EPA/530/SW-31r.2
NOVEMBER 1975
final

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                COMPOSTING AT JOHNSON CITY
    Final Report on Joint USEPA-TVA Composting Project
            with Operational Data, 1967 to 1971

                    Volumes I and II
 Volume I (formerly interim, open-file report SW-31r.l.of)
   covers the period from June 1967 to September 1969
 and was prepared by GORDON E. STONE and CARLTON C. WILES

Volume II covers the period from October 1969 to June 1971
          and was prepared by CARLTON C. WILES

          Both volumes (SW-31r.2) were prepared
        under the direction of CLARENCE A. CLEMONS
           U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

                           1975

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                              PREFACE






     The Joint USEPA-TVA Composting Project* began operation in June




1967.  The purposes of the project were related to the need to investigate




the technical and economical feasibility of windrow composting as a




method of managing municipal refuse.  The feasibility of composting




sewage sludge with the ground refuse was also to be investigated.




Equipment was to be evaluated and costs of various parts of the process




were to be determined.  Potential health problems associated with




composting municipal refuse with sewage sludge were considered extremely




important, therefore, the survival during composting of pathogenic




organisms in the refuse or sewage sludge was to be determined.  In




addition, the benefits available from using the compost in various




applications were to be evaluated.  An assessment was to be made of




the economical benefits from using compost for agricultural, horticultural,




or soil amendment purposes.  A determination was also to be made as to




the maximum amount of refuse compost that the soil might accept without




adverse effects.




     Results of investigations conducted and operational experiences from




the project during the period June 1967 to September 1969 were reported.




The current report combines that interim report, as Volume I, and the




operational data and experiences obtained during the period October 1969




through June 1971, as Volume II, into one report.
     *Formerly "Joint USPHS-TVA Composting Project".
                                iii

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     The major studies concerned with the technical aspects of wind-




row composting were conducted during the first period, and Volume I




presents the results of these investigations.   Although Volume II




serves to update these results, it is primarily concerned with pre-




senting a status report of the research and demonstration projects




being conducted to investigate the utilization of the compost pro-




duced at the Johnson City composting plant.  These studies were only




in preliminary stages at the time Volume I was first published.




     Research concerned with soil and plant responses to organic and




other supplements often requires years before meaningful results can




be achieved.  Thus the compost utilization research and demonstration




projects are being continued.  Results of the continued research will




be reported in appropriate scientific and other journals of interest.
                           iv

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                        ACKNOWLEDGEMENT






     The completion of this report was made possible by the cooperation




of many individuals, two Federal agencies, and a municipality.




     The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) must be credited with the




foresight to develop a composting system in a part of the country where




the soil would benefit from the compost produced by a successful compost-




ing facility.  The design and operation of the facility was the sole  '




responsibility of TVA.  0. M. Derryberry, F. E. Gartrell, 0. W. Kochtitzky,




W. K. Seaman, Jack Taylor, Carroll Duggan, and Virgil Rader were just a




few of the TVA people participating.  David Burkhalter and James Hosier,




as city managers, were responsible for implementing the needed cooperation




from the Johnson City municipality.




     John S. Wiley, well known for his pilot research on composting,




served as Research Director until his retirement on July 1, 1968.




Gordon E. Stone became Project Engineer in July 1967, and served in




that capacity until he was appointed the solid waste management repre-




sentative for the Environmental Protection Agency's Region II.  Carlton




Wiles was then appointed Project Engineer and served in that capacity




until the project was completed in June 1971.  Fred J. Stutzenberger,




staff microbiologist; Donald J. Dunsmore, staff sanitary engineer; and




Richard D. Lossin, staff chemist, performed the majority of the tests




and studies reported.  Some of the assay work was performed by personnel




of the Research Services Laboratory in Cincinnati.  W. L. Gaby and his
                               v

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staff at East Tennessee State University worked closely with project




personnel in determining that compost was safe, under study conditions,




for agricultural use.  Mirdza L. Peterson, research microbiologist,




served as the contract officer for a portion of these studies.  Marie




T. Presnell, serving as administrative assistant, has been a key person




in assuring the continued smooth operation of the project.  The




Cincinnati-based managers included Harry Stierli, Charles G. Gunnerson,




and C. A. demons.  Andrew W. Breidenbach provided the general direction




for the entire project.




     Staff members of the TVA provided excellent reviews for both volumes




of the present report, and for this, appreciation is extended.  Thanks




and appreciation are also extended to Clarence G. Golueka for his review




and comments on Volume II.  Thanks are extended to all those who have




been involved in the project for their interest and many contributions




toward the successful completion of the project.
                               vi

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                          SUMMARY




      The Joint U.S. Public Health Service—Tennessee Valley Author-




ity Composting Project,  Johnson City,  Tennessee,  began operations in




June 1967.  The plant ceased operations on June 30, 1971.




     Studies conducted established the technical feasibility of




windrow composting of municipal refuse with or without sewage sludge.




Windrow temperatures of 122°F to 130°F maintained for at least seven




days were shown to destroy pathogens expected in refuse and those




known to be in sewage sludge.  Time-temperature studies showed that




windrow temperatures at the 1 1/2 foot depth averaged in excess of




140°F for two to three weeks or more.   Therefore, properly practiced




windrow composting was determined to be safe with respect to poten-




tial health problems from pathogenic organisms.




     Sewage sludge, cow manure, paunch manure, poultry manure, ani-




mal blood, and pepper canning wastes in varying amounts were all




successfully composted with municipal refuse.  The addition of urea-




ammonium nitrate appeared to inhibit microbial activity and resulted




in a loss of nitrogen in the product.   Although limestone added to




the refuse appeared to aid the composting process, it also caused a




loss of nitrogen.




     During the project, 33,503 tons of refuse were processed in




916 days, averaging 37 tons per day.  Screened compost, measured




during a 12-month test period, amounted to approximately 44 percent
                            vii

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of the incoming refuse.  During the same test period, rejects from




the picking and sorting operations and compost screening amounted




to 41 percent of the incoming refuse.




     The quality of the compost was continually upgraded during




the project.  Although some glass remains after screening and this




may prevent use of the compost for sale to the "carriage trade", it




was acceptable for most agricultural uses and for land reclamation




projects.  Screened compost samples analyzed during the second




period contained an average carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio of 28.




The nitrogen content of compost used in 1969 and 1970 agricultural




research projects was 1.3 percent (dry weight).  During the final




phases of the project, a zig-zag air classifier was partially




evaluated and proved capable of removing most of the glass from




screened compost.




     Total plant construction costs amounted to $960,452, not including




$61,280 for mobile equipment used in plant operations.  Data in




Volume I indicated actual operating costs in 1968 of $18.45 per ton




of refuse processed (at a level less than capacity) and estimated




the cost at $13.40 per ton (at full capacity) in 1969.  Actual FY 1970




and 1971 operating costs were $22.91 per ton refuse processed (8,687




tons in 222 days) and $19.70 per ton refuse processed (10,092 tons




in 232 days), respectively.  Significant portions of these costs




could be attributed to special projects.  Based upon Johnson City
                            viii

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    data,  capital, operating, and total  costs for various size windrow

    composting plants have been  estimated (Figure A).
t  200
CO
>-  TOO
to
Z
o
N
to
   100
z
^   50
C ap-
 ital
Cost
              Operating Cost
2 Shifts
 C a pita I
  Cost
                   Operating Cost
Capita I
 Cost
                   Ope rating Cost
       1 Shift
       2 Shifts
         Capita I Cost
                     Ope rating Co st
                                            1  Shift
                        I
                                   I
                    I
I
             4.00      8.00     12.00     16.00     20.00    24.00
                      COST PER TON REFUSE PROCESSED  ($)

            Figure A.   Summary of Estimated Capital, Operating,  and  total
       costs for various size Windrow  composting plants.
         When compared with commercial  inorganic fertilizers, unforti-

    fied composts are low in the basic  nutrients (N, P, and K).   Large

    applications of compost, however, can  furnish adequate quantities

    of these  nutrients.  The compost also  containstmicronutrients
                                  IX

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required for good plant growth, but the availability of these to the




plant  is not clear.  However, the large applications of compost




needed to supply adequate major nutrients may result in an accumu-




lation of excessive concentrations of elements which may have adverse




effects on soils, plants, and animals.  Additional work will help to




clarify this.




     Significant increases in the yields of grain sorghum, corn,




and bermudagrass have been obtained with compost under research




conditions.  The tests also showed that compost improved the physical




characteristics of the soil by increasing its moisture-holding capacity




and decreasing its bulk density and compression strength.  Soil




chemical analysis showed that pH, organic matter, K, Ca, Mg, and Zn




levels were all increased by the compost, some of them from the




inclusion of sewage sludge.




     In corn experiments, the compost dollar value, based on yield




only, was estimated at from $1.69 per ton to $5.80 per ton, depending




upon treatments.  Corn is a rather low monetary return crop.  The




1969 dollar value of compost as used in forage sorghum was estimated




at from $1.10 per ton to $2.20 per ton, depending upon treatment.




     Under field demonstration conditions, the most favorable




responses to compost have been with high value cash crops such as




tobacco,  soil reclamation and erosion control projects, and home




and garden uses.  Users of the compost valued it at from $0.00 per




ton to as high as $25.00 per ton depending upon specific circum-




stances.   The average value the users placed on the compost was
                              x

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$5.80 per ton.  Since in many cases the increase in yield with




compost was more than the dollar value stated by the cooperator,




it is quite possible that most users stated a price they were




willing to pay and not what they felt it was worth.
                            XI

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                                VOLUME I

                                CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 	   1

     Johnson City, Tennessee 	   3

          Location, Climate, Population,  Etc	   3
          Generation and Composition of the Municipal Refuse ...  11

     USPHS-TVA Composting Project  	  12

          Description of the Project	12
          Description of the Composting Plant  	  16
          Construction Costs 	  37
          Modifications Made Since Startup 	  37
          Staffing	42
          Operations and Processes 	  44

               Operating Schedule  	  44
               Production	45
               Receiving	47
               Grinding	51
               Addition of Sewage Sludge 	  57
               Handling and Storage	60
               Windrow Maintenance 	  61
               Curing and Drying	63
               Screening and Grinding  	  64
               Fly Control	65
               Removal of Plastics and Glass	68

PROJECT STUDIES AND INVESTIGATIONS 	  69

     Composting Process  	  69

          Temperature Studies  	  69
          Effect of Windrow Turning Frequency  	  83
          Effect of Composting Sewage Sludge with Refuse 	  84
          Effect of Adding a Nitrogen Compound to Composting
            Refuse	96
          Effect of Adding a Buffering Agent to Composting
            Refuse	101
          Effect of Composting Other Wastes With Refuse  	 109
          Effect of Covering a Windrow With Plastic Sheeting . .  . 118
          Effect of Covering Windrows With Old Compost	121
          pH Observations	123
                                  xiii

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     Microbiological and Fly Population Studies 	  123

          Bacteriological Statistical Experiments 	  123
          Survival of Mi/cobacteSuum pkt&i	127
          Pathogen Survival Studies Under Contract  	  128
          Cellulolytic Activity in Composting 	  140
          Fly Population Counts 	  142

     Chemical and Physical Characteristics  	  145

          Sampling Techniques 	  145
          Moisture Content of Raw Refuse  	  147
          Weight and Volume Losses in Composting  	  148
          Elemental Composition of Compost  	  149
          Analyses for Carbon/Nitrogen Ratios 	  149
          Chemical Oxygen Demand  	  154
          Cellulose, Starch, and Sugar Content  	  157
          Calorific Value of Refuse and Compost 	  157

     Cost Studies	157

          Capital Cost	160
          Operating Cost	160

               Labor Cost	165

          Cost Data Projected to Other Plants	165
          Plant Income	172

     Demonstration and Utilization  	  172

REFERENCES	181
TABLES

1   Meteorological Data for Johnson City Area	    6
2   Meteorological Data for Johnson City Area
      Normals, Means, and Extremes  	    7
3   Municipal Refuse Production 	   13
4   Composition of Refuse 	   14
5   Description of Machinery and Equipment
      USPHS-TVA Composting Project, Johnson City  	   20
6   Processing Data for January 1968 through June 1969	   46
7   Performance of Receiving Machinery  	   50
                                  xiv

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 8   Average Performance of Rasper  	    52
 9   Compost Fortified with Nitrogen    	    99
10  ^-A£edL.Compp_st .Fortified with Nitrogen                           102
11   Mycobacterium Survival in Compost  	   129
12   Adult Fly Counts With Scudder Grill - 1967	   143
13   Fly Population Data	   144
14   Elements in Finished Compost 	   150
15   Concentration of Certain Trace Elements in
       Screened Compost 	   151
16   Nitrogen Content of Some Organic Materials and Soil  ....   152
17   Carbon/Nitrogen Ratios of Compost Containing
       Additives	   156
18   Construction Costs for the USPHS-TVA Windrow
       Composting Plant 	   161
19   Yearly Investment Costs for the USPHS-TVA
       Windrow Composting Plant 	   162
20   Actual Cost of Operations for the USPHS-TVA
       Composting Plant 	   163
21   Actual Annual Costs of Operating the USPHS-TVA
      _Plant Projected to Full Capacity	   164
22   Summary of Processing Costs -for.the. USPHS-TVA
       Composting Plant, Johnson City, Tennessee  	   166
23   Salaries of TVA Personnel	   167
24   Estimated Capital Costs for Windrow Composting
       Plants	   168
25   Estimated Investment Costs for Windrow Composting
       Plants	   169
26   Estimated Yearly Operating Costs for Various
       Capacity Windrow Composting Plants 	     170
27   Summary of Estimated Capital, Operating and Total
       Costs for Various Size Windrow Composting Plants 	   171
28   USPHS-TVA Plant Construction Costs Projected to
       a 50-Ton Per Day Plant	   173
29   USPHS-TVA Plant Construction Costs Projected to
       a 100-Ton Per Day Plant	   174
30   USPHS-TVA Plant Annual Operating Costs Projected
       to a 50-Ton Per Day Plant	   175
31   USPHS-TVA Plant Annual Operating Costs Projected
       to a 100-Ton Per Day Plant	   176
32   USPHS-TVA Plant Annual Operating Costs Projected
       to a 100-Ton Per Day Plant	   177
33   USPHS-TVA Plant Annual Operating Costs Projected
       to a 200-Ton Per Day Plant	   178
                                    xv

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FIGURES

 1   Map of the Johnson City-Kingsport-Bristol,
       Tennessee Area	     4
 2   Average High and Low Temperatures Recorded at the
       Plant for the Period August 1967 through June  1971 .  .  .  .     8
 3   Monthly Precipitation Recorded at the Plant for the
       Period August 1967-July 1969 through June 1971 .  . ..  ,  ,  ..     9
 4   Map of Johnson City, Tennessee Showing the Location
       of the Compost Plant	    10
 5   Joint USPHS-TVA Composting Project, Johnson City,
       Tennessee	    18
 6   Process Flow Diagram	    19
 7   Receiving Building With a 65 Cubic Yards Compaction
       Trailer Discharging Refuse 	    24
 8   The Hopper in the Receiving Building	    25
 9   Receiving Building on the Left and Processing
       Building on the Right	    26
10   The Picking Station Inside the Processing Building  	    27
11   The Hammermill Used to Shred or Grind Refuse	    29
12   The Dorr-Oliver Rasper	    30
13   The Permutit Dual Cell Gravity Sludge Concentrator
       Used to Dewater Sewage Sludge	       32
14   The Cylindrical Mixer for Intimately Mixing Dewatered
       Sewage Sludge With the Ground or Shredded Refuse  	    34
15   A Windrow of Ground or Shredded Refuse	    35
16   The Windrow Turning Machine  	    36
17   The Storing and Curing Shed (left) and Processing
       Building (right)   	    38
18   The Final Screening and Grinding Equipment 	    39
19   Quantity of Refuse Received at the USPHS-TVA
       Composting Project by Seasons  	    48
20   Average Temperatures at the 1-1/2-ft Depth in
       Windrows 1 Thru 44	    70
21   Average Temperature at the 1-1/2-ft Depth in
       Windrows 1A Thru 34A	    71
22   Average Temperatures at the 1-1/2-ft Depth in
       Windrows IB Thru 34B	    72
23   Average Temperatures at the 1-1/2-ft Depth in
       Windrows 1C Thru 34C	    73
24   Average Temperatures at the 1-1/2-ft Depth of
       Six Selected Windrows  	    74
25   Temperature Profiles of a Selected Windrow During
       the First 11 Days of Composting	    76
26   Continuous Temperature Record of Windrow 17E,
       22nd to 28th Day (Station 1)   	    77
                                     xvi

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27   Continuous Temperature Record of Windrow 17E,
       22nd to 28th Day (Station 2)   	    78
28   Temperature Profile of Windrow 17E	    79
29   Temperature Profile of Windrow 17H	    80
30   Temperature Profiles at the 8" Depth of Windrow
       17H (Nov. 4, 1968-Dec. 30, 1968)	    82
31   Temperatures in Windrows With 2 Percent Sludge
       Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth)  	    86
32   Temperatures in Windrows With 3-5 Percent Sludge
       Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth)  	    87
33   Temperatures in Windrows With 9 Percent Sludge
       Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth)  	    88
34   pH of Windrows With 2 Percent Sludge Solids
       (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    89
35   Average pH of Windrows With 3-5 Percent Raw
       Sludge Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    90
36   pH of Windrows With 9 Percent Sludge Solids
       (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    91
37   Temperatures of a Windrow With 34 Percent Sludge
       Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth)  	    94
38   pH of a Windrow With 34 Percent Sludge Solids
       (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    95
39   Temperature and pH of a Windrow Containing 50
       Percent Sludge Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    97
40   Temperature of Windrows Containing Urea-Ammonium
       Nitrate	   100
41   Temperature of Windrows With Urea-Ammonium Nitrate 	   103
42   Temperatures of Windrows With Limestone and Sludge
       Added	   105
43   pH of Windrow With Limestone and Sludge Added	   106
44   Temperature of Windrow With Limestone Dust Added 	   107
45   pH of Windrow With Limestone Dust Added	   108
46   Temperature and pH of Refuse Composted With
       Cow Manure	   Ill
47   Temperature of Refuse Composted With Paunch Manure 	   112
48   pH of Refuse Composted With Aged Chicken Manure	   114
49   Temperature and pH of Refuse Composted With Fresh
       Chicken Manure 	   116
50   Temperature of Refuse Composted With Slaughterhouse
       Blood	   117
51   Temperature of Sludge-Refuse Mixture Composted
       With Pepper Canning Wastes  	   119
52   pH of Sludge-Refuse Mixture Composted With
       Pepper Canning Wastes  	   120
53   Average pH of Windrows 1A Thru 34A (1-1/2-ft
       Depth)	   124
54   Average Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio of 24 Windrows
       Containing 3-5 Percent Sewage Sludge  	   153
                                  xvii

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                                                                    Page

55   Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio of a Windrow Without
       Sewage Sludge  	   155
56   Chemical Oxygen Demand of Composting Refuse  	   158
57   Sugar, Starch, and Cellulose Content of Composting
       Refuse	   159
APPENDICES

Appendix I	   183
     Methods Used for Chemical Analyses 	   183

Appendix II	   196
     Statement of Operations
     Division of Reservoir Properties 	   196

Appendix III	   203
     Preliminary Results of Agricultural Research
       on Compost	   203
     Table 1	   207
     Table 2	   209
     Table 3	   212
                                   xviii

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                                VOLUME II

                                CONTENTS

                                                                     Page

INTRODUCTION 	  213

PLANT OPERATIONS	214

     Technical Staffing  	  214

     Plant Process	215

     Processing Data	216

          Raw Refuse	216
          Screened Compost Production  	  218
          Rejects	218

     Plant Maintenance	220

     Updated Cost Data	221

          Cost Accounting	221
          Capital Costs  	  221
          Operating Costs  	  223
          Plant Income	224

SPECIAL PROJECTS 	  225

     Grinding Study  	  225

          Description of the Shredder	226
          Summary of Results	227

     Comparison of the Compost from Hammermill
       and Rasper Processed Refuse 	  227

     Refuse Baling Project 	  233

     Composting Leaves with Refuse 	  235

     Drying the Compost	237

     Screening Composted Refuse  	  239
                                  xix

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                                                                      Page

          Screening Process 	 239
          Compost Screening Rates 	 244

     Air Classification of Compost  	 245

     Quality of Compost Produced at Johnson City  	 250

SUMMARY OF MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE 	 255

COMPOST UTILIZATION RESEARCH AND DEMONSTRATIONS 	 257

     Compost Utilization Demonstrations 	 258

          Reclaiming a Fly Ash Pond	259
          Compost is Successfully Used to Grow
            Burley Tobacco  	 259
          Compost Proves Beneficial in Growing Corn 	 262
          Compost as an Organic Supplement for
            Horticultural Crops 	 266
          Compost as a Mulch for Flowers, Trees,
            and Shrubs	267
          Use of Compost for Establishing Grass Sod	268
          Use of Compost in Reclaiming Strip-Mine Lands 	 269
          Summary of Compost Utilization Demonstrations 	 272

     Compost Utilization Research Projects  	 277

          Use of Compost for Sorghum Production	278
          Evaluation of Compost on Common Bermudagrass  	 286
          Corn Grain Research Project at Johnson City 	 287
          Summary of Compost Utilization Research Projects  	 290

PROJECT INTEREST AND PUBLIC RELATIONS 	 293

     Visitors	294

     Request for Information and Services 	 294

PROJECT TERMINATION 	 295

REFERENCES	298
                                   xx

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 TABLES

 1   Production of Screened Composted Refuse and Rejects 	  219
 2   Construction and Equipment Costs for the PHS-TVA
       Windrow Composting Plant	222
 3   Weight Loss per Hammer Set	228
 4   Power Consumption During Grinding Experiment  	  229
 5   Cost of Material Ground, Dollars  	  230
 6   Comparison of Compost Produced from Rasper
       Ground Refuse to Compost Produced from
       Hammermill Ground Refuse  	  232
 7   Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio of Compost from
       Vibrating Screen and Rotary Screen  	  242
 8   Results of Initial Operational Testing of
       Zig-Zag Air Classifier  	  247
 9   Chemical Characteristics of Johnson City
       and West German Compost	252
10   Ultimate Analysis of Johnson City and
       German Composts	253
11   Forage Sorghum Yield and N Uptake at
       Muscle Shoals, as Affected by Compost
       and N Rates	280
12   Effect of Compost and N on Nutrient Concentration
       in Forage Sorghum, Muscle Shoals  	  283
13   Effect of Compost and N on Physical and Chemical
       Characteristics of Soil at Muscle Shoals  	  285
14   Common Bermudagrass Yield, as Affected by Compost
       and N, Muscle Shoals	288
15   Response of Corn to Compost, Johnson City
       Experiment	291
 FIGURES

 1   Seasonal Variation in the Quantity of
       Refuse Received 	  217
 2   Internal Temperature at 18-inch Depth
       of Grinding Study Test Windrows 	  234
 3   Grain Dryer Used to Dry Unscreened and
       Screened Composted Refuse 	  238
 4   Grain Dryer Drying Unscreened Composted
       Refuse	238
 5   Screening Process Used to Screen the
       Composted Refuse  	  240
 6   Composted Refuse After Passing Through the
       Vibrating Screen  	  243
                                    xx i

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27   Continuous Temperature Record of Windrow 17E,
       22nd to 28th Day (Station 2)   	    78
28   Temperature Profile of Windrow 17E	    79
29   Temperature Profile of Windrow 17H	    80
30   Temperature Profiles at the 8" Depth of Windrow
       17H (Nov. 4, 1968-Dec. 30, 1968)	    82
31   Temperatures in Windrows With 2 Percent Sludge
       Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth)  	    86
32   Temperatures in Windrows With 3-5 Percent Sludge
       Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth)  	    87
33   Temperatures in Windrows With 9 Percent Sludge
       Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth)  	    88
34   pH of Windrows With 2 Percent Sludge Solids
       (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    89
35   Average pH of Windrows With 3-5 Percent Raw
       Sludge Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    90
36   pH of Windrows With 9 Percent Sludge Solids
       (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    91
37   Temperatures of a Windrow With 34 Percent Sludge
       Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth)  	    94
38   pH of a Windrow With 34 Percent Sludge Solids
       (1-1/2-ft Depth)	    95
39   Temperature and pH of a Windrow Containing 50
       Percent Sludge Solids (1-1/2-ft Depth) 	    97
40   Temperature of Windrows Containing Urea-Ammonium
       Nitrate	   100
41   Temperature of Windrows With Urea-Ammonium Nitrate 	   103
42   Temperatures of Windrows With Limestone and Sludge
       Added	   105
43   pH of Windrow With Limestone and Sludge Added	   106
44   Temperature of Windrow With Limestone Dust Added 	   107
45   pH of Windrow With Limestone Dust Added	   108
46   Temperature and pH of Refuse Composted With
       Cow Manure	   111
47   Temperature of Refuse Composted With Paunch Manure .....   112
48   pH of Refuse Composted With Aged Chicken Manure	   114
49   Temperature and pH of Refuse Composted With Fresh
       Chicken Manure 	   116
50   Temperature of Refuse Composted With Slaughterhouse
       Blood	   117
51   Temperature of Sludge-Refuse Mixture Composted
       With Pepper Canning Wastes  	   119
52   pH of Sludge-Refuse Mixture Composted With
       Pepper Canning Wastes  	   120
53   Average pH of Windrows 1A Thru 34A (1-1/2-ft
       Depth)	   124
54   Average Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio of 24 Windrows
       Containing 3-5 Percent Sewage Sludge 	   153
                                  xvn

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Appendix III	326
    Visitors to Composting Project 	   326
       States, Foreign Countries 	   326
       Groups	327
    Request for Information on Composting  	   329
       Foreign	329
       Journals and Publications 	   329
       Universities and Colleges and Other Schools 	   329
       Congressmen and Legislators 	   331
       United States (Individuals) 	   331
       Consultants	332
       Organizations 	   333
                                xxiii

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    JOINT USEPA-TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT,  JOHNSON CITY,  TENNESSEE

                           Volume I
                    WITH OPERATIONAL DATA
                  June 1967 - September  1969
                         INTRODUCTION



     The natural phenomenon of the degradation of wastes by microbiological

activity has been utilized by agriculturists for centuries to produce humus.

In modern times the stress upon the environment caused by wastes and the

need to replenish the organic constituents removed from soils by intensive

farming have created an interest in large—scale composting.*

     In Europe, large—scale composting has received attention because of

its possibilities for supplying organic material for the soil and a

considerable number of plants have been operated successfully over the

last twenty-five years.  In America, where there has been a different

attitude toward the conservation of resources and where the need for the

replenishment of organics in the soil has been less acute, composting

has only recently received attention, and here the greatest emphasis has

been on its use as a method of waste disposal.1

     In the United States, the University of California studied the com-

posting of municipal wastes from 1950 to 1952.2  One conclusion of this

study was that composting offered an alternative method of refuse disposal

that would help alleviate the growing difficulty of finding landfill sites
     *Mention of commercial products or processes throughout this report
does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

-------
and problems of air pollution  that result from incineration.  However,




Wiley and Kochtitsky concluded that the inability to dispose  of  large




quantities of compost at a  favorable price was probably a major  factor




in the closing of six of nine plants during the period 1962 to 1964. 3




In addition to a lack of marketing knowledge, there was a dearth of reli-




able cost data.  Certain environmental and public health aspects also re-




quired study in the United  States.




     In the early 1960's, F. E. Gartrell of the Tennessee Valley Authority




(TVA) proposed a full-scale composting project to be jointly sponsored by




TVA, the U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS), and a municipality  in the




Tennessee Valley.  Both USPHS and TVA were interested in a sanitary method




of waste disposal and TVA was also interested in the use of compost for




soil improvement.  In March 1963, the Division of Agricultural Development,




TVA initiated a project called "The Use of Municipal and Industrial Organic




Waste in the Production of  Soil Amendments and Fertilizers."  The compost




plant was to investigate the process as a method for disposing of wastes




and at the same time reclaiming waste for the benefit of the land.




     In August 1964, the USPHS and the TVA agreed upon a joint research




and demonstration project for composting solid wastes and sewage sludge.




In November 1964, USPHS detailed John S. Wiley to the Division of Health




and Safety, (now the Office of Health and Environmental Science) TVA, to




collaborate in the detailed planning of the project.  Under the agreement,




TVA would have financed and constructed the composting plant.  When the




Solid Waste Disposal Act was passed in October 1965, the Bureau of Budget




directed that the proposed plant be financed from funds available under

-------
the terms of the Act to the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.




Johnson City had been selected as the site for the composting project on




the basis of two surveys of six Tennessee Valley area cities.  One survey,




conducted by TVA engineers and representatives of state and local health




departments, covered disposal of refuse and sewage sludge.  The other,




made by TVA agricultural specialist, investigated the use of chemical and




organic fertilizers in the vicinity of these cities.  On February 15, 1966,




the two agencies and Johnson City, Tennessee, signed a cooperative agree-




ment for the construction and operation of the "Joint USPHS-TVA Composting




Project, Johnson City, Tennessee."  Ground was broken for the plant on




May 18, 1966; construction was completed and the plant was put in operation




on June 20, 1967.







                       Johnson City, Tennessee




     Location, Climate, Population, Etc.  Johnson City, in Washington County,




is in the extreme northeastern corner of Tennessee at longitude 82° 21' W.,




latitude 36° 19' N. (Figure 1).  It lies near the junction of the Watauga




River and the South Fork Hols ton River in the headwaters of the Tennessee




River system.  The terrain immediately surrounding the city ranges from




gently rolling on the east and south to very hilly on the west and north.




Mountain ranges begin about 5 miles to the southeast and about 20 miles to




the west and north, with many peaks rising to 4,000 and some to 6,000 ft




above sea level toward the southeast in the Appalachian system.  Elevations




in the city range from 1,500 to over 1,700 ft.




     The Johnson City area does not lie directly within any of the principal




storm tracks that cross the country, but comes under the influence of

-------
                               V I R (i I N I \

                               /TENN'KS SKK
                                                     IRISTOL   /'

                                                            .f  Mountain     I
r'
 \
    S                    /'  KINGSPORT   cm , IUAW
  ,'          HAWKINS     ./             SULLIVAN  ^-  t   city o

 *"Rogersville             .W|N   ^~   *AIRPORT  /      /

/          o           ,'   |	^*v»   /"           /    JOHNSON

                                         V  Elizabethtonl_         _    i
                                                                          /
          ^
                    GREENE
                    Greenevi I le
 I              V  Eli
     JOHNSON CITY /    °

 I      o     O/

 | Jonesboro      t_


.'WASHINGTON **    \
i          /         \
I       ~* Erflin



     UN I CO l,/^

         /
                                                    CARTER
                    TKNAKSSH;
                                                            10
                                                       Miles
   Figure 1.   Map of Johnson City-King sport-Bristol, Tennessee area.

-------
storm centers that pass along the Gulf Coast and then up the Atlantic




Coast toward the northeast.  Table 1 gives meteorological data for the




calendar years 1967 and 1968, for the Bristol,  Tennessee, station of the




U.S. Weather Bureau at the Tri-City Airport, 9  miles northwest of the




USPHS-TVA Composting Project plant.  Table 2 gives the normals, means, and




extremes for this station.  Since August 1967,  temperature and rainfall




records have been kept at the composting plant.  Figure 2 shows the recorded




average high and low temperatures for the months through June 1971*.  Figure




3 shows the monthly rainfall recorded at the plant over the same period.




     Johnson City, with an area of 15 square miles (Figure 4), had in 1969,




an estimated population of 35,300.  The city and county had an estimated




population of 68,500.  The trading area had an  estimated population of




180,000 and the area within a 50-mile radius had an estimated population




of 635,000.




     The average income per family in Johnson City was $8,482 in 1968.




About 36 percent are employed in manufacturing, the remainder in trade,




finance, government, transportation, service jobs, etc.  In the rural




area, about 28 percent occupy farms.  Of this population, 30 percent




are engaged in manufacturing.  Washington County has about 3,000 farms,




averaging 55 acres each.




     Tobacco is the most important crop of the  area.  Corn and some small




grains are grown in support of the important dairy industry.  Raising of




beef cattle has increased in the last 20 years  to become a significant




part of the economy.




     In the seven counties of the area, there are about 320,600 acres of




cropland and 281,800 acres of pasture.
        *0riginal figures updated to include period covered in Volume II.




                                5

-------
                                                                                         TABLE  1
                                                           METEOROLOGICAL DATA  FOR  JOHNSON  CITY  AREA
Tri-City  Airport  (Bristol,  Tennessee,  Station),  latitude 36°  29'  N.,   longitude  82°  2h*  W.,  ground  elevation
feet above  sea level.
                                                                                           196?






JAN
FEB

APR
MAY
JUN


SEP


DEC


JAN
Temperature
Averages

9
-1
ll
48.6
43.9

71.2
69.4
80.3
79.4
81.4
76.6
69.3
53.5
51.3


43. v
Fi-tl 41.1
APR 67.2
MAY : 72.5
JUN 82.7

SEP '• eo.*.
OCI 1 69.6
NUV


55.5



§

ll
27.8
23.9

44.2
48.0
57.4

60.0
48.6
42.9
31.8
30.2



>.
•S
0
2
38.2
33.7
50.2
57.7
58.7
68.9
69.8
70.7
62.6
56.1
42.7
40.8


23.3 33.2
19.1
44.3
50.0
58.8

53.7
45.6
34.8


30.1
55.8
61.3
70.8
5.8
7.1
7.6
5.2


Extremes


"
X
72
67

81
85
88
87
87
87
80
73
71


62
64
82
85
93

87
83
75





1
26
1
27+
16
27
17
24
3
20
16+
11
21
JUN.



8
2
14
- 1
15
30
36
48
48
51
34
27
17
14





a
12
25

29
10
2+
5
14
30
29
29
24
FE9.



3

I
Jf
821
868
455
218
216
29
12
2
107
271
662
745


i 1
31 118 979
1 4
20
24
30
21 +
23+
24+
13 +
2 +
31
35
47

48
44
27
17
AUG.

22 , 1004
Precipitation




£
2.00
4.14
3.02
2.80
6.29
2.14
4.87
3.68
2.59
1.99
3.73
5.62


3.58
0.75
16+ 276 4.12
7+ 137 3-83
1

30+
13
30
21
JAN.


4C

4 «
6 s
0.75
1.47
1.11
1.26
1.28
0.88
2.08
1.15
1.29
0.82
1.03
1.73


0.95
0.45
1.49
0.93
1 2-89 ; 0.87

19
245
590


2-32
0.93
2-51
1.89


1.40
0.46
1.12
0.78






S
27
17
6-7
26
4-15
1-1
8-29
22
28
25
1-2
8-19
JUL.

Snow. Sleet



f
4.6
4.8
T
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
T
4.1


e
TH
£ 2
6 S
4.0
3.1
T
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
T
2.6





&
19
7
20 +







29 +
28
JAN.

Relative
humidity

1
AM

7
Ay

1
FM

7
PH
Standard
EASTERN
82
76
74
68
94
91
95
93
92
86
79
85

86
79
81
78
94
93
96
94
95
95
85
89

63
62
48
46
67
60
69
68
56
55
53
70

1968
3-4 12.1 1 4.5 £3-24 78
28-29
23-24
26-27
7-8
31
10-11
9-10
18-19
6-7
MAR.

6.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
T
2.9


4.8 ! 29
0.0 i
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0


T 29 +
1.4 11-12


FEB.

