Draft
9/24/87
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
SILVER
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
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NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division, Office
of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Rojal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
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FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Water Act requires the Administrator of
the Environmental Protection Agency to publish water quality criteria that
accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge on the kind and extent of
all identifiable effects on health and welfare that might be expected from the
presence of pollutants in any body of water. Pursuant to that end, this
document proposes water quality criteria for the protection of aquatic life.
These criteria do not involve consideration of effects on human health.
This document is a draft, distributed for public review and comment.
After considering all public comments and making any needed changes, EPA will
issue the criteria in final form, at which time they will replace any
previously published EPA aquatic life criteria for the same pollutant.
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the Clean
Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). In section 304, the term
represents a non-regulatory, scientific assessment of effects. Criteria
presented in this document are such scientific assessments. If water quality
criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted by a State as water
quality standards under section 303, then they become maximum acceptable
pollutant concentrations that can be used to derive enforceable permit limits
for discharges to such waters.
Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality standards could
have the same numerical values as criteria developed under section 304.
However, in many situations States might want to adjust water quality criteria
developed under section 304 to reflect local environmental conditions before
incorporation into water quality standards. Guidance is available from EPA to
assist States in the modification of section 304(a)(l) criteria, and in the
development of water quality standards. It is not until their adoption as
part of State water quality standards that the criteria become regulatory.
Martha G. Prothro
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
111
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Loren J. Larson Jeffrey.-L. Hyland
Larry T. Brooke Robert S. Carr
(freshwater authors) (saltwater authors)
University of Wisconsin-Superior Battelle New England Laboratory
Superior, Wisconsin Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephan David J. Hansen
(document coordinator) (saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota Narragansett, Rhode Island
IV
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CONTENTS
Page
Notices. i i
Foreword i i i
Acknowl edgments i v
Tables vi
Introduction >....... * 1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 3
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 5
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants 8
Bioaccumulation 9
Other Data 10
Unused Data 13
S umma ry ' 15
National Criteria 16
Implementation 17
References 77
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TABLES
Page
1. Acute Toxicity of Silver to Aquatic Animals.. 22
2. Chronic Toxicity of Silver to Aquatic Animals.. 4.3
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios 46
4. Toxicity of Silver to Aquatic Plants 51
5. Bioaccumulation of Silver by Aquatic Organisms 52
6. Other Data on Effects of Silver on Aquatic Organisms 54
VI
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Introduction
Primary sources of anthropogenic silver in surface waters include
industrial and smelting wastes, wastes in jewelry manufacture, or electrical
supply, and most importantly, in the production and disposal of photographic
materials. In a study of six water treatment facilities, however, Lytle
(1984) found the highest influent concentrations of silver in plants
receiving no known photoprocessing or industrial silver wastes. Silver, as
silver iodide, is used in cloud seeding operations, and atmospheric transport
can result in silver in precipitation great distances from target areas.
Freeman (1979) suggested that influent ground water might also be an
important source of silver in surface waters.
Silver cycling studies by Freeman (1979) showed a strong affinity of
silver for aquatic sediments. Sediments contained approximately 1000 times
the silver concentrations occurring in overlying waters. Organic sediments
(silt, clay) contained two to three times more silver than inorganic
sediments (sand, pebble). Dependent on the specific conditions (e.g., redox
potential, pH, dissolved oxygen, organic content, etc.) in sediments, silver
might be associated with materials such as manganese dioxide, clay minerals,
organic ligands, sulfate, sulfite, or occur as elemental silver. Although
silver can exist in the 0, +1, +2, and +3 oxidation states, only the 0 and +1
states occur to any great extent in the environment. The +1 state is the
only one that occurs in substantial concentrations in natural waters. Due to
the low solubility product constant (Ksp = 1.8 x 10 ) of silver chloride,
chloride has a strong influence on the concentration of free ionic silver
(Callahan et al. 1979). Free silver ions are photoreduced to elemental
silver by natural sunlight at a rate that is dependent on such factors as the
degree of radiation, water clarity, and differential penetration of
photoreactive wavelengths.
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Chambers and Proctor (1960) found that the germicidal action of silver in
distilled water was related to the concentration of silver ions, rather than
to the physical nature of the silver from which the ions were derived.
Studies with saltwater species have shown that toxicity of silver is related
to the concentration of the free +1 ion; however, chlorocomplexes appear to
play an important role in the accumulation of silver by saltwater organisms
(Engel et al. 1981).
Symptoms of silver intoxication in aquatic organisms appear to be similar
to those caused by other heavy metals. Separation and disruption of the gill
epithelium is frequently observed, resulting in esphisia. Damage may be the
result of silver ions reacting directly at the gill membrane, or as an
indirect result of hematological osmotic imbalances (Katz 1979). Although
working with a limited data set, Campbell and Stokes (1985) stated that
biological responses to silver are generally pH independent.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations reported herein are expected
to be essentially equivalent to acid-soluble silver concentrations. All
concentrations are expressed as silver, not as the chemical tested. A
comprehension of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereinafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the
response to public comment (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary in order to
understand the following text, tables, and calculations. Results of such
intermediate calculations as recalculated LCSOs and Species Mean Acute Values
are given to four significant figures to prevent round-off error in
subsequent calculations, not to reflect the precision of the value. The
criteria presented herein supersede previous national aquatic life water
quality criteria for silver (U.S. EPA 1976,1980a) because these new criteria
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were derived using improved procedures and additional information. The
latest comprehensive literature search for information for this document was
conducted in July, 1986; some more recent information might have been
included.
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Acceptable data on the acute effects of silver in fresh water are
available for twelve species of invertebrates and seven species of fish
(Table 1). Although water hardness or associated factors probably influence
silver toxicity and the previous freshwater criterion (U.S. EPA 1980) was
based on hardness, it has been determined that insufficient data are
available at medium and high hardnesses (> 75 mg/L as CaCOg) upon which to
derive national freshwater criterion based upon hardness. The lack of data
on silver toxicity at higher hardnesses and the poor agreement between the
few data that are available results in poor agreement between species on the
regression slopes which were calculated but not presented. Because the
freshwater criterion derived herein is weighted by toxicity data from soft
waters, criterion concentrations might be overly protective of aquatic
organisms in hard waters.
Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values (SMAV) for silver range from
0.9 ng/L for a cladoceran (Daphnia magna) to 560 jug/L for a crayfish
(Orconectes immuni s) (Table 1). Genus Mean Acute Values (GMAV) for the 15
most sensitive genera occur within a small range, 2.155 to 29 ng/L (Table
3). Although the five most sensitive genera are arthropods, freshwater
fishes do not appear to be greatly more resistant to silver intoxication with
SMAVs ranging from 8.163 p,g/L for Rhi nichthvs osculus to 13 p.g/L for
Lepomi s macrochi rus. The Final Acute Value (FAV) in fresh water is
1.833 ng/L. This value exceeds the SMAV for Daphnia magna (0.9 f*g/L).
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The acute toxicity of silver to resident North American saltwater animals
has been determined with ten species of invertebrates, including five
molluscs, four crustaceans and a polychaete, and eleven species of fish
(Table 1). The acute values range from 3 jug/L for the Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea vi rginica (Zaroogian, Manuscript) to > 1,000,000 /^g/L for the
mummichog, a value in excess of silver's solubility (Dorfman 1977). Of the
nine most resistant species, eight were fishes. The four most sensitive
species include a fish, the summer flounder Paralichthvs dentatus. and three
bivalve molluscs, including the Eastern oyster; Pacific oyster, Crassostrea
gi gas and quahog, MercenariA mercenaria.
The toxicity of silver to several saltwater species has been tested more
than once in the same or different laboratories with generally reasonable
agreement in acute values. Values ranged from 145 to > 357 ng/L for the
polychaete, Neanthes arenaceodentata (Pesch and Hoffman 1983); from 3 to
37 p.g/'L for the Eastern and Pacific oysters (Calabrese et al. 1973;
Coglianese 1982; Coglianese and Martin 1981; Dinnel et al. 1983; Maclnnes and
Calabrese 1978; Zaroogian, Manuscript); from 23.5 to 66 ng/L for the
copepod Acartia tonsa (Lussier and Cardin 1985; Schimmel 1981); from 74.3 to
300 pg/L for static tests and from 65 to 313 ng/L for flow-through
tests for the mysid Mvsidopsis bahia (Schimmel 1981); from 640 to
58,000 jug/L for static tests and from 441 to 1,876 /ig/L for flow-
through testa with the sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus (Heitmuller
et al. 1981; Schimmel 1981); from 4.7 to 47.7 jugA for summer flounder,
Paralichthvs dentatus (Cardin 1986); and from 196 pg/L to 503 jug/L for
winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus (Cardin 1986).
Data on the relative sensitivities of early life stages of summer and
winter flounder to silver are contradictory. Acute values were similar,
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196.3 to 503 ^g/L, in tests which began with embryos just after fertili-
zation, in early clevage, at blastula and one-day-old larvae of the winter
flounder (Cardin 1986). In contrast, acute values from flow-through tests
that began with embryos in early clevage were 15.5 and 47.7 Mg/L. Acute
values were 8 p.g/L in tests that began with embryos at gastrulation and
4.7 /itg/L with the larvae (Cardin 1986).
Of the 19 genera for which saltwater Genus Mean Acute Values are
available (Table 3), the most sensitive genus, Crassostrea. is about 190
times more sensitive than the most resistant, Fundulus. Molluscs, including
oysters, quahogs, scallops, and squid are particularly sensitive to silver.
Certain crustaceans and fishes are similarly sensitive. Acute values are
available for more than one species for two genera; the maximum difference in
Species Mean Acute Values is a factor of 2.74. The saltwater Final Acute
Value for silver was calculated to be 14.50 ng/L. This value is slightly
higher than Species Mean Acute Values for the Eastern and Pacific oysters,
and the copepod Acarti a clausl and greater than acute values from nine
individual tests with these three species and the summer flounder,
Paralichthys dentatus.
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Acceptable data on chronic toxicity of silver to freshwater organisms are
available for a cladoceran and two species of fish (Table 2). Elnabarawy et
al. (1986) conducted life-cycle tests with three cladoceran species,
Ceriodaohnia reticulata. Daohni a magna. and I), pulex. but did not measure
silver concentrations in test chambers. They reported chronic values of
1.3, < 0.56, and < 0.56 ng/L, respectively.
The chronic values for the two cladoceran species reported are close to
or greater than 48-hr LCSOs. Based on these values, most acute-chronic
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ratios for the cladocerans are less than 1.0. This is probably due to
mitigating influence of the presence of food in the chronic tests. Chapman
(1980) reported the 48-hr EC50 for Daohnia magna increased by a factor of 40
when organisms were fed. The mean 21-day LC50 for I), magna of
3.4 Mg/L reported by Nebeker (1982) is greater than its Species Mean Acute
Value, 2.557 /ug/L. All studies reported high mortalities in chronic
exposures in the first 24-hr period. Although having high acute toxicity in
aquatic macroinvertebrates, silver does not appear to have significant
cumulative effect in chronic exposures. Nebeker (1982) and co-workers (1983)
reported chronic values for I), magna ranging from 2.6 to 28.6 /ugA,
resulting in acute-chronic ratios from 0.3911 to 0.7507.
The effects of chronic exposure to silver have been studied with two
fishes, the rainbow trout and fathead minnow. Nebeker et al. (1983)
conducted a 60-day early life-stage test with rainbow trout (Sal mo
gai rdneri): growth was reduced at a silver concentration of 1.06 pg/L.
Although small, but statistically significant, growth reductions were
observed at the lowest concentrations tested, intermediate concentrations did
not produce growth reductions compared to the control. The most sensitive
parameter appeared to be survival, which was reduced at 0.51 Mg/L, but not
at 0.36 Mg/L- The chronic- value for this study was 0.43 Mg/L- Davies
et al. (1978) reported a similar effect of silver on survival of rainbow
trout. In an 18-month exposure, survival was reduced at 0.17 /ug/L, but
was not affected at 0.09 /ig/L. Growth was affected in 18 months at
0.34 Mg/L. The chronic value for this study was 0.12 fig/L.
Holcombe and co-workers (1983) conducted an early life-stage exposure
with the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas. Growth was reduced at a silver
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concentration of 1.07 MS/L, although no effects on growth were observed at
0.65 /ig/L. Survival of fry was reduced at 0.65 ng/L, but not at
0.37 Mg/L. The chronic value for the fathead minnow was 0.49 ng/L.
The acute-chronic ratio was 13.66.
Theoretically, acute-chronic ratios should not be less than 1.0. The
chronic value in any test must be equal to or less than the acute value.
Although the Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratio for Daphnia magna was
calculated to be 0.4994, considering the mitigating influence of food, as
reported by Chapman (1980) and Nebeker et al. (1983), this value might be
artificially low. The Acute-Chronic Ratio (ACR) for this species may more
realistically be in the range of 15 to 20, which is in general agreement with
ACRs for other species tested. Therefore, the ACRs for Daphnia magna were
omitted from the calculation of the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio.
The chronic toxicity of silver has been determined in five life-cycle
toxicity tests with the saltwater mysid, Mysi dopsi s bahia (Table 2). Chronic
values from these tests conducted at five laboratories ranged from 15.00 to
87.75 ng/L (McKenney 1982). Reproduction was reduced at 15, 19, and
53 /ig/L in three tests, and both reproduction and survival were reduced at
16 jug/L in one test. For three of the tests, 96-hr LCSOs from
flow-through tests using the same dilution water are available.
