SEPA
United States Industrial Environmental Research EPA-600/7-79-251a
Environmental Protection Laboratory November 1979
Agency Research Triangle Park NC 27711
Effects of Pathogenic
and Toxic Materials
Transported Via Cooling
Device Drift -
Volume 1. Technical Report
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide'range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the participating Federal Agencies, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the Government, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-79-251a
November 1979
Effects of Pathogenic and Toxic Materials
Transported Via Cooling Device Drift -
Volume 1. Technical Report
by
H.D. Freudenthal, J.E. Rubinstein, and A. Uzzo
H2M Corporation
375 Fulton Street
Farmingdale, New York 11735
Contract No. 68-02-2625
Program Element No. INE624A
EPA Project Officer: Michael C. Osborne
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
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ABSTRACT
The report describes a mathematical model that predicts the percent
of the population affected by a pathogen or toxic substance emitted in a
cooling tower plume, and gives specific applications of the model.
Eighty-five pathogens (or diseases) are cataloged as potentially
occurring in U.S. waters, but there is insufficient data to predict the
probability of occurrence or relate their occurrence to public health,
population, or pollution. Sixty-five toxic substances are cataloged as
potentially occurring in U.S. waters, but the actual number is probably
many times the EPA-supplied list. Toxic concentrations to persons,
animals, and plants are known for only a few of the chemicals: most
toxic levels can be only inferred from animal studies. In the popula-
tion as a whole, the epidemiological impact of a pathogen is a functio.n
of age, sex distribution, racial (genetic) distribution, general health
and well-being, prior exposure, and immunological deficiency states.
While cooling device drift may not be directly responsible for epidemics,
it may potentiate the burden in an already weakened population, raising
a segment of the population into the clinical state. The effect of
toxic substances is difficult to evaluate because of inadequate data on
humans. The effect is a function of concentration in susceptible tissue,
and is much less dependent than pathogens on host resistance.
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CONTENTS
Abstract i i
Figures iv
Tables v
Abbreviations and Symbols vii
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions 4
3. Recommendations 11
4. Objectives 14
5. Methodology 24
6. Results
Task I - Inventory 27
Task II - Transport 50
Task III - Direct Effects 93
Task IV - Indirect Effects 99
Task V - Recommendations 101
Task VI - Computer Simulation 102
References 176
Bibliography 180
Appendices
Introduction to Catalog iii
A. Aerosol Drift Health Hazard Assessment A-l
B. Aerosol Drift Direct Effects Assessment B-l
111
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Information flow diagram 15
2 Task assignment diagram 26
3 Typical natural and mechanical draft cooling towers 52
4 Fossil fuel steam electric plant using hyperbolic towers
has a heat balance as shown for 1000-MW capacity 54
5 Nuclear steam electric plant using hyperbolic tower has
a heat balance as shown for 1000-MW capacity 55
6 Percent by number vs. droplet size 59
7 Fall velocity of water drops as function of size 62
8 Dispersion of water drops as function of size 63
9 Mass size distribution percentage of total mass less 65
than stated
10 Calibration factor vs. downwind distance for examples
of Natural (N) and Mechanical (M) draft cooling
tower drift deposition 80
11 Basic flow chart 102
12 Microbial content of cooling tower 113
13 Droplet size distribution 115
14 Spatial organization of organisms 117
15 Infectivity model 119
16 Typical data file 121
17-21 Sample runs of stochastic model 122
22 Simulation program listing 168
IV
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Types of Cooling Towers 18
2 Pathogens Most Likely to Occur in Cooling Tower
Makeup Water Sources 30
3 Toxic Substances Potentially Present in Cooling
Makeup Water 37
4 Attenuation of Pathogens and Status in Makeup Water 41
5 Attenuation of Toxic Substances and Status in Makeup
Water 45
6 Pathogens Potentially Present Only in a Worst Case
Situation 48
7 Screened Pathogens Capable of Becoming Aerosolized 49
8 Toxins Capable of Becoming Aerosolized 50
9 Common Water Treatment Chemicals 57
10 Characterization of Condensation Nuclei 67
11 Model Input Parameters for Calculation of Table 12 75
12 Typical Ground Level Distribution of Drift Particles
From Natural Draft Cooling Towers 76
13 Model Input Parameters for Calculation of Table A 78
14 Example of Ground Level Distribution of Drift Particles
From a Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower 79
15 Organisms Reviewed for Aerosol Survival and
Transmissibility 82
16 Kill Percentage of Viruses Exposed to Ultra Violet
Radiation 87
17 Events Influencing Microbiological Survival 88
18 Numerical Constants Used in Estimating Probabilities.... 104
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TABLES CONT.
Number Page
19 Summary of Pathogen/Toxin Probabilities 105
20 Typical Input Parameters 121
VI
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
BTU British Thermal Unit
BW Biological Warfare
Ca Calcium
Cl Chlorine
cm centimeter
DAT Dynamic Aerosol Toroid
EMV Encephalomyocarditis Virus
EST Eastern Standard Time
FD Forced Draft Cooling Device
Fe Iron
g grams
gpm gallons per minute
HCO^ bicarbonate ion
ID Induced Draft Cooling Device
K Kelvin
Km Kilometer
1 liter
L/G Water rate/air rate (Ibs/time)
m meter
m3 cubic meter
mb millibar
mm millimeter
mg milligrams
mw megawatt
Na Sodium
0 Oxygen
(OH)~ Hydroxide ion
ppm parts per million
r radius
RH Relative Humidity
SO^~ Sulfate
SV4Q Simian Virus 40
Teo ambient temperature near exit from tower
Tpo plume temperature
u micron
VSV Vesicular Stomatitis virus
WB Wet Bulb
VII
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The recent trend in the electric power generating industry
and major industries has been the use of closed circuit cooling
devices. The use of these devices supercedes the use of once-
through cooling systems which had the disadvantage of harmful
thermal discharges into surface waters and fish impingement or
entrainment. However, the closed circuit systems, or cooling
towers, have potential problems, too.
Previous studies have shown that a potential health hazard
could exist if pathogens were to be dispersed in cooling tower
drift (Lewis, 1974; Cummings, 1964; Dvorn and Wilcox, 1972). This
could occur as a result of drawing make-up water from highly pol-
luted surface waters or from the use of processed wastewater
(reclaimed water) with inadequate microbial control. In addition
to the direct effects on plants such aerosols might potentially
cause severe environmental damage, and present legal difficulties
to the source operator, especially if the aerosol source impacted
dense population centers.
Two prior studies were conducted by H2M for the Consolidated
Edison Company of New York (Con Ed) and for a midwest utility
that prefers to remain anonymous. Under the provisions of the
work statement for the Con Ed study, H2M was to:
a. Inventory the sources of possible pathogen pollution
in the Hudson, from the Bronx to Albany.
b. Prepare a catalogue of all possible organisms which could
reasonably occur in the area and be transported by the
cooling tower drift route.
c. Estimate the magnitude of the severity of the problem.
d. Describe the water treatment methods which would be
needed to provide positive control over pathogens and
totally eliminate the problem.
The one month study, based entirely upon published data and
no field observations, drew the following conclusions:
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a. Based upon coliform bacterial levels, used as indicators
of fecal pollution, the contamination of the Hudson is
sufficiently high to present the possibility of the
occurrence of pathogens.
b. The physical conditions of temperature, pressure and
flow in the cooling tower circuit will not attenuate
pathogens, and during some months, may even prolong
survival. The biocides which are added for algae con-
trol are ineffective against many pathogens (viruses,
spores, etc.).
c. Many pathogens will survive aerosolization and can be
transported in a virulent condition over thousands of
square miles.
On the basis of the findings of this early study, it was
concluded that the possibility of disease transmission through
cooling tower drift exists. It was also concluded that the proba-
bility of this happening is very low. However, it is remotely
possible that the proper combination of a badly contaminated slug
of water, inadequate biocidal treatment, plus unfavorable atmo-
spheric conditions could disperse millions of virulent organisms.
Even if not particularly virulent, the constant loading of the
atmosphere with biological and chemical respiratory offenders pre-
sented a potential of a general increase in "colds" and allergies,
contributing to the overall discomfort and loss of productivity
of populated areas.
That study did not produce firm recommendations due to the
inadequacy of factual information. It did however conclude that
the problem is sufficiently critical to warrant further study.
A study performed by NUS in 1974 for Public Service Gas and
Electric Company of New Jersey, on the potential virus hazard from
their Bergen, Burlington and Mercer plants concluded that there
would be no hazard. But the authors neither sampled virus from
the rivers of the respective plants, nor did they discuss any
literature addressing specific organisms. Meanwhile, a very com-
prehensive review of the "health significance of airborne micro-
organisms from wastewater treatment processes," by Hickey and
Reist (1975) stated:
"The body of evidence is persuasive that some as yet unde-
termined health effects occur from viable wastewater aerosols."
This premise was confirmed by Walka (1976) in a thesis on the
distribution of bacterial aerosols from a sewage treatment plant.
He concluded that a survey is needed, especially examining the
epidemiological effect of aerosols on populations surrounding
wastewater treatment facilities. It was not felt that additional
microbial monitoring around aeration tanks would be productive.
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Work currently in progress by Lewis and Adams (1978) includes
development of a sampling program seeking opportunistic bacteria,
indicated by coliforms, in cooling device drift. Sampling was per-
formed at five sites, drawing make up water from a variety of pol-
luted sources. One completed study examines asbestos in cooling
waters and a subsequent study is planned to sample for asbestos
in the ambient environment.
Work has proceeded in examining the chemistry and effects of
biocides in cooling towers (Jolley, 1977), and on the health of
humans and aquatic organisms. The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) has acknowledged the need for further research and has been
looking into the state of the art.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
In summary, the following conclusions may be drawn from this
study.
I. OCCURRENCE
1. Pathogens Potentially Present
Eighty-five (85) pathogens (or diseases) have been catalogued
as potentially occurring in United States waters. There is insuf-
ficient data to predict the probability of occurrence or relate
their occurrence to public health, population, or pollution. The
coliform test has no proven relationship between the occurrence
of coliforms and specific pathogens, except for the one case of
Salmonellae in which the frequency of occurrence varied directly
with coliform values, (Geldreich and Van Donsel, 1970). It must
be assumed that polluted water or sanitary effluent may carry
pathogenic viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, or helminths, either
as indigenous organisms or introduced through any of several natural
or anthropogenci routes.
2. Toxic Substances Potentially Present
Sixty-five (65) toxic substances have been catalogued as
potentially occurring in United States waters, although the actual
number is probably many times this EPA-supplied list. The occurrence
of specific substances has been definitely related to land usage.
Toxic concentrations to man, other animals and plants are known
for only a few of the chemicals, for most toxic levels can be only
inferred from animal studies. Concentrations in natural waters or
wastewater effluent are not well documented, but toxic levels have
been reported in many parts of the country. Although it is a
natural goal to remove these materials from the environment,
it must be assumed that they may be present. It must also be
assumed that these substances are capable of producing clinical
or sub-clinical toxic reactions in humans and other living
organisms, even though the relationship has not always been demon-
strated.
3. Use of Polluted Natural and Waste Waters as Make-Up Water
If cooling devices draw make-up water from polluted natural
-------
waters or wastewater with less than total purification, it must
therefore be assumed that microorganisms and toxic substances
capable of producing disease may be incorporated into the circula-
ting water of the device. As major cooling devices withdraw large
quantities of water to replace that lost by evaporation (e.g.
16 mgd for a 1,000 megawatt fossil fuel power plant), the probability
of taking up pathogens or chemical substances is great if these
occur in the source of make-up water.
II. SURVIVAL IN THE COOLING DEVICE
1. Pathogens
Most cooling devices have a mean circulating water temperature
close to human body temperature and the temperature which favors
the growth of mammalian pathogens. Therefore, in the absence of
biocides, the microorganism will survive and may multiply if
suitable nutrients are present. Biocides, of the type usually
used to control algal growth, may have limited efficiency in destroy-
ing, or attenuating pathogens, and even the strongest of commercial
disinfectants may have little effect on viruses. The removal
of some of the circulating water through "blow-down" may
establish a steady state population of viable organisms in the
circulating water.
2. Toxic Substances
Dissolved or suspended toxic substances will not normally
be attenuated in circulating water within the cooling device.
Pretreatment of make-up water, or the use of water "conditioners"
may precipitate-out or otherwise attenuate the concentration
of these substances. Removal of the substances in the "blow-
down" may establish a steady state concentration.
3. Survival and Persistence
It must be assumed that pathogens and toxic substances
will survive and persist within the cooling device environment.
III. CONVERSION INTO DRIFT
1. Droplet Size and Composition
As drift is produced as droplets of water, the size of the
droplets is adequate to contain almost all pathogenic microorganisms
and dissolved or suspended toxic materials. The drift will have
essentially the same chemical and- biological composition as the
circulating water.
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2. Quantity of Loss through Drift
Although the loss of water as drift is a small percentage
of the circulating water, the quantities are still large in major
cooling devices. (e.g. a 1,000 megawatt fossil fuel power plant
may release 13 mgd of water as drift, equivalent to the water
consumption of a city of 250,000 people.)
3. Passage of Pathogens and Toxic Substances into Aerosol State
The potential is therefore great for the passage of substan-
tial quantities of pathogens and toxins into drift, if these are
present in the circulating water.
IV. TRANSPORT IN AEROSOL DRIFT
1. Deposition of Drift
A substantial portion of the drift will be deposited in the
vicinity of the cooling device, as demonstrated in drift models
and studies with drift generating devices. However, meteorological
phenomena could incorporate the drift into strong surface winds,
clouds, or the upper atmosphere, resulting in transport over
hundreds of miles.
2_. Pathogen Transport in Aerosol Drift
Pathogens are of such size that they are capable of being
transported in the drift or atmosphere for substantial distances.
This transport has been documented.
3_. Toxin Transport in Aerosol Drift
Toxic substances will behave as the water droplets in the drift,
V. SURVIVAL IN AEROSOL DRIFT
1. Pathogen Survival in Aerosol Drift
Microorganisms in drift are normally attenuated by dessication,
temperature and ultraviolet radiation. A drift produced in an
arid climate during the day would show a great reduction of some
pathogens, principally bacteria and protozoa. A drift produced
in a humid atmosphere, at cold temperatures, and at night would
have little attenuation. Drift droplets that freeze would insure
survival of almost all pathogens. Dense cloud cover, or the density
of the plume itself, would restrict UV penetration, and would reduce
attenuation.
2. Toxic Substance Integrity in Aerosol Drift
6
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Few of the toxic substances considered were sensitive to
light or moisture. Attenuation in the drift would be negligi-
ble. Even if the water of the drift evaporates, most substances
would be suspended as gas, aerosols or particles, without
modification. In some cases, toxic materials could undergo
photochemical reactions, increasing their toxicity.
3. Effect of Ambient Environment on Survival and Integrity
It must be assumed that drift can transport pathogens and
toxins without significant attenuation. Ambient site charac-
teristics influence the viability of some microorganisms, but
have little effect on toxic molecules as a whole.
VI. PRODUCTION OF DISEASE OR CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
1. Human Susceptibility
Pathogens
The pathogens' ability to produce disease or clinical
manifestations is a function of arrival of a sufficient number of
infective particles at a suitable portal of entry and the suscep-
tibility of the host. Bacterial infectivity is a function of
a stoichiometric relationship between the number of organisms
and hosts' antibodies, and the number required may vary from a
few to several hundred thousand. For viruses, protozoa, fungi,
and worms, the number of infective particles may be as few as one,
As the half life of pathogens in the environment may be long,
accumulation or continuous exposure could bring the number of
particles to critical levels.
In the population as a whole, the epidemiological impact
is a function of age, sex distribution, racial (genetic) distri-
bution, general health and well-being, prior exposure and immuno-
logical deficiency states. While cooling device drift itself may
not be directly responsible for epidemics, it may potentiate
the burden in an already weakened population, raising a segment
of the population into the clinical state.
Toxic Substances
The effect of toxic substances is difficult to evaluate
because of inadequate data on humans. The effect is a function
of concentration in susceptible tissue, and is much less depen-
dent on host resistance than for pathogens. Immunity can not be
acquired either.
Death directly due to most drift borne toxic substances
is unlikely, based upon the concentrations implied by the
limited data. Cancers are most likely, but the data is also
insufficient to draw any conclusions. A highly probable but
speculative impact is the weakening of individuals, making them
susceptible to infection, or allergic reactions.
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2. Animal Susceptibility
Pathogens
The general pathogen considerations for animals are the same
as for humans, except that herbivores graze directly on vegetation
and therefore have a greater potential for accumulating infectious
particles from plants exposed to drift.
Toxic Substances
The accumulation of toxic substances on vegetation presents
a greater probability of accumulation to toxic levels within grazing
herbivores.
3. Vegetation Susceptibility
Pathogens
Only the fungi and viruses are significant as pathogens,
and the usual route of transfer is by vectors or dry wind. Cooling
device drift is not a significant factor.
Toxic Substances
The effect of the toxic substances considered is not well
documented, but drift transport does not appear to be a significant
factor. The water droplets themselves, humidity, or ordinary salts
in the drift are documented as causes of plant disease.
VII. PROBABILITY OF OCCURRENCE
In determining the relative probability of host contamination,
a number of assumptions and parameters had to be worked into the
mathematical model. These specifically include:
a. Cooling tower height: 400 ft.
b. Top diameter: 300 ft.
c. Exit air volume: 23 x 10® cubic feet per min,
d. Evaporative loss: 13 cubic feet per second
e. Aerosol loss: 0.01 cubic feet per second
f. Wind Speed: 30 feet per second
g. Air temperature: 300 K.
h. Relative humidity: 70%
i. Circulating water volume: 5 x 10® cubic feet
j. Blow-down: Complete blow-down @ 1.5:1 concentration ratio
8
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Other parameters which were selected for inclusion in the
model were based on typical power plant load profiles and
weather conditions for 24 hour periods. Each 24 hour period
was divided into four hour segments and it was assumed that
conditions remained constant over this period. The numerical
values which were chosen and integrated into the model were
considered typical for a natural draft cooling tower for a
plant of approximately 1000 MW capacity. These parameters
include drift fraction e.g. 5x10 ~5 gig, salt concentration
ratios of 30%, weather conditions for typical seasonal, day
and evening instances, plant operating capacity and atmospheric
stability. The specific values assigned to the parameters are
detailed on the printout of each case.
A calculation was then performed to determine the proba-
bility of contamination using those assumptions and parameters.
The following is a sample of the results achieved for a summer's
day case.
24 HOUR TOTALS
DAILY PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .34
DISK MI) QRG/M3/DAY ORG/M2/DAY
0. 10 0. 0 0. 0
0.15 1107339.0 454345.4
0.20 311119.8 129253.4
0,30 98662.0 41190.6
0,50 105227.0 232410.3
0.75 215556.6 369901.7
1.00 280V64.0 379159.9
1,50 155911.4 141004.1
2.00 94571.7 58955.1
2,50 66768.6 33844.5
3,00 50172.2 21953.7
4.00 17523.1 5660.8
5-00 12931.0 3511.6
7.00 8573.2 1983.8
9,00 6487.0 1202.0
10.00 5151.9 756.5
12.OO 4226.6 604.1
15.00 1685.0 230.4
20.00 986.8 107.6
25.00 664.9 54.7
9
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SUMMARY OF RESULTS
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
O.50
0.75
, 00
, 30
oo
,50
1,
1.
2.
2.
3.00
4.00
5.0U
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
AVG NO. PART.
INGESTED/IND.
0.0
1561684.4
440373.2
139852.6
337637.3
585458.3
660123.9
296915.5
153526.8
100613.1
72125.9
23183.9
16442.5
10557.1
7689.0
5908.4
4830.7
1915.4
1094.5
719.6
PERCENT AFFECTED
BY EFFLUENT
O.OOO
18.135
0.486
1.223
20.0OO
9.244
13.324
18.221
11.626
10.064
5.507
0.486
1.914
0.318
O.OO6
O.OOO .
0.000
O.OOO
0.409
0.215
10
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
I. General Epidemiology and Microbiology
As in all public health and water supply work, the confi-
dence in health hazard projections is low because of inadequate
data. To compensate for the inability to make accurate projec-
tions, the United States had adopted a technology of extra caution
in water treatment. While this has brought this nation an absence
of infectious disease heretofore unknown in the history of man-
kind, it has imparted cost, energy and environmental penalties,
as well as possible health hazards of the non-infectious type.
A. Society must establish the level of public health
that it is willing to accept, together with the
economic and social cost. This is a political de-
cision beyond the scope of cooling devices alone,
but it is incumbent upon science and engineering to
develop the costs and benefits of alternative tech-
nologies. Studies to develop these, and measure
public attitudes, should be performed.
B. The use of the coliform test as an indicator of
health hazard is a poor substitute for actual pathogen
monitoring, justifiable only when no alternative methods
were feasible. Today, equipment and procedures exist
for rapidly identifying specific pathogens. The advances
of space technology and diagnostic medical microbiology
should be applied to water monitoring, for cooling
devices and all other water use sciences.
C. Aerobiological and aerochemical studies should be performed
in the United States and Europe to determine if the
microbiological and chemical load imposed upon the
atmosphere by cooling device drift is so significantly
above background as to constitute a possible health hazard.
Studies using "tagged" organisms and chemicals should
be considered in addition to environmental monitoring.
D. Epidemiological studies should be conducted in areas in
which major cooling devices have been in use, especially
those which use polluted water for make-up. The selec-
tion of sites is very critical. They must have adequate
health data prior to the use of the cooling device, and
11
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the general level of health should be good. Such study
sites may be found in Europe.
E. Laboratory models should be constructed, using polluted
water, cooling device drift simulation, and animals, to
experimentally derive data on health impact.
F. Special attention should be given to subclinical and
allergic manifestations of infection and toxicity pro-
duced by cooling device drift and other sources of air
pollution. Current health data suggest an increase of
health problems directly related to environmental pollu-
tion. Those which result in clinical symptoms are easi-
est to document, however, there appears to be an increase
in those conditions which cause discomfort, decrease
resistance to infectious disease, initiate autoimmune
"cancerous" conditions, and generally shorten life or
decrease productivity. These are typified by allergies,
"colds," etc., i.e. those conditions which do not call
for a medical practitioner, but are nevertheless debili-
tating or unrecognizable.
II. Cooling Device Technology
A. In as much as cooling devices may be used in close
proximity to sources of gaseous or particle emissions,
such as smoke stacks, studies should be conducted on
the relationship between drift and capture and trans-
port of atmospheric pollutants. These studies should
be field monitoring as well as laboratory simulation.
B. The need and means of controlling the emission of
pathogens and toxic substances should be investigated,
irrespective of any findings under epidemiology. The
epidemiological, microbiological, and chemical studies
on drift may be inconclusive, and will certainly be
of long duration. If public policy is to avoid poten-
tial risks, as it does in public water supply, then
safety precautions should be imposed on cooling device
design and operation. Such precautions should represent
a Best Available Control Technology (BACT).
C. The viability of pathogens in drift should be studied
to develop biological half-life projections as a function
of atmospheric conditions. This is necessary because
it does not appear that the historical concepts of aero-
biology and attenuation of organisms apply to dense
aerosols.
Ill. Modeling
12
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Procedures should be further refined for mathematical
modeling of the health impact of cooling device drift. This
requires more precise input on variables which have been only
assumed in this study, and better integration of drift and
infectivity models.
13
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SECTION 4
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study was to complete a comprehensive
review and analysis of potential hazards to humans, plants and
animals that might be caused by pathogens and toxins transported
via cooling device drift.
For the purpose of program organization and control, the
project was divided into six tasks, which are shown on the fol-
lowing Information Flow Diagram (Figure 1) and detailed in the
following sections. Two pathways were postulated. The "normal
pathway" represents situations which might occur in the everyday
ambient environment under normal conditions. The worst case path-
way represents the highest possible concentrations of pathogens or
toxic substances in cooling water, failure of water treatment
or biocide systems in the cooling device, atmospheric conditions
insuring pathogen viability, toxin integrity, and entry into a
susceptible host in sufficient concentration to produce disease.
TASK I
The primary function within this task was to inventory the
types of pathogens and toxic substances which may be present in
cooling device drift. The inventoried pathogens and toxins ori-
ginate in recycled industrial, municipal and/or agricultural
wastewaters, and polluted river waters, which would be used as
cooling tower makeup. It was deemed necessary to include pol-
luted river waters because power plants using treated effluent
will generally require a back-up source of surface water in case
of wastewater treatment failure or supply inadequacy.
The process of preparing the inventory was to:
1. List most commonly known pathogens and toxic substances
found in wastewater and polluted water, with typical
concentrations when known. The microorganisms which
were surveyed included the following groups :
Viruses Pleuropneumonia-like
Richettsia Organisms (PPLO)
Bacteria Protozoa
Fungi Invertebrate Parasites
14
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FIGURE 1
INFORMATION FLOW DIAGRAM
Effect of Pathogenic and Toxic Materials
Transported via Cooling Device Drift
y
\ ' •
/
^
f
\
>H
&-
w
EH
<
ft
a
s
CJ
§^
\
f
TASK 1-1
Identify pathogens and toxic substances present
in make up water.
>
TASK 1-2
Screen list for survival in cooling device
\
TASK
r
1-3
Screen list for passage into aerosol state.
\
r
TASK 2
Fate of organisms and substances as drift parti-
cles are tansported in atmosphere.
\
f
TASK 3
Direct effect of pathogen or toxic substance on:
-Animals (including humans)
-Plants
>
f
TASK 4
Potential for transmitting adverse effects from
infected organisms to animals and humans.
^
r
TASK 6
Model normal and worst case situations to develop
probability of occurrence.
N
TAS
X
Recommendation for fut
K 5
ure research.
•j
N
^
w
>H
-------
Only those organisms which could reasonably be found in
America were catalogued. This list also included cer-
tain foreign species which are being imported by world
travelers, and which are recognized as potential health
hazards.
Chemical substances which were surveyed included:
1. Metals
a. Heavy metals
b. Transitional metals
2. Macronutrients
3. Micronutrients (Organic and Inorganic)
4. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
5. Chlorinated and Ozonated Amines
6. Petrochemicals
7. Other toxic organics (e.g. Pharmaceuticals)
8. Industrial Chemicals
a. Plasticizers and other organics
b. Process wastes
c. Radioactive wastes.
2. The list was screened and categorized as to the sus-
ceptibility of organisms and substances to control by
wastewater treatment or natural water purification pro-
cesses .
3. The list from Step 2 was further screened to character-
ize only those organisms and substances which could be
aerosolized. This step required input and coordination
with the aerosol physics aspects of the program.
The end product of this task is a CATALOGUE which
lists separately for each organism and toxic substance
the following data:
Organism name or chemical substance
Disease name
Medical significance
Location of occurrence
Frequency of occurrence
Survivability in surface water
Survivability in treated effluent
Survivability in air and/or aerosol fomites
Control methods in water or effluents
The catalogue treats microorganisms as both infectious
agents and allergens. Chemical irritants were con-
sidered in a slightly different manner including con-
centration as a parameter, when available.
There is also an estimated probability of occur-
16
-------
rence in water. Except for a few cases where data was
available, this was a qualitative judgment.
TASK II
Under this task the transport of pathogens and toxic sub-
stances in aerosol drift is assessed. Utilizing the inventory
of substances and organisms produced under Task I, Task II in-
vestigates three areas:
1. A review and evaluation of the production of drift by
cooling devices and the atmospheric physics of drift
particles.
2. The transport of toxic substance in drift.
3. The aerobiology of organisms in drift.
Drift Physics
The primary objective here is to define drift as a function
of selected cooling device designs. The data provided includes
the following:
Drift size distribution
Drift mass distribution
Drift composition
Drift emission rate based on liquid flow to air flow ratio
Parameters as functions of wet-bulb/day, bulb temperature,
relative humidity
He^t capacity
Exit velocity.