58
78
82
87
87
84
79
IB



66 43
86
88
55
60
90 58
90 53
89
84
82


49
51
58


66
61
52
51
70
68
75
77
71
64
60
74


t
Wind
Resultant



&
25
27

28
28
07
26
36
03
24
27
33


68 1 ol
42
55
67
64
67
62
60
28
28
?7
30
01
03
33
65 28








2.6
4.4

3.0
1.6
1.3
1.5
0.4
1.0

3.4
0.9


0.9
4.7
1.4
1.9
1.0
0.7
0.9
0.7
2.3


1
fr
ft
S
<
5.4
7.2
6.6
7.3
6.2
5.7
5.1
3.9
3.6
4.5
6.0
5.1


5.7
7.2
5.8
5.2
4.6
4.1
3.7
5.0
5.9


Fastest mile


TJ
3.
I
28
30

25
32
18
21
15
29
18
25
25



Q
t;
a
24
30

25
29
31
28
27
31
25
31
27





&
27
16

17+
8
18
29
10
21
25+
22
12+
MAR.

24 10 | 13
21 . 30
35
24
31
28
16
17
29


23
30
31
30
29
28
21 +
4
1
11
2
10+
28+
30 1 19


DEC


33
1

r =
fi-S
s. s

























Si
1 "
ft «

k S
6.6
6.9

5.3
7.4
5.7
7.6
6.7
4.4
5.1
5.4
7.0


7.1
5.7
7.0
6.3
6.7
5.7
5.8
8.1


Number of days
Sunrise to sunset



o








1
1
1
6


6
8
3
8
5
8
9
2




*T?
1 -8



i

1
u
12
7
13
10
7


6
11
11

^
•a
0
16
16

7
21
10
18
15
7
8
9
18


19
10
17
8 14

1 E
S j-
•g =
ex °.
8
11

7
17
10
17
U
5

11
13


13
5
11
15
12
11 15 11
10 12
8 14
8


20


8
11
12


£
i *
W M
o -3

1
2

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2


4
2
0
0
u
0
0
0
1


i
O
"w
*
c
f-
0
0

2
11
5
7
4
1
0
2
1


0
0
3
4
8
6
11
3
2


0
•r
«
w
9
1

0
5
2
5
8
4
10
1
4


4
0
4
6
8
10
4
4
0 5




Temperatures
Maximum

"O
c *
a >
g -S
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0


u
0
0
0
0
2
11
0
u


TJ
3 g
8 JS
i
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3


6
7
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

Minimum

t)
S *
S J3
22
21
14
2
0
0
0
0
0
6
16
20




"c *
0 J§
0
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0


26 0
27
17
2
0
0
0
0
4
14
26

25 j 18
1

: o
0
0
o
0
0
o

o


  Unless otherwise Indicated, dimensional units used In this bulletin are: temperature In degrees F.;
  precipitation. Including snowfall, In Inches; wind movement In miles per hour; and relative humidity
  In percent.  Degree day totals are the sums of the negative departure* of average dally temperatures
  from 65* F. Sleet was Included In snowfall totals beginning with July 1948. Heavy fog reduces visibility
  to 1/4 mile or less.

                                        obscuring phenomena to 10 for complete sky
                                     ige cloudiness 0-3; partly cloudy days 4-7; and
Sky cover Is expressed In a range of 0 for no clouds
cover.  The number of clear days Is based on averai
cloudy days 8-10 tenths.
                                                                        Figures Instead of tetters in s direction column indicate direction In tens of degrees from true North-
                                                                           09-East,  IB-South, 27. West.  36-North, and 00-Cslm. Resultant wind Is the vector sum of
                                                                                                                               r in the direction
                                                                                                                              e values.
i.e.,  VT - £.««, lo-pvuin,  4f-neBi, JD - [Nonn, *no uu-nim. Kesuitant wind is t
wind directions and speeds divided by the number of observations. If figures appeal
column under "Fastest mile" the corresponding speeds are fastest observed 1-mlnute v

-------
                                                                TABLE 2
                                          METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR JOHNSON  CITY  AREA
                                                 NORMALS, MEANS,  AND EXTREMES

Tri-City Airport  (Bristol, Tennessee,  Station),  latitude  36° 29'  No,  longitude  82°  2h' W., ground  elevation
feet above sea level.
c
i
a)
S
0
N
0
YR
Temperature
Normal
E
"I
S I
(bi
46.8
50.0
56.5
68.2
77.6
80.5
80.6
70.1
56.7


Daily
minimum
29.7
30.0
35.5
53.7
61.9
65.4
57.5
45.9
35.1


I
(b)
3B.3
40. U
46. 0
65.7
73.2
75.9
69.1
58.0
45.9
38.3

Extremes 0
11
IX '£
7
72
76
61
92
95
92
84
80


1
1967
1965
1963
1962
1966+
1965+
1964+
1961
JUN.

11
7
-15
- 4
12
30
38
34
20
15


1
1966
1965
1965
1963
1966
1967+
1968
1967
1962
1964
1962
JAN.

Normal degree days |
(b)
828
700
598
68
0
51
236
573


Precipitation

Normal tola
(b)
3.69
3.56
3.98
3.45
5.55
2.62
2.15
2.51
3.21

Maximum
monthly
23
9.18
7.29
9.56
9.71
9.73
7.07
6.19
5.65
6.75

Jo
1 7
6
5
0

9 2
19 9
19 8
19 1
JU .

11
23
1.85
0.75
1.33
1.31
0.79
0.93
O.U7
1.^7
0.21

S
955
968
57
66

1 68
1963
1953
1965
OCT.

E •
3 2
g J5
2 *E
23
2.34
1.87
3.10
2.44

2.50
2.95
3.65
2.55


1 50
1 54
1 63
1 58

1 62
1 64
1 57
1 58
0 T.

Snow, Sleet
o
S
31
4.9
3.8
2,7
T
0.0
0.0
T
1.4
2.7

1 £
1 1
31
22.1
17.2
27.9
T
0.0
0.0
T
18.1
12.9

1
1966
1947
1960
1963
1068+
1963
MAR.

Maximum
in 24 hrs.
25
9.7
9.7
13.0
T
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
T
16.2


1
1 5
1 8
1 0
1 3
1968 +
NOV.

Relative | &
. ... i Wind
humidity ;
1
AH
St
ti
EA

76
71
70
85
66
88
86
85
81


7
AH
and
me
STE

80
76
77
90
90
91
89
87


1
PU
ard
use
RN

61
57
51
57
57
61
54


7
PH
d:

9
5
2
3
6
0



o
l!

6.5
7.0
7.5
5.3
4.6
4.5
4.7
5.8


Oi ^
ll

wsw
NE
WNW
WSW
NE
NE
NE


Fastest mi
"rj
1
13
40
46
40
50
31
40
29
35
40

c
o
5
13
25
25
25
32
31
31
28
24



S
9 5-t-
9 1
9 2
9
9
9
19
1
6
7
5
MAY

£
1
C
i
o
p.




si
"in 0)
e.a
s s
20
7.1
6.9
6.7
6.2
6.0
5.3
4.8
6.2
6.8

Mean number of days
	 	
if
U
31
6
6
7
7
6
6
11
13
9
7

unns
unse
ll
31
7
7
7
9
12
12
9
a
7
7

e
TJ
3
O
31
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Precipitation
.01 inch or more
23
14
12
13
12
11
10
11
7
8
11
11

ll

25
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

1
o
73
C
3
E-
25
1
2
4
7
9
8
4
1

1
X
25
3
3
1
1
3
3
7
4
5
3
3

Tempe
Max.
!i
7
0
0
0
0
I
4
3
2
0
0
0
-c
c 5
as £
IT) -Q
7
5
3
*
0
0
0
0
0
0
*
4

ratures
Min.
-o
C J
si
7
25
21
14
3
0
0
0
4
12
23

0 and below
7
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
     0  For period Hay 1961 through the current year.
     Means and extremes in the above table are from the existing or comparable location(s). Annual extremes have been exceeded at other locations as follows:
     Highest temperature 102 in July 1952.
(a)
(hi
+
T



Length of i
CHmatolog


Below- zer
minus sign

record, years.



o temperatures are preceded by a







Sky cover is expressed In a range of 0 for no clouds or obscuring phenomena to 10 for complete sky









-------
100;

90


80|


70


60


50


40


30


20,


10
I I  I I  1	1 I I  | I  I I I  | I  I
   I  I I I  I	1 I I  I I  I I I  I I  I I	1 I  I I I  I I  I I I  I	
   ASOND  JFMAMJJASOND  JFMAMJJASOND   JF.MAMJJASOND  J F M A M J
     1967            1968                1949                1970             ,97,

                                 MONTH AND YEAR
      Figure 2.  Average monthly high and low temperatures recorded  at
 the plant for the period August 1967 through June 1971.

-------
5.00
4.50
-j 4.00
j 3.50
o
• 3.00
~ 2.50
0
J 2.00
Z
u '-50
"• i.oo
0.50
0.00

-


-
_

-
-
-






























































































































































,



















































-

































-
.
























-
-
-




-
-
-
-
  ASOND  JFMAMJJASONO  JFMAMJJASOND  JFMAWJJASOND  JFMAWJ
   1967           1968               1969                1970           1971

                             MONTH AND YEAR
     Figure  3.   Monthly precipitation  recorded at the plant  for the
period, August  1967 through June 1971.

-------
                                                   .--40001
     Figure 4.  Map of Johnson  City,  Tennessee showing the location of
the compost plant.

-------
     Generation and Composition of Municipal Refuse.   Residential wastes




of 31,200 persons and 40 percent by weight of the commercial wastes are




collected weekly in Johnson City by the Sanitation Department using five




three-man crews with compactor trucks.  Sixty percent of the homeowners,




however, burn some wastes in their backyards.  Others employ private




collectors to provide supplemental service once a week.  Street sweeping




and brush are collected by the Street Department and are deposited in the




city's landfill.




     Industries in Johnson City generate about 130 tons of solid wastes




weekly.  The majority of these are hauled to disposal sites by employees




of the industries.  The Sanitation Department collects from seven indus-




tries, totalling about 9 tons per week.




     Wastes collected by the Sanitation Department are delivered to a




transfer station.  Here they are transferred to either a 53 or a 65 cu yd




compaction trailer for hauling to the compost plant or the landfill.




One load per day of commercial material, about 95 percent paper, and




averaging about 10 tons, is routinely hauled to the landfill.  Hospital




wastes and some yarn wastes from an industrial establishment also do not




reach the composting plant.  When the compaction trailers are out of




service for any reason, the 16 cu yd packer trucks used for residential




collection deliver their refuse to the composting plant.




     For the period January 1968 through June 1969, the compost plant




received an average of 33.8 tons of refuse per day for 5 days per week.




This collection with the 10 tons per day sent directly to the landfill,




is about 2.8 Ib per capita per day on a 5-day-week basis and 2 Ib




per capita on the 7-day-week basis.  The low figure probably does not
                                11

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represent the true per capita generation of refuse in Johnson City.




     Two studies of the production of refuse per capita and the com-




position of that refuse have been made in the same residential area




of Johnson City.  The first was performed by the Division of Technical




Operations, Bureau of Solid Waste Management, in October 1967, and the




second by the staff at Johnson City in July 1968.




     The first study showed a production rate of 1.1 Ib per capita per




day of residential waste and the second showed a rate of 1.4 Ib per




capita per day (Table 3).




     The composition of these samples was found by manually sorting the




refuse into ten categories (Table 4).  This refuse was higher in food




wastes and lower in paper wastes than the averages usually reported since




it was collected from a residential district.  The refuse received daily




at the Johnson City plant probably has a greater paper content.  As




previously mentioned, one load of commercial waste, with a very high




paper content, is not received at the compost plant but is hauled directly




to the landfill.






                  USPHS-TVA Composting Project




     Description of the Project.  The joint USPHS-TVA Composting Project




has been for demonstration and research to study the feasibility of




composting as a possible answer to >the problem of increasing quantities




of municipal solid wastes produced by municipalities.  The major




responsibilities of the principals are as follows:
                                12

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                                TABLE 3

                      MUNICIPAL REFUSE PRODUCTION
                        Johnson City, Tennessee
                          (Residential Area)
                                   October 1967         July 1968
Refuse production  (Ib/capita/day)       1.1                  1.4

Number of homes sampled               136                  144

Population sampled                    519.8                550.0

Population density  (people/home)        3.82*                3.82*

Weight of refuse collected, Ib
  (wet weight basis)                4,003                5,400

Sample period, days                     7                    7

     *Based on 1967 study.
                                     13

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        TABLE 4

 COMPOSITION OF REFUSE
Johnson City, Tennessee
Category
Paper products
Food wastes
Metals:
Ferrous
Nonferrous
Combined
Glass products
Plastics
Leather and rubber
Yard wastes
Cloth and synthetics
Brick, rock, dirt, etc.
Wood
Total
Wet weight
October
1967
1,820.4
1,036.5



433.0
436.1
67.0
40.0
63.5
56.0
39.0
11.5
4,003.0
, pounds
July
1968
794.5
788.5

211.5
24.5
236.0
206.0
76.5
55.5
53.0
47.0
3.5
18.5
2,279.0
Percent of
October
1967
45.5
29.5



10.8
10.9
1.7
1.0
1.6
1.3
1.0
0.3
100.0
total sample
July
1968
34.9
34.6

9.3
1.1
10.4
9.0
3.4
2.4
2.3
2.0
0.2
0.8
100.0
           14

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     1.  USPHS pays all costs incurred in the design, construction,




     operation, and maintenance of the plant and conducts research




     related to the process of composting, the nature of compost,




     the health aspects of compost, and the efficient operation of




     the composting plant.




     2.  TVA designs, constructs, operates, and maintains the




     compost plant and conducts research on the feasibility of




     commercial and agricultural use of the compost produced,




     on a reimbursable basis.




     3.  The city of Johnson City provides the site for the plant,




     mixed refuse from its collection system, and raw or digested




     sewage sludge from its sewage treatment plant.




     While TVA operates and maintains the composting plant, USPHS has the




responsibility for technical direction, which includes developing schedules




for certain operations, monitoring the physical and chemical characteristics




of the maturing compost, and altering schedules and procedures where these




characteristics dictate such changes.  The USPHS is studying plant operation




and sanitation methods to avoid the production of odors and the propagation




of flies and rodents and, in close collaboration with the TVA agriculturist




assigned to the project is studying the improvement of composting methods




and compost.  East Tennessee State University, under contract with USPHS,




and a microbiologist on the project staff, studied the survival of pathogens




throughout the composting and curing periods.




     As part of the feasibility study, USPHS and TVA are studying the




economics of the plant operation on the basis of detailed cost records




that TVA maintains.
                                     15

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      Since  TVA operates  the  National Fertilizer Development Center  (NFDC)  at




Muscle  Shoals,  Alabama,  one  of  the world's largest institutions for research




and  development of  fertilizer,  TVA has  important resources for testing and




demonstrating  the value  of compost as a soil amendment and for studying




the  marketing  of compost.  The  principal use of compost is expected to




be as a soil builder  and conditioner with potential for application on




lawns,  gardens,  parks, golf  courses, and truck or specialty farms.  Tests




may  show how compost  fortified  with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium




can  be  used to  produce an organic-base  fertilizer.  Disposal of the compost




has  been a major factor  in the  success  or failure of many composting plants.




Marketing,  therefore, should be an integral part of the demonstration




project  and the  study of the economics  of composting.




     The Division of Agricultural Development, TVA, has a number of test




plots and demonstrations under  study by the project agriculturist in the




Johnson  City area.  Test plots  have also been established at the NFDC,




Muscle  Shoals, Alabama.  Such factors as the rate of application and




effect  of compost,  on various crops, etc., are being studied.  Greenhouse




studies  will be  made, and some  work has been started with the use of




compost  on bare  areas, such  as  abandoned strip mines and highway cuts,




for  revegetation and erosion control.




     Description of the  Composting Plant.  The composting plant began




operating on June 20, 1967,  to  demonstrate composting of municipal solid




wastes by the windrow method.




     The plant was  designed  to  process  during a 5-day-week raw refuse and




sewage  sludge of 33,000  people, approximately the present population of




Johnson  City.  Nominal capacity is 60 tons per day for an 8-hr shift.
                                      16

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Figure 5 shows an overall view of the plant.   Figure 6 is a schematic




layout of the processing steps, and Table 5 lists the plant equipment and




specifications.




     Refuse is delivered to the plant, 5.4 miles distant, in 53 and 65




cu yd compaction trailers from a central transfer station in Johnson City.




The refuse is weighed and then dumped into a hopper in the receiving




building or onto the paved apron to be later moved into the hopper by a




front-end loader (Figures 7 and 8).  Items such as mattresses, bed




springs, bicycle frames, wire, which might block or entangle the




equipment, are removed.  A 6-ft wide plate conveyor, forms the bottom




of the hopper and advancing at a rate of 2 to 10 ft per minute, carries




the refuse under a vertical leveling gate and drops it onto a 3-ft wide




elevating belt that carries it into the processing building.  The




receiving building is roofed and enclosed on three sides.  The belt




conveyor is covered between the receiving and the processing buildings




(Figure 9).




     The processing building is 40 ft by 60 ft and houses all of the




refuse processing operations, the sludge thickener, and the refuse-sludge




mixer.  The elevating belt conveyor from the receiving building becomes




horizontal after it enters the upper level of the processing building.




It carries the refuse past a picking station at a rate of 60 ft per min




(Figure 10).  Two or more pickers manually remove bulky paper, rags,




glass, plastics, metals, and other noncompostable material.  The refuse




placed in paper or plastic bags may arrive at this point with the bag




still intact.  Either the pickers must discard the entire bag or permit
                                      17

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oo


   Figure  5  - Joint  USPHS-TVA Composting  Project
   Johnson City, Tennessee

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© RECEIVING HOPPER
©RECEIVING HOPPER CONVEYOR
  ILEVELING «  METERING GATE
  IELEVATING BELT CONVEYOR
  I REJECTS HOPPER
   MAGNETIC SEPARATOR
   RASPER
  (GRINDER
  I MIXER
  I BUCKET ELEVATOR
GROUND REFUSE STORAGE BIN
SLUDGE THICKENER
SLUDGE COAGULATING TANK
SLUDGE HOLDING TANK
CHEMICALS MIXING TANK
                              GROUND REFUSE TO WINDROWS
                               INISHED COMPOST —
                                                                                        	I
                                                                                    _J
                                                                           SHIPPING
        WINDROWING        TURNING

                  COMPOSTING
                           Figure  6.   Process  Flow Diagram
                                             19

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                                                          TABLE 5

                                          DESCRIPTION OF MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
                                        USPHS-TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT, JOHNSON CITY
   Item
                      Description
                                                  Manufacturer
                                                    & model
                          Capacity
             Power
             Rating
   Truck scale
   Refuse feeder and
     leveling grate
IS}
o
Raw refuse elevating
  conveyor
   Raw refuse cross
     conveyor

   Rasping machine
   Hammermi11
                      Mechanical 10 x 34-ft platform scale with tare
                      beam and remote dial weighs incoming refuse.

                      Double-beaded 5 x 28-ft apron feeder in bottom
                      of hopper (fabricated at plant) moves refuse at
                      2-10 ft/min; vertical, hydraulically controlled
                      leveling grate regulates flow of refuse.
Rubber-covered belt 3-ft wide moves raw refuse
at 60 ft/min from receiving building to process-
ing building under cover and then to picking
station.  Head pulley is permanent magnet
(field: 400 Gauss, 5 in. from face at center)
for removing ferrous metal.

Rubber-covered belt 3-ft wide moves refuse at
60 ft/min from picking station to grinders.

Arms on rotating vertical shaft force refuse
against rasping pins projecting from sides and
bottom of 18-ft-diameter housing until reduced
to less than 2-in. particles that drop through
perforated steel floor.

Mill with 44 chisel-point swing hammers (21 Ib
each) reduces refuse to particles that pass
grate openings 2 in. by 1.5 to 2.5 in.
Fairbanks, Morse, Inc.
Model 6507B

Websters Mfg., Inc.
Feeder and grate driven
by Falk helical-geared
speed changers, models
51BN2 and 224F2, re-
spectively.

Continental Conveyor
and Equipment Co.
                                                                        Continental Conveyor
                                                                        and Equipment Co.

                                                                        Dorr-Oliver N.V.,
                                                                        Amsterdam.  Type
                                                                        R.T.M.  55 V.S.T.D.
                                                                        Gruendler Crusher and
                                                                        Pulverizer Co.
                                                                            30 tons
                                                                            10 tons/hr   5 hp
10 tons/hr   2 hp
                          7.5 tons/hr  1 hp
                          7 tons/hr    40 hp
                                       each, 2
                                       motors
                          12 tons/hr   250 hp

-------
                                                 TABLE 5 (continued)
Item
Description
Manufacturer
& model
Capacity
Power
Rating
Ground refuse cross
  conveyor

Ground refuse
  conveyor

Sludge concentrator
Refuse-sludge mixer
Conveyor for ground
  refuse-sludge
  mixture
Rubber belt 2.5 ft wide moves ground refuse
from hammermill to ground refuse conveyor.

Rubber belt 2 ft wide moves ground refuse from
rasper to mixer at 200 ft/min.

Electric-motor-driven stationary sewage sludge
concentrator, traveling screen type, utilizing
gravity as the dewatering driving force.  The
nylon filter cloth moves at a variable speed
of 1.5 to 4.5 fpm.  The unit is designed to
dewater raw sewage sludge containing 3 to'5
percent solids and deliver a sludge cake with
approximately 15 percent solids.  In addition
to the filter, there is a Wallace & Tierman
flocculant dosing pump and a Worthington
metering pump of the diaphragm type.

Rotary drum mixer, 3 ft in diameter and 10 ft
in length.  Internal vanes are designed for
mixing the refuse and sludge and discharging
mixture at outlet.

Moves mixed refuse and sludge from mixer to
bucket elevator.  Rubber belt type, 2 ft wide.
Fabricated by TVA
Continental Conveyor
and Equipment Co.

Permutit Co.  Model
DCG-200
Designed and fabricated
by TVA
Continental Conveyor
& Equipment Co.
7.5 tons/hr  1 hp
7.5 tons/hr  1.5 hp
Designed
for 1200
gal/hr
Rated at
890 cu ft/
hr or 11.3
tons/hr at
belt speed
of 200 ft/
min
1 hp

-------
                                                 TABLE 5 (continued)
Item
Description
Manufacturer
  & model
Capacity
Power
Rating
Conveyor for ground
  re fus e-sludge
  mixture

Conveyor for dis-
  charge of ground
  refuse

Bucket elevator
Storage bin
Bucket elevator
Vibrating screen
Replaces sludge-ground refuse mixer when mixer
is not in use.  Belt is 2 ft wide and 15 ft
long.*

Used to transfer ground refuse to trucks when
bucket elevator and storage hopper not used.
Belt is 2 ft wide and 25 ft long.

Vertical centrifugal type.  Electric-motor-
driven.  Buckets are cast malleable iron, 14
x 7 in., 16 in. on center.  Elevator used to
transfer ground refuse to storage bin.
Cylindrical storage bin designed to hold
several truckloads of ground refuse.  Discharge
to truck through horizontal sliding gate.  Bin
is 12 ft in diameter at largest dimension.

Electric-motor-driven, vertical bucket,
centrifugal discharge type.  Used in moving
compost from feed hopper to vibrating screen.
Electric-motor-operated.  Vibrating in-
clined screen with interchangeable wire mesh
screens of 1/4- and 1/2-in. openings.  Used
to screen the compost.
Fabricated by TVA
Fabricated by TVA
Fairfield Engineering
Co.  Model VCE, No. 147
Designed and fabricated
by TVA
J. B. Ehrsam and Sons
Mfg.  Co.  H-17
                                                                        Link Belt
Rated at
1650 cu ft/
hr (75% of
theoretical)
at chain
speed of
200 ft/min

About 110
cu yd
Rated at
1715 cu ft/
hr (75% of
theoretical)
at chain
speed of 221
ft/min
             1 hp
             2 hp
3 hp
3 hp

-------
                                                    TABLE 5 (continued)
   Item
Description
Manufacturer
  & model
Capacity
Power
Rating
   Compost  grinding
     hammermill
   Windrow turner
ho
u>
   Tractor shovel
Swing hammer type with 30 hammers each weigh-
ing approximately 2-3/4 Ib.  Electric-motor-
driven, heavy duty type.  Used to regrind
compost.
Diesel-engine—driven, self-propelled.  A
rotating drum turns the windrow as the
machine straddles the row.  The drum has
teeth arranged so as to move the material
toward the center of the windrow as it is
turned.  The material is picked up from the
ground, passed over the drum and redeposited
behind the machine.  The machine moves
through the row at approximately 0.27 mph
and is capable of turning windrows approxi-
mately 8-ft wide and 5-ft high.

Rubber-tired, gasoline-engine-driven front-end
loader with general purpose bucket transports
refuse, ground refuse, and compost .
J. B. Sedberry, Inc.
5W-26
General Products of
Ohio, Inc. (Cobey)
Model 003
International Harvester
Company, Model H-50
(Ser. C)
10 tons/hr   100 hp
rated, did
not grind
compos t at
this rate.

500 tons/hr  100 hp +
(spec, claim (122 BHP
1500 tons/hr by specs)
of 700-lb/
cu yd ma-
terial)
Lifting:
13,200 Ib
Bucket:
  Heaped:
  3-1/2 cu
    yd
  Struck:
  3 cu yd
103 bhp
at 2,500
RPM
        *In late 1969 the mixer was found to be too small for the capacity of the new Gruendler hammermill.
   not being processed,  the mixer was temporarily removed and replaced by this conveyor.
                                                                                    As  sludge was

-------
1-0
-P-
   Figure 7 - Receiving building with a 65
   cubic yards compaction trailer discharging
   refuse.

-------
Figure 8 - The hopper in the receiving
building.  Refuse is being wetted in
preparation for shredding in the rasper
                                            25

-------
IS5
   Figure 9 - Receiving building on the left
   and processing building on the right.  The
   covered conveyor which transports refuse
   to the processing building can be seen
   between the two.

-------
Figure 10 - The picking station inside the
processing building.The men are attempting
to remove noncompostable items and large
items which might damage equipment.

-------
some cans and bottles to pass since they cannot tear open all the bags.




This often results in noncompostables reaching the grinders, which may




affect hammer wear.  The belt then passes around a magnetic pulley where




cans and other ferrous metal objects are separated from the refuse.  Some




plants may employ a primary grinding operation prior to magnetic separa-




tion to reduce the amount of compostable material that might be trapped




by the ferrous materials and removed with them.  The rejected material,




including that removed at the receiving building, is weighed and hauled




4.6 miles to the Johnson City landfill.  About 27 percent of the incoming




material was rejected during the period of this report because no salvaging




was practiced.




     After removal of noncompostables the refuse proceeds to either a




hammermill or a rasping machine for comminution.  These are so placed




that they can be used alternately for comparison of efficiency and costs




of operation and maintenance.




     The hammermill (Figure 11) is of the swing-hammer type, having 44




chisel point hammers each weighing 21 Ib.  The grate bars have 1-1/2-




and 2-1/2 in. openings.   The mill is driven at 1,150 rpm by a 250




horsepower electric motor and has a rated capacity of 12 tons per hr.




     The rasping machine (Figure 12) is similar to that developed by the




Dutch N. V. Vuilafvoer Maatschappij (VAM).  It was imported from the




Netherlands where it was constructed by the Dorr-Oliver Company.  This




machine consists of a covered cylindrical housing 18 ft in diameter and




8 ft 6 in.  high not including the height of the conical cover.  The




perforated floor is about 3 ft above the bottom of the housing.  Revolving




arms attached to a vertical shaft in the center scrape the refuse against




projecting pins in the floor and on the wall of the housing, finally






                                28

-------
Figure 11 - The hammermill used to shred
or grind refuse.  The man has his hand on
the clean-out door of the tramp metal trap

-------
Figure 12 - The Dorr-Oliver Rasper.

-------
forcing it through the perforations.  The arms are driven by two 40




horsepower electric motors.




     Refuse as received has an average moisture content of 39 percent.




When using the rasper, water is added in the receiving hopper to presoften




cardboard.  Water is also added in the rasper.  When the hammermill is




used, water is added after grinding at a point ahead of the refuse-sludge




mixer.  The ground refuse or refuse-sludge mixture is adjusted to a




moisture content of 50 to 60 percent by wet weight.




     Raw or partially digested sludge containing 3 to 5 percent dry solids




is pumped to the composting plant from the nearby sewage treatment plant.




When using sludge from the same population generating the refuse, the




water content is greater than that needed to obtain the 50 to 60 percent




moisture content in the ground refuse-sludge mixture to be composted.




Thus, especially with an operation using a rasper, sludge dewatering




must be provided.  For sanitary reasons it is impractical to add sludge




to the refuse at any point in the process ahead of those places where  the




workmen must come into contact with the refuse.




     Sludge is thickened in a Permutit Dual Cell Gravity (DCG) Solids




Concentrator (Figure 13) to a moisture content of about 85 to 88 percent.




This apparatus uses a revolving filter of fine-mesh nylon cloth.  As a




"plug" of sludge revolves inside the filter it becomes dewatered, rolls




up, and is discharged.  Special coagulants (polyelectrolytes) are used




to condition sludge for filtering.  The filtrate is returned with other




liquid wastes to the sewage treatment plant where it is treated with




incoming sewage.  The thickened sludge is discharged to a conveyor belt




which in turn discharges it to the mixer.
                                      31

-------
Co
KJ
        Figure 13.  The Permutit Dual Cell Gravity
   Sludge Concentrator used to dewater sewage
   sludge.

-------
     Refuse and  thickened sludge are mixed in a horizontal cylindrical




mixing drum designed by TVA  (Figure 14).  As the drum revolves, internal




vanes carry the  mixture to the discharge end.  From the mixer  the material




is carried to  the ground refuse-sludge storage bin from which  it is  loaded




into dump trucks and transported to the windrow area.




     The ground  refuse-sludge mixture is composted in windrows on a  4.8-




acre area graded and stabilized with crushed rock.  The windrows  (Figures 9




and 15) are laid down  so as  to have a section as near to 9 ft wide and




4 to 4-1/2 ft  high as  possible.  They can be as long as 230  ft.  The




"haystack" shaped cross-section will shed rain and the mass  of a windrow




SQ shaped will contain the heat of decomposition and can be  aerated  easily.




The field is arranged  to receive 34 windrows.  As the plant  operates 5




days a week and  one windrow  is laid down each working day, each windrow




can remain on  the field for  a period up to 45 days.  The active composting




time in the field is 35 to 44 days.




     During the  time the material  is being composted on the  field it is




turned 8 or more times with  a special turning machine (Figure  16).   This




patented machine straddles a windrow, turning it with a rotating  toothed




drum as it proceeds from one end to the other.  Turning aerates the




windrows to supply the oxygen needed for aerobic decomposition.  To




maintain the desirable 50 to 60 percent moisture content, water can  be




added as needed  before turning.  Should rain cause the moisture content




to rise above  the optimum, the windrows are turned as often  as necessary




to dispel the  excess moisture and  return them to the proper  wetness.




     After the material has  composted in the open field for  a  period of




6 to 7 weeks it  is turned, taken from the field, and deposited in the
                                      33

-------
Figure 14 - The cylindrical mixer for
intimately mixing dewatered sewage sludge
with the ground or shredded refuse.

-------
Ui
   ^•>" J. S?-   ^Ss****-^ * '^Z>^!^?TVV **<>* "   * s*^  , 'X  »     "




                           >*--^/»iKZ:«H
    Figure 15 - A windrow of groiond or shredded

-------

                               .^'•f^^^^^ii^^j^jij^mgj^^
                                  '        ..\'"»"" '  '?""-•"?,   • • x. _   ,-»    ••'"«-•* V^^r-^w'S^ •i?i?3'^^^F^ •* * ••«*
                                     ••*""*""",••,      " i-*, '.*• •-"*<*'„  •**«, ' ^ *;-.\*-*?"sS
                                              -    -   ••..-..-,  .-•"*«••"--.'*X--jff','«»^
!K^t
    Figure 16. The windrow turning machine.  The

machine straddles the windrow,  turning it with the

rotating drum as it passes through the windrow.     bey oomposter> front ^ew-

-------
curing and drying shed (Figure 17).   This shed is 60 ft by 200 ft and




provides a curing and drying period of 2 weeks, which is frequently




insufficient to adequately dry the compost for screening.




     Following the drying period, compost is screened and reground as required




using a vibrating screen and a hammermill for this purpose.   The screen




is equipped with interchangeable wire mesh screens of 1/4 in. and 1/2 in.




openings.  The mill is of the swing-hammer type using hammers weighing




approximately 2 3/4 Ib each.  A 100 horsepower electric motor drives the




mill at 3,540 rpm and the rated capacity is 10 tons per hr.   The screening




installation is shown in Figure 18.   Compost is stored either in the




unground and unscreened state or in the finished condition in stockpiles.




     Construction Costs.  Construction of the composting plant began on




May 18, 1966, and was completed in June 1967.  The total cost, including




that of modifications made since startup, is $958,375.  Constructed as a




plant for both demonstration and research and including some duplicate




equipment for comparison, the construction cost is somewhat more than




would be required for a municipal plant.




     Modifications Made Since Startup.  Many modifications have been made




to the plant since operations began.  Important ones are tabulated below




for the value they may have to future plant designers.




     1.  Enlarging of chutes at transfer points, and enlarging of entrances




     to grinders, mixers, etc. was necessary to overcome jamming and




     clogging of raw and ground refuse.




     2.  Repairing and strengthening the drive of the drum mixer




     and setting same in level position.  Modification of vanes or




     flights inside the mixing drums.  It was found that the
                                 37

-------
U)
oo
    Figure 17.   The storing and curing shed (left) and processing building  (right)

-------
Figure 18 - The final screening and grinding
equipment.  Compost is lifted by the bucket
elevator and fed to the vibrating screen.
Screened material is being collected in the
truck.  Material not passing through the
screen is ground in a hanmermill and re-
cycled to the screen.

                                                  39

-------
 original inclination was  not needed  to carry the material




 forward.   The  level setting alleviated a side thrust on




 the  supporting and rotating mechanism.




 3.  'Addition of wipers  to underside  of conveyor belts




 and  installation  of drip  or catch pans under the belts.




 4.   Addition of a curb  or coaming around the floor which




 supports  the DCG  sludge filter and its appurtenances.




 Spillage  in this  area had caused cleanup problems.




 5.   Laying of  plywood flooring over  the grating floor




 at the picking station  to prevent spillage to lower




 level.  This also gives more comfort to men who must




 stand for long periods.




 6.   Covering conveyor belt drive motors to protect them




 from dust and  spillage.




 7.   Applying thermal  tape to pipes and valves in the process




building  to protect  them  against freezing.  Installing heat




 lamps at  end pulleys  of certain conveyor belts to prevent




 freezing  of belt  to pulley during shutdown.




 8.   Removal of cover  on cross belts from grinders to mix-




ing  drum.  Covers  over belt are not necessary except where




they traverse  an  open area where the wind may cause a




problem.




 9.   Installing  a vertical pipe loop in the sludge pipeline




between the metering  pump  and the sludge-flocculant mixing




tank to equalize  the  hydraulic head of sludge in the holding
                                40

-------
tank.  It was found that the diaphragm sludge metering




pump would not operate satisfactorily with the high




positive head on the suction side resulting from the




elevation of the sludge holding tank.




10. Removal of strut across receiving hopper at level-




ing gate end thus removing a cause for jamming.  There




should be no structural parts which catch refuse over or




alongside a hopper.




11.  Modification of chute under the leveling gate.  A




man must be able to dislodge refuse which may jam the




flow at this point.




12-  Installation of dual controls for the leveling gate




and the plate conveyor at a station beyond the leveling




gate.  This gives the man beyond the leveling gate an




opportunity to shut down this machinery when necessary.