Acute-chronic ratios for these tests ranged from 5.273 to 13.29. The Species
Mean Acute-Chronic Ratio for this mysid is 8.512.
The three useful Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios are 33.29, 13.66, and
8.512 (Table 3). The geometric mean of these values is 15.70, which is the
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio. Division of the freshwater and saltwater Final
Acute Values by 15.70 results in freshwater and saltwater Final Chronic
Values of 0.1168 and 0.9236 jug/L, respectively, which are lower than the
lowest available chronic values.
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Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
Three acceptable tests are available with freshwater species exposed to
silver (Table 4). The most sensitive species was the alga Selenastrum
capricornutum for which the 96-hr EC50, based on chlorophyll a. production,
was 2.6 f^g/L (U.S. EPA 1978). Brown and Rattigan (1979) exposed two
freshwater vascular plants to silver for 28 days. ECSOs for Elodea
canadensi s and Lemna minor were 7,500 and 270 Mg/L. respectively.
Toxicity tests on silver have been conducted with eight species of
saltwater plants (Tables 4 and 6). The 96-hr EC50 for the diatom,
Skeletonema costatum. was 130 ng/L based on cell counts and 170 pg/L
based on chlorophyll a. (U.S. EPA 1978). Chlorophyll a. was reduced after two
days exposure to 5 ng/L for the dinoflagellate, Glenodinium hal1i (Wilson
and Freeberg 1980). Formation of cystocarps, sexual fusion, in the red alga
Champia parvula was reduced by 1.9 pg/L (Steele and Thursley 1983).
The effect of temperature and salinity on the toxicity of silver has been
studied with three phytoplankton species (Wilson and Freeberg 1980).
Salinity did not significantly affect the toxicity of silver to the diatom
Thaiassiosi ra pseudonana. whereas the dinoflagellate Gymnodini urn splendens
appeared to be more resistant at higher salinities (Table 6). T. pseudonana
was most resistant at temperatures between 16 and 20°C, whereas G. splendens
was most resistant at temperatures between 20 and 30°C. Chlorophyll a. was
reduced about 65% after two days exposure to from 15 to 110 fig/L for
Isochrysi s galbana for 13 temperature - salinity combinations; from 13 to
84 jug/L for T. pseudonana for 25 temperature - salinity combinations; and
from 1.3 to 18 jug/L for G. splendens for 15 temperature - salinity
combinations.
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A Final Plant Value, as defined in the Guidelines, cannot be obtained
because no test in which the concentrations of silver were measured has been
conducted with any aquatic plant species.
Bioaccumulati on
Two studies reported on silver uptake by freshwater fish (Table 5).
Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) muscle tissue had bioconcentration
factors (BCF) of 11 and 19 after a 120-day exposure to 1 and 10 ng/L,
respectively. Bluegills (Lepomi s macrochi rus) exposed for 180 days had whole
body BCFs of 15 and 150 at water concentrations of 10 and 100 ng/L,
respectively (Cearley 1971). Both species demonstrated a concentration-
dependent BCF. In contrast, Barrows et al. (1980) reported no significant
uptake of silver by bluegills in a 28-day exposure. No water concentration
was given.
Bioconcentration tests have been conducted on silver with one saltwater
species, the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis. (Table 5). The mussels were
exposed to three concentrations of silver for 12 to 21 months (Calabrese et
al. 1984). The highest BCF observed was 6,500. The BCF decreased with
increasing concentration of silver in water and reached a maximum value after
12 months of exposure. Fisher et al. (1984) reported a BCF of 34,000 for the
diatom Thaiassiosi ra pseudonana. and 13,000 for the green alga Dunali e11 a
tertiolecta exposed to silver cyanide for 12 hours (Table 6).
No U.S. FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue, as defined in the Guidelines, is available for silver; therefore, no
Final Residue Value can be calculated.
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Other Data
Other data on the lethal and sublethal effects of silver on aquatic
organisms are found in Table 6. Two algal species were tested for onset of
inhibition of cell multiplication (Bringman and Kuhn 1977a,1978a,b,1980b).
The blue-green alga, Microcystis aeruginosa. was about 14 times more
sensitive to silver than the green alga, Scenedesmus quadricauda. The
blue-green alga was affected at 0.7 /ig/L, whereas the green alga was not
affected at concentrations less than 9.5 ^g/L. Other tests- on green algal
species produced ECSOs or reduced growth effects in 6- to 21-day exposures
ranging from 6.4 to 100 MgA- In general, bacteria were about as
sensitive as algae to silver. However, the duration of exposures was much
shorter (0.5 to 16 hr) for the bacteria tests than for the algal tests (6-21
day).
Bringmann and Kuhn (1959a,1980a,b,c) tested three species of protozoans
for incipient inhibition. Results ranged from 2.6 /ug/L for a 48-hr
exposure of Chi 1omonas paramaecium to 580 /^g/L for a 72-hr exposure of
Entosiphon sulcatum. ;
Nehring (1976) ran 14-day exposures to silver with two species of
immature insects. A mayfly nymph, Ephemerella grandis. was the most
sensitive with a 14-day LC50 of < 1 £ig/L and a stonefly naiad, Pteronarcvs
cali fornica. was nearly as sensitive with a 14-day LC50 of 4 to 9 ng/L.
Bioconcentration factors (BCF) were determined for each species at death in
exposures of 1 to 14 days. BCFs varied inversely with exposure
concentration. This may have been the result of increased bioconcentration
with lower exposure levels or due to early deaths at the higher exposure
concentrations. Mean BCFs of 37 to 84 were reported in the stonefly and
mayfly, respectively.
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Davies et al. (1978) exposed rainbow trout embryos and larvae for 5 and
22 weeks. They observed premature hatching at concentrations as low as
2.2 y.g/1. Rombough (1985) exposed rainbow trout embryos to silver and
reported median time to death (LT50). He also exposed a group of embryos
with the zonae radiatae (egg capsule) removed. Median time to death was
inversely related to exposure concentration for all embryos. Embryos without
the zonae radiatae were more sensitive to silver.
Birge (1978) and Birge et al. (1978) exposed two species of fish and two
species of amphibians to silver during early life stages. ECSOs (dead and
deformed larvae) ranged from 10 to 240 Mg/L for 7 to 8-day exposures.
These results are greater than most of the Species Mean Acute Values for
fishes found in Table 1.
LaPoint et al. (1984) related silver concentrations in a Texas stream to
benthic invertebrate community dynamics. Although silver levels were high,
attaining a maximum of 79.9 fJ,g/L, other factors, such as extreme nutrient
loading, appeared to obscure any effects caused solely by silver.
Wilson and Freeberg (1980) studied the effects of temperature and
salinity on the toxicity of silver to several species of saltwater
unicellular algae. For the most extensively studied species, the diatom
Thalass ios i ra pseudonana. 'silver was more toxic at temperatures above and
below 20°C. For a particular temperature, the toxicity tended to decrease
with increasing salinity, except for the combination of 20°C and 3 g/kg
salinity, which was the least toxic combination tested. The dinof1agel1 ate
Gymnodinium splendens also was more resistant to silver at higher salinities.
Several studies have been conducted with macroalgae (Boney et al. 1959;
Steele and Thursby 1983). A significant decrease in the growth of female
gametophytes of the red alga Champi a parvula was observed after two days of
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exposure to 3.2 Mg/L- No cystocarp formation occurred at concentrations
above 1.2 ng/L.
An interlaboratory comparison was performed with the polychaete Neanthes
arenaceodentata (Pesch and Hoffman 1983). Ability to burrow was the effect
tested. The geometric mean values for the 96-hr and 28-day ECSOs were 158.6
and 158.7 yug/L, respectively, which indicates that no additional toxicity
occurred during the last 24 days of the test. Windom et al. (1982) studied
the uptake of silver from food by a polychaete.
A number of studies of physiological or biochemical effects have been
conducted with polychaetes (Pereira and Kanungo 1981), snails (Maclnnes and
Thurberg 1973), bivalves (Calabrese et al. 1977a,1984; Thurberg et al.
1974,1975), crustaceans (Calabrese et al. 1977b) and fish (Calabrese et al.
1977b; Gould and Maclnnes 1977; Jackim 1974; Jackim et al. 1970; Thurberg and
Collier 1977). Ionic imbalances in the coelomic fluid and a significant
decrease in respiration were observed with the blue mussel, Myti1 us eduli s,
the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea vi rginica. the surf clam, Spi sula solidi ssima.
the quahog, Mercenari a mercenari a. and the soft-shell clam, Mya arenari a.
after 96-hr exposures to silver concentrations of 50 to
100
Dinnel et al. (1982,1983) conducted tests with gametes and embryos of many-
species of echinoderms. The ECSOs, based on sperm cell fertilization success
after 60-min exposures, ranged from 29.8 to 115.3 ng/L for the four species
tested. The most sensitive effect observed was the percentage of larvae
developing to the pluteus stage after 5 days of exposure. The lowest EC50
based on this effect was 14.9 yug/L for the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus
droebachi ensi s.
The effect of silver on the early life stages of winter flounder,
Pseudopleuronectes americanus. was investigated by Klein-MacPhee et al. (1984)
12
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and Voyer et al. (1982). A significant increase in larval mortality was
observed after 18 days of exposure to 92 ng/L. Growth was significantly
reduced by 180
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of silver on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident in
North America (e.g., Khangarot and Ray 1987a; Khangarot et al. 1985; Laroze
1955). McFeters et al. (1983) tested a brine alga, which is too atypical to
be used in deriving national criteria. Doudoroff and Katz (1953), Engel et
al. (1981), Ganther (1980), Goettl et al. (1976), Jenne et al. (Manuscript),
Kay (1984), LeBlanc (1984), Lockhart (Manuscript), Phillips and Russo (1978),
Whitton (1970), and the International Joint Commission (1976) compiled data
from other sources.
Results were not used when the test procedures were not adequately
described (Ding et al. 1982; Fitzgerald 1967; Goettl et al. 1974,1976;
Hassell 1962; Ishizake et al . 1966; Palmer and Maloney 1955; Tanaka and
Cleland 1978). Acute and chronic tests with fathead minnows from Davies
(1976), Davies and Goettl (1978), LeBlanc et al . (1984) and EG & G, Bionomics
(1979) were not used because silver concentrations were measured using a
silver electrode ( Chudd 1983), and it is expected that results would have
been substantially different had they been reported in terms of acid-soluble
si 1 ver.
Data were not used when silver was a component of an effluent or mixture
(Bryan et al. 1983; Doudoroff et al. 1966; Greig 1979; Lewis 1986;
Lopez-Avila et al. 1985; Luoma and Jenne 1975; Malins et al. 1984; Martin et
al. 1984; McDermott et al . 1976; Parsons et al. 1973; Reynolds 1979;
Roesijadi et al. 1984; Terhaar et al. 1972; Young and Lisk 1972). Data were
13
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not used when the organisms were exposed to silver by injection or gavage
(Hibiya and Orguri 1981; Storebakken et al. 1981). Christensen (1971),
Christensen and Tucker (1978), and Dalmon and Bayen (1976) only exposed
enzymes, excised or homogenized tissue, or cell cultures.
Tests conducted without controls (Albright and Wilson 1974; Coleman and
Clearley 1974) were not used. Data from Buikema et al. (1973, 1974a,b) were
not used due to possible reproductive interactions. High control mortalities
occurred in a life-cycle test reported by McKenney (1982). Data from Hale
(1977) was not used because dilution water contained high concentrations of
other heavy metals.
Results of some laboratory tests were not used because the tests were
conducted in distilled or deionized water without addition of appropriate
salts (Chambers and Proctor 1960; Jones 1939,1940; Mukai 1977; Shaw and
Groshkin 1957; Shaw and Lowrance 1956). ffatanabe and Takimoto (1977) tested
silver toxicity in duckweed at a pH below 6.5. Dilution waters used by
Hannan and Patouillet (1972) contained high organic levels. Results from
Bringmann and Kuhn (1977b) were not used because organisms were cultured and
tested in different waters.
Results of laboratory bioconcentration tests were not used when the
concentration of silver in the test solution was not adequately measured
(Goettl and Davies 1978). Reports of the concentrations of silver in wild
aquatic organisms (Amiard 1978a,b, 1979; Bryan et al. 1983; Eisler et al.
1978; Estabrook et al. 1985; Feldt and Melzer 1978; Hall et al. 1978; Jones
et al. 1985; Lucas and Edgington 1970; Martin, Manuscript; Martin and Flegal
1975; Martin and Knauer 1972; Martin et al. 1984; Nelson et al. 1983;
Reynolds 1979; Strong and Luoma 1981; Telitchenko et al. 1970; Tong et al.
1972; Van Coil lie and Rousseau 1974) were not used to calculate
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bioaccumulation factors due to an insufficient number of measurements of the
concentration of silver in water. BCFs obtained from microcosm or model
ecosystem studies were not used when the concentration of silver in water
decreased with time (Terhaar et al . 1977).
Summary
The toxicity of silver is probably influenced by water hardness or
related factors, although insufficient data are available on which to base
national freshwater criteria upon hardness. Silver is highly toxic to both
freshwater macroinvertebrates and fishes in acute exposures. Acute values
ranged from 0.9 fJ,g/L to 29 jug/L for the 15 most sensitive species. A
crayfish, Orconectes immunis. was the most resistant species to silver with a
96-hr LC50 of 560 Mg/L. The six most sensitive species were arthropods.