The matrix on the following page depicts the types of
devices that were considered (Table 1).
The analysis concentrated on the cooling devices of larger
sizes, from 109 to 1010 BTU/hr., since these have the greatest
impact. Consideration was given to units which are capable of
producing drift and of using polluted water. Although spray
pond cooling devices do produce drift they were not considered
because their impact is extremely localized. Therefore, the
emphasis of this task is the examination of large capacity
evaporative cooling devices.
Special attention was given to physical size. There is a
significant difference between the mechanical type towers and
the natural draft towers in the following aspects.
1. The bulk of the towers is conducive to wake entrain-
ment at elevated wind-speeds.
17
-------
TABLE 1
TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS
Mechanical Draft
Forced Induced Natural Draft Mixed
Wet
Crossflow no yes yes yes
Counterflow yes yes yes yes
Wet-Dry
Parallel flow no yes no no
(note a)
Note a: This type is to be considered only when in the wet mode
18
-------
2. The height of the towers contributes to the drift
particle growth and dispersion patterns.
3. The height of the towers and their emissions will
determine the potential for scrubbing action of
chemicals and microorganisms from the local ambient
atmosphere.
Drift emission rate was considered. The amount of drift is
a tower design function. Previous design practice has been to
use as an upper limit, a guaranteed drift rate not to exceed 0.2%
of the water circulation rate. Recent designs of drift elimina-
tors have resulted in drift guarantees of from 0.05% to 0.002%
of the circulating water flow. These values may be interpreted
in terms of parts per million by using a design ratio, L/G, which
is the ratio of the water rate to the air rate, both in pounds
per unit of time.
Data was evaluated on the initial drop size distribution.
This is an area of great uncertainty. The drop size distribu-
tion in the cooling tower drift was related to tower design para-
meters. Estimates were made of the limiting size, which must be
such that the gravitational fall velocity of a droplet is less
than the air speed at the exit of the tower. Estimates were
also made of the water mass distribution, and finally, the
initial composition of the drift particles was described in rela-
tion to the make up water.
Transport of Toxic Substances
The transport of toxic substances in the changing structure
and composition of the plume, relative to the ambient air, and
the distribution of drift over the terrain was evaluated.
The following device parameters were taken into account with
respect to the incorporation of toxic substance into drift:
Downwash
Supersaturation
Effect of effluent latent heat on plume rise
Effect of saturated ambient air on plume rise
Prediction of condensation
Existing models were critically screened and typical re-
sults were evaluated with respect to the general task objective.
Evaluations for transport and fate were made on the basis of the
following functions:
Selected cooling device types - considering the range of
operational characteristics.
Ambient seasonal climatology.
Terrain characteristics (shoreline, valley, plains, urban,
rural, etc.).
19
-------
Conditions conducive to survival of organisms (humidity,
UV screening, temperature).
Deposition rates were evaluated in order to determine the
loss of compounds from the plume and concentrations of compounds
in the receiving environment.
The effects of oxidation or photochemistry upon toxic
materials were assessed. Taken into consideration were atmos-
pheric conditions, plume density, and particles resident time
in the atmosphere. This evaluation essentially relates toxic
substance concentration to time and distance.
Aerobiology
The ability of each pathogen group to be effectively
transmitted by aerosols was reviewed and documented. This
process took into account the following factors for the
different particle size ranges:
1. Attenuation due to desiccation
2. Attenuation due to solar radiation
3. Protective mechanisms due to dissolved chemicals in the
aerosols.
This information was gathered from published scientific and
medical literature, and from personal liaison with former parti-
cipants in biological warfare (BW) study programs which have now
become declassified.
TASK III
The potential effects upon inhalation by, or contact with,
animals or plants.
The arrival of a pathogen or toxic substance at a plant or
animal does not, per se, mean the manifestation of disease.
The offender must interact with the body and overcome the body's
defense mechanisms.
For each pathogen or toxic substance which was identified
in Task I, and which survived aerosol transport, an assessment
was made of the probability of initiation or aggravation of
disease. This assessment included:
a. A description of the normal means of entry of the
offending agent into the body.
b. A description of the normal body susceptibility.
This information was abstracted from epidemiological
literature for plants, animals and humans.
20
-------
The result of this task is an estimate of the probability
of a pathogen or toxin producing disease, after arriving within
capture range of the host. This probability is expressed in
general terms based on an analysis of factors including:
a. Induced or natural immunity
b. Strain resistance
c. Synergistic or antagonistic factors
d. Age
e. Sex
f. Route of entry
These factors were evaluated in relation to occurrence and
transmission, and faction. Where possible chronic and acute
severity is also discussed for both individuals and population
groups.
TASK IV
Potential for transporting adverse effects from affected
plants and animals to other animals and humans.
This task is very closely related to the objectives of
Task III. For pathogens, literature review and assessment covered
zoonoses. Within this epidemiological evaluation, transmission
of pathogens from plants to humans considered their role as
fomites and vectors.
An effort was made to identify those toxic substances which
would be assimilated in edible plant parts and phytoplankton.
Consideration was given to detoxification mechanisms in plants
and where possible estimates were given for residual concentra-
tions which could be consumed by herbivores.
The data from this task was, as in Task III, incorporated
into the catalogue format for a comprehensive review of each
pathogen and toxin.
TASK V
Conclusions and recommendations for future research.
Regardless of the specific conclusions which were drawn from
the study, it was obvious that there is little data available.
Data gaps exist, identifying areas to be researched. Further
comments were made in the areas of:
1. Theoretical and analogue simulation, and modeling.
2. Field measurements on the actual occurrence of pathogens
in the drift in the vicinity of cooling devices.
3. Technological methods of control.
4. Epidemiology in the vicinity of polluted water cooling
towers.
21
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TASK VI
Predicative model development.
One very useful way to evaluate the possible impact of
cooling tower drift on public health is by the establishment of
suitable predicative mathematical models. It is clear for this
case, as in many other systems modeled, that all the desired
parameters, constants and variables may not be clearly identifi-
able or definable. However, this does not at all preclude the
development of utilitarian models that can be modified as more
data become available and as it becomes apparent that some
"tuning" of the model is necessary as a result of experience.
The question approached in the predicative model development
was the liklihood of a pathogenic organism or toxic substance
reaching and affecting the public. Because answers to this
type of inquiry are probabilistic, they should be answered by
the development of a stochastic (probabilistic) rather than de-
terministic model. Less work has been done with stochastic models
because they are more difficult to deal with. Even so, their use
has become increasingly common as the shortcomings of completely
deterministic models became more apparent.
There is a logical sequence involved in evaluating the
possible erosion of public health as a result of cooling tower
drift. Some of the major events in this sequence, which were
discussed are:
1. Probability of occurrence of pathogens or toxic
substances in makeup or other input waters.
2. Probability of survival of pathogens or toxic sub-
stances in cooling towers.
3. Probability of hazardous materials being carried
into the atmosphere.
4. Probability and time duration of survival of
hazardous materials in the atmosphere
5. Probability of interception by an appropriate host
or vector.
6. Probability of development of harmful effects.
Each of these events were developed from other events which
are probabilistic in and of themselves (e.g. presence of sunlight,
air and water temperatures, residence times, wind direction and
velocity, etc.). Knowing something about the parameters that
affect each event postulated, the predicative model was developed
for each event that establishes the possiblity of that event occurr-
ing. A serial model, as outlined above has a condition that the
possibility of the preceeding event occurring must exist. In the
modeling of this system as outlined, it is apparent that there
are many similarities to the extensive simulations for reliability
and availability predictions for electronic systems. There is
22
-------
extensive literature on such simulations and predicative models
and as applicable serves as a base for the establishment of the
proposed predicative model.
The problem of random events was solved by substituting for
the actual event or function, a simpler one where the desired
probability laws are obtained by drawing random numbers. These
methods, based on game theory are called Monte Carlo methods.
These techniques have been well developed for the investigation
of predicative stochastic models such as are suited to this
study and form the basis for aspects of the model development.
In this task, a predicative mathematical model is developed.
To the extent possible that known (or suspected) variables can be
included, either on the basis of known or hypothetical grounds,
the model incorporates them. Areas of question are identified
and provisions are made for incorporation of new or speculative
items as required. Model testing is accomplished using routine
establishment of probabilities using available statistical data,
and by using Monte Carlo methods for prediction of probabilities.
The models developed are carefully documented in flow chart
design and development of algorithms. Also the programming was
written in one of the higher level languages (FORTRAN). This
allows for future building on the developed model as more data
becomes available from future work.
23
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SECTION 5
METHODOLOGY
This study attempts to further define and assess the poten-
tial health hazards resulting from cooling tower drift. Although
it has already been shown that data is lacking, this study attempts
to answer questions and make a valid assessment utilizing existing
sources and references. It is certainly hoped that this investi-
gation will provide some answers, but it will also be considered
a significant effort to direct the need for future study.
To complete the study a staff of outstanding subcontractors
and consultants were assembled. The specialists and their fields
are as follows:
1. Aerosol Physics and Cooling Tower Emissions.
(Subcontract to York Research Corp., Stamford, Conn.)
Edward J. Kaplin, M.S.: Principal Scientist.
Alan D. Goldman: Environmental Meterologist.
Experience in theoretical and applied design of cooling
devices, and monitoring emissions.
2. Microbiology.
Henry David Isenberg, Ph.D.: Chairman, American Board
Medical Microbiology; Editor, Journal of Clinical
Microbiology; Chief of Microbiology, Long Island Jewish
Medical Center.
3. Epidemiology.
Cyrus C. Hopkins, M.D.: Hospital Epidemiologist, Massa-
chusetts General Hospital; Assistant Physician, Massa-
chusetts General Hospital; Assistant Professor Medicine,
Harvard Medical School.
Robert Harold Rubin, M.D.: Infectious Disease Unit,
Massachusetts General Hospital; Assistant Professor of
Medicine, Harvard Medical School.
4. Zoology and Animal Pathology.
Basil P. Tangredi, D.V.M.: Practicing veterinarian.
Sydney Anderson, Ph.D.: Curator of Mammals, American
Museum of Natural History, New York.
24
-------
5.
6.
Botany and Plant Pathology.
Leonard Weinstein, Ph.D.: Director, Environmental
Laboratory, Boyce Thompson Institute.
Delbert C. McCune, Ph.D.:
Thompson Institute.
Plant physiologist, Boyce
Aerobiology.
Philip Cooper, M.S.: Formerly a research scientist at the
United States Air Force Air Medical Research Laboratory.
These specialists were assigned their scope of work under the
task structure described in the Objectives (see Figure 2). All
research was secondary, to be taken from known and accepted sour-
ces. Data was submitted according to a task schedule and compiled
in house.
25
-------
FIGURE 2
TASK ASSIGNMENT DIAGRAM
Effect of Pathogenic and Toxic Materials
Transported via Cooling Device Drift
TASK 1-1
Identify pathogens and toxic substances present
in make up water.
H2M, Drs. Hopkins, Rubin & Isenberg
TASK 1-2
Screen list for survival in cooling device.
H2M, Dr. Isenberg
TASK
Screen list for passage
H2M, York Research
1-3
into aerosol state.
TASK 2
Fate of organisms and substances as drift parti-
les are transported in atmosphere.
York, H2M, Dr. Isenberg, Mr. Cooper
TASK 3
Direct effect of pathogen or toxic substance on
- Animals (including humans)
Drs. Hopkins & Rubin (humans)
Drs. Andersen & Tangredi (animals)
- Plants
Drs. McCune & Weinstein
TASK 4
Potential for transmitting adverse effects from
infected organisms to animals and humans.
Animals - Drs. Andersen & Tangredi
Humans - Drs. Hopkins & Rubin
TASK 6
Model normal and worst case situations to develop
probability of occurrence.
Dr. Uzzo
TASK 5
Recommendation for future research.
H2M
26
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SECTION 6
RESULTS
RESULTS OF TASK I - INVENTORY
Disease means any pathological manifestation, caused either
by micro-organisms or by nonliving substances. There are several
major routes for the transmission of disease:
I. Water
2. Air
3. Vectors (e.g. insects)
4. Fomites (contaminated food, dust, aerosols, etc.)
5. Direct contact with diseased organisms
Of these, water is probably the most serious. Water becomes
contaminated easily, it can transport germs or dissolved sub-
stances greater distances, and it is universally required in
large quantities by all living things.
The principal source of contamination with human pathogens
is thvough fecal discharge, and to a lesser extent, with other
products of human metabolism (mucus, pus, etc.). As a solvent
and flushing agent, water picks up and carries contaminated road
and field sediments, food and industrial wastes, animal feces, etc
Contamination of surface waters must be accepted as an accom-
plished fact due to the combination of storm runoff and the lack
of adequate sewage treatment. Natural surface and ground waters
are also subject to purification mechanisms, such as settling,
aeration solar radiation and phagocytosis. The extent to which
contaminated waters can purify themselves is a function of the
pollution concentration, the time available for action, and the
biological properties of the organisms. Whether or not contami-
nated waters are capable of producing disease in humans is a
function of the etiology of either of two types of pathogens
which may be present.
1. Certain organisms, such as many of the enteric viruses,
are normal inhabitants of the human intestine and con-
tinue to exist in a circulating stock so long as humans
are present. Illness- does not occur, because popula-
tions acquire immunity, either naturally or artificially.
27
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The poliomyelitis virus is an example of such an
organism. Immunization prevents the appearance of
clinical symptoms of the disease, but the threat can
never be removed and the unprotected human will con-
tinue to develop the disease.
A particular danger with these indigenous organ-
isms is that they change to produce new strains, and
there is no assurance that the immunity against one
strain will protect against another strain. While
many avenues of research are promising, there is still
no effective drug or body substance that will confer
broad resistance against all present and new pathogens.
2. Other organisms are not indigenous, and can be intro-
duced only from a diseased person. For example, if no
cholera is present in the population, there can be no
source of the bacterium. Obviously the key to the con-
trol of these diseases lies in maintaining a healthy
population.
The United States has been very effective in achiev-
ing a marked reduction or elimination of diseases which
were dreaded less than a century ago. Recently, however,
there has been an increase in the incidence of those
diseases that were considered things of the past, because
of the proliferation of world-wide travel. Tuberculosis,
for example, has risen to such an extent that New York
hospitals are reopening T. B. clinics that had been closed.
In addition to the importation of foreign diseases,
another source of pathogenic organisms is the "carrier,"
or one who harbors the disease organisms but does not
manifest clinical symptoms. Such an individual can con-
tinue to contaminate waters and escape detection and cure.
The inventory of diseases which can be transmitted
through the water route is substantial. Here in the
United States, water borne diseases have been kept under
control by meticulous attention to the purification of
public water supplies, and health standards for private
water supplies, recreational waters and shellfish.
Although there is a national effort to purify sewage,
the fact remains that most of the country has no sewage
treatment or only primary treatment.
Table 2 lists those pathogens which are most likely
to be found in polluted waters. Also included in this
list are pathogens which are indigenous abroad but may
be introduced into the U.S. by travelers. Pathogens that
may not naturally occur in surface or ground waters,
but may be introduced into waters from external sources,
are also included.
28
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Toxic materials are introduced into surface water
as a result of raw or inadequately treated wastewater,
storm water runoff, solid waste leachate from landfills,
rainfall, dredge spoiling, and a variety of other activi-
ties. As a result of the recent national effort to reduce
point source pollution, the quantity of toxic materials
introduced into surface water is being attenuated.
However, because of the magnitude of the non-point pol-
lution control problem, it is doubtful that surface
water pollution will ever be reduced to zero in the
vicinity of human habitation. Cooling devices that draw
water from such areas will intake chemical substances
which will eventually incorporate into the aerosol drift.
29
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TABLE 2
PATHOGENS MOST LIKELY TO OCCUR IN
COOLING TOWER MAKEUP WATER SOURCES
Absidia corymbifera Basidiobolus haptosporus
Absidia ramosa Blastomyces dermatitidis
Acanthamoeba (Naeglenia) Bordetella spp.
Actinomyces Israeli Bordetella parapertussis
Actinomyces keratolytica Brucella abortus
Actinomyces spp. Brucella canis
Adenovirus and Para influenza Brucella melitensis
virus
Brucella suis
Aspergillus spp.
Candida albicans
Aspergillus flavus
Candida spp.
Aspergillus fumigatus
Cladosporium spp.
Aspergillus nidulans
Clostridium botolinum
Aspergillus niger
Clostridium perfingens
Aspergillus niveus
Coccidioides immitis
Aspergillus restrictus
Conidiobolus coronatus
Aspergillus terreus
Corynebacterium spp.
Bacillus anthracis
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Bacillus cereus
Corynebacterium ulcerans
Bacillus subtilis
Cryptococcus neoformans
Bacteriodes spp.
30
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TABLE 2 cont.
Dermatophilus congolensis
Echo virus, coxsackie A & B,
Polio
Enterobacteriaceae
Escherichia coli
Fuscobacterium spp.
Geotricium candidium
Haemophilus aegyptius
Haemophilus influenzae
Klebsiella pneumonia
Listeria monocytogenes
Mucor pusillus
Mucor ramosissimus
Mucor spp.
Mycobacterium spp.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Nocardia asteroides
Nocardia brasiliensis
Noeardia caviae
Peptococcus spp.
Peptostreptococcus spp.
Phialophora spp.
Proteus mirabilis
Prototheca spp.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas mallei
Pseudomonas pseudomallei
Rhinocladiella spp.
Rhizopus arrhizos
Rhizopus oryzae
Salmonella spp.
Salmonella typhi
Shigella spp.
Shigella boydii
Shigella dysenteriae
Shigella flexneri
Shigella sonnei
Sporothrix schenckii
Staphylococcus agalactiae
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus spp.
Streptococcus faealis
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Streptococcus pyogenes
Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A)
Streptococus spp.
Torulopsis glabrata
Vibrio parahemolyticus
Yersinia enterocolitica
Yersinia pestis (Pasteurella)
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
Zygomycetes (Phycomycetes)
Various viruses, nematodes and
protozoans
31
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Salt, although it is naturally occurring substance
in estuarine waters, might be considered a toxic material
for terrestrial plants. Salt drift has been identified
as a potentially serious cause of injury to sensitive
species of natural foliage and crops in the vicinity of
cooling devices.
The effect of airborn toxic material on human
health has been intensively studied, but the impact is
highly controversial. Toxic substances, including acid
sulfates and nitrates, and certain metallic compounds
may produce acute or chronic respiratory symptoms, includ-
ing increased airway resistance, asthma, bronchitis,
cardio-pulmonary disease, increased sputum, and even
death.
Allergens, although not necessarily toxic, may
cause asthma and hay fever, two of man's most annoying
diseases. Airborne pollutants may potentiate or mimic
allergens on sensitive individuals. "Red tide" aero-
sols from dinoflagellate blooms have been documented.
Environmental pollutants may also be the principal
cause of cancer or may serve as co-carcinogens. This
has been documented for the particulates such as asbestos
and beryllium, and for self-inflicted gaseous chemicals
from smoking tobacco. The extent to which industrial and
transportation emissions are related to cancer of the lungs,
stomach, intestine, and of the immune system may be related
to environmental pollutants.
The origin of most gaseous (or small particle) pol-
lutants is combustion. Since cooling tower aerosols may
be generated adjacent to combustion exhausts, or may pass
over industrial emissions, they may contribute to the
transport of pollutants by solubilizing gases or trapping
particles in the aerosol droplets. This is outside the
scope of the present study, but it should be recognized
that under those conditions, cooling tower drift may
potentiate health problems, if not be directly responsible
for them.
Toxic chemicals in cooling tower water can also ori-
ginate directly from the biological and chemical reactions
that occur in the system. These reactions are dependent
upon the characteristics of the device and the make-up
water. All cooling devices can be subject to the follow-
ing:
1. Scaling on heat exchange surfaces.
Scaling is a land adherent type of deposit caused by
the precipitation of hardness elements from the water
in the form of salts or oxides.
32
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Principal scales are calcium carbonate and magnesium
silicate. A characteristic of these salts
they have inverse water solubilities with respect to
temperature. Increased scaling can occur as the
water temperature increases in a cooling system or
as the concentration of salts increases through eva-
poration. Factors that determine or control scaling
include such analytical values associated with water
quality as pH, calcium content, total alkalinity,
dissolved solids and temperature.
Scaling is generally controlled by chemical
adjustment of the alkalinity and/or recycle times.
The alkalinity is controlled by the addition of
acid - usually sulfuric acid - to maintain a pH
range between 6.0 - 7.0 and/or by using surface
active phosphates and organic agents. It is noted
that pH also affects corrosion inhibition so that
a balance is necessary.
Sludge formation on heat exchange surfaces. Sludge
formations are caused by combinations of dirt, oil,
calcium and magnesium salts, organics, and other
chemical products, particularly phosphates. These
fouling masses can mechanically filter dust from
circulating water and serve as focal points for
difficulties in the form of reduced heat transfer
and corrosions. Additive control agents function
through a physical phenomenon which results in an
extremely thin layer of contaminant being deposited
on surfaces in the cooling tower system while the
rest is maintained in suspension.
Corrosion of piping, pumps and heat exchanges.
Corrosion is caused primarily by the dissolved
oxygen content of the water although a high chlo-
ride content in the water will also lead to cor-
rosion. By the very nature of wet cooling towers,
the contact of the water with air assures that the
circulating water will be continuously saturated
with dissolved oxygen and is thus the major single
source of corrosion difficulties.
Corrosive inhibitors are generally combinations
of chromates, zinc and phosphates. The chromates
and phosphates act as anodic inhibitors. They form
a surface film which restrains the anodic corrosive
reaction:
Fe £ Fe'"" + 2e
When used alone, anodic inhibitors must be present in
33
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a large quantity. This can be substantially reduced
with the addition of zinc, a cathodic inhibitor.
the cathodic reaction is:
02 + 2H20 + 4e ^ 4(OH) ~
This reaction is the rate controller and it is
limited by the rate at which oxygen can diffuse to
the metal surface. The cathodic reaction generates
hydroxide ions which increase the pH at the cathodic
area. The zinc precipitates with the increased pH
and forms a barrier to oxygen diffusion:
4. Biological fouling.
The tremendous potential for biological fouling
through slime, algae formation and all forms of micro-
biological growth exists in a wet tower system because
of the high average water temperature, oxygen - satu-
rated environment that is provided. The seed organisms
are always in fresh supply by the process of scrubbing
from the tower air as well as from any make-up water.
In so far as the cooling tower operation is con-
cerned, biological fouling can greatly decrease heat
transfer. This can be attributable not only to the
organisms themselves but also to their metabolic pro-
ducts. The bulk, once deposited, serves as a further
trap for debris, chemical and otherwise.
The principal microbiological organisms involved
are bacteria, fungi and algae. The bacteria are the
most troublesome type of organism. Aerobic slime-
forming bacteria thrive in tower environs both in the
bulkwater and on exposed surfaces.
The control of biological growths in circulating
water requires its periodic treatment with biocides.
Chlorine, chlorinated phenols and non-oxydizing bio-
cides are effective as growth controls.
Chlorine may in some instances be depleted by
its reactions with other treatment chemicals in a
system. Non-oxidizing biocides may be used to sup-
plement chlorine treatment or as a replacement. It
is noted, however, that for non-oxidizing biocides
to be effective they must be present in toxic dosages.
The addition of copper citrate, cholophenates,
tribictyl tin, quaternary amines, methylene bis-
thiocyante and chlorination are only a few of the
biological control compounds and methods used.
34
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5. Delignification of wood parts.
Delignification of wood surfaces in a cooling
tower proceeds by two basic mechanisms: chemi-
cal attack and biological attack.
The chemical attack is a function of high
alkalinity content of the circulating water which
is generally a function of high alkalinity of
make-up water. This condition is alleviated by
pH control, usually with sulfuric acid.
A more important delignification mechanism
is the attack on the wood or fill cellulose by
fungi. Their control is by preservative coat-
ings on wood surfaces, and chlorination and/ or
non-oxidizing biocides.
It should be noted that wood preservative
methods have included the impregnation of the
wood, prior to usage, with a copper salt followed
by an arsenic salt to precipitate copper arsenic
within the wood or the impregnation of the wood
with creosote.
Without specific consideration to the type
of make-up water to be used in any given drift-
generating cooling device, it is seen that chemi-
cal additives are in routine use for reasons
which include:
a. The assurance of continued effective heat
removal.
b. The reduction of metal and wood deterioration.
c. The minimization of investment and utility
costs.
d. The influencing and development of design
practices.
e. The making practical of less costly designs
The consideration of make-up water in the form of recycled
industrial, municipal and/or agricultural wastewater must now be
evaluated in respect to treatment requirements necessary for
proper operation of an appropriate cooling device as well as for
the presence of pathogens and/or toxic chemicals that will pass
through the device. This becomes necessary based on the premise
that each drift particle droplet will be a microcosm of the water
mixture within the cooling device itself.
In any given operational environs, the make-up water will be
a function of local and prior usage by industrial, municipal and
agricultural sources. It will be affected by the degree of reclama
tion treatment by each user prior to their recycle efforts. This
35
-------
treatment effort may range anywhere from 0-100%, On this basis,
specific categorization of any given water source, in general,
will be difficult without prior knowledge of its past and pre-
sent history, and knowledge of constituent residence times. In
these considerations radiological w-aste discharges are also impor-
tant. Of equal importance is the water source itself, its size
(volume), flusl. ,rig rate and/or drainage, or percolation rate
separate from the constituent residence time.
In terms of industrial wastes and to some extent agricul-
tural wastes, broad categories can be defined immediately with
some brief delineations:
1. Wastes Containing Mineral Impurities.
Examples of wastewater containing large and/or detri-
mental amounts of mineral impurities are steel-pickling
liquors, copper-bearing wastes, electroplating wastes,
oil-field brines, petroleum refinery wastes and mining
wastes.
2. Wastes Containing Organic Impurities.
The most important organic waste producers are milk-pro-
cessing plants, meat packing establishments, breweries,
distilleries, canneries, and medical institutions (e.g.
hospitals, nursing homes).
It is noted that stock-yards associated with meat-
packing are also a source of organics and pathogenic
organisms.
3. Wastes Containing Both Organic and Mineral Impurities.
Some examples include the textile industry, laundries,
tanneries and paper mills, as well as the fertilizer
industry.
4. Radioactive Wastes.
The wastes may originate in hospitals and research labora-
tories and in the laundries serving them; in water-cooled
nuclear reactors and chemical plants that process reactor
fuels; and from mining operations.
The types of substances potentially present in cooling device
drift due to agricultural and industrial wastes, internal reactions,
leachate, runoff and other surface waters were considered and incor-
porated into the inventory of toxic substances. Many of the sub-
stances examined are known or suspected carcinogens. A list of such
substances was supplied by EPA Corvallis and then expanded to include
others of interest. Table 3 is a listing of the toxic substances
included in the inventory.
36
-------
TABLE 3
TOXIC SUBSTANCES POTENTIALLY PRESENT IN
COOLING MAKE-UP WATER
Acenaphthene
Acetone
Acreolein
AeryIonitrile
Aldrin
Antimony and compounds
Arsenic and compounds
Asbestos
Benzene
Beryllium and compounds
Biphenyl
1, 2 Bis-chloroethyoxy
ethane (haloether)
Bromochloroben zene
(chlorinated benzene)
Cadmium and compounds
Carbon tetrachloride
Chlordane
Chlorinated benzenes
Chlorinated ethanes
Chlorinated napthalene
Chlorine
Chloroform
2-Chlorophenol
Chromium and compounds
Copper and compounds
Cyanides (barium, calcium, hydro-
gen, potassium, sodium, zinc)
DDT and metabolites
Diabyl ethers
Dichlorobenzenes
Dichlorobenzidine
Dichloroethylene
2, 4 Dichlorophenol
Dichloropropane and Dichloro-
propene
Dieldrin
2, 4 Dimethylphenol
2, 6 Dinitrotoluene
Diphenylhydrazine
Endosulfan and metabolites
Endrin and metabolites
37
-------
Ethylbenze Thallium and compound
Haloether Toluene
Halomethane Toxaphene
Heptachlor and metabolites Vinyl chloride
Hexachloro 1,3 Butadiene Zinc and compounds
Isophorone
Lead and inorganic compounds
Lindane
Mercury and compounds
Methyl ethyl ketone (Butanone)
Naphthalene
Nickel and compounds
Nitrites
Nitrobenzene
Nitrophenols (m,o,p)
Nitrosamines
Pentachlorophenol
Phenols
Polychlorinated biphenyl's
(pcb's)
Phthalate esters
Secondary amines
Selenium and compounds
Silver and compounds
Sodium chloride
Styrene
38
-------
RESULTS OF TASK I - ATTENUATION OF ORGANISMS AND SUBSTANCES
Naturally, not every toxin or pathogen found in sources
of make-up water will enter the cooling device. As stated
earlier, the quantity of toxic materials in surface waters is
being attenuated in a effort to reduce point source pollution.