13.  Erection of targets or poles for aligning and posi-




tioning windrows.  Ground refuse-sludge mix is deposited




by trucks and the drivers need some guide in getting wind-




rows in the correct position.




14.  Adding pads to the bucket of a payloader to give clear-




ance between it and the stabilized rock base of the field




to prevent picking up rock with compost when it is being




removed or when windrows are being shaped.




15.  Correcting the slippage of the elevating conveyor




belt by addition of weights for tension.
                                41

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     16.  Adding skirts to the sides of the elevating conveyor



     belt to prevent spillage of refuse.  This has saved much



     cleanup time.




     17.  Installation of a larger discharge gate for the reject



     bin.  This bin discharges from the bottom.  Gates must be



     as large as possible to avoid arching above the constricted




     lower part.




     18.  Installation of a larger discharge gate for the ground




     refuse bin.  As in Item 16, gates must provide larger openings



     than those needed for grain, coal, or crushed stone.




     19.  Installation of a 12-ton-per-hr hammermill to replace



     the original 7-1/2-ton-per-hr mill.  This is discussed later



     in the section on operations.



     20.  Back flow preventers were installed in the processing and




     receiving buildings and the composting field to protect the



     fresh water system from backflow from the sludge dewatering,



     washdown operations, and other possible sources of contamina-




     tion.  In the case of the sludge dewatering installation, the



     water supply piping was redesigned and reworked to enable one



     back flow preventer, located in a loop of pipe above the




     highest level of all other lines in the complex, to protect




     the potable water system from back-siphonage from this operation.




     Staffing.   For two years, the Division of Research and Development,




Bureau of Solid Waste Management, maintained at the plant site a staff
                                 42

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consisting of a Project Engineer, a Staff Sanitary Engineer, a Staff




Chemist, a Staff Microbiologist, and a Staff Assistant.  Thereafter, the




technical staff was reduced to a Project Engineer and two part-time tech-




nicians.  Laboratories, equipped for research and much more complete than




would be needed for simple process control, were established on site for




the chemist and the microbiologist.




      The Office of Health and Environmental Science, TVA, is the official




liaison between the TVA and the Bureau of Solid Waste Management.  While




this office has no resident staff at Johnson City, all interagency matters




are handled through its staff.  This office also maintains surveillance




over the health of the TVA personsel at the plant with special attention




to possible occupational problems specific to composting.




      The plant is operated by the Division of Reservoir Properties, TVA,




with the following on-site staff:




      1 Foreman - in charge of daily operations.




      1 Assistant Foreman - is in charge of the plant in the




      foreman's absence and also works as an operating engineer




      in some phases of the plant work.




      2 Equipment Operators - these are classified as Operator




      B employees.  One operates the windrow turner  and the




      front-end loaders in addition to other duties.  The other




      operates the sludge dewatering machinery and heavy equip-




      ment.




      3 Truck Drivers - two work on the site or transport rejects




      to the landfill.  One operates a truck equipped with  spread-




      ing equipment and delivers compost to demonstration sites.
                                     43

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       4  Compost  Plant  Laborers  -  one  laborer  is stationed  at  the




       leveling gate  to do  gross picking and to correct  cloggings




       which  occur  here.  Two  work at  the picking station.  The




       fourth works where directed and presently performs the




       task of weighing incoming refuse, rejects, and outgoing




       compost.




       If the Public  Health Service staff now  at the plant  did not  furnish




 this service, there  would  be  a  need for a clerk and laboratory  technician,




 one man  may  perform  both duties.   This clerk would relieve the  one laborer




 of weighing.




       The Division of  Reservoir Properties furnished higher-echelon super-




 vision from  its Morristown, Tennessee, office.




       The Division of  Agricultural Development, TVA, with  headquarters  in




Muscle Shoals, Alabama, has the responsibility for the  utilization and




 marketing studies  and  has  one resident Agriculturist at the plant  site.







                       Operations  and Processes




      Operating Schedules.  At  the start, the plant operated  from  10:00  a.m.




 to 6:30  p.m. in the  period of daylight saving time and  8:00 a.m. to 4:30




p.m. in  the  period of  late fall, winter, and early spring.  The warm




weather  schedule was adopted because  of the lateness of the first  delivery




of refuse from the city.   In  colder weather, the last load of the  day was




held overnight to be on hand  for  the  earlier start.




      Later, changes were made  in  the city's delivery schedule  to  enable a




truckload to arrive  at about 8:30  a.m. each morning.  Also, it was  found
                                      44

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that the last load of the day could be held over to the next morning even




in warm weather if it was stored in the hopper and sprayed with an insec-




ticide.  Since then the plant has operated from 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m.




each day, summer and winter.




      The plant does not usually process refuse after 3:00 p.m.  The re-




maining hours of the day are devoted to the cleanup of the receiving and




processing area.




      Production.  As previously mentioned, the plant is designed to process




10 tons per hr or 58 to 60 tons in 6 hr, leaving the remaining 2 hr for




cleanup.  It has been demonstrated that with refuse of favorable charac-




teristics, the plant can process at this rate.  The average capacity,




however, is about 52 tons per day in 6-1/2 hr of grinding time.




      The plant has been run as a research project.  Although it normally




takes all of the refuse delivered by the Sanitation Department of Johnson




City, and there have been very few shutdowns, the plant has not been




operated to full capacity for extended periods.  Efforts are being made




to extend the contributing area to a nearby city.  At the present time,




according to the city's Planning Office, the plant processes refuse from




31,200 persons.




      Table 6 shows processing data for the period January 1968 through




June 1969.  The plant received an average of 34 tons per day.  Based on




the population served of 31,200, this is 2.17 Ib per capita per day




for the 5-day week and 1.55 Ib per capita for a 7-day week.  The 10




tons of commercial waste, routinely delivered directly to the  landfill,




brings the total tonnage collected to 44 tons per day.  This indicates
                                      45

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                            TABLE 6

      PROCESSING DATA FOR JANUARY 1968 THROUGH JUNE 1969
                 USPHS-TVA Composting Project
1968
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Refuse
received
(tons)
554
587
698
640
578
220
866
932
427
544
458
661
Refuse
rejected
(tons)
142
163
178
174
168
57
220
214
111
154
130
178
Refuse received
per day (tons)
Average
26
28
33
34
32
31
39
44
36
39
35
31
Maximum
48
42
53
53
46
58
51
55
52
61
59
45
Processing
days
21
21
21
19
18
7
22
21
12
14
13
21
1969
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
Total
623
573
599
775
758
773
11,266
157
150
148
213
218
226
3,001*
33
29
30
36
36
37
34
50
39
43
48
50
53

19
20
20
22
21
21
333
*27 percent of incoming refuse.
                               46

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a collection of 2.81 Ib per capita per day for the 5-day week and 2.00 Ib




per capita per day for the 7-day week.  As previously mentioned, this is




low compared to the national average.  Street sweepings and brush are not




included in this quantity.  Packing house and produce wastes are sold




to piggeries.  Much of the industrial waste of the city is hauled privately




as is some of the household waste.




      Of the incoming material, 27 percent was rejected as noncompostable




and disposed of in the landfill.




      A seasonal variation in refuse exists, as would be expected, and




Figure 19 shows these variations.




      Compost yield from the 11,266 tons of refuse received was about




5,650 tons (30 percent moisture content by wet weight).  All of the




compost removed from the field was not weighed.  Two studies of yield,




on which the above is based, are discussed in a following topic.




      Receiving.  The receiving hopper has a capacity equivalent to two




trailer loads of refuse.  When the hopper is empty, the 53 and 65 cu yd




compaction trailers discharge a small part of their loads into the hopper




and then pull away to deposit the remainder on the paved apron in front




of the receiving building.  A front-end loader is used to push refuse




from the apron into the hopper.  This procedure allows an inspection of




the refuse, an opportunity to remove large items of noncompostables or




those which interfere with the movement of the material, and the breaking




up of compacted refuse.  This latter treatment prevents serious bridging




in the hopper.  When the hopper contains refuse, the whole trailer load




is deposited on the apron to be fed in as needed.
                                     47

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CO
=>
CD
            CO


            CJ
                           Co.posting
    48

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     On one occasion, refuse failed to dislodge from the rear door of a




16-cu-yd packer truck as it was raised over the receiving hopper.  This




overbalanced the truck and the front end was lifted upward to almost a




vertical position where it was caught by the eaves of the building.  Both




the truck's hood and the building were damaged.  All packer trucks are




now required to unload on the apron.




     Gross picking is necessary at the receiving hopper and at the station




behind the leveling gate.




     Time records have been kept for the plate conveyor of the hopper and




the main elevating conveyor belt.  Table 7 shows that this machinery is




capable of handling the design capacity of 10 tons per hr or more although




the overall average for the last 6 months of 1968 was 9.3 tons per hr.




On a day in which 58 tons of incoming refuse were processed, the machinery




handled 9.9 tons per hr.  On other days the rate of feed might be higher




or lower depending on the characteristics of the refuse.




     Operating difficulties since startup have been minimal.  The drive




motor of the plate conveyor required rewiring and a bearing has been rebuilt.




Apparently the trouble was not caused by a condition of overloading with




refuse.  The 328 bolts which fasten the pans of the conveyor to the driving




mechanism had to be replaced after some 26 months of operation.  It was




difficult to keep them tight and the repeated loosening ruined the threads.




The new bolts have a finer thread and are installed with lock washers.  An




improved program of lubrication has been initiated to reduce heating of




bushings, wear of bolts and other similar conditions.
                                       49

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              TABLE 7




PERFORMANCE OF RECEIVING MACHINERY
1968
July
Augus t
September
October
November
December
Total
June 5
October 30
November 27
Hours of operation
of receiving equip-
ment and main feed
belt
85
85
44
66
55
82
417
6
7
6
Tons of raw
refuse moved to
picking station
866
932
427
544
458
661
3,888
58
61
59
Tons per hour
(average)
10
11
10
8
8
8
9
10
9
10
                 50

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     Due to lack of stiffness the pans or segments  of  the leveling  gate




become bowed by the pressure of nonresilient items  in  the refuse.   From




time to time the clips attaching the segments to the drive chain broke




and had to be rewelded.  After processing about 17,000 tons of refuse




during 26 months of operation, all of the pans were replaced with pans




having heavier bar stiffeners.




     The elevating conveyor belt has given no trouble  since installation




of the skirts to prevent spillage.  Occasionally cardboard or other




material jams under the cover but this is easily removed.




     Grinding.  The imported rasping machine has performed satisfactorily




in the past 18 months of operation.




     The manufacturer of the rasper states that it  has a capacity of 7




tons by wet weight of picked raw refuse per hr.  Time  and tonnage records




kept over a 6-month period show the rasper to be grinding an average of




5.6 tons per hr of refuse from which noncompostables and other objectionable




material have been removed (Table 8).




     At 6 tons per hour feed rate the rasper must run  for about 10  min when




refuse is first fed to it before effective grinding is accomplished.  It




then builds up to a maximum production which can be maintained by keeping it




full.  After the feed belt is stopped, the machine must continue to run  at




a decreasing rate of production to process the grindable refuse remaining in




it.  If the rasper is emptied of grindable material at any time during the




day, this cycle must be repeated.  This characteristic of its operation  is




reflected in the average tonnage per hr given above.




     The character of the refuse has an effect on the  rate at which it




can be handled.  On one day when 61 tons of incoming refuse were processed,
                                 51

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                                 TABLE 8

                      AVERAGE PERFORMANCE OF RASPER
                      Hours of      Tons of sorted raw    Tons per hour
                      operation       refuse ground*        (average)t


July                    113                 646                6

August                  108                 718                7

September                57                 317                6

October                  77                 390                5

November                 64                 327                5

December                 96                 482                5
   Total                515               2,880                6


	Rasper Performance on Days of Maximum Runs	

June 5, 1968              6                  43                7

October 30, 1968          8                  44                6

November 27, 1968         6                  43                7


	One Hour Test Runs with Rasper Full	

January 15, 1969          1                   7

January 17, 1969          1                   7

     *Tons of sorted raw refuse averaging 39 percent moisture by wet
weight, or the weight of incoming refuse minus that of rejected material.
Actual weight of ground refuse produced is greater than this due to water
added to obtain a 60 percent moisture content.
     tThe rasper must be run for about 10 minutes as refuse is fed into it
before it produces a ground material.  It then builds up to a maximum pro-
duction which is maintained if the rasper is kept full.  After the feed
belt is stopped, the rasper must be run for 20 to 25 minutes to finish
processing the grindable material still in the machine.  Due to the sched-
ule of refuse deliveries or for other reasons the rasper usually cannot
be kept full throughout the day and the average production figures reflect
this situation. The character of the refuse can also affect the production
of the rasper considerably.
                                     52

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the 44 tons of. sorted  (picked) refuse were ground at a rate of 5.3 tons




per hr.  On another day, when 59 tons of refuse were processed, the




rasper's rate for the  44 tons of picked material was 6.9 tons per hr.




      On test runs of  one hr with the rasper full, a rate of 7.1 tons per




hr of sorted material  received with a moisture content of about 39 percent




was observed.  It appears that this machine can meet the manufacturer's




claims.




      Water must be added during processing to obtain a moisture content




of 60 percent by wet weight in the material laid down on the field for




composting.  In practice it is added first in the receiving hopper to




soften cardboard and again in the rasper as needed.  The rasper is




equipped with spray nozzles for this purpose and will not grind dry




cardboard without operating difficulties.  The actual weight of material




entering the rasper is, therefore, greater than its weight when received




at the plant.  On the  occasion of the rasper's grinding 7.11 tons per hr




(39 percent moisture), it was discharging 10.8 tons of ground refuse




with a water content of 60 percent.




      At the end of the day, there always remains in the rasper some




residue.  This includes material such as metal cans, items of nonferrous




metal, rags, bits of wood, and wire.  This material must be removed at




intervals either manually or through the rejection opening.




      When the refuse  is difficult to grind, the rasper can become




overloaded by the buildup of material.  To date this has not caused any




mechanical trouble but it does consume time when it is necessary to




remove the excess material by hand.
                                     53

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      Very little maintenance has been necessary.  Not long after startup




a bearing in one of  the American-built motors required repair which was




done by the manufacturer.  The main bearing of the shaft which carries




the rotating arms became overheated soon after operations were begun.




This was corrected by a modification of the lubrication of this part.




      In March 1969, after 20 months of operation and the grinding of




8,720 tons of sorted refuse, the rasper bottom plates, pin plates, and




wear plates were removed and replaced.  The 8,720 tons of picked refuse




represent nearly 12,000 tons of incoming refuse.  In September 1969,




after 26 months of operation, two of the rasping arms broke at the point




where they are fastened to the rotor.  These were rewelded with some




steel reinforcement by plant personnel.  Three others, not broken, were




also strenghthened and such trouble is not expected to recur within 2




years.




      The hammermill originally installed in the process building did not




produce the particle size desired or achieve the specified capacity for




grinding 7-1/2 tons per hr of raw refuse.  Tests during the first 6




months of plant operation showed a capacity of 5.6 tons per hr.  In late




1967 and early 1968, experiments were conducted with several grate size




combinations to see if a better particle size could be obtained.  The




smaller the particle size produced, the greater were the operating




difficulties and the smaller the grinding capacity.  In March 1968,




tests with the original grates showed a production of only 4.2 tons per




hr.




      On every occasion of operating the mill for grinding refuse, stoppages




in the feed chute occurred.  Before an arrangement was made whereby the
                                     54

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mill could continue to run after the feed belt was stopped, the mill




jammed and could not be restarted until it had been opened and cleaned




out.  After March 8, 1968, the use of the hammermill for grinding of




refuse was discontinued.




      From March through December 1968, the hammermill was used only for




regrinding compost for use by the TVA agriculturist.  Between March and




October 1968, a total of 624 tons of compost at least 6 weeks old was




ground at an average rate of 8.9 tons per hr.  The range of production




was from 3.7 tons per hr to 15.6 tons per hr.  The dryness and other




characteristics of the material and the speed with which it can be fed




into the mill affect the rate of grinding.  Compost with a water content




over 30 percent by wet weight can give trouble by sticking and jamming.




Material that is very dry can create a dust problem.




      In mid-October 1968, the hammers were replaced with a set which had




been refaced by a buildup of welding rod.  A total of 288 tons of compost




was subsequently reground at the rate of 13.6 tons per hr.




      The hammers taken out of the mill in October 1968 had been installed




in November 1967, and had been used for 102 hr.  Of this time, 27.4 hr




had been for grinding refuse.  Total weight of refuse for this period of




grinding refuse was not determined as it was the accumulation of several




short experimental runs.




      Experience had shown that the hammers of this mill required refacing




after 40 hr of refuse grinding.  After about 27 hr of grinding, they




would have had 13 hr of remaining usefulness for this purpose.  Thus,




13 hr for refuse grinding were good for about 74 hr of compost grinding.




At this rate, a set of refaced hammers might serve for nearly 230 hr of
                                     55

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 compost  grinding.   This  mill had ten  50-lb  and  four  15-lb  hammers




 operating  at  1,800  rpm,  driven by a 125 horsepower motor.   The  grates




 were  of  the bar  type.  The mill recently  installed for  regrinding  compost




 is  a  different type, having narrow hammers  weighing  about  2-3/4 Ib each,




 designed to rotate  at  3,450 rpm,  and  powered by a 100-horsepower motor.




 It  is  intended for  grinding compost that  has been rejected by the  vibrating




 screen.  Information obtained on the  wearing of hammers on the  larger




 mill  is  not applicable to  the new final grinder.




       In February 1969,  a  new and much larger hammermill for refuse




 grinding was  installed.  This mill is described in Table 5.  During the




 month  of March 1969, it  had been operated for 47-1/2 hr, grinding  275




 tons  of  refuse, when the hammers  were taken out for  rebuilding.  The




 hammers  were  badly  worn  resulting in  less efficient particle size




 reduction  and indicating that removal after approximately  40 hr of




 operation  seems to  be  necessary.   Rebuilding after 30 hr will result




 in less  difficulty  in  refacing.




       The  short experience  with  the new hammermill has  shown that  the




 pickers  and the magnetic separator may miss large pieces of metal  that




will give  trouble.  In one  case,  a steel ball bearing almost 3  in.  in




 diameter got  into the  mill.   In  another case, a large piece of  metal




was thrown about in the  mill  with such force that the 1/2-in. steel cover




was bent.  A  tramp  metal trap, which  is quite heavy, was installed.




 This in  turn  necessitated  the installation  of a trolley hoist above the




hammermill to assist in  removing  the  trap and cover during hammer  changes




or for other  reasons.
                                     56

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     Experience to date has been insufficient to evaluate the cost of




operating the new hammermill.




     Addition of Sewage Sludge.  On January 2, 1968,  the routine addition




of sludge was attempted.




     Sludge is pumped from the primary sewage treatment plant adjacent




to the composting plant into a 2,600-gallon holding tank.  From this




tank it is transferred to a mixing tank by a diaphragm metering pump.




A polyelectrolyte flocculant is introduced into the line ahead of the




mixing tank by a positive displacement feed pump.  After mixing, the




sludge flows into the filter.




     In January and February of 1968, subfreezing temperatures on eight




occasions made it impossible to process sludge.  The processing building




was unheated and the freezing of pipelines and even dewatered sludge




was experienced.  Wrapping of pipelines with thermal tape and the




installation of space heat in the building have corrected this problem.




     When a breakdown of the sludge filter occurred,  there was difficulty




in disposing of unneeded sludge due to the arrangement of the sludge




return lines.  It was decided to add sludge on a 3-day-a-week basis in




order to carry on the essential pathogen survival studies.




     In July 1968, the plant again attempted to process sludge daily.




Of the 103 days on which refuse was processed in the second half of 1968,




dewatered sludge was incorporated into ground refuse on 75 days.




     Of about 348,000 gallons of sludge received from the Johnson City




sewage treatment plant, 261,000 gallons were processed through the filter.




The average number of gallons processed per day of filter operation was




3,480.  On 13 days the plant was unable to process sludge because of
                                57

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downtime on  the filter.  Of  the 75 sludge processing days, the filter was




operated only part of a day  on 12 occasions on account of downtime.  Over




the 6-month  period the added sludge solids averaged about 3.9 percent of




the dry weight of the raw refuse-sludge mix laid down in windrows.  On




occasion, greater amounts were added for specific experimental windrows.




      The DCG filter is capable of dewatering sludge from a water content




of 96.9 percent to 85.0 percent of wet weight.  The capacity (not




necessarily  raw sludge) is specified as 1,200 gallons per hr.  The




monthly average rate has ranged from 861 to 1,060 gallons per hr.  The




maximum amount of sludge processed on any one day has been 5,643 gallons.




The equipment installed is not capable of handling all of the sludge




generated by the 27,000 population served by the city sewer system.




      The flash mixing tank, where the sludge is mixed with a flocculant




before it enters the dewatering cells, is equipped with a DC motor, the




speed of which is controlled by a rheostat.  This rheostat burned out




and the mixer was subsequently operated with an AC motor.  This operation




must be intermittent, however, because the motor runs at too high a speed.




Permutit's attempts at obtaining a replacement rheostat have failed as




the company  that manufactures the speed control unit will not sell parts




for it.  An  alternate solution is to install a gear reducer for the AC




motor.  Permutit is to supply parts numbers for such a reducer.




      The sludge inlet piping to the dewatering cells splits the flow




from a flash mixing tank into four parts by using a weir box.  Rags and




other large materials tend to clog this box, requiring continual attention




to insure steady flow.  The  cause of this trouble lies partly in design,
                                     58

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which Permutit intends to correct in future models, and partly in the




fact that the Johnson City sewage treatment plant does not have comminution.




      Trouble was experienced with the displacement of the sprocket idlers




over the cells.  When these came loose, the cell moved out of position




and became deformed and jammed.  The manufacturer recognizes this




fault and will design a correction into a test machine being constructed;




it is not known if this correction can be applied to the apparatus in-




stalled in the composting plant.




      The nylon mesh filter medium is stretched between rubber seals which




in turn are attached to a drive chain which imparts the rotary motion to




the cells.  The seals were not strong enough to stand the stress of being




part of the drive mechanism and still support the weight of the sludge




roll between them.




      Metal inserts in the seals to which the drive chains are bolted




proved to be too weak for the purpose.  The machine was developed for




dewatering digested sludge which forms a smaller roll than the raw sludge




treated at the composting project.  Raw sludge forms rolls in the order




of two to three times the size of those for digested sludge, overloading




the seals, and pulling out the inserts.  Each time this happened the seal




had to be replaced before the operation could be continued, a rather time




consuming task.




      Due to these troubles, the processing of sludge in the first half of




1969 was intermittent.




      Permutit has redesigned the seals so that the new inserts have two




horizontal projections instead of one, the web is incorporated into the
                                     59

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new seal as it is poured instead of being glued on later, and the new seal




is poured in one piece instead of several short pieces.  The result is a




unit construction which should be capable of carrying a much larger load




than the original seals.  The manufacturer supplied the project with a full




set of these new seals in the late spring of 1969, and one unit of the




filter was equipped with them.  In July 1969, it was decided to temporarily




cease the processing of sludge in order to devote time and funds to other




investigations.  The new seals have therefore not been tried in continuous




operation.




      From the above discussion, it can be seen that the sludge operation




has fallen below expectations.  In defense of the filter, which was still




in the developmental stage, there were times when other operations in the




plant or difficulties at the sewage treatment plant resulted in a short




day's run.  There were times when the quality of the sludge as received




made it unmanageable and part of it had to be wasted back to the sewage




treatment plant.  As it is sometimes drawn from the digester and at other




times directly from the primary settling basin, the quality of the sludge




has been variable.  Furthermore, since there is no comminutor at the sewage




treatment plant, rags, sticks, etc., may come through and clog the troughs




in the DCG.  Raw sludge has better dewatering characteristics than digested




sludge.




      Handling and Storage.  The ground refuse-sludge mixture is moved by




conveyor from the mixer to a bucket elevator which lifts the material into




a 12-ft diameter cylindrical storage bin.  The bin was designed to hold




several truckloads of material so that a truck could shuttle back and forth
                                     60

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from this point to  the windrow field.  The bin discharged to the truck




through a horizontal sliding gate in the bottom.  The bottom third of the




bin tapers toward this opening.




      It was found  that due to arching ground refuse would not flow through




the gate after it builds up in the bin.  A vertical screw feed was tried,




but was unsuccessful.  The gate has been enlarged and now a truck can




load, make a short  trip, and return to be loaded again without trouble.




If the truck does not return shortly, however, the bin will clog.  The




conclusion is that  bins should have straight sides and a live floor.  A




common ensilage wagon with such a conveyor floor has been tried with




success in an experiment.




      Windrow Maintenance.  Although the windrow turning machine success-




fully mixes and aerates the composting refuse, structural and mechanical




troubles have caused it to have considerable downtime, this being only the




second such machine ever built by the manufacturer.




      The machine as delivered tended to spread the windrows.  The addition




of teeth to the rotor and changes in their inclination to the center im-




proved the capability to maintain the shape of a windrow.  A vexing trouble




was the frequent breaking of the drive chain.  Overheating of fluid in the




hydraulic transmission resulted in failure to transmit sufficient power.




      In the spring of 1968, the manufacturer had a mechanical engineer




design some improvements and sent a mechanic to the plant to make modifi-




cations.  Work on the rotor teeth resulted in a machine capable of shaping




windrows newly laid down by the dump trucks.  A stronger drive chain with




an improved idler sprocket arrangement was installed.  The hydraulic drive
                                     61

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system was improved including cooling of the fluid, some repairs were




made to the rotor, and  the chassis or frame was somewhat strengthened.




      In August 1968, a shaft in the gear train broke on two occasions.




Since the motor produces over 100 horsepower (BHP 122 by specification)




and the reducing gear has a nameplate rating of 18 horsepower, TVA




operations staff installed a torque limiter to protect the gear train.




      Despite the torque limiter, gear train troubles have persisted.  Some




motor troubles were experienced but these had nothing to do with the design




of the turner.




      In December, the  axle and king pin of one of the rear (steering) wheels




broke.  This was expected due to the light construction and the stress put




upon it by an unsophisticated steering arrangement.  The steering has been




improved by the TVA and the stronger king pins installed.




      After the modifications made by the manufacturer in April 1968, the




machine moves over the  ground at 0.27 miles per hr instead of the 4 miles




per hr claimed by the manufacturer.  This speed is not appreciably changed




in working through a windrow and the machine appears to be able to aerate




about 500 tons of compost per hr.  Even at this slow rate, it is capable




of turning the 34 windrows in 4 to 5 hr.  Rarely would it be necessary




to turn all windrows on the same day.




      During composting, the windrows tend to slump.  To maintain a desired




windrow cross-section,  they must be reshaped.  Before turning, the margin




or foot, where the side of the row meets the ground, must be picked up




and placed on top or at the end of the windrow to assure that this part




of the material will be subjected to the heat generated within the central




mass.
                                     62

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      Windrows must be kept at 50 to 60 percent moisture content at least




until the 28th day.  If they become too dry, they must be wetted and




turned.  Should they become too wet, turning can help to dry them.  In




the summer of 1967, wet weather gave some trouble.  The summer and fall of




1968, were much drier than were these seasons in 1967.  Added to this,




Johnson City suffered a severe water shortage and asked users to practice




conservation as far as possible.  The watering of windrows was cut to a




minimum and by the end of September, the use of domestic water for the




complete daily washdown of the plant was discontinued.  Portable irrigation




pipe and a portable pump were brought in from a nearby TVA installation.




The pump was set up near the plant on the bank of a creek entering the




Watauga River and this supply was used for washing down operations.  The




city put a new filtration plant into operation in mid-1969 and there is




now an ample supply of water.




      Curing and Drying.  As mentioned above, the water content of the




digesting refuse is kept between 50 to 60 percent by wet weight throughout




the first 28 days.  By the 42nd day, the moisture content is usually




between 40 and 50 percent.  Trouble has been experienced in air drying




this compost to the 25 to 35 percent moisture content desired for screen-




ing, regrinding, and final disposition.  Except in very dry weather, the




2-week storage under cover of the curing shed does not accomplish this




moisture reduction.  In wet weather, the moisture content can be static




for long periods.  In dry weather, better results have been obtained by




leaving windrows uncovered on the field exposed to the sunlight.  Experi-




ence indicates that for commercial production of compost in a climate
                                     63

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similar to that at Johnson City, mechanical drying equipment may be




desirable.




     Screening and Grinding.  In the summer of 1968, regrinding was done




in the hammermill originally installed for grinding raw refuse.  No screen-




ing was done.  In February 1969, a mill procured for regrinding and the




vibrating screen were installed.  The winter had been wet and extreme




difficulty was experienced in obtaining material dry enough to screen or




regrind.  It was not until late April that compost was dry enough for real




testing.  None had reached the favorable moisture content of 25 percent.




     The use of compost in agriculture is seasonal, in fall and spring.




It appears that compost will have to be screened and reground in late




summer and stockpiled for fall and spring use.




     The compost as taken from the field is still quite hot but has been




reduced to an inoccuous, earth-like material with no objectionable odor.




The composting activity still goes on but at a slower rate.  The heat is




dissipated slowly from the inner mass of stockpiles, but is reduced.




Drying reduces microbial activity and further enhances cooling.  Decom-




position is not complete, but for many uses, it has reached a practical




point in large-scale composting.




     Although the vibrating screen and a compost regrinding mill were




installed in February 1969, operating troubles and drying difficulties




have prevented a full evaluation of this phase of the operations.




     The compost is first screened and that material which does not pass




through the screen is ground and then recycled to the screen.  Considerable




trouble was experienced due to blinding with the 1/4 in. and 1/2 in. woven
                                64

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wire mesh screens first installed.  A perforated plate screen with 7/16-




in. openings is now being used.  This screen will pass about 50 percent




of fresh compost when the moisture content is between 30 and 35 percent




by weight.  Production is 1 to 3 tons per hr, much less than the 10 tons




per hr expected.




      The hammermill installed for grinding compost has proven inadequate




and has experienced excessive hammer wear.  A set of hammers furnished




with the mill lasted for only 8 hours grinding at the rate of about 2 tons




per hr.  Because of the excessive cost of replacing or rebuilding the




hammers furnished with the mill, hammers fabricated from strap steel are




now used and discarded when worn.  About 80 tons are ground between changes.




      Because of the disappointing performance of the small hammermill,




consideration has been given to replacing it with the Williams hammermill




formerly used for grinding refuse.  This mill has shown a capability of




grinding more than 10 tons per hr of compost.  A rotary, drum-type screen




is being considered to replace or supplement the vibrating screen.




      Fly Control.  On June 20, 1967, it became evident that flies were a




problem.




      Through the Regional SWP Chief, Region IV, an inspection by an entomo-




logist of the National Communicable Disease Center was arranged.  The




Division of Health and Safety, TVA, also arranged for a TVA entomologist




to visit the plant.  It was the opinion of these two entomologists that




although flies were breeding on the windrow field, the greater number had




come to the plant in the refuse as eggs, larvae, and pupae.  In the several




days that it takes for a windrow to reach an elevated temperature, eggs
                                       65

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hatch, and larvae migrate to suitable places for pupation.  After windrows




heated up and were turned twice a week during the first 14 days, breeding




was lessened because of the heat destruction of eggs and what breeding appeared




occurred mostly at the "toe" where turning is less efficient and temperature




is low.




     Before the inspections by the entomologists, the receiving and process




buildings had been sprayed with a pyrethrum-piperonly butoxide space spray




and Dibrom in solution had been used on the walls and on the windrows.




Application was by a gasoline powered sprayer.   Only partial control was




obtained.




     The CDC entomologist recommended Dimethoate in an emulsifiable con-




centrate for space spraying and as a mist or fog in the windrow area to




kill adults.  For larvae, Dimethoate wettable powder suspension was recom-




mended for a residual on the walls of the receiving and processing buildings.




At the receiving building, larvae could be seen migrating from fresh refuse.




He further recommended that Dimethoate wettable powder be incorporated into




the ground refuse before it was laid down in windrows.  This material was




obtained and tried as a residual and a mist.  The equipment on hand did not




create a mist of the magnitude necessary and a spray was applied directly




to the windrows.  Some abatement was accomplished but flies continued to be




a problem until cold weather set in.  The recommendation for adding the




insecticide to the ground refuse was not followed because of the unknown




effects upon the flora carrying on the composting and upon the pathogen




survival study.




     The inspecting entomologists pointed out the fact that the once-weekly




collection in Johnson City was related to the large number of larvae in
                                 66

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every stage of development found in the incoming refuse.   In their opinion,




two collections a week would probably aid in the control of flies at the




plant.




     The first significant fly population of the summer of 1968 was observed




at the plant on July 5.  Using a Dynafog Model 40 gph nonthermal fogger or




mister and an emulsion of 12 gallons of 23.4 percent Dimethoate emulsifiable




concentrate in 38 gallons of water, control was effected.  This dosage is




equal to the recommended 6 gallons of 50 percent Dimethoate EC in 50 gallons




of water.  The speed of application was 4 miles per hr and it was found




that only the four youngest windrows on the field needed fogging.  The dosage




was later reduced to 8 gallons of concentrate in 42 gallons of water with




equal control being accomplished.




     The receiving building and the apron were sprayed with a Dimethoate




emulsion for the residual effect.  Although fly larvae could be seen mi-




grating from fresh refuse received at the plant, very few appeared to




pupate.  On the composting field, there was some breeding of flies in the




toe of the windrows.  This material is now picked up with a payloader and




placed on the top of a windrow or at the end before each turning.




     Interviews with county agriculturists and health officials disclosed




that fly populations had been abnormally high on the refuse dumps in




nearby Elizabethton and Jonesboro and in dairy barns in the summer of 1967,




in contrast to abnormally low populations in the summer of 1968.  The




rainfall for the area in the period July through September in 1967, was




11.14 in. (normal being 11.97 in.) with 19 consecutive days of rain in




July.  In 1968, the precipitation/for the area was 6.14 in. with a
                                 67

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comparatively dry July.  The experience of 1968, therefore, did not show




to what extent  the  controls practiced would have been effective in 1967.




      In the period July through September in 1969, the rainfall in the




area was 14.60  in., as compared to the normal of 11.97 with 8.18 in. in




July mostly occurring as thundershowers followed by sunlight.  At the plant,




where a rain gauge was being maintained, the rainfall was 9.65 in., with




the July precipitation well below that for the area.  At no time during




that summer did flies become a problem, indicating that the control measures




described above appear efficient.




      Removal of Plastics and Glass.  Plastics, particularly plastic film,




present a problem.  Shreds of plastic film persist through composting and




are carried from the windrows by the wind, causing an unsightly appearance




of the grounds.  Regrinding and screening reduce the size and amount of




the shreds to where they are unobjectionable in the finished product.




      As it would be advantageous to remove plastic film before the refuse-




sludge mix goes onto the field, TVA has conducted experiments for film re-




moval.  Several arrangements of apparatus have been tried, using the prin-




ciple of separating the plastic film from the ground refuse solely by air




currents.  Although these showed promise, a significant amount of film has




not been removed in this way.




      Glass particles are objectionable if they are not ground fine enough




or if sharp pieces remain after grinding.  At Johnson City, when a rasper




is used, glass is not reduced to fine particles as it is in the two or




more stages of hammermill grinding used in most other plants.




      Trials of a drum-type ballistic separator did not show sufficient




removal of glass.  This apparatus consisted of a revolving drum on which
                                     68

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the ground refuse falls,  the glass and other dense materials being bounced




off with a trajectory  different from that of the lighter organic materials.




      TVA also unsuccessfully experimented with an apparatus consisting of




a rotating cone on a vertical axis, mounted inside a cylindrical tank.




The theory of operating this apparatus was that the refuse falling on the




cone, which had an apex angle of about 152 degrees, would be slung off.