Data are available for a cladoceran and two species of fish in chronic
exposures. Chronic values for cladocerans were above acute values that were
obtained in acute tests in which the organisms were not fed, but were below
acute values obtained in acute tests in which the organisms \yere fed. Mean
chronic values were 0.2272 and 0.49 Mg/L for rainbow trout and fathead
minnows, respectively. Their respective acute-chronic ratios were 33.29 and
13.66. Freshwater vascular plants appeared to be relatively insensitive to
silver, although algae and other microorganisms were reported to be very
sensitive. Uptake of silver was reported for several organisms.
Bioconcentration factors ranged from less than detectable to 150.
Acute toxicity values for silver are available for 21 species of
saltwater animals including ten species of invertebrates and eleven species
of fish. Acute values range from 3 jug/L for the Eastern oyster to
15
-------
> 1,000,000 for the mummichog. Fishes are generally resistant except for
sensitive early life stages. The four most sensitive species include embryo
and larval stages of the summer flounder, Eastern oyster, Pacific oyster, and
quahog.
The chronic toxicity of silver has been determined in five life-cycle
toxicity tests with the saltwater mysid, Mvsidopsis bahia. Chronic values
ranged from 15.00 to 87.75 pg/L based primarily on decreases in
reproduction. Acute-chronic ratios for the three tests for which 96-hr LCSOs
were available ranged from 5.273 to 13.29. The toxicity of silver has been
determined with eight species of saltwater plants. Four species,
Thalass iosi ra pseudonana. Glenodinium hal1i. Gymnodinium splendens. and
Champia parvula were affected in one or more tests at concentrations below
the acute value for the most sensitive saltwater animal. The blue mussel can
bioconcentrate silver from 1,056 to 6,500 times the concentration in water.
Embryonic development of sea urchins and surf clam embryos was affected and
physiological or histological changes occurred in American lobsters, surf
clams, and blue mussels at concentrations below the acute value for the most
sensitive saltwater animal.
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of silver does
not exceed 0.12 Mg/L more than once every three years on the average and
if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 0.92 ng/L more than
once every three years on the average.
16
-------
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of silver does
not exceed 0.92 pg/L more than once every three years on the average and
if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 7.2 pg/L more than
once every three years on the average.
Implementation
Because of the variety of forms of silver in ambient water and the lack
of definitive information about their relative toxicities to aquatic species,
no available analytical measurement is known to be ideal for expressing
aquatic life criteria for silver. Previous aquatic life criteria for metals
and metalloids (U.S. EPA 1980b) were expressed in terms of the total
recoverable measurement (U.S. EPA 1983a), but newer criteria for metals and
metalloids have been expressed in terms of the acid-soluble measurement (U.S.
EPA 1985b). Acid-soluble silver (operationally defined as the silver that
passes through a 0.45 /Jin membrane filter after the sample has been
acidified to a pH between 1.5.and 2.0 with nitric acid) is probably the best
measurement at the present for the following reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data concerning
toxicity of silver to, and bioaccumulation of silver by, aquatic
organisms. It is expected that the results of tests used in the
derivation of the criteria would not have been substantially different
if they had been reported in terms of acid-soluble silver.
2. On samples of ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble silver will
probably measure all forms of silver that are toxic to aquatic life or
17
-------
can be readily converted to toxic forms under natural conditions. In
addition, this measurement probably will not measure several forms, such
as silver that is occluded in minerals, clays, and sand or is strongly
sorbed to particulate matter, that are not toxic and are not likely to
become toxic under natural conditions. Although this measurement (and
many others) will measure soluble complexed forms of silver, such as the
EDTA complex of silver, that probably have low toxicities to aquatic
life, concentrations of these forms probably are negligible in most
ambient water.
3. Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure silver in
aqueous effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble silver is expected to be
applicable to effluents because it will measure precipitates, such as
carbonate and hydroxide precipitates of silver, that might exist in an
effluent and dissolve when the effluent is diluted with receiving
water. If desired, dilution of effluent with receiving water before
measurement of acid-soluble silver might be used to determine whether
the receiving water can decrease the concentration of acid-soluble
silver because of sorption.
4. The acid-soluble measurement is expected to be useful for most metals
and metalloids, thus minimizing the number of samples and procedures
that are necessary.
5. The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration of the sample
at the time of collection, as does the dissolved measurement.
6. The only treatment required at the time of collection is preservation by
acidification to a pH between 1.5 and 2.0, similar to that required for
the total recoverable measurement.
18
-------
7. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
of most samples of ambient water probably will not affect the result
substantially.
8. Ambient waters have much higher buffer intensities at a pH between 1.5
and 2.0 than they do at a pH between 4 and 9 (Stumm and Morgan 1981).
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not
affect the result substantially.
10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion step, as does
the total recoverable measurement.
11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the acid-
soluble silver, the analysis can be performed using either atomic
absorption spectrophotometric or ICP-atomic emission spectrometric
analysis (U.S. EPA 1983a), as with the total recoverable measurement.
Thus, expressing aquatic life criteria for silver in terms of the acid-
soluble measurement has both toxicological and practical advantages. The
U.S. EPA is considering development and approval of a method for a
measurement such as acid-soluble.
Metals and metalloids might be measured using the total recoverable
method (U.S. EPA 1983a). This would have two major impacts because this
method includes a digestion procedure. First, certain species of some metals
and metalloids cannot be measured because the total recoverable method cannot
distinguish between individual oxidation states. Second, in some cases these
criteria would be overly protective when based on the total recoverable
method because the digestion procedure will dissolve silver that is not toxic
and cannot be converted to a toxic form under natural conditions. Because no
measurement is known to be ideal for expressing aquatic life criteria for
silver or for measuring silver in ambient water or aqueous effluents,
measurement of both acid-soluble silver and total recoverable silver in
19
-------
ambient water or effluent or both might be useful. For example, there might
be cause for concern when total recoverable silver is much above an
applicable limit, even though acid-soluble silver is below the limit.
In addition, metals and metalloids might be measured using the dissolved
method, but this would also have several impacts. First, in many toxicity
tests on silver the test organisms were exposed to both dissolved and
undissolved silver. If only the dissolved silver had been measured, the
acute and chronic values would be lower than if acid-soluble or total
recoverable silver had been measured. Therefore, water quality criteria
expressed as dissolved silver would be lower than criteria expressed as acid-
soluble or total recoverable silver. Second, not enough data are available
concerning the toxicity of dissolved silver to allow derivation of a
criterion based on dissolved silver. Third, whatever analytical method is
specified for measuring silver in ambient surface water will probably also be
used to monitor effluents. If effluents are monitored by measuring only the
dissolved metals and metalloids, carbonate and hydroxide precipitates of
metals would not be measured. Such precipitates might dissolve, due to
dilution or change in pH or both, when the effluent is mixed with receiving
water. Fourth, measurement of dissolved silver requires filtration of the
sample at the time of collection. For these reasons, it is recommended that
aquatic life criteria for silver not be expressed as dissolved silver.
As discussed in the Water Quality Standards Regulation (U.S. EPA 1983b)
and the Foreword to this document, a water quality criterion for aquatic life
has regulatory impact only after it has been adopted in a state water quality
standard. Such a standard specifies a criterion for a pollutant that is
consistent with a particular designated use. With the concurrence of the
U.S. EPA, states designate one or more uses for each body of water or segment
thereof and adopt criteria that are consistent with the use(s) (U.S. EPA
20
-------
1983c,1987). In each standard a state may adopt the national criterion, if
one exists, or, if adequately justified, a site-specific criterion.
Site-specific criteria may include not only site-specific criterion
concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983c), but also site-specific, and possibly
pollutant-specific, durations of averaging periods and frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985c). The averaging periods of "one hour" and "four
days" were selected by the U.S. EPA on the basis of data concerning how
rapidly some aquatic species react to increases in the concentrations of some
pollutants, and "three years" is the Agency's best scientific judgment of the
average amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided between
excursions (Stephan et al. 1985; U.S. EPA 1985c). However, various species
and ecosystems react and recover at greatly differing rates. Therefore, if
adequate justification is provided, site-specific and/or pollutant-specific
concentrations, durations, and frequencies may be higher or lower than those
given in national water quality criteria for aquatic life.
Use of criteria, which have been adopted in state water quality
standards, for developing water quality-based permit limits and for designing
waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate wasteload
allocation model. Although dynamic models are preferred for the application
of these criteria (U.S. EPA I985c), limited data or other considerations
might require the use of a steady-state model (U.S. EPA 1986). Guidance on
mixing zones and the design of monitoring programs is also available (U.S.
EPA 1985c,1987).
21
-------
Table I. Acute Toxicity of Silver to Aquatic Animals
Species Uethod" Chemical
Hydra, S, U Silver nitrate
Hydro sp.
Leech, S, M Silver nitrate
Nephel ops is obscura
Leech, F, U Silver nitrate
Nephelopsis obscura
Snail (adult), R, M Silver nitrate
Apl exo hypnorum
Snai 1 , F, U Si Iver nitrate
NJ
NJ Apl exa hypnorum
Cladoceran, S, U
Ceriodaphnio reticulata
Cladoceran S, U Silver nitrate
(<24 hr),
Ceriodophni a ret i culoto
Cladoceran, S, U Silver nitrate
Oaphni a moqna
Cladoceran, S, M Silver nitrate
Poplin i o maqna
Hardness LC50 Species Mean
(•g/L as or CC50 Acute Value
CaCO ) (ua/L)b (^a/L) Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
46 6 26 26 Brooke et al. 1986
46.6 53 - Brooke et al . 1986
44.7 29 29 Hoi combe et al.
1987
50.4 241 ' - Hoi combe et al. 1983
44.7 83 83 Holcombe et al .
1987
45. II - Uount and Morberg 1984
240 1.4 3.924 Elnabarawy et al . 1986
54 2.2 - Lemke 1981
1 .07 - Lemke 1981
-------
Table I. (continued)
UJ
Hardness
(-9/L «s
Species Method" Chemical . CoCOj)
Cladoceran, S, M Silver nitrate
Dophni o moqno
Cladoceran, S, U Silver nitrate
Dophni o moqno
Cladoceran S, U Silver nitrate 255
(<24 hr),
Dophn i o moqno
Clodoceran S, M Silver nitrate 255
(<24 hr),
Dophn i o moqno
Cladoceron S, U Silver nitrate 73
(<24 hr).
Dophni o moqno
Cladoceran S, M Silver nitrate 73
(<24 hr),
Oophni o moqno
Ctadoceron S, M Silver nitrate 60
(<24 hr),
Dophn i o moqno
Cladoceran S, U Silver nitrate 60
(<24 hr),
Daphn i o moqno
LC50 Species Mean
or CC50 Acute Value
(fiq/L) (f9/L) Reference
0.64 - Lemke 1981
0.39 - Lemke 1981
48. - Nebeker 1982;
(45) Lemke 1981
55. - Nebeker 1982;
(49) Lemke 1981
8.4 - Nebeker 1982;
Lemke 1981
14.9 - Nebeker-1982;
Lemke 1981
I.I - Nebeker 1982;
Lemke I9BI
0.6 - Nebeker 1982;
Lemke 1981
-------
Table I. (cant inued)
Hardness
(•g/L as
Species Method0 Cfcejucol CaC03J_
Cladoceran S, U Silver nitrate 46
(<24 hr),
Dophni o moqno
Cladoceran S, M Silver nitrate 46
(<24 hr).
Dophn I o maqna
Cladoceran S, M Silver nitrate 46
(<24 hr).
Dophni o moqno
Clodoceran S, U Silver nitrate 46
(<24 hr),
Dophni a moqno
Cladoceran S, M Silver nitrate 54
(<24 hr),
Dophni o moqno
Cladoceran S, U Silver nitrate 47
(24 hr).
Dophni o moqno
Clodoceran S, U Silver nitrate 60
(<24 hr),
Oophnia moqno . . v
Cladoceran S, U Silver nitrate 38-40
(<24 hr).
Dophn I o maqno
LC50 Species Uea*
or EC50 Acute Value
(/JQ/L) Ift^/L] Reference
0.63 - Nebeker 1982;
Lemke 1981
0.66 - Nebeker 1982;
Lemke 1981
0.9 - Nebeker 1982;
Lemke 1981
1.03 ; - Nebeker 1982;
Lemke 1 98H
2.9 - Nebeker 1982;
Lemke 1981
0.24 - Chapman 1980
I.I - Nebeker et ol. 1983
Q.6 - Nebeker et al. 1983
-------
Table I. (continued)
Hardness
(•g/L as
Species Method" Che»icol CaC03)_
Cladoceran S, U Silver nitrate 38-40
(<24 hr),
Dophn i o moqno
Cladoceran S, U - 72
(<24 hr),
Poplin i a moqno
Cladoceran (adult), S, U Silver nitrate 240
0 o p h n i o moqno
Cladoceran S, U Silver nitrate 240
(<24 hr),
Daphn i a moqno
to
*•" Cladoceron F, M Silver nitrate 44.7
(<24 hr),
Dophn i o moqno
Cladoceran S, U 45
(<24 hr),
Dophn i a pul ex
Cladoceran S, U Si 1 ver ni trate 240
(<24 hr),
Dophn i a pul ex v*
Cladoceron, S, U - 45.
Simocepho 1 us vet ul us
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(pQ/L)b (iiQ/L) Reference
Nebeker et ol. 1983
1 .5 - LeBlanc 1980
10 - Khongarot and Ray
1987b
1.5 ' - Elnobarawy et al .
1986
0.9 0.9 Holcombe et al .