"Common" pathogens, generally bacteria, are attenuated through
the processes of chlorination, and occasionally sedimentation,
filtering or addition of biocides.
The initial inventory of pathogens and toxins was screened
for attenuation through water treatment. For the purposes of
our study, there are three general classifications of treatment;
physical, chemical and biological.
Physical treatment normally includes settling, centrifuga-
tion, filtration and UV or nuclear radiation. Conceivably heat
or sonic energy could also be used. Chemical treatment is by
chlorination, or other biocides (e.g. silver, organic alogens)
and control of pH. More specific processes such as addition
of corrosion inhibitors, or measures required by specific indus-
tries are also included. Biological treatment encompasses any
of the methods presently employed in treatment of sludge and
sewage.
The following matrices (Tables 4 and 5), screen the inven-
tory of pathogens and toxins indicating those which would not
be attenuated by any means of wastewater treatment or natural
purification processes. This study is primarily concerned with
these substances and organisms. It is expected that due to the
inability to control these, cooling device operators should be
concerned with their possible dissemination.
Within the tables, the attenuating treatment(s) is identi-
fied for each pathogen and toxic substance in our inventory.
Because some of these substances may only be treated by one type
of treatment process, and others by two or three, there is a
distinction made between those retained for a worst case situation
Under the status column are the letters P,S,T, or W. These
indicate the following:
P - Is not attenuated by any treatment process. This
pathogen is of primary importance.
S - Attenuated by one process, therefore, the organism or
substance is of secondary importance. It would be a
significant concern should the appropriate treatment
39
-------
process fail for any of these.
T - These pathogens or toxins can be controlled by two
processes. It is less likely that both treatments
should fail, or not be applied. Therefore, these
are of tertiary concern.
W - It is least likely that pathogens and toxins which
may be treated by all three types of treatment pro-
cesses will be present in make-up water. These are
reserved for a worst case situation.
40
-------
TABLE 4
ATTENUATION OF PATHOGENS
AND STATUS TN MAKE-UP WATER
PATHOGEN
Absidia corymbifera
Absidia ramosa
Acanthamoeba (Naegleria
Actinomyces Israeli
Actinomyces keratolytic
Actinomyces spp .
Adenovirus and
Parainfluenza
Aspergillus spp.
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus fumigatus
Aspergillus nidulans
Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus niveus
Aspergillus restrictus
Aspergillus terreus
Bacillus anthracis
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus subtil is
Bacteroides spp.
Basidiobolus haptosporu
Blastomyces dermatitidi
Bordettela spp.
Bordettela parapertussi
Brucella abortus
Brucella canis
Brucella melitensis
Brucella suis
Candida albicans
TREAT
Biological
X
X
)
a. x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3 X
3 X
X
3 X
MENT PROCE
ChemJ cal
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
SS
Physical
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
STATUS
W
w
T
W
T
p
W
W
W
w
w
w
w
w
s
w
T
W
w
w
w
w
s
s
s
s
T
P - of primary concern
S - of secondary concern
T - of tertiary concern
W - retain for worst case
41
-------
TABLE 4
ATTENUATION OF PATHOGENS
AND STATUS IN MAKE-UP WATER
PATHOGEN
Candida spp«
Cladosporium spp.
Clostridium botulinura
Clostridium perfingens
Clostridium tetani
Coccidioides immitis
Conidiobolus coronatus
Corynebacterium dipthei
Corynebacterium spp .
Corynebacterium ulcerar
Cryptococcus neoformans
Dermatophilus congolens
Echovirus, Coxsackie
A & B, Polio
Enterobacteriaceae
Escherichia coli
Fuscobacterium spp.
Geotricium candidium
Haemophilus aegyptius
Haemophilus influenzae
Histoplasma capsulatum
Klebsiella pneumonia
Listeria monocytogenes
Mucor pusillus
Mucor ramosissimus
Mucor spp .
Mycobacterium spp.
Mycobacterium tuberculc
Nocardia asteroides
TREAT
Biological
X
iae
s
IS X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
sis x
MENT PROCE
Chemical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ss
Physical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
STATUS
T
T
S
W
S
T
T
T
T
T
T
W
P
W
W
W
W
W
W
T
W
T
T
T
T
W
T
P - of primary concern
S - of secondary concern
T - of tertiary concern
W - retain for worst case
42
-------
TABLE 4
ATTENUATION OF PATHOGENS
AND STATUS IN MAKE-UP WATER
PATHOGEN
Nocardia basiliensis
Nocardia caviae
Peptococcus spp .
Peptostreptococcus spp.
Phialophora spp.
Proteus mirabilis
Prototheca spp.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas mallei
Pseudomonas pseudomalle:
Rhinocladiella spp.
Rhizopus arrhizus
Rhizopus oryzae
Salmonella spp.
Salmonella typhi
Shigella boydii
Shigelld dysenteriae
Shigella flexneri
Shigella sonnei
Shigella spp.
Sporothrix schenckii
Staphylococcus agalacti:
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus spp»
Streptococcus faealis
Streptococcus pneumonia*
Streptococcus pyogenes
Streptococcus pyogenes
(Group A)
TREAT
Biological
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
L6 X
X
X
X
k
X
MENT PROCE
Chemical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ss
Physical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
STATUS
T
T
W
W
T
W
W
W
T
W
T
T
T
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
T
T
W
P - of primary concern
S - of secondary concern
T - of tertiary concern
W - retain for worst case
43
-------
TABLE 4
ATTENUATION OF PATHOGENS
AND STATUS IN MAKE-UP WATER
PATHOGEN
Streptococcus spp .
Torulopsis glabrata
Vibrio parahemolyticus
Yersinia enterocolitica
Yersinia pestis
(Pasteurella)
Yersinia pseudotuber-
culosis
Zygomycetes (Phycomycett
Var. Nematodes,
Protozoans, and virus*
TREAT
Biological
X
X
X
X
X
X
•s) x
!S
'MENT PROCE
Chemical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
SS
Physical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
STATUS
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
p
P - of primary concern
S - of secondary concern
T - of tertiary concern
W - retain for worst case
44
-------
TABLE 5
ATTENUATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
AND STATUS IN MAKE-UP WATER
TOXIC SUBSTANCE
Acenaphthene
Acetone
Acrolein
Acrylonitrile
Aldrin
Antimony and compounds
Arsenic and compounds
Asbestos
Benzene
Benzidine
Beryllium and compounds
Biphenyl
Cadmium and compounds
Carbon Tetrachloride
Chlordane
Chlorinated Benzene
Chlorinated Ethanes
Chlorinated Ethylenes
Chlorinated Napthalene
Chlorine
Chloroform
2-Chlorophenol
Chromium and compounds
Copper and compounds
Cyanides
DDT and metabolites
Diabyl Ethers
Dichlorobenezenes
i
TREAT
Biological
X
X
,
MENT PROCE
Chemical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
SS
Physical
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
STATUS
S
T
S
S
S
T
S
S
T
S
S
T
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
P - of primary concern
S - of secondary concern
T - of tertiary concern
W - retain for worst case
45
-------
TABLE 5
ATTENUATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
AND STATUS IN MAKE-UP WATER
TOXIC SUBSTANCE
Dichlorobenzidine
Dichloroethylene
2,4 Dichlorophenol
Dichloropropane and
Dichloropropene
Dieldrin
2,4 Dimethyl Phenol
2,6 Dinitrotoluene
Diphenylhydraz ine
Endosulfan and metabol
Endrin and metabolites
Ethylbenzene
Halo Ether
Halo Methane
Heptachlor and meta-
bolites
Hexachloro-1 , 3-Butadie
Isophorone
Lead & inorganic com-
pounds
Lindane
Mercury and compounds
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
(Butanone)
Naphthalene
Nickel and compounds
Nitrites
Nitrobenzene
TREAT
Biological
X
X
.tes
X
*ie
X
X
X
'MENT PROCE
Chemical
X
X
X
SS
Physical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
STATUS
S
S
S
S
S
T
T
S
S
S
T
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
T
T
S
S
T
P - of primary concern
S - of secondary concern
T - of tertiary concern
W - retain for worst case
46
-------
TABLE 5
ATTENUATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
AND STATUS IN MAKE-UP WATER
TOXIC SUBSTANCE
Nitrophenols (ra,o,p)
Nitrosamines
Pentachlorophenol
Phenols
Phthalate Esters
Polychlorinated
Biphenyl's (PCB's)
Secondary Amines
Selenium and compounds
Silver and compounds
Sodium Chloride
Styrene
Thallium and compounds
Toluene
Toxaphene
Vinyl Chloride
Zinc and compounds
TREAT
Biological
X
X
MENT PROCE
Chemical
X
X
X
X
X
SS
Physical
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-X
X
X
X
STATUS
S
S
S
S
W
S
S
S
S
S
T
T
S
S
S
P - of primary concern
S - of secondary concern
T - of tertiary concern
W - retain for worst case
47
-------
After screening the lists of pathogens and toxins and their
methods of attenuation, a "FAILURE" list was derived. The patho-
gens included in this list, Table 6, are retained to be used in
generating "WORST CASE" probabilities, should all methods of
attenuation fail.
The same screening was applied to the list of toxins. It
•was determined that none may be retained in a "FAILURE" list.
The toxic substances which are being examined in this study may
only be attenuated by one or two of the possible three types of
treatment. Because they have fewer means of control, toxic sub-
stances are more subject to treatment system failure.
TABLE 6
PATHOGENS POTENTIALLY PRESENT ONLY IN A WORST CASE SITUATION
Absidia corymbifera
Absidia ramosa
Actinomyces keratolytica
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus fumigatus
Aspergillus nidulans
Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus restrictus
Aspergillus terreus
Bacillus cereus
Bacteroides spp.
Basidiobolus haptosporus
Blastomyces dermati+idis
Brodetella spp.
Bordetella parapertussis
Clostridium perfingens
Dermatophilus congolensis
Enterobacteriaceae
Escherichia coli
Fuscobacterium
Geotrichium candidium
Haemophilus aegyptius
Haemophilus influenza
Listeria monocytogenes
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Peptococcus spp.
Peptostriptococcus spp.
Proteus mirabilis
Prototheca spp.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas pseudomallei
Salmonella spp.
Salmonella typhi
Shigella boydii
Shigella dysenteriae
Shigella flexnei
Shigella sonnei
Shigella spp.
Sporothrix schenckii
StaphylococGus agalactiae
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus spp,
Streptococcus faealis
Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A)
Streptococcus spp.
Torulopsis glabrata
Vibrio parahemolyticus
Yersinia enterocolitica
Yersinia pestis (Pasteurella)
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
Zygomycetes (Phycornycetes)
48
-------
Aerosolization of Organisms and Substances.
The next step was to screen the remaining pathogens and all
of the toxic substances to determine which could become aerosol-
ized. The results are shown in Tables 7 and 8.
Essentially the pathogens and toxins which are listed in
these tables are those with which cooling device operators should
be most concerned. These may be controlled by only one or two
means of treatment, if any. Should the appropriate means fail,
these organisms and substances may become aerosolized. Further
evaluation in the study discusses the aerosol transport of, and
potential health effects on plant, animal and human life from
these pathogens and toxins.
Complete discussion of the treatment methods and aerosoliza-
tion of each pathogen and toxin is found in the Catalogue of
Aerosol Drift Health Hazard Assessment, Appendix A. (Volume II)
TABLE 7
SCREENED PATHOGENS CAPABLE OF BECOMING AEROSOLIZED
Actinomyces israeli
Actinomyces spp.
Bacillus anthracis
Bacillus subtilis
Brucella abortus
Brucella canis
Brucella melitensis
Brucella suis
Candida albincans
Candida spp.
Cladosporium spp.
Clostridium botulinum
Clostridium tetani
Coccicioices immitis
Conidiobolus coronatus
Corynebacterium spp.
Corynebacterium ulcerans
Cryptococcus neoformrns
Histoplasma capsulatun
Mucor pusillus
Mucor ramossissimus
Mucor spp.
Mycobacterium spp.
Nocardis asteroides
Nocardia brasiliensis
Nocardia caviae
Phialophora spp.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas mallei
Rhinocladiella spp.
Rhizopur arrhizus
Rhizopus oryzae
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Streptococcus pyogenes
Var. nematodes, protozoans and
Viruses
49
-------
TABLE 8
TOXINS CAPABLE OF BECOMING AEROSOLIZED
Acetone
Acrolein
Acrylonitrile
Arsenic and compounds
Asbestos
Benzene
Cadmium and compounds
Carbon Tetrachloride
Chlordane
Chlorinated Ethanes
Chlorinated Ethylenes
Chlorine
Chloroform
2-Chlorophenol
Cyanides
2,4- Dichlorophenol
Dieldrin
2,4- Dimethylphenol
Endrin and metabolites
Halomethane
Heptachlor and metabolites
Mercury and compounds
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (Butanone)
Napthalene
Nitrites
Nitrobenzenes
Nitrophenol
Phenols
Secondary Amines
Selenium and compounds
Styrene
Toluene
Vinyl Chloride
RESULTS OF TASK II - TRANSPORT
The function of this task is to provide the necessary infor-
mation for determining the potential for the transport of patho-
genic organisms and toxic substances via atmospheric dispersion
of drift produced by cooling systems. The function of a cooling
system is to move waste heat from a primary system to a heat
sink, usually air or water, where the heat is dissipated. Of
the many types of cooling systems, the ones that produce drift
utilize evaporative cooling where heat is dissipated to the at-
mosphere by evaporation of a portion of the water used for cool-
ing. The vast majority of evaporative cooling systems utilize
cooling towers.
In the process of circulating water through a cooling tower,
a small percentage of the water splashing over the fill becomes
entrained in the exiting air flow. The entrained water is in the
form of liquid droplets. These droplets constitute the cooling
50
-------
tower drift and have essentially the same chemical composition
as the circulating water. The drift droplets are dispersed into
the atmosphere and deposited downwind of the tower. Therefore,
if there are pathogenic and/or toxic substances present in the
circulating cooling water, these same substances can be trans-
ported from the cooling tower into the atmosphere as part of a
liquid droplet. A number of droplets reach the ground before
they have completely evaporated. Any pathogens or toxins found
in the remaining droplets evaporate reaching the ground as dry
particles.
In order to evaluate the potential for the transport and
survival of pathogenic and toxic substances released in drift
it is necessary to know the cooling device and power plant
design conditions and the concentrations of pathogenic micro-
organisms and toxic substances in the make-up water.
Cooling Tower Internal Conditions.
As stated, any one common set of specified internal cooling
tower air and water parameters can be duplicated in all types of
evaporative cooling towers. Therefore, the air and water condi-
tions that do exist in a cooling tower are primarily dependent
on performance criteria specified by the power plant designer,
not on the type of cooling tower.
Typical water and air conditions in an evaporative cooling
tower used in a large power plant application are as follows:
1. Incoming Air Temperature.
The incoming air temperature is dependent on geographic
location and time of year. Design conditions can range
between 19° - 28°C WB (WB = wet bulb). The design con-
dition is the wet bulb temperature which will not be
exceeded more than 5-10 percent of the time.
Toxins and pathogens will survive in these incoming
temperatures. The most common temperatures used to
incubate bacteria range from 20°C - 37°C.
2. Cooling Tower Plume Exit Temperature and Relative
Humidity.
The temperature of the plume exiting the cooling tower
depends on the incoming air temperature and the tempera-
ture of the water entering the cooling tower. Values
between 28° and 38°C are common, but higher exit temper- .
atures do occur (43°C would not be abnormal). Under most
conditions the plume exiting the tower is very near satu-
ration (or 100 percent relative humidity). Therefore,
the temperatures given are dry bulb and wet bulb.
51
-------
FIGURE 3
TYPICAL NATURAL AND MECHANICAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS
ttt
Air out
Water in
Packing-
Drift
eliminators
/
,. Pocking
Water out
I * M .\
-Water in
Water ouf-^i. Mechanical-draft tower along with natural-draft tower are two
^V^-'^Vmain types. Former uses one or more fans to move large
,'Ii' quantities of air through the unit: latter has no fans.'Foroed-draft ,
•'*%£?"•!;,, design above pumps air through packing, where evaporative heat|
t!§£- '*'»- transfer takes place
Natural-draft tower is hyperbolic in shape, acts like a huge
chimney. Heavier outside air enters around base, displaces
lighter air in tower, forcing it out the top
a
Wafer in
Pact ing,
Water in
-Packing
Induced-draft tower draws air upward, through packing via fan at
top. as opposed to forced-draft type where fan is at bottom (see
lower drawing opposite)
Crossflow tower moves air normal to flow of water, as opposed to
rounterflnw type above, which moves air directly counter to _
water flow. Both towers on this page are mechanical-draft with
fans at top to give induced flow of air through packing. Exit speed
is approximately 30 miles per hour
52
d
SOURCE: (ELLIOT, 1973)
-------
Again these temperatures are within the optimal range
of incubation temperatures. The most common tempera-
ture used to incubate total coliform bacteria is 35°C;
and 45°C for fecal coliforms. The toxins with which
we are concerned should remain stable.
3. Plume Exit Velocity.
Mechanical draft towers emit drift at the rate of 35 ft/
sec. Natural draft towers give off plumes at the
approximate rate of 5 ft/sec. It is at these speeds
that pathogens or toxins entrained in the drift will be
emitted.
4. Cooling Tower Exit Water Temperature (cold water
temperature).
This temperature is in practice the same as the tempera-
ture of the water in the cooling tower basin. Since
the design cooling range of most large towers is 11°C -
17°C, the cold water temperature is usually between
32°C - 38°C, a favorable range for most bacteria. This
is not expected to affect chemical substances.
Relevant Power Plant Design Information.
Simplified flow diagrams for typical 1000/MW fossil-fuel and
nuclear power plants are given in Figures 4 and 5. The following
concepts are pertinent to our discussion of tower design para-
meters .
1. The circulating water (i.e. the water flowing from the
cooling tower to the condenser and back to the cooling
tower) never comes in physical contact with the main
steam from the turbine or the condensate return.
Although temperatures do exist in a typical power plant
which would thermally destroy pathogens, since the cir-
culating water is not exposed to these conditions, any
pathogens present, will not be destroyed by exposure to
extreme heat.
2. The time it takes for the circulating water to make one
"round trip" (i.e., from the cooling tower basin to the
condenser, back to and through the cooling tower) can
vary between 2.5 minutes and approximately 2 hours.
This is dependent on the size of the tower basin.
If pathogens are capable of surviving, and toxins
remain stable in water, whether they are exposed for
two minutes or two hours should have no effect.
53
-------
GENERATOR,1000 mw
[3.4 x 109 BTU/HR.)
STACK LOSSES 0.9 x 10
tt
9 BTU/HR.
FOSSIL-FUEL STEAM PLANT
AIR FLOW EVAPORATION
AND DRIFT 8955 gpm
(33.90 M3/min.)
Or
FUEL
9.0 x 109
BTU/HR.
CONDENSATE RETURN
SLOWDOWN
2239 g
(8.47
IN-PLANT LOSSES
0.4 x 109 BTU/HR.
CONDENSER FLOW 430,000 gpm
iju,uuu yFm i
(33.89 M3/min.) /
MAKEUP WITHDRAWAL 11,194 gpm-^
(42.37 M3/rain.)
FOSSIL-FUEL STEAM ELECTRIC PLANT USING HYPERBOLIC TOWER HAS A HEAT
BALANCE AS SHOWN FOR 1000-MW CAPACITY
FIGURE 4
-------
Ul
en
FUEL ?
10.3 x 10(
- NUCLEAR STEAM
PLANT
GENERATOR,1000 MW
(3.4 x 109 BTU/HR)
IN-PLANT LOSSES
0.5 x 109 BTU/HR.
NUCLEAR
STEAM
GEN.
CONDENSATE RETURN
AIR FLOW EVAPORATION
AND DRIFT 10,000 g; .m
(37.85 M3/min.)
CONDENSER FLOW 475,000 gpm
(1797.88 M3/min/)
MAKEUP WITHDRAWAL 12,500 gpm
(47.31 M3/min.)
TOWER
BLOWDOWN
2500 gpm
(9.46 P/min. )
NUCLEAR STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANT USING HYPERBOLIC TOWER HAS A HEAT
'BALANCE AS SHOWN FOR 1000-MW CAPACITY.
FIGURE 5
-------
3. The amount of water released as drift is approximately
0.005 percent of the circulating water flow. In a
modern cooling tower the drift rate can be as low as
0.001 percent. The amount of water released through
evaporation is approximately 2.0 percent of the circu-
lating water flow. The amount of water released as
blowdown is approximately 0.5 percent of the circula-
ting water flow. The amount of make-up water (i.e.,
water usually taken from a river, lake or ocean to
replace the water losses given above is approximately
2.5 percent of the circulating water flow.
These factors may be used in calculating the water loss
through drift emission. If the concentrations of
pathogens and toxins in the water are known then one
can roughly calculate the quantity of these agents
emitted in drift.
4. The time that the circulating water is actually circu-
lating through the condenser is on the order of 10-20
seconds. The temperature of the saturated steam
entering the condenser is typically about 103°C. The
temperature of the condensate return is approximately
88°C - 930C.
Chemical Treatment of Circulating Water.
A large range of treatment chemicals are available today to
meet the four major categories of cooling water problems - corro-
sion, scale and deposits, fouling, and microbiological growth.
Some of the major chemicals used in cooling tower circulating
water treatment are identified in Table 9. These are among the
candidates for consideration in this study.
The most commonly used chemical corrosion inhibitors are
chromates, polyphosphates, zinc, molybdenum, ferro-cyanides, and
organics. Chromic acid and its salts provide the base for the
most popular and cost/effective corrosion inhibitors in use today,
The chromates, considered anodic inhibitors, are often formulated
with other inhibitors such as zinc, molybdenum and phosphates.
The discharge of chromate, in its hexavalent state, is likely
to be severely restricted as we proceed into an era of greater
regulatory control and enforcement. The most commonly accepted
effluent guideline limits plant chromate discharges to 0.05 mg/1
as hexavalent chromium and total chromium to 1.0 mg/1 and less
in many individual situations.
At the present, chlorine is the most popular oxidizing agent
used to control microbiological growth. Chlorine is usually
batch fed; an average application might be 0.5 mg/1 chlorine for
one-half hour every four hours.
56
-------
TABLE 9
COMMON WATER TREATMENT CHEMICALS
Chemical Purpose Concentration
Chlorine (usually 1-2 ppm free chlorine
batch fed) microbiocide for 2-4 hours
chromates corrosion inhibitor 20-40 ppm
zinc used in conjunction 2-3 ppm
with chromate
Phosphates corrosion inhibitor 4-6 ppm as total
(substituted for phosphate
chromates)
Polymers silt dispersion 5-10 ppm
(e.g. poly
acrylic acids)
Phosphonates scale control 5-10 ppm
The phosphonates represent a relatively new and extremely
useful class of scale control agents. Several types of these
compounds may be found in general cooling water scale control
use. Among the most popular versions is an aminomethylene-
phosphonate compound that employs the highly stable carbon to
phosphorus bond.
57
-------
Some of the commonly used scale inhibitors are polyphos-
phates, phosphonates, phosphate esters, polyacrylates, and
sulfonated polystyrenes. In addition to being classified as
corrosion inhibitors, the polyphosphates may also function as
scale inhibitors at "threshold" levels. It is thought that
polyphosphate is adsorbed on the growing face of calcite crys-
tals, aborting normal growth patterns and reducing the hard
scale normally associated with precipitating calcium carbonate.
Transport of Toxic Substances as a Function of Drift
Characterization.
Cooling tower drift is defined as mechanically entrained
water droplets which are generated inside the cooling tower and
carried along with the air flowing through the tower and ex-
hausted to the environment. (Chen et al. 1977) As defined,
these water droplets have essentially the same chemical composi-
tion as the circulating water in the cooling tower. Therefore,
toxic substances would retain the same concentrations in drift
as in the circulating water.
Most drift loss guarantees are quoted as a percent of the
circulating water rate with a tacit implication that the drift
impurity level is the same as that of the water circulated. We
differentiate between drift and the liquid water added to the
air due to condensation during the cooling of the tower plume
since condensed water is "pure" water. Evaporated water is not
objectionable from the standpoint of adding an impurity to the
environment. However, the addition of moisture, contributing to
a change in relative humidity, may be undesireable. In the evalu-
ation of drift and its potential environmental hazard, we are
ultimately interested in the total quantity of drift droplets
discharged to the environment, their chemical impurities, and
the subsequent behavior of this drift as it interacts with the
environment.
To assess the environmental significance of drift it is
necessary to establish the actual total drift emission rate
from towers of the type found in industry today. The drift
particle size and mass distributions must be determined before
the dynamic and thermodynamic behavior of the drift as it
interacts with the environment can be evaluated.
Particle Size and Mass Distribution.
Figure 6 presents the drift droplet size and mass distribu-
tion respectively at the stack discha.rge based on field tests.
(Wistrom and Ovard, 1973). Note that these tests were run on
towers where the total drift loss was measured at 0.001 percent
of the circulating water rate and therefore, are representative
of the current state of the art of drift eliminator designs.
58
-------
100
FIGURE 6
10
1.0
OC
UJ
00
O.I
UJ
o
oe
UJ
QL
0.01
0.001
PERCENT BY NUMBER VS
DROPLET SIZE.
0.0001
10
too
1000
10,000
DROPLET SIZE, MICRON
59
-------
KEY T0~ FIGURE 6
SIZE AND MASS DISTRIBUTION OF DRIFT PARTICLES
DROPLET DIAMETER
(MICRON)
% OF SAMPLE
BY NUMBER
% MASS BY
DROPLET SIZE
22
29
44
58
65
87
108
120
132
144
174
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
2250
2400
24.0
36.0
26.0
6.3
4.0
1.4
0.67
0.43
0.28
0.26
0.65
0.11
0.027
0.011
0.0055
0.0033
0,0024
0.0019
0.0016
0.00095
0.0010
0.43
1.49
3.76
2.09
1.86
1.56
1.43
1.26
1.09
1.32
5.81
5.04
4.17
4.01
4.00
4.03
4.57
5.46
6.80
17.99
21.83
60
-------
Examination of these results reveals several important
aspects of drift. First, it is noted that the exhaust drop size
distribution is bimodal with peaks in the 35 micrometer and 200
micrometer size ranges respectively. In contrast, natural atmo-
spheric aerosols exhibit a unimodal size distribution. This
difference is not surprising when one considers that the air
entrained drops in a cooling tower are both generated and
removed by mechanical means within a few seconds. Secondly,
whether bi-or uni-modally distributed the droplet sizes are
capable of carrying two to thousands of particles or bacterium
in each droplet.
Fall Velocity of Entrained Droplets
The terminal fall velocity of a drop is established when
the aerodynamic drag force is equal to the weight of the drop.
