incinerators. The Agency also has an extensive program to assist state and local government in identifying ways to reduce solid waste at its source and to implement recycling programs. These efforts will lay the foundation for better control of municipal solid waste in the future. Hazardous Waste EPA's goal in managing hazardous waste is to make sure it's handled in a way that protects human health and the environment. EPA regulates hazardous waste from "cradle to grave" (from production to disposal). This involves regulating more than 4,400 Most sites in Superfund inventory have been assessed or inspected Work is under way at most priority sites Awaiting initial assessment - 2,684 National Priorities List Sites -1,222 Sites evaluated; no further federal action - 18,337 Site inspection complete; awaiting decision - 7,228^ awaiting inspection 5,181 Remedies selected or under design - 282 Detailed studies of contamination and remedies under way - 487 Clean up work completed - 63 Jmmediate threat evaluated; .awaiting investigation and engineering studies - 88 Abandoned drums of hazardous waste 24 ------- treatment, storage, and disposal facilities; 20,000 transporters; and about 240,000 generators. EPA, as well as the states and the tribes, can issue permits through which standards are set for the safe design and operation of these facilities. Underground Storage Tanks This program works to prevent leaks and to clean up past releases of petroleum products or hazardous substances from underground storage tanks, such as those found at gas stations. EPA has developed standards for new tanks that protect against corrosion and other causes of leaks and also include systems to monitor leaks. These standards also define financial responsibility in case of leaks as well as grounds for corrective action on the 1.8 million tanks across the country. Medical Waste During the summer of 1988, medical waste washed up on Atlantic beaches. The resulting outcry called attention to the need for better management of medical waste. Congress passed the Medical Waste Tracking Act to deal with the problem. Under its provisions, EPA is putting together a demonstration program to track medical waste from creation to disposal. EPA will report its findings to Congress, which will then consider the merits of national medical-waste regulation. Chemical Accidents And Releases EPA's Chemical Emergency Preparedness Program provides guidance, training, and technical help to states, tribes, and communities. Its goal is to help them identify chemical hazards and meet their responsibilities in preparing for, and responding to, chemical emergencies. When Superfund was reauthorized in 1986, Congress passed the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) as part of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act. EPCRA—also known as "Title III"—requires industry and federal, state, tribal, and local governments to plan for chemical emergencies and provide for emergency notification. It also expands the rights of citizens to get information about the presence and release of hazardous chemicals ir: their communities. Data on the kinds and amounts of chemicals being released into the air, water, and soil throughout the nation are now available from EPA and most states in both printed and electronic form. EPA also publishes yearly reports analyzing these releases. 25 ------- Pollution that crosses political boundaries, such as acid rain, has caused friction between countries for at least a decade. Now, however, we are beginning to recognize a class of pollu- tion problems that can affect not just one region, but the entire planet. Dealing with global pollution problems requires a great deal of international cooperation. All nations share the responsibility to protect our biosphere. The Marine Environment Some pollution is found throughout the world's oceans, which cover about two-thirds of the planet's surface. Marine debris, farm run-off, industrial waste, sewage, dredge material, stormwater run-off, and atmospheric deposition (acid rain) all contribute to ocean pollution. Litter and chemical contamination occur across the globe, including such remote places as Antarctica and the Bering Sea. But the level of pollution varies a good deal from region to region and from one locality to another. The open ocean is generally healthy, especially in comparison to coastal waters and semi-enclosed seas that are most directly affected by human activities. The pressures from those activities are immense: Some 50 to 75 percent of the world's population probably will live within 50 miles of a coastline within the next 10 years. (See National Estuary Program and Near Coastal Waters Program, pages 12-13.) EPA is working through various federal laws and international agreements to reduce marine pollution. For example, EPA is helping to carry out the London Dumping Convention, MARPOL (the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships), the Great Lakes Agreement, the Caribbean Regional Sea Program, and other marine multilateral and bilateral agreements. The Agency also is helping develop regional and international programs to control discharges to the oceans from the land. In a major domestic initiative, the Agency is working to clean up major estuaries and coastal areas that have suffered the most from