An attempt would then  be made to collect the glass and other dense particles




which bounced off the  wall of the tank at a trajectory different from that




of the organic material.  Beneath the cone, suction was to be used to




remove plastic film loosened from the stream of refuse by the motion




imparted by the cone.







                  PROJECT STUDIES  AND INVESTIGATIONS






                       Composting Process Studies




      Temperature Studies.  In the first year of operation a considerable




body of information was accumulated on temperatures attained in the composting




refuse.  Readings were taken with a portable single probe thermistor type




telethermometer.  Figures 20, 21,  22, 23, and 24 show the results of




observations on 152 windrows at the 1-1/2-ft depth over the period June 20,




1967 to June 14, 1968.  Temperatures over 140 F were recorded in all




series for a number of composting days.  For the series of windrows 1 C




through 34 C, which spanned a period of very cold weather in January and




February 1968, a shorter period of high temperatures was observed than




for the other series of observations.
                                    69

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—I
o
                          160
                          150
                          140
                          130
                          120
                          110
                          100
                                                             Windrows 1 - 44

                                                       June 20, 1967  - October 16,  1967
                                              10       15      20       25       30


                                                               COMPOSTING TIME (DAYS)
35       40       45       50
                  Figure 20.   Average  temperatures  at the  1-1/2-ft  depth  in windrows 1  thru 44.

-------
     160
     150
     140
    -1130
     120
     110
     100
        Windrows  1A - 34A
August  29, 1967 - November 28,  1967
                        10       15       20      25       30
                                       COMPOSTING TIME (DAYS)
                                35
40
45
50
Figure 21.   Average  temperatures  at the  1-1/2-ft  depth  in windrows  1A thru  34A.

-------
       160
       150
       140
       130
       120
        110
        100
         90
                                              Windrows IB - 34B

                                     October 16,1967 - January 19,  1968
                                                                                      I	I
           0        5        10       15
           76°F
           1 Day
20       25       30
 COMPOSTING TIME (DAYS)
35
40      45      50
Figure 22.   Average temperatures  at the  1-1/2-ft depth in windrows  IB thru 34B.

-------
        160
        140
        120
        100
        80
                                            Windrows 1C - 34C
                                      December  4, 1967 -  April 1,  1968
                           10»      15       20      25       30
                                        COMPOSTING TIME (DAYS)
35
40      45
50
Figure 23.  Average  temperatures at  the 1-1/2-ft depth in windrows  1C thru 34C.

-------
          160
          140
          120
          100
           60
           40
                                              6 Windrows
                                          March 6 - June 14,  1968
                             10       15
 20       25      30
COMPOSTING TIME (DAYS)
35       40       45      50
Figure  24.  Average temperatures  at the 1-1/2-ft depth of  six selected windrows,

-------
      In the period April 26 through June 26, 1968, continuous temperature




observations in a windrow were made with a YSI 12-point thermistor




temperature recorder.  The recorder monitored each point for 5 min—10




points within the windrow, one point for the ambient temperature, and a




point for a register mark.  The instrument cycled the 12 channels once




every hr, recording about 11,000 points for the 42-day composting period.




Temperatures were recorded at depths of 5, 13, 23, 32, and 41 in. at two




stations 10 ft apart.  The windrow height was 45 in.




      The first 11 days of observations at Station 1 at various depths are




shown in Figure 25.  Station 2 showed a similar pattern of data.  In this




period the windrow was turned just before inserting the thermistor probes




and again on the 4th, 7th, and llth day.  Immediately after a turning the




windrow has a uniform temperature, after which the various depths reach




different temperatures.  This results in three groups of data over the




period illustrated.  Figures 26 and 27 show the temperatures recorded




during the period 22 to 28 days for several depths for the two stations.




Figure 28 shows the curve for the 22- and 32-in. depths at Station 1 over




42 days.  Station 2 exhibited a similar pattern.  Breaks in the curve show




points of turnings.  Interior temperatures change rapidly during  the first




2 weeks of composting after which the interior temperatures show  no great




fluctuations.  Surface temperatures, however, vary considerably during the




entire composting period, depending upon season and weather conditions.




      In the period November 4 through December 30, 1968, temperatures




were continuously recorded for another windrow at two stations.   Figure  29
                                 75

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158
140
122
104
86
      i—r
I   i
                        i — i — i — i — i — r



                           t/

   ,4- Depth ^ ^ P^ /^4\/^-

  •VV'   /'-


-j>"
   —    x 32" Depth
                         AGE (days)
      Figure 25.  Temperature profiles of a selected windrow during

  the first 11 days of composting.
                           76

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158
140 -y
122
104
 86
 68
 50
    M     22    M    23     M
24    M     25
   AGE (days)
M   26    M      27    M     28
           Figure 26.   Continuous temperature record of  windrow 17E,  22nd
    to 28th day (Station 1).
                                     77

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   158
   140
   122
   104
0=
LLJ
Q_
    68
    50
    32
                           L.22" Depth
^5" Depth
     M     22    M    23     M    24    M   25    M    26     M     27    M    28

                                    AGE (days)


            Figure  27.   Continuous temperature record of windrow 17E, 22nd

      to 28th day  (Station  2).
                                        78

-------
VO
        50  10 -
        32  0
                                                                18  19 20 21  22 23  24  25  26  27 28 29 30 31
                                                                       AGE (DAYS)
                                                                                                        32  33 34  35  36 37 38 39 40 41 42
              Figure  28.   Temperature  profile  of windrow 17E.

-------
oo
o
         °f °c
        158 70


        140 60


        122 50
u,104 40
O£

<
£  86 30
         68 20
         50 10
         32  0
         14-10
                       Mid-depth temperature
                                                                                                                  This curve is constructed from the
                                                                                                                  average of  temperatures from
                                                                                                                  two stations.
                        3   4
                                     7  8   9  10  11
                                                     12  13  14  15  16  17 18  19  20 21 22  23 24  25  26 27  28 29 30  31  32 33
                                                                                 AGE (DAYS)
                                                                                                                                      38 39 40
                Figure  29.   Temperature  profile of windrow  17H.

-------
shows the curve constructed from the averaged readings at mid-depth at the




two stations over 42 days of composting.  Ambient temperatures were low,




reaching 5 F.  The profile for this windrow, however, did not show the




depressed temperatures exhibited in Figure 23.  Figure 30 shows the




relationship of position to temperature at various locations around this




windrow at a depth of 8 in. and at mid-depth in the period of 31 to 35




days of composting.  The higher temperatures in the upper parts of a




windrow and the difference for the south and north sides are to be noted.




      Conclusions to be drawn from these detailed observations of temperature




are:




      1.  Temperatures vary with depth in all windrows.  Temperatures




      above 140 F (60 C) are reached and maintained for significant




      periods of time in the inner mass of windrows.




      2.  These variations are more pronounced early in the composting




      cycle.




      3.  Immediately after turning, the temperature at all channels




      were found to be within 3.6 F (2 C) of one another.




      4.  After a turning, windrows quickly return to the temperature




      existing before the turning (Figures 25 and 28).




      5.  Excepting the outside 8 in. of material, weather conditions




      appear to have little effect on the windrow temperatures.




      6.  The surface temperatures at the apex of the windrows were




      often observed to be as high or sometimes higher than the




      mid-depth temperature.
                                     81

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of   °C
 140  60
 104  40
 68  20
 32   0
                                            Mid-depth
                                                Southside (Sunny)
                                                                         Probe 1
                                                                         Probe 6
                                                                         Probes 3 & 5
                                                                           (average)
                                                                         Probes 2 & 4
                                                                          (average)
        M     N      M
            31 DAYS
N
32
M     N
      33
N
34
N
35
 86  30
 50   10
 14  -10
                                           Depth,mid-heigbt
                                                8"  Depth,  bottom
                                                Amb i en t
                                              Probes 2 & 3
                                               (average)
                                              Probes 4 & 5
                                               (average)
        MM            MM            MM
            31 DAYS         32           33           34            35
                                      Figure  30.   Temperature profiles  at
                                the  8" depth of windrow  17H (Nov. 4,  1968-
                                Dec.  30,  1968).
      / S/S ///// //S /ft
       PROBE POSITIONS
                                   82

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      7.  The temperature on the outside 8 in. of the windrow




      decreased from the apex to the ground.  This is considered




      due to convection currents rising from the bottom to the




      top inside the windrow.  It is interesting to note that these




      may aid in the aeration of the compost.




      8.  The surface temperatures on the north or shady side of




      windrow 17H were observed to be lower than those on the south




      or sunny side.




      Effect of Windrow Turning Frequency.  Ten windrows were studied for




the effect of various turning schedules.  The number of turnings during




the 49-day cycle for these windrows was 0 to 14.  Temperatures were taken




once a week throughout the test period.  The relative degree of decomposition




attained was judged on the basis of appearance, odor, and the amount of




carbohydrate reduction.




      The present windrow turning schedule is twice a week for the first




3 weeks and once a week thereafter.  This routine was based on the higher




temperature pattern reached with this schedule, compared with the greater




cost of turning more often with lower temperatures resulting.  The minimum




number of turnings which will result in satisfactory compost is once a




week for the entire cycle.




      It was found that the best decomposition in the 49 days was obtained




by turning the windrow twice each week throughout the cycle.  This windrow




did not show as good a temperature pattern as the one turned on the present




schedule (which attained the highest overall temperatures).  It did,




however, attain temperatures higher than any windrows turned fewer times.
                                     83

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      The windrow on  the present schedule showed the next best decomposition



and attained the highest overall temperatures.



      Other windrows, turned less frequently, showed decreasing temperatures.



After turning these windrows, however, the temperatures rose 20 to 30 F




within 5 days and then declined.  The temperature in the windrow not turned



rose to about 130 F in 14 days, then dropped steadily throughout the remainder



of the test.



      Effect of Composting Sewage Sludge with Refuse.  Assuming that:



      1.  a population generates refuse at the rate of 5 Ib per day per



      capita (a figure near the national average) and that it is received



      at the compost plant containing 35 percent moisture by wet weight,



      and



      2.  that raw sewage sludge solids of the same population are



      generated at 54 grams or 0.119 Ib per capita per day, dry weight,



      and



      3.  that rejected noncompos tables will amount to 26 percent of the



      incoming refuse,




the percentage of dry compostable material (sludge and "picked" refuse)



represented by the dry sewage sludge solids is:
                100 x         ,c'c - ^7T  = 4.7 percent
                      0.119 + (5 x .65 x .74)





or about 5 percent.  This is the proportion of sludge to refuse to be



normally expected from the same population producing the refuse.




      At Johnson City, although the per capita production of refuse is lower




than average,  the available sludge handling equipment limits the amount
                                     84

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added to refuse to between 3 and 5 percent of the total dry weight of




the refuse-sludge mixture for normal operations.  Obtaining a uniform




sludge content has not been possible.




      Using temperature as a parameter of composting activity, three pairs




of windrows were closely observed.  In each case a pair consisted of one




windrow containing raw sludge and one of refuse alone.  Figures 31, 32,




and 33 show the temperature profiles for pairs having windrows containing




2, 3-5, and 9 percent sludge solids, respectively.  Temperatures were




taken at a depth of 1-1/2 ft.  The conclusion drawn is that the amounts




of sludge being processed, and even up to 9 percent sludge solids, had no




significant effect on the temperatures reached in composting.




      Figure 34 shows the pH profiles of a pair of windrows, one of which




contained 2 percent of raw sludge solids by dry weight.  No significant




effect of sludge can be observed.  Figure 35 shows the average pH values




at various ages for a number of windrows with 3 to 5 percent raw sludge




solids and a number of windrows without sludge.  Figure 36 shows curves




for a pair of windrows, one of which contained 9 percent raw sludge solids.




Here a difference in the pH of the masses was observed, the value being




higher in the earlier stages in the windrow containing sludge.  The effect




of the addition of sludge solids in amounts greater than would normally be




the case is treated below in a discussion of a special study.




      Assuming 0.85 percent nitrogen in fresh ground refuse and 3 percent




in sludge solids, the use of sludge in the amount of 5 percent of the
                                     85

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oo
                                                I        I        I        I
                                                 Windrow 180,  without sludge
                                                 indrow  17D, with  2% sludge solids
                                                         20       25        30        35

                                                         Age of Windrow  in Days
                     Figure 31.   Temperatures  in windrows  with 2 percent sludge solids (1-1/2-ft  depth).

-------
                   180
                   160
                   140
               o

                o>
00
                2  120
                o>
                CL
                   100
                    80
                    60
I        I         I         I         I

 34D,  without sludge

      Windrow IE,  with 3-5% sludge solids
                                                          I
         I
I
                                        10       15       20       25       30


                                                         Age of Windrow in Days
                          35
                 40
45
50
                  Figure 32.  Temperatures  in windrows with 3-5 percent sludge  solids  (1-1/2-ft depth).

-------
00
oo
                     180
                     160
                     140
                  2  120
                     100
                      80
                      60
I        I         II         I         I         I

     ^Windrow  16E, without sludge

                         ,Windrow 15E,  with 9% sludge  solids
                                                            I
                           I
I
                                          10       15        20        25       30


                                                            Age  of Windrow in Days
                                            35
                  40
45
50
                     Figure 33.   Temperatures in windrows with  9 percent  sludge solids (1-1/2-ft depth).

-------
00
                                    Windrow 340, without sludge
                                                          20       25        30
                                                           Age of Windrow  in Days
                 Figure 34.   pH of windrows with  2 percent  sludge solids (1-1/2-ft depth)

-------
10
                                   I        I
                                         Without sludge
                                          .With sludge  (3-5 per cent  raw sludge
                                           sol ids by dry weight)
                                              14 windrows  with sludge
                                              20 windrows  without sludgei
                                   I
         I	I
                                                  I	I
  0       5
10       15
20      25       30

AGE OF WINDROW (days)
35      40      45      50
      Figure  35.   Average pH of  windrows with 3-5 percent raw sludge
solids  (1-1/2-ft depth).
                                      90

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      9  -
                            Windrow 16E,  without sludge
                                         I
I
I
                        10       15       20       25       30



                                         Age  of Windrow  in Days
                 35
                 40
45
50
Figure  36.   pH of windrows with 9 percent  sludge solids  (1-1/2-ft depth).

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 sludge-refuse mixture  (dry  solids basis) would result in a finished compost




 containing  1.05 percent nitrogen.  This calculation assumes that the loss




 in nitrogen and the loss in weight from sludge during decomposition is




 similar  to  the loss from refuse.




      The addition of  sludge in  the quantities used does not significantly




 add  to the  quality of  finished compost as gauged by the nitrogen content.




 At Johnson  City, actual observations show the compost made of refuse and




 sludge to have a nitrogen content averaging about 1 percent by dry weight.




      Although the carbon to nitrogen ratios of refuse and compost are




 discussed under a subsequent heading, the observed effect of sludge solids




 on this  important relationship should be mentioned here.  The initial C/N




 ratios of a group of seven  windrows containing 3 to 5 percent sludge




 solids showed an average of 44.4.  At 42 days of composting a similar




 group of five windrows showed an average of 33.9 and at 49 days two of




 these showed an average of  31.9.  A special test windrow prepared without




 sludge showed an initial ratio of 44.4 and at 49 days a ratio of 33.0.




      The observations of the rate of heating, the pH profile, and the C/N




 ratios lead to the conclusion that the addition of sludge in the amounts




which would normally be available has no appreciable effect on the composting




 process  for refuse similar  to that collected in Johnson City.  For refuse




with a low organic content, the effect of the addition of this amount of




 sludge may be greater.




      Several experiments were made with sludge in appreciably greater




 quantities  than would normally be available.
                                     92

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      Sludge solids were added in the amount of 12 percent of the dry




weight to a portion of a windrow.  The heating pattern was observed to




be normal.  The initial nitrogen content of the control was 0.79 percent




and that of the test portion 0.86 percent.  The 49th day nitrogen




content was 0.97 for the control and 1.02 for the test material.




      Despite the low nitrogen content in these observations, the C/N




ratio at 49 days was 25.4, lower and more favorable than normally




observed at Johnson City.  The texture and appearence of the compost




was improved.




      Another windrow was prepared with portion containing 33 percent in




raw sewage solids from a neighboring city which uses a vacuum filter for




dewatering.  Initial nitrogen content was 1.64 percent for the test




portion and 0.75 for the control portion.  The final nitrogen content




for the sludge-refuse compost was 1.58 percent and 0.88 for  the control.




Figure 37 shows that the temperatures rose along with those  of the control




for the first week, dipped, and then again reached those of  the control




in three weeks.  Figure 38 shows the pH profiles of the test and the




control.  The initial pH was high at 9.0, then fell and gradually rose to




well above that of the control at the same age.




      The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the control and  the test portion




were:
Day
1
28
56
Test
940 mg/g
710
590
Control
890 mg/g
775
670
                                     93

-------
160
150
140
130
120
MO
         Control  Windrow  wi thout
         added sludge.
                  Windrow SON containing 34S raw sludge solids, dry  weight
                                                    I
                           2            3            4

                                    AGE (WEEKS)
          Figure  37.  Temperatures of  a  windrow with  34 percent sludge
    solids (1-1/2-ft depth).
                                      94

-------
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
                                                             — —°"
                                                Control windrow without added sludge
                                Windrow 30N containing 34% raw sludge solids, dry weight
        -w
5.0
4.0
                                                                   I	I
                                         3            4

                                      AGE (WEEKS)
5            6
                   Figure 38.   pH of a windrow with  34 percent sludge solids
              (1-1/2-ft depth).
                                       95

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      The rates of decomposition did not differ greatly as measured by the




reduction in COD.  The final product benefited in nitrogen content from




the sludge but some nitrogen had been lost in the process.  The compost




had a rich appearance.




      A windrow was prepared with 50 percent partially digested sewage




sludge solids taken from a dried up sludge lagoon.  The temperature profile




was similar to that of the control to the 2-week point after which




temperatures of the test portion lagged.  Satisfactory temperatures were,




however, attained.  The pH of the mass of test material showed a departure




from that of normal refuse on composting.  No nitrogen determinations were




made (Figure 39).




      It is concluded that sewage sludge solids can be successfully composted




with municipal refuse.  In the amounts normally available, the proportion




of sewage solids to refuse will not greatly affect the rate of decomposition




or the quality of the finished compost as measured by nitrogen content.




Where greater amounts are available, the nitrogen content and appearance




of the compost can be improved.




      Effect of Adding a Nitrogen Compound to Composting Refuse.  Under the




supervision of the TVA agriculturist, urea-ammonium nitrate containing




about 27 percent nitrogen was incorporated into composting refuse in several




tests.  The windrows were kept under observation for temperature as a




parameter of composting activity and the chemist performed the chemical




tests and the moisture determinations.  The observed effects are discussed




as follows:
                                    96

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160  —
                                                                      I       A     I
                                                                         Temperature of  control
150  —
140  —
130  —(
120  —,
110
100
O\  Temperature of  windrow
     containing sludge
       —0—

          pH  of control
                                                       10.0
9.0
8.0
                                                       7.0
                                                              pH of windrow  containing sludge
                                                Windrow with 50% sludge solids  from a
                                                sludge lagoon, dry weight


                                                Control containing no sludge
                               I	   I  	   I             I
                                                       6.0
                                                                                                  5.0
                                                       4.0
                              2            3
                                         6             7
            Figure 39.   Te.perature and PH of a windrow containing  50 percent

       sludge  solids  (1-1/2-ft  depth).
                                               97

-------
     Test  1.  Enough urea-ammonium nitrate was added to a section




of windrow 8G on  day 1  to bring the nitrogen content from 0.94 to




3.5 percent by dry weight of the mass.  This windrow contained




raw sewage sludge and had a moisture content of 62.1 percent by




wet weight.  The  second section was left as a control.  It was




immediately noted that  the pH of the test portion was 8.2 against




the normal 6.6 in the control.  The pH did not thereafter drop to




the low normal obtained in the control.  At the llth day, when




the control was at pH 5.00, the test row showed a pH of 7.55.




By the 14th day the test row pH was over 8 while the control was




barely over 7.  After 21 days the two remained close together




with a pH  slightly over 8.  This change in pH appeared to be




linked with the microbiological activity as the temperature in




the test row lagged well behind and never reached that of the




control.




     Table  9 tabulates  the data and Figure 40 shows the temperature




curves.  Decomposition was slowed and although the test windrow




contained  more nitrogen than did the control at 42 days, there




had been a significant loss.




     Test  2.  Urea-ammonium nitrate was added to a section of




windrow 17G to bring the initial nitrogen content from 0.93 to




2.46 percent by dry weight.  This windrow contained raw sewage




sludge.  Again the initial pH was elevated as in Test 1 but by




the end of  8 days was nearer that of the control than was




observed in the case of Test 1.  By 18 days the control reached




a pH of 7 but the test portion was above 8.  As in Test 1, the
                             98

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                                    TABLE 9
Age in Days

     0
     1
     4
     5
     8
    11
    14
    15
    18
    21
    28
    34
    35
    39
    42
Age in Days

     1
     3
     7
     8
    10
    11
    14
    17
    18
    21
    28
    35
    38
    42
FRESH COMPOST FORTIFIED WITH NITROGEN
(Urea-Ammonium Nitrate)
Test 1
% Nitrogen
Control Test

0.94 3.50


3.47


3.68

3.11


2.70

1.14 2.75
Test 2
% Nitrogen
Control Test
0.93 2.46


1.01

2.34
2.51


2.04
1.85
1.82

- Windrow 8G (8/8/68)
Turning % Moisture
No. Control Test
61.1 62.1
1
2

3
4
5 43.2 43.2

6
7
8
9

10
11 49.6 38.6
- Windrow 17G (8/20/68)
Turning % Moisture
No. Control Test
1
2 72.3 72.3
3

4

5 58.5 57.0
6

7
8
9
10

pE
Control

6.60

4.70
4.68
5.00
7.08


8.50
8.30

8.22

7.90

PH
Control
6.22


4.60


6.00

7.00






Test

8.20

7.10
6.08
7.55
8.08


8.35
8.25

8.17

8.18


Test
8.10


5.30


7.90

8.40




1.52
                                      99

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160


150


140


130


120


110
                                             Control
                10
        20
30
40
50
60
160


150


140


130


120


110
                                                   •Control
                           TEST  2

                    Nitrogen added  by  dry weight.
                      8/20/68 to 10/7/68
   0            10            20            30            40            50

                                        AGE (DAYS)

         (All windrows contained 2 to 5 percent  raw sludge solids by dry weight)
                                                             60
        Figure 40.
   nitrate.
Temperature  of windrows  containing urea-ammonium
                                    100

-------
      temperature of the test portion lagged and was not falling at




      the rate of the control at 42 days.   As in Test 1, nitrogen was




      lost and microbiological activity was slowed as indicated by




      the temperature (Table 9 and Figure  40).




           Test 3.  In this test the urea-ammonium nitrate was added




      on the 21st day of composting in two windrows, 11M and 12M.




      Neither of these contained sewage sludge.   In 11M, where the




      nitrogen content was raised to 2.35  percent by dry weight, the




      pH was immediately elevated and the  temperature of the windrow




      dropped radically.  By the 26th day  the temperature had risen




      to about 150 F and was about normal  thereafter.  The final




      nitrogen content was 1.41 percent, showing a loss.  In windrow




      12M, the nitrogen content was brought up to 4.63 percent by dry




      weight.  The pH reacted similarly to that of 11M but the




      temperature fell and remained low.  The final nitrogen content




      was 3.35 percent, showing a loss (Table 10 and Figure 41).




      Nitrogen had been added in an earlier test to windrow 1H on the 23rd




day of composting, raising the nitrogen by about 1 percent of the dry weight




of the mass.  This windrow had reacted similarly to windrow 11M and 12M.




      It is concluded from these tests that the addition of urea-ammonium




nitrate in the amounts used appear to inhibit microbiological activity and




result in a loss of nitrogen.




      Effect of Adding a Buffering Agent to Composting Refuse.  The pH of




fresh refuse or refuse containing normal amounts of sewage sludge is about




6 and may drop to between 4 and 5 soon after being laid down for composting.
                                     101

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                               TABLE  10


                AGED  COMPOST FORTIFIED WITH NITROGEN
                         (Urea-Ammonium Nitrate)


                   Test  3  -  Windrow  11M (7/10/69)
                                       Percent  Nitrogen
Age in days                                Content _
    21  Nitrogen added   ------------------   2.35
    24  ----------------------------------
    90    _     __                     __
    £f\J     ^^— — __  — — -^^^ — ^^^^— ^^^^^— ^— .^ ^_
    35  ----------------------------------
    42  ----------------------------------   1.41
                        Windrow  12M  (7/11/69)

    20  	         	6.2
    21  Nitrogen added  	   4.63   	8.3
    24  	         	8.2
    28  	         	 7.9
    OC                                                                 Q A
    j_j         —     —           —    _«.                      —    ^_    (j • W
    42  	   3.35   	8.2
                                 102

-------
170
                  I              I
           Urea-NH4N03 added, 7/31/69


      Nitrogen at  this point  after
      adding UAN,  2.4% by dry weight
                                                                     Final nitrogen content,
         Nitrogen  at this point after
         adding UAN, 4.6% by  dry weight
                                                                      Final nitrogen content,
                                                                      3.
120
                                         AGE (weeks)
           Figure  41.   Temperature  of windrows with urea-ammonium  nitrate.
                                        103

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Often in farm and gardening practice crushed oyster shells, crushed




limestone, or even lime is added to raise the pH at the start to accelerate




decomposition.  At Johnson City, three trials were run using limestone.




     In the first trial, 3/16 in. crushed limestone was added in the amount




of 21.2 percent of the total dry weight of the refuse-sludge-limestone




mixture.  The pH was raised initially to 7.5 but fell to 6 by the 16th




day, after which it rose slowly to 8.5 on the 42nd day.  The control was




also atypical with respect to pH but exhibited the normal immediate drop




from an initial 6 to 5.2 in 3 days after which it slowly rose to 8.5 on




the 42nd day.  The temperature of the test windrow rose more sharply than




did that of the control but dropped after 10 days due to a deficiency of




moisture.  Water was added and the temperature rose again but not as quickly




as would have been expected.  The data for pH and temperature are shown




in Figures 42 and 43.




     Limestone dust was added at the rate of 9 and 16 percent by dry weight




to two portions of a test windrow prepared from fresh refuse only.  Figures




44 and 45 show the pH and temperature profiles of the test and control




sections.  The effect in each case was to raise the initial pH and both




test sections showed an atypical rise and dip in pH in the first week.




Again the attainment of high temperature was accelerated.
                                104

-------
                   160
                   150
                   140
o
Ul
                   130
                   120
                   110
                                                  Control
Wjndrow 21-L containing 3% to
sludge solids and 21%  crushed
I imestone, 3/16 inch size, by
dry weight - 6/6/69
                                                                AGE (WEEKS)
                   Figure  42.  Temperatures  of windrows with  limestone  and sludge added.

-------
  9.0
  8.0
  7.0
  6.0
  5.0
  4.0
                                                    Windrow 21-L containing 3% to
                                                     sludge solids and  21% crushed
                                                     Iimestone, 3/16 inch si ze, by
                                                     dry weight - 6/6/69
                                                AGE (WEEKS)
Figure  43.  pH of windrow with  limestone  and sludge added.

-------
  150
  140
  130
   120
   110
                                       Windrow 26-M  composted with  lime-
                                       stone dust  added by dry weight  to
                                       sections as indicated:

                                                       None  (control)

                                                        8/4/69
                                              3             4

                                                AGE (WEEKS)
Figure  44.  Temperature of windrow with  limestone  dust added.

-------
                          9.0
                                                                                                          	A—
                          8.0
                          7.0
o
00
                          6.0
                                                         Windrow 26-M composted  with  lime-
                                                         stone dust added by  dry weight to
                                                         sect ions as indicated;
                          5.0
                                                                          None (control)
                          4.0
                                                                   AGE (WEEKS)
                                  Figure 45.   pH of windrow with limestone dust added.

-------
     Analysis for nitrogen showed the following:





                                        Nitrogen content by % of dry weight


IT.  ,               Ajj-4..               0 day       21st day       49th day
Windrow            Additives
Test No. 1




Control     3 to 5% sludge solids        0.81                        1.02




Test        Same as above with 21.2%

            3/16" crushed limestone      0.74                        0.57




Test No. 2
Control
Test
Test
None
9% limestone dust
16% limestone dust
0.84
0.73
0.64
0.82
0.76
0.61
0.96
0.66
0.49
      Although the temperature rise was accelerated, there was a considerable




loss of nitrogen which resulted in a poorer compost.  The results of these




field tests are similar to those of the laboratory tests conducted by the




University of California at Berkeley.2




      Effect of Composting Other Wastes with Refuse.  The TVA agriculturist




obtained quantities of cow manure, paunch manure, aged poultry (chicken)




manure, animal blood, and pepper canning wastes for incorporation into




composting refuse to investigate the possibilities of this method of




disposal of such wastes and to see if the finished compost was improved by




addition of them.  As with the windrows to which urea-ammonium nitrate was




added, temperature was used as the parameter of composting activity.  Tests




with the several wastes are discussed as follows:




      1.  Cow manure, in an amount making it 15.4 percent of the mixture




      of manure and refuse by dry weight, was added on day 1 to a section




      of windrow 17N.  No sewage sludge was incorporated in this windrow.
                                    109

-------
The initial nitrogen content of the mixture by dry weight was




1.12 percent and of the control 0.80 percent.  Final nitrogen




content for the composted mixture was 1.14 percent as against




0.93 percent for the control.  Temperature was slow to rise,




reaching in 4 weeks what had been reached in 2 weeks by the




control (154 F).  The pH of the mixture initially was lower




than that of the control, 4.4 to 6.2.  The pH of the control




dipped then rose characteristically to nearly 8 in 2 weeks at




which time the mixture also had reached the same value.




Decomposition of the mixture in this proportion, as indicated




by temperatures, appeared to be slowed and the mixture would




have to remain on the field longer than refuse alone (Figure 46).




2.  Paunch manure from a local slaughterhouse, in an amount




equal to 14.9 percent of the mixture by dry weight, was added




on day 1 to a portion of windrow 13G.  This windrow contained




between 2 and 5 percent raw sewage sludge by dry weight.  The




initial nitrogen content of the mixture was 1.22 percent against




0.97 percent for the control.  The paunch manure itself contained




2.48 percent nitrogen by dry weight.  The temperature curves for




the 42 days of composting were identical for the test and control




portions.  The 42-day nitrogen of the test row was 1.26 percent




and of the control 1.04 percent.  Figure 47 gives the temperature




curve.




3.  Chicken manure, in an amount equal to 21.2 percent of the




mixture by dry weight, was added on day 1 to a portion of
                              110

-------
160
150
140
130
120
110
                          ~

                           P*
                      /    Control section
                     .    ^.untreated
                      Windrow 17N,  with
                      cow manure addad
H	1
9.0
8.0
             Contro 1 section,
             untreated
7.0
 6.0
5.0
                                    Windrow 17N, with
                                    cow manure  added
                                                                            y-o
                                       3

                                  AGE (weeks)
Figure 46.   Temperature and pH of refuse composted with cow manure,


                             111

-------
      170
      160
      150
      140
      130
      120
       110
                                No appreciable  difference in  curves of treated
                                and untreated material
                Windrow  13G
          •  Paunch manure added
          o  Control, untreated
             8/15/68 - 9/26/68
                                     15
20       25
   AGE  (DAYS)
30
35
40       45
Figure 47.  Temperature of refuse composted with paunch manure.

-------
windrow 19G.  The chicken manure had been made available to




the project on the occasion of a cleanout of droppings from a




local farm.  A portion of it had undergone decomposition for as




much as 6 months.  Its nitrogen content was 2.40 percent, similar




to that of paunch manure, and the initial nitrogen content of the




mixture was 1.37 percent and of the control 0.84 percent.  The




raw refuse contained between 2 and 5 percent sludge solids.




Although the initial nitrogen content of the two portions was




not greatly different from those of the paunch manure test, the




test portion reached its maximum temperature more quickly than




did the control.  On day 16 the test portion had reached 165 F




while the control showed only 150 F (Figure 48).  In this




experiment the control did not act normally but the chicken




manure hastened the activity in this particular batch of




compost.  The 42-day nitrogen content of the test portion was




1.25 percent against the 1.05 percent for the control.




     The experiment was repeated with fresh chicken manure in




windrow 15N with a concentration of 20.1 percent.  This windrow




contained no sewage sludge.  Initial nitrogen content was 1.19




percent for the mixture and 0.73 percent for the control.  Final




nitrogen contents were 1.32 for the experimental portion and 0.99




percent for the control.  The temperature of the portion containing




the chicken manure approximately followed that of the control to




about the third week when the profile for the test row fell below.




By four and a half weeks the test portion was about 12 degrees
                               113

-------
170
160
150
140
130
120
                Windrow 19G with chicken manure added


/^Control,  untreated
110
                10
     20           JO
           AGE(DAYS)
40           50
        Figure  48.   pH of  refuse composted with aged chicken  manure.
                                     114

-------
below that of the control.  It then began to pick up and




at the end of 6 weeks was again approximately that of the




control.  The pH of the mixture reached 8.8 when the control




had reached 8.  At 6 weeks the pH of the mixture was still




somewhat higher than that of the control (Figure 49).  The




fresh manure and the composting mixture released large amounts




of ammonia which accounts for the high pH and the lower




temperatures observed.




4.  Beef blood from a small slaughtering establishment was




added on day 2 to a portion of a windrow containing about 3




percent sewage sludge solids.  The 40 gallons of blood,




weighing 354 Ib, contained about 110 Ib of solids.  The mixture




of refuse, sludge, and blood contained about 1.3 percent blood




solids by dry weight.  Blood is high in nitrogen, 10 to 14




percent by dry weight,4 and this rather small addition was




estimated to raise the nitrogen content of the windrow from




0.91 percent to about 1.0 percent.




     The addition of blood appeared to retard heating, as




compared to the control portion, in the first 25 to 27 days.




After that, the test portion exhibited temperatures exceeding




those of the control (Figure 50).  The 42-day nitrogen content




for the test portion was  1.25 vs. the 1.05 of the control.  This




experiment showed that slaughterhouse blood can be composted




with refuse without trouble and may have some value in enriching




the compost.  The experiment was not repeated due to the difficulty




in obtaining blood ,and preserving it.
                               115

-------
               ""*"""*     ^ "" ""
              Control section,
              untreated
                                  Windrow 15N, with
                                  chicken manure added
                 Windrow 15N,  with
                 chicken manure added
      Figure  49.
chicken manure.
Temperature  and pH of refuse  composted with  fresh
                                  116

-------
      170
      160
      150
      140
      130
      120
      110
                Control, untreated >
                                'Section of windrow containing blood
                  w
                                                     j	I
         0        5        10        15
20        25
  AGE  (DAYS)
30       35       40        45
Figure  50.   Temperature of refuse composted with slaughterhouse blood.

-------
      5.  A batch of  the wastes of a pimento pepper canning factory,




      consisting of the pepper cores, rejected peppers, and skins,




      was incorporated into a portion of a windrow of refuse




      containing about 3 percent sewage sludge solids on day 3.




      The pepper waste represented 14 percent of the total dry




      weight of the mix.  The pepper wastes contained 2.82 percent




      nitrogen on a dry basis and the initial nitrogen content of




      the mix was about 1.1 percent.  The temperature profiles of




      the test and control portions of the windrow were identical




      during the composting period.  The final nitrogen content of




      the test portion was 1.3 percent.