It has been shown that larger drops are not spherical, and in
fact experience a marked flattening on their lower surface which
materially affects fall velocity. The fall velocity drop size
relationship is shown in Figures 7 & 8. Droplets smaller than 100
micrometers have fall velocities which are extremely low, in-
dicating that weight of these small drops has a minor influence
on their dynamic behavior. Thus, their path and position and
that of entrained toxins and pathogens will be primarily
governed by aerodynamic forces; most important of which are wind,
buoyancy of the exhaust plume, and vertical eddies or turbulence
in the atmosphere. Plume buoyancy and vertical atmospheric
turbulence will tend to keep these small droplets in suspension
for an extended period. The small droplets will essentially
follow the plume path and their concentration at any point down-
wind will be governed by atmospheric dispersion. If the atmos-
phere is cold, the exhaust air is rapidly cooled and becomes
super-saturated. The small drift droplets and entrained parti-
cles that remain entrained in the exhaust vapor act as conden-
sation nuclei and tend to grow in size as long as this super-
saturated condition remains.
Figure 6 also shows that a few drops in the 1000-2400
micrometer range are present in the exhaust air. Even a casual
field observation shows that water droplets in this size range
are emitted from a cooling tower since they are clearly visible
and easily detected. Field observations and drift size tests
conducted directly behind the drift eliminators showed that most
of these large droplets are generated in the tower plenum area
where impinging drift and vapor condensation accumulates on
structural members. Some of this collected moisture is eventu-
ally reentrained as larger droplets.
Drift Physics as a Function of Cooling Tower and Power Plant
Design Conditions.
In an evaporative cooling tower, the water containing the
61
-------
FIGURE 7
FALL VELOCITY OF WATER DROPS
AS FUNCTION OF SIZE
IOOO
100
o
o
.J
Ul
-I
.J
<
10
I I I
I I
10
100
IOOO
DROPLET SIZEt MICRON
SOURCE: Wistrom and Ovard, 1973
62
-------
FIGURE 8
20 MPH WIND
CO
r
31.3% OF DRIFT MASS GOVERNED
BY ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION
130 174 186 203 228 270
DISTANCE TRAVELED, FEET
386
••"
:s
'.--•
1 i n m n R
SOURCE:
. . . . .
5 5
% OF DRIFT MASS
Wistrom and Ovard, 1973
-------
waste heat comes in direct contact with the ambient air flowing
through the tower. The various types of cooling towers are
classified by the method used to create the air movement through
them. In natural draft towers, air movement is induced by a
large chimney utilizing the density difference between the air
inside and outside the chimney. In a mechanical draft tower
air is moved by fans; either the induced draft type (ID) that
•pulls air through the tower or the forced draft type (FD) that
pushes air through the tower. Figure 3 (a-c) shows a typical
natural draft tower and an induced draft and forced draft
mechanical draft cooling tower.
Towers are further classified by the relative flow direc-
tions of the air and water in the tower. In a crossflow tower,
the air flows perpendicular to the falling water (see Figure 3
(a)). In a counterflow tower the air flows vertically upward,
counter to the falling water (see Figure 3 (b, c)).
However, the water and air conditions that exist in a cool-
ing tower are dependent on the performance criteria specified by
the design engineer, not on the type of tower or its air flow
direction. Any one set of specified internal cooling tower water
and air conditions can be duplicated in any of the types of
cooling tower described above. The choice of cooling tower is
usually made on the basis of economic and environmental consid-
erations rather than on the basis of achieving certain design
conditions.
The results presented here are considered typical for most
drift eliminator designs. However, variations in the plenum
environment and drift eliminator design will have a significant
effect on the discharge drop size distribution. The older drift
eliminator designs are characterized by the presence of more of
the larger drops which appreciably increase the total drift
loss and dispersion of a greater quantum of toxins and pathogens.
Figure 9 is a drift droplet size distribution after Chen,
(1977) averaging 5 different sets of drift dots each for natural
draft towers and mechanical draft towers. The only major dif-
ference between them is the maximum drop capable of being sup-
ported by the plume exit velocity.
Condensation Nuclei
Under ambient atmospheric conditions, natural cloud droplets
are formed by the condensation of water vapor onto microscopic
particles or condensation nuclei.
In the past, the actual size of these nuclei had only been
determined by indirect methods. Recently electron microscopic
measurements have been utilized. Presently, condensation nuclei
are classified into three size groupings; Aitken, Large and
64
-------
iO,000
FIGURE 9
MASS SIZE DISTRIBUTION
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MASS LESS THAN STATED
MECHANICAL
DRAFT
1,000'
03
^
O
«
u
CO
CO
s
EH
O
Q
100..
10.
4-
1-
-f-
-4-
10 15 20
30
40 50 60 70
80 85 90
95
98%
% OF TOTAL MASS
65
-------
Giant. The size range for each of these classifications is
found in Table 10.
Aitken nuclei are the most numerous type in aerosols.
Their concentration exceeds that of large nuclei by 2.0 or 2.5
orders. The concentration of giant nuclei is insignificant, on
the order of several nuclei per liter of air. The mass of indi-
vidual nuclei varies between 10~15 and 10-H g. Giant nuclei
may have a mass as great as 10~8g (see Table 10). Pathogenic
and toxic particles, should they form condensation nuclei would
constitute aitken nuclei.
Given an initial distribution of particles of every size,
particles whose radius is> 10~2U< become attached to larger parti-
cles due to Brownian motion. Those particles with radii greater
than 20i\ are sufficiently heavy to precipitate out. Both pro-
cesses result in a distribution of particle size with fixed
upper and lower limits. Between these upper and lower limits,
the mass is distributed fairly evenly.
Condensation Nuclei Composition
The nature (chemical composition) of condensation nuclei
is usually studied via the chemical and spectral analysis of
samples of raindrops and cloud droplets. Analysis of rainwater
shows the following average composition:
1 mg/1 CI-
2 mg/1 NA+
3-5 mg/1 CA-t-
5-10 mg/1 S042-
5-15 mg/1 HCC>3
Maximum values in the analysis reached 10-15 times greater than
these averages, and minimum values 10-20 times smaller. Other
substances were also found in smaller amounts.
Impurities may be captured by raindrops during their fall.
Analysis of water obtained from cloud droplets indicates the
•chemical composition of these nuclei. Analyses of aerosol par-
ticles collected in various atmospheric layers was carried out
by Junge et. al. Chlorides were present in all samples varying
between tenths of, and several mg/1.
The most common nuclei were found to contain compounds of
chlorine, sulfur, nitrogen, carbon, magnesium, sodium and cal-
cium. Sodium chloride is very frequently encountered in nuclei.
Various types of bacteria and viruses may act as condensa-
tion nuclei. A number of species have been determined to be
active ice nuclei. They have been observed to initiate ice in
supercooled water at -1.3°C in concentrations of up to 10&
nuclei active at-5°C per cubic centimeter of culture. Species
66
-------
TABLE 10
CHARACTERIZATION OF CONDENSATION NUCLEI
SIZE
CLASSIFICATION
Aitken
Large
Giant
RADIUS (cm)
CONCENTRATION
(cm"3)
5X1CT7 - 2X1CT5 42500
2X10-5 _ 1X10-4 132
1X10-4 - 10X10-4 2.195
MASS0
(g/M3)
17.
25.
41.4
Giant
distribution
1X10-4
2X10-4
3X10-4
5X10-4
2X10-4
3X10-4
5X10-4
10X10-4
2.08
0.09
0.02
0.005
23
4.2
5.1
9.1
67
-------
that have been specifically identified are Pseudomonas syringae,
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Erwinia herbicola. Two other
species have not been specifically identified although they
have been shown to be active nuclei. Many other species have
been tested for their ice nucleating ability, producing negative
results.
Condensation and Drop Formation
The essential physics of condensation of water vapor onto
acceptable nuclei includes surface tension characteristics, .
hygroscopic effects, the rate of diffusion of water vapor to
the droplet and the rate of conduction of latent heat away from
the droplet.
The most important factor involved in the formation of
clouds is chilling of humid air, which can happen due to the
following causes:
1. adiabatic expansion of air on vertical ascent,
2. turbulent transfer,
3. radiation (radiative chilling).
Cooling of air during adiabatic expansion involves a reduc-
tion in pressure. The main factor here is the movement of air
into higher atmospheric layers. Average daily drops in atmos-
pheric pressure (5-6 mb/day) chill each layer of air by 1-2°
each day. Vertically ascending air, containing unsaturated
water vapor, is cooled adiabatically by I8' for each 100 m
of ascent.
When convection is well developed the air may rise by a
height on the order of kilometers. This would result in a very
strong cooling trend. Chilling of the air by turbulent transfer
and mixing depends on the vertical distribution of temperature.
In a stable stratification the upper portions of the layer in
which turbulent transfer takes place will be cooled. If this
cooling is accompanied by the transport of nearly saturated water
vapor, its condensation may lead to the formation of stratus
clouds.
Finally, the third cause of chilling is radiation. This
process is manifested by the cooling of air layers containing a
large amount of water vapor together with dust particles, con-
densation nuclei and smoke particles. It is also evident in
nighttime chilling of the upper cloud boundary. Radiation
often results in the appearance, and sometimes intensification,
of the comparatively thin nighttime sub-inversion clouds.
In nature these processes act in combination. However, the
prime factor in cloud formation remains the vertical movement of
air.
68
-------
The act of condensation begins, air is cooled and increases
the relative humidity. Before the relative humidity reaches
100% (in terms of a plane surface of pure water), condensation
begins on larger, more active nuclei. When the humidity ap-
proaches 100%, these have become full sized cloud droplets.
Generally, the available water vapor is used by the larger nu-
clei and the smaller, less active nuclei remain unused. There-
fore, the number of cloud droplets is greatly exceeded by the
number of available nuclei.
An average active salt nucleus is 1 n in diameter. When
condensation occurs on such a particle, 1 second suffices for it
to grow to the size of a small cloud droplet (10 x\) . It will
take about 500 seconds for the droplet to grow to a large cloud
droplet (100 \\) and about 10,000 seconds (or 3 hours) for it to
grow to the size of a small raindrop (1,000 i\, or 1mm). It
would take several days for a large raindrop to form through
condensation only. Thus it is seen that although the condensa-
tion process is capable of producing cloud droplets, it is far
too slow to produce raindrops of the size actually observed.
Therefore, there must be present some mechanism or combination
of mechanisms that will cause cloud particles to join and form
raindrops. Again, large magnitudes are involved. It will take
about one million average cloud droplets to account for the
water contained in a large raindrop. The mechanism for in-
creasing the size of cloud droplets to raindrops is called
accretion. Accretion occurs when a larger falling drop col-
lides with other smaller droplets. These collisions critically
depend on the position and radii of the two drops. Not all
droplets that collide with the large drop adhere to it, however
this coalescence increases rapidly in effectiveness as the drop
size increases in size. This process is more significant than
condensation in the ultimate formation of clouds.
Through all of these processes, condensation nuclei of
pathogenic organisms and toxic substance particles, and aerosol
droplets containing these may be incorporated into larger drop-
lets and clouds. Under these conditions these particles and
infectious agents may travel further, potentially governed by
the weather patterns as well as local wind currents.
External Conditions Relevant to Drift Behavior
If atmospheric air is cold, the exhausted drift is rapidly
cooled and becomes supersaturated. The small drift droplets
remain entrained and act as condensation nuclei. As long as the
supersaturated condition remains, they become enlarged due to
condensation. Drift droplets affected by this phenomenon typi-
cally represent less than 12% of the total drift mass. Signifi-
cant condensation occurs only during brief periods when a pro-
longed supersaturated plume conditon exists.
69
-------
The relative humidity of the atmosphere, peripheral to the
site of drift emission, may affect aerosol drift transport. In
relatively dry areas, any substance or pathogen which is carried
by aerosol drift, or constitutes the condensation nucleus of a
droplet, will travel over further distances.
In dry areas the moisture in the aerosol or drift will
evaporate rapidly. The particle or substance remaining will
have a lower fall velocity than the initial droplet. Its trans-
port will not be governed by air currents rather than by the
drift itself. The ultimate deposition of these particles will
resemble a Gaussian distribution.
In relatively damp areas organisms or substances carried
by the aerosol or comprising the condensation nuclei will be
transported shorter distances. The droplets will accrete mois-
ture and due to the additional mass, the fall velocity increases
These droplets will fall out of the drift more rapidly, deposit-
ing the particles in a more immediate area.
The location and type of cooling device itself will affect
local relative humidity. In dry areas, emitted drift will
evaporate rapidly creating little if any change in the relative
humidity. However, in damp areas, the air is less capable of
absorbing this additional moisture. There may be an appreciable
difference in the local relative humidity.
Natural draft towers are less likely to affect relative
humidity at or near ground level than mechanical towers.
Mechanical towers due to their lower height emit drift closer
to ground level, and may produce an appreciable difference in
the moisture content of the air.
This discussion on relative humidity will be particularly
important in our subsequent analysis of direct effects on plants.
Ice-Crystal Process
In damp areas or when the atmosphere is near saturation,
.there may be problems from precipitation modification resulting
from aerosol drift. One manifestation of this problem is the
formation of ice crystals. Pathogenic or toxic particles may
aid in this process, acting as nuclei.
Observation has shown that cloud droplets do not freeze
until the temperature is far below the freezing point. Even as
low as -30°C, perhaps one in a thousand droplets freeze. As
the temperature approaches -40°C they freeze rapidly and at
lower temperatures, clouds consist of crystals.
Liquid water that exists at temperatures below Qoc is said
to be "supercooled". Observation has shown that freezing is
initiated by a variety of impurities such as organisms or parti-
70
-------
cles of chemical substances. The cloud droplets are exception-
ally pure as compared with water on or in the ground.
Layers of cloud that contain a mixture of water droplets
and ice crystals are unique because the saturation vapor pressure
over ice is lower than over water. Although the difference is
small, it is highly significant. In a cloud that consists of
both droplets and crystals, the actual vapor pressure will be
a compromise between the two saturation pressures. While the
air is not quite saturated in respect to water, it is slightly
super-saturated in respect ot ice. This, then, will cause water
to evaporate from the droplets and vapor to condense on the ice
particles. We have here a process which will cause a few cloud
elements (those that consist of ice) to grow at the expense of
the other elements.
As condensation is initiated on certain nuclei, freezing in
undercooled clouds (between 0 and -40°C) is initiated by freez-
ing nuclei, (a particle that will initiate the growth of an ice
crystal out of a liquid water under these conditions). Minute
ice particles are excellent freezing nuclei, and a number of
other particles (natural or man-made) will also cause such
growth.
Approximate estimates and observations show that for super-
saturations of the order of 10-12% (assuming a concentration of
about 100 per cubic meter) the ice crystals may grow within
4-5 minutes the mass of a crystal will equal that of a water
droplet with a radius of about 100-200 i\. This rapid growth by
sublimation is the reason why even thin (about 1 km thick) ice-
crystal clouds with small velocities of rising air currents can
produce precipitation bands. These sometimes reach the earth's
surface in the form of fine, light snow or rain.
Substantially different conditions prevail when the ice
particle occurs in the vicinity of water droplets, as is the
case in mixed clouds. Conditions here are very favorable for
sublimation growth, especially if there are many more super-
c0oled droplets than crystals in the cloud. When relative
humidity in the cloud decreases as a result of the sublimation
of water vapor on ice particles, conditions of phase equilibrium
over the droplets are disrupted. The latter start evaporating,
thereby adding to the supply of moisture for crystal growth.
Thus a special process of "transfer" (distillation) of water
from supercooled droplets to crystals begins to operate.
In a supercooled droplet cloud rapid growth by distillation
of vapor from droplets will set in as soon as ice particles with
a radius of the order of 10~6 Cm appear. As a result the crys-
tals will be able to grow to large sizes until all the droplets
evaporate. The initial excess of water vapor condenses upon
the crystals and the cloud has been completely transformed into
71
-------
an ice-crystal cloud. Calculations show that the role of this
process in the initial growth of ice particles occurring in a
medium containing supercooled droplets is very great.
The initial stage of ice-crystal growth by sublimation takes
place far more rapidly (10-20 times) than the condensational
growth of water droplets. The point at which the process of
'accretion becomes dominant in the further growth of the ice
crystals (r=50-60iO is reached within a few minutes.
When considering the accretion of ice crystals it should be
borne in mind that falling crystals have a greater capture sur-
face than droplets for the same mass. At the same time, their
fall velocity is lower than that of spherical particles. This
accounts for the faster growth of non-spherical ice crystals by
accretion and for the diversity of their shapes. It may roughly
be estimated that ice particles grow 5-6 times more rapidly than
droplets with the same mass.
Precipitation (Snow) From Cooling Tower Plumes.
During the winter of 1975-1976 significant environmental
effects were observed from large natural-draft towers. They
produced plumes persisting as far as 70 km in which the super-
cooled water droplets changed to ice crystals and produced
light snowfall. Measurable accumulations of snow were observed
on the ground. The falling snow restricted visibility to less
than 1600 m close to the ground. From December 1975 through
March 1976, this conversion of liquid droplets to ice crystals
was observed ten times at several power plants. One of these
incidents is described below.
During a period of clear weather on 18 January 1976, from
0755 to 1111 E.S.T., a flight test was conducted in the vicinity
of a plant, located 25 km northwest of Charleston, West Virginia.
This coal-fired plant has three hyperbolic cooling towers serving
three generators totaling 2900 Mw. The weather was cold and
clear with temperatures of -12°C near the surface, decreasing to
-20°C at 1600 m above ground. The plumes from the three cooling
towers merged and rose to form a typical liquid droplet cloud
between 900 and 1600 m. The plumes mixed with the smokestack
effluent at 400 m. The rise of the cooling tower plume stopped
at the base of an elevated temperature inversion, also at 1600 m.
The change from supercooled droplets to ice crystals began at
5 km and was complete 11 km downwind of the towers. This ice
crystal cloud persisted aloft to a distance downwind of 43 km.
Snow began descending from the base of the plume when the conver-
sion from droplets to ice crystals started, and it first reached
the ground at 13 km. Snowfall on the ground also continued to
at least 43 km. The maximum accumulation of snow (very light
fluffy snow) was 2.5 cm.
72
-------
The ground measurements outside of the plume shadow indi-
cated that the plume trajectory had changed from the initial con-
ditions. The visibility in the clear air was greater than 15 km,
but it was restricted to approximately 1600 m in the snow near
the ground level, as it would be in a natural snowfall.
Snow from cooling tower plumes reached the ground only at
considerable distances from the cooling tower (a minimum distance
of 8 km was measured in one case).
In some of the tests, natural clouds were present and snow
or snow showers came from them. This natural snow occurred be-
fore, during, or after the observations of snow from the cooling
tower plumes. Snow was observed from the tower plumes, however,
when it was not falling from natural clouds. Moreover, the con-
version of the tower plumes from liquid drops to ice crystals
sometimes induced a similar change in the natural clouds, creat-
ing an obvious "hole" in an otherwise unbroken cloud deck.
We cannot specify precisely the conditions required for
induced snow. Observations to date have indicated that induced
snow has been associated with low temperatures and with plumes
diffusing in relatively stable conditions. The key parameters
are air temperatures of -12°C or less and relatively stable
diffusion conditions at plume height. The rate of water vapor
emission from the towers must be critical also, since this is
the source of the additional water vapor.
The artificial snowfall occurs when the atmosphere is
cloudy and snow would be expected. In tests, natural snow often
coincided with tower-induced snow or occurred soon afterward.
However, the observations made during the winter of 1975-
1976 are not unique. A similar snowfall was observed at Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, in 1960. The water vapor released from clus-
ters of mechanical draft towers at the gaseous diffusion plant
at Oak Ridge approximated that from a large power plant, and
the weather conditions were similar to those which induced snow
in the Charlestown observations. Agee has also described the
artificial inducement of snowfall, but the incident he described
appears to have been caused by a seeding effect of particles in
supercooled fog.
The details of the Oak Ridge case are also presented here.
The snow was intermittent and fairly light. Downwind from the
cooling towers, snow began falling about 3 miles distant and
continued to be deposited noticeably on the ground up to 5 miles.
Some very light snow was reported as far as 10 miles from the
towers late in the morning, but by noon all activity seemed to
have ceased. The srow that was deposited 3 to 5 miles from the
cooling towers was normal in appearance with some flakes up to
1/4-inch in size. The snow falling farther downwind was finer
73
-------
in structure and, in the sun, appeared almost crystalline in
nature. Since there were no roads perpendicular to the direc-
tion of travel of the plume estimates of the lateral distance
of snow deposit were not possible. The valley contour, however,
suggested a possible width of approximately one mile.
The snow had been falling during the night, or at least
prior to sunrise. Between 0800 and 0900 EST there were no
clouds outside the affected area. In the area, the clouds
ranged from scattered cumulus at 1,000 to 1,500 feet to low
stratus (base less than 300 feet) as it snowed. Moisture from
the cooling towers rose to an initial height of about 1,500
feet, then, as it progressed downwind, the resulting cloud
decended, intermittently reducing visibility on the ground to
less than 500 feet. A freezing nuclei detector operating at
the time of the snowfall showed no increase of detectable nuclei
Ground Level Drift Deposition
The drift deposition problem is a complicated one involv-
ing several interrelated processes: the dynamics and thermo-
dynamics of drops in a rising plume, the point of which the
drops break free from the plume, dispersal by atmospheric tur-
bulence, and possible evaporation in the ambient atmosphere.
To make deposition estimates, the source characteristics of the
tower such as tower geometry, amount of water circulated,
effluent speed, droplet emission spectra, drift rate, and salt
concentration, must be known. Calculations must be made of the
plume rise, which in part depends on the initial momentum and
buoyancy flux and on the ambient atmospheric conditions. Drop-
let transport, which depends on meteorological conditions such
as the atmospheric relative humidity, turbulence, temperature
and its gradient, and wind velocity, must be estimated.
Thus, we see then an already difficult problem of modeling
plume dispersion becomes considerably more complicated when we
attempt to predict deposition of drift emitted with the plume.
In addition, at the present time there is no reliable field
data on drift deposition so that existing models cannot be
evaluated as to their predictive capabilities. Chen and
Hanna (1977) compared the results of ten different drift com-
position models. Typical natural cooling tower input condi-
tions are given in Table 11. The individual results are given
in Chen and Hanna (1977). The results of the ten models were
averaged, producing the concentration factors in Table 12. By
multiplying the concentration factor in Table 12 by the total
mass emission rate of the substance of interest (Kg/month),
the ground level concentration of the substance is determined.
The concentration is that which would be determined by averaging
the ten different model predictions using the input data of
Table 11.
74
-------
TABLE 11
MODEL INPUT PARAMETERS FOR CALCULATION OF TABLE 12
Plume initially saturated
•f -f»y\m •+• <^\Tir/~i v» T
•po
Plume temperature at exit from tower, Tno = 305°K
Ambient temperature near exit from tower, Tor. = 275°K
tJ vJ
Tower height = 100m
Tower exit diameter = 60m
Efflux velocity = 4.3 m/sec
Amount of circulating water = 499,338 gpm (1890 m^/min.)
Drift rate = 2 X 10~5
Water salinity = 3.45%
Wind speed = 4.3 m/sec.
Calculate salt deposition rate for a sector of 22.5°
Frequency of wind direction which blows toward the sector = 1
Ambient relative humidity = 70% (constant with height)
Isothermal ambient atmosphere (slightly stable atmosphere)
Drop size distribution:
Mass mean diameter
Diameter interval for interval (urn) Mass fraction
0-100
100-200
200-300
300-400
400-500
500-600
75
50
150
250
350
450
550
0.05
0.3
0.4
0.15
0.075
0.025
-------
TABLE 12 TYPICAL* GROUND LEVEL DISTRIBUTION OF DRIFT PARTICLES FROM NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS
DIJ
Dl
. 2
.'6
.8
1 .
1 .
2.
4 .
10
30
60
To
vv;:w j_nd
stance
(Km)
5 - .6
- .8
-1.0
G - 1.5
5-2.0
0-4.0
0 - 10.0
.0 - 30.0
.0 - 60.0
.0-100 .0
tal
Area of
22*5° Sector
(Km2)
0
0
0
0
0
2
16
157
530
1256
1963
.058
.055
.071
.254
. 344
.356
.493
.081
.144
.638
.494
Deposited**
within Sector
(Kg/month)
1246.
810.
732.
2585.
2324 .
6933.
j.7566 .
21291.
5023.
870.
59380.
% of Total
Deposition
2
1
1
4
3
11
29
35
8
1
100
.1
.4
.2
.3
.9
.7
.6
.8
. 5
.5
«
— - . .,
Concentration** Concentration***
within Sector Factor
(Kg/Km2_m0nth
21483.
14727.
10310.
10177.
6756.
2943.
1065.
135.
9.5
0.7
.3718
.1549
.1784
.1761
.1169
.0509
.0184
.0023
.0016
.0001
* Average of predicted deposition values of ten models, each using the input parameters
of Table 1 (see ref. 1).
** Frequency of wind direction which blows toward sector = 1
*** Multiply the total mass emission (Kg/month) from the tower by the concentration factor to
immediately determine the ground level concentration (Kg/Km2) - month) within the distance
interval.
-------
A similar analysis was performed for the drift dispersion
from a mechanical draft cooling tower. The input data is given
in Table 13. The results, given in Table 14 are those predicted
by one proprietary model. Therefore, the results are probably
not as representative as those given for natural draft towers.
A comparison of the results for natural and mechanical draft
towers is given in Figure 10.
Aerobiology
The air as a route for the spread of infectious disease
has been well documented in microbial and epidemiological liter-
ature. It is established, beyond any question, that droplet in-
fection can spread epidemics although the transmission range is
relatively short for respiratory diseases.
In recent years, much of the attention on the long range
transmission of infectious organisms has been in the area of
biological warfare. The information presented here was extracted
from unclassified or declassified biological warfare documents,
or derived from personal communications with or first hand ex-
perience of individuals involved in the subject. Some data, not
singled out, had previously been classified or was extracted
from classified sources and is now in the open literature, hence
the open literature references.
The aerosolization of these wastes via wave action,
or other agitation was clearly demonstrated by Claude Zobel (1946)
and earlier. Additionally, it has been shown that the air travel
and the subsequent dissipation of an aerosol from a given line
source while approximating a function of an exponential decay
pattern has nevertheless often retained its basic cloud structure
and has in this form travelled hundreds of miles due to unique
meteorological conditions. (U. S. Army 1966, and Report 219II)
However, it must be recognized that due to the nature of the
main sources of this data pool that some information has of
necessity remained classified.
Data used in this section is from the following sources:
A. Fort Detrick, Maryland. A former United States Army
installation dedicated to a variety of investigations
dealing with many aspects of microbiological survival,
metabolism, destruction and disease prevention.
B. Dugway Proving Grounds. Utah. A chemical warfare site
still in existence, that has in the past been used for
testing of biological and chemical agents in a variety
of forms.
77
-------
TABLE 13
MODEL INPUT PARAMETERS FOR CALCULATION OF TABLE 14
Cooling Tower Parameters
Cooling Tower Diameter (M) 1606
Cooling Tower Height (M) 18.21
Plume Exit Velocity (m/sec) 9_35
Circulating Water Flow Rate 717900 gpm (2717.26 M3/min)
Drift Rate (%) .008
Plume Exit Temperature, dry bulb (°K) 297.
Salt concentration (gm/cm3) .00135
Particle Diameter - Microns % of Total Mass Drift
0-50 49%
50 - 100 20%
100 - 200 18%
200 - 300 7%
300 - 500 4%
500 & Larger 2%
Ambient Conditions
Wind speed (m/sec) 4002
Temperature, dry bulb (°K) 266.
Specific humidity (Ibs moisture/lbs dry
air) " ,00158
Pasquill stability class 4
Frequency of wind direction which
blows toward the sector 1
78
-------
co
TABLE 14 EXAMPLE* OF GROUND LEVEL DISTRIBUTION OF DRIFT PARTICLES FROM A MECHANICAL DRAFT
COOLING TOWER
.... — , . ,._ . , . _. , „ _. . . — ...,., , . .....