pollution. Tractor at a staging area for trees felled in an Ivory Coast rainforest Rainloresl Alliance 26 ------- The Ozone Layer A major global problem, depletion of the ozone layer, is linked to a group of chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These chemicals are used widely by industry as refrigerants and by consumers in polystyrene products. Once released into the air, they rise into the stratosphere and eat away at the Earth's protective ozone layer. The ozone layer shields all life on the planet from the sun's hazardous ultraviolet radiation, a leading cause of skin cancer. The United States, which has been in the forefront of efforts to reduce CFC emissions, outlawed the use of CFCs in aerosol spray products more than a decade ago. We also have joined other nations, in a treaty called the Montreal Protocol, in pledging to eliminate the use of CFCs by the year 2000. Equally important is the commitment by industry to develop products and processes that don't use CFCs, and to share these substitutes with other countries. EPA evaluates all possible substitutes to make sure they do not present new health or environmental problems. The threat to the ozone layer illustrates an important principle: It is not enough simply to outlaw an environmental problem. We also must work toward a comprehensive and economically acceptable solution. Global Climate Change Except for solar, nuclear, and geothermal power, the production of energy requires that something be burned. That something is usually a fossil fuel such as oil, gasoline, natural gas, or coal. But it also can be other fuels—for example, wood or municipal waste. Burning any of these substances uses up oxygen and creates carbon dioxide gas. Our bodies also create and exhale carbon dioxide. Plants, algae, and plankton, on the other hand, take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Our modern industrial society and its need for power create far more carbon dioxide than the planet's vegetation can consume. As this excess carbon dioxide rises into the atmosphere, it acts as a kind of one-way mirror, trapping the heat reflected from the Earth's surface. Many leading scientists expect that this "greenhouse" effect from increased levels of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases eventually will cause an increase in global temperatures. Some predict that temperatures will rise significantly within the next century, and that global climate patterns could be dramatically disrupted. The growing ozone hole over Antarctica If these experts are correct, areas in this country that are now cropland could become desert, and ocean levels could rise by three feet or more. EPA is working with other federal agencies to improve our understanding of the likely amount and possible effects of global climate change. We also are looking at ways to reduce carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions. This effort, like the agreement to eliminate CFCs, will require a major commitment to international cooperation by all the countries of the world. Vanishing Rainforests Tropical rainforests, by absorbing large quantities of carbon dioxide, help to retard global warming. The rapid depletion of these tropical forests—as well as those in the temperate zone—has become a pressing global concern in recent years. New data suggest that tropical forests are being lost twice as fast as previously believed; at present rates of destruction, many forests will disappear within 10 to 15 years. In July 1990, concern for the rapid loss of the great forest systems worldwide led the United States to propose a global forest convention at an economic summit attended by most industrialized nations. The agreement would address all forests—north temperate, temperate, and tropical—as well as mapping and monitoring research, training, and technical assistance. EPA is working with the State Department, the Department of Agriculture, the Agency for International Development, and other agencies to carry the proposal forward with the goal that the agreement be signed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, to be held in Brazil in 1992. 27 ------- EPA scientists study the effects of ozone air pollution on pine seedlings. cience and technology are becoming increasingly important factors in EPA decisions, especially as we become more aware of global environmental problems. A science agency as well as a regulatory agency, EPA has a responsibility to conduct needed environmental research. Most of the nation's environmental laws require the Agency to decide what course of action is scientifically and technically valid, and then to act on that decision. For example, the Clean Water Act says EPA must try to determine what levels of various water pollutants could harm people exposed to them. The Agency then sets water-quality standards based on the best available scientific evidence. In the same way, to protect the public from harmful pesticides, EPA requires pesticide manufacturers to conduct research into the health and environmental effects of their chemicals. EPA reviews the results of that research and then develops label directions for pesticide use. EPA relies on its research and development office to develop, integrate, and assess scientific and technical information. This effort involves six major activities: • Research in environmental engineering and technology looks at pollution from industrial and municipal sources, and examines technologies to reduce or prevent such pollution. • Environmental processes and effects research develops information to predict and manage the movement of pollutants through the environment, and to determine their effects on ecosystems, plants, and animals. • Through its research in monitoring systems and quality assurance, EPA develops procedures to describe, monitor, and predict the levels of pollutants in the environment. This program also makes sure that our environmental measurements are precise enough to support sound scientific decisions. • Health effects research provides the information we need to estimate human mortality and illness caused by pollutants. Playing an important role in this research effort is EPA's Health Effects Research Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina—one of the nation's few facilities capable of testing actual human exposure to environmental contaminants. • EPA's regulatory decisions are greatly influenced by what we know about the hazards posed by various pollutants. EPA's health and environment assessment research provides a scientific basis for judging the health and environmental effects of exposure to a substance. It also helps in determining the comparative risks of such exposures. Risk assessments are vital to Agency managers as they set management priorities and allocate EPA's resources where they are most needed and effective. • The Agency's exploratory grants programs fund strategic environmental research in universities to support much larger, EPA-directed environmental research programs. These programs also train the scientists and technicians who will carry out environmental management and research in the future. EPA's research and development efforts are handled by 12 scientific research laboratories located from Narragansett, Rhode Island, to Corvallis, Oregon; and through contracts, grants, and cooperative agreements with universities and private companies. Along with this almost $500-million-a-year research program, the Agency has a Science Advisory Board (SAB) composed of independent experts in a large number of fields associated with the environmental sciences. The EPA Administrator calls on this Board, or one of its various committees, to review the scientific evidence presented to support a proposed EPA action. The SAB also advises the Agency as to the quality and adequacy of that evidence. For example, in September 1990, the SAB, at the request of EPA's Administrator, 28 ------- issued a ground-breaking report called Reducing Risk: priorities—a course of action that the Agency is now Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental pursuing (see page 18). Protection. The report's first and most basic Through the guidance of the Science Advisory recommendation was that EPA use comparative risk Board and the Agency's own experts, EPA is doing assessment to do a better job of setting everything possible to make sure that its decisions are supported by sound science. ENFO One way that EPA pursues its mission of protect- - ing human health and the environment is to issue regulations and to see that they are en- forced. In most cases, there is widespread compliance with these rules. But when a company or other party doesn't comply voluntarily, EPA has a wide range of tools that it vigorously uses to make them do so. EPA is committed to aggressive enforcement of the nation's environmental laws; and the Agency's enforcement program has been operating at record levels over the past several years. Under its civil enforcement authority, EPA can issue its own administrative orders or file a lawsuit in federal court to force a violator to comply with the law. EPA follows two principles when settling a case. First, the violation must be corrected as quickly as possible; and, second, the violator must pay a substantial penalty. Penalties are an important part of EPA's enforcement program. By assessing large penalties, the Agency aims to overcome any economic incentives for non-compliance. EPA generally seeks penalties at least as large as the economic gain realized by violating the law in the first place. By eliminating this so-called "competitive advantage" for non-compliance, EPA makes sure that would-be violators do not think of penalties as nothing more than "the cost of doing business." The level of penalties assessed by EPA has mounted dramatically over the last five years. Along with its civil enforcement authority, EPA also can take criminal enforcement actions in federal court against violators of environmental laws. Criminal enforcement sanctions include both fines and jail sentences if the violator is convicted or pleads guilty. These penalties are used to punish "willful" or "deliberate" violations that may have especially adverse impacts on human health or the environment. Examples include illegal "midnight dumping" of toxic chemicals and destroying or falsifying environmental reports or vital test results. Over the past few years, judges have become increasingly willing to punish willful violators with large fines and prison sentences. Criminal enforcement, EPA's most powerful enforcement tool, has the greatest deterrent effect on potential violators. To support its civil and