           This test was repeated using pepper canning wastes in




      the amount of 6.3 percent of the total weight of the mixture




      of refuse and pepper wastes.  The pepper wastes contained




      2.68 percent nitrogen in this case and the refuse (control




      portion) showed a nitrogen content of 0.89 percent.  The initial




      nitrogen content of the refuse-sludge-pepper mixture was 1.04




      percent.  Figures 51 and 52 show the temperature and pH profiles




      during composting.  The final nitrogen content (at 42 days) was




      1.10 percent for the test row and 1.01 percent for the control.




      Effect of Covering a Windrow with Plastic Sheeting.  Half the length




of a windrow was covered with plastic sheeting in April 1968 and the other




half was left uncovered.  The plastic was removed for turning and replaced




immediately after turning.  Temperatures were taken of both parts in the




center and near the surface at a depth of 4 in.  Some of these data are




listed below.
                                    118

-------
   160
   150
   140
   130
   120
                                               (Windrow 7N containing 3% sludge
                                                sol ids and 6.3%  pepper waste
                                                solids by dry weight' - 8/26/69)
                                             3             4

                                             AGE (WEEKS)
Figure  51.   Temperature of sludge-refuse mixture composted with pepper canning  wastes,

-------
to
o
                       8.0
                        7.0
                        6.0
                        5.0
                        4.0
                                Test windrow
                                                                      Control
                                                                 Windrow  7N containing 3%. sludge
                                                                 solids and 6.3% pepper waste
                                                                 sol ids by dry weight - 8/26/69
                                                                   3             4

                                                                    AGE(WEEKS)
                    Figure 52.   pH of  sludge-refuse mixture composted with pepper canning wastes.

-------
   Age of windrow     	Covered	     	Uncovered
in days
0
7
14
21
28
35
Center
65°
116°
125°
135°
137°
143°
At 4" depth
65°
114°
124°
133°
134°
140°
Center
65°
144°
145°
150°
149°
152°
At 4" depth
65°
139°
120°
112°
131°
135°
      As can be seen from this tabulation, in the covered portion of the




windrow the temperatures in the center of the mass lagged substantially




behind those in the uncovered portion.  However, after 7 days the surface




temperatures were considerably higher in the covered portion due to the




greenhouse effect of the plastic.  The pH of both parts was about the




same.  The odors of both parts after turning were about the same, the




part under the plastic not being offensive.




      The effect of plastic covering for fly control could not be evaluated




as the fly population at the composting plant was nil and remained so




through the period of the experiment.




      Effect of Covering Windrows with Old Compost.  In cold weather a




retardation of heating has been observed in the windrows.  To evaluate the




usefulness of covering the new windrows with old compost, three windrows




were thus treated.




      Windrow 14J was covered with a 12-in. layer of old compost for half




its length on zero day.  The covered portion showed a steeper rise in




temperature at the interface between the old and new than did the control




near the surface.  It reached 106 F in 3 days, while the control required




4 days to reach this temperature.  At 5 days, the control had reached
                                     121

-------
116 F against the 108 F of  the  covered portion.  On the seventh day,  the




control was at 112 F and the  covered portion at 108 F.  Thereafter  they




both cooled, the control to 107 F and the covered portion to 98 F,  by the




ninth day, showing need for a turning.




      In the center of the  mass, windrow 14J reached a higher temperature,




108 F, than the control by  the  third day.  It thereafter became cooler.




The center of the control reached a temperature of 110 F in 5 days, 142 F




at 9 days, and then began to  cool for lack of aeration.




      Windrow 16J was covered similarly on the third day.  On that  day,




immediately after covering, the test portion showed 56 F and the  control




48 F at the interface and surface, respectively.  On the fifth day, the




uncovered portion had reached 118 F against the test portion's 103  F.  At




10 days, the control was at 102 F against the test portion reading  of




104 F.




      The center gf the mass  of uncovered portion of 16J was 13 F lower




than that of the test portion on the day they were covered.  By the fifth




day, the test portion had reached 95 F against the 114 F of the control.




By the seventh day, the test  portion was only 92 F at its center  while the




control was at 135 F.  Both cooled thereafter for need of a turning.




      Windrow 13J was similarly covered on the seventh day.  Starting at




4 degrees apart on that day,  they both had reached about 120 F on the next




day at the interface.  From then_ on, the covered portion showed  an




increase in temperature at  the interface to the fifteenth day, when it was




at 131 F.  The control showed only 109 F.




      In the inner mass, the  control steadily rose from 116 F to  151  F on the




thirteenth day while the test portion had declined from 114 F to  104  F.
                                     122

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      The ambient temperature during this period was about 32 F.  All rows




were turned before being covered.




      It is apparent from these studies that covering windrows at these




times has an adverse effect on the temperatures in the center of the windrow,




with no significant advantage being gained with surface temperatures.




This was observed when they were covered with plastic, and is apparently




due to preventing the windrow from "breathing" although the effect of the




cover in compacting the underlying refuse may also be a factor.  Extrapolating




from the results of the windrow covered at 7 days, it appears that the




time to cover a windrow to achieve thermal kill at the surface is after




it has reached its maximum temperature (2-3 weeks).  Such a procedure is




under consideration but will require investigation.




      pH Observations.  Observations of pH changes with age revealed the




characteristic curve as shown in Figure 53.




      The pH showed an acid condition for the first week generally with some




values below 5.0.  As the pH rose above 6.0 to a  range of 7.5 to 8.0 during




the second week, the temperatures also increased.  The pH leveled off in a




range of 7.8 to 8.5 for the rest of the composting and curing time.







              Microbiological and Fly Population  Studies




      Bacteriological Statistical Experiments.  A series of experiments was




undertaken by the microbiologist to determine the variability of the




bacterial population counts of compost samples due to the inherent heterogeneity




of the material itself.




           Experiment 1.  This experiment was performed to evaluate




      variation due to error in laboratory procedure.  Ten grams of
                                     123

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                 5       10       15       20
25      30
AGE (DAYS)
35       40       45      50
Figure 53.   Average pH in windrows 1A thru 34A  (1-1/2-ft depth).

-------
zero day compost were homogenized in a 100 milliliter phosphate

buffer (pH 7.2).  Five 1 milliliter aliquots were removed from

this homogenate, each was serially diluted, and the appropriate

range of dilutions was incorporated into pour-plates of tryptone

glucose extract agar.  Plate counts were made at 48 hrs.  Results

were as follows:
     Sample 1   229 x 101* cells per ml of homogenate
            2   243
            3   249
            4   248
            5   233
     average = 240 x 10  cells per ml of homogenate


Since cell distribution should theoretically be Poissonian,  the
                                      2
standard deviation should be 15.5 x  10  cells per ml.of  the  average

count, if the laboratory technique is adequate.  None of  the  five

counts exceeded this range.

     Experiment 2.  A set of five 10-gram samples was drawn  from

a zero day windrow; each was homogenized in 200 milliliters  of

sterile phosphate buffer.  Plate counts were made on  each of

the five homogenates.  In addition,  the fifth homogenate  was

plated in triplicate to determine plating variation.  A  set  of

five 5-gram samples was drawn from another zero day windrow,

homogenized in 100 milliliter aliquots of sterile buffer,  and

plated as above.  Results were:
                               125

-------
     Sample 1     51 x 105 per ml homogenate for the five
            2     65       10-gram samples
            3    150
            4    137
            5a   105
            5b   126
            5c   122

            Std. deviation = ± 42 percent for samples l-5a
   Sample 1     66 x 10  per ml homogenate for the five
          2     49       5-gram samples
          3    182
          4     62
          5a    42
          5b    66
          5c    28

          Std. deviation = ± 73 percent for samples l-5a


The above experiments were repeated with 49-day compost using

the same experimental procedure.  The results were as follows:
Sample 1
       2
       3
       4
       5a
       5b
       5c
62 x 10
56
71
33
93
80
81
                         per ml homogenate for the five
                         10-gram samples
          Std. deviation = ± 35 percent for samples l-5a
   Sample 1     52 x 105 per ml homogenate for the five
          2     32       5-gram samples
          3    281
          4     33
          5a    30
          5b    22
          5c    25

          Std. deviation = ± 140 percent for samples l-5a
                              126

-------
       The value of determining the standard deviation in this regard




       is that the range in which 67 percent of the sample counts should




       fall is defined.  It is clear from the limited data presented here




       that choosing 10-gram samples would give a more accurate and




       reproducible estimate of the actual cell counts than the choosing




       of 5-gram samples.  Samples of up to 200 grams were used in the




       project laboratory at Johnson City.




       Survival of Myoobaoterium phlei.  The Staff Microbiologist conducted




studies of the survival in composting of Mycobacteviwn phlei. Strain 41




obtained from Dr. George Kubica, National Communicable Disease Center,




Atlanta, Georgia.  This strain, which is rather thermophilic, was used




rather than Mycobaotevium tuberculosis.  A non-virulent strain of the




latter was concurrently being used in survival studies by another investigator.




       During preliminary experiments in the project laboratory, attempts at




the isolation of Myoobacterium phlei from seeded raw ground refuse samples




by classical published methods proved unsuccessful.  Therefore, all




insertions were of necessity made with cultures grown on Lowenstein-




Jensen (L-J) agar slants at 45 C for 3 days.  All insertions were prepared




in duplicate and inserted on either zero day or day 14 at depths of 2 in.,




mid-depth, and in the toe of the windrow.  At selected time intervals, the




duplicate slants were removed from the windrows.  Subcultures were made by




washing each slant with 0.5 milliliters of sterile phosphate buffer.  The




buffer-cell suspension was then transferred to a new L-J slant and incubated




for at least 10 days at 37 C.  Viable cultures would usually produce




detectable growth within 3 days.  A total of 136 sets of duplicate sample




(224 tubes) was inserted into 12 windrows.
                                      127

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       Table 11 gives the findings.  No samples inserted at mid-depth on




zero day or day 1 were found to contain viable cells after 14 days of




composting.  For the insertions at the depth of 2 in., viable cells




were found after 49 days where the temperature reached only 92 F.  In




other windrows none were found at compost ages over 21 days where temperatures




subsequently reached 118 F.  Where temperatures reached 128 F or over at




the 2-in. depth, no viable cells were found.  This condition was usually




obtained by the 14th day.  For samples inserted in the "toe" of the windrow,




viable cells were found to the point at which temperatures reached 134-




136 F.  In one case, viable cells were found at mid-depth at a temperature




of 138 F on the seventh day of composting.  Samples retrieved at greater




ages were not viable.




       From the data obtained in these studies it appears that temperatures




as low as 128 F are sufficient to kill M. phlei provided the time of




exposure is sufficient.  Seven days at 128 F should be sufficient with




shorter times for temperatures over 130 F.  Insertions were made under




artificial conditions due to the fact that they were slant cultures and




not directly exposed to the compost.  Temperature, therefore, was the sole




factor in their destruction.  Where proper mixing is practiced and temperatures




of 140 F or over are obtained, M.  phlei would be destroyed.




       Pathogen Survival Studies under Contract.  The intensive studies on




the survival of pathogens and parasites in the windrow composting of refuse




and sewage sludge were carried out under two contracts (PH-86-67-112 and




PH-86-68-143) with East Tennessee State University in the period July 1967




through June 1969.
                                     128

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                          TABLE 11
MYCOBACTERIUM SURVIVAL IN COMPOST


(Mycobacterium phlei)

Insertions into Windrows 18H (11/19/68) and 28H (12/10/68) on Day 14
Exposure
Time (days)

0
1

2

3

7



Exposure
Time (days)
0

3


7


17


21


Viable Cells
Detected
18H 28H
O+) (-H-)
(+-)
(--)
(--)
( — )
<--> (-)
(«») (_„)
(--) (-)
(— ) (-)
All samples removed
Insertions
Viable Cells
Detected
ft \ \
\~l i j

/ \ \ *\
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(— )
(— )
(-H-)
(— )
(—)
(— )
Temperatures, F

18H 28H
120 132
152
162
146
160
128 144
158 152
148 148
158 156
after 14 and 21 days exposure
into Windrow 21 (12/10/68) on
Temperatures, °F

34*40

46
40
44
98
78
50
152
160
126
142
150
114
Insertion
Location

2" and mid-depth
2"
mid-depth
2"
mid- depth
2"
mid- depth
2"
mid- depth
were negative
Day 0
Insertion
Location
2", mid-depth, and
toe area of windrow
2"
mid-depth
toe area
2"
mid-depth
toe area
2"
mid-depth
toe area
2"
mid-depth
toe area
Insertions removed from all three insertion depths at 35 days
were negative.
                           129

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                 TABLE 11 (CONT'D)
Insertions into windrow 191 (1/7/69) on Day 0
Exposure
Time (days)
0

7


14


21


28



Exposure
Time (days)
0
7

21

24

28

35

49

Viable Cells
Detected
(-H-)

(+O
(++)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-)
(-H-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
Insertions into
Viable Cells
Detected
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-)
(-H-)
(-)
OHO
(--)
(•H-)
<-->
(-H-)
(--)
Temperatures,

38

26
30
46
92
108
92
102
142
98
118
142
116
windrow 221 (1/13/69)
Temperatures,

34
52
50
76
130
90
140
96
148
104
132
92
126
F Insertion
Location
2", mid-depth, and
toe area of windrow
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
on Day 0
°F Insertion
Location
2", and mid-depth
2"
mid-depth
2"
mid-depth
2"
mid-depth
2"
mid- depth
2"
mid- depth
2"
mid- depth
                      130

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                                    TABLE 11 (CONT'D)
                   Insertions into windrow 291 (1/22/69) on Day 0
Exposure
Time (days)
0
7

14

28

35

49


Exposure
Time (days)
0

7


14


21
All

Exposure
Time (days)
0

7


14


All
Viable Cells
Detected
(-H-)
<+O
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(--)
(--)
(-)
(--)
(--)
(-)
Insertions into
Viable Cells
Detected
(4+)

(-H-)
(+-)
(-)
(--)
(--)
(--)

samples removed after
Insertions into
Viable Cells
Detected
(-H-)

(+»-)
(--)
(+-)
(--)
(--)
(-*)
samples removed after
Temperatures, F

36
102
122
88
110
144
152
122
142
110
142
windrow 24J (3/5/69) on Day
Temperatures, °F

62

96
130
146
128
152
134

21 and 28 days exposure were
windrow 26J (3/7/69) on Day
o
Temperature s , F

40

122
142
110
140
150
118
21 and 28 days exposure were
Insertion
Location
2" , and mid-depth
2" '
mid-depth
2"
mid-depth
2"
mid-depth
2"
mid-depth
2"
mid- depth
0
Insertion
Location
2", and mid- depth, and
toe area of windrow
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe

negative
0
Insertion
Location
2", mid-depth, and
toe area of windrow
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid- depth
toe
negative
* Insertion culture contaminated
                                          131

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                                     TABLE 11  (CONT'D)
                    Insertions into windrow 4M (6/30/69)  on  Day 0
Exposure
Time (days)
0

2


7


10



Exposure
Time (days)
0

2


7


10


Viable Cells
Detected
(-H-)

(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(--)
(--)
Insertions into
Viable Cells
Detected
(-H-)

(-H-)
(-H-)
(-H-)
(+-)
(-H-)
(+*)
(--)
(--)
(-)
Temperatures, F

92

134
120
126
134
148
134
144
152
136
windrow 8M (7/7/69) on Day 0
Temperatures, F

86

118
118
118
136
138
134
142
146
136
Insertion
Location
2", mid-depth, and
toe area of windrow
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe

Insertion
Location
2", mid-depth, and
toe area of windrow
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
* Insertion culture contaminated
                                         132

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                                  TABLE 11 (CONT'D)
                 Insertions into windrow 17M (7/22/69) on Day 0
Exposure
Time (days)
0

2


7


10



Exposure
Time (days)
0

4


7


10


Viable Cells
Detected
(-H-)

(•*+)
(-H-)
OHO
(--)
(--)
(--)
(-)
(--)
(-)
Insertions into
Viable Cells
Detected
(-H-)

(•M
(•HO
(-H-)
(-)
(-*)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
Temperatures, F

88

118
120
116
142
142
150
120
148
144
windrow 19M (7/24/69) on Day
Temperatures, F

92

142
132
134
134
146
128
140
152
132
Insertion
Location •
2", mid-depth, and
toe area of windrow
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
0
Insertion
Location
2", mid-depth, and
toe area of windrow
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
2"
mid-depth
toe
Insertion sample contaminated
                                       133

-------
       The  first  contract  studied  the occurrence and survival of pathogens




 and parasites.  The  second covered the actual insertion of organisms with




 the compost.  The findings  of  the  two studies have not yet been published




 by Dr. William L.  Gaby, under  whose supervision they were made.




       The  organisms for which the search for occurrence was made included:




            Coliforms




            Fecal coliforms




            Fecal streptococci




            Coagulase positive staphylococci




            Salmonella species




            Shigella species




            Enteroviruses  (such as polio)




            Pathogenic fungi




            Parasitic organisms (protozoa, cestodes, and nematodes)







       In this phase, 602  samples were taken from 30 windrows and from the




 fresh refuse, sewage sludge, and fresh sludge-refuse mix on the days those




 particular windrows were laid  down.  The sludge was raw or in a partially




 digested state.   The duration  of the composting process at Johnson City is




 49 to 56 days, 35  to 42 days of which are on the composting field and the




 remaining 2 weeks  in the curing stage, either in the open or under a shed.




 Samples were taken from windrows at various intervals during the process




 and on the terminal day.  The  samples also were taken from several positions




within the windrows.




       The studies showed  that  there was a consistent, inverse relationship




between the number of total and fecal coliforms in compost and the windrow
                                     134

-------
temperature.  Temperatures of 120-130 F (49-55 C) were sufficient to reduce




coliform populations significantly, often to levels lower than the minimal




level of detection by the Most Probable Numbers Method.  However, the




temperature decrease occurring at the latter stages of the composting process




allowed reestablishment of significant numbers (102-105/g) of coliforms.




Fecal streptococci did not appear to be as heat sensitive and maintained




populations as high as 106/g even when temperatures reached 130-140 F




(55-60 C).




       Salmonella species were frequently isolated from the raw sewage sludge;




however, no Salmonella or Sh-igetla species were isolated from samples of




windrows over 7 days old.  Coagulase positive staphylococci were isolated




only from raw refuse, never from sludge, and found in only one windrow on




the 49th day.  All other samples were negative for coagulase-positive




staphylococci after the first day on the field.  The studies under the ETSU




contract did not give conclusive results for pathogenic fungi.  No




enteroviruses were ever isolated from sewage sludge, raw refuse, or any




compost sample at any time.  In the parasite detection studies, 3 percent




of the total number of samples (total of 602) of fresh to 49-day compost




were positive for one or more parasitic ova or cysts.  Of the 49-day samples




taken, 8 of 135 (6 percent) were positive for parasites.  It is of importance




here that these positive findings are based on the identification of parasitic




forms which were morphologically intact and not upon actual viability tests.




       Organisms used in the insertion studies included:







            Bacteria:  Escerichia ooli




                       Salmonella
                                     135

-------
                       Salmonella typhimuriwn




                       Shlgella sonnel




                       Staphylooooaus aupevis (coagulese positive)




           Parasites:  Endamoeba histolytica




                       Asoaris Iwribricoides (viable ova)




                       Endolimax nana




                       Necatia? amerieanus




               Fungi:  Elstoplasma capsulatum




                       Blastomyces deimatitidis




                       Aspergillus fumigatus




                       Geotrichum candidwn




             Viruses:  Polio virus, Type II




        Spirochoetes:  Leptospira Philadelphia






       A total of 1,137 samples of bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses




was inserted in 24 windrows in the second phase.  In conformity with the




first phase of the work, the samples were planted at various positions




within the compost and withdrawn at intervals during the process.  Insertions




of bacteria were made both in sealed ampules and in such manner that the




cultures were in contact with compost.  This was done to determine if




bacteria could survive the process despite the elevated temperatures and




the possible presence of antibiotic substances.  Other organisms were




inserted in test tubes with screw caps.




       In the insertion studies, all bacterial samples in the form of




impregnated discs in contact with compost removed after 25 days in the
                                     136

-------
windrows were rendered nonviable.  All samples of Shigella sonnei- and




Staphyloeocaus aureus removed at 14 days and thereafter were nonviable.




       Samples of S. sonnei inserted in sealed ampules removed after 25 days




were nonviable and  those of S. aupeus, similarly prepared, removed after




35 days were destroyed.  Only two samples of 18 of S. aureus in ampules




removed between 25  and 29 days in the compost were positive.  One sample




of Salmonella typhirmrium in an ampule was positive after 49 days and showed




a reduction of cells from 2 x 108 to 1.6 x 102.  This was a sample inserted




and kept in the bottom 6 in. of a windrow where temperatures are lower.




On turning, the compost was moved from the bottom but the sample was




reinserted in this  cooler part of the windrow.




       Of the 38 samples of the fungus Histoplasma capsulatwn, inserted in




capped test tubes,  three were found to be positive on withdrawal.  Withdrawals




were made from the  seventh day to the 28th day.  One positive had been in




the compost for 14  days, another 24 days, and the third for 26 days.  The




14th and 24th day samples had been kept at the midpoint of the composting




mass and the 26th sample in the outer layer at the 2-in.  depth.




       All samples  of the fungus Blastomyoes dermatitidis, withdrawn at




intervals up to the 28th day, were rendered nonviable.




       Thermophilic fungi such as AspergiZlus fumigatus are commonly




associated with the composting of various types of solid  wastes.  On-site




observations showed that A, fumigatus could be consistently isolated from




composting material at Johnson City at all stages of  the  process.  In  the




insertion studies it survived for 28 days in capped  test  tubes.  Inserted




samples of Geotrichum candidim survived for 24 days.
                                     137

-------
       All samples  of Endolimax nana  and Endamoeba histolytioa were  destroyed




after  8 days'  exposure.  All  samples  of Leptospira Philadelphia, withdrawn




at  from 2 to 9  days  of exposure were  deactivated.




       Ova of  hookworm (Neaatur americanus  or Ancylostoma duodenale)




disintegrated  after  7 days' exposure  in the compost.




       As with  the  occurrence studies, the insertion studies show  that some




morphologically intact parasite forms  (AsoariSj Tri,ohum,s3 Necatur, Ancylostoma,




and Hymenolop'is species) persisted  to  the end of the composting process.




Facilities were not  available at ETSU  and the Tennessee State Department of




Health for a determination of the viability of these parasite forms.




       Of the  66 samples of an enterovirus (Polio II) assayed for  active




virus particles after remaining for various lengths of time in the composting




mass, one 3-day and  one 14-day sample were found positive.  The number of




active virus particles recovered from  each of the two positive samples




amounted to 1 percent of the original  concentration inserted.  No  virus




sample was positive  after exposure for more than 14 days.  The windrow




temperatures recorded for the two positive samples at the time they were




withdrawn were  133 F (56 C) and 147 F  (64 C).




       Concurrently with the studies carried on by the Public Health Service




and the research done under contract by Gaby of East Tennessee State




University,  Morgan conducted a study of the survival of Mycobacterium




tubereulos'is in windrows at the Johnson City Plant.5  The organism used was




an avirulant M. tuberaulos-is var hominis, obtained from Trudeau Institute,




Inc.  The insertion  technique was used and the samples were planted in the




compost during fall, winter, spring, and summer months.  Results revealed
                                     138

-------
that M. tubeTQulosi-s was normally destroyed by the 14th day of composting




where the average  temperature was 149 F  (65 C).  In all cases the  organisms




were destroyed by  the  21st day.  In the  study with one windrow,  all M.




tuberoulos-is organisms were killed by a  temperature of 140 F  (60 C) or  less.




       The negative results obtained in  the search for pathogenic  bacteria




(such as Salmonella, Shi-gella, and Staphyloeoccus) in compost would indicate




that windrow conditions at Johnson City  will destroy such pathogens.  The




results obtained in the pathogen insertion studies, which were supported




by the in-house work with Mycobaaterium  phtei-, confirm this  conclusion.




       Of the fungi, Blastomyces deymati,ti-dis samples withdrawn  up to the




28th day were rendered nonviable.  Although one  of the inserted  Histoplasma




aapsutatum samples was found  to survive  26 days  of composting, the search




for this fungus in the compost was not successful.  Aspergillus  fumigatus,




occasionally pathogenic to humans, could be isolated in  the  compost itself




throughout the process.  Histoplasma capsulation  has been  isolated  in  garden




soils and Aspergillus  fumigatus is ubiquitous.   The literature does not cite




any references to  fungal infection among sanitation workers  in association




with the disposal  of solid wastes.  Present data do not  permit any estimate




of the possible hazard of pathogenic fungi in  this connection and  the results




at Johnson City do not warrant  any restrictions  on the use  of compost due  to




these fungi.




       Although morphologically intact parasite  forms persisted  through the




process, the data  shown by  the  Belding6  show  that the ova of Ascari-s




lumbroco-ides 3 Trichuris tri,churi,a, Neaator amer'ieanus, Ancylostoma duodenale,
                                      139

-------
and Hymenolopsis diminuta are killed at time-temperature conditions which




are less severe than  those which obtain in composting.  The work of Scott7




in composting bears this ,out for Asoaris ova.  It was concluded that the




forms found were nonviable although they were not tested with live animals.




       Only two of 66 samples of enterovirus (Polio II) were found positive




after 14 days in the  compost.  It is believed that these may have been




recontaminated during assay as only very low counts were found and these




organisms may be inactivated in 30 min at 122-130 F.  No positive samples




were found on withdrawal before 14 days.




       Evidence from  the ETSU studies, the in-house studies at Johnson City,




and the work of others in the United States and Europe, indicates that




properly processed compost of municipal waste and sewage sludge as used in




gardening or agriculture does not constitute a public health hazard.  For




proper processing, it is imperative that all material in a given windrow




be exposed to temperatures in the range of 122-130 F for a period of at




least 1 days.  To accomplish this the material in the toe area must be




picked up and piled on top or at the end of the windrow before turnings.




At Johnson City the temperature of each windrow is taken weekly to be sure




that the necessary temperatures are reached and held for 7 days.  Actually,




windrows which have not reached 140 F or over and remained for 7 days, are




condemned at Johnson City in order to have a factor of safety.




       Cellulolytic Activity in Composting.  Cellulases were extracted by




homogenizing 200-gram samples of compost in 2 liters of cold phosphate




buffer (pH 7.0).  The homogenates were clarified by centrifugation, and




cellulase activity in the supernatant fluid was determined by measuring the
                                     140

-------
liberation of reducing sugars (as cellobiose) from acetate-buffered




solutions of carboxymethylcellulose.  The pH, temperature, ionic strength,




and substrate concentration optima were determined for this reaction.  The




total free cellulase content of compost was measured in relation to the age




of the compost to determine the time of maximal production of cellulolytic




enzymes.  The cellulolytic flora which produce these cellulases in compost




were isolated on microcrystalline cellulose-mineral salts agar and identification




of these organisms was initiated.




       Detectable cellulase activity (as measured by its ability to liberate




reducing sugars from carboxymethylcellulose) increased tenfold at a




logarithmic rate during  the 49-day  composting cycle.  Concurrently, the




cellulose content of the compost decreased from 50 to 30 percent.  The pH




and temperature optima for the cellulolytic reaction were consistently 6.0




and 149 F (65 C), respectively.  Variation of ionic strength between 0.1




and 1.0 had little effect on the velocity of the cellulase reaction.




Maximal reaction velocity was achieved with a carboxymethylcellulose




concentration of 2.5 percent, a concentration which is near the limit of




solubility.




       Three species of  cellulolytic flora (designated as C-l, C-2, and C-3)




were isolated from compost homogenates.  C-l resembled AspergiZZus funrigatus,




grew rapidly at 95-113 F (35-45 C), and caused intense clearing of the




cellulose agar within 5  days.  C-2, a  Gram-variable sporeforming rod, grew




rapidly at 95 F (35 C) ,  slowly at  113  F (45 C), and produced diffuse zones




of clearing on cellulose agar.  C-3 appeared to be a thermophilic actinomycete




(rapid growth at 125-131 F); it produced wide zones of cellulose clearing




around colonies within 72 hr.
                                      141

-------
       During  the 49-day composting process, total cellulolytic activity




increased tenfold while the cellulose content of the compost decreased from




50 to 30 percent.  Consideration of temperatures which exist in the windrows




would indicate that the greatest portion of cellulolytic activity is produced




by the thermophilic actinomycete (C-3).  This organism, which grows rapidly




at 131 F (and has an upper growth limit of 140 F) is the only species isolated




which seems compatible with windrow temperatures.  This actinomycete might




be profitably exploited in various cellulose decomposition or transformation




processes.  At the present time, studies are being performed to determine




production of cellulase in pure culture and the factors which affect this




production.




       Fly Population Counts.  As mentioned in the section on operations, an




extensive fly problem developed in the plant area in the summer of 1967.




Flies in all stages of their life cycle came to the plant with the refuse




being delivered in compaction trailers.  Adult flies were widespread over




the plant area and were particularly concentrated on windrows just being




formed.   Table 12 shows the adult fly counts obtained with the Scudder grill




from August 31 to September 15, 1967.  It will be noted that fresh windrows




were the most attractive to the flies.  Although many flies came in with the




refuse,  there was some breeding in the plant at the foot of windrows.




       Fly counts were taken in October 1968 to determine the comparative




attractiveness of the storage area and several other areas.  The storage area




contained compost from 42 days old to more than 1 yr old.  Table 13 shows




findings which indicate that the stored compost had no attractiveness under




the conditions which obtained.  As would be expected, the greatest number was
                                     142

-------
                                  TABLE 12
                   ADULT FLY COUNTS WITH SCUDDER GRILL - 1967
Windrow
11-13
12
14-15
16-17
18-19
20-21
22-23
24-25
26-28
27
29
30
31
32
33
31-33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
1A
2A
3A
4A
5A
6A
7A
8A
9A
10A
11A
12A
13A
14A
8/31
0
1
0
0
10
3
3
3
2
6
1
2
3
2
5
5
3
6
9
3
1
1
7
4
0
3
2
6
1
to
9/1
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
1
1
11
4
6
6
6
2
9
6
1
3
9
2
2
5
2
3
6
8
7
£
5
&
•o
§
t^
T3
O
r-l
O
9/6
0
4
0
2
1
9
2
0
5
3
3
4
3
5
5
3
0
2
5
3
2
15
7
8
3
3
5
0
2
12
120**
>»
TJ
c
1-1
Ss
"O
§
!
CO
9/7
1
2
1
3
1
7
4
3
2
6
1
1
3
1
3
1
6
4
9
10
9
9
1
2
4
4
2
2
3
72**
£
§
r-4
O
>S
r-4
AJ
H
«J
CM
9/8
0
1
2
0
8
3
6
1
5
4
2
1
1
4
4
5
2
11
5
5
3
3
6
2
1
1
2
5
5
13**
r*>
•o
O
l-l
O
p*.
r-l
4J
M
CO
CL,
9/11
0
0
0
0
3
6
3
1
1
2
5
0
2
3
4
4
3
4
6
3
2
1
2
4
3
5
4
10
4
5
28**
>>
•o
3
O
r- 1
O
>>
r-l
4J
h
CO
CU
9/12
2
3
0
5
5
0
2
3
0
3
3
9
1
4
4
3
2
2
4
1
2
1
5
1
3
0
3
4
0
5
0
25**
W
4
4)
i-l
O
9/13
0
0
0
0
1
2
10
7
6
0
3
5
2
1
0
6
5
4
1
1
4
3
3
2
1
3
3
2
4
5
6
15**
n
««
0)
i-4
O
9/14
0
1
0
0
3
4
3
1
1
1
4
1*
8*
0
2
1
5
8
5
4
5
3
6*
7
0
3
0
2
0
5
10
4
21**
M
BJ
V
•—I
0
9/15
1
0
0
3
2
2
5
1
0
2
2
10
5
3
0
10
8
7*
4
3
7*
3
2
1
5*
2
0
7*
8
0
2
2
10**
M
(0
o>
r-l
O
 * Immediately after turning.
** Windrow formed on this day.

   Note:  Observations above the upper line within table were made in the
          drying and curing shed.

                                   143

-------
                          TABLE 13
FLY POPULATION DATA
Date
10/ 3/68
10/ 4/68
10/ 7/68
10/ 8/68
10/ 9/68
10/10/68
10/14/68
10/15/68


Receiving
Building
No reading
No reading
10 -
4 -
7 -
5
3
3
No reading
11 -
7 -
3
20

0-d,
Wind]
26 -
5 -
30 -
7 -
20 -
24 -
26 -
5 -
?ly Count
ly 35-df
row Windi
27
7
22
22
9
17
13
30
7 -
3 -
3 -
2 -
0 -
0 -
3 -
3 -

iy
row
11
1
4
0
5
3
7
3


Storage
Area
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0
o :
0
o :
0
0 -
0
o :
                                          Time

                                        2:30 pm  Light

                                        1:30 pm  Light

                                        2:45 pm  Light

                                        1:30 pm  None

                                        3:30 pm  Light

                                        4:15 pm  None

                                        3:15 pm  None
         Cloud
Wind   Conditions  Temp.
         Cloudy

         Clear

         Partly

         Partly
Cool

Cold

Warm

Warm
         Partly    Cool

         Cloudy    Cool

         Partly    Warm
                                        3:00 pm  Strong    Partly    Warm
Count of flies resting on a Scudder grill in one minute.
Two counts made at each observation point.  No distinction
made for species.
                            144

-------
found where raw, unground refuse was being handled.  The observations were

made at the end of the fly season and may not be valid for a period of higher

populations.  At no time in 1968 or 1969 did the fly population reach a

nuisance level at the plant.


                Chemical and Physical Characteristics

       Sampling Techniques.  The chemist completed a series of studies

designed to discover a reliable sampling procedure for determination of

physical and chemical characteristics of compost.

       Forty samples, each of 50 grams, wet weight, were collected from

windrow 6H immediately after turning on the 25th day of composting.  The

windrow was of average cross-section and 120 ft in length.  Samples were

taken at 6-ft intervals, 20 per side.  These were all dried and then

ground in a Wiley mill (large pieces of glass, metal, and rock were

removed to prevent damage to the mill).  The windrow was sampled two

additional times on the same day and each set composited.  These

composited samples were ground wet in a W-W grinder, each was well mixed,

quartered, and dried.  Randomly selected samples were taken from each

quarter of the two samples and ground in the Wiley mill.  The 40

individual samples and the four quarters of the two composite samples

were then analyzed for nitrogen and ash.  Results are summarized in  the

table below.

                        	Ash	Nitrogen	
                        Avg. %  Std. Dev.  % Dev.  Avg. %  Std. Dev.   %  Dev.

40 Individual Samples    19.11    3.46      18.1     .865      .083      9.6

Composite Sample I       26.04    1.61       6.2     .924      .017      1.8
   (8 samples)

Composite Sample II      25.94    0.66       2.5   1.033      .021      2.0
   (8 samples)
                                     145

-------
       The lower percentage  ash  for  the 40 individual samples is due  to  the




fact that rocks, glass, etc., were removed prior to analysis.




       Windrow 17D was sampled on the 2nd day of composting by  taking two




large  (5,500 grams) composite samples and preparing them in the manner




described above (W-W grinder, mixing, drying, Wiley mill).  The windrow




had not been turned prior  to sampling and was at its maximum heterogeneity.




Both composites were analyzed for nitrogen, lipids, ash, and pH.
7
/a
Nitrogen
0.757
0.739
%
Lipids
5.69
5.75
%
Ash
22.7
23.5
£S
5.14
5.01
       Composite I




       Composite II






       From another windrow, 15E, 28 individual samples (about 120 grams




apiece) were taken at day 3 before turning.  The moisture content of each




was determined.  The windrow was turned, 30 more samples were taken, and




their moisture content determined.  Results were:






                           % Moisture     Variance     Std. Deviation




       Before Turning          57.11         18.98         4.36




       After Turning           56.8           5.18         2.28






       The two large composite samples taken from 17D before turning were




dried and their moisture content determined.  Composite I contained 47.3




percent moisture and Composite II 47.1 percent, indicating a satisfactory




accuracy of the sampling method.  As a consequence, all moisture




determinations are now made with a 2,000-4,000 gram composite sample
                                     146

-------
 taken after turning, the whole amount of which is dried for investigative

 work.  For routine work, about 400 grams is taken from this well-mixed

 sample.