Downwi
Distdll
(Kir.)
. 2
.6
1.
2.
4.
6.
10
15
20
2 -
- 1
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
.0 -
.0 -
.0 -
nd
. 6
.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
30.0
Total
Area of
22^° Sector
(Krr. 2)
2
3
12
24
34
98
176
.0612
.1257
.5890
.3562
.9270
.566
.544
.361
.174
.7
Deposited** % of Total
within Sector Deposition
(Kg/month) (%)
938.
1450.
1
1
2
981.
306.
565.
570.
160.
2130.
1
865.
12965.
7
11
15
2
4
12
16
16
14
100
.2
.2
.3
.4
.4
.1
.7
.3
.4
.
Concentration** Concentration***
within Sector Factor
(Ka/Kn2-mcnth)
15328.
11534.
3363.
130.
144.
125.
88.
62.
19.
1.19
.88
.26
.01
.01
23
36
1 7
01
12
.0097
.00
.00
.00
68
48
15
**
***
Calculated from predictions of combined trajectory - Gaussian drift dispersion model
for a round mechanical draft cooling tower.
Frequency of wind direction which blows toward sector - 1
Multiply the total mass emission (Kg/month) from the tower by the concentration factor to
immediately determine the ground level concentration (Kg/Km -month) within the distance
interval.
-------
oa
w
g
«
O
H
O
PM
O
M
i
£
H
O
iz;
8
o
c
•H
i
CN
I
m
I
c
n~4
r r r • i
M
N
M
N.
M
N
N
M
M
JL
M
M
N
M _.N
N
10'
DCV/NWINO DISTANCE (km)
10J
Calibration Factor vs. Downwind Distance For Examples of
Natural (N) and Mechanical (M) Draft Cooling Tower Drift
Deposition
FIGURE 10
80
-------
The major mission was long range field testing in a relatively
isolated part of the state.
C. Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois.
Its research staff has contracts and grants from a large
number of government and private sources. The research is
variable and in some areas possibly classified.
D. Army Material Command, Washington, D.C. Involved with the
logistics inherent in any aspect of the army mission.
E. Edgewood Arsenal, Edgewood, Maryland. At one time the research
center for the study of gas, aerosol, and radiological and
chemical properties, and the toxicity and protection from all
forms of chemical agents.
F. United States Navy. Via direct or contracted efforts the USN
was engaged in collaborative efforts with its sister services
to investigate various aspects of biological warfare agents,
dissemination, detection and protection.
G. Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland. Primarily the army loca-
tion for hardware testing.
H. Various contracts were in force at different times with organi-
zations as diverse as Booz Allen Inc. an-^ the University of
Pennsylvania.
I. Foreign sources include the Canadian experimental station at
Suffield, Canada and the British laboratories at Porton,
England.
J. Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Site of medical, physio-
logical and toxicological testing in conjunction with the USAF
mission. At one time it was involved in long range bacterio-
logical tests from the point of view of detection and preven-
tion of a microbiological attack.
The analysis within this task analyzes organisms in relation
to attenuation due to dessication, solar radiation and ambient
environmental conditions, and to protective chemical mechanisms.
The organisms addressed in this task are listed in Table 15.
Results of Data Search
Serratia marcescens had been indicated as the causative
agent in the deaths of individuals following a series of Biologi-
cal Warfare (B.W.) tests. This occurred in two separate inci-
dents, in 1950 near San Francisco and in 1952 near Fort McClel-
lan, Alabama.
SI
-------
TABLE 15
ORGANISMS REVIEWED FOR AEROSOL
SURVIVAL AND TRANSMISSABILITY
1. Rust spores
2. Bacillus globigii
3. Pasteurella pestis
4. Pasteurella tularensis
5. Coccidioides immitis
6. Rickettsia burnetii
7. Serratia marcescens
8. Sarcina lutea
9. Venezuelan equine encephalitis
10. Vibrio cholerae
11. Enterotoxin B
12. Simian virus
13. Toxic proteins
14. Klebsiella pneumoniae
15. Escherichia coli
82
-------
lowered metabolic activity, permitting damaged cells to survive
and even repair, lie dormant or even recuperate from the
stress.
B. globiggi has also been used in field trials in the dried
spore state, in a slurry and in liquid media. (U. S. Army, 1953),
Survial and Destruction
Levin (1966) has cataloged the persistence of a number of
microorganisms in a spectrum of soils and climate. Tests of
persistence and variability of persistence, have produced a
variety of techniques designed to kill microorganisms. These
range from extreme dry heat to the use of mustard gas on E. coli
(U. S. Army 1965). Ultra violet light has of course been used
against some organisms while other forms of radiation have per-
mitted the ultimate recovery of the cell's capacity to produce
DNA.
A study by Lighthart (1972) employed vegetative £3. marces-
cens, Sarcina lutea and B. subtilis spores. The aerosols were
challenged by varying humidities at 15°C for 6 hours in a carbon
monoxide environment that approximated a high urban concentra-
tion. The survivability varied from lethal to protected.
For example, £L marcescens was killed off four to sevenfold at
low (1-25%) RH. Above this at 90% RH, protections was provided.
£L lutea varied fromtprotection during the first hour to death
during the next 5 hours, topping a seventy fold increase in the
RH range of 0 to 75%. The spores of B. subtilis proved to be
hardy in almost all environments.
Viruses and bacteria have been inactivated by ozone (Burle-
son, 1975) but the truly effective result depends on the water
being free of almost all organic waste. River water would be
a difficult treatment media by this method, due to the ozone
demand of the organic material.
Viruses
Virus aerosol survival studies have lagged behind bacteria
or plant spores due to the inherent problems of tracing, trap-
ping and identification. As techniques have improved we have
learned that some viruses persist in the airborne state in good
numbers for 6 or more hours. Using vesicular stomatitis virus
(VSV) Watkins et. al. (1965) studied temperature and humidity
variables. He concluded that maximum stability occurred at 20%
and 80% RH while minimal stability was to be found at 50% RH.
Temperature increments from 50°, 70°, 80° and 90°F all increased
the decay rate.
Harper (1961) studied vaccinia, influenza and V.E.E. at
temperature ranges of 7-12°C, 21-24°C and 32-34°C and concluded
survival was inverse to temperature. Coxsackie A21 aerosols at
25°C and 50 to 60% RH experience a 50% decay rate in the first
few seconds of aerosolization.
85
-------
The persistence inherent in many aerosols of virus origin,
depends greatly on the initial concentration. A dry cloud
containing virus matter exhibits a longer survival. The medium
in which the virus is suspended in prior to, and during aerosoli-
zation influences the subsequent behavior. The content has been
studied but not the mechanism. Inositol for example decreases
the sensitivity of viruses to relative humidity, U.V. light and
X-ray, thereby artificially prolonging the viability.
Survivability and inactivation of viruses in air was ex-
amined at Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio with the follow-
ing conclusions. (1974).
Adenoviruses, enteroviruses and Newcastle virus were most
stable at room temperature and 50% relative humidity. Para
influenza and respiratory syncitial viruses were inactivated
rapidly as relative humidity shifted. The decrease in relative
humidity decreased the survival rate of the adenoviruses and
enteroviruses within 2 hours. At moderate (50%) or high (90%)
relative humidity the survival rate varied from 7-24 hours.
The para influenza, respiratory syncitial and New Castle viruses
were inactivated rapidly at high and medium RH and to a lesser
degree at low RH.
In the realm of survival, Lefler and Kott (1974) noted
the survivability of polio virus Type I in dry sand for 77 days.
Wellings extracted Coxsackie 64, Polio Type II and I, Coxsackie
Type A, (Wellings, 1975) Echo (Snow, 1955; Goetz, 1954; Erlich
& Miller, 1968) from ground water. The significance of these
findings lies in the appreciation of the ubiquity, and persistence
of these microbiological entities with regard to survival.
Inactivation had been attempted by Jensen when he exposed
aerosols of Coxsackie, influenza, sindbis, and vaccinia to ultra
violet during passage through a tube. The kill percentage is
expressed in Table 16. Therefore, one may conclude that by
avoiding U.V., as in a dust cloud or debris environment, to some
degree, the viability of the aforementioned viruses would be
protected.
A number of studies were directed at the behavior of or-
ganic entities such as viral nucleic acid from Simian Virus 40
(SV40) (U. S. Army, 1956; Akers, 1972) virus protein and RNA of
Encephalomyocarditis Virus (EMV) (DeJong et^ _al, 1974), stability
of toxic proteins (U. S. Army, 1965), enterotoxin B (U. S. Army,
1967),
The results concerning the survivability and persistence
of these viruses varied greatly so that no general conclusion
can be drawn.
86
-------
For example:
SV40 persisted well at 21 C throughout a spectrum of rela-
tive humidities from 22 to 88%. At 32°C viability was practi-
cally gone within 60 minutes.
At relative humidities of 50% or less the EMV entity lost .
its viability, yet the RNA of the virus retained its infectivity.
The same illogicity persists with enterotoxin B and other
proteins. However, as long as the substance retains its aller-
genic or toxic property the debilitating effects common to the
entity can occur.
Mycotic Sources
Coccidioides immitus is distinctly hydrophobic when in its
arthrospore stage (Levine, 1977). As such, it survives well
within the wide ranging termperatures, relative humidity, dessi-
cation and even light energies of an infinite variety. Soil
conditions that provide Na*, Ca++, S04~, and Cl~ encourage the
survival and growth of this fungus. Therefore, any organic
mass able to provide these ions can in turn harbor this pathogen.
Moisture enhances the mycelial growth. Dispersion by air is
easily accomplished since the intact arthrospore is extremely
persistent in air and in soil from which it can be wafted.
Rickettsia
Rickettsia burnetii is linked to Q fever. Aerosols of this
agent have infected at distances of over ten miles from the point
source (Tigertt, 1961).
Many of the effects of variables on microbiological sur-
vival in aerosols are tabulated in Table 17. The effects were
arrived at during B.W. tests and research. Some of the vari-
ables examined include exposure to U.V. light, temperature and
relative humidity.
TABLE 16
KILL PERCENTAGE OF VIRUSES EXPOSED
TO ULTRA VIOLET RADIATION
100 ft.3/min. flow 200 ft.3/min. flow
99.9 coxsackie 97.5
99.9 influenza 99.9
99.9 sindbis 96.7
vaccinia 99.9
96.8 adenovirus 91.3
87
-------
00
00
TABLE 17
EVENTS INFLUENCING MICROBIOLOGICAL SURVIVAL
(1 of 5)
ORGANISM
Adenovirus
Bacillus
globigii
Bacillus
subtilis
Coccidioides
immitis
Coxsackie A21
Coxsackie B4
Echo 1, 7, 11
TEMPERATURE RELATIVE
°C HUMIDITY
70° 50%
50-90%
40
ambient ambient
ambient ambient
10°-450 5-85%
25° 50-60%
100%
100%
100%
COMMENTS OR EFFECTS AND REFERENCES
91.3% survival in an aerosol; exposed to
U.V. light (Jensen, 1964).
Stable at 22°C (USDOA, 1974).
Decay directly proportioned to rise in
relative humidity (U.S. Army, 1974).
Increased count of organism 100% survival
(Leif and Hebert , 1977).
Carried 12 mi, remained viable in field
aerosol (U.S. Army, 1953).
Survived in all environments (Lighthart,
1972).
Arthrospore survives well in all expo-
sures (Levine, 1977).
Immediate 50% decay (Jensen, 1964).
Found in ground water. Aerosol passed
through U.V. light at rate of 200'/min.;
97.5% decay (Akers, 1972).
Found in ground water (Wellings, 1975).
Found in ground water (Wellings, 1975).
-------
00
CD
TABLE 17
EVENTS INFLUENCING MICROBIOLOGICAL SURVIVAL
(2 of 5)
ORGANISM
Encephalomyo-
caditis
Enterovirus
TEMPERATURE RELATIVE
*C HUMIDITY
50%
50%
70° 50%
50-90%
COMMENTS OR EFFECTS AND REFERENCES
Virus loses viability (DeJong, 1974).
RNA retains inf ectibility .
Stable at 22°C (U.S. Army, 1974).
Direct relationship between increase in
relative humidity and survival.
Escherichia coli
24-30°
40-90% Survives well; mustard gas affects
growth (Dimmick, 1965 & U.S. Army, 1965).
Influenza 7-12°
21-24°
32-34°
Klebsiella ambient
pjieumonia
Newcastle virus 70°
Survival is inverse to rise in
ture (Harper, 1961).
When aerosol was exposed to U.V
decay (Jensen, 1964).
tempera-
. ; 99%
ambient Presence is key to poor environment
(Seidler, 1975).
<50% Only 1% survival after 24 hours (Goldberg,
1977).
?-50% Survival increased as relative humidity
increased (Goldberg, 1977).
50% Stable at 22°C (U.S. Army, 1974
50-90% Rapid deactivation of virus (U.
).
S . Army ,
1974).
-------
TABLE 17
EVENTS INFLUENCING MICROBIOLOGICAL SURVIVAL
(3 of 5)
ORGANISM
Newcastle virus
(Continued)
TEMPERATURE
°C
RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
<50%
COMMENTS OR EFFECTS AND REFERENCES
Increasing survival rate (U.S. Army,
1974).
Pasteurella Pestis
26-39% Good survival rate (U.S. Army, 1965)
61-87% 1 log death rate; actual 90% loss
(U.S. Army, 1968).
CD
O
Pasteurella
tularensis
-40-24°
24-35°
490
>75%
Survives well (U.S. Army, 1964).
Death rate increases linearly (Erlich,
Miller, 1968).
Maximum kill temperature (Erlich, Miller,
1968).
Polio type I
0%
100%
Survived for 77 days in sand (Leffler &
KOH, 1974).
Found viable in ground water (Wellings,
1975).
Polio type II
100%
Found viable in ground water (Wellings,
1975).
Rickettsia
burnetii
Proven to cause Q-fever 10 mi. from
origin (Tigertt, 1961).
Sarcina lutea
15°
0-75%
Exposed to CO gas; survival varied
(Lighthart, 1972).
-------
CQ
TABLE 17
EVENTS INFLUENCING MICROBIOLOGICAL SURVIVAL
(4 of 5)
ORGANISM
Serrata
marcescens
TEMPERATURE
°C
-40-32°
-40-120°
150
Staphylococcus
aureus
24-30°
RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
90%
20-80%
20%
1-25%
10%
COMMENTS OR EFFECTS AND REFERENCES
Protected viability (Lighthart, 1972).
Increase in death over 32°
Decrease in relative humidity increased
death rate (U.S. Army, 1968 and Dimmick,
1965).
Survived for 6 hours while exposed to
CO gas; then 4.7 fold death rate (Lightart,
1971).
Relative humidity not a factor in survival
(Goetz, 1954).
Simian virus (SV) 21°
32°
Sindbis virus
22-88% Survived well
22-88% Decayed within
96
to
.7%
U.V
survival
. light
(U.S. Army, 1965).
1 hour (Akers, 1972).
when aerosol was
(Jensen, 1964).
exposed
Survives well (Dimmick, 1965).
Staphylococcus
pullorum
15-80% Survivability increases as relative
humidity increases (Dimmick, 1965).
Streptococcus
salivarius
24-30°
Survives well (Dimmick, 1965).
-------
CD
to
TABLE 17
EVENTS INFLUENCING MICROBIOLOGICAL SURVIVAL
(5 of 5)
ORGANISM
Toxic Proteins
Vaccinia
V.S.V.
TEMPERATURE
°C
25-32°
7-12°
21-240
32-34°
50°, 70°,
80°, 90°
7-12°
21-240
32-340
RELATIVE
HUMIDITY COMMENTS OR EFFECTS AND REFERENCES
Retains potency (U.S. Army, 1965)
Survival inverse to temperature (Harper,
1961) .
Aerosol exposed to U.V. light; 99% decay
rate (Jensen, 1968).
20-80% Increase in decay as temperature in-
creases (Watkins, et . al . ) .
Survival inverse to temperature (Harper,
1961).
-------
RESULTS OF TASK III - DIRECT EFFECTS
The potential direct effects of pathogenic organisms and
toxic substances on plants,animals and humans were evaluated
under this task. The study of conventional epidemiology and
pathology concerns itself with the routes by which infection is
acquired, considers the transmission of disease from man to man,
that arising from contact with environmental sources, as well as
the essential nature of the disease and especially the struc-
tural and functional changes caused by it. T"he potential of a
given agent to cause disease in any given population, and the
existence and pattern of any ensuing epidemic rests upon a number
of variables, but particularly the following:
1. Portal of entry for the disease-causing agent.
2. Portal of exit.
3. Incubation period.
4. Gradient of infection.
5. Mode of spread.
6. Survival in nature.
7. Susceptibility of the population at risk.
Portal of Entry
Since the material released from the tower may be carried in
a variety of physical forms and in particles of varying size, with
different agents being present in differing quantities, three
potential portals of entry must be considered:
Inhalation: Inhalation of airborne or droplet-carried
organisms may create invasive disease at any site within the res-
piratory tract. Large particles and droplets are restricted by
normal host defenses to deposition on the mucous membranes of the
nose, mouth, pharynx, and upper tracheo-bronchial tree. In this
instance, high concentrations of the infecting organism are usu-
ally required to produce disease, and the mechanism is usually
direct contact. In contrast, smaller particles, 1-5 microns in
size, will be inhaled into the distal portions of the respira-
tory tract, including the terminal bronchioles and alveoli, and
these can cause disease with very small numbers of particles,
occasionally estimated to be as few as a single particle. This
is true "inhalation disease". For those few organisms studied,
a balance exists between size of inhaled droplet and numbers of
organisms required to transmit disease, making specific quanti-
tative estimates of disease risk impossible, except for the few
microorganisms well-studied in defined laboratory models of in-
fection .
Contact: Particles of any size on exposed surfaces may
cause disease in several specific areas. Whereas contact of even
large numbers of most organisms on normal skin or surfaces is un-
93
-------
likely to cause disease, certain exposed surfaces may be much
more susceptible, particularly the following:
1. Abnormal skin or surfaces (sites of burns, abrasions,
or open wounds).
2. Mucuous membranes of respiratory tract.
3. Conjunctiva.
Ingestion: Food or water supplies contaminated by cooling-
device drift can cause disease in any population ingesting such
contaminated materials. In considering the possible role of
cooling device drift, primary contamination of food and water
supplies, as well as secondary contamination via infection of
plants or animals lower down in the food chain must be considered,
The risk of both primary and secondary contamination is particu-
larly important for any population ingesting untreated food or
unchlorinated water.
Portal of Exit
This is a relatively unimportant facet of this task, and
is pertinent to the discussion of secondary propagation of
disease through a community. Portals of exit are relevant by
providing a means of infecting cooling tower makeup water in the
first place. While organisms excreted predominantly by fecal or
urinary routes of exit may find their way most readily into
polluted river or ground water, virtually any organism in any
tissue of any susceptible host, excreted by any route, such as
respiratory tract discharges, could, under some natural circum-
stances, be found there. What is more important, therefore, is
the ability of the organism to survive or multiply in such set-
tings .
Incubation Period
This period between first contact of the host with the in-
fecting organism and the development of clinical symptoms plays
a major role in determining the shape of epidemic curves, and
hence, in the development of appropriate forms of epidemiologic
monitoring of the effects of cooling towers. However, considera-
tion of incubation periods is not relevant to this preliminary
discussion.
Gradient of Infection
This reflects the proportion of those infected who become
symptomatically affected by the disease. It is important in
determining the magnitude of an epidemic and in evaluating the
public health significance. It is largely determined by the
susceptibility of the population and the size of the infecting
94
-------
inoculum. This will become important in determining modes of
epidemiologic monitoring, in which the search for asymptomatic
infections may become required.
Mode of Spread
The conventional modes of transmission of epidemic disease
are:
1. airborne
2. droplet
3. contact
4. food and/or water
5. vector.
Direct or indirect contact with cooling-device drift will involve
all these modes of spread, with the possible exception of vector-
borne disease. In the discussion of individual infectious agents
that follows, droplet-borne diseases are considered under the
respective portals of entry of either contact or inhalation
disease depending on the anatomic site of impact of the offending
agent and the route by which specific disease might be best
acquired.
Survival in Nature
This concept is perhaps the most important in determining
the risk from exposure to pathogens in cooling device drift.
Survival of the microorganisms includes an,analysis of what is
present in the water sources used to cool the towers, survival of
the initial "inoculum" in the highly unnatural thermal conditions
of the tower, and in the aerosol produced. These last two con-
siderations will be the most important factors in determining
whether or not disease will ensue from the use of water polluted
with any potential pathogen. This was of course, discussed
within Task II.
Susceptibility of the Population at Risk
This may be the most difficult variable to define quantita-
tively, as it will differ for each organism and for each popula-
tion group. For humans the demographic and medical variable that
will need to be considered include the following:
1. Age distribution of the exposed population.
2. Racial distribution of the exposed population.
3. Sex distribution of the exposed population.
4. Presence of malnutrition or exposure to other factors
that will affect host defense (e.g., malaria, produc-
95
-------
ing reticuloendothelial system blockade, and thereby
increasing susceptibility to Salmonella infection).
5. Prior experience or exposure to the pathogens and toxins
involved.
6. Presence of immunologic deficiency states.
Variables to be considered for animals include these:
1. Age distribution of the exposed population.
2. Sex distribution of the exposed population.
3. Presence of malnutrition or other factors that will
affect host defense (e.g., weather conditions,
breeding cycles, migration and hibernation patterns).
4. Prior experience or exposure to the pathogens and toxins
involved.
5. Presence of immunologic deficiency states.
6. Relative position in the trophic levels, and feeding
pattern (e.g., herbivore, carnivore, omnivore).
The environmental and physical variables which predispose
vegetation to infection or intoxication are more numerous and
varied than those for humans and animals. The factors include:
1. Biological variables; including age, stage of develop-
ment, species and variety of the exposed population.
2. Edaphic variables; soil conditions such as moisture and
nutrition content.
3. Climatic factors; e.g. wind speed, temperature, rela-
tive humidity, light intensity and quality.
4. Presence of a second pollutant or toxin, which may
modify the effect of the first.
5. Quantity of precipitation.
6. Factors of exposure including the concentration of the
toxin, duration and frequency of exposure. (Contin-
uous and intermittant exposures of the same dosage
will produce significantly different effects).
General statements as to the relative risk of specific or-
ganisms or toxins can be found in Appendix B, Aerosol Drift Direct
Effects Assessment Catalogue. Analysis of the actual effects on
humans, animals and vegetation is included for each specific
toxin or pathogen.
Finally it should be recognized that the risk of cooling
device drift to a given population involves not only the direct
transmission of disease and toxicity but also indirect trans-
mission (to be discussed under Task IV), and transmission of
allergens.
Allergens of many types can be considered, but are generally
beyond the scope of this report, although several biologic agents
can be so involved. Some, by their ubiquity and because the
96
-------
unique environmental situation of the cooling tower might poten-
tiate their growth or transmission, might be particularly impor-
tant, including:
A. Allergic broncho-pulmonary aspergillosis
B. Thermophilic actinomycetes.
Under these conditions, high concentrations of many other
organisms, or antigenic fragments of organisms, might also become
important. Among these is transmission of toxic substances which
might alter the susceptibility of the population to other organ-
isms, and resultant long-term effects of prolonged contact with
unusual chemical or biologic materials.
One particular organism which could not be addressed fully
within the format of the Aerosol Drift Direct Effects catalog is
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The general effect of this organism
is tuberculosis, a chronic infectious disease. It is normally
characterized by the formation of avascular nodules of inflama-
tory tissue.
The organism is carried and transmitted via aerosol formites
while infection may occur through inhalation, ingestion or di-
rectly through skin . Inhalation is the most frequent means of in-
fection. The route of entry of the infectious fomites may usually
be inferred from the location of the characteristic lesions.
Further transmission of the disease may occur from discharges
from these areas.
There are three common varieties of this organism, var.
hominus, var. bovis, var. avium. Each has a different patho-
genicity. The bovine type is progressive and sometimes fatal
in cattle. Manifestation in horses is progressive and usually
associated with infection in cattle. The disease is also pro-
gressive in swine who are highly susceptible and in cats, who
are usually infected from tuberculous milk. This type rarely
affects sheep, goats, dogs, humans and does not affect birds.
The avian type affects all birds. Due to their lowered
resistance to disease, disease occurs mostly in domestic or cap-
tivated, wild birds. This type produces chronic symptoms in
swine and is progressive in sheep. It is the most common form
to affect these animals. Rarely are goats, horses, cattle,
dogs or cats affected by the avian variety.
Cattle, swine and cats are resistant to the var. hominus.
This type doesn't affect horses, sheep, goats or most birds. Only
psittacines are not resistant and their infection is usually asso-
ciated with tuberculous owners. Dogs may also contract the
disease from their owners and it manifests itself in the pul-
monary form. Var. hominus is of course, the most common form
to affect man.
-------
When large animals contract tuberculosis, cattle normally
develop lesions in the lungs and in the cephalic and thoracic
lymph nodes. Swine develop lesions in the cephalic and abdominal
lymph nodes, and it is sometimes fatal. In sheep and goats, the
affected areas are the lungs and thoracic lymph nodes.
In smaller animals, dogs are affected in the thoracic organs
and cats, initially in the abdominal organs and later in the lungs.
Poultry develop the disease slowly. Initially there is intestinal
ulceration and then necrosis and ulceration of the spleen and
liver.
Wild animals rarely contract the disease except when associ-
ated with humanity, zoos or cattle raising areas. Wild birds
commonly develop lesions in the spleen and liver. However, out-
ward signs of infection are variable and may be non-existent.
Outbreaks among wild animals involving more than one individual,
are usually associated with man. Infection stems from exposure to
either infected farm animals or sewage outfall.
Humans are quite susceptible to tuberculous infections but
rarely manifest tuberculous disease. Generally the route of
entry determines the site of primary lesions. Inhalation pro-
duces lesions in lungs and tracheobronchial lymph nodes; inges-
tion: mouth, tonsils, neck lymph nodes, intestine; skin: ulcera-
tion at specific site and regional lymph nodes. After a period
of days the infecting organisms spread to all parts of the body.
Most of the tubercle bacilli do not find suitable sites for
development. Some remain microscopic foci and may promote infec-
tion of bones, joints, lungs and other organs as much as ten years
later. Disease due to reinfection usually becomes the chronic
pulmonary form. This form is the prime cause for morbidity and
mortality.
Man may be regarded as the sole carrier. Animal infection
stems directly and indirectly from man, and any residual foci of
infection in cattle are eliminated through mild pasteurization.
98
-------
RESULTS OF TASK IV - INDIRECT EFFECTS
The effects of cooling device drift are not limited to direct
reactions to and manifestation of disease from toxins and patho-
gens. The infection of plant and animal and human populations may
either be secondarily transmitted or spread to other members of
the community or may lead to interruption of human and animal food
sources.
The potential of a given agent to indirectly or secondarily
cause disease in any given population and the insuring patterns
of infection or intoxification relies on the same variables as
discussed under Task III.
1. Portal of entry for the disease-causing agent
2. Portal of exit
3. Incubation period
4. Gradient of infection
5. Mode of spread
6. Survival in nature
7. Susceptibility of the population at risk
Essentially all discussion contained in the previous section
holds true and only the exceptions will be noted here.
Portal of Exit
Under this task, discussion of this facet takes on new impor-
tance. Organisms excreted from infected individuals, predominantly
by fecal or urinary routes of exit and perhaps respiratory tract
discharges, may find their way quite readily into polluted river
or ground water. Virtually any organism in any tissue of any sus-
ceptible host, excreted by any route, could be found in water
sources or areas of food cultivation. The ability of the organism
or disease to survive, multiply or remain virulent in such settings,
determines the potential for its transmission to successive indi-
viduals.