1987
14. - Mount and Norberg
1984
1 .9 5.158 Elnabarawy et al . 1986
15 15 Mount and Norberg 1984
Amphipod, R, U
Cronqonyx pseudoqrqc ills
Si Iver ni trate
50
Martin and Holdich
1986
-------
Table I. (continued)
Species Method" Chemical
Amphipod (adult), f, U Silver nitrate
Gammarus pseudol imnaeus
Mayfly (nymph), S, U Silver nitrate
Leptophlebia sp.
Midge (3rd instar), S, U Silver nitrate
Tanytarsus dissimi 1 is
Uidge (larva), F, U Silver nitrate
Tanytarsus dissimilis
Crayfish, F, U Silver nitrate
Orconectes immunis
Rainbow trout S, M Silver nitrate
( 1 arva) ,
Salmo qairdneri
Rainbo* trout S, M Silver nitrate
( 1 arva) ,
Salmo aai rdner i
Rainbon trout S, U Silver nitrate
( 1 arvo) ,
Salmo qairdneri
Hardness
(«g/L as
CaCO,)_
48.1
46.6
47.9
44.7
44.7
48
255
54
LC5Q Species yean
or CC50 Acute Value
(wa/L) (»iq/H Reference
4.5 4.5 Lima et al. 1982;
Call et al. 1983
2.2 2.2 Brooke et al. 1986
3,160 - Lima et al . 1982;
Call et al. 1983
420 420 Hoi combe et al .
1987
t
560 560 Hoi combe et al .
1987
19.92 - Lemke 1981
240 - Lemke 1981
48 - Lemke 1981
Rainbow trout
(I arva),
SaImo go i rdner i
S, M Silver nitrate
46.1
11.8
Lemke 1981
-------
Table I. (cant inued)
Species
Rainbo* trout
( larva) ,
So Imo qoi rdneri
Rainbow trout
( larva) ,
So Imo go i rdneri
Rainbow trout
( larva) ,
Solmo go i rdneri
Rainbow trout
( larva) ,
Solmo qoi rdneri
N> Rainbow trout
( larva) ,
Solmo go i rdner i
Rainbow trout
( larva) ,
Sal mo qa i rdner i
Rainbow trout
(juveni le) ,
Salmo qa i rdneri
Hardness
("9/L «
Met hod" Cheaicol CoCOJ
"""" "" J*—
S, H Silver nitrate 75
S. y Silver nitrate 48
S. y Silver nitrate 255
S, U Si Iver nitrate 54
S, y Silver nitrate 46
S, y Silver nitrate 75
S, y Si Iver nitrate 40
LC50 Species yean
or EC50 Acute Value
(«q/L)b (pa/L) Reference
24.6 - Lemke 1981
31.80 - Lemke 1981
280 - Lemke 1981
54 ' - Lemke 1981
108.9 - Lemke 1981
22.5 - Lemke 1981
72.9 - Nebeker et
Rainbow trout
(j uveniIe),
Salmo qoi rdneri
S, y SiIver ni trate
37
84.4
Nebeker et al. 1983
-------
Table I. (continued)
s.
w trout
ile)
• • « / ,
qoi rdner i
Method* Chemlcol
S, y Silver nitrate
Hardness
(-9/L os
26
LC50
or EC50
(^g/t)b
10.9
Species Mean
Acute Value
(fJ9/L)
-
Reference
Nebeker e
Rainbow trout
(juveni le) ,
So I mo qoi rdneri
s. u
Silver nitrate
35
8.5
Nebeker et ol. 1983
Rainbow trout
(larva) ,
So I mo qoi rdneri
Silver nitrate
54
16.38
Lemke 1981
N>
oo
Rainbow trout F, U
(69 mm),
Soimo qoi rdneri
Rainbow trout F, U
(146 mm).
Solmo aoirdneri
Si Iver nitrate
31
20
5.3
6.2
Davies et al . 1978;
Goettl and Davies
1978
Oavies et al . 1978;
Goettl and Davies
1978
Rainbow trout
( I 73 mm) ,
Solmo go i rdner i
r, u
26
8.1
Davies et ol . 1978;
Goettl and Davies
1978
Rainbow trout
(167 mm),
Solmo go i rdner i
Rainbow trout
(j uveniIe),
Solmo go i rdner i
Rai nbo« t rout
(juveniIe),
So I mo go i rdner i
r, M
r, u
r. u
Silver nitrate
Si Iver ni trote
350
36
29
13.0
9.2
8.6
Davies et al . 1978;
Goettl and Davies
1978
Nebeker et ol 1983
Mebeker et al 1983
-------
Table I. (continued)
Hardness
(.«/L as
Species Method" Chemical CaCOj)
Rainbow trout F, U Silver nitrate 42
(juveni le) ,
Salmo gairdneri
Rainbow trout f, U Silver nitrate 48
( larva) ,
Salmo qai rdner i
Rainbo* trout F, U Silver nitrate 255
( 1 orva) ,
Salmo qairdneri
Rainbow trout F, U Silver nitrate 54
( 1 arva) ,
Salmo qairdneri
M Rainbow trout F, U Silver nitrate 46.1
( larva) ,
Salmo qairdneri
Rainbow trout F, U Silver nitrate 75
( larva) ,
Salmo qairdneri
Rainbow trout F, U Silver nitrate 255
( larva) ,
Salmo qoi rdner i ' ' ~.
LC50 Species Uean
or CC50 Acvto Value
(pa/L)b (ua/Ll Reference
9.7 - Nebeker et
17.87 - Lemke 1981
240 - Lemke 1981
14 - Lemke 1981
6.9 - Lemke 1981
11.5 - Lemke 1981
170 - Lemke 1981
Rainbow trout
(larva),
So I mo qoi rdner i
F, U Silver nitrate 46.1
8.4
Lemke 1981
-------
Table I. (cant inued)
Species Method0
Rainbow trout F, U
( larva) ,
So lino qoi rdner i
Rainbow trout F, U
( 1 arva) ,
So Into qa i rdner i
Rainbow trout F, U
( j uveni le) ,
Salmo go i rdner i
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimephales promelas
CO
O Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimephales promelas
Fathead mi nnow, S , U
Pimepho 1 es promel as
Fathead mi nnow, S , U
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimephol es promel as
Hardness
(*g/L as
Chemical CaCO,i
Silver nitrate 75
Si 1 ver ni trate 54
Silver nitrate . 44.7
Silver nitrate 48
Silver nitrate 255
Si 1 ver ni trate 54
Si 1 ver ni trate 46. 1
Silver nitrate 75
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(fia/Llb (ua/Ll Reference
9.7 - Lemke 1981
16.38 - Lemke 1981
6 13.38 Holcombe et al
1987
<
30.43 - Lemke 1981
230 - Lemke 1981
13.8 - Lemke 1981
6.7 - Lemke 1981
tO. 3 - Lemke 1981
Fathead minnow, S, U
Pimepholes promelas
Si Iver n i trate
48
22 66
Lemke 1981
-------
Table I. (continued)
Species Method* Cheaicol
Fathead minnow, S, U Silver nitrate
Pimephol es promelos
Fathead minnow, S, U Silver nitrate
Pimephales proroelos
Fathead minnow, S, M Silver nitrate
Pimephol es promelos
Fathead minnow, S, U Silver nitrate
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow F, U Silver nitrate
(juveni 1 e) ,
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow F, U Silver nitrate
(juveni le) ,
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow S, U Silver nitrate
(juveni le) ,
Pimephales promelas
Hardness
(-9/L «
CoCOJ
255
54
46.1
75
40
36
38
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(pa/L) (ua/L) Reference
270 - Lemke 1981
19.6 - Lemke 1981
12.3 - Lemke 1981
8.7 - Lemke 1981
5.6 - Nebeker et al . 1983;
Lemke 1981
74 . Nebeker et al. 1983;
Lemke 1981
9.4 - Nebeker et al. 1983;
Lemke 1981
Fathead minnow
(juvenile),
Pimepholes promelos
S, M
Si Iver ni trate
39
9.7
Nebeker et al. 1983;
Lemke 1981
-------
Table I. (continued)
CO
ho
Species Method0 Chemical
Fathead minnow S, U Silver nitrate
(0.15 g),
Pimephales gromelas
Fathead minnow F, U Silver nitrate
(37 mm),
Pimephales gromelas
Fathead minnow F, U Silver nitrate
(37 mm).
Pimephal es promel as
Fathead minnow F, U Silver nitrate
( j uveni 1 e) ,
Pimephales gnome las
Fathead minnow, F, U Silver nitrate
Pimephol es promel as
Fathead minnow F, U Silver nitrate
(30 day old),
Pimephales gromelas
Fathead minnow, F, U Silver nitrate
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow, F, M Silver nitrate
Pimephales p_romelas
Fathead minnow, F, M Silver nitrate
Pimephales promel as
Hardness
(•9/L os
CoCOj
44.8
33
274
44.7
38
46.0
48
255
54
LC50 Species Uean
or ECSO Acute Value
(/iq/L)b (pq/L) Reference
14.0 - Holcombe et ol.
3.9 - Goettl and Davi
4.8 - Goettl and Davi
9 - Holcombe et al .
1987
16 - EG It G Bionomic
LeBlanc et al .
10.7 - Lima et al . 1 9£
Call et a! . 1 9J
tO. 98 - Lemke 1981
150 - Lemke 1981
It . 1 - Lemke 1981
-------
Table I. (continued)
Uordiess
Species yet»od° Chemical CeCOjl
Fathead minnow, F, y Silver nitrate 46.1
Pimepholes promelos
Fathead minnow, F, y Silver nitrate 75
Pimepholes promelos
Fathead minnow, F, y Silver nitrate 48
Pimepholes promelos
Fathead minnow. F, y Silver nitrate 255
Pimepholes promelas
Fathead minnow. F. U Silver nitrate 46.1
Pimepholes promelos
Fathead minnow, F, y Silver nitrate 75
Pimephales promelos
Fathead minnow F, y Silver nitrate 44.4
(0.15 g).
Pimephales promelos
Speckled dace F, U Silver nitrate 30
(68 mm).
Rhini chthys oscul us
LC50 Species Uea*
or CC50 Acute Value
(pa/l)b (ua/L) Reference
5.3 - Lemke 1981
6.3 - Lemke 1981 ' .
11.75 - Lemke 1981
HO - Lemke 1981
3.9 ' - Lemke 1981
5.0 - Lemke 1981
6.7 11.34 Hoi combe et al . 1983
4.9 - Goettl and Oavies 19
Speckled dace
(68 mm),
Rhi nichthys osculus
F, U SiIver nitrate
250
13.6
8.163
Goettl and Davies 1978
-------
Table t. (continued)
Species
Uottled sculpi n
(81 mm),
Cottus bairdi
Method0 Cheat col
F, U
Si 1ver ni trate
Hardness
(•g/L os
CoCOj)
30
LC50
or EC5D
liia/L)fc
5.3
Species Mean
Acute Value
fiia/Ll
Reference
GoetH and Dovies 1978
Mot11ed sculpi n
(81 mm),
Cottus bairdi
F, U
Silver nitrate
250
13.6
8.490
Goetti and Davies 1978
Channel catfish
(14.2 g),
Ictolurus punctatus
F. M
Si Iver ni trate
44.4
17.3
17.3
Holcombe et al. 1983
Flagf ish
(30 day old),
JordonelI a f I or I doe
f, M
Si Iver nitrate
44.5
9.2
9.2
Lima et al. 1982;
Call et al. 1963
Bluegill S, U
(young of the year)
Lepomi s macrochi rus
Bluegill (juvenile), F, U
lepomi s mocrocni rus
Silver nitrate 32-48
SiIver nitrate 44 7
60
13
13
Buccofusco et al. 1981
Holcombe et al.