       Two conclusions are evident from these data:  (1) samples for

chemical analysis should derive from a large composite that has been

ground and mixed, and (2) sampling should be done, whenever possible,

after turning.

       Fifty temperature readings were taken on three different windrows

at 18 in.  Their ages were 8, 22, and 32 days.  Results were:


       Age of Windrow   Avg. Temperature   Std. Deviation   Variance

         8 days             134 F               6.75        45.40
        22 days             160 F               5.48        30.00
        32 days             161 F               3.94        15.27


       These data indicate increasing homogeneous  composition as the age

of the windrow increases.  This can be ascribed to (1) decomposition by

the microorganisms,  (2) periodic mixing by the windrow turner, and  (3)

particle size reduction.

       It can be seen that for consistent precision more measurements must

be taken when working with windrows in the beginning of the composting

cycle.

       Moisture Content of Raw Refuse.  With improved methods of sampling

for moisture determinations, the dry weights of a  number of windrows (11)

were determined in  the course of the work on the weight and volume  losses.

Knowing the weights  of the same material as received from  the city,  the

moisture content of  raw refuse was determined.  The moisture content by

wet weight as received ranged from 22 percent  to 61 percent over the
                                       147

-------
period August  8  to December 6, 1968, with an average of 39 percent.  This

is in the neighborhood of  the 35 percent which has been quoted on occasion.

     Weight and Volume Losses in Composting.  As previously mentioned,

from 20 to 30  percent (by  wet weight) of the incoming refuse is not

compostable and  is removed for burial in a landfill.  Grinding then  reduces

the volume of  the refuse retained for processing.  As digestion proceeds,

a weight loss  in the form  of the two principal products of decomposition,

carbon dioxide and water,  occurs.  This amounts to between 20 and 30

percent of dry weight.

     A study of seven batches (windrows) of refuse through the 42-day

composting process at Johnson City showed the following relationship of

incoming weights and volumes to those of the compost.  In this study the

amount of noncompostables  was somewhat higher than the average of 26

percent observed at this plant.
                        Refuse, as
                        Received in  Noncompost-
                        Compaction   ables, Un-
                        Trailer      compacted
Wet weight, tons

Volume, cu yd

Moisture, percent
  by wet weight

Density, Ib per
  cu yd at given
  moisture content

Density, expressed as
  the dry weight in
  Ib per cu yd
100

433


 39



463



282
 28.8

168.4


 39



342



209
Picked,
Ground
Refuse, with
Water Added

   111.7

   236.5


    60
   945
   378
Compost in
Windrow at
End of
Process

   50.4

  172.6


   30
  584
  409
                                      148

-------
     This study shows a compost yield of 50.4 percent by wet weight and




40 percent by volume.  It is assumed that the compost will go down on




the field at the desired 60 percent moisture and that the finished




compost will be dried to 30 percent moisture.




     Elemental Composition of Compost.   Analyses for certain elements




were performed on samples of compost 42 days old or older.  Wilson's




methods for the gravimetric determination of carbon and hydrogen in solid




wastes are given in Reference 8.  Additional methods are available in




Appendix I.  Table 14 shows the average values found, on a dry weight




basis.  Table 15 gives the results for individual analyses made for six




important elements.




     Nitrogen in fresh ground refuse ranged from 0.58 to 1.01 percent




by dry weight, averaging 0.85 percent.   Carbon ranged from 34.4 to 43.6




percent of dry weight, averaging 39.8.   For compost 42 days old or older,




the nitrogen content was found to be between 0.85 and 1.07 percent of dry




weight, averaging 0.93 percent.  Table 16 shows the nitrogen content of




some organic materials and soil for comparison with that of finished




compost.




     Analyses for Carbon/Nitrogen Ratios.  A total of 37 windrows of




different ages (0-130 days) was sampled and analyzed for carbon and




nitrogen.  The carbon analyses were made in the Research Services




Laboratory of the Division of Research and Development, Bureau of Solid




Waste Management, in Cincinnati.  The nitrogen determinations were




performed in the project laboratory.




     Figure 54 shows the average carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios of




composting refuse containing 3 to 5 percent sludge by dry weight for
                                     149

-------
                               TABLE  14
                    ELEMENTS  IN FINISHED COMPOST

                           Johnson City
                               1968

                         Percent Dry Weight
Element                        Average                     Ran
Carbon                           33.01                 26.23 - 37.53
Nitrogen                          0.93                  0.85 -   1.07
Potassium                         0.30                  0.25 -   0.40
Sodium                            0.42                  0.36 -   0.51
Calcium                           1.55                  0.75 -   3.11
Phosphorous                       0.26                  0.20 -   0.34
Magnesium                         1.61                  0.83 -   2.52
Iron                              1.18                  0.55 -   1.68
Aluminum                          0.94                  0.32 -   2.67
Copper                  less than  0.05
Manganese               less than  0.05
Nickel                  less than  0.01
Zinc                    less than  0.005
Boron                   less than  0.0005
Mercury                     not detected *
Lead                        not detected *
* Lower limits of detection:  Mercury, 0.005 percent; lead, 0.05 per-
  cent.  Neither was found above these levels in any samples tested.
                               150

-------
                              TABLE  15

     CONCENTRATION OF CERTAIN TRACE  ELEMENTS  IN  SCREENED  COMPOST
(Values expressed as percentage of dry weight unless  otherwise  noted)
Windrow and
17D - 42
17D - 49
5E - 42
2E - 42
5E - 42
Stockpile 1
- 56
22-23E - 77
22-23E - 130
Stockpile 2
8G - 36
with NH4N03
5E - 154
24-25E - 130
8G - 42
age
day*
day*
dayt
dayj
day§

dayU
day;j:
day:j:

dayH
added
dayt
day§
day§
Iron

1
1
0
1

0
1


1

1
1
0

.38
.19
.89
.07

.97
.24


.35

.68
.47
.55
Boron
<2ppm


<2ppm

-------
                      TABLE 16
NITROGEN CONTENT OF SOME ORGANIC MATERIALS AND SOIL
    (1)  Finished Compost




    (2)  Sewage Sludge (raw)




    (3)  Chicken manure




    (4)  Cow manure




    (5)  Peat moss




    (6)  Leaves (hardwood)




    (7)  Pepper canning wastes




    (8)  Tobacco stalks




    (9)  Soil
% Nitrogen (dry weight basis)




     0.93




     2.58




     2.61, 2.40




     3.42




     1.91



     1.34




     2.82




     1.41




     0.1 - 0.3 (approximately)
                        152

-------
   50
   45
=  40
-  35
   30
   25
                                    (Verticle I ines show  ranges)
              0
10
20
                                       30
      NOTE: Contains 3'5S« sewage sludge
          sol ids. 24 windrows sampled.
    40

AGE (DAYS)
                                  50
BO
                                            70
                                                                                   8Q
             Figure 54.   Average carbon  to nitrogen ratio of  24 windrows
       containing  3-5  percent sewage sludge.
                                          153

-------
various  ages.   Ranges  are  shown but  the  data, taken  from  24 windrows,




does not represent  a follow-through  of all  these windrows  from  0  to  80




days.  The  initial  C/N ratios  of  a group of seven windrows showed an




average  of  44.4.  At 42 days of composting  a similar group of five




windrows showed an  average C/N of 33.9 and  at 49 days  two  of these




showed an average of 31.9.




     Figure  55  shows the decrease of the C/N ratios  with  age in a




windrow  especially  sampled for this  purpose.  This windrow did  not




contain  sludge  solids.   The initial  C/N  was 44.4 and at 49 days the  ratio




was 33.0.   The  similarity  of Figures 54  and 55 will  be noted.




     The C/N ratios  at the beginning and end of the  composting  on the




field were  determined  for  several windrows  containing additives (Table  17).




Windrows to  which were added paunch  manure  and poultry manure showed lower




initial  C/N  ratios.  The decreases in the ratios while composting, however,




were not as  great as in normal windrows.  The 42-day ratios were  28.8




for the  material containing paunch manure and 24 for the  chicken  manure-




refuse mixture.




     The C/N ratios  for two windrows to  which urea-ammonium nitrate  was




added showed an increase rather than a decrease after composting.  The




rise was  due to the  loss of nitrogen as  ammonia as a result of  mass




action from  (1)  the  increase of pH in the system caused by the  addition




of Urea-NH^NOs, and  (2)  shifting  of  the  equilibrium NH* + OH~^H20 +  NH3t




to the right due to  an  increase of NH^ and OH  ions.




     Analyses for Chemical  Oxygen Demand.  A total of  22  samples  of




compost  of different ages  (0-168  days) was analyzed  for chemical




oxygen demand (COD).  The  results showed a steady reduction with  age
                                      154

-------
   50
   45
    40
    35
   30
CO
oc.
«c
CJ
    25
   20
                                     Windrow 24 - 25E
                 20
40
60          80

AGE (DAYS)
100
120
      NOTE: Contains no sewage sludge.
                   Figure 55.

              sewage  sludge.
    Carbon  to nitrogen ratio of a windrow without
                                           155

-------
                             TABLE 17


      CARBON/NITROGEN RATIOS OF COMPOST CONTAINING ADDITIVES


Windrow and Age        	Additive	        C/N Ratio

 13G -  1 day            Paunch manure                    31.2
       42 days                                            28.5

 19G -  1 day            Chicken manure                   25.8
       42 days                                            24.0

  8G -  1 day            Urea-ammonium nitrate             9.8
       42 days                                            12.9

 17G -  1 day            Urea-ammonium nitrate            17.7
       42 days                                            22.4

  1H - 43 days           Urea-ammonium nitrate            29.6
       56 days                                            22.8

 30G - 54 days           Animal blood                     22.5

 33G - 51 days           Pepper canning waste             26.5
                             156

-------
from about 900 milligrams per gram for fresh refuse to about 750 milligrams




per gram at 56 days of age.  A sample taken from compost 168 days old




showed a COD of about 300 milligrams per gram.  The COD can be used as




a gauge of the degree of decomposition of refuse (Figure 56).




     Cellulose, Starch, and Sugar Content.  The average cellulose content




of refuse at Johnson City was found to be 49 percent on a dry weight




basis.  After composting for 28 days, it was 43 percent and at 49 days




the content was 31 percent.




     The average initial starch content was 4.0 percent and dropped to




less than 1.0 percent after 28 days of composting.




     The average sugar content at the start of composting was 0.8




percent and dropped to less than 0.1 percent within 14 days.




     Figure 57 illustrates the diminishing content of these constituents




of refuse and compost with age.




     Calorific Value of Refuse and Compost.  At Johnson City, the calorific




values for composite samples of composting refuse containing 3 to 5 percent




sludge solids were found to be initially 4,077 calories per gram, diminishing




to 3,669 on the 49th day of composting and to 2,947 calories per gram for




compost 1 year old.







                             Cost Studies




     A system of cost accounting for plant operations and maintenance was




developed to provide accurate cost data for each phase of plant operation




for appraisal of windrow composting as a method of solid waste management.




Plant operations and activities were divided into various categories or
                                     157

-------
900
800
700
600
500
400
300-
                                          12            16
                                 COMPOSTING TIME (WEEKS)
20
24
                        Figure 56.  Chemical oxygen demand  of composting refuse.
                                             158

-------
               Figure 57.   Sugar, starch,  and cellulose content of
          composting refuse.
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
 4.0
 3.0
 2.0
 1.0
  50
  40
  30
                  2            4             6
                     AGE OF WINDROW (WEEKS)
                  2            4             6
                       AGE OF WINDROW (WEEKS)
                  2             4
                     AGE OF WINDROW (WEEKS)
159

-------
units with an account number for each.  Cost data used to report the

project costs and provide the basis for projections to other windrow plants

were obtained from these monthly, quarterly, and year-end financial state-

ments of operations  (Appendix II).

     Capital Cost.  The total construction cost for the plant, including

the modifications made since startup, is $958,375.  Table 18 itemizes these

costs.  On the basis of per ton daily capacity the actual capital investment

costs* were $18,580.  On a per-ton-refuse processed basis, the capital

investment cost is $12.98 (at 34 tons per day in 1968) (Table 19).

     The average rate at which the refuse has been received at the plant

would permit the processing of 52 tons in a normal processing day

(6-1/2 hr for processing and 1-1/2 hr for cleaning operations).  Projecting

the actual costs to the 52 tons per day basis, the capital investment

cost would be $6.88 per-ton-refuse processed (Table 19).

     Operating Cost.  Actual costs for operating the composting plant in

1968 were $18.45 per-ton-refuse processed (Table 20).  The nature of the

operations (research and development) and the inability of the Johnson City

municipality to deliver enough refuse for operation at full capacity are

some reasons for this high unit cost.  A cost of $13.40 per-ton-refuse

processed was projected for operating this plant at 52 tons per day

(Table 21).  Some modifications were made for the research work being

conducted.
       *Capital cost calculations assumed straight line depreciation
over 20 years of buildings and equipment (excluding land) and bank
financing at 7-1/2 percent over 20 years.
                                160

-------
                                                        TABLE 18

                                         CONSTRUCTION COSTS FOR THE USPHS-TVA

                                      WINDROW COMPOSTING PLANT  (52-Ton Per Day) -/
Site Improvements
Buildings
  Receiving building
  Process building
  Office and laboratory
  Curing and drying shed
Receiving machinery and equipment
  Hopper conveyor and leveling gate
  Scale
Processing
  Elevating conveyor (sorting belt), w/magnetic separator
  Reject hopper
  Rasping machine (grinder)
  Hammermill (grinder) 3/
  Chuting
  Conveyors
Sludge filter and appurtenances, including sludge
      holding tank
Ground refuse-sludge mixer
Sludge piping
Power and control system
Bucket elevator
Loading bin and chute
Composting field, site preparation and waterlines
Regrinding and screening
Gasoline dispensing installation
Mobile equipment, including front end loaders and turner
Tools, small equipment, etc.
Office and laboratory equipment J>/

Estimated cost of site (9.5 acres)
Construction or
  Installation

  $ 78,059.88 -1

    90,381.82 I7!
   142,742.36 |7
    40,245.28 |7
    44,192.55 -'

    12,643.94
     8,058.67

    23,608.17 I7!
     7,118.70 -'
     7,477.38
     2,086.63
     8,152.52
     7,851.69

     2,299.67 -1
     3,029.34
    13,760.08 „,
    36,181.73 -'
     1,408.77
    11,602.99 |7
    28,792.61 -r7,
    47,500.00 -7
     1,754.62
                                                                                Equipment
                                                                             and/or Materials
                                     Engineering
                                        Design
Total
                                     $ 10,032.00     $ 88,091.88
$618,949.40




$ 24,865.72
4,266.00
11,667.00

51,160.00
9,262.00
1,838.19
5,801.00
23,273.10
6,527.77
2,698.65

6,000.00


13,689.65
788.00
48,789.48
6,738.74
4,210.00
$221,575.30

13,982.00
21,800.00
7,883.00
7,111.00
5,800.00
1,112.00
6,828.00
965.00
9,380.00
1,880.00
1,570.00
2,418.00
4,320.00
1,490.00
2,700.00
5,820.00
1,282.00
1,324.00
9,901.00

253.00



$117,851.00

104,363.82
164,542.36
48,128.28
51,303.55
43,309.66
13,436.67
42,103.17
8,083.70
68,017.38
13,228.63
11,560.71
16,070.69
29,892.77
11,047.11
19,158.73
42,001.73
8,690.77
12,926.99
38,693.61
61,189.65
2,795.62
48,789.48
6,738.74
4^210.00
$958,375.70
7,600.00
                                                                                                                $965,975.70
1.  Based on one shift per day, 6% hours of processing and 1% hours for cleanup.
2.  Contains all or part of required materials.
3.  This mill is being replaced.
4.  Includes installation, construction materials, and design costs.
5.  Laboratory costs include only that for simple process control equipment.

-------
                                  TABLE 19

                  YEARLY INVESTMENT COSTS FOR THE USPHS-TVA

                          WINDROW COMPOSTING PLANT
         Item of Cost                                          Cost ($)*


Construction                                                    958,375

Land costs                                                        7,600
   Total                                                        965,975

Depreciation/yeart                                               47,920

Interest/year    t                                               45,080

Cost per ton daily capacity                                      18,580

Cost per ton refuse processed                                        12.98
                                                                     (6.88)§
     *  Actual costs of plant as built at Johnson City.   Plant operates on
1 shift day.  Cost per ton based on 1968 level of 7,164  tons of refuse
processed.
     t  Straight line depreciation over 20 years of buildings and equipment,
excluding land.
     ±  Bank financing at 7 1/2 percent over 20 years.   Yearly figure is
average of 20-year total interest charge.  Land cost included.
     §  Cost of Johnson City plant adjusted to design capacity of 13,520
tons refuse processed per year.
                                       162

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                                                                           TABLE 20
ACTUAL COST OF OPERATIONS FOR THE USPHS-TVA COMPOSTING
(7,164 tons processed in 210 days)
Receiving —
Picking and sorting
Disposal of rejects —
Grinding (rasper)
(hammermill)
Composting
Hauling and handling
Turning and wetting
Curing
Storage
Operation and maintenance
Grounds, buildings, and
utilities
Cleanup of process and
receiving buildings
Office and laboratory
Other
Regrinding and screening
Sewage sludge processing
Salaries
and
Benefits
$ 6,905
8,116
7,351
3,211
39
5,930
4,615
982
2,477

9,556
6,123
1,712
4,293
3,350
$64,660
Super-
vision
$ 1,181
1,388
1,258
549
7
1,015
790
168
424

1,635
1,048
293
734
573
$11,063
Utilities Supplies
Electric (excluding Truck and
power electricity) Use Materials
$ 59 $ $ $ 28
17 319
3,524 38
770
17
28 5,764 327
291
224 9
577
1,165
123
378 614 800
134 1,044 4,519
130 1,230
54 782
$2,618 $748 $12,363 $7,236
Miscel-
laneous Total
$ $ 8,173
9,840
12,171
4,530
63
50 13,114
21 5,717
1,383
48 3,526
1,165
11,314
144 9,107
624 8,326
6,387
4,759
$887 $99,575
PLANT (1968) -1
Salaries
and
Benefits
$ 974
305
620
2,134
231
3,073
2,342
45

4,506



846
2,970
$18,046
Super-
vision
$ 250
78
159
548
59
789
600
12

1,156



217
762
$4,630
M A TWTVW AW (T

Supplies
and Miscel-
Materials Repairs laneous Total Total
$ 661 $ 480 $ $ 2,365
30 413
56 835
2,925 5,607
290
677 140 4,679
1,548 783 5,273
15 72

509 68 6,239



409 1,472
1,395 218 5,345
$7,801 $1,636 $477 $32,590
$ 10,538
10,253
13,006
10,137
353
17,793
10,990
1,455
3,526
7,404
11,314
9,107
8,326
7,859
10,104
$132,165
1.  At plant site.
2.  Includes cost of haulage to landfill (no landfilling costs).

-------
                                                                         TABLE  21
ACTUAL ANNUAL COSTS OF
OPERATING THE USPHS-TVA PLANT
Receiving —
Picking & Sorting
Disposal of Rejects -
Grinding (rasper)
Composting
Curing
Storage
Operation & Maintenance of
Grounds, Buildings, &
Utilities
Cleanup of Process &
Receiving Buildings
4/
Office & Laboratory -'
Other
Re grind ing & Screening
Sewage Sludge Processing
Administrative & Overhead

Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 11,400
17,200
9,650
4,550
18,150
1,750
5,200

11,550
7,250

8,150
7,200
102,050
8,600
$110,650
PROJECTED TO FULL

Supplies
Electric Truck &
Power Use Materials
$ 145 $ $ 50
40 500
2,768 70
1,530 100
55 5,000 1,090
536 50
1,384 50
1,430
150
465 800
5,000
870 1,384 500
140 2,935
4,675 11,072 11,295

$4,675 $11,072 $11,295
CAPACITY (1968) -

Miscel-
laneous Total
$ $ 11,595
17,740
12,488
6,180
75 24,370
2,336
50 6,684
200 1,630
11,700
800 9,315
1,000 6,000
10,904
10,275
2,125 131,217
8,600
$2,125 $139,817
                                                                                             I/
1.  Production of 13,520 tons, based on 260 working days in year.
2.  At plant site.
3.  Includes cost of haulage to landfill but no landfilling costs.
4.  Operations only.  Does not include maintenance of building,  etc.
Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 1,550
900
750
4,750
8,200

6,000
2,900
2,350
27,400
2,400
$29,800
Supplies
&
Materials Repairs
$ 500 $ 500
100
75
5,000
1,600 950
25
650
300 200
1,250 250
9,475 1,925

$9,475 $1,925
Total
$ 2,550
1,000
825
9,750
10,750
25
6,650
3,400
3,850
38,800
2,400
$41,200
                                                                                                                                               Total
                                                                                                                                               8,280

                                                                                                                                               11,700
                                                                                                                                               9,315
                                                                                                                                               6,000
                                                                                                                                               14,304
                                                                                                                                               14,125
                                                                                                                                              170,017
                                                                                                                                               11.000
                                                                                                                                             $181,017

-------
     Table 22 summarizes the actual capital and 1968 operating costs




for the plant.




     The construction cost of $958,375 for the plant is subject to




some qualifications.  A high proportion (38 percent of plant cost) is in




buildings, partly because of the multi-story design, with equipment




installed on the second and third floor levels.  More ground level floor




space and simpler framing, as used in common mill buildings, with




installation of equipment independently of the structure, would have




permitted less expensive construction.  A case in point is the 150-ton-




per-day plant at Gainesville, Florida, where the cost of the buildings,




estimated at $150,000, is approximately 11 percent of the total plant




investment.




     Labor Cost.  With respect to the plant operating costs in 1968,




labor constituted about 75 percent of this cost.  Based on 50 tons of




refuse processed per day, 1969 labor costs amounted to 78 percent of




operating expenses.  Table 23 provides salary information of the TVA




working complement as of January 1, 1969.




     Cost Data Projected to Other Plants.  Estimates of the capital,




investment, and operating costs for various capacity windrow composting




plants were developed based on the actual costs recorded during the




report period at the USPHS-TVA plant (Tables 24, 25, and 26).  The




projections indicate that the total yearly costs for various size




windrow composting plants will range from $19.77 per-ton-refuse




processed for a 50-ton-per-day plant to $10.71 per-ton-refuse processed




for a 200-ton-per-day plant on two shifts (Table 27).
                                     165

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                                  TABLE 22


      SUMMARY OF PROCESSING COSTS FOR THE USPHS-TVA COMPOSTING PI-ANT
                          JOHNSON CITY, TENNESSEE
                           Capital cost-
    Tons per day           per-ton daily    Cost per ton refuse processed
                             capacity       Capital    Operating     Total
34 ieit
(7,164 tons/year)
'fc'tf'ic
(13,520 tons/year)
$18,580
18,580
$12.98 $18.45 $31.43
6.88 13.40 20.28
      * Based on actual costs of Johnson City composting plant with 7% percent
bank financing over 20 years.  Equipment and buildings depreciated over 20
years (straight line).  Operating costs based on actual costs for calendar
year 1968.
     ** Actual processing for 1968 operations.
    *** Operations projected to full capacity.
                                     166

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                                    TABLE 23

                           SALARIES OF TVA PERSONNEL
                           PHS-TVA Composting Project
                                January 1, 1969
                                                       ANNUAL SALARY

         Foreman                                           $9300
         Asst. Foreman                                      7740
         Equipment Operator (2)                             7050
         Truck Driver (3)                                   6885
         Maintenance Mechanic (2)                           8490
         Laborer (4)                                        6100


     The salaries shown are for an 8-hour day, with 8 paid holidays, and 20
paid vacation days.  Added benefits amount to 16.75 percent of the salaries,
not including leave benefits.  Overtime is paid at the rate of time and one-
half on regular workdays and double time on holidays.
                                    167

-------
                                                            TABLE  24
                                     ESTIMATED  CAPITAL  COSTS  FOR WINDROW  COMPOSTING PLANTS
CT\
00
Item of cost
Buildings
Equipment
4/
Site improvement —
Land cost —
Total cost
Total cost per ton
daily capacity
Daily
52 T/D
(Johnson City , ,
Plant - 1 shifty^'
$368,335
463,250
126,790
7,600
$965,975
$ 18,580
plant capacity
50 T/D
(1 shift) -'
$210,000
482,700
126,800
8,400
$827,900
$ 16,560
in tons per
100 T/D
(50 T/D
2 shifts) -'
$231,000
482,700
126,800
12,400
$852,900
$ 8,530
day (T/D)
100 T/D
(1 shift) -'
$ 231,000
607,100
152,000
12,400
$1,002,500
$ 10,020

200 T/D
(100 T/D
2 shifts) -'
$ 251,000
607,100
152,000
21,200
$1,031,300
$ 5,460
                1.   Actual  cost  of  the  research  and  development  PHS-TVA Composting Plant at Johnson City,
           Tennessee.
                2.   Based on Johnson City cost data  adjusted for building  and  equipment modifications.
                3.   Estimates based on  actual Johnson City cost  data  projected to the  larger  daily capacity
           plants.   (See Tables  28  through 33).
                4.   Includes preparation of composting field with crushed  stone and needed utility lines.
                5.   Land costs are  estimated based on approximate land values  near Johnson City, Tennessee,
           of $800  per acre.

-------
                                                        TABLE 25
                             ESTIMATED INVESTMENT COSTS FOR WINDROW COMPOSTING PLANTS (1969)
Item of cost
Construction
Land costs
Total
3 /
Depreciation/year —
4/
Interest /year —
Cost per ton daily
capacity
Cost per ton refuse
processed

52 T/D
(Johnson City,
1 shift, ,,
7,164 tons, 1968) -'
$958,380
7,600
$965,980
$47,920
$45,080
$18,580
$12.98 .
(6.88) -'
Plant capacity
50 T/D
(1 shift, .
13,000 T/year) -'
$819,500
8,400
$827,900
$41,000
$38,600
$15,560
$ 6.12
(5.38)i7
in tons jjer day (T/D)
100 T/D 100
(2 shifts, .. (1
26,000 T/year P' 26,
$840,500
12,400
$852,900 $1
$42,000
$39,800
$ 8,530
$ 3.15
(2.76)^
T/D
shift, .
000 T/year) -'
$989,100
12,400
,001,500
$49,500
$46,200
$10,020
$ 3.68
(3.28)-7
200 T/D
(2 shifts,
52,000 T/year)
$1,071,100
21,200
$1,092,300
$53,550
$51,000
$ 5,460
I/




$ 2.01
(1.73)^
    1.  Actual costs of plant as built at Johnson City.  Plant operates on 1 shift day.   Cost per ton based on
1968 level of 7,164 tons of refuse processed.
    2.  Based on Johnson City plant cost data adjusted for less elaborate equipment,  buildings,  and modifications.
    3.  Straight line depreciation over 20 years of buildings and equipment, excluding land.
    4.  Bank financing at 7% percent over 20 years.  Yearly figure is average of 20-year total interest  charge.
Land cost included.
    5.  Cost of Johnson City plant adjusted to design capacity of 13,520 tons refuse  processed per year.
    6.  Estimated cost without sludge processing equipment.

-------
                                             TABLE 26
ESTIMATED YEARLY OPERATING COSTS FOR VARIOUS CAPACITY WINDROW COMPOSTING PLANTS
Plant capacity (tons Number Plant operating costs ($)
°f r'£" P(?/D)Sed/ shifts 0>«"1°n8 Maintenance Iota!
52 T/D
1968 Johnson City
(7,164) * 1 $99,575 ^ $32,590 ^ $132,165 ^
(139,817) (41,200) (181,017)
50 T/D .....
(13,000) 1 133,950 43,700 177,650
100 T/D
(26,000) 2 213,795 59,150 272,945
100 T/D ...
(26,000) 1 197,850 59,850 257,700
200 T/D .......
(52,000) 2 357,015 95,400 452,415
Operating costs
per ton refuse
processed ($/ton)
$18.45 „.
(13.40)
13.65
10.50
9.90
8.70
                                                                         -              .
     ** Costs projected for operating PHS-TVA composting plant  at  design capacity of 52  tons per day
(13,520 T/year) in 1969.
    *** Estimated costs based on PHS-TVA composting project  operating  cost data.

-------
                                       TABLE 27



               SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED CAPITAL, OPERATING AND TOTAL COSTS


                    FOR VARIOUS SIZE WINDROW COMPOSTING PLANTS -/
Unit cost per ton refuse processed
Plant Capacity
tons /day
(tons/year)
52 *>
(13,520)
50
(13,000)
100
(26,000)
100
(26,000)
200
(52,000)
Number
of
Shifts
1
1
2
1
2
2/
Capital cost -
(per ton/day)
$18,580
$16,560
$ 8,530
$10,020
$ 5,460
Capital &
Investment
$6.88
$6.12
$3.15
$3.68
$2.01
3/
Operating -'
$13.40
$13.65
$10.50
$ 9.90
$ 8.70
Total
$20.28
$19.77
$13.65
$13.67
$10.71
     1.  Based on actual costs of Johnson City composting plant with modifications with



7% percent bank financing over 20 years.  Straight line depreciation of buildings and



equipment over 20 years.



     2.  Includes land costs estimated at $800/acre (Johnson City,  Tenn.).



     3.  Does not include costs for landfilling rejects.  For an estimate of these costs,



add $0.88, $0.72, and $0.52 to the 50-, 100-, and 200-tons-per-day  plants respectively.



Costs for landfilling refuse generated in a municipality the size of Johnson City


                                                      9 10
range from $2.00 to $5.00 per ton of refuse deposited. '   Using the average of $3.50,



the 12.5 tons of compost plant rejects deposited each day would cost $43.75 or $0.88



per ton of refuse processed.  Corresponding landfill costs for cities operating 100-



and 200-ton-per-day composting plants are about $2.75 and $2.00 respectively per ton


                    9 10
of refuse deposited. '    Costs for landfilling the rejects from these plants would be



$0.72 and $0.52 per ton respectively.



     4.  Actual costs of the research and development PHS-TVA Composting Plant at



Johnson City, Tennessee.



                                          171

-------
     The cost estimates include equipment for processing sewage sludge.




Also included are costs for land, depreciation, and debt service.  Because




use of compost is normally seasonal, the estimates include land area for




storage of 6 month's production of compost in rectangular piles 15 ft




high.  Land costs were assumed at $800 per acre—consistent with land




values near Johnson City.  If land costs were assumed at $1,500 per




acre, the capital cost for the 100- and 200-ton plants on two shifts




would increase by no more than one cent per ton of refuse processed.




For the 100-ton plant on one shift, the increase would be about 3 cents




per ton of refuse processed.




     Details of the construction and operating costs projections to




these plants are provided in Tables 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, and 33.




     Plant Income.  None of the compost produced has been sold.  Also,




salvaging of potentially salable materials has not been practiced.