Mode of Spread
The five conventional modes listed in the previous task are
valid considerations within this section as well. The difference
lies in the role of vectors as means of transmission. Vector trans-
mission by definition accounts for one living organism carrying a.
disease to another non-infectious individual. Vectors act in events
such as insect bites (mosquitos transferring malaria); food chain
transmission (infected plants; low order animals; herbivores; car-
nivores; and predators). Other instances include contact with
open lesions on infected individuals.
99
-------
Fomites too, play a major role in indirect effects from cool-
ing towers. Ingest ion of water contaminated with waste from
infected individuals could spread disease. Plants may harbor
pathogens on its edible parts or concentrate toxins in its leaves,
fruits or roots, as in tuberous plants. Many small wild animals
concentrate toxins in their fatty tissue, or may simply be in-
•fected with the disease itself. Inclusion of any of these in a
food supply would further spread the infection or offending agent.
Prior to pasteurization, milk from infected cows was the major
cause of the spread of tuberculosis.
Concentration of people in close quarters, such as in schools,
encourages person to person transmission. In recent years winter
bouts of influenza have reached epidemic proportions and there
have been renewed outbreaks of "childhood diseases" (rubella,
chicken pox, measles). Rapid transmission would also occur be-
tween animals in farm and breeding settings.
Susceptibility of the Populatipn_at Risk
Susceptibility to an infection may increase when trans-
mitted from one animal, plant or human to a like individual due
to potentiation. Like individuals are susceptible to like
organisms, varieties, even concentrations or innocula. As each
individual becomes infected the innocula become more refined to
meet the specifications necessary to infect subsequent indivi-
duals. Populations are therefore more susceptible to the agent
being transmitted.
100
-------
RESULTS OF TASK V - RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussion of the recommendations based on the results
of this study, the results of Task V in the scope of the
study, may be found in Section 3, Recommendations.
101
-------
RESULTS OF TASK VI - COMPUTER SIMULATION
A. Introduction
The computer simulation is based on a combination of numeri-
cal and Monte Carlo modeling. Basically, the modeling is done
in three serial parts for a cooling tower and associated ambient
environment that are specified as input parameters. Part 1 de-
velopes the microbial environment in the cooling towers based on
the data from the consultants. Part 2 develops and distributes
the aerosols (micro-microbial environment) from the cooling
tower into the environment. Part 3 calculates the microbial en-
vironment downwind from the cooling tower, evaluates the possi-
bility of infections based on the results of Part 1 and 2, and
prints out results. Figure 11 is a simplified flow chart for the
simulation.
FIGURE 11
BASIC FLOW CHART
Determine
Microbial Contents
of Cooling Tower
Develop Plume Model
Meteorological
Inputs
Isopleths of
Distribution
Organisms
Probability')
of
Establish
Microbial Contents
of Plume
Stochastic Models
of
Infection
Isopleths of
Infection
Probability
as a function
of Distance
102
-------
B. Development of Cooling Tower Microbial Environment
The consultants have developed a list of pathogenic organ-
ism that can occur in a polluted water source. This list was
used as a basis to establish the microbial content of the cool-
ing tower. To do this, a matrix was established listing each
organism from the consultants list versus the following factors:
1. ability to produce disease (epidemiological significance)
2. survival in surface water
3. survival in treated effluent
4. survival in cooling device
5. survival in aerosols
6. integrity in fomites
For each factor a numerical value between 0 and 5 was
assigned based on the consultants data. The definitions of
these numerical constants are listed in Table 18. Table 19
shows the matrix and the numerical constants assigned for each
category, for each organism considered. From the matrix a
weighted product for each organism was found as follows:
UJ - IT a&
Where W is the weighted product, a.^ is the weighting factor
(0 to 1) for the ith factor and fi is the numerical constant
from the matrix. As a practical initial matter, the weighting
factors (a^) were taken as unity, however, as more information
becomes available and it is possible to refine the model, this
should be changed. The products were grouped, that is, products
with very similar numerical values were considered to be the
same and normalized. From these normalized values a histogram
was constructed and used as the distribution function for de-
termining the probability that pathogens were present in the
make-up water using Monte Carlo methods to evaluate the integral
of the distribution function.
The number of organisms present in the make-up water (per
unit volume) was modeled somewhat arbitrarily by using the
probability from above as the mean of an exponential distribu-
tion limited to 10^ maximum (personal conversation with Dr. H.
Freudenthal) . This was done by a modified Monte Carlo simula-
tion. Thus, the number of pathogens entering the cooling tower
per unit volume of make up water was established. This simula-
tion, was further modulated by including only those results from
the exponential distribution when a second selected uniform
random variable exceeded the probability value found earlier.
103
-------
TABLE 18
NUMERICAL CONSTANTS USED IN ESTIMATING PROBABLITIES
OCCURRENCE IN POLLUTED WATER SOURCE
(0) will not occur under any circumstances
(1) rarely occurs
(2) compromised - will occur only if concentration or frequency
in surrounding environment significantly
increases eg. epidemic, leak from toxic
substance storage
(3) will occasionally occur
(4) will frequently occur
will always occur
unknown
SURVIVAL IN A PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENT (SURFACE WATER, TREATED
EFFLUENT, COOLING DEVICE)
(0) will not survive under any circumstances
(]) rarely survives
(2) compromised - may survive in this environment only if
conditions change eg. type of water treatment,
presence of other toxins or pathogens
(3) will occasionally survive
(4) will frequently survive
(5) will always survive
(x) unknown
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
(0) will never cause disease or direct effects
(1) rarely causes disease or direct effects
(2) compromised - host may contract the disease or become
affected if its immune system has been
weakened
(3) may cause non-transmittable effects or allergic responses
(4) usually causes disease
(5) always causes disease
(x) unknown
104
-------
TABLE 19
SUMMARY OF PATHOGEN,/TOX IN PROBABILITIES
PATHOGEN /TOXIN
Absidia corymbifera
Absidia ramosa
Actinomyces Israeli
Actinomyces keratolytica
Actinomyces naeslundii
Actinomyces odontolyticus
Actinomyces viscosus
j Arachina propionica
Aspergillus spp.
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus nidulans
Aspergillus niveus
Aspergillus restrictus
Aspergillus terreus
Bacillus anthracis
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus subtilis
Bacteriodes fragilis
Bacteriodes melaninogenicus
Basidiobolus haptosporus
Blastomyces dermatitidis
Bordetella parapertussis
Brucella abortus
Brucella canis
Brucella me li tens is
Brucella suis
Candida albicans
Candida guillermondu
produce
disease
4
4
2
2
1
1
1
1
4
3
2
2
2 i
2
4 !
4
2
4 i
4
4 :
1 i
4 !
4 1
i 1
4 !
4 i
2 !
2 1
i i
1 !
occurrence
1
1
3
3
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
Survival
0) TJ fl
O CD 0)
erf ?H -+J 3
•CH CD C3 rH
k +•> CD HH
3
-------
(2 of 7)
TABLE 19
SUMMARY OF PATHOGEN/TOXIN PROBABILITIES
PATHOGEN/TOXIN
Candida krusei
Candida parapsilosis
Candida pseudotropicalis
Candida stellatoidea
Candida tropicalis
Candida utilis
Candida viswanthii
Candida zeylatoides
Cladosjjprium bantianum
Cladosporium carrionii
Clostridium botulism
Clostridium perfingens
Cocciodioides immitis
Cocynebacterium spp.
Conidiobolus coronatus
Corynebacterium diptheriae
Corynebacterium ulcerans
Cryptococcus neoformans
Dermatophilus congolensis
Enter obacteriae
i
Enterococci
Escherichia coli
Fuscobacterium spp.
Geotrichium candidium
Haemophilus aegyptius
Haemophilus influenzae
Histoplasma capsulatum
Klebsialla pneumonia
produce
disease
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
4
3
4
2
1
2 !
j
2
2 i
2
2
4
3 I
4
2
2
2
4
4
occurrence
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
4
3
4
1
1
i
3 1
1
1
4
4
4 1
1
4
1
4
4
Survival in
-(->
Q) 73 G hC
0 0) 0) GO)
rf Sn +J 3 -HO
3 OJ In «H O0
CO & -P 0 O T3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
4
3
4
4 ]
3
?
3
4 ;
4 i
5
4
4
4
3
4
1
4
4
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
o
Q
3
3
3
3 i
3 !
4
3
3
3
3
1
3
3
4
0
3
0
4
4
i
4
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
3
3
3
5
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
!
3
4
4
3
i
4
1
4
4
aeroso-
lization
integrity
in fomites
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
4
5
4
3
4
4
5
5
4
5
5
4
4
I
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
3
3
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
5
5 }
i
\
4
5
5
5
5
4
5
4
106
-------
TABLE 19
SUMMARY OF PATHOGEN/TOXIN PROBABILITIES
PATHOGEN/TOXIN
Listeria monocytogenes
Mucor spp.
Mucor pusillus
Mucor ramosissimus
Mycobacterium bpyis
Mvcobacterium chelonei
Mycobacterium fortuitum
Mycobacterium kansasii
Mycobacterium marinum
Mycobacterium scrofulaceum
Mycobacterium simiae
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Mycobacterium ulcerans
Mycobacterium xenopi
Nocardia asteroides
Nocardia brasiliensis
NocardJa caviae
Peptococcus spp.
Peptostreptococcus spp.
Phialophora dermatitidis
Phialophora gDugerotii
Phialophora richardsiae
Phialophora spinifera
Phialophora verrucosa
Proteus mLrabilis
Prototheca wickerhamii
Prototheca zopfi
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
produce
disease
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
;
4
4 !
1
1
i 1 !
1
i i
4
1
2
2
i
i L
occurrence
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
Survival in
4~>
0) T3 « bfi
O 0)0) CO)
OS ?-( 4-> 3 -HO
I+H CD rt rH i— l -H
h +•> 0) «H O >
3 ol JH =H O 0)
Cfl £ -(-> 0 U T3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
/i
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
4 !
4 i
4
1
1
4
4
1
1
1
i
1
-i
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
aeroso-
lization
integrity
in fomites
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
0
0
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
3
3
3
3
3
5
0
0
4
107
-------
(4 of 7)
TABLE 19
SUMMARY OF PATHOGEN/TOXIN PROBABILITIES
PATHOGEN /TOX IN
Pseudomonas mallei
Pseudoraonas pseudomallei
Rhinocladiella compactum
Rhinocladiella perosoi
Rhizopus arrhizus
Rhizopus oryzae
Salmonella spp.
Salmonella typhi
Shigella spp.
Shigella boydii
Shigella dysenteriae
Shigella flexneri
Shigella sonnei
Sporothrix schenckii
Staphylococcus agalactiae
Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus spp.
Streptococcus agalactiae
Streptococcus faecalis
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Streptococcus pyogenes
Toruplopsis glabrata
Vibrio parahemolytica
Yersina enterocolitica
Yersina pestis
Yersina pseudotuberculosis
Zygomycetes
produce
disease
occurrence
4
4
1
1
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
4
2
2
4
2
2
2
4
4
j
4
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
1
4
1
1
4
4
1
1
4
4
4
4
1
Survival in
-(->
0) TJ G bfl
O 3 -HO
0) =H O >
3 ni ^ «H O Q)
ws -p 0) o T3
3
4
1
1
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
1
1
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
1
3
3
1
1
4
4
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
0
0
3
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
*_
3
1
1
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
1
1
4
1
1
4
3
1
1
5
4
3
4
1
aeroso-
lization
integrity
in foraites
4
3
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
3
3
3
3
4
4
5
4
4
5
5
i
4
4
5
5
4
5
4
!
108
-------
TABLE 19
81\ MMARY OF PAT HOGLVTOX 1N PRQBABIL IT IE S
PATHOGEN/TOXIN
Acenapthene
Acetone
Acrolein
Acrylonitrile
Aldrin
Antimony
! Arsenic
Asbestos
i
! Benzene
Benzidene
Beryllium
Biphenyl (Diphenyl)
Cadmium
Carbon Tetrachloride
Chlordane
Chlorinated Benzenes
Chlorinated Ethanes
Chlorinated Napthalene
Chlorine
Chloroform
Clorophenol
Chromium
Copper
Cyanides
DDT & metabolites
Diabyl Ethers
Dichlorobenzenes
Dichlorobenzidine
,„ . ,
CD GJ
o in
3 a
t3 CD
o uj
?H *H
tx-o
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
3
3
4
1
1
3
4
3
3
i 4
4
4
4 !
4 ;
i 3
3 ;
i. ,i
0)
o
S3
£_!
sx
£j
o
o
0
q
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
1
4
4
4
4
5
4
1
3
3
3
4
2
3
Sur^
CD
O
Cti 5-i
^ CD
Sx -P
3 ixS
03 S
4
2
1
4
4
4
A
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
1
; 4
i
4
4
4
5
< 5
4|
_ J
i/- i v a 1
-H
T5 G
0> CD
-H ;3
G5 ' — 1
CD 4H
?-( 'i -(
-H CD
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
O
5
2
4
4
4
5
4
4
in
tc
G CD
•H O
rH -H
0 >
O (D
0 T3
4
1
1
1
4
4
: 4
4
1
4
4
4
4
1
4
4
_.
1
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
G
1 O
O -H
K -P
O rf
?-i SI
CD -H
ccj f™^
i
5
5
5
1
1
5
3
5
1
1
1
4
5
3
1
3
1
4
4
3
2
2
. 4
3
1
2
i
!
01
>i CD
-H 4~*
•H -H
?H S
bJD O
CD «M
•M
G G
•H -r-l
4
4
1
1
4
5
3
5
4
2
2
4
1
4
4
4 i
!
4 |
2
1
1 '
1
4
5
1
1
,
4
1
4
4
.. ..
109
-------
(6 of 7)
TABLE 19
SUMMARY OF PATHOGEN/TOXIN PROBABILITIES
PATHOGEN/TOXIN
Dichloroethylene
Dichlorophenol
Dichlor opropane ,
Dichloropropene
Dieldrin
2,4, Dimethyl Phenol
Dinitrotoluene
Diphenylhydrazinr
Endosulf an
Endrin & metabolites
Ethylbenzene
Haloether
Halomethanes
Heptachlor & metabolites
Hexachloro 1,3 Butadiene
Hexachlorocyclohexane
(Lindane)
Isophorone
Lead
Mercury & compounds
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
(Butanone)
Napthalene
Nickel & compounds
Nitrites
Nitrobenzene
Nitrophenol
CD
O (1)
O T3
4
X
4
4
1
X
4
4
4
4
1
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
2
5
i
4 j
4 i
4
2
c
1 0
O -H
tn -M
o cd
!H N
0) -H
CO rH
1
3
1
3
3
1
1
1
3
2
1
4
3
X
1
3
1
4
3
5
2
4
3
3
tn
>> CD
-p +J
•H -H
s-. a
bC O
0) ^H
4->
c a
•H -H
1
4
4
4
3
1
4
2
4
4
4
4
4
X
4
4
t
1
2 !
;
4
1
4
2
4 !
1
X
1
I
-JL...
110
.! ...J
-------
TABLE 19
SUMMARY OF PATHOGEN/TOXIN PROBABILITIES
PAT HOG EN /TOXIN
Nitrosamines
PCB's
Pent ach lor ophenol
Phenol
Phthalate Esters
Secondary Amines
Selenium & compounds
Silver & compounds
Styrene
Tetrachloroethylene
Thallium & compounds
Toluene
Toxaphene
Vinyl Chloride
Zinc & compounds
-_ „._
0) 0>
o 03
3 a
•o 0)
O ffi
fn -H
0
CJ
ol ^
CD
+-1 3
Ctf rH
0) 'H
^1 'H
+J 0)
X
5
4
5
X
1
5
4
4
5
4
3
4
4
2
1
in
bfi
c: o>
•H O
rH -rH
0 >
O 1>
u -o
5
4
4
3
4
1
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
c
1 O
O -H
03 -p
O rf
^ N
0) -H
Ol rH
5
X
3
4
X
5
3
2
3
X
1
3
1
3
1
-
- - -1 -- • '
0)
>> 0)
-p -p
•H -H
!H S
bfi O
Oi in
-P
d d
•H -H
4
X
4
3
X
1
1
1
1
X
1
4
4
1
X
i
-------
The value of make up water was estimated as equal to the
sum of the evaporation loss and the droplet losses. These
losses were calculated on the basis of the cooling tower design
parameters and/or the cooling tower operating condition. For
the present model, blow-down was assumed to restore the initial
(steady-state) operating condition of the cooling tower periodi-
cally with respect to salt and the pathogen concentration. The
time between blow downs was calculated as:
T=(CONC-1.) TVOL/UMW
Where T is the time between blow downs, CONG is the maximum
allowable concentration (input parameter), TVOL is the tower
water value and UMW is the make up water input rates. The total
average value of make up water taken in, then was calculated as:
BINVOL = UMW X T/2
where BINVOL is the total amount of water taken in between blow
downs. This was multiplied by the number of organisms per unit
volume derived earlier to establish the average microbial content
of the cooling tower. As can be seen, the microbial content is
then the average number of organisms taken in between blow
downs diluted by the value of water carried by the tower. In
the present model, no specific capability is included for growth
or death of pathogenic organisms in the cooling tower. Their
concentration is determined purely by input conditions and di-
lution factors. It is also assumed that the droplets are
spherics and are homogeneous samples of the cooling tower micro-
bial environment. Figure 32 shows a simplified flow chart of
that portion of the simulation relating to the development of
the microbial environment in the cooling tower.
112
-------
FIGURE 12
MICROBIAL CONTENT OF COOLING TOWER
potential
organisms
Monte Carlo Model
of Microbial Community
in Make Up Water
Make Up Water
Model
Cooling Tower
Microbial Community
Development
to Plume Model
infectious
importance
113
-------
C. Aerosol Model - The Spatial Distribution of Organisms
The aerosol model that distributes the pathogens in the
environment is based on the ORFAD Model (Oak Ridge fog and
drift) (Wilson, 1975 & LaVerne 1977). The elements compris-
ing the plume rise, the distribution of the aerosol droplet
sizes and their physical distribution have been developed
from this model. The model for this portion of the simula-
tion takes cooling tower and environmental parameters (as
inputs) and calculates the plume rise from the cooling tower
and the plume environment. As in the ORFAD model, the aero-
sols are assumed to travel in ballistic trajectories set by
the rise velocity of the plume centerline and the fall velo-
city of the droplet with respect to the plume centerline.
Plume rise is calculated as follows:
1. Determination of a buoyancy flux parameter (F)
2. Calculation of atmospheric stability (S)
3. Determination of the plume centerline (trajectory) (PR)
based on F, S and wind conditions.
The flux buoyancy parameter (F) is that developed by Hanna
(ref. 3). The atmospheric stability parameter is derived from
the Pasquill stability class as determined from weather data
(input parameters) that determine the atmospheric temperature
gradient and the dry and wet bulk temperatures. Wind conditions
(input parameters) are taken as 1 m/sec minimum, even for calm
ground conditions since the wind velocity, generally is rarely
less than this at typical tower heights. The plume is assumed
to be disturbed over a 22.5° angle downwind. Unlike ORFAD, this
program computes for the downwind condition without regard to
specific geographic direction. The day is broken into 4 hour
segments starting at 0000 hours, and wind velocity, temperature
(dry and wet bulb), stability and percent operating capacity
of the plant are inputted for each time segment. Computations
are done for each four hours and are summarized daily.
The aerosol drift deposition is based on ballistic
pie as discussed by Laverne. This trajectory model
assumes that all particles of a given original size (at the
cooling tower) will fall to the ground at the same distance from
the cooling tower for a given set of wind, stability and humidity
conditions. This distance is such that the total trajectory is
equal to the local plume height above the ground.
The distribution of aerosol particle sizes within the exit
plume is shown in Figure 13(A). As in the ORFAD model, this
distribution is recomputed in terms of the cumulative distribu-
tion function to obtain a refined droplet size distribution model
(Figure 13 (B). Fall velocities are computed by using Stokes
law for particles smaller than about 80 urn and a relationship
114
-------
FIGURE 13
DROPLET SIZE DISTRIBUTION
0.4''
o
£ 0.3'
d
a4
(D
" n /
l-H U . L
(D
B o./
«j
r-l
*" 0.0
I
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
droplet diameter D
(A)
+•> OJ
0) -M
g 0.0024
o a
!H O
Crt 0.0016
•H fH
DO D n n r\ n o*
qo 0.0008
rt C
fi n n n
-
—
._
—
i—j
m
«
-
w
"n
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
droplet diameter D (i\m)
(B)
115
-------
given in Letester (1966) for particles greater than about 80 v^m.
Particles in relative humidity environments greater than 76% are
assumed not to evaporate, while particles in environments with
less than 76% are assumed to evaporate, either to saturation
(76%-50% R.H.) or dryness (R.H. 50%). Following the methods
outlined in Laverne (1977), particles are distributed downwind
in accordance with wind velocity, plume and weather condition.
From these data, and the microbial input data from part 1 of the
simulation, the total number of organisms impinged per unit area,
per unit time, and present per unit volume (steady state), are
easily calculated. The flow chart for this phase of the simu-
lation is shown in Figure 14. It is assumed that the organisms
that find their way into the aerosol will all survive if there
is no evaporation (R. H. 76%) that 50% survive in,the R. H.
range of 76% to 50% and that 20% survive when the R. H. is 50%.
These factors are further modified by 0.2 if there is direct
sunlight (0800-0800) present or 0.5 with cloud cover. These
factors are rather arbitrarily chosen and should be re-evalu-
ated (perhaps dynamically simulated in further model develop-
ments. These results (organisms/M^ and organisms/M^) are tabu-
lated for each four hour interval.
116
-------
FIGURE 14
SPATIAL ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISMS
Input: Cooling Tower
Microbial Community
Meteorological Data
i
Plume Model
(Transport, Survivability)
Spatial Distribution of
Microbial Community
Probability of Finding
a Given Pathogen
per Unit Volume
at a Given Distance
117
-------
D. Estimation of Infection Probability
The previous elements of the simulation have established a
potential microbial density for distances downwind from the cool-
ing tower. It is now necessary to establish the extent to which
these microbial densities are capable of producing infection.
Two basic possibilities exist. In one case, inhalation of
organisms can create an infection and in another, physical con-
tact (touching or ingestion) will create an infection. In
either case, a threshold level establishes a minimum below which
nothing will happen. The estimation of this threshold is ex-
tremely difficult. Furthermore, the consequences of infection
may vary from a general slight malaise to severe symptoms that
require extensive care. The model developed here, does not con-
sider the epidemiological affects of interaction between infected
and non-infected individuals, but only considers the direct
effect of the interaction between the microbial environment and
the individual. Figure 15 is a simplified flow chart for Part 3
of the simulation.
The lifetime of deposited (or airborne) microbial particles
has (again, rather arbitrarily) been taken to be 24 hours* on
the average. The average ventilation value for a population is
about 20,000 liters per day (Haup). Therefore, for the air-
borne organisms, the average number of organisms inhaled/day
is calculated. A sticky problem is that of determining the
number of organisms required to declare an infection. A ran-
domly distributed variable, exponentially distributed with a mean
of .1 X (3 X 106) was used to establish (in a Monte Carlo loop)
the basis for estimating the number of organisms required to
generate an infection. The same approach is used with respect
to the number of particles injested with the assumption that an
individual will ingest the microbial flora that falls on one
square meter of surface in 24 hours. Results for 24 hours are
obtained from the summation or averaging (as required) of the
data accumulated for each four hours.
The above data is then used to generate infection probabili-
ties, based on the number of times the infection threshold is
pierced during the interval under consideration. This resultant
is tabulated as the result for a particular simulation based on
given input condition.
*It is recognized that many organisms remain viable for
periods much longer than 24 hours, even years in some cases. How-
ever, it was assumed that the cooling tower, Figures 16-20, environ-
ment would not favor encystment or spore formation, and therefore,
the cells would be susceptible to die-off due to uv, desiccation,
etc. Twenty-four hours was picked as a working number for the pur-
pose of modeling.
118
-------
FIGURE 15
INFECTIVITY MODEL
Spatial Distribution
of
Microorganisms
Isopleths:
spatial
distribution
construct
infection
probability
Infectivity Models
a) Simple Stochastic
b) Recurrent
Output Data
Probability of Infection
Spatially Distributed
119
-------
E. Input Data Requirements
Table 20 lists the input data requirements and lists some
typical values used in the simulations. These are printed for
each simulation as part of the data file. Figure 16 shows a
typical data file. Figures 17-21 shows the result of simulations
under various conditions of cooling tower operation and environ-
ment .
Figure 17 simulates a typical summer day. Weather conditions
represent.the most significant difference in the simulations.
Internal parameters on which the model is based, were previously
discussed in Section 2. The fixed parameters were selected as
typical for a large, natural draft tower. The day was divided
into four (4) hour intervals as shown and the environmental para-
meters are varied as they might be for a summer day. The results
of the simulation for each four hour interval are shown along
with a summary of operating parameters for that interval. Also,
listed for that interval are distance from the cooling tower,
plume rise, the average number of organisms per cubic meter of
air, the average number of organisms landing per square meter of
surface area, all based on the output of the simulation. In
addition, there is the Monte Carlo derived probability that the
effluent will contain infectious organisms. Following the four
hour listings are summaries for the 24 hour period detailing the
number of organisms airborn per cubic meter, their incidence on
surfaces per square meter, and the average 24 hour probability
of effluent containing infectious organisms.
The second summary shows the results of exposure of a popu-
lation to these infectious organisms with a maximum instantaneous
susceptible population of 20%. The organisms are assumed to be
ingested from both airborne particles and those picked up by con-
tact with surfaces. This leads to the calculation of the average
number of particles ingested assuming the population distributions
described in the methodology. These averages are used in a simple
infection model to derive the listing of the population fraction
affected by the effluent.
The results support the concept that the potential for
affecting a downwind population is present, unless measures are
taken to control infectious organisms and toxins in the make-up
water and the tower to suppress these effects. As pointed out
in Section 2, many assumptions have been made because real data
does not exist. These data, when available, could be used to
considerably strengthen the model. However, even in its present
form, the model clearly shows that if infectious organisms are
present in the cooling tower environment, they will surely appear
in the population downwind from the cooling tower.
Figures 18 and 19 represent the same operating parameters
and environmental conditions. In Figure 18, 20% of the popula-
tion is susceptible to infectious organisms and toxins. Figure
19 represents a worse case situation wherein 100% of the popula-
120
-------
tion is affected by transmitted pathogens and toxic particles.
Figure 20 simulates conditions for a tower with a higher level
of output, cooler environmental temperatures and a population
which is 20% susceptible. Figure 21 represents a tower operating
at 100% capacity with a 20% susceptible population.
TABLE 20
A TYPICAL INPUT PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS UNITS
Cooling tower height ft
Tower inside diameter ft
Temperature range (in tower) °F
Exit air velocity ft/sec
Drift fraction g/g
Wind velocity knots
Dry bulb temperature °F
Wet bulb °F
Pasquill Stability class
TYPICAL VALUES
400
200
25
0-50
10~4 to 10~6
50
-20 to +100
-20 to +100
1-6
These data were inputted via a separated data file called
FOR DAT. The program is now set to accept FOR28.DAT.
These files are shown with each output run shown in Figure 6
FIGURE 16
Typical Data File
TYPE (FILE) FOR26.DAT
450. ,200. , 5.E-5, 12. , 1.3,25. , 1200.
50. ,48. , 10. , .8,4.
cr -~t si er er o A
•-'.i.'!, m 7 *T-_I . 7 •_' • 7 • •-' J *T •
60. ,50. , 20. , 1 . ,5.
A3. ,50. ,20. , 1. ,5.
58. ,50. , 5. , 1. ,4.
54. ,50. , 10. , 1. ,4.