1987
SALTWATER SPECIES
Polychaete, F, M
Neanthes orenoceodentato
Si Iver ni trate
151
Pesch and Hoffman 1983
Polychaete, F, H
Neanthes arenaceodentata
Si Iver n i trate
30L
145
Pesch and Hoffman 1983
-------
Table I. (continued)
Species
Polychaete, F, M
Neanthes arenaceodent at a
Method" Chemical
Si Iver ni trate
Salinity
(q/kg>
30
LC50
or EC50
(WUb
260
Species Mean
Acute Value
Reference
Pesch and Hoffman 1983
Polychaete, F. U
Neont hes orenoceodent at a
Silver nitrate
30
> 357
178.6
Pesch and Hoffman 1983
Bay scallop
(j uvenile),
Arqopect i n i rrodi ans
R, U
Silver nitrate
25
33
33
Nelson et at. 1976
U)
Ul
Pac i f i c oyster
(embryo, 1 arva) ,
Crassostreo qi gas
Pacific oyster
(embryo, larva),
Crossostreo g i gos
Pac i f i c oyst er
(embryo, 1arvo) ,
Crossostrea gi gos
Pacific oyster
(embryo, larva),
Crossostrea
Pac i f i c oyster
(embryo, Iarva),
Crassostrea gi gos
Eastern oyster
(embryo , Iarva),
Crossestreo q i gas
S, U Silver nitrate
S, U Silver nitrate
S, U Silver nitrate
S, U Silver nitrate
S, U Silver nitrate
S, U Silver nitrate
33.0
33.0
33.0
22.7
30
25
II .91
15.10
i8
.94
19.0
5.8
14.21
Coglianese and Uartin
1981
Coglianese and Uartin
1981
Coglianese 1982
Coglianese 1982
Dinnel et al. 1983
Calabrese et al. 1973
-------
Table I. (continued)
Species Method" Chetncot
Eastern oyster S, U Silver nitrate
(embryo, larva) ,
Crossostreo vi rqi nica
Eastern oyster S, U Silver nitrate
( embryo , 1 arva) ,
Crossostreo vi rqi ni co
Eastern oyster S, U Silver nitrate
( embryo , 1 arva) ,
Crossostreo vi rqi ni co
Eastern oyster S, U Silver nitrate
(embryo , 1 arva) ,
Crossostreo vi rqi nico
Eastern oyster S. U Silver nitrate
(embryo, larva),
Crassostrea virginica
Eastern oyster S, U Silver nitrate
(embryo, larva),
Crossostreo vi rqi ni co
Eastern oyster S, U Silver nitrate
(embryo, larva),
Crassostrea virginica
Quohog clam S, U Silver nitrate
(embryo, larva) ,
Mercenar I a mercenor i a
Squid (larva) , S, U Silver nitrate
Loliqa opalescens
LC5Q Species yea*
Sali.ity or ECSO Acute Value
la/kg) (ua/L)b (ua/L)
26 24.2
(20'C)
26 35.3
(25'C)
26 32.2
(30"C)
30 13
30 7
30 3
30 37 U.I5
25 21 21
3U > 100, < 2UU > tUO, < 200
Reference
Uoclnnes and Calabrese
1978
Uoclnnes and Calabrese
1978
Uaclnnes ond Calabrese
1978
Zaroogian, Manuscript
Zaroogian, Manuscript
Zoroagian, Manuscript
Zaroogian, Manuscript
Calabrese and Kelson
1974
-------
Table 1. (cont inued)
Species Method" Chemical
Copepod (adult), S, U Silver nitrate
Acort i o clousi
Copepod (adult), S, U Silver nitrate
Acort i o t onso
Copepod (adult), S, U Silver nitrate
Acart i a t onsa
Copepod (adult), S, U Silver nitrate
Acort i o tonso
Copepod (adult), S, U Silver nitrate
Acart i a t onsa
Copepod (adult), S, U Silver nitrate
Acort i o tonso
Copepod (adult), S, U Silver nitrate
A c o r t i a tonso
Copepod (adult), S, U Silver nitrate
Acort i o tonso
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uys i dops i s bahi a
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uysidopsis bahia
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uys i dops i s boh i a
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uysidopsis bahia
Salinity
(q/kq)
30
30
28
28
28
28
28
30
28
28
28
28
LCSO Species Ueaa
or CCSO Acute Value
(«a/L)b (UQ/L)
13.3 13.3
37 . 8
30,9
66.0
i
35.8
23.5
36.4
36.3 36.46
264
159.4
203
248
Reference
Lussier and Cardin
1965
Lussier and Cardin
1985
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Lussier and Cardin
1985
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
-------
Table I. (continued)
oo
Species Method0 Cheaical
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uvsidopsis bohio
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Mysidopsis bohio
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uysi dopsis bohio
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uysi dopsis bohio
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uvsidopsis bohia
Uysid (juvenile), S, U Silver nitrate
Uys i dops i s bohi o
Uysid (juvenile), F, U Silver nitrate
Uvsi dops is bohio
Uysid (juvenile), F, U Silver nitrate
Uys i dops i s bohi o
Uysid (juvenile), F, U Silver nitrate
Uysidopsis bohio
Uysid (juvenile), F, U Silver nitrate
Uvsidopsis bahia
Uysid (juvenile), F, U Silver nitrate
Mys i dops i s bah i a
Mysid (juvenile), f. W Silver nitrate
Sal i*i ty
(q/ka)
28
28
15-30
»5-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
30
28
28
28
28
LC50
or EC50
178
74.3
89.54
300
300
298
64
249
256
300
86
313
Species Uea*
Acute Value
(ua/L) Reference
Schimmel
Schimmel
UcKenney
UcKenney
»
UcKenney
. - UcKenney
UcKenney
Lussier e
Schimmel
Schimmel
Schimmel !
S c hi mine 1 1
My :; i do p.. i ;> boli i a
-------
Table I. (continued)
u>
Method*
Uysid (juvenile). F, U
Uvsi dopsi s bohi o
Uysid (juvenile), F, U
Uysidopsis bohi o
Sand shrimp (adult), F, U
Cronqon spp. (mostly
Cronqon franc iscorum)
Dungeness crab
(zoeo),
Cancer maqister
Coho salmon (small), F, U
Oncorhynchus k I sutch
Sheepshead minnow S, U
( juveni le) ,
Cypr i nodon \iar i eqot us
Sheepshead minnow S, U
(juveni I e) ,
Cypri nodon vor i eqot us
Sheepshead minnow
(juveni le) ,
Cypri nodon vor i eqotus
Sheepshead minnow
(juveni le) ,
Cypr i nodon vor i eqot us
Sheepsliead minnow
(juveni I e ) ,
C y p r i n o <) o n y a i i ^ q o i us
Che»ical
Si Iver nitrate
Silver nitrate
Silver nitrate
S, U Silver nitrate
Silver nitrate
Si Iver nitrate
Si Iver nitrate
S, U SiIver nitrate
S, U SiIver nitrate
S. U SiIver ni trate
Salinity
(g/tal
28
28
30.1
30
28.6
10-31
28
28
28
28
LC50
or EC50
Species Mean
Acute Value
65
132
> 838
33.1
487.5
58,000
640
1.082
1.182
I .584
171 .8
> 838
33.1
487.5
Reference
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Dinnel et al. 1983
Oinnel et al. 1983
Dinnel et al. 1983
U.S. EPA 1978;
Heitmuller et al. 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
-------
Table I. (continued)
Soliaity
Species Method" Chemical (q/tq)
Sheepshead minnow S, U Silver nitrate 30
(juveni le) ,
Cypr I nodon yori eqotus
Sheepshead minnow F, U Silver nitrate 28
(juveni le) ,
Cypr i nodon var i eqat us
Sheepshead minnow F, U Silver nitrate 28
(juveni 1 e) ,
Cypr i nodon vori eqotus
Sheepshead minnow F, U Silver nitrate 28
( j uveni 1 e) ,
Cypr i nodon van' eg at us
Sheepsheod minnow F, U Silver nitrate 28
(juveni 1 e) ,
Cypri nodon var i eqotus
Sheepshead minnow F, U Silver nitrate 28
( j uveni le) ,
Cypri nodon vori eqotus
Uummichog (adult), S, U Silver nitrate * 7.2
Fundul us heteroc 1 i tus
Uummichog (adult). S, U Silver nitrate 24 0
Fundul us heterocl i tus
LC50 Species Vea*
or EC50 Acut* Valve
(«a/Ub (jifl/L)
1,376
441
898
1,356
1,510
1,876 1,088
> 1 x I06
2,700 2,700
Reference
Cardin 1986
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Schimmel 1981
Oorfman 1977
Dorfman 1977
Atlantic si Iversi de S, U
(juveniIe),
Men i d i a men i d i a
Si Iver ni trate
30
404
Cardin 1986
-------
Table I. (conlinued)
Species
Atlantic silverside F, U
(larva),
Men!dia menidi a
Method" Cheaicol
Si Iver ni trote
Salinity
(g/kal
32
LC50
or EC50
(uq/L)b
110.1
Species Mean
Acvte Value
110. 1
Reference
Cord in 1986
Fourspine stickleback S, U
(adult),
Apeltes quodrocus
Shiner perch (adult). F, U
Cymotoqoster aggregate
Cabezon (larva), S, U
ScorpoenIchthys marmorotus
Summer flounder S, U
(embryo),
Paroli chthys dentotus
Summer flounder F, U
(embryo),
Paroli chthys dentatus
Summer flounder S, U
(Iarva) ,
Paroli chthys dentotus
Summer flounder F, U
(embryo) ,
Porali chthys dentotus
Summer flounder F, U
(embryo) ,
Paralichthys dent at us
Silver nitrate
Si Iver ni trate
Silver nitrate
Si Iver ni trate
Si Iver ni trate
Si Iver ni trate
30
29.3
27
30.2
30
30
Si I ver ni trate v' 30
546.6
355.6
> 800
140.8
47.7
4.7
546.6
355.6
> 800
140.8
Si Iver ni trate
30
15.5
18 08
Cardin 1986
Dinnel et al 1983
Dinnel et al. 1983
Cardin 1986
Cardin 1986
Cardin 1986
Cardin 1986
Cardin 1986
-------
Toble I. (continued)
NJ
Salinity
Species Method0 Chemical (g/tg)
English sole f, U Silver nitrate 29.5
( juveni le) ,
Porophrys vet ul us
Winter flounder S, U Silver nitrate 30
(embryo) ,
Pseudopl euronectes
omericonus
Winter flounder S. U Silver nitrate 30
(embryo) ,
Pseudopl euronectes
amer i canus
Winter flounder S, U Silver nitrate 30
( embryo) ,
Pseudopl euronectes
amer i canus
Winter flounder S, U Silver nitrate 30
( 1 arva) ,
Pseudopl euronectes
LC50 Species Uea*
or ECSO Acvte Value
(uq/L)b (iiq/U Reference
800 800 Dinnel et al
447.0 - Cardin 1986
295.6 - Cardin 1986
272 - Cardin 1986
503 - Cordin 1986
americanus
-------
Table I. (continued)
Sal inity
Species Method4 Chemical (q/k«|
Winter flounder F. U Silver nitrate 30
(embryo) ,
Pseudopl euronectes
omericanus
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
<«a/nb
-------
Table 2. Chronic Toxicity of Silver to Aquatic Animals
Species Test
Cladoceran, LC
Dophn i o moqno
Cladoceran, LC
Daphni a moqno
Cladoceran, LC
Dophn i o moqno
Cladoceran, LC
Oophn i o moqno
Cladoceran, LC
Dophn i o moqno
Cladoceran, LC
Dophni a moqno
Rainbow trout, ELS
So Imo go i rdner i
Rainbow trout, ELS
Solmo qoi rdneri
Hardness Chronic
(•g/L as Limits
Chemical CaCO,) f^ia/Ll
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Silver nitrate 73 10.5-21.2
Silver nitrate 73 20.0-41.0
Silver nitrate 46 2.7-3.9°
Silver nitrate 60 1.6-4.1
Silver nitrate 75 8.8-19.4
Silver nitrate 180 3.4-8.0
Silver nitrate 28 0.09-0.17
Silver nitrate 36 0.36-0.51
Chronic Value
Ilia/L)
14.92
28.64
3.245
2.561
13.07
5.215
0.1240
0.4285
Fathead mi nnow, ELS
PimephoIes promelas
SiIver nitrate 45.I
0.37-0.65
0.4904
Reference
Nebeker 1982
Nebeker !9B2
Nebeker 1982
Nebeker et at. 1983;
Nebeker 1982
Nebeker et al. 1983;
Nebeker 1982
Nebeker et al. 1983;
Nebeker 1982
Davies et al. 1978
Nebeker et al. 1983
Hoi combe et al. 1983
-------
Table 2. (continued)
Ui
Species Test0 Chemicol
Uysid, LC Silver nitrate
Uysidopsis bahia
Uysid, LC Silver nitrate
Uysi dopsis bohi o
Uysid, LC Silver nitrate
Uys i dops i s bohi o
Uysid, LC Silver nitrate
Uys i dops i s bahi a
Uysid, LC Silver nitrate
Uys i dopsis bohio
Chronic
Sali.ity Liiits
(a/kal (uo/L)b
SALTWATER SPECIES
15-30 70-11 Od
(60-110)
30 11-32
15-30 9-25
15-30 14-19
15-30 30-93
Chroiic Value
(ua/L) Reference
87.75 Breteler et al. 1982
UcKenney 1982
18.76 UcKenney 1982;
Lussier et al . 1985
15.00 UcKenney 1982
16.31 UcKenney 1982
52.82 UcKenney 1982
LC = life-cycle or partial life-cycle; ELS = early life-stage.
Results are based on measured concentrations of silver.
c Loner and upper chronic limits for this test *ere" concentrotions resulting in less than 50Z reproductive impairment
and greater than 5QZ reproductive impairment, respectively.
d Chronic limits from UcKenney (1982) from the same test reported by Breteler et al. (1982).
-------
Table 2. (continued)
Acute-Chronic Ratio
Hardness
(•g/L as Acute Value Chronic Value
Species CgCO,) («g/L)
Cladoceran. 73 11.2°
Daphnio mogno
Cladoceron, 73 11.2°
Dophni o «aqno
Cladoceran. 60 I.I
Dophnia moq.no
Rainbow trout, 36 9.2
Sal mo go j rdneri
Rainbow trout, 28 6.4°
Solmo qoi rdneri
Fathead minnow, 44.8 6.7
Pimepholes promelos
Mysid. 30b 249.3
Uys i dopsi s boh i o
Uysid. !5-30b 86
Uvsidopsis bohi o
Mysid, !5-30b.v 132
Uvsi dopsis bohi Q
(ua/L) Ratio
14.92 0.7507
28.64 0.3911
2.561 0.4295
0.4285 ; 21.47
0.1240 51.61
0.4904 13.66
18.76 13.29
16.31 5.273
15.00 8 800
Geometric mean of tiro or more values in Table I.
Salinity (g/kg), not hardness
-------
Table 3. Ranked Genus Uean Acute Values with Species Uean Acute-Chronic Ratios
Rank*
Genus Mean
Acute Value
(/WD
Species Uean
Acute Value
Species Uean
Acute-Chronic
Ratio0
FRESHWATER SPECIES
IB
560
Croyf ish,
Orconectes immuni s
560
17
420
Midge,
Tony torsus di ss imi I I s
420
16
83
Snai I ,
Apl exo hypnorum
83
15
29
Leech,
Nephelopsis obscuro
29
14
13
26 Hydra,
Hydra sp.