Therefore, the project has not obtained cost data with respect to




potential plant income from such sources.  The potential income of




composting plants, other economic considerations and the potential of




windrow composting in solid waste resource management systems, will be




discussed in a report entitled "Composting of Municipal Solid Waste in




the United States."11







                    Demonstration and Utilization




     None of the compost produced at the Johnson City plant has been




sold.  Prior to March 1969, the Bureau of Solid Waste Management had




asked TVA to restrict the uses to which it was put pending the outcome
                                     172

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                                           TABLE 28

                              USFHS-TVA PLANT CONSTRUCTION COSTS

                             PROJECTED TO A 50-TON PER DAY PLANT *
Site improvements                                                                 $ 88,100
Buildings
  Receiving building                                                                75,000
  Processing building                                                               90,000
  Open shed (6,000 square feet)                                                     25,000
  Office and laboratory                                                             20,000
Receiving machinery and equipment
  Hopper conveyor and leveling gate                                                 43,300
  Scale (automatic talley)                                                          18,500
Processing
  Elevating conveyor (sorting belt), with magnetic separator                        28,500
  Reject hopper                                                                      8,100
  Rasping machine (grinder)                                                         68,000
  Chuting                                                                            9,000
  Conveyors                                                                         10,400
Sludge dewatering apparatus, degritter, thickening tank and sludge pump             68,000
Ground refuse-sludge mixer                                                          11,000
Sludge piping                                                                       19,100
Power and control system                                                            42,000
Loading bin with bucket elevator                                                    16,000
Ballistic separator                      _                                           20,000
Composting field, surface preparation (crushed stone) and water lines               38,700
Regrinding and screening                                                            50,000
Gasoline dispensing installation                                                     2,800
Mobile equipment, including front end loaders and turner                            56,000
Tools, small equipment, etc.                                                         7,000
Office and laboratory equipment                                                      5.000

                                             Construction Total                   $819,500
Land costs (10.5 acres at $800/acre)                                                 8.400

                                             Total                                $827,900


*  Based on costs of Johnson City plant (1966-67), revised for lower building costs and
   some changes in machinery and equipment.  Plant would operate one shift of 8 hours each
   day.  To operate this plant on two shifts for 100 tons of raw refuse per day the re-
   ceiving building apron would require enlargement and cover and the site would require
   expansion to 15-5 acres.  The added cost would be $21,000 for receiving area and $4,000
   for land, bringing total to $852,900.
                                             173

-------
                                           TABLE 29

                             USPHS-TVA FLAM1 CONSTRUCTION COSTS

                           PROJECTED TO A 100-TON PER DAY PLANT *
Site improvements                                                               $   90,000
Buildings
  Receiving building                                                                96,000
  Processing building                                                               90,000
  Open shed (6,000 square feet)                                                     25,000
  Office and laboratory                                                             20,000
Receiving machinery and equipment
  Hopper conveyor and leveling gate                                                 43>300
  Scale (automatic talley)                                                          18,500
Processing
  Elevating conveyor (sorting belt), with magnetic separator                        28,500
  Reject hopper                                                                     10,000
  Rasping machine (grinder)                                                        136,000
  Chuting                                                                           12,000
  Conveyors                                                                         12,500
Sludge dewatering apparatus, degritter, thickening tank and sludge pump             92,000
Ground refuse-sludge mixer                                                          16,500
Sludge piping                                                                       20,000
Power and control system                                                            45,000
Loading bin                                                                         20,000
Ballistic separator                                                                 20,000
Composting field, surface preparation (with crushed stone) and water lines          62,000
Regrinding and screening                                                            50,000
Gasoline dispensing installation                                                     2,800
Mobile equipment, including front end loaders and turner                            67,000
Tools, small equipment, etc.                                                         7,000
Office and laboratory equipment                                                 	5,000


                                              Construction Total                $  989,100

Land costs (15-5 acres at $800/acre)                                                12.400

                                              Total                             $1,001,500
   Based on unit costs (1966-67) at Johnson City, revised for less expensive buildings and
   some changes in machinery and equipment.  Plant would operate one shift of 8 hours each
   day.  To operate this plant on two shifts for a capacity of 200 tons of raw refuse per
   day would require enlargement of the receiving building, enlargement of the sludge
   thickening tank, expansion of the site to 26.5 acres, and the addition of one front end
   loader and one windrow turner.  Added costs would be $20,000 for receiving, $15,000 for
   sludge handling, $8,800 for land, and $47,100 for mobile equipment, bringing the total
   to $1,092,400.
                                             174

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                                                                    1ABLE  30





2/
Receiving —
Picking & Sorting
Disposal of Rejects -'
Grinding (rasper)
Composting
Curing
Storage
Operation & Maintenance of
Grounds, Buildings, &
Utilities
Cleanup of Process &
Receiving Buildings
Office & Laboratory -'
Regrinding & Screening
Sewage Sludge Processing

Other (including
Administrative & Overhead





Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 11,400
17,200
9,650
4,550
18,950
1,750
5,200

11,600
7,250
8,200
5,300
101,050
8,600
$109,650
USPHS-TVA PLANT
COSTS PROJECTE1
PER DAY PLANT

Supplies
Electric Truck &
Power Use Materials
$ 130 $ $ 50
40 300
2,700 70
1,330 100
20 1,740 1,000
1,220 50
1,220 50
1,580
150
800
1,360 1,220 500
1,070 500
5,530 8,100 3,570
5,000
$5,530 $8,100 $8,570
ANNUAL OPERATING
} TO A 50-TON
(one shift) -1

Miscel-
laneous Total
$ $ 11,580
17,540
12,420
5,980
100 21,810
3,020
6,470
200 1,780
300 12,050
500 8,550
11,280
6,870
1,100 119,350
1,000 14,600
$2,100 $133,950
Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 1,650
1,000
850
4,750
8,200


6,450
3,000
1,900
27,800
2,400
$30,200
Supplies
&
Materials Repairs
$ 500
100
100
5,000
2,000


800
500
500
9,500

$9,500
$ 500
100

200
1,000
100
100
500
500
1,000
4,000

$4,000
Total
$ 2,650
1,200
950
9,950
11,200
100
100
7,750
4,000
3,400
41,300
2,400
$43,700
1.  Plant capacity of 50 tons of raw refuse per day in one 8-hour shift.   Costs  are  for  260  days  of
    operation for a total of 13,000 tons per year.
2.  At plant site.
3.  Includes haulage to a landfill site but no landfilling costs.
4.  For laboratory and office functions only.  Does not include cost of building maintenance.
                                                                                                                                              Total

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                                                                     TABLE 31
USPHS-TVA PLANT ANNUAL OPERATING
COSTS PROJECTED TO A 100- TON
PER DAY PLANT (two shifts) -'
21
Receiving -'
Picking & Sorting
Disposal of Rejects — '
Grinding (rasper)
Composting
Curing
Storage
Operation & Maintenance of
Grounds, Buildings, &
Utilities
Cleanup of Process &
Receiving Buildings
Office & Laboratory — '
Regrinding & Screening
Sewage Sludge Processing
Other (including
Administrative & Overhead

Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 18,700
38,450
18,050
7,800
31,900
3,350
10,050

12,100
7,250
15,600
9,550
172,800
13,600
$186,400
------ -OPERATIONS- - - -
Supplies
Electric Truck &
Power Use Materials
$ 195 $ $ 100
55 600
4,590 150
1,935 200
30 2,345 2,000
1,645 100
1,645 100
1,435
200
1,000
1,635 1,645 1,000
1,390 1,000
6,675 11,870 6,450

$6,675 $11,870 $6,450

Miscel-
laneous Total
$ $ 18,995
39,105
22,790
9,935
200 36,475
5,095
11,795
200 1,635
400 12,700
600 8,850
19,880
11,940
1,400 199,195
1,000 14,600
$2,400 $213,795
Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 1,750
1,000
850
5,150
9,500


6,450
4,000
2,300
31,000
2,400
$33,400
Supplies
&
Materials Repairs
$ 1,000
200
200
9,550
4,000


1,000
1,000
1,000
17,950

$17,950
$1,000
500

400
2,000
200
200
500
1,000
2,000
7,800

$7,800
Total
$ 3,750
1,700
1,050
15,100
15,500
200
200
7,950
6,000
5,300
56,750
2,400
$59,150
1.  Plant of 50 tons of raw refuse capacity in one 8-hour shift working two 8-hour shifts.
    Costs are for 260 days of operation for a total of 26,000 tons per year.
2.  At plant site.
3.  Includes haulage to a landfill site but no landfilling costs.
4.  For laboratory and office functions only.  Does not include cost of building maintenance.
                                                                                                                                               Total
                                                                                                                                            $  22,745
                                                                                                                                              40,805
                                                                                                                                              23,840
                                                                                                                                              25,035
                                                                                                                                              51,975
                                                                                                                                               5,295
                                                                                                                                              11,995

                                                                                                                                               9,585
                                                                                                                                              17,000
                                                                                                                                            $272,945

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                                                                    TABLE 32


USPHS-TVA PLANT ANNUAL
COSTS PROJECTED TO A
OPERATING
100-TON
PER DAY PLANT (one shift) -1
2/
Receiving -'
Picking & Sorting
Disposal of Rejects —
Grinding (rasper)
Composting
Curing
Storage
Operation & Maintenance of
Grounds, Buildings, &
Utilities
Cleanup of Process &
Receiving Buildings
Office & Laboratory —
Regrinding & Screening
Sewage Sludge Processing
Other (including
Administrative & Overhead

Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 16,150
29,250
18,050
7,300
29,550
3,350
9,750

11,600
7,250
15,600
6,550
154,400
13,600
$168,000
------- -OPERATIONS- ------
Supplies
Electric Truck & Miscel-
Power Use Materials laneous
$ 130 $ $ 100 $
75 600
5,385 150
2,715 200
25 2,600 2,000 200
1,825 100
1,825 100
1,485 200
200 400
1,000 600
1,710 1,825 1,000
1,400 1,000
7,540 13,460 6,450 1,400
1,000
$7,540 $13,460 $6,450 $2,400

Total
$ 16,380
29,925
23,585
10,215
34,375
5,275
11,675
1,685
12,200
8,850
20,135
8,950
183 , 250
14,600
$197,850
Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 1,750
1,000
850
5,350
9,500


6,450
4,000
2,300
31,200
2,400
$33,600
Supplies
&
Materials Repairs
$ 1,500
200
200
9,550
4,000


1,000
1,000
1,500
18,950

$18,950
$1,000
500

400
2,000
200
200
500
1,000
1,500
7,300

$7,300
Total
$ 4,250
1,700
1,050
15,300
15,500
200
200
7,950
6,000
5,300
57,450
2,400
$59,850
1.  Plant capacity of 100 tons of raw refuse per day in one 8-hour shift.  Costs are for
    260 days of operation for a total of 26,000 tons per year.
2.  At plant site.
3.  Includes haulage to a landfill site but no landfilling costs.
4.  For laboratory and office functions only.  Does not include cost of building maintenance.
                                                                                                                                              Total
                                                                                                                                           $  20,630
                                                                                                                                             31,625
                                                                                                                                             24,635
                                                                                                                                             25,515
                                                                                                                                             49,875
                                                                                                                                              5,475
                                                                                                                                             11,875

                                                                                                                                              9,635
                                                                                                                                             17,000
                                                                                                                                           $257,700

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                                                                     TABLE 33
USPHS-TVA PLANT ANNUAL OPERATING
Receiving —
Picking & Sorting
3 /
Disposal of Rejects -'
Grinding (rasper)
Composting
Curing
Storage
Operation & Maintenance of
Grounds, Buildings, &
Utilities
Cleanup of Process &
Receiving Buildings
4/
Office & Laboratory —
Regrinding & Screening
Sewage Sludge Processing
Other (including
Administrative & Overhead

Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 29,550
62,700
35,700
13,100
52,200
6,500
19,600

12,000
14,700
29,000
9,950
285,000
22,700
$307,700
COSTS PROJECTED
PER DAY PLANT
------ -OPERATIONS- - - -
Supplies
Electric Truck &
Power Use Materials
$ 190 $ $ 200
105 1,200
9,185 300
3,730 400
30 4,950 4,000
3,470 200
3,470 200
1,400
300
1,200
2,220 3,470 2,000
1,795 2,000
9,470 24,545 12,000

$9,470 $24,545 $12,000
TO A 200-TON
(two shifts) -'

Miscel-
laneous Total
$ $ 29,940
64,005
45,185
17,230
400 61,580
10,170
23,270
400 1,800
500 12,800
1,000 16,900
36,690
13,745
2,300 333,315
1,000 23,700
$3,300 $357,015
Salaries
&
Benefits
$ 2,450
1,400
1,150
6,000
13,750


6,650
6,000
3,600
41,000
3,300
$44,300
Supplies
&
Materials
$ 3,000
400
300
19,100
8,000


1,200
2,000
3,000
37,000

$37,000

Repairs
$ 2,000
1,000

800
4,000
400
400
500
2,000
3,000
14,100

$14,100

Total
$ 7,450
2,800
1,450
25,900
25,750
400
400
8,350
10,000
9,600
92,100
3,300
$95,400
                                                                                                                                                 Total
                                                                                                                                               $  37,390
                                                                                                                                                 66,805
                                                                                                                                                 46,635
                                                                                                                                                 43,130
                                                                                                                                                 87,330
                                                                                                                                                 10,570
                                                                                                                                                 23,670

                                                                                                                                                 10,150

                                                                                                                                                 12,800
                                                                                                                                                 16,900
                                                                                                                                                 46,690
                                                                                                                                                 23,345
                                                                                                                                                425,415

                                                                                                                                                 27,000
                                                                                                                                               $452,415
1.  Plant capacity of 100 tons of raw refuse in one 8-hour shift working for two 8-hour shifts.
    Costs are for 260 days of operation for a total of 52,000 tons per year.
2.  At plant site.
3.  Includes haulage to a landfill site but no landfilling costs.
4.  For laboratory and office functions only.  Does not include cost of building maintenance.

-------
of pathogen survival studies.  These restrictions and the lack of a




finished product has limited the activity of the Division of Agricultural




Development, TVA, in its utilization studies.




     The TVA agriculturist assigned to the project has, however, been




active in setting up demonstrations where the unfinished material could




be used and where owners of the sites agreed to abide by the restrictions.




The demonstation areas are on public lands or the land of private owners




who have agreed to allow the agriculturist to supervise the application




and to follow the progress of the plantings.




     Due to the troubles experienced with the final grinding and




screening equipment which was not completed until February 1969, the bulk




of the material used in Fiscal Year 1969 was unfinished (unreground or




screened).  It represents 80 percent of the compost produced in the year.




     The demonstration sites include tobacco, corn, gardens, grass or




sod establishment, erosion control and reclamation, orchards, shrubs




and flowers, golf courses, soybeans, and miscellaneous.  TVA experimental




test plots are in corn and grain sorghum, each involving 52 test plots,




12 x 30 ft each, in which various application rates are being examined,




some with fertilizers and some without.  Another concerns an evaluation




of compost on Bermuda grass.  Appendix III provides preliminary results




of the experiments.




     The rates of application on the demonstration plantings range




from 10 to 100 tons per acre for corn and 5 to 30 tons per acre for




tobacco.  The agriculturist hopes to evaluate the merits of application




rates of 4 to 200 tons per acre and various rates of fertilization in




several seasons over the next 3-1/2 years.
                                      179

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     Three other demonstrations deserve special mention.  Two of these




involve erosion control and reclamation of strip mine spoil bank areas,




one project in cooperation with the TVA Strip Mine Reclamation Section,




and one project in cooperation with the Southern Soil Conservation




Committee in Mercer County, West Virginia.  Approximately 100 tons were




shipped to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory for use as a soil amendment




in a radioactive burial ground area being used for special ecological




studies.




     In addition to demonstration and research with compost in the




vicinity of Johnson City, the Division of Agricultural Development




undertook research into the effect of compost on a planting of pine




tree seedlings at Holder, Citrus County, Florida.  Because of the




distance and cost for shipment from Johnson City, arrangements were




made to obtain compost from the Gainesville Municipal Waste Conversion




Authority plant at Gainesville, Florida.  Through cooperation from the




Soils Department, University of Florida, compost was obtained at no




cost and advice and consultation were obtained from the staff.  The




physical appearance of this compost compared well with the Johnson




City compost,  but the moisture content was about twice and the nitrogen




content 50 to 80 percent that of the compost as used in demonstrations




at Johnson City.
                                     180

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                               REFERENCES
 1.   Mason, H. G.  Extending life of disposal areas.   Compost Science,
       10(1-2):26-31, Spring-Summer 1969.

 2.   Reclamation of municipal refuse by composting.   Technical Bulletin
       No. 9.  Berkeley, Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory,
       University of California, June 1953.   89 p.

 3.   Wiley, J. S., and 0. W. Kochtitzky.  Composting developments in
       the United States.  Compost Science,  6(2):5-9, Summer 1965.

 4.   Gotaas, H.  B.  Composting-sanitary disposal and reclamation of
       organic wastes.  World Health Organization Monograph Series
       No. 31.  Geneva, World Health Organization,  1956.  44 p.

 5.   Morgan, M.  T., and F. W. Macdonald.  Tests show MB tuberculosis
       doesn't survive composting.  Journal of Environmental Health,
       32(1):101-108, July-Aug. 1969.

 6.   fielding, D. L.  Basic clinical parasitology.   New York, Appelton-
       Century-Crofts, Inc., 1958.  469 p.

 7.   Scott, J. S.  Health aspects of composting with night soil.  World
       Health Organization Expert Committee on Environmental Sanitation,
       3rd session, Geneva, July 27-31, 1953.  8 p.

 8.   Wilson, D.  L.  Laboratory procedure for the gravimetric determination
       of carbon and hydrogen in solid wastes (for methods manual); a
       Division of Research and Development open-file report (RS-03-68-17).
       [Cincinnati], U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
       1970.  35 p.  [Restricted distribution.]

 9.   Muhich, A.  J.  Sample representatives and community data.  In
       Black, R. J. , ejt _al.  The national solid wastes survey; an interim
       report.  [Cincinnati], U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
       Welfare,  [1968].  p. 7-25.

10.   Sorg, T. J., and H. L. Hickman, Jr.  Sanitary landfill facts.  2d
       ed.  Public Health Service Publication No.  1792.  Washington,
       U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970.  30 p.

11.   Breidenbach, A. W., _e_t al.  Composting of municipal solid wastes
       in the United States.  Washington,  U.S. Government Printing
       Office, 1971.  103 p.

12.   Mays, D. A., E. M. Evans, R. C. Dyram, and C. E. Worley.  Excerpt
       Forage Research Report No. 6.  Summary of 1969 forage investi-
       gations.   Soils and Fertilizer Research Branch, Tennessee Valley
       Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.
                                   181

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                              APPENDIX I





                  Methods Used for Chemical Analyses



     Test for Moisture.  Moisture contents were determined by oven



drying at 100 C using 2,000 gram or larger samples.  In most cases a



drying period of 24 hr was used as the water content was rarely over



60 percent by wet weight.  Moisture content was calculated by the



relation:
           100 (loss in weight)   „          .,    ,   .  \
           	7—	. ° .   = % moisture (wet basis)
              (net wet weight)
     Digestion of Compost Samples for Elemental Analyses.  Digest from



2.0 to 3.0 grams of compost (dried, finely ground, and weighed to the



nearest milligram) in a mixture of 20 milliliters of concentrated



sulfuric acid and 50 milliliters of concentrated nitric acid in a



Kjeldahl flask for 2 hr or until clear, adding additional nitric acid



if necessary.  Filter and dilute this to 500 milliliters in a volumetric



flask and save for further analyses.



     Test for Nitrogen (Organic and Ammoniacal).  The test used in



the project laboratory is a modification of the Kjeldahl-Wilfarth-Gunning



method described in Appendix A, Municipal Refuse Disposal, American



Public Works Association, 2 ed., 1966.



     Equipment - Kjeldahl flasks for digestion and distillation,



                 800 milliliter; exhaust hood and special stack



                 to outside for venting acid fumes during digestion;
                                     183

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             Kjeldahl  connecting bulbs  (use bulbs 5 to 6




             centimeters  in  diameter, fit lower end with




             rubber  stopper,  and connect upper end to a




             condenser with  rubber  tubing);  Erlenmeyer




             flasks, 500  milliliter.




 Reagents - Standard sulfuric acid, 0.1N; standardize by




             any official method.




             Boric acid solution, 40 g/1.




             Sulfuric acid,  93 to 96 percent ^SO^, free




             from nitrates and (NHtt)2SOi+.




             Mercuric oxide,  reagent grade, free from




             nitrogen.




             Sodium hydroxide-thiosulfate solution:




             dissolve 450 grams of  NaOH, free from nitrates,




             in water and allow to  cool; add 80 grams of




             Na2S203.5H20, keeping  solution cool, and make




             to 1 liter with water.




             Methyl red indicator:  dissolve 1 gram of methyl




             red in 200 milliters of 95 percent ethyl alcohol.




             Potassium sulfate, K^SOij.




             Granulated zinc.




Procedure -  Weigh to fourth  decimal place 0.7 to 2.5 grams




             of redried sample (indirectly from aluminum




             sample container) into a piece of Whatman No. 1




             filter paper (9  centimeters).  Fold paper and
                                 184

-------
introduce into digestion flask.  Add 15 to 18




grams of K^SO^., about 0.7 grams of mercuric




oxide, and 25 milliliters of concentrated I^SO^.




Heat gently until frothing ceases, then boil




briskly, continuing digestion for about 2 hr




after the mixture is colorless or nearly so.




Cool, add 200 milliliters of water, and dissolve




cake.  Add 1 gram of granulated zinc to prevent




bumping and 75 milliliters of alkali-thiosulfate




solution, pouring down the side of the flask so




that it does not mix at once with the acid




solution.  Connect flask immediately to the




condenser by means of the Kjeldahl connecting




bulk, taking care that the tip of the condenser




extends below the surface of the standard acid




in the 500-milliliter flask, which acts as a




receiver.  Mix the contents by shaking and distill




into 50 milliliters of the boric acid solution




until about 200 milliliters of distillate has




been obtained.  The first 150 milliliters of the




distillate usually contains all of the NH3.  It




is helpful to mark the receiving flasks at about




200 milliliters and distill to the mark.  Titrate




with the standard acid solution, using the methyl




red indicator.
                    185

-------
  Calculations -    ml  0.10N  H2SO^ x 0.14

                     TT  .—:	7	;	',	 \= °/° Nitrogen
                     Wexght of sample (grams)
     Determination of Carbon Content of Compost and Refuse.  Determinations




for carbon content was made by the Research Services Laboratory, Division




of Research and Development, BSWM, in Cincinnati, where special procedures




were developed.  The gravimetric method for determination of carbon and




hydrogen is described in an open file report.8




     Test for Phosphorus.  Dilute the previously digested sample to 500




milliliters in a volumetric flask and determine the phosphorous content




as in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 12th




ed., 1965, p. 234-236, with the following modifications:




     1.  Use only recently digested samples, no more than 1 week




         old.  Old samples give erratic, inaccurate results.




     2.  Dilute 5 ml of digested material to 100 ml for the




         determinations.




     3.  Standard addition must be used with this method.  Make




         two additional preparations of each sample and add 0.05




         milligrams and 0.10 milligrams phosphorus to each,




          respectively.  It was found that there is a color




         suppressant in the compost that will result in low




         values if the analyses are performed against a standard




         curve.  This interference is readily overcome with the




         standard addition technique, giving accurate, reliable




         results.
                                    186

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     Tests for Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Magnesium.  Using




previously digested  samples of compost, these elements are determined




by flame photometry  using  the methods as described in Dean, John A.,




Flame Photometry, McGraw-Hill, 1960, New York, p. 153-179.




     Test for Boron.  Using a digested compost sample, boron is




determined by two methods  as given in Snell and Snell, ColoTimetria




Methods of Analysis, Vol.  11A, D. Van Nostrand Company, 1959, Princeton,




New Jersey.  Page 594 of this text describes a method using quinalizarin,




and page 596 describes a method using carminic acid  (carmine red).  Both




of these methods were found to be satisfactory; however, both methods




should be employed with each sample tested to assure accurate results.




     Test for Copper.  Add 4 milliliters of a digested sample (2 to 3




grams in 500 milliliters of water) to a separatory funnel, then add 5




milliliters of 10 percent  hydroxylamine hydrochloride and 10 milliliters




of 30 percent sodium citrate.  Add concentrated NHi+OH by drops until




the pH is between 4  and 6.  Then add 10 milliliters  of 10 percent




neocuproine, mix and extract with 10 milliliters of  CHC13.  Let the




layers separate, draw off  the chloroform layer and read the absorbance




in a spectrophotometer at  457 millicrons.  Run standards with a range




of from 10 to 50 ppm copper.  The reference for this test is Snell and




Snell, ColoTimetT-ie  Methods of Analysis, page 75.




     Test for Iron.  Dilute the previously digested  sample to 500




milliliters in a volumetric flask.  Pipet 5.0 milliliters into a




separatory funnel, add 10  milliliters 5 percent KCNS solution and




extract the red complex with exactly 50.0 milliliters ether.  Draw
                                     187

-------
 off  the  aqueous  phase  and  read  the absorbance of the ether phase in  a


 spectrophotometer  at 440 millimicrons.  For standards use 20, 50,  and  100


 ppm  iron (Fe  3).   Compute  the concentration of the sample directly from


 the  standard  curve in  ppm.  The iron content of the sample is determined


 by the relation:
              Concentration  of sample  (ppm)
              	_	.—__-—	1_	L-J	  =
                   20 x  initial sample wt.
     Fairly reliable  results  can be obtained by simply boiling the


sample in strong hydrochloric, nitric, or sulfuric acid  (3N  to 6N)  to


dissolve the iron, filtering  and washing the resultant mass, and diluting


the filtrate to 500 ml, then  proceeding as above.  This would eliminate


the digestion step, thus giving a more rapid analysis with results


accurate enough for routine analysis.  The reference for the iron test


is Snell and Snell, Colorimetrio Methods of Analysis, Vol. HA, p.  229-


231.


     Test for Aluminum.  Remove iron from the sample as described in


page 246 of Snell and Snell,  Colorimetrio Methods of Analysis, Vol. II,


Van Nostrand, New York, 1949.


     After removal of the iron is complete, determine the aluminum  by


following the directions given on pages 48-50 of the above reference.


     Tests for Manganese, Nickel, Zinc, Mercury, and Lead.  These


elements are present in compost in trace amounts, and their upper limits


of concentration were set using methods as described in Feigl, Fritz,


Qualitative Analysis by Spot Tests, Elsevier Publishing Company, New York,
                                     188

-------
1946.  These elements can be quantitatively determined by atomic




absorption spectroscopy or by mass spectres copy.   Polarographic




techniques may also be used, but difficulty will be encountered since




the compost contains an abundance of elements with electrode half-




potentials similar to these, and special solvent extraction or masking




techniques would have to be used to achieve reliable results.  Atomic




absorption spectroscopy is probably the easiest,  most rapid and accurate




technique to employ for these elements.




     Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.)   The reference




used for this determination is Standard Methods for the Examination of




Water and Waste-water, 12th ed., 1965, p. 510-514, where the technique




and standardization procedure can be found.




      Reagents -  Potassium dichromate solution, l.OON.




                  Standardized ferrous ammonium sulfate.




                  Concentrated sulfuric acid.




                  Ferroin indicator.




     Procedure -  Weigh out 0.2 to 0.3 grams of finely ground,




                  dry, compost (2 millimeter mesh) to the




                  nearest milligram and place the sample in a




                  250 milliliter Erlenmeyer flask.  Pipette




                  in exactly 50.0 milliliters of l.OON K2Cr207,




                  add 30 milliliters of water and 20 milliliters




                  of concentrated I^SO^.  Place on a hotplate




                  and boil gently for 1 hr, adding water to




                  compensate for evaporation.  Dilute to 250
                                     189

-------
                  milliliters in a volumentric flask, mix well,



                  pipette 10,0 milliliters into a 500 milliliter



                  flask and add about 100 milliliters of water.



                  Titrate with standardization ferrous ammonium



                  sulfate (about 0.1 to 0.2N) using ferroin as



                  an indicator.





  Calculations -          _  (A - B) x C x 200 (in milligrams/gram
                  l> • U • JJ •  —          _     -
                              grams of sample



                  where:



                          A = milliliters of titrant used for blank



                          B = milliliters of titrant used for sample



                          C = normality of titrant



     It is advisable to run a duplicate of the original sample and a



duplicate of each dilution.  Good precision was found in duplicate assays,



indicating that the method is stable and reproducible for a given sample



of compost.  This observation is further substantiated by the results



plotted in Figure 56, which show the COD in milligrams/gram of randomly



selected windrows versus age.  Johnson City compost, at 8 weeks, showed



a COD of less than 700 mg/gram, as opposed to around 900 mg/gram for



fresh refuse.



     Determination of Cellulose Content.  Two methods for the determination



of cellulose content were used in the laboratory, the anthron colorimetric



method and the gravimetric method.



     (Anthrone Method)



      Reagents -  Diluted H2S04 (760 ml cone. E2SO^ + 300 ml water)
                                     190

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             Anthrone reagent:  1 gram anthrone in 500 ml cold




                                96% t^SOi^.  Let stand at room




                                temperature 4 hr before use.




             Benzene




             Pure cellulose standard




Procedure -  Weigh out a finely ground and redried compost




             sample to the nearest milligram, place in a




             Soxhlet extractor, and extract with benzene for




             8 hr.  Dry the composite sample and weight it in




             order to compute the percent material extracted




             with benzene.  Extract this sample again with




             hot water for 8 hr.  Dry the sample and weigh it




             in order to compute the percent material extracted




             with water.  Take between 0.5 to 1.0 gram of the




             composite sample weighed to the nearest milligram




             and place it in a 250 milliliter beaker, wet it




             with a few drops of ethanol, methanol, or acetone.




             Pipet in 10.0 milliliters water, then 60.0




             milliliters diluted sulfuric acid and stir to




             dissolve the cellulose solution into a 500




             milliliter volumetric flask and dilute to 500




             milliliters.  Pipet 1 milliliter of this into




             a test tube, add 10.0 milliliters anthrone




             reagent, mix, seal the tube and heat in a 100 C




             bath for 15 min.  Cool to room temperature and
                               191

-------
   Calculations -   % cellulose
                  read the absorbance with a spectrophotometer



                  at 630 millimicrons.  Run cellulose standards



                  to bracket the sample concentration and a blank



                  with each series of samples.  A blank and standards



                  must be included with each group of samples heated



                  in the 100 C bath.



                                   W  x (100 - [% E,  + % E ])
                                    c              b      w
                                    grams of extracted sample



                    where:
                           W  = weight of cellulose found in grams
                           Eb
= benzene extract
                           E  = water extract
                            w




     Note:  If all the sample can be recovered and used after the



benzene and water extractions, then it is unnecessary to compute the



percent of extracted material.  Simply know the initial weight of the



sample, the number of grams found (from the anthrone standard curve) and



compute the percent cellulose from this.  This is easily accomplished by



placing 0.5 gram to 1.0 gram of compost in a porcelain thimble with an



asbestos filter, capping with glass wool, extracting, and then washing



all the sample into a beaker and proceeding with the determination as



above.



     (Gravimetric Method)



     Reagents -   Concentrated nitric acid



                  Glacial acetic acid
                                    192

-------
              Benzene




              Ether




              Methanol




              Acetone




Procedure -   Weigh out about 1 gram of redried, finely ground




              compost to the nearest milligram, place in a 125




              milliliter Erlenmeyer flask and add 6 milliliters




              water, 24 milliliters glacial acetic acid, and 2




              milliliters concentrated nitric acid.  Bring to




              a gentle boil on a hotplate for 20 min, cool




              to about 80 C, add 50 milliliters benzene and




              swirl vigorously to extract materials soluble in




              benzene.  Set up a Gooch crucible with an asbestos




              filter on a suction flask, decant as much of the




              benzene layer as possible into the filter (with




              suction) taking care not to let the bottom layer




              spill over.  Then add 50 milliliters of ether to




              the flask, swirl vigorously, let settle and decant




              all the liquid into the crucible.  Wash all the




              solid material into the crucible with acetone,




              taking care not to leave any behind.  Wash the




              filter cake thoroughly with successive portions




              of hot benzene, hot methanol, and ether.  After




              washing, clean the outside of the crucible, place




              in an oven to dry, cool in a desiccator, weigh to
                                 193

-------
                  the nearest milligram and ignite at 625 C for



                  1 hr.  Cool, weigh, and report the loss on



                  ignition.
  Calculations -  Loss on ignition x 100   „ _ .... ..
                  ——:—:—;—a	;	.  L   = /, Cellulose
                   Initial sample weight
    Discussion -  Duplicate samples should always be run to assure



                  precision.  Swirling the benzene with the hot



                  reaction mixture is necessary to assure rapid



                  filtering of the successive solvents used.  Compost



                  contains a tar-like material that plugs the filter,



                  and most of this is soluble in benzene.



     An alternate approach is provided by combining the two methods.



Complete the solvent  washings as in the gravimetric method, then



dissolve the entire sample as in the anthrone method and determine the



cellulose colorimetrically.  This was done three times with a 0-day



composite compost sample, and the results were 49.4 percent, 49.4



percent, and 49.6 percent.  The gravimetric method on the same sample



yielded 50.2 percent, 50.0 percent, and 50.3 percent.  The higher results



indicate that some substances were not removed by the extractions (0.7%)



and were not cellulose, but were lost on ignition.



     Analyses were performed on samples to which known amounts of



cellulose had been added to further check the gravimetric method.
                                    194

-------
                                               % Cellulose
0-day compost
56-day compost
found
theoretical
found
theoretical
50.3
24.3
55.1
55.2
37.6
36.8
60.6
60.5
29.4
28.7
65.4
65.4
60.9
61.5
  n                 found            19.1   28.0   38.3   48.1   60.8
  1-year compost    theoretical             28.2   39^   49.2   61<1
     The gravimetric method is recommended because it is more rapid and


easier to perform than the colorimetric anthrone method.


     Tests for Volatile Solids and Ash.  This test was made in accordance


with the procedure described in Appendix A, Municipal Refuse Disposal,


American Public Works Association, 2d ed., 1966, p. 381.


     Test for Lipids.  Lipids content was determined by the ether


extract method described in Appendix A, Municipal Refuse Disposal,


American Public Works Association, 2d ed., 1966, p. 381.


     Tests for Sugars and Starch.  Extract a carefully weighed sample


(about 3-5 grams) with ether in a Soxhlet extractor for 6 hr.  Remove the


ether, dry the sample, and extract with 95 percent ethanol for 8 hr. - Dry


the sample and extract again with water for 15 hr.  Determine the sugars


in the ethanol extract and the starch in the water extract by the anthrone


method as described in the Determination of Cellulose, page 77, or in


Appendix A,, Municipal Refuse Disposal, American Public Works Association,


2d ed., 1966, p. 386.


     Glucose alone may be determined by using a device known as a


"glucostat" manufactured by the Worthington Biochemical Company, available


from Matheson Scientific Company.
                                     195

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-68)
             APPENDIX II

       STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

   DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
                                                                              Per Cent of
                                                                              F.  Y.  Expired  25%
      EASTERN
DISTRICT
MONTH OF
                                                                          SEPTEMBER
19 69
Account Title
USPHS-TVA Composting Plant
Delivery and Receiving
Operation HRS YTD
11 - Salaries, ST 161.5 502.0
OT 9-0 13-0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 124.0 200.0
OT 25.5 26.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
25 - Tire repairs, loader repairs
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Delivery and Receiving
Picking and Sorting
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 184.5 575-5
OT 3-0 5.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST - 1.0
OT
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Picking and Sorting
Grinding
Rasper Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 125.0 340.5
OT .5 7.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Account
Number
012-01.11
012-01.12
012-02.11
012-02.12
012-03.11
2bc"D©ns0
Thle
Month
618
38
107
763
763
573
152
115
«4o
"163
1,003
1,766
650
13
113
776
13
789

"•
-
789
506
3
88
597
597

Fiscal Yeai
To Date
1,886
58
312
2,256
2,256
917
158
171
1,246
15
264
1,525
3,780
2,029
22
352
2,403
38
2,441
4
1
5
5
2,446
1,393
36
241
1,670
1,670

Budget


















Per Cent
Expended


















                                               196

-------
TVA 5133  (DRP-6-68)
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired  25*$
EASTERN DISTRICT

Account Title
Grinding - Continued HRS YTD
Rasper Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 1.0 114.0
OT - 32.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Hammermill Operation
11 - Salaries, ST - 34.0
OT
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Hammermill Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 16.0 33.0
OT - 1.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Hammers, belts, miscellaneous
Total
Total Grinding
Sludge Thickening and Mixing
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 6.5 89.0
OT - 2.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Mileage
Total
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 17.5 77.5
OT 1.0 1.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Sludge Thickening and Mixing



Account
Number

012-03.12



012-03.21



012-03.22




012-04. 11



012-04.12





MONTH OF
Expe
This
Month


5
1
6
8
14


-
-

8k
4
88
26
114
725

25
4
29
29

80
6
14
100
100
129

SEPTEMBER
nse
Fiscal Yeai
To Date


547
191
79
817
792
1,609

141
25
166
166

156
5
17
178
26
204
3,649

364
9
62
435
8
443

343
6
59
408
120
528
971

19

Budget
























69

rer oenu
Expended
























                                                 197

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-68)
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
                  Per Cent of
                  F. Y. Expired
       EASTERN
                                 DISTRICT
MONTH OF
SEPTEMBER
19 69
Account Title
Composting HRS YTD
Hauling Operation
11 - Salaries, ST l4l.O 453.0
OT 2.0 4.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Hauling Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 4.0 74.0
OT - k.O
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Turning and Wetting Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 124.0 342.5
OT 1.5 1.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Turning and Wetting Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 37-5 93.5
OT -
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
25 - Tire repairs
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Composting
Curing
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 1.0 25.0
OT
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Account
Number
012-05.11
012-05.12
012-05.21
012-05.22
012-06.11
Expense
This
Month
564
10
99
673
3
365
1,041
20
3
23
33
56
499
8
85
592
12
604
166
29
195
" ^5
240
1S91«)
4
1
5
5

Fiscal Yeai
To Date
1,806
19
3lU
2,139
3
,_ 9^8
3,090
366
2k
k7
437
67
504
1,395
8
240
1,643
79
1,722
426
70
496
35
423
954
6,270
101
19
120
8
128

Budget

















Per Cent
Expended

















                                                198

-------
TVA 5133  (DKP-6-68)
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired  25
EASTERN DISTRICT

Account Title
Curing - Continued HRS YTD
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST
OT - -
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Curing
Regrinding and Screening
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 152,0 450.5
OT
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 137.0 185.0
OT 1.0 1.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Regrinding and Screening
Hauling Rejects
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 151.5 481.5
OT 4,5 9.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
„ Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 5.0 149-5
OT
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Hauling Rejects


Account
Number

012-06.12





012-07,11


012-07,12




012-08.11


012-08.12




MONTH OF
Expe
This
Month



°"
_
5

661
97
75»
62
325
1,145

666
6
89
761
3^
795
1,940
603
22
106
731
3^1
1,072

25
4
29
11
40
1,112
SEPTEMBER
nse
Fiscal Yeai
To Date


-
__
-
128

1,925
319
2,244
317
640
3,201

899
8
125
1,032
81
1,113
4,314
1,918
46
334
2,296-
15
907
3,220

702
82
784
155
939
^,159
19«

Budget























£

Per Cent
Expended























                                                199

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-68)
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired  25
EASTERN DISTRICT MONTH OF SEPTEMBER 19 69
Account Title
Disposal of Nonmarketable Processed Mat'l
HRS YTD
11 - Salaries, ST 6"77b 157.0
OT 2.5 4,0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
60 - Truck use
Total
Distributing Processed Material
11 - Salaries, ST 67=0 175 . 5
OT .5 20 „ 5
12 - Benefits
Total
26 - Supplies and materials, services
60 - Vehicle use
Total
General Expense
Operation of Grounds
11 - Salaries, ST 108,5 195.5
OT - 70.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Maintenance of Grounds
11 - Salaries, ST - 6.-0
OT - .5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Supervision
11 - Salaries, ST l8U«5 567.0
OT 20.0 8U.O
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
21 - Travel expense
60 - Vehicle use
Total
Account
Number
012-09
012-10
012-19.11
012-19,12
012-19.21
Expense
This
Month
270
13
48
331
32
363
286
2
48
336
16
37
389
333
21
354
2
356

18
18
1,046
125
179
1,350
65
101
1,516

Fiscal Yeai
To Date
633
21
111
765
101
866
723
100
122
945
2k
227
1,196
645
317
75
1,037
2
1,039
25
3
k
32
30
62
3,187
536
543
4,266
86
255
4,607

Budget
















Per Cent
Expended
















                                                200

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-68)
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired  25
EASTERN DISTRICT MONTH OF SEPTEMBER 1969
Account Title
Processing Building Cleanup
HRS YTD
11 - Salaries, ST 17575 507.5
OT 2.5 36,0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Office and Lab Expense
11 - Salaries, ST 13-5 46.5
OT - 19.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
25 - Contractual services
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Trailer rental
62 - Office equipment use
Total
Utilities
11 - Salaries, ST 8.0 33.0
OT
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
23 - Power
- Water
- Telephone
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Gasoline
2"6 - Gasoline purchases
Other
11 - Salaries, ST 261+ .0 445,0
OT 3,0 14.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
21 - Travel
22 - Freight
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Vehicle use
70 - Power Stores issues
Total
Total General Expense
Account
Number
012-19.31
012-19=41
012-19.51
012-19.61
012-19.71
Expense
This
Month
635
12
104
751
751
44
5
^9
68
12
129
36
6
42
355
12
19
428
U37
1,084
17
191
1,292
17
53
5lU
15
1,891
5,528

Fiscal Yeai
To Date
1,857
171
317
2,3^5
2,345
163
85
25
273
14
26
184
36
533
155
27
182
720
40
59
9k
1,095
449
1,788
69
311
2,168
50
53
898
80
99
3,348
13,479

Budget















Per Cent
Expended















                                                201

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-68)
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OP RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired
EASTERN DISTRICT MONTH OP SEPTEMBER 19 6Q
Account Title
HRS YTP
General Expense Distribution
86 - Gas and oil issues to TVA
Modification & Additions to Plant Equip.
11 - Salaries, ST 90.0 324.5
OT 3.0 19.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
22 - Freight
23 - Equipment rental
25 - Contractual services
26 - Supplies and materials
31 - Equipment
60 - Truck use
82 - Suborder costs
Total
Activity Totals - USPHS-TVA Compost Plant
11 - Salaries, ST 2368.0 6678.5
OT 79-5 376.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
21 - Travel
22 - Freight
23 - Telephone, util., equip, rental
25 - Other services
26 - Supplies and materials
31 - Equipment
60 - Transp. Branch equip, use
62 - Office equipment use
66 - Reproduction
70 - Warehouse issues
82 - Transferred costs
Gross
86 - Distribution
Expenditures
50 - Income
Net
Account
Number
012-20.61
012-50
012
012-20
012-999
Expense
This
Month
-153
448
18
78
544
40
180
118
882
9,929
1*5
1,641
12,015
82
93
548
9^
1,426
1,285
12
13
15,567
-153
15,414
-15,414
-

Fiscal Yeai
To Date
-420
1,604
116
243
1,963
4o
180
345
2,527
28,095
2,010
4,649
34,754
136
93
999
157
4,139
3,359
36
13
99
43,785
-420
43,365
-43,365
-

Budget




104,770
9,170
18,000
131,940
500
1,000
6,000
3,000
15,000
20,000
17,560
5,000
200,000
-5,000
195,000
-195,000
-

Per Cent
Expended




27
22
26
26
27
09
17
05
28
19
22
08
22
22
-

                                               202

-------
                             APPENDIX III







       Preliminary Results of Agricultural Research on Compost




     Corn Grain Research Project, Johnson City, Tennessee.  This project




involves the use of refuse-sludge compost in the growth of corn on




agricultural soils.  Application rates in fall or spring ranged from 0




to 200 tons per acre.  The purpose of such a range in application rates




was to determine the soil and crop improvement resulting from various




amounts of compost and the maximum amount of compost that can be applied




before the effect is adverse or deleterious.  The fall applications of




4, 8, 50, 100, and 200 tons per acre of unscreened compost were made in




November 1968, and plowed under shortly thereafter.  Spring applications




were made in April 1969, and disked into the soil.  Nitrogen rates of 80




and 160 Ib per acre were also compared alone and with 8 tons of spring-




applied compost.  There was a total of 52 test plots with each plot




receiving phosphorus and potassium at rates adequate for maximum plant




growth.  The corn was planted on May 2, 1969.