3,5,7,9, 13,223
121
-------
(1 of 9)
FIGURE
#**************COGLING TOWER FIXED
TOWER HEIGHT (FEET)
TOWER DIAMETER (FEET)
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC.MAX)
TEMPERATURE RANGE (DEG F)
DRIFT FRACTION (G/G)
CONCENTRATION RATIO (G/G)
EXIT VELOCITY (FT/SEC)
450.OO
250.00
1000.UO
25.00
0.O00050
1. 30
10. OO
—COOLING TOWER ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS—
TIME (HHS)
O- 4OO
400- 800
800-120O
1200-1600
160O-200O
2000-2400
DKf BULB T
70.00
75.00
80.00
90.00
8O.OO
72.00
WET BULB T
65.OO
/O.OO
72.00
83. 00
75.00
/O.OO
WIND VEL.
5.OO
1O.OO
8. OO
12.OO
9. 00
10. OO
OPER CHP
.80
.90
1.00
1.00
l.OO
.90
STABILIT^
5.
4.
5.
5.
122
-------
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .53
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 800.Ou
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 7O.OO
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 65.OO
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.OO
0- 400HRS
DISK Ml)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.
4.
5.
7.
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20. OO
25.00
,00
, OO
,00
,OO
SE(M)
271.9
356 . 3
392 . 9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
392.9
ORG/.M3/4HRS
0.0
0 . O
2403. 1
1443.5
1254.4
1689.0
1085.7
1600.5
1100.6
802.7
539.6
340 . 0
24O.6
149.5
116.2
20.2
16.8
13.5
6.9
5.5
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0.0
4753. 7
2186.2
1245.0
1305. 1
630. 1
665.1
378.0
223.3
118.6
57.2
29.7
12.8
10.0
1. 1
0.9
0.7
0.2
0.2
123
-------
(3 of. 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 400- SOOHRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEO 900.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 75. OO
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 70.OO
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 10.OO
55
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0 . 20
0.30
0.50
0. 75
1 . 00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4 . 00
5 . OO
7 . 00
9.00
10.00
12.00
1 5 . 00
20.OO
25 . OO
PLUME HISE(M)
136.4
173.7
216.5
283.7
398.8
522.6
633.0
829.5
990.9
990 . 9
990.9
990 . 9
990.9
990.9
990.9
990.9
990.9
990.9
990.9
990.9
ORG/M3/4HRS
0.0
144965.9
38423.6
11914.7
3730.7
1642.6
945.4
445.8
269.6
1636.7
1276.9
1973.4
1370.0
2178.6
1 556 . 4
1278.2
1065.2
687 . 6
433.2
3O6.3
URG/M2/4HRS
O.O
199142. 1
52783. 1
16367.4
5125.0
2256.5
1298.7
612.5
370.3
1821.2
1267.3
1524.9
795. 1
905.3
534.5
355.6
296.3
151. 1
72.9
37.9
124
-------
(4 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 800-1200HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .07
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 1000.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE
-------
(5 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 12OO-16OOHRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .16
HEAT LOSS (J1EGACAL/SEC) 10OO.OO
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 90.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 83.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 12.00
Di:
f(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.0O
7 . 00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25. OO
PLUME RISE(M)
110.4
144.7
175.3
229.7
289.6
28V. 6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
289.6
ORG/M3/4HRS
O.O
34723.7
9731.7
3069. 1
1165.3
3302.9
4145.4
2791.7
1932.2
3O05 . 8
2838.7
1950.3
1421.7
688.2
535.3
426.2
355.2
247.2
35.8
28.6
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
47/00.6
13368.5
4216.1
1600.7
3675.2
3644.5
1879. 1
1121.4
1486.5
1179.6
669.8
395.5
115.8
90. 1
52. 7
43.9
21.2
2.0
1.6
126
-------
(6 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 16UO-20UOHRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .54
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 1QUO.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 80.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 75.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 9.00
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7 . 00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
142.9
1 87 . 3
226.9
297.3
307 . 5
307.5
307.5
307.5
307 . 3
307.5
307.5
307.5
307.5
307 . 5
307 . 5
307.5
307 . 5
307.5
307 . 5
307 . 5
ORG/h3/4HRS
0.0
167370.7
47063.3
14858.2
30438.8
33611.3
27496.8
15536.7
25613.6
18759.0
15632.5
8613.3
6890.6
4135.8
2846.5
2229.6
1858.0
287.2
215.4
117.5
ORG/M2/4HRS
O.O
207502.7
58348. 1
1 3420. 9
33869.6
29550.4
21247.2
9017.4
10643.7
6442.4
5368.7
1893. 1
1514.5
696.0
351.9
191.4
159.5
15.8
11.8
3.6
127
-------
(7 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 2OOO-24OOHRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 900.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 72.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 70.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 10.00
21
DIST(MI)
O. 10
0. 15
0.2O
0.30
O.50
0. /5
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.0O
7.00
9.OO
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RlbE(M)
135.7
177.9
215.5
282.3
311.7
311.7
311.7
311.7
311.7
311.7
311
311
311
311
311
311
311
311
7
7
7
7
/
7
/
7
311.7
ORG/M3/4HRS
0.0
742564.0
203802.9
65920.5
64452.4
173105.7
243932.9
133611.9
62840.0
40217.6
27928.9
3567. 1
2282.9
963. 1
1076.2
918.9
699.0
413.6
268.6
192.2
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0.0
0.0
O.O
184820.3
330926.0
349744.7
127712.9
45049.2
23065.2
13347.9
1278.6
654.6
197.3
171.5
131.7
83.5
39.5
19.3
11.0
128
-------
(8 of 9)
__„ __ „.„„ '""• /i Lj i~i i i o T i"i T A i '~ __—. _-.—-__ —
^^ n'JUrv I U I HL.O
DAILY PROBABILITY uF EFFLUEWT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .34
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1
1
oo
50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7. 00
9.00
1O.OO
12. OO
15.00
20.00
25.00
ORG/M3/DAY
0. 0
1107339.0
311119.8
98662.0
105227.0
215556.6
280964.0
155911.4
94571.7
66768.6
50172.2
17523.1
12931.0
8573.2
6487.0
5151.9
4226.6
1685.0
986.8
664.9
ORG/M2/DAY
0. 0
454345.4
129253.4
4119O.6
232410.3
369901.7
379159.9
141004.1
58955.1
33844.5
21953.7
5660.8
3511.6
1983
1202
756
604
230
107
54.
8
O
cr
, 1
,4
,6
129
-------
(9 of 9)
SUMMARY UP RESULTS
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0. 30
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.30
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.0O
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20. OO
25.00
AVG NO. PART.
INGESTED/IND.
0. 0
1561664.4
440373.2
139852.6
337637.3
585458.3
660123.9
296915.5
153526.8
10O613.1
72125.9
23183.9
16442.5
10557.1
7689.0
3908.4
4830.7
1915.4
1094.5
719.6
PERCENT
BY
AFFECTED
EFFLUENT
0
18
0
1
20
9
13
18
1 1
1 0
5
0
1
0
O
O
0
O
0
000
135
0OO
244
324
221
626
064
507
486
914
318
OO6
OOO
OOO
OOO
409
0.215
130
-------
(1 of 9)
FIGURE 18
TOWER FIXED PARAMETERS***************
TOWER HEIGHT (FEET)
TOWER DIAMETER (FEET)
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC,MAX)
TEMPERATURE RANGE (DEG F)
DRIFT FRACTION (G/G)
CONCENTRATION RATIO (G/G)
EXIT VELOCITY (FT/SEC)
450.00
200.OO
750.00
30. 00
0.OO0050
1.40
10.00
—COOLING TOWER OPERATING PARAMETERS—
TIME (HRS)
0- 400
400- 800
SOO-1200
1200-1600
1600-2000
2000-2400
DRY BULtf
72.00
70.00
72.00
75.00
80.00
77.00
WEI" BULtf
68.00
66.00
67.00
71.00
75.00
74.00
WIND VEL.
5. 00
2.00
3.00
5. 00
8. 00
5.00
OPER CAP
1. 00
1. 00
. 70
1. 00
1. 00
1. 00
STABILITY
3.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
131
-------
(2 oi 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETER;
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 750.00
DRV BULB TEMPERATURE (DEO F) 72.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEC F) 68.00
WIND VELOCITY
-------
(3 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 400- 300HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS
-------
(4 of-9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 800-1200HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
.'(EAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 525.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F> 72.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 67.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 3.00
22
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0. 50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2. OO
2.50
3. 00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.OO
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
418.6
548.6
664.6
870.8
1224. 1
1604.1
1943.2
2516.3
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
ORG/M3/4HRS
182550.8
27089.0
11994. 1
4625.9
8503. 4
4034.8
2357.0
1421.7
1748. 1
1249.5
1947.8
1527.9
2239.0
1677.0
1191.0
1071.9
720.9
484.4
321.0
223.0
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
16821.0
7330. 1
3917.9
2153.2
2167.2
1240. 1
1712.4
1028.5
1107.3
575.9
331.3
298.2
158.5
81.5
39.7
19. 1
134
-------
(5 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 12OO-16UOHRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .33
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 325.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 75.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 71.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.00
DISK MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.5O
0.75
1 . OO
1.50
2.OO
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.0O
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20. 00
25. 00
PLUME RISE(M)
245.7
321.9
390.0
511.0
718.4
94 1 . 3
1140.3
1494.3
1641.8
1641.8
1 64 1 . 8
1 64 1 . 8
1641.8
1641.8
1 64 1 . 8
1641.8
1641.8
1641.8
1 64 1 . 8
1641.8
URG/M3/4HRS
230699.0
37656.7
16870.9
6554. 1
2293.3
1055.7
620.4
298.6
1629.6
2278.6
2111. 1
1377.7
2158.1
1613.0
1145.0
83 1 . 6
693.0
465.7
308.7
214.6
ORG/M2/4HRS
316915. 1
51729.6
23175.8
9003. 4
3150.3
1450.2
852.2
410.2
1813.3
2003.3
1631.3
799.6
1067.2
554 . 0
318.5
182.8
152.3
78.4
38.2
18.4
135
-------
(6 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 1600-2000HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .54
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 525.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 80.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 75.OO
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 8.00
D 1ST (MI) PLUME RISE(M)
0. 10
0.15
0.20
0.30
O.50
0.75
1 . 00
1 . 50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
148.5
194.6
235.7
308.8
434. 1
568.9
689. 1
903.0
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
965.8
GRG/ M3/ 4 HHS GRG/ M2/ 4 MRS
1462108.5
615833.1
172227.6
54280.5
17112.9
7553.8
4352.6
2055.0
10592.2
14689.5
13568.4
8817.5
13793.2
10293.2
7304.5
5304 . 7
4420.6
2970.5
1969.5
1369.3
0.0
763497.2
213524.2
67295.8
21216.2
9365. 1
5396.3
2547.7
11786.0
12914.7
10484.5
5117.6
6821.2
3535.0
2032.0
1165.9
971.6
499.9
243.5
117.6
136
-------
(7 of 3)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 2000-2400HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 525.OO
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 77.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 74.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.00
11
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.5O
0.75
1 .00
1. 50
2.00
2. 50
3.00
4. 00
PLUME
5.
7.
00
00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20. OO
25.00
RISE(M)
240.7
315.4
382 . 1
500.7
703.9
922.3
1117.3
1464. 1
1582.6
1 582 . 6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
GRG/M3/4HRS
52706921 . 0
22199903. 0
6208559.4
1956733. 1
1 1 6004 1 . 0
1011519.6
1120061.6
547435.4
1343405.2
1462743.0
905710. 1
477745.8
305757.3
1 55998 . 6
21427.3
17356. 1
9966. 6
6378.6
7138.4
4223.7
ORG/M2/4HRS
0 . 0
0 . 0
0 . 0
0 . 0
3116082.4
2281934.3
2243878. 1
933247. 5
1844744.9
1 606894 . 3
829138.8
323016.9
167944.6
6 1 204 . 3
6538.6
4766.6
2281.0
1167.9
980.2
464.0
137
-------
(8 of 9)
1* Ti'VT" AI O «._--_. — — __—-*__«.__._«-«.
| fj | HL.O
DAILY PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .3t
DISK MI)
O. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1. 00
1. 50
2.00
2.50
OO
00
5.00
7. 00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
3.
4.
ORG/M3/DAY
56158319.0
23114353.0
6513201.9
2062131.1
1201866.5
1041657.6
1132778.7
580027.9
1378124.3
1495712.0
945928.8
507126.7
346360.0
190595.2
44783-8
36908.7
24103.2
15877.0
13434.6
8599.9
ORG/M2/DAY
2070021.5
1075373.0
351883.8
120723.7
3172749.3
233O441.9
2262998.0
978581.2
1886996.8
1638184.5
862828.9
346848.4
188328.0
74601.3
13035.9
9847.b
5388.1
2766.3
1758.7
839.7
138
-------
(9 of 9)
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
DISK MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1 . 00
1.50
2. OO
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
00
00
12
15
20.00
25.00
AVG NO. PAR!.
INGESTED/IND.
58228341.0
24189726.0
6865085.7
2182854.8
PERCENT
BY
API- EC TED
EFFLUENT
4374615.7
3372099.4
3395776.8
1558609.1
3265121.2
3133896.4
1808757.8
853975
534688
265196
57819
46756.2
29491.3
18643.3
15193.2
9439.6
20
18
6
12
20
3
7
20
18
20
9
6
1 4
1
000
613
878
173
000
674
069
000
308
000
432
754
787
795
351
1. 133
0 . 325
0. 112
0.420
0.312
139
-------
(1 of 9)
FIGURE 19
*##*###****#**#COOLING TOWER FIXED PARAMETERS***************
TOWER HEIGHT (FEET)
TOWER DIAMETER (FEET)
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC.MAX)
TEMPERATURE RANGE (DEC F)
DRIFT FRACTION (G/G)
CONCENTRATION RATIO (G/G)
EXIT VELOCITY (FT/SEC)
450.00
200.00
750.00
30. 00
0.000050
1. 40
10. 00
—COOLING TOWER OPERATING PARAMETERS—
TIME (HRS)
0- 400
400- 800
800-1200
1200-1600
1600-2000
2000-2400
DRY BULB
72.00
70.00
72.00
75.00
80.00
77.00
WET BULB T
68.00
66.00
67.00
71.00
75.00
74.00
WIND VEL.
5.0O
2.00
3. OO
5.00
8. 00
5.00
OPER CAP
1. OO
1. 00
. 70
1. OO
1. OO
STABILITY
3.
•~§
•-.:•
3.
1. 00
140
-------
(2 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 750.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 72.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 68.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.00
0- 400HRS
D1ST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0. 2O
0. 3O
0.50
0.75
1. 00
1. 50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10. 00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25. 00
PLUME
RISE(M)
257.6
337.6
409.
535.
753.
987.
1195.
1566.
1788.
1 788.
1788.
1788.
1788.
1788.
17yy.
1788.
1783.
1788.
1788.
1788.
0
9
3
1
8
9
3
3
3
ORG/M3/4HRS
1157530.7
171767.8
76052.8
29332.3
10220.6
4696.3
2757.4
24301.0
15067.9
10665.2
16563.4
12922.4
18873.4
15355.8
10019.8
9017.8
6064.6
4074.8
2700.9
1877.2
ORG/M2/4HRS
1758106.5
260146.2
115183.7
44424.5
15479.3
7112.7
4176.2
33382.8
18680.9
10585.3
14562.2
8698.3
9J33.6
6381.1
2787.3
2508.6
1333.0
685. 7
333.9
161.2
141
-------
(3 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 400- 800HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 730.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 70.OO
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 66.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 2.00
,51
DISK MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1 . 00
1 . 50
2.00
2. 50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
1 0 . 00
12.00
15.00
20 . 00
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
653.5
856.4
1037.4
1359.4
1910.9
2504.0
3033. 4
3974.9
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
4589.6
ORG/M3/4HRS
418509.4
62103.3
27497.2
10605.2
3695.3
12797.4
2629.6
4516.2
5681.4
4086.2
6028.0
4735.4
3539. 1
5657.6
3696. 1
3326.5
2237.4
1503.2
996. 1
692. 1
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23249.6
4777.4
6839.8
7804.6
4546.7
5299. 7
3187.5
2054 . 1
2351.0
1028.2
925.4
491.8
253.0
123.2
59.4
142
-------
(4 oi 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 800-1200HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .22
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 525.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 72.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG f-) 67.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 3.00
D1ST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
O.50
0.75
1. 00
1. 50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9. 00
10. 00
12.0O
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
418.6
548.6
664.6
870.8
1224.1
1604.1
- 1943.2
2546.3
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
2847.7
ORG/M3/4HRS
182550.8
27089.0
11994. 1
4625.9
8503.4
4034.8
2357.0
1421.7
1748. 1
1249.5
1947.8
1527.9
2239.0
1677.0
1191.0
1071.9
720.9
484 . 4
321.0
223.0
ORG/M2/4HRS
0 . 0
0 . 0
0 . 0
0.0
16821.0
7330. 1
3917.9
2153.2
2167.2
1240. 1
1712.4
1028.5
1107.3
575.9
331.3
29W.2
158.5
81.5
39. 7
19. 1
143
-------
(5 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 1200-1600HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .33
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 525.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 75.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 71.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.00
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0. 30
0.50
0.75
1 . 00
1 . 50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4 . 00
5 . 00
7.00
9.OO
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25 . OO
PLUME RISE(M)
245.7
321.9
390. 0
51 1 . 0
718.4
941.3
1140.3
1494.3
1641.8
1641.8
1 64 1 . 8
1641.8
1641.8
1641.8
1641.8
1641.8
1641.8
1641.8
1641.8
1641.8
ORG/M3/4HRS
230699.0
37656.7
16870.9
6554. 1
2293.3
1055.7
620.4
298.6
1629.6
2278.6
2111. 1
1377.7
2158. 1
1613.0
1145.0
831.6
693.0
465. 7
308.7
214.6
ORG/M2/4HRS
316915. 1
51729.6
23175.8
9O03 . 4
3150.3
1450.2
852.2
410.2
1813.3
'2003.3
1631.3
799.6
1067.2
554 . 0
318.5
182.8
152.3
78.4
38.2
18.4
144
-------
(6 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 1600-2000HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 525.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEO F) 30.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 75.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 8.00
54
DISK MI)
0. 10
0 . 1 5
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1 . 00
1 . 50
2.00
2.50
3 . 00
4 . 00
00
00
00
7
9
1 0 . OO
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RISE
-------
(7 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 2000-2400HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 525.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 77.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 74.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.00
11
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10. OO
12.00
15.00
20. OO
25.00
PLUME
RISE(M)
240.7
315.
382.
500.
703.
922.
1117.
1464.
1582.
1582.
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
1582.6
4
, 1
7
,9
,3
,3
,1
6
,6
ORG/M3/4HRS
52706921.0
22199903.0
6208559.4
1956733.1
1160041
1011519
1120061
547435
1343405
1462743
905710
477745
305757
155998.6
21427.
17356. 1
9966
6378
7138
4223.7
:S
0
0
4
1
0
6
6
4
2
0
1
8
'.3
6
3
1
6
6
4
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3116082.4
2281934.3
2243878. 1
933247.5
1844744.9
1606894.3
829138.8
328016.9
167944.6
61204.3
6538.6
4766. 6
228 l.O
1167.9
980. 2
464.0
146
-------
(8 of 9)
24 HOUR TOTALS
DAILY PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
DISK MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0. 20
0. 30
0.50
0.75
1. 00
1. 50
2.00
2. 50
3.00
4. 00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20. OO
25.00
ORG/M3/DAY
56158319.0
23114353.0
6513201.9
2062131.1
1201866.5
1041657.6
1132778.7
580027.9
1378124.3
1495712.0
945928.8
507126.7
346360.0
190595.2
44783.3
36908.7
24103.2
15877.0
13434.6
8599.9
ORG/M2/DAY
2070021.5
1075373.0
351883.8
12O723.7
3172749.3
233044J.9
2262998.0
978581.2
1886996.8
1638184.5
862828.9
346848.4
188328.0
74601.3
13035-9
9847.5
5388.1
2766.3
1758.7
839. 7
147
-------
(9 of 9)
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
DISKMI) AVG NO. PART. PERCENT AFFECTED
INGESTED/INO. BY EFFLUENT
O.10 58228341.0 1OO.000
0.15 24189726.0 93.O64
0. 20 6865085.7 34.390
O.30 2182854.8 60.866
O.50 4374615.7 100.000
O.75 3372099.4 18.371
1.OO 3395776.S 35.344
1.50 1558609,1 100.OOO
2.00 3265121.2 91.542
2.50 3133896.4 100.OOO
3.OO 1808757.8 47.158
4.00 853975.1 33.772
5.00 534688.0 28.933
7.00 265196.5 73.977
9.00 57819.7 6.753
10. 00 -46756.2 5. 667
12.00 29491.3 1.625
15.00 18643.3 0.561
20.00 15193.2 2.101
25.00 9439.6 1.559
148
-------
(1 of 9)
FIGURE 20
###*****##*«###i;::GOLINGi TOWER FIXED PARAMETERS***********-****
TOWER HEIGHT (FEET)
TOWER DIAMETER (FEET)
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC,MAX)
TEMPERATURE RANGE (DEG F)
DRIFT FRACTION (G/G)
CONCENTRATION RATIO (G/G)
EXIT VELOCITY (FT/SEC)
450.00
200.00
1200.00
25.00
0.000050
1. 30
12.00
—COOLING TOWER OPERATING PARAMETERS-
TIME (HRS)
0- 400
400- 800
800-1200
1200-1600
1600-2000
2000-2400
DRY BULB
50.00
52.00
60.00
63.00
58.00
54.00
WET BULB
48.00
45.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
WIND VEL.
10.00
5.00
20.00
20.00
5. OO
10.00
OPER CAP
.80
.80
1. OO
1.00
1.00
1.00
STABILITY
4.
4.
5.
5.
4.
4.
149
-------
(2 of-9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .S
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 960.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 50.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE
-------
(3 of-9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 400- 800HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .44
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 768.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 52.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 45.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.00
DISK MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.3O
0.50
0.75
1 . 00
1 . 50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
287.4
376.6
456.3
597.9
840.4
1101.3
1334. 1
1748. 1
2117.7
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
2177.6
ORG/M3/4HRS
0.0
0 . 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
6755. 1
4638.8
3851.8
4261.7
6670. 4
12485.0
785. 1
1390.9
896.2
1466.0
1240.0
967.3
1737.2
1199.8
877.3
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
647.6
855.8
441.4
562.2
414.3
278.6
358.3
204.5
121.1
151
-------
(4 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 800-1200HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 768.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 60.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 50.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 20.00
26
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1. 00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
67.4
88.3
107.0
140.2
197. 1
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
243.9
ORG/M3/4HRS
0.0
0.0
0.0
2930.3
504.6
212.0
159.0
484.0
703.4
507.8
401.2
565. 1
476.8
319.4
560.2
504. 2
387.9
284.4
172.7
116.4
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
2642.1
455.0
191.2
143.4
363.8
479.6
280.4
197.6
246.6
159.3
92.0
115.5
104.0
66. 1
39.3
18.8
9.7
152
-------
(5 oi. 9)
CODLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 1200-1600HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 768.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 63.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 50.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 20.00
6
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1
1
PLUME RISE(M)
00
50
4
2.00
2.50
3.00
OO
00
7.00
9 . OO
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25 . 00
66.
86.
1 04 .
137.
193.
239.
239.
239.
239.
239.
239.6
239.6
239.
239.
1
6
9
5
3
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
239,6
239.6
239.6
239.6
239.6
239.6
ORG/M3/4HRS
0 . 0
12773.5
4682.3
1635.0
540.3
262.3
196.7
687.9
1190.6
905.7
716.8
957 . 3
858.2
540. 7
947.5
852.8
655.8
480.5
291.7
196.4
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
12540.5
4596.9
1605.2
530.4
257.5
193.1
567.5
811.7
557.3
395.8
417. 7
329. 1
155.7
195.4
175.9
111.8
66.3
31.8
16.4
153
-------
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 1600-2000HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 768.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 5S.OO
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 50.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.00
29
(6 of 9)
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1. 00
1. 50
2. 00
2.50
3.00
4. OO
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME
RISE(M)
278.8
365.4
442.6
580.0
815.3
1068.3
1294. 1
1695.8
2054.3
2061.7
206 1 . 7
2061.7
206 1 . 7
206 1 . 7
206 1 . 7
2061.7
206 1 . 7
2061.7
206 1 . 7
2061.7
ORG/M3/4HRS
0.0
15757.6
5776.2
2016.9
666.5
323.5
242.6
848.7
1468.7
1117.3
320. 1
263.3
390 . 5
472.4
386 . 8
348. 1
533.8
487.7
336. 9
246.3
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
314.3
197.9
240.2
206. 1
129.2
116.3
131.0
100.6
57.4
34 . 0
154
-------
(7 of -9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 2000-2400HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 768.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 54.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 50.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 10.00
01
DISK MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25. 00
PLUME RISE(M)
142.5
186.8
226.2
296.5
416.7
546. 1
661.5
866.9
1050.1
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
1072.7
ORG/M3/4HRS
667715.0
93190.5
40975.7
15737.4
5470.4
2511.0
1473.6
6882.1
5025.6
7100.4
5563.2
8119.3
6069.6
7910.5
6439.5
5795.5
4408.2
2845.9
1792.7
1267.5
ORG/M2/4HRS
1213064.7
169303.0
74442.2
28590.8
9938.3
4561.9
2677.2
11439.3
. 7611.4
8803.0
6190.2
6273.9
4085.6
3912.1
2211.5
1990.3
1226.3
625.5
301.7
156.7
155
-------
(8 of 9)
24 HOUR TOTALS
DAILY PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .35
OIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0. 30
0.50
0.75
1.
1.
2.
,00
,50
,00
2.
3.
4.
,50
,00
,00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
ORG/M3/DAY
667715.0
121721.7
51434.2
22319.7
7181.8
43652.5
29776.7
31907.0
33841.0
49469.3
81566.3
53726.0
33744.1
21888.9
16907.8
14498.0
7860.7
6416.7
4064.0
3019.2
ORG/M2/DAY
1213064.7
181843.5
79039.1
32838.1
10923.7
105587.5
63629.8
54603.6
50376.2
63930.6
91776.7
51810.4
25768.8
11676.0
6445.6
5156.7
2123.4
1348.5
669.5
389.6
156
-------
(9 of 9)
SUMMARY UF RESULTS
DISK MI) AVG NO. PART. PERCENI AFFECTED
INGESTED/IND. BY EFFLUENT
0.10 1880779.7 20.000
0.15 303565.1 5.182
0.20 130473.2 0.000
0.30 55157.8 1.640
O.50 18105.4 1.041
0.75 149240.0 7.946
1.00 93406.6 0.127
1.50 86510.6 1.380
2.OO 84217.3 0. 195
2.50 113399.9 1.183
3.00 173342.9 0.473
4.00 105536.4 5.531
5.00 59513.0 2.343
7.00 33564.9 1.877
9.0O 23353.5 1.702
10.00 19654.7 1.159
12.00 9984.1 0.172
15.00 7765.2 0.344
20.00 4733.5 O.OO1
25.00 3408.7 0. 789
157
-------
(1 of 9)
FIGURE 21
*###*#***#*##**CGGLINO TOWER FIXED PARAMETERS***************
TOWER HEIGHT (FEET)
TOWER DIAMETER (FEET)
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC,MAX)
TEMPERATURE RANGE (DEC F)
DRIFT FRACTION (G/G)
CONCENTRATION RATIO (G/G>
EXIT VELOCITY (FT/SEC)
450.00
200.00
1200.00
2b.OO
0.000100
1. 40
20.00
—COOLING TOWER OPERATING PARAMETERS—
TIME (HRS)
0- 400
400- 800
800-1200
1200-1600
1600-2000
2000-2400
DRY BULB T
55.00
55.00
60.00
65.00
63.00
58.00
WET BULB T
52.00
51.00
55.00
50.00
61. 00
54.00
WIND VEL.