criminal enforcement efforts, EPA has a staff of lawyers, technical enforcement experts, and investigators in Washington and throughout its 10 regional offices. To uncover and develop criminal enforcement cases, EPA has more than 55 special investigators who specialize in environmental law enforcement. The National Enforcement Investigations Center in Denver, Colorado, is another important part of the Agency's enforcement effort. The Center's combination of laboratory, investigative, and engineering skills often is instrumental in developing the solid evidence that lets the Agency successfully prosecute its cases. Enforcing environmental laws and regulations calls for close cooperation between EPA Headquarters and its regional offices, and also among EPA as a whole and the U.S. Department of Justice, other federal regulatory agencies, the states, tribal governments, and local agencies. All play an important role in achieving significant improvements in environmental quality—especially the states, which in many cases have the primary responsibility for enforcing environmental laws. 29 ------- As you've seen, EPA's role today is different in both scope and character from the past. EPA has broadened its view to encompass global environmental concerns. At home and abroad, the Agency is embracing creative new approaches to environmental protection. We are elevating the role of science in EPA decision-making, acting on the recognition that good science is the basis of sound environmental policy. We are taking steps to evaluate the relative severity of environmental threats, and to set priorities based on the greatest opportunities to reduce risk. We're designing new regulations and programs that meet the requirements of the law while blending traditional and non-traditional tools, such as market incentives and voluntary action, to accomplish ambitious environmental goals. We're strengthening our ability to evaluate progress, to integrate and focus our activities for greater efficiency and effectiveness, and to adapt to changing conditions. And as we pursue these new directions, we also are working to strengthen existing environmental programs and to make sure that all our environmental laws and requirements are vigorously enforced. Obviously, EPA cannot fulfill this ambitious environmental agenda by itself. All levels of government and all sectors of society, other countries, and every citizen must help. All of us must share in the responsibility for harmonizing human activities with the needs and constraints of nature. EPA invites everyone who has not yet done so to join us in the zestful and challenging quest for a safe, secure, and healthy environment. 30 ------- Appendix I: EPA Regional Offices Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 1 JFK Federal Building Boston, MA 02203 (617) 565-3424 Office of External Programs US EPA Region 2 26 Federal Plaza New York, NY 10278 (212) 264-2515 Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 3 841 Chestnut Street PhJladelphia, PA 19107 (215) 597-9370 Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 4 345 Courtland Street NE Atlanta GA 30365 (404) 347-3004 Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 5 230 S. Dearborn Street Chicago, IL 60604 (312) 353-2072 Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 6 1445 Ross Avenue Dallas, TX 75202 (214) 655-2200 Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 7 726 Minnesota Avenue Kansas City, KS 66101 (913) 551-7003 Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 8 999 18th Street Denver, CO 80202 (303) 293-1692 Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 9 75 Hawthorne Street San Francisco, CA 94105 (415) 744-1020 Office of Public Affairs US EPA Region 10 1200 Sixth Avenue Seattle, WA 98101 (415) 744-1020 1-800-424-4EPA Appendix II: EPA Research Facilities Research Facilities Operated by EPA's Office of Research and Development: Environmental Research Laboratory 27 Tarzwell Drive Narragansett, RI 02882 (401) 782-3000 Pacific Ecosystems Branch Hatfield Marine Science Center Newport, OR 97365-5260 (503) 867-5000 Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory Mail Drop 60 Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (919) 541-2821 Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory Mail Drop 75 Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (919) 541-2106 Health Effects Research Laboratory Mail Drop 51 Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (919) 541-2281 Environmental Research Laboratory College Station Road Athens, GA 30613 (404) 546-3500 Environmental Research Laboratory Sabine Island Gulf Breeze, FL 32561-5299 (904) 934-9200 Center for Environmental Research Information 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive Cincinnati, OH 45268 (513) 569-7391 Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive Cincinnati, OH 45268 (513) 569-7301 Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory (RREL) 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive Cincinnati, OH 45268 (513) 569-7418 Releases Control Branch/RREL Bldg. 10, MS-104 2890 Woodbridge Avenue Edison, NJ 08837-3679 (908) 321-6674 Storm and Combined Sewer Pollution Control and Technology Program/ RREL Bldg. 10, MS-104 2890 Woodbridge Avenue Edison, NJ 08837-3679 (908) 321-6674 SITE Technical Support Branch/RREL