17.3 Channel cat fish,
Ictolurus punctotus
26
17.3
12
II
15 Cladoceran,
Simocepholus vetulus
13.38 Rainbon trout,
So I mo qoirdneri
15
13.38
33.29
10
13
BluegiI I,
Lepomi s mocrochirus
13
11 .34 Fathead mi nnow,
Pimepholes promelas
II 34
13.66
-------
CD
Table 3. (continued)
Genus Mean Species Uean Species Mean
Acute Value Acute Value Acute-Ckronic
Honk0 lua/l) Species (fig/l)fc Ratio0
92 Flogfish, 92
JordonelIo fI or j doe
8.490 Mottled sculpin, 8 490
Cot tus hai rdi
8.163 Speckled dace, 8.163
Rhi ni chthys osculus
5
45
3 924
22
2.155
Arophipod, 5
Cranqonyx pseudoqrac i 1 i s
Amphipod, 45
Gammorus pseudol imnoeus
Cladoceran, 3 924
Ceriodaphnia reticulata
Mayfly, 22
Leptophl ebi o sp .
Cl adoceron , 5 1 58
Dophnio pul ex
Cladoceron, 09 0.4994d
Daphnia maqna
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Rant0
Genus Uean
Acute Value
(uq/H
Species Uean
Acute Value
Species Uea«
Acute-Chronic
Ratio*
171.8 Uysid,
Mysi dopsis bohi a
171 .8
8.512
> 100, < 200 Squid.
Loliqo opolescens
> 100. < 200
110.I Atlantic silverside.
Idi o menidid
110.1
33.10 Dungeness crab,
Cancer moqister
33.10
33
Boy seal lop,
Arqopect i n i rrodi ons
33
22.02
Copepod,
Acortia tonsa
36.46
Copepod,
Acart io clous!
13.3
21
Quahog,
Merc norio mercenorio
21
18.08 Summer flounder,
Parolichthys dentotus
18.08
14.18 Paci fie oyster,
Crossostreo qi gas
14.21
Eastern oyster,
Crossostrea vi rqi ni ca
14.15
-------
Table 3. (continued)
Rank'
Genus Ueoa
Acute Value
fua/l)
Species Ueon
Acute Value
Species
Species Keen
Acute-Chronic
Ratio6
SALTWATER SPECIES
19
2.700
Uummichog,
Fundulus heterocli tus
2,700
18
1,088
Sheepshead minnow,
Cypri nodon vorIeqatus
1,088
17
> 838
Sand shrimp, > 838
Cronqon spp.,
(mostly Cronqon franc i scorum)
16
> 800
Cobezon, > BOO
Scorpaeni chthvs mormoratus
15
800
Cnglish sole,
Porophrys vetulus
800
14
546.6 fourspine stickleback
Apeltes quodrgcus
546.6
13
487 5 Coho salmon.
Oncorhynchus kisutch
487.5
12
355.6 Shiner perch,
' ' V.
Cvmotoqoster aggregate
355.6
II
196.3 Winter flounder,
Pseudopleuronectes ameri canus
196 3
I 78.6 Polychaete,
Neanthes arenoceodentato
178.6
-------
Table 3. (continued)
Ranked from most resistant to most sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Value.
Inclusion of "greater than" values does not necessarily imply a true ranking, but does
olio* use of all genera for which data are available so that the Final Acute Value is
not unnecessarily lowered.
b From Table I.
c From Table 2.
Value not used in calculation of the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio (see text).
Fresh water •
Final Acute Value = I . 833 /jg/L ;
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (1.833 /ig/L) / 2 = 0.9165 /jg/L
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 15.70 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (1.833 /jg/L) / 15.70 = 0.1168 /ig/L
Salt water
Final Acute Value = 14.50 /jg/L
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (14.50 /jg/L) / 2 = 7.250
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 15.70 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (14.50 /
-------
Table 4. Toxicity of Silver to Aquatic Plants
Species Chemical
Green alga, Silver nitrate
Sel enost rum
copr I cornutum
Waterweed, Silver nitrate
El odea (Anachoris)
conodensis
Duckweed, Silver nitrate
Lemna mi nor
Hardness
(«g/L as Duration Concentration
CaCO, (days) Effect («a/L)b
FRESHWATER SPECIES
4 ECSO 2.6
28 ECSO 7,500
28 ECSO 270
;
Reference
U.S. EPA 1978
Brown and
Rattigan 1979
Brown and
Rattigan 1979
SALTWATER SPECIES
Di atom, Si Iver ni trote
Skeletonemo costotum
Diatom, Silver nitrate
Skeletonemo costotum
30"
30"
ECSO 170
(chlorophyl1 aj
ECSO 130
(cell counts)
US. EPA
1978
U.S. EPA
1978
Concentration of silver, not the chemical.
Salinity (g/kg), not hardness.
-------
Table 5. Bioaccunulat ion of Silver by Aquatic Organises
Species
Cheaicol
Largemouth bass,
Mi cropterus soImoi des
Largemouth bass,
Ui cropterus soImoi des
Bluegi11 ,
Lepomi s macrochirus
Bluegi11.
Lepomis mocrochirus
Si Iver ni trate
Si Ivor nitrate
Silver nitrate
Si Iver ni trote
Concentrat ion
in Water (wq/L)°
FRESHWATER
1
10
10
too
Duration BCF or
(days) Tissue BAFb
SPECIES
120 Muscle II
120 Muscle 19
180 Whole body IS
180 ; Whole body ISO
Reference
Gear ley
Cearley
Cearley
Cearley
1971
1971
1971
1971
Ul
u>
SALTWATER SPECIES
Blue mussel
(j uveniIe to adult)
Myt iI us eduli s
Blue mussel
(juvenile to adult),
Myt iI us edulis
Blue mussel
(j uveniIe to adult),
Myt iI us eduli s
Blue mussel
(j uven iIe to aduIt),
Myt iI us eduIi s
Blue mussel
(juvenile lo adull).
My t i I us eilu I i •,
Silver nitrate
SiIver nitrate
SiIver ni trate
Silver nitrate
S iIver nitrate
1.5
5.4
10
I 5
630
630
630
540
540
Soft parts 5,100
Soft parts 1,435
Soft parts 1,056
Soft parts 6,500
Soft parts 2,203
Calabrese et al.
1984
Calabrese et al
1984
Calabrese et al
1984
Calabrese et al
1984
Calabrese et al
1984
-------
Table 5. (continued)
Species
Blue mussel
(juvenile to adul t),
Uyt iI us edulis
Chemical
Silver nitrate
Concentration
in. Water (uq/L>a
10
Duration
(days)
540
BCF or
Tissue BAFb
Sort parts 1,391
Reference
Calabrese et al
1984
Blue mussel
(j uveniIe to adult),
Myt iI us eduli s
Si Iver ni trate
10
365
Soft parts I,533
Calabrese et ol
1984
Measured concentration of silver.
Bioconcentrat ion factors (BCFs) and bioaccumulotion factors (BAfs) are based on measured concentrations of silver
in water and in tissue.
-------
Table 6. Other Data on Effects of Silver on Aquatic OrganiSMS
Ln
Ui
Species
Mixed heterotrophi c
bacteria
Mixed heterotrophi c
bacter i a
Bacter i urn,
Ni troboct er sp. and
Ni t rosomonas sp .
Bacter i urn,
Ni t robac ter sp . and
Ni t rosomonas sp .
Bacter i um,
Pseudomonos put i do
Green alga,
Chi orel 1 a vulqaris
Green alga,
Haemot ococcus copens i ;
Blue-green alga,
Mi crocyst i s
Hardness
{•g/L as
Chemical CaCO,)
Silver
sulfate
Silver
sul fate
Si 1 ver
ni trate
Si 1 ver
ni trate
Si 1 ver
ni trate
4.5
_
s^
Si 1 ver
ni t rot e
Concentration
Duration Effect (jiq/Lla
FRESHWATER SPECIES
0.5 hr < IX I .
survival
0.5 hr 53Z reduction 0.1
in glucose uptake
4 hr EC50 30
4 hr EC90 - 100
1 6 hr Inci pient 7
i nhi bi t i on
14 days Growth 50
i nhi bi t ion
6 days Reduced 100
growth
8, .((ays Inci pient 0. 7
i nhi bi t i on
Reference
Albright et ol. 1972
Albright et al. 1972
Wi 1 1 iamson and
Nelson 1983
Will! amson and
Nelson 1983
Bringmann and
Kuhn I977o,l980b
Stokes et al 1973;
Hutchinson 1973;
Hutchinson and
Stokes 1975
Hutchinson 1973
Bringmann and
Kuhn I978a,b
oeruqi nosa
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Blue-green alga,
Nostoc muse or urn
Green alga,
Scenedesmus ocumi note
Green alga,
Scenedesmus sp.
Green alga,
Scenedesmus
auodri coudo
Green alga,
Sel enastrum
0^ copri cornut urn
Uacrophy t e,
Cerot ophy 1 1 urn demersum
Protozoan ,
Chilomonas paromoecium
Protozoan ,
Cntosiphan sulcatum
Protozoan ,
Mi croreqmo het erostomo
Hardness
(«g/L as
Chemical CaCO,]_ Duration
Silver - 21 days
chloride
- - 12 day-
Silver 215 4 days
ni trate
Si Iver - 8 days
nitrate
14-21 days
Si 1 ver - 60 days
sul f i de
Si Iver - 48 hr
ni trate
Silver - 72 hr
ni trate
Si Iver - 28 hr
ni trate
Concentration
Effect (WUa
EC5G (survival) 2.9
Reduced 50
growth
Incipient 50
i nhi bi t ion
Inci pient 9. 5
i nhi bi t ion
CC50 6.39
70-80Z
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Cil iote,
Uroneumo porduczi
Cladoceran,
Ceriodophnia reticulota
Cl adoceron ,
Ceriodaphnia reticulato
Cl adoceran ,
Dophni a mogno
Cladoceran (< 24 hr) ,
Dophni a mag no
Cl adoceran ( < 24 hr) ,
Dophn i o magno
Cl adoceran ,
Dophni o mogno
Cladoceran ,
Dophn i o mogno
Cladoceran ,
Dophni o magno
Cl adoceran ,
Dophni o moqno
C 1 adoceran ,
Oophn i a mogna
Hardness
("9/L os
Cheaical CaCO,) Duration
Silver - 20 hr
nitrate
Silver 240 7 days
ni trate
Silver 240 7 days
ni trate
Si Iver - 64 hr
ni trate
Si Iver 47 48 hr
n i trate
Silver 33 48 hr
ni trate
Si Iver - 48 hr
ni trate
Silver 240 14 days
ni trote
Silver 60 21 days
ni trate
Silver 60 21 days
ni trate
Silver 60 21 days
n i t rate
Concentration
Effect (ua/L)a
Incipient 100
i nhi bi t ion
RI50 0.8
Chroni c vol ue 1.3
1 nc i pi ent 3. 24
inhi bi t ion
EC50 ' 9.5
(fed)
EC50 12.5
(fed)
Incipient 30
i nhi bi t ion
Chronic value <0.56
LC50 2.9
LC50 3.6
LC50 3.9
Reference
Bringmonn and Kuhn
I980c,l98l
Clnabarawy et ol. 1986
Clnabarawy et al. 1986
Anderson 1948
Chapman 1980
Nebeker et al 1983
Bringmonn and Kuhn
I959a,b, I960
Clnabara*y et al. 1986
Nebeker 1982
Nebeker 1982
Nebeker 1982
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Ul
oo
Species
Cl odoceron ,
Dophn i a pul ex
Cl odoceron ,
Dophn i o pul ex
Mayfly ( nai qd) ,
Ephemerel 1 a qrandis
Uayfl y (nai ad) ,
Ephemerel 1 a qrondis
Mayfly (naiad),
Ephemerel la qrondis
Uayfl y (noi ad) .
Ephemerel 1 a qrondis
Uayfly (naiad),
Ephemerel 1 o grand i s
Uoyfly (nymph),
Ephemeral la qrandis
Stonefly (naiad
final instar),
Pteronorcys colifornico
Hardness
(•a/L as
Chemical CoCOj
Silver 240
ni f rote
Silver 240
nitrate
Silver 30-70
ni trot*
Silver 30-70
nitrate
Si Iver
ni trate
Silver 30-70
nitrate
Silver 30-70
ni trate
Silver 30-70
ni trate
Si 1 ver
ni trate
Duration
14 days
14 days
Postmortem
1-14 days
Postmortem
1-14 days
Postmortem
1-14 days
Postmortem
1-14 days
Postmortem
1-14 days
14 days
15 days
Concentration
Effect (iifl/Ll' Reference
RI50 1 .2 Elnobaraiy et al. 1986
Chronic value < 0.56 Elnobaraiy et al . 1986
BCF=I7.4 750 Nehring 1976
BCF=I8.4 400 Nehring 1976
BCF=4I 8 ; 230 Nehring 1976
BCf=47.8 120 Nehring 1976
BCF=84.4 60 Nehring 1976
LC50 < 1 Nehring 1976
LC50 8.8 Nehring 1973,1976
Stonefly (naiad), Silver
Pteronorcys colifornico nitrate
30-70
Postmortem
1-14 days
BCE=I4.4
738
Nehring 1976
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Spec i es
Stonef ly (naiad) ,
Pteronarcys californica
Stonef ly (naiad) ,
Pteronarcys californica
Stonef ly (naiad) .