20.00
25.00
10.00
20.00
5.00
10.00
OPER CAP
,00
,00
,00
1.00
1. 00
1. 00
STABILITY
5.
5.
3.
5.
6.
6.
158
-------
(2 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENT AL PARAMETER
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS .
HEAT LOSS ( MEGAC AL / SEC ) 1 200 . 00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE ( DEG F) 55.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 52.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 20.00
0- 4OOHRS
DIST
1
1
1
ji
(Ml) PLUME RISE
3
3
174.
504.
857.
3152.
v
1
319.
778.
2589.
'",•'
1
344.
395.
875.
788.
551.
441.
293.
204.
0
0
0
0
8
1
0
4
4
1
7
1
V
9
6
0
8
5
0
o
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.
0.
0.
0.
14334.
2986 .
3898.
3391.
2435.
1561.
1032.
1280.
974.
388.
192.
173.
92.
74.
36.
17.
0
0
0
0
5
6
9
3
9
1
4
4
1
3
4
•-•
9
3
2
5
159
-------
(3 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 400- SOOHRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS-
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 1200.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG f-) 55.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 51.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 25.00
55
DI!
T(MI )
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1 . 00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.OO
15.00
20.OO
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
65.6
86.0
104.2
136.5
191.8
251.4
274.6
274.6
274.6
274.6
274.6
274.6
274 . 6
274.6
274.6
274.6
274.6
274.6
274.6
274.6
ORG/M3/4HRS
0.0
0.0
451920.5
96629.8
26797. 7
11319. 1
7428.3
24613.5
16962.5
27216.1
20955.4
14516.9
22598.8
16770.9
11887.8
10699.0
7191.8
4834.0
3207.3
2565.8
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0.0
620810.7
132741.9
36812.4
15549.
10204.
27387.
16835.
21030.
14105.
8425.
11175.
5759.
3306.
2976.
1580.
813.
396.
2
4
7
5
3
5
5
9
6
9
2.
7
5
5
317.2
160
-------
(4 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 800-1200HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS-
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 1200.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 60.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 55.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 10.00
,55
DISK MI )
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0. 30
0.50
0.75
1. 00
1. 50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4. 00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
ISE(M)
164. 1
215. 1
260.5
341.4
479.9
628.8
761.8
998.2
1209.2
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
1382.8
ORG/M3/4HR8
0 . 0
0 . 0
86868.0
18574. 1
5151.0
2175.7
1427.9
2106.5
443.7
865. 1
1638.4
1 030 . 9
1539.4
1069.4
1630. 3
1672. 1
1281.0
935.6
566.3
380.5
ORG/M2/4HRS
0.0
0. 0
0.0
0. 0
0. 0
0.0
0.0
3827.0
806.2
1437.9
2250.7
1023.2
1353.4
620.7
806.3
694.8
439.9
260.3
124.5
64. 0
161
-------
(5 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 120O-1600HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC)
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F)
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F)
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS)
ORGANISMS
1200.00
65.00
50. 00
20. 00
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1 . 00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.0O
4 . 00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
76.9
100.7
122.0
159,9
224.7
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279.0
279 . 0
279.0
279.0
ORG/M3/4HRS
126221.7
34704.2
17073.7
7061.8
2567.6
1287. 4
965.5
643.7
2950.7
5455.8
4325.4
2922.2
4919.6
3097.5
4741.9
4881.4
3751.9
2747.9
1667.2
1122.4
ORG/M2/4HRS
123919.0
34071. 1
16762.2
6933.0
2520.8
1263.9
947.9
632.0
2434.2
3719.6
2661.4
1439.4
1886.7
892.2
1163.8
1006.7
639.5
379.4
181.9
93.7
162
-------
(6 of 9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 1600-2000HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 1200.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 63.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 61.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 5.00
02
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.
4.
D.
7.
,00
00
OO
00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
PLUME RISE(M)
302.2
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
321.0
ORG/M3/4HRS
425005. 7
116853.8
57489.4
921603.3
1649865. 0
903697.7
425025. 1
188900.0
24126.3
15440.8
8866.7
4987.5
6152.0
3071.0
2106.5
1798.6
1368.2
979.0
635.9
455.0
ORG/M2/4HRS
0 . 0
0.0
0.0
2247629.7
2414239.9
88 1 584 . 5
310968.6
92138.8
8826.0
4518.9
2162.4
912.3
900 . 2
321.0
171.2
131.6
83. 4
47.8
23.3
13.3
163
-------
(7 of-9)
COOLING TOWER AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS 2000-2400HRS
PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC) 1200.00
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 58.00
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F) 54.00
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS) 10.00
53
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20.OO
25.00
SE(M)
1 55 . 9
204.3
247.4
26 1 . 9
261.9
261.9
261.9
261.9
261.9
261.9
261.9
261.9
261.9
26 1 . 9
261.9
26 1 . 9
261.9
261.9
261.9
261.9
ORG/M3/4HRS
878180.6
133648.3
59352.9
34801.3
196764.4
109327.0
163549.8
92746.8
135216.3
122557.0
93545.9
63924 . 4
41248.0
24755.7
17035.9
13340.6
11117. 1
1717.9
1288.4
702.8
ORG/M2/4HRS
1459709.3
222149.8
98656.2
57846.7
• 243944.4
108508.1
126377.5
53829.8
66869.6
50928.5
32126.4'
17782.4
9066.1
4165.9
21O6.2
1145.4
954.5
94.4
70.8
21.7
164
-------
(8 of 9)
C_" T' ft T AI '""' -.—«___ — —. — — — _„ — — — —
v I U I Hl_--'
DAILY PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGANISMS
ORG/M2/DAY
1583628.4
256220.9
736229. 1
2445151.2
2711851.9
1009892.3
452397.4
181206.7
98207.3
83196.3
54338.8
.37
DIST(MI)
0. 10
0. 15
0.20
0.30
0.50
0.75
1 . OO
1 . 50
2.0O
2.50
3.00
4 . OO
5.00
7.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20 . 00
25 . OO
ORG/M3/DAY
1429408.0.
285206 . 3
672704.5
1078670.3
1891580.5
1029981.0
601900.6
312868.0
182851.9
173853.9
131110.6
8997 1 . 1
78802.0
50160.4
38278. 0
33179.6
25262.0
11655.8
7658. 1
5430.5
30863.
25356.
12147.
7746.
6128.
3790.
1669.
833 .
5
7
9
0
9
5
V>"7 S
1 *- / . v-1
165
-------
(9 of 9)
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
DISK MI)
AVG NO. PART.
INGESTED/1ND.
PERCENT
BY
AFFECTED
EFFLUENT
O. 10
0. 15
0. 20
0. 3O
0. 50
0. 75
1. 00
1. 50
2. 00
2.50
3. 00
4. 00
5. 00
7.00
9. 00
10.00
12.00
15.00
20. OO
25.00
3013036.4
541427.2
1408933. 6
3523321.4
46O3432.4
2039873.3
1054298.0
494074.6
281059.2
257050. 1
185449.4
120834.3
104158.4
62308. 1
46024.9
39307.6
29052.9
13325.3
8491.2
5958.0
20.OOO
11.^57
19
20
0
7
958
000
311
159
4. 150
7.704
682
O02
660
400
561
319
991
284
1. 169
2.601
1 .955
0.000
1
15
15
1
••;•
J-,
6
1
3
166
-------
F. Program History
Figure 22 is a listing of the simulation program. The
program is written in Fortran IV for use with the DEC-20 system.
Data is inputted via a data file (e.g. FOR 28. DAT) that con-
tains the input data in free format.
167
-------
(1 of 8)
001 00
00200
003OO
00400
00 SCO
00600"
00700
00800
00900
0 1 000
0 1 1 00
0 1 200
01300
01400
0 1 500
01600
01700
0 1 800
0 1 900
02OOO
02100
02200
02300
02400
02500
02600
02700
02800
02900
03000
03 1 00
03200
03300
03400
03500
03600
03700
03800
08900
0400O
04 1 00
04 1 1 0
04120
04130
04140
04200
0430O
04400
04500
04600
04700
0480O
04810
O4W2U
i^
C
c
C
c
c
c
c
c
8
C
c
•-'
FIGURE 22
©TYPE (FILE ) PLUMUD„ I- OR
PROGRAM PLUMUD —A. 02 Zo— 10725778
7HIS PROGRAM SIMULATES I HE PROBABILITY
THE DOWNWIND DISTRIBUTION AND POSSIBLE
A POPULATION BY POTENTIALLY INFECTIOUS
COOLING TOWER DRIFT. I HE DISTRIBUTION
EFFECTS OF THESE ORGANISMS ARE BASED ON
OF OCCURRENCE
INFECTIUN IN
ORGANISMS FROM
AND POTENTIAL
DATA FROM
THIS REPORT. THE DRIFT COMPUTATIONS ARE BASED-ON THE
ORFAD MODEL AS DESCRIBED BY M. E. LAVERNE IN REPORT
ORNL/TM-520I (OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY).
DIMENSION
DIMENSION
DIMENSION
DIMENSION
DIMENSION
TBL<6,5) vDIAM(7) , R U ) , XM (21 ) •, VI (25) , VF (25> 2)
DF(25,2) , CLIMUL ( 25 ) ,DRFRAC( 7) ,TGI(6) , ISED(6)
DRIF I ( 20) v DR (20 ) v 1K (20 ) , PRR (20 ) .. A ( 6) , P ( 4 ) > B ( 4 )
TOMS(20),TGMC(20),TOTC<20), TOTS(20)
ARY(20),T OPP(20)
DATA TG17-.0263, -. 0173v -. 0146v -.01 •, . OU46-, . 02637
DATA A/-7.9,5.03,-1.38E-7,11.3,8.13E-3,-3.497
DATA B7-9.1,-3.57,.88>.0067
DATA DIAM/7O.,175.,300.,125.,550.,700.,0.7
DATA DRF RAC/ . 06, . 3, . 39 •. . 15 •, . 07 •> . 03 > 6. /
DATA G,PI,COBRT>FTM79.81,3.1416,.33333,.3O487
DATA XM7. 1 v . 15> .2. .3> .5, .75, 1. > 1.5v2,2.5v3. ,
14. > 5. , 7. ,9. , 10. i 12. •, 15. ,20. ,25. ,0. 7
AB(Y)-255.37+.5555*Y
OPEN(UN1T-7,ACCESS^'SEUOU T • ,FILE~"'PLUM.DAT' )
LR=26
PROBA-0.
DO 8 I~l,20
TOTS(I)=0.
fOTC(I)--0.
CONTINUE
READ INPUT DATA AND WRITE FIXED DATA
READ(LR•*)HIO,LIAT 0,F RACDR,EXSPDO,CONC,TMPR,HEA TO
WRITE FIXED PARAMETERS
WRITE(7,1000)
WRITE(7-1003)HTO
WRITE(7,1005)DIATO
WRITE(7,1007)HEATO
WRITE(7,1030)TMPR
WR IT E ( 7 •, 1031 ) F RACDR
WRI TEC 7.
WRITE(7,
WRITE ( 7.
DO 5 I~l
READ ( LR , * ) ( TBL ( 1, J) , J~.". , •.
CONTINUE
READ ( LR ,•«•)( ISED ( I ) , 1 ~ 1 , 6.
LTIMt=0
NlIME-400
WRITE(7,1034)
WR1TE(7,1035) _„_
loo
1032)CONC
1033)E XSPDO
1012)
6
-------
(2 of 8)
MTIME-0
KTIME-400
LIU 3 UK" 1 , 6
WRITE. ( .•'•, 1036)1*11 IME,KT1ME
MTIME-MT1ME+400
K7IME-K71ME+400
CONTINUE
DO 80U NCY" 1 , 6
(7BLUIK-, .JL> , JL-1 >5
05000
05 1 00
05200
05300
05400
05500
05600
05700
o?sft("M") f:
05900
06000
06 1 00
06200
0630O
06400
0650O
06600
0 7 1 00
07200
07300
07400
07500 C
07600
07700
078OO
0790O
O:-:OOO f:
03100
OS200
OS300
08400
08500 1 1
08600 1 3
03700 15
08800 1 7
08900 1 9
OvOOO 21
09100 23
09200 25
09300 27
09 4 00 10
09500 12
096 OO 14
097OO 16
DBr=TBL * 1 VOL / LIM W
ATAU-TAU/2
BINVOL"UMW*AI"AU
CALCULATE PROB. OF ORO PRE8EN I
c-o.
DO 30 I-1-, 2000
Y-OOUBF( I3ELK 1 ) )
IF ( Y-.064) 10, 1 1
IF ( Y-. 1380) 12, 13
IF (Y-. 2686) 14, 15
IF (Y--. 31 58) 16,17
IF (Y-.4444) 18, 19
I F
-------
(3 of 8)
09800
O99OO
1 0000
10100
1 0200
10300
10400
1 0500
1 0600
107OO
10800
1 0900
1 1000
11100
11200
1 1 300
11400
1 1 500
1160O
1 1 700
11800
1 1 900
1 2000
1 2 1 00
12200
12300
12400
1 2900
1 3000
13100
1 3200
1 3300
13400
1 3500
1 3600
13700
1 38i JO
1 3900
14000
1 4 1 00
14200
1 4300
14400
14500
14600
14700
14800
14900
1 5000
1 5 1 00
15200
18
20
22
24
26
28
29
40
30
^'
C
200
205
2 1 0
2~.4;GO TO 40
Z=.5'GO TO 40
Z-.65GG TO 40
Z=.8;GG TO 40
Z~.8;GO TO 40
Z-.95GO TO 40
Z~l.
L>C+Z
CGNIINUfc
PROB=C/2000.
XY=AB8(GGNOF(1SED(3)))
IFCXY.Gl.1.)GO TO 2
PROB=XY*PRGB
PROBA=PROBA+PROB
CALCULATE INPUT PARAMETERS
CTORG-0.
NTRY-Y*20
DO 210 1 = 1 , NTRY
CALL GGEXPt 18tD(2) vPKOBv 1 , R<1 ) )
CNGRG=R< 1 )*1.E5
RV2-OGUBF( 1 SEEK 3) )
1 F ( RV2-PROB ) 200 , 205
CNGRG-0.
C TNORG-CNURG+CTNGRG
CONTINUE
SEE ORFAD MODEL.
DIAMAX=D1 AM( IDRCL)*! . 5-. 5*DIAM< IDRCL-1 )
D I AM ( 1 DRCL + 1 > ~L> I AM A X
D=0 .
DD=DIAMAX/25.
F"'0.
xi-o.
X2=.5*(DIAM< 1 )+LHAM<2) )
. 7*CONR
CGNR=.01
FAC=1 . E-4 «•((!
DO 240 -J-l ,25
D--D+DD
DIM-FAC*D
VFJ2-3519.2*D1MH-D1'M
VFJl-.4963-=WF..J2
31 12)«-*CUBRT
IF(D.GT.74.36)Vl.J~.00445-»-(D-37. 18)
DF.J 1 -DF.J-* ( ( V .1 .J-VFJ1 ) / (V1J+VFJ1 ) )
DFJ2-DF J* ( VIJ -VF.J2) / ( VI ..1+VF J2)
VF(.J, D-VFJ1
VF( J»2)-VF.J2
VI(.J)=V1J
DF(.J, 1 )~DFJ1
170
-------
(4 of 8)
1 5300
1 5 4 CO
1 5500
1 5600
15700
1 6200
1 6300
16400
16500
1 6600
16700
1 6800
1 6900
1 7000
17100
17200
1:7300
1 7400
1 7500
1 7600
1 7700
17800
1 79OO
1 8OOO
18100
1 8200
1 8300
13400
1 8500
1 8600
1 8700
215
220
230
2 3 2
235
240
250
C
1 30
1 1 0
lF(D-X2)220,220v 230
CUMUL ( J > "F+DRFRAC < K ) * ( D--X 1 ) / ( X2~X 1 )
GO TO 240
K-IDRCL
F-FrDRFRAC(IDRCL)
X2--DIAMAX
IF(J.LT.25)00 TO 215
CUMUL(J)-1.
CONTINUE
DO 250 J= 1 •, 24
CUMUL (26-J) -CUMUL (26-J) -CUMUL (25-.J;
CALCULATE RELATIVE HUMIDITY
TEO=AB 140
PVSD=PVSF#2. 063
GO TO 1 30
PVSW-PVSF-s-2.036
*( l.+(WBT-32
•«• 1 . 07 9
HH^PV/PVSD
IF(RH.LE.O. )I-
8'HFAC- ( 1 . --RH
l'RH-2
IF(RH.L'I . 0.5
CALCULATE TOWER EFFLUENT TEMPERATURE
IF I WBT . L I . 80>ENI AL-~( WBT-+-4. 31 ) / ( 7. 92-. 0248-*WBT)
171
-------
(5 of 8)
21100
21200
2 1 300
21400
21500
21600
21700
21800
21900
22000
22100
2STAB)
22600
22700
22800
22900
23000
23100
23200
23300
23400
23500
23600
23700
23800
23900
24000
24100
2420O
24300
24400
24500
24600
24700
24800
24900
25600
25700
25800
259OO
26000
26100
26200
310
320
330
340
C
I F < WBT . GE . SO . ) ENT AL~ ( WBT- 1 3 . 85 ) / ( 2 . 77- . 0 1 6*WB7 )
RAPP=TMPR*APP
ENT AL-ENTAL+RAPP
IF(£NTAL.GT.43.7> T3~(2.766#ENIAL+13.85>/< 1 . +. 016*EN TAD
IF(ENTAL.LE. 43. 7H3~( 7. 92*ENiTAL-4. 31 ) / ( 1 . +. 0248*ENTAD
T'PO-AB(TS)
DELQ1-EVLQS/(753130*EXVUL>
DELQ=DELQ1*TPO
UNWIND
FC-0.
DO 361 IX-1,20
TEHT-TEQ+7G*HT
S-G* ( TG+ . 0 1 ) / TEO
CONTINUE
FR=G#EXSPD*RAD*RAD*(1 . -TEHT/TPO+DELQ*< . 61+2545. *FC/TPG) )
IF(FR.GE.O. ) GO TO 310
TEHT-TPO
GO TO 300
CONTINUE
IF25
OR-O. '
OPR=0 .
OXME^O.
l'NCR-1
DO460 IX-1,20
DRIFT(IX)-0.
26300
26400
26500
26600
26700
26800
26900
27000
C
XM( IX)*1609
PR-PRR(I X)
DPR^PR-OPR
CALCULATE DRIFT
DXME-XME-OXME
OPR-PR
CiXME=XME
172
-------
(6 of 8)
27 1 00
27200
27300 C
27400
27500
27600
2/700
27800
27900
28000
28100
28200
2830O
28400
28500
2860O C
28700 410
28800
28900 420
29OOO
29100
29700
29800
29900 430
30000
30100
30200
303OO
30400 440
30500
30600
30700 491
3O8OO 46O
30900
3 1 000
3 1 1 00
3120O
3 1 30O
31400
31500
31600
31700
31800
3 1 900
32000
32 1 OO
32200 470
82300
32400
82500
32600
32700
32800
:'-::•• 9 C')O
IF (PH. t "I". <">. 7A) HII in 4j.o
NO EVAPORATION
VFALL- ( HT+PR ) #U7 XME
DIA-37. 13+Vi 'ALL/. 00 '1 -'15
IF C VFALL. LI .0. 1655; D i A~S'QRT ( 734 1 4 . •* VFALL)
IDIA-DIA/DD+1 .
IK( IX)-aDIA
I F ( 1 D I A . 1'iT . 25 ) MM T r i 4'-' l
DVDR^ ( VFALL-U*DPR7DXME ) / XME
DDDR^-DVDR/ . 0045
I F ( VFALL . L T .0.1 665 ) DDDR- . 5*D I A#DVDR7 VFALL
DCLiD-CUMUL ( I D 1 A ) /DO
GO TO 44 O
EVAPORATION
CONTINUE
H--HI+FR
RY^DF < K .. 1 RH ) 7RFIFAO
IF(H.LT.RY) GO TO 450
XR-ll-H- ( H--R Y ) 29600 K~K~- 1
OR=XR
IF (K) 491, 491 ,42O
DCDD~CUMUL < K )
IK( IX)~K
IF GO TO 491
VFALL-VF(K, 1RH)
DDDR-1. /(XR-OR)
CHI2^ARLOS^-DDLiR-«-DCDD«-lNCR«-8. / ( XME^F'I >
DR( IX)-CHI2/VFALL
DRIFT ( 1X)=CHI2
CUNTINUE
CONTINUE
IF
1 F ( RAN V . L I" .U.I ) (".MOD:- . 5
IF "T OT 8 ( I Y ) + TOMS' <. i Y )
CONTINUE
WRITE (7, 1D12)
WR I T E (7,1 00 1 ) L T 1 ME , N 1 1 ME
URITE ('/••, 1002) PROM
WR1 IE( 7 , :l.006)HEA!0
WRITE (7-, 1008HJBI
WR.LTET7, 1009)kit.
-------
(7 of 8)
33000
WRITE(7,1011)
33100
33200
33300
33400
33500
33600
33700
33SOO
34 1 00
34200
34300
34400
34500
34600
34700
34800
34900
35000
35100
35200
35300
35400
35500
35600
35700
35300
35900
36000
36 1 00
36 1 1 0
36200
3A3OO
36400
36500
36600
36700
3 6 800
36900
37000
37100
37200
37300
37400
375OO
37600
37700
37800
87900
380OO
38100
600
800
1 00 1
1 003
1 005
1 006
1 007
1 008
1 009
1010
1011
1 OOO
1 0 1 5
700
1012
1016
1018
1017
1 0 1 9
1020
650
750
PRR(IR),T OMCd R ) » TOMS(IR)
WRITE(7,1016)
DO 600 IR-1,20
WRITE (7, 1015)XMUR)
LTIME=LriME+400
NTIME--LTIME+400
CONTINUE
PROBB=PROBA/6
FORMA T ( - 1 - , •- COOL I NMS -' , F 4. 2)
F ORMAT(IX,- TOWER HE IGHT (F EEI )
TOWER DIAMETER (FEET)
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC)
HEAT LOSS (MEGACAL/SEC,MAX)
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F)
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (DEG F)
WIND VELOCITY (KNOTS)
FORMAT (IX,
FORMATdX ,
FORMAT (IX,
FORMAT ( IX >
FORMAT ( IX,
FORMAT ( IX -i
FORMAT <•*•*• -if- *•*•#•«••«••«••?<• *•*••«• #COOL 1 NG T OWER F I XED PAR
FORMAT (2XvF7.2, 1 OX •, F8. 1 •, 5X •, F 12. 1 •, 5X , F12. 1 )
WRITE(7,1012)
WRITE(7-, 1018)
WRITE(7,1020)PROBB
WRITE(7,1019)
DO 70O IM-1,2O
WRITE(7, 1O17)XM( IM) , TOFC( IM) •, TOTS( IM)
FORMAT(////)
FORMAT (1 X , •"DIST ( Ml ) "' , 5
1 , 6X, -'ORG/M2/4HRS-' )
FORMAT ( -' 1 - , /// ,
PLUME RISE(M) "'v6X> •"ORG/M3/4HRS
24 HOUR TOTAL
'•.' — ™-
FORMAT (2X,F7.2S5'X3F 12. 1 v5X>F12. 1 )
FORMATdX, •'DISTtMI) •"•, 7X, - ORG/M3/DAY •' , 7X, •'ORG7M2/DAY-' )
FORMAT ( IX, -DAILY PROBABILITY OF EFFLUENT CONTAINING ORGA
1NISMS-' , F4.2, / )
DO 7'50 J~l > 20
TOPP ( J ) -20 . *"l ' 0 1C ( ,J ) H-TO 1" 3 ( J )
PL-O.
PK'-O.
DO 650 M- 1 7 1 00
CALL GGEXP ( I SED ( 5 ) , . 1 , 1 , R (1 ) )
DORG-3. E6-K-R( 1 )
I F ( TOPP ( J ) . G T . DORG ) PK~PK+ 1 .
FL=PL+1.
CONT 1NUE
AND-ABS < GGNOF ( I SED ( 6 ) ) )
ARY ( J ) -AND*PK#20. /PL
I F ( ARY ( J ) . G T .20. ) ARY ( J ) ^20 .
CONTINUE
WRITE •: /•, 1025)
WRITE< 7 > 1026) 174
-------
(8 of 8)
38 1 00
33200
38300
38400
33500
38.600
387OO
jyyoo
38900
39000
39100
39 1 1 0
39 1 20
39
770
1 025
1 026
1 028
1 027
1 030
1031
F10.2)
WR1TE(7,1026)
WRI IE ( 7 >1028)
DO 770 N"1,20
WR I IE (7,1027 ) XM < N) , T GPP ( N ) , ARY ( N )
CONTINUE
FORMAT C' 1 •",///•< •" SUMMARY Oh RESULTS
FORMAT ( 1 X , // , 2X > ''D1 S"f ( M1 ) '' , 7X •, '' AVG NO. PAR I . '' , 7X , •'PERCEN
IT AFFECTED")
FORMAT (19X> ' INGESTED/ IND. '' •, 10X, "'BY EFFLUENT''' , / )
FORMAT(2X)F'7.2,8X,F12. 1 » 16X,F7.3;
FORMAT (IX,- TEMPERATURE RANGE ( DEG F- ) •', F 10. 2)
F ORMA T <1X,-DR1F T FRAC f1ON (G/G) " ,F10.6)
39150 1034 FORMA'K 12X, -—COOLING TOWER OPERATING PARAMETERS—'')
39160 1035 FORMAT(1X>"!1ME (HRS ) ' 4X , - DRY BULB T" , 4X , - WE T BULB T''
39170 1,-'WIND VEL.'',4X,-OPER CAP'" » 4X,''STABILITY''>
39180 1036 FORMAT ( IX, 14, ''-'', 14 , 2X , F1O. 2, 4X , F10. 2, 4X , F9. 2, 7X , F4. 2
39181 16X,F4.0)
39200 END
175
-------
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TECHNICAL REPORT
(Please read Instructions on the reverse
DATA
before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-79-251a
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Effects of Pathogenic and Toxic Materials
Transported Via Cooling Device Drift--
Volume 1. Technical Report
5. REPORT DATE
November 1979
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
H;D. Freudenthal, J.E.Rubinstein, and A. Uzzo
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
H2M Corporation
375 Fulton Street
Farmingdale, New York 11735
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
INE624A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2625
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final; 1/77 - 9/79
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES IERL-RTP project officer is
919/541-2915.
Michael C. Osborne, Mail Drop 61,
16. ABSTRACT
report describes a mathematical model that predicts the percent of
the population affected by a pathogen or toxic substance emitted in a cooling tower
plume, and gives specific applications of the model. Eighty-five pathogens (or dis-
eases) are cataloged as potentially occurring in U.S. waters, but there is insuffi-
cient data to predict the probability of occurrence or relate their occurrence to
public health, population, or pollution. Sixty-five toxic substances are cataloged as
potentially occurring in U.S. waters, but the actual number is probably many times
the EPA-supplied list. Toxic concentrations to persons, animals, and plants are
known for only a few of the chemicals: most toxic levels can be only inferred from
animal studies. In the population as a whole, the epidemiological impact of a patho-
gen is a function of age, sex distribution, racial (genetic) distribution, general
health and well-being, prior exposure, and immunological deficiency states. While
cooling device drift may r.jt be directly responsible for epidemics, it may potentiate
the burden in an already weakened population, raising a segment of the population
into the clinical state. The effect of toxic substances is difficult to evaluate because
of inadequate data on humans. The effect is a function of concentration in susceptible
tissue, and is much less dependent than pathogens on host resistance.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Pollution
Cooling Towers
Drift
Plumes
Pathology
Toxic ity
Water
Epidemiology
Mathematical Models
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
13B
13A,07A
14 B
2 IB
06E
06T
07B
12A
3. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAOTS
215
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
208
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