Bldg. 10, MS-104 2890 Woodbridge Avenue Edison, NJ 08837-3679 (908) 321-6632 Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory P. O. Box 1198 Ada, OK 74820 (405) 332-8800 Environmental Research Laboratory 6201 Congdon Boulevard Duluth, MN 55804 (218) 720-5500 Large Lakes Research Station 9311 Groh Road Grosse He, MI 48138-1697 (313) 692-7600 Monticello Ecological Research Station P. O. Box 500 Monticello, MN 55362 (612) 295-5145 Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory P. O. Box 93478 Las Vegas, NV 89193-3748 (702) 798-2100 Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center Vint Hill Farms Station P. O. Box 1587, Bldg. 166 Warrenton, VA 22186 (703) 349-8970 Environmental Research Laboratory 200 S.W. 35th Street Corvallis, OR 97333 (503) 757-4601 31 ------- Other EPA Research Facilities: Analytical Chemistry Laboratories/ Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances Building 306, BARC East Beltsville, MD 20705 (301) 344-2178 National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory 1504 Avenue A, Gunter Air Force Base Montgomery, AL 36115-2601 (205) 270-3400 Environmental Chemistry Laboratory/ Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances Building 1105 Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-6000 (601) 688-3212 Motor Vehicle Emissions Laboratory/ Office of Air and Radiation 2565 Plymouth Rod Ann Arbor, MI 48105 (313) 688-4200 National Enforcement Investigations Center/Office of Enforcement Building 53, Box 25227 Denver, CO 80225 (303) 236-5100 Appendix III: National Hotlines and Clearinghouses Center for Environmental Research Information - Central point of distribution for EPA results and reports: (513) 569-7391 Asbestos Ombudsman - Responds to questions and concerns about asbestos-in-schools issues - Operates Monday through Friday, 8:00-4:30 p.m. Eastern Time: (800) 368-5888; (202) 557-1938 in the Washington, DC, area Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Information Hotline - Provides communities and individuals with help in preparing for accidental releases of toxic chemicals. This hotline, which complements the RCRA/Superfund Hotline, is maintained as as information resource rather than an emergency number - Operates Monday through Friday from 8:30 a.m.-7:30 p.m. Eastern Time: (800) 535-0202; (202) 479-2449 in the Washington, DC, area EPA National Recruitment Program - Enables potential hirees to contact the Agency for employment information and assists EPA managers in locating and hiring qualified employees to fill vacant positions - Operates Monday through Friday from 8:30 a.m.-4:30 p.m. Eastern Time: (202) 260-3305 Hazardous Waste Ombudsman - Assists citizens and the regulated community who have had problems voicing a complaint or getting a problem resolved about hazardous waste issues. There is a Hazardous Waste Ombudsman at EPA headquarters and one in each of EPA's Regional Offices (see Appendix I): (202) 260-9361 in Washington, DC National Pesticides Telecommunications Network Hotline - Provides information on pesticide-related health, toxicity, and minor cleanup concerns - Also provides impartial information on pesticide products and basic safety practices - Operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year: (800) 858-7378 National Poison Control Center Hotline - Provides information on accidental ingestion of chemicals, poisons, or drugs: (202) 625-3333 National Response Center Hotline - Used to report spills of oil and other hazardous materials - Available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year: (800) 424-8802; in the Washington, DC, area, call (202) 267-2675 National Small Flows Clearinghouse - Provides information on wastewater treatment technologies for small communities: (800) 624-8301 Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse - Provides information on reducing waste through source reduction and recycling: (703) 821-4800 Radon Information - For information about radon, you should call the Radon Office in your individual state. In the Washington, DC, area, the numbers are: Maryland (800) 872-3666; Virginia (800) 468-0138; and Washington, DC, (202) 727-5728. The Radon Office at EPA headquarters also responds to requests for information: (202) 260-9605. RCRA/CERCLA (Superfund) Hotline - Responds to questions from the public and the regulated community on the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (Superfund) - Operates Monday through Friday from 8:30 a.m.-7:30 p.m. Eastern Time: (800) 424-9346; in the Washington, DC, area, (703) 920-9810 Safe Drinking Water Hotline - Provides information on EPA's drinking water regulations - Operates Monday through Friday, 8:30 a.m.-4:30 p.m. Eastern Time: (800) 426-4791; in the Washington, DC, area, (202) 260-5534 Small Business Ombudsman Hotline - Assists small businesses in complying with EPA regulations - Operates Monday through Friday, 8:00 a.m.-4:30 p.m. Eastern Time: (800) 368-5888; in the Washington, DC, area, (703) 557-1938. There are also Small Business Ombudsmen in each of EPA's 10 Regional Offices (see Appendix I). Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Assistance Information Service - Provides information about toxic substances and TSCA regulations - Operates Monday through Friday, 8:30 a.m.-5:00 p.m. Eastern Time: (202) 554-1401 32 ------- ------- ------- |