Pteronarcys californica
Stonef 1 y (nai ad) ,
Pteronorcvs californica
Rainbo* trout
(embryo, larva),
Sal mo qairdneri
Roinbo» trout
(embryo , 1 orva) ,
Solmo qairdneri
Rainboi trout (embryo).
Salmo qairdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo) ,
Salmo aairdneri
Rainboi trout (embryo),
Salmo qairdneri
Chemical
Silver
nitrate
Silver
ni trot*
Si Iver
ni trot*
Si 1 ver
ni trate
Si Iver
ni trot*
Si Iver
nitrate
Si Iver
chloride
Si Iver
chlori de
Si Iver
chlori de
Hardness
(•9/L as
CaCOjl Duration
30-70 Postmortem
1-14 days
30-70 Postmortem
1-14 days
30-70 Postmortem
1-14 days
30-70 Postmortem
1-14 days
104 (92-110) 27 days
(4 days post
hatch)
102 (92-110) 27 days
(4 days post
hatch)
30 35 hr
30 44 hr
30 35 hr
Effect
BCF=I5.4
BCF=2I.2
BCf=26
BCr=36.6
CC50
(Death and
def or mi ty)
CCIO
(Death and
deformity)
LT50
i T c n
LT50
LT50
Concentration
(ua/Lla Reference
399 Mehring 1976
217 Nehring 1976
105 Nehring 1976
50 Nehring 1976
10 Birge 1978;
Birge et al. 1978,1980
0.9 Birge et al . 1980.1981
500 Rombough 1985
400 Rombough 1985
300 Rombough 1985
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imo go I rdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imo qoi rdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imo qoi rdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imo qoi rdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imo go i rdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imp qoirdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imo qoi rdner i
Rainbow trout (embryo),
Solmo gal rdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo),
Salmo aairdneri
Rainbow trout (embryo),
Solmo Qoi rdner i
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imo go i rdner i
Chemical
Silver
chloride
Silver
chloride
Si Iver
chloride
Silver
chloride
Si Iver
chloride
Si Iver
chloride
Si Iver
chloride
Si Iver
chloride
Si Iver
chloride
Si Iver
chlori de
Si Iver
chlori de
Hardness
(•9/L as
-C-COjL
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Duration
48 hr
61 hr
> 168 hr
> 168 hr
12 hr
12 hr
14 hr
12 hr
23 hr
58 tir
> 168 hr
Effect
LT50
IT 50
LT50
LT50
LT50
LT50
LT50
LT50
LT50
LT50
LT50
Concentration
fiia/ll"
200
100
50
10
- 500C
400°
300C
200C
IOOC
50C
IOC
Reference
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
Rombough
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva) ,
So Imo qoi rdner i
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva) ,
So Imo qoi rdner i
Rainbow trout (embryo),
So Imo qoi rdner i
Goldfish
(embryo, larva) ,
Carass i us aurat us
Fathead minnow
(37 mm, 0.5 9).
Pimepholes promelas
Fathead mi nnow
(37 mm, 0.5 g),
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow
(37 mm, 05 g),
Pimephales promelas
Largemouth boss
(embryo, larva),
Micropt erus solmoides
Hardness
(•9/L as
Che.ical CaCOj
Silver
nitrate
Silver
ni trate
Silver 28
nitrate
Silver 195
ni trate
Silver 29-38
ni trate
Silver 29-38
ni trate
Silver 29-38
ni trate
Silver 93-105
ni trate
Duration
5 wks
22 wks
6 days
7 days
(4 days
post hatch)
24 hr
48 hr
72 hr
8 days
(4 days
post hatch)
Effect
LC50
LC50
Premature
hatching
EC50
(Death and
deformity)
LC50
LC50
LC50
CC50
(Death and
deformi ty)
Concentration
(wq/Lla Reference
0.69 Davies et al. 1978
0.34 Oavies et al. 1978
2.2 Davies et al 1978
, 30 Birge 1978
21 EG t G Bionomics 1979
16 EG t G Bionomics 1979
16 EG t G Bionomics 1979
I | J Birge et al 1978
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Hardness
(•9/L «s
Species Chemical CaCO^L
Narrow-mouthed toad Silver 195
(embryo, larva), nitrate
Gastrophryne carol inensis
Uarbled salamander Silver 93-105
(embryo, larva), nitrate
Ambystoma ooacum
Green alga, Si 1 ver
Dunaliello tertiolecta cyanide
Green alga, Silver
Dunaliella tertiolecta cyanide
Golden-brown alga, - 10
Isochrysis qalbana
Golden-brown alga, - 12
Isochrysis gal bono
Golden-brown alga, - 12
Isochrysis gal bono
Duration
7 days
(4 days
post hatch)
7 days
(4 days
post hatch)
SALTWATER
3 days
12 hr
2 days
2 days
2 days
Concentration
Effect (««/L»*
EC50 10
(Death and
deformity)
CC50 240
(Death and
deformity)
SPECIES
EC50 2,700
(eel 1 counts)
BCF = 13,000
Chlorophyll a. 25
reduced about 65Z
at 20"C
Chlorophyll a 22
reduced about 65Z
at I6*C
Chlorophyll a 15
reduced about 65Z
Reference
Birge 1978
Birge et al. 1978
Fisher et al. 1984
Fisher et al. 1984
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wi (son and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
at 28'C
-------
Table 6. (continued)
cr>
Sali.it*
Golden-bro«n alga, -14 2 days
Isochrvsis aalbana
Golden-brown alga, 16 2 days
Isochrvsis qalbana
Golden-brown alga, 16 2 days
Isochrysis qalbana
Golden-brown alga, 20 2 days
Isochrvsis qalbana
Golden-brown alga, - 20 2 days
Isochrvsis qalbana
Golden-brown alga, 20 2 days
Isochrvsis cjolbona
Golden-brown alga, 28 2 days
Isochrvsis qalbana
Golden-brown alga. - 28 2 days
Isochrvsis Qalbana
Golden-brown alga, - 28 2 days
1 sochrys is qal liana
Concentration
Effect (ua/L)a
Chlorophyll a 25
reduced about 65X
at 20" C
Chlorophyll a 24
reduced about 6SX
at I6*C
Chlorophyll a. 38
reduced about 65X
at 28*C
Chlorophyll a 64
reduced about 65X
at I6*C
Chlorophyll a 24
reduced about 65X
at 20*C
Chlorophyll a. 60
reduced about 65X
at 28" C
Chlorophyll a 24
reduced about 6SX
at I6'C
Chlorophyll a 26
reduced about 65X
at 20'C
Chlorophyll £ HO
reduced about 657.
n» ?fl"C
Reference
Wilson and freeberg
I960
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wi (son and freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Salinity
Species Cheaicol («/ka)
Colden-broin alga, - 28
Isochrvsis qol bang
Diatom, - 3
Thai assi os i ra pseudonana
Diatom, - 3
Thai ass i os i ra pseudonana
Diatom, - 3
Thai ass i os i ro pseudonono
D i a t om , - 5
Thai ass i os i ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 5
Tholgss i osi ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 5
Thai ass i os i ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 7
Thai oss i os i ro pseudonano
Diatom. - J
T h a 1 a s •; i o ;, i r u pseudonana
Duration
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
Concentration
Effect fua/lV
Reduction in 20
chlorophyll a,
(lo*est value from
28 tests)
Chlorophyll a 14
reduced about 65Z
at I2"C
Chlorophyll a 84
reduced about 65Z
ot 20*C
Chlorophyll £ 13
reduced about 65Z
at 28°C
Chlorophyll £ 30
reduced about 65Z
at I2*C
Chlorophyll £ 70
reduced about 65Z
ot 20*C
Chlorophyll £ 16
reduced about 65Z
at 28'C
Chlorophyll a 23
reduced about 65Z
at I2°C
Chlorophyll a 68
reduced about 657.
Reference
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wi I son and freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1981)
at 20°C
-------
Table 6. (continued)
m
Salinity
Diatom, - 7
Thalassi osi ra pseudonona
Diatom, - 10
Thalassiosi ra pseudonano
Diatom, - 10
Thai ass i os i ra pseudonana
Diatom. - 10
Thai ass i os i ra pseudonana
Diatom, - 10
Tholassi os i ra pseudonana
Diatom, - 10
Thai ass i os i ra pseudonana
Diatom, - 14
Thai ass i os i ra oseudonana
Diatom, - 14
Thai ass i os i ra pseudonana
Di ot om, - 14
Tho 1 ass i os i ra pseudonana
Duration
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
' "V*
2 days
2 days
Ci
Effect
Chlorophyll a
reduced about 65Z
at 28*C
Chlorophyll a_
reduced about 65Z
ot 12'C
Chlorophyll a.
reduced about 65Z
at I6°C
Chlorophyll a.
reduced about 65Z
at 20eC
Chlorophyll a
reduced about 65Z
ot 24" C
Chlorophyll a.
reduced about 65Z
at 28" C
Chlorophyll a.
reduced about 65Z
at I2*C
Chlorophyll a.
reduced about 65Z
ot 20"C
Chlorophyll o
reduced about 65%
incentrat ion
(jiQ/Lta
14
31
74
' 76
44
21
37
56
32
Reference
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wi(son and Freeberg
I960
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
WiIson and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1980
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Salinity
Species Cheaical (q/kq)
Diatom, - 21
Thai ossi os i ro pseudonano
Diatom, - 21
Thol ossiosi ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 21
Thol oss i os i ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 28
Thol oss i os i ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 28
Thol oss i os i ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 28
Tholossi osi ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 28
Thol oss i os i ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 28
Thai oss i os i ro pseudonono
Diatom, - 28
Tho 1 oss i os i ro pseudonono
Dural ion
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
Concentration
Effect (jiQ/Ll*
Chlorophyl 1 £
reduced about 65Z
at I2°C
Chlorophyll £
reduced about 65Z
at 20° C
Chlorophyll £
reduced about 65Z
at 28*C
Chlorophyl 1 £
reduced about 65Z
at I2"C
Chlorophyll £
reduced about 65Z
at I6°C
Chlorophyl 1 £
reduced about 65Z
at 20" C
Chlorophyll £
reduced about 65Z
at 24°C
Chlorophyll a
reduced about 65Z
at 28°C
Reduction in
chlorophyll a,
23
68
40
' 25
31
42
48
52
40
Reference
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and Freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
I 980
(lowest value from
14 tests)
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Diatom.
Tholossiosi ra
Di atom,
Thai ass i os i ra
Salinity
Chemical (q/kal
Silver
pseudonano cyanide
Silvtr
pseudonana cvonide
Duration
4 days
12 hr
(equi 1 i bri urn
reached)
Concentration
Effect («a/L»a
EC50 100
(cell counts)
BCF = 34,000
deference
fisher et al. 1984
Fisher et al . 1984
Di noflagellate,
Glenodi ni urn halIi
Oi nofIagellate,
Gymnodini urn splendens
28
28
2 days
2 days
Reduction in 5
chlorophyll o,
(lowest value from
6 tests)
Chlorophyll a 7,5-8.0
reduced about 65Z
at I6°C
Wi(son and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Di nofIagellate,
Gymnodi ni urn splendens
28
2 days
Chlorophyll a
reduced about 65Z
at 20" C
Wi Ison and freeberg
1980
Di noflagellate,
Cymnodi ni urn splendens
28
2 days
Chlorophyll a.
reduced about 65Z
at 24*C
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Di noflagellate,
Cymnodi ni urn splendens
Di noflagellate,
Cvmnodi ni urn splendens
Di noflagellate,
Gymnod i ni urn spl endens
28
28
28
2 days
2 days
2 days
Chlorophyll £
reduced about 65Z
at 28'C
Chlorophyll £
reduced about 6SZ
at 30°C
Chlorophyll a
reduced about 65X
at 32°C
13
10
Wi Ison and freeberg
1980
Wi Ison and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
I960
-------
Table 6. (continued)
00
Species Chemical
Dinof lagel late,
Cyronodi ni um splendens
Di nof logel late,
Cymnodi ni um spl endens
Oi nof logel late,
Cymnodi ni um spl endens
Di nof lagel late,
Cymnodi ni um splendens
Di noflagel late,
Cymnodi ni um spl endens
Oi nof lagel lote,
Cymnodi ni um splendens
Oi noflagel late,
Gvmnodi ni um splendens
Di nof lagel 1 ate,
Cymnodi ni um spl endens
Di noflagel late,
Cymnod i n i um spl endens
Salinity
(a/kfl)
28
14
14
14
14
16
20
24
28
Duration
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
Concentration
Effect («a/Ll*
Chlorophyll a. 10
reduced about 65Z
at 33*C
Chlorophyll a 7
reduced about 65Z
at I6*C
Chlorophyll a II
reduced about 65Z
at 30*C
Chlorophyll a , 2
reduced about 65Z
at 32*C
Chlorophyll a 1.3
reduced about 65Z
at 20*C
Chlorophyll a. 6.5
reduced about 65Z
at 20°C
Chlorophyll a 8.5
reduced about 65Z
at 20° C
Chlorophyll a 6.0
reduced about 65Z
at 20"C
Chlorophyll a 94
reduced about 65Z
Reference
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and Freeberg
1980
Wi (son and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
1980
Wilson and freeberg
I960
ot 20*C
-------
Table 6. (conlinued)
Salinity
Concentration
Chemicel
Di noflogellote,
Cymnodi ni urn splendens
Red alga,
Chompio porvulg
Red alga (sporeling). Silver
PIumorio e|eqons nitrate
Polychaete,
Meant hes orenoceodentoto nitrate
Polychaete. Si Iver
Meanthes orenoceodentoto nitrate
Polychaete, Silver
Meonthes orenoceodentoto nitrate
Polychaete (adult)
Meanthes virens
Polychaete (adult)
Neonthes virens
SiIver
ni trate
SiIver
ni trate
28
Silver 30
nitrate
Silver 30
30
30
26
26
Duration
2 days
25 days
IB hr
immersion
followed by
7 days in clean
seoiater
28 days
28 days
96 hr
48 hr
24 hr
Effect
Reduction in
chlorophyll o.,
(lowest value from
14 tests)
Chronic limits
for cystocarp
formation (sexual
fusion)
98Z mortality;
OZ development
1.2-1.9
LC50
CC50
(inability to
burro*)
CC50
(inability to
burro*)
Significant
reduction in
respirat ion
Signi ficont
reduction in
respirat ion
1,000
158.7
(geometric mean
of 5 values)
151.7
(geometric mean
of 5 values)
158.6
(geometric mean
of 3 values)
800
1.000
Reference
Wilson and Freeberg
I960
Steele and Thursby
1983
Boney et al. 1959
Pesch and Hoffman 1983
Pesch and Hoffman 1983
Pesch and Hoffman 1983
Pereira and Kanungo
1981
Pereira and Kanungo
1981
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Poiychaete (adult).
Neonthes virens
Mud snail (adult).
Nossori us obsoletus
Uud snail (adult),
Nossori us obsoletus
Uud snail (adult),
Nossori us obsoletus
Bl ue mussel (adul t ) ,
Uyt i 1 us edul is
Bl ue mussel (adult) ,
Uyt i 1 us edul is
Blue mussel (embryo) ,
Myt i 1 us edul is
Blue mussel (juveni le) ,
Myt i 1 us edul is
Blue mussel (adul t ) ,
Uyt i 1 us edul is
Salinity
Chemical (a/kat Duration
Silver, 26 24 hr
nitrate
Silver 25 72 hr
nitrate
Silver 25 72 hr
nitrate
Silver 25 72 hr
ni trate
Silver 25 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 15 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 30 72 hr
ni trate
Si Iver 25 6 mo
nitrate
' ' V,
Silver 25 21 mo
ni trote
Concentration
tll«et fwa/U"
Significant ionic 1,000
imbalances in
coelomic fluid
Distressed 250
behavior
( inabi lity to move)
Depressed 500
respiration
Mortality 20,000
I
Significant 100
increase in
respiration
Significant 100
increase in
respiration
EC50 (develop- < 4.4
meat to veliger)
No growth 43.7
Histological 1.5
changes (deposition
Reference
Pereira and Kanungo
1981
Uaclnnes and Thurberg
1973
Uoclnnes and Thurberg
1973
Uaclnnes and Thurberg
1973
Thurberg et al. 1974
Thurberg et al. 1974
Dinnel et al. 1983
Calabrese et al. 1984
Calabrese et al. 1984
of colored particulates
in basement membranes
and connective tissues
of various body organs)
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Speci es
Bay scallop (juvenile),
Arqopect in i rrodions
Pacific oyster (gamete),
Grossest reo qi gas
Pacific oyster (embryo).
Crossost rea qiqos
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crosses t reo v i rqi ni co
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crossost reo vi rqi ni co
Eastern oyster (adult),
Crassostreo virqinica
Eastern oyster (adult),
Crossost reo virqinica
Eastern oyster (adult),
Crossost reo vi rqi ni eg
Surf clam ( larva) ,
Spisul g sol i dissima
Sal i ait y
Chemical («/kql Duration
Silver 25 96 hr
nitrate
Silver 27 1 hr
ni trot*
Silver 16.5 48 hr
nitrate
Silver 24 12 days
nitrate
Silver 24 12 days
ni trate
Silver 35 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 25 96 hr
ni trote
Silver 15 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 26 2-15 days
ni trote
Concentration
Effect (ua/LI*
Significant 22
increase in respiration
EC50 (sperm cell 28.8
fertilization success)
EC50 6 69
(development )
LC50 25
32 91 reduction ' 25
in gro*th
No significant 1,000
effect on
respirat ion
Significant 100
increase in
respirat ion
Significant 100
increase in
respiration
Significant 50
increase in
respi rat ion
Reference
Nelson et al. 1976
Dinnel et al. 1983
Coglianese 1982
Colabrese et al . I977a
Calabrese et al . I977a
Thurberg et al . 1974
Thurberg et ai 1974
Thurberg et al . 1974
Thurberg et al 1975
-------
Table 6. (continued)
NJ
Species
Surf clam ( juveni It) ,
Spisulo sol i dissimo
Surf clam (adul t ) ,
Spisula sol idissima
Surf clam (gamete),
Spisulo sol idi ss imp
Quahog (adult).
Uercenor i q mercenor i a
Quahog (adult),
Mercenar i a mercenor i a
Quahog (adul t ) ,
Uercenario mercenaria
Quahog (larva),
Uercenor i a mercenor i a
Quahog ( 1 orwo) ,
Mercenario mercenaria
Salinity
Chemical (q/ka) Duretioe
Silver 26 96 hr
nitrate
Silver 26 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 30 45 min
ni trote
Silver 35 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 25 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 15 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 24 8-10 days
ni trate
Silver 24 8-10 days
nitrate
Concentration
Effect (iia/L)'
Significant 10
increase in
respiration
Significant 50
increase in
respirat ion
Significant . 6.4
abnormal larval
development following
prefert i 1 i zat ion
exposure of eggs
and sperm
No effect on 1 ,000
respiration
Significant 100
effect on
respiration
Significant 100
effect on
respiration
LC50 32 4
33. BZ reduction 32 4
in growth
Reference
Thurberg et al. 1975
Thurberg et al . 1975
Eyster and Morse 1984
Thurberg et al . 1974
Thurberg et al . 1971
Thurberg et al 1974
Calabrese et al . I977a
Colabrese et a! I977a
-------
Table 6. (continued)
OJ
Species
Soft-shell clam (adult).
Uya orenar i o
Soft-shell clam (adult).
Uya orenor i o
Soft-shell clam (adult).
Myo orenoria
Barnacl e (odul t ) ,
Bol onus bol onoi des
Barnacle (adul t ) ,
Bol onus balonoides
American lobster
(adult).
Homorus oroer i conus
Sea urchin (embryo).
Arboc i o 1 i xu 1 o
Sea urchi n (gamete) ,
St ronqy 1 ocent rot us
droebqchi ensi s
Sea urchin (gamete),
St ronqy 1 ocent rot us
Sal i nit y
Chejiicoi (q/kq) Duration
Silver 35 96 hr
ni trate
Silver 25 96 hr
nitrate
Silver 15 96 hr
nitrate
Si Iver - 2 days
sulfate
Silver - 5 days
sul fate
Silver - 30 days
ni trate
Silver - 52 hr
ni trate
Silver 27.7-29.1 60 min
ni trate
Silver 30 60 min
ni t rate
Concentration
|ffect (ua/Lia
Significant 100
increase in
respirat ion
Significant 100
increase in
respiration
Significant 100
increase in
respiration
LC90 • 400
LC90 200
Heart transominase 6 -
activity depressed
and induction of
gonadal glycolytic
enzymes
Significant 0.5
reduction in embryo
development
CC50 (sperm cell 76
fert i 1 izat ion success)
EC50 (sperm cell 94 0
fert i 1 i zat ion success)
Reference
Thurberg et ol . 1974
Thurberg et al. 1974
Thurberg et al . 1974
Clarke 1947
Clarke 1947
Calabrese et ol . I977b
Soyer 1963
Dinnel et al . 1982
Oinnel et al . 1983
droeboch i ens i s
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Sea urchin (gamete),
Stronqyl ocentrot us
droebochi ens i s
Sea urchin (gamete),
Stronqyj ocent rotus
droebach i ens i s
Sea urchin (gamete),
Stronqy locentrotus
droebochi ens i s
Sea urchin (gamete),
St ronqy 1 ocent rot us
droebochi ensis
Sea urchin (gamete),
Stronqvl ocentrot us
droebochi ensi s
Sea urchin (gamete),
Stronqy 1 ocentrot us
droebochiensis
Sea urchin (gamete),
Stronqvl ocentrot us
droebochi ensis
Sea urchin (embryo),
Stronqy locentrotus
droebach i ens i s
Sea urchin (gamete),
Stronqvl ocent rot us
Salinity
Che»icel (q/ka) Ouretio*
Silver 29 60 nin
nitrate
Silver 28 60 win
nitrate
Silver 27 60 min
ni trate
Si Iver 26 60 min
ni trate
Silver 25 60 min
ni trate
Silver 27 60 min
ni trate
Si Iver 27 60 min
ni trate
Silver 30 5 days
ni trate
Si Iver 27 60 min
ni t rote
Concentration
Cffect lua/Ll*
ECSO (sperm cell 85.9
ferti 1 ization success)
ECSO (sperm cell 44.9
fertilization success)
EC50 (sperm cell 44.3
ferti 1 ization success)
ECSO (sperm cell 34 1
fertilization success)
ECSO (sperm cell 29.8
fertilization success)
ECSO (sperm cell 85.7
fertilization success)
ECSO (sperm cell 84.5
ferti lization success)
ECSO (develop- 24.3
ment to pluteus)
ECSO (sperm cell 112.2
ferti 1 izat ion success)
Reference
Dinnel et at. 1983
Dinnel et al. 1983
Dinnel et al. 1983
Oinnel et al. 1983
Dinnel et al. 1983
Oinnel et al . 1983
Oinnel et al. 1983
Dinnel et al. 1983
Dinnel et al 1983
frone i sconus
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Sea urchin (gamete) ,
St ronqyl ocent rot us
purpurot us
Sea urchi n (gamete) ,
Stronqylocentrotus
purpurotus
Sea urchi n (embryo) .
Stronqyl ocent rot us
purpurotus
Sand dollar (gamete),
Oendroster excentricus
Sand dollar (gamete) ,
ui Oendroster excentricus
Coho salmon (gamete),
Oncorhynchus k i sut ch
Salinity
Chemical (a/ka)
Silver 27
nitrate
Silver 27
nitrate
Silver 27
nitrate
Silver 27-30
nitrate
Silver
ni trate
Silver 27
nitrate
Duration
60 min
60 min
5 days
60 mi n
60 min
60 min
Effect
Concentration
lua/Ll*
Mummichog (adult),
Fundulus heterocIi t us
Uummichog (adult), Silver
fundulus heterocli tus nitrate
Uummichog (adult), Silver
Fundulus heteroclitus chloride
Gunner (adult), Silver
Toutoqolobrus odspersus nitrate
20
24
96 hr
96 hr
96 hr
96 hr
ECSO (sperm cell 115.3
fertilization success)
ECSO (sperm cell 89.5
fertilization success)
ECSO (develop-
ment to pluteus)
14.9
CCSO (sperm cell , 54.5
fertilization success)
ECSO (sperm 45
fertilization success)
EC50 (sperm cell It.4
fertilization success)
Inhibition of 40
Iiver alkaline
phosphatase activity
Increase in 20
Iiver enzyme activity
Degeneration of 50
lateral-line and
olfactory structure
Significant 500
decrease in
respiration and
liver-enzyme activity
Reference
Dinnel et al. 1963
Dinnei et al. 1983
Dinnel et al. 1983
Dinnel et al. 1983
Dinnel et al 1982
Dinnel et al. 1983
Jackim et al. 1970
Jackim 1973
Gardner 1975
Gould and Uaclnnes 1977
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Chemical
Cunner (adult), Silver
Toutogolobrus odspersus acetate
Salicily
(aAal
24
Concentration
Purot ion
96 hr
Effect
Signi fleant
decrease in
respiration and
increase in liver-
enzyme activity
500
Cunner (adult),
Toutogol obrus odspersus
Winter flounder
(embryo) ,
Pseudopleuronectes
omer i conus
Winter flounder
( embryo) ,
Pseudopleuronectes
omeri conus
Winter flounder
(embryo) ,
Pseudopleuronectes
omer i canus
Winter flounder
(embryo) ,
Pseudopleuronectes
amer i conus
Winter flounder
( 1 orvo) ,
Pseudopleuronectes
Silver 24
nitrate
Silver 10
ni trate
Silver 21
ni trate
Silver 32
ni trate
Silver 27-32
ni trate
Silver 27-32
ni trate
96 hr
Throughout
embryonic
development
Throughout
embryonic
development
Throughout
embryonic
development
18 days
18 days
Signi f icant
decrease in
respiration
Signi f icant
reduction in
hatch success
Signi f icant
reduction in
hatch success
Signi f icant
reduction in
hatch success
• Signi f icant
reduction in
hatch success
Signi f icant
larval
mortal i ty
120
> 174
> 167
> 166
386
92
Reference
Gould and Uaclnnes 1977
Thurberg and Col Iier
1977
Voyer et al. 1982
Voyer et al. 1982
Voyer et al. 1982
Klein-UacPhee et al
1984
Klein-UacPhee et al
1984
omericonus
-------
Table 6. (continued)
Species
Winter flounder
( larva) ,
Pseudopl euronectes
omer i conus
Winter flounder
( larva) ,
Pseudopl euronectes
omer i conus
Winter flounder
(adult),
Pseudopleuronectes
omer i conus
Salinity
Cbeaical (q/ka) Duration
Silver 27-32 18 days
nitrate
Silver 27-32 18 days
ni trate
Si Iver - 60 days
ni trote
Coiceitrat ioi
Effect («
-------
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