     There was a slight reduction in germination on the plots that




received the three highest rates of compost (50, 100, and 200 tons per




acre) with the lowest percentage germination coming on the 200-ton-per-




acre rate.  One factor that contributed to this reduction in germination




was the inability because of the bulkiness of the compost to prepare a




firm seedbed, especially on the plot receiving the 200-ton-per-acre




rate.  Other factors that affected the overall number of plants on all
                                    203

-------
plots were  (1)  the  crop was  damaged somewhat by birds,  (2) extremely cool




temperatures occurred during the  germination period, and  (3) there was




also some damage  caused by hail.




     Nitrogen deficiencies developed in all plots that  did not receive




supplemental inorganic nitrogen.  Early growth was extremely poor on the




plots that  received the three heaviest compost applications; however,




toward the  middle of the growing  season, the corn on these plots began




to make some progress.  The  first noticeable growth response came on the




50-ton-per-acre treatment followed in sequence by the 100- and 200-ton-




per-acre rates.  The final results indicated that these three treatments




gave favorable  results when  compared to the plots receiving the 80- and




the 160-lb-per-acre nitrogen treatments with no compost.  It was also




noted that  the  corn on the 200-ton-per-acre plot remained green longer




than any other  treatment.  These  early results would seem to indicate




that the heavy  application of compost had a definite effect on  the  amount




of nitrogen being released to the soil in a form readily available to




the plant,  the heavier the application of compost, the  longer it took for




the corn to respond.  It was approximately 7 months from the time the




compost was plowed under in  the 200-ton-per-acre treatment before there




was any visual  growth response that could be considered a normal growth




pattern.




     Final yield results of  this  first year observation showed that




grain yields increased from  55 bushels per acre without nitrogen or




compost to  76 bushels with 80 Ib  of nitrogen or with 100 tons of compost




and to 90 bushels per acre with 160 Ib of nitrogen plus 8 tons of compost.
                                     204

-------
Four to 8 tons per acre of compost alone resulted in slight, if any,




increase in corn yields.




     The value of compost on corn in terms of increased yields ranged




from a (minus) -$1.75 per ton on spring applied compost at a rate of 4




tons per acre with no supplemental nitrogen to a (plus) +$3.18 per ton




on spring applied compost at a rate of 8 tons per acre with 160 Ib of




supplemental nitrogen per acre.  The value of compost when applied at




a 200-ton-per-acre rate with no supplemental nitrogen was $.08 (8 cents)




per ton, however, this does show that large amounts of compost can be




utilized on agricultural soils with positive results.  Additional studies




will determine the residual effect of high rates of application of




compost over a period of years.




     It was apparent during the first year of testing that a combination




of compost plus inorganic fertilizer produced greater yield than either




compost or fertilizer alone.  The response from the corn on the plot that




received compost plus 160 Ib of nitrogen was evident throughout the




growing season as the corn stalks appeared greener and stronger than




stalks from other plots.  When inorganic fertilizer was used without




compost, the yield on the 80 Ib per acre of nitrogen and the 160 Ib per




acre of nitrogen treatments was approximately the same which would indicate




that the excess over 80 Ib per acre of nitrogen was not efficiently




utilized by plant uptake.  This situation can be partly attributed to




the relatively small number of plants per plot; however, when 8 tons per




acre of compost was used in conjunction with 160 Ib per acre nitrogen,




there was an approximate 20 percent increase in yield over  the 160 Ib
                                     205

-------
per acre of nitrogen alone or the 8 tons per acre compost with 80 Ib per




acre of nitrogen.  It would appear that the compost had somewhat of a




synergistic effect on the inorganic nitrogen since it is very doubtful




that 8 tons of compost per acre would supply enough nitrogen or moisture




to bring about such an increase in yield.




     There are some preliminary conclusions drawn from 1 year of testing.




More valid information can be gathered from results obtained from 4 or 5




years of continuous testing.  Table 1 presents a summary of yield data




obtained from corn research at Johnson City during 1969.




     Use of Compost for Sorghum Production.  (Experiment 56, National




Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.)




     Yields of dry sorghum forage increased from 5 tons/A without compost




or N to 7.5 tons with 82 tons of compost and to 8 tons with 160 Ib of




applied N.  Thus, the value of the compost in terms of the N it supplied




was very low.  Less wilting during dry periods on plots receiving large




applications of compost indicated that it increased the moisture holding




capacity of the soil.  The results also indicate that agricultural land




will accept large amounts of compost with small positive yield effects.




     Procedure.  Unground compost from Johnson City, Tennessee, was




applied in fall, spring, or combination applications for Funk's 101F




forage sorghum at total rates ranging from 6 to 82 tons per acre.  Fall-




applied compost was plowed under shortly after application, while spring




applications were incorporated by disking.  Compost rates were compared




with 80 to 160 Ib/A of N, with three treatments supplying both N and




compost and a check treatment with no N or compost.
                                     206

-------
                         TABLE 1
            Compost Experiment—Johnson City
Ear Corn Yields - Acre Basis

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13


Treatment
- None
- 80 N
- 4T- Spring
- 160 N
- 8T-Spring
- 8T-Fall
- 4T-Fall
- 8T-Spring + 80 N
- 8T-Spring + 160 N
- 8T-Fall
- 50T-Fall
- lOOT-Fall
- 200T-Fall
L.S.D., 5% Level
1969
Number
of
Stalks
8230
8470
8230
8230
8710
8230
7745
8710
8470
8230
7745
7745
6775
N.S.

Ear
Pounds
3570
4960
3235
4750
4325
3810
3900
4900
5870
3780
4535
4990
4295
855

Corn
Bushels
55
76
49
73
66
58
60
75
90
58
69
76
66
13
     Compost contained 407. moisture; application rates




are on a dry basis.  N was applied in spring as ammonium




nitrate.  Pounds of ear corn are as harvested (Av. of




14.57. moisture); bushels are on the basis of 15.57.




moisture (70 pounds per bushel).  The corn variety




was Funk's G-5757.
                            207

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     Chemical  components  in  the  compost were as follows (%, dry weight




basis):
Application
Time
Fall 1968
Spring 1969
N P K C
1.2 0.24 0.80 34.2
1.3 0.40 0.96 26.8
Ca
3.6
6.4
Na
0.49
0.82
Mg S Zn
0.49 0.4 0.13
0.87 0.4 0.15
     P and K were applied at  rates thought to be adequate for maximum




plant growth.  Forage sorghum was planted on April 23, and harvested on




July 28 and October 15.




     Results and Discussion.  Forage yields, percentages, N content and




N uptake are given in Table 2.  Total yields of dry sorghum forage increased




in a generally linear fashion with higher compost rates.  Yields ranged




from 10,814 Ib/A on the check plot to 15,032 with 82 tons of compost/A.




In contrast, 80 Ib of N produced 13,850 Ib of forage, while 160 Ib




produced 16,384 Ib/A.  The highest yield, 18,823 lb/A., was produced by




160 Ib of N and 40 tons of compost.  Forty tons of compost produced as




much forage as 80 Ib of N, but no compost rate was as good as 160 Ib of




N.  In all cases, compost plus N produced more forage than either material




alone.




     At the first harvest, N  contents of the forage were much higher




with N alone than with compost alone, but differences were small at the




second harvest.  N uptake for similar yields was less from compost-treated




than from N-fertilized plots.  The N content and uptake data indicated




that this was probably due largely to luxury uptake of N on fertilized
                                     208

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                                                TABLE 2
                      Response of Forage Sorghum to Applications of Compost and N
N Uptake, Pounds/A
Dry Forage, Pounds /A
Compost Rate
Fall
Spring
Tons/A
0
0
0
0
0
8
4
0
0
8
16
32
16
0
0
6.2
0
12.4
0
6.2
12.4
12.4
12.4
24.8
49.6
24.8
N
Rate
Pounds /A
0
80
0
160
0
0
0
80
160
0
0
0
160
Cut
1

8155f
10205c
8696ef
11306f
9214de
8736ef
9035def
11717b
12158ab
8871def
9483cde
9773cd
12670a
Cut
2

2659e
3643de
2943e
5076b
3434e
3158e
3411e
4138cd
5729ab
3531d
4340c
5258b
6151a

Total

10814g
13850de
11640fg
16384b
12649e
11895fg
12447f
15856bc
17888a
12403f
13825de
15032cd
18823a
N Content, "/,
Cut
1

.63
1.08
.66
1.33
.71
.65
.68
1.10
1.15
.72
.78
.88
1.20
Cut
2

1.08
.91
.95
1.13
1.03
1.00
.90
.99
1.06
1.06
.97
1.11
1.11
Cut
1

51.3
109.9
57.3
150.6
65.5
55.9
61.6
128.0
139.1
63.7
73.2
86.4
150.0
Cut
2

29.2
33.7
27.9
58.1
36.0
31.5
30.7
41.0
61.0
37.3
42.0
55.1
67.4

Total

80. 4g
143. 6d
85. Ig
208. Sab
101. 5f
87.3fg
92.3fg
169. Oc
200. Ib
101. Of
115. 3e
141. 4d
217. 4a
Increase
over no N
or compost

-
63.2
4.7
128.4
21.1
6.9
11.9
88.6
119.7
20.6
34.9
61.0
137.0
Note:  In all yield tables means with the satae letter are not significantly
       different at the 5 percent level.

-------
plots.  Observation of  the sorghum during dry periods indicated that




compost contributed some moisture holding capacity to the soil.  There




was always less leaf curling on plots treated with the higher compost




rates.




     A slight stand reduction occurred on plots receiving 50 tons in the




spring.  It was not possible to incorporate this amount of compost well




enough to provide the firm seedbed needed for good germination.




     Value of compost per ton in terms of its contribution to yield increase




was lower with increasing application rates.  Dry matter yield increases




per ton of compost ranged from 255 Ib at the 6 ton rate to 52 Ib at the




80 ton rate.  The yield contributions were similar with and without N




additions.  Assuming that sorghum forage is worth $10 per ton on a green




weight basis, compost was worth approximately $2.20 per ton at 8- to 12-




tons-per-acre application rates and approximately $1.10 at rates of 20




tons per acre or more.  If, on the other hand, the value is based on the




amount of N needed to give equal yield, it was worth about $0.13 per ton.




     As with the bermudagrass experiment (No. 57), this experiment showed




that large amounts of compost can be disposed of by application on




agricultural land without apparent yield reductions.




     The compost used in these two experiments was unground and contained




plastic, both film and dense type, fairly large pieces of glass and metallic




waste.  It would have been completely unsuitable for application to grazing




or hay land and was objectionable from an aesthetic viewpoint for most




surface application uses.




     Evaluation of Compost on Common Bermudagrass.  (Experiment 57, National




Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, Alabama.)
                                    210

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     Yields of bermudagrass forage increased from 2.9 tons with no compost




or N to 3.5 tons with 12 tons per acre of compost.  The corresponding yield




with 160 Ib per acre of N/A were 5.0 tons without compost and 5.2 tons




with 12 tons per acre of compost.  The increases for compost were of




insufficient value to pay for application costs.




     Procedure.  Compost was topdressed on common bermudagrass sod in




November 1968, at rates of 0, 4, 8, and 12 tons per acre.  In 1969, N




rates of 0 and 160 Ib per acre were superimposed on plots of each compost




rate.  Half the N was applied in April and half after the second harvest.




The grass was cut four times.  Results are presented in Table 3.




     Results and Discussion.  Without added N there was a slight but




consistent increase in total yield with increasing compost rates ranging




from 5,772 Ib per acre with no compost to 7,045 Ib with 12 tons per acre




of compost.  Where N was applied the 4-ton-per-acre compost application




resulted in a slight reduction in yield, and 8 and 12 tons per acre in




slightly increased yield.  The increase was greater with 8 than with 12




tons per acre of compost.




     Although there were inconsistencies in yield response to compost, the




8-ton-per-acre rate at both N levels resulted in approximately 900 Ib




additional forage per acre.  At $25.00 per ton as the market value for




bermudagrass hay, this compost would have been worth $1.25 per ton spread




on the field.  This would hardly pay spreading costs let alone production




and transportation expense.  However, this data does indicate that it




might be possible to dispose of significant amounts of compost by




spreading it on grasslands providing that it did not  contain solid material




harmful to livestock.
                                     211

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                              TABLE 3


                  Response  of Common Bermudagrass

                   To Corapost and Nitrogen, 1969
                                  Forage harvested, pounds
j. j. c
-------
     JOINT USEPA-TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT
           JOHNSON CITY,  TENNESSEE

                 Volume II
          with Operational Data
          October 1969-June 1971
This volume was prepared by CARLTON C. WILES
 under the direction of CLARENCE A. CLEMONS

-------

-------
                          VOLUME II

  JOINT USEPA-TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT,  JOHNSON CITY, TENNESSEE
                    WITH OPERATIONAL DATA
                   October 1969 - June 1971
     On February 15, 1966, the U.S. Public Health Service, the

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),  and the city of Johnson City,

Tennessee, signed a cooperative project agreement to construct

and operate the "Joint USPHS-TVA Composting Project, Johnson City,

Tennessee."  This project was undertaken as a joint research and

demonstration project in windrow composting of municipal solid

waste and sewage sludge.  Plant operations were initiated on

June 20, 1967.

     Details of project background and site location, plant design

and construction, plant operation and process, and details of im-

portant investigations conducted prior to October 1969, are dis-

cussed in Volume I.

     Volume II supplements the first progress report.  Although it

provides a record of plant operations covering the period October

1969 to June 30, 1971, the primary purpose is to present results

of compost utilization demonstrations and research projects which

were in preliminary stages at the time of the first report.  For

the purpose of continuity, plant operations are discussed prior to

the compost utilization work.
                             213

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                       PLANT OPERATIONS

                      Technical Staffing


     For two years, the Division of Research and Development,

Bureau of Solid Waste Management,* staffed the project with a

project engineer, a staff sanitary engineer, a staff chemist, a

staff microbiologist, and a staff assistant.  This staff was

responsible for completion of the studies reported in the Volume I

report.  Later the staff was reduced to a project engineer, a staff

assistant, and two part-time technicians.  Staffing during the last

year consisted of a project engineer, an administrative assistant,

one part-time technician, and one part-time clerk-typist.

     James C. Duggan, Agriculturist, (TVA) served as resident agri-

culturist with responsibility for establishing and coordinating

compost utilization demonstrations and research projects.

     The plant TVA operating staff usually consisted of one fore-

man, one assistant foreman, two equipment operators, three truck

drivers, two maintenance mechanics, and four laborers.

     Administrative supervision of the TVA operating and research

staff and administrative services, accounting, etc., were performed

by nonresident staff.
     *At that time, the Bureau was part of the U.S. Public Health
Service.  The PHS solid waste management program became part of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in December 1970.
                             214

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                           Plant Process






     The plant was designed for a nominal capacity of 60 tons per




day for an eight-hour shift.  Details of the plant, the process,




and equipment specifications were discussed in Volume I.




     Important changes during the period covered by Volume II




involved the cessation of sewage sludge dewatering at the plant




because of mechanical difficulties with the Permutit Dual Cell




Gravity (DCG) Solids Concentrator.  Because of these problems




and the fact that the machine did not have capacity to dewater all




sludge produced at the Johnson City plant, a decision was made




in July 1969 to cease the processing of sludge in this manner.




     Subsequently, in December 1969, the drum mixer for mixing




the ground refuse and sewage sludge was removed and was replaced




with a conveyor.  It could be easily reinstalled should future




plant operations require dewatering of sewage sludge in the plant.




Thereafter, sewage sludge was dewatered at the treatment plant,




hauled to the compost plant and added directly to the windrows by




payloader.  Mixing by the windrow turner was done successfully and




this method was continued through the remainder of the project period.




However, such a procedure might prove laborious or uneconomical in a




municipal operation.




     One problem with the mixing drum was that the throat was too




small to accept the flow of refuse from the hammermill when operating
                               215

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at full capacity.  Had the mixer been reinstalled, modifica-




tions to correct this would have been necessary.




     During the period of research reported herein, additional




screening equipment was fabricated and installed.  The fabrication




and installation are discussed in a subsequent section.






                          Processing Data






     Raw Refuse.  Refuse received and processed throughout the




project amounted to 33,503 tons for 916 processing days and averaged




37 tons per day.  The average for the June 1967 to September 1969




period was 34 tons per day.  The average increased to 41 tons per day




during the period October 1969 to June 1971.  As would be expected,




the amount of refuse received at the plant varied with seasons




(Figure 1).




     The main reason for the increase in the amount of refuse




received during the current report period as compared to the first,




was the acceptance of refuse from sources other than Johnson City.




In May 1970, the PHS, TVA, and Johnson City agreed to permit acceptance




of refuse from the Rural Sanitation Service and the Washington County




Utility District.  This accounted for much of the higher quantity




shown on Figure 1 for 1970 when compared to earlier years.




     The Rural Sanitation Service provides weekly refuse collection




service to approximately 800 rural households (estimated 4,000 per-




sons)  in Carter County, Tennessee.2  The Washington County Utility
                              216

-------
 o
 O)
 o

 <5

 D
 O
 a
a
LLJ
LLJ

U
LLJ

ac
     20 -
     10 -
                                                                    Fall
                         Seasonal variation  in quantity of refuse received.
                                     217

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District services both rural customers (Washington County, Tennessee)




and some Johnson City residents desiring supplementary refuse collec-




tion service.




     Based upon the amount of refuse delivered to the project from




these sources and the estimated persons served, a refuse collection




rate of 3.0 pounds per person per day was estimated for residents




served by the Rural Sanitation Service; and 2.1 pounds per person




per day for residents served by the Washington County Utility District.




This compares to an estimated 2.0 pounds per person per day for




Johnson City in 1968 (Volume I).   This latter figure apparently




has not changed significantly.




     Screened Compost Production.  In an earlier study, compost




production was established at approximately 50 percent (wet weight)




of the incoming refuse.  During this period, screening resulted in




a higher proportion of rejects and compost production was determined




over a 12-month period by weighing incoming refuse, screened compost,




and total rejects (Table 1).  Based on the figures thus obtained,




screened compost production is estimated to have been 44 percent




(wet weight) of incoming refuse.   The reason for the difference be-




tween the production rate reported from the earlier study and the




present rate is that the earlier  rate did not take into account the




rejects generated by the screening process.




     Rejects.  During the same production period mentioned above,




picking and sorting rejects amounted to 24 percent, i.e., slightly
                              218

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                                TABLE 1

          PRODUCTION OF SCREENED COMPOSTED REFUSE AND REJECTS
Raw Refuse*
Month Received (Tons)
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
Jul
Aug
Sep
70
70
70
70
70
70
71
71
71
71
71"
71
71
71
71
TOTAL
986
979
960
817
832
194
803
720
1040
1071
956
734



10,092
Composted Refuse*,
Screened Product Rejects
(Tons)
305
248
348
375
278
176
221
25
8
300
235
318
456
528
582
4403
Pick
236
218
218
204
207
42
186
145
232
279
231
203



2401
Screen
146
92
156
154
120
44
100
10
7
144
140
145
176
196
128
1758
Total
382
310
374
358
327
86
286
155
239
423
371
348
176
196
128
4159
     *Wet weight basis.  Estimates of dry weights based upon random
moisture analysis are provided in later sections.
                                  219

-------
 less than  the 27 percent average during the June 1967 to September




 1969 reporting period.  The screening operation produced additional



 rejects not removed during the earlier study during which the 50




 percent compost production rate was established.  These screening




 rejects amounted to 17 percent of incoming refuse.






                         Plant Maintenance






     During the term of the project, only one major shutdown was




 scheduled  for the purpose of performing plant maintenance.  During




 December 1970, the following items were completed:



     1.  Installation of new rollers for the plate conveyor in



 the receiving hopper.




     2.  Installation of new rollers for the plate conveyor of



 the leveling gate.




     3.  Installation of new belt skirts on plant coveyors.




     4.  A support column was removed from the receiving building




 and replaced with a horizontal beam to provide easier access to



 the hopper.




     5.  A new drum was constructed for the windrow turner to




 replace the old drum which was extensively worn.  As indicated




 in the first report, the windrow turner continued to experience




mechanical problems resulting in short periods of downtime.




     6.  All other equipment was thoroughly checked and cleaned.



All buildings were cleaned and repaired where needed.
                             220

-------
     Other maintenance requirements were discussed in the first




progress report.






                         Updated Cost Data






     Cost Accounting.  A system of cost accounting for plant operations




and maintenance was developed initially to facilitate systematic




reimbursement to TVA.  Plant operations and activities were divided




into various categories or units with each receiving an account




number.  Classification of expenditures by functions or purposes




was accomplished through the applicable account classifications.




Cost data obtained from these monthly, quarterly, and year-end




financial statements of operations were reported and used to




project costs to other windrow composting plants.1'3  This discussion




will provide additional data with respect to actual cost of project




operations.




     Capital Costs.  The total construction cost for the plant,




including modifications made since startup, was $960,452.  Mobile




equipment, such as trucks, front end loaders, and the windrow




turner used in routine operations cost another $61,280.  Costs for




the regrinding and screening include $15,021 for procurement and




installation of the zig-zag air classifier, which has not been used




in routine processing.  Approximately $61,000 was expended for




laboratory research instruments, tools, office equipment and




miscellaneous items not needed in routine compost plant operations.




Table 2 itemizes these costs.
                              221

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                                                           TABLE. 2
                                       CONSTRUCTION'.AHD. EQUIPMENT COSTS FOR THE PHS-TVA
                                                   WINDRWCQMPOSTING TLANT 1>
Site improvements
Buildings
  Receiving building
  Process building
  Office and  laboratory
  Curing and  drying shed
Receiving machinery and equipment
  Hopper conveyor and leveling gate
  Scale
Processing
  Elevating conveyor (sorting belt), w/magnetic separator
  Reject hopper
  Rasping machine (grinder)
  Hammermill  (grinder)
  Chuting
N> Conveyors
  Air compressor
Sludge filter and appurtenances, including sludge
     holding  tank
Ground refuse-sludge mixer
Sludge piping
Power and control system
Bucket elevator
Loading bin and chute
Composting field, site preparation and waterlines
Regrinding and screening, including conveyors
Gasoline dispensing installation
                                     Subtotal
Mobile equipment.(trucks, front end loaders and turner)
Small equipment —
                                      Subtotal
                                                   Total
Construction or
Installation
78,060
90,382
142,742
40,954
44,193
12,644
8,059
23,608
7,119
7,477
8,603
8,153
9,902
741
2,300
2,760
13,760
36,182
1,409
11,603
28,793 ,.
73,976 -'
1,755
655,171



655,171
Equipment
and/or Materials





24,866
4,266
11,667

51,160
17,960
1,838
8,930

23,273
6,528
2,699

6,000


25,664
788
185,638
61,280
60,727
122,007
307,645
Engineering
Design
10,032
13,982
21,800
7,883
7,111
5,800
1,112
6,828
965
9,380
3,672
1,570
2,418

4,320
1,490
2,700
5,820
1,282
1,324
9,901

253
119,643



119,643

Total
88,092
104,364
164,542
48,837
51,304
43,310
13,437
42,103
8,084
68,017
30,235
11,561
21,250
741
29,893
10,778
19,159
42,002
8,691
12,927
38,694
99,639
2,796
960,452
61,280
60,727
122,007
1,082,459
 1.  All  cost  rounded  to nearest  dollar.
 2.  Includes  installation, construction materials, and design costs.
 3.  Includes  laboratory research instruments, tools, office equipment, etc.

-------
     Operating Cost.  The Statement of Operations, Division of




Reservoir Properties, TVA, provided actual operating cost data for




the composting plant.  Appendix I provides FY 70 and FY 71 costs in




the June 1970 and June 1971 statements.




     Based on these data, the actual operating cost in FY 70 for




processing 8,687 tons of refuse (222 days) was $22.91 per-ton-of-




refuse processed.  The processing cost in FY 71 was $19.70 per-ton-




of refuse for processing 10,092 tons (232 days).  These costs no doubt




reflect the research, development, and demonstration nature of the




project.  Another reason was the lack of a sufficiently large input




of refuse to permit processing at full capacity.  Volume I discussed




this in some detail and provided extrapolation to full capacity and




to larger size windrow composting plants.




     An estimated 37 percent of the FY 70 operating costs could be




directly charged to special projects.  If costs incurred for such




items as fabrication of screening equipment, installation of an




air classifier (and other special projects) are substrated from the




FY 71 expenditures, the cost per-ton-of-refuse processed would drop




to $18.18.




     The following reimbursements were made to  Johnson City for




added hauling costs and truck use.  These are not included in the




above.
                             223

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Operations
22.29
4322.40
5373.41
3556.64
4060.53
Truck Use
-
4094.09
3070.56
4094.08
9201.27
     Year                               	Cost in Dollars


     FY 67

     FY 68

     FY 69

     FY 70

     FY 71

                             Total     17,335.27               20,460.00

     Listed below is salary information for the TVA plant operating

complement.

                                        	Annual Salary*
                                        1969

     Foreman

     Assistant Foreman

     Equipment Operator

     Truck Driver

     Maintenance Mechanic

     Laborer

     Plant Income.  Compost produced during the project was not

sold, nor was salvaging of potentially salable materials practiced.

However, with respect to the dollar value of compost, some users

of the compost (TVA demonstrations) in high value money crops,
1969
$9300
7740
7050
6885
8490
6100
1970
$9835
8220
7505
7310
8965
6440
1971
$10555
8820
8075
8110
9610
6840
     *The salaries are for an 8-hour day, with 8 paid holidays in 1969,
and 20 paid vacation days.  Holidays increased to 9 in 1970.  Added
benefits amount to approximately 17 percent of the salaries.  Overtime
is paid at the rate of time and one-half on regular workdays and double
time on holidays.
                              224

-------
placed an average value of $5.80 per ton on the compost produced




at Johnson City.  This information was obtained during a survey




conducted by the TVA Agriculturist.4






                        SPECIAL PROJECTS




     Although major project investigations were completed and




the staff reduced during the period covered by Volume I, the project




continued to be utilized for a number of special projects.






                        Grinding Study






     In 1970, the Bureau of Solid Waste Management (now the Office




of Research and Monitoring) initiated a research program designed to




obtain information relative to the development of better methods for




comminuting solid waste.  The first project in this research program




was to study the Gruendler hammermill installed at the USPHS-TVA




Composting Project, Johnson City, Tennessee.  Primarily an activity




of the Waste Handling and Processing Branch, the study utilized this




active project's refuse supply, equipment, facilities, and labor




force.




     The primary objective of this first grinding study was to determine




the relationship between power input and grate opening size of the




shredder.  Three different grate openings (2-inch, 4-inch, and 6-inch)




were tested.  Statistical considerations indicated that these would




be sufficient to identify linear and quadratic effects of the power




input versus grate opening size relationship.
                               225

-------
     The study lasted 12 weeks and involved one experiment each week.




Data recorded for each experiment included:




     1.  Weight of refuse to be processed.




     2.  Final moisture content of the refuse.




     3.  Initial and final weight of the hammers.




     4.  Power input.




     5.  Operation personnel - man-hours.




     A set of hammers wears considerably during the comminution of



raw refuse.  Therefore, after each experiment the hammers were




removed, weighed, and then rebuilt.  A rebuilt set was then placed




back into the mill along with the appropriate set of grates.  Re-



building and conditioning of the worn hammers was accomplished by




on-site TVA personnel.



     Description of the Shredder.  The shredder is a Gruendler,



Model 48-4, swing hammermill.  This mill is driven by a direct-drive




250 horsepower Allis Chalmers electric motor rotating at 1,150



revolutions per minute.  Forty-four hammers, each weighing approxi-



mately 22 pounds, are distributed on four horizontal shafts.  Grate




openings can be varied by changing the distance between the steel




bars beneath the breaker plate.   The theoretical capacity of this




hammermill and motor combination is 12 tons per hour of shredded




refuse using 1.5-inch grate openings.
                              226

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     Summary of Results.  The results of this study indicated that




there is an inverse non-linear relationship between power input




and grate spacing.  As the grate opening decreased, power consumption




increased at an exponential rate.  A similar relationship between




power input and hammer wear was not established.




     Tables 3, 4, and 5 present data obtained from this investigation.




Details of experimental procedures, maintenance requirements, opera-




tional data, and test results are available.5  Results and experience




obtained from this study were used to develop broader and more




meaningful grinding research projects.






                  Comparison of the Compost




          from Hammermill and Rasper Processed Refuse






     During the grinding study, the quality of compost being




produced with hammermill ground refuse was suspected by various




observers as being inferior to that produced with rasper ground




refuse.  This premise was based on the physical appearance of the




compost produced.  A series of tests was devised to obtain experi-




mental data to either confirm or refute the subjective observations




that the larger particle sized material from the Gruendler hammermill




did not compost as well as that from the Dorr-Oliver rasper.




     Two windrows of material ground with each grate spacing (2-inch,




4-inch, and 6-inch) from the hammermill and two windrows of rasper




ground material were selected for testing.  A windrow of material
                               227

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          TABLE 3

WEIGHT LOSS PER HAMMER SET
   (44 Hammers Per Set)


Experiment
Number

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12




Weight
Initial
Pounds
924.50
923.00
928.00
924.00
925.50
927.00
924.00
924.00
924.00
924.00
922.00
921.00




of Hammer Set Weight
Final Loss
Pounds Pounds
916.50 8.00
914.00 9.00
915.50 12.50
914.00 10.00
918.50 7.00
915.75 11.25
915.75 8.25
916.00 8.00
915.50 8.50
916.00 8.00
914.00 8.00
912.00 9.00
(Pounds)
TOTAL 107.50


Refuse
Comminuted
Tons
137.70
149.65
138.10
128.90
105.30
133.00
141.55
126.90
132.05
154.00
157.10
153.10
(Tons)
1,675.35

Grate
Bar
Spacing
Inches
2.0
4.0
2.0
4.0
4.0
6.0
4.0
6.0
4.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
Tons of
Material
Per Ib.
Loss
Tons/lb.
17.2
16.6
11.1
12.9
15.0
11.8
17.2
15.9
15.5
19.3
19.6
17.0
Avg. Ton/lb.
15.42

            228

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N3
VD
                                                      TABLE 4


                                   POWER CONSUMPTION DURING GRINDING EXPERIMENT

Experi-
ment
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Grate
Opening
(in.)
2
4
2
4
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
2
Wt. of
Refuse
Comminuted
(Tons)
137.7
149.7
138.1
128.9
105.3
133.0
141.6
126.9
132.1
154.0
157.1
153.1
Total
Operating
Time
(Hour)
27.5
28.5
26.0
26.1
26.5
26.1
26.0
26.3
26.0
31.9
31.3
31.0

Total
Power
(KWH)
1216
831
1120
768
672
576
672
544
832
640
928
1408'
No
Load
Power
(KWH)
165
171
156
157
159
157
156
158
156
191
188
186

Net
Power
(KWH)
1051
660
964
611
513
419
516
386
676
449
740
1222
Total
Power
KWH/
Ton
8.83
5.91
8.11
5.96
6.38
4.33
4.75
4.29
6.30
4.16
5.91
9.20
Net
Power
KWH/
Ton
7.63
4.69
6.98
4.74
4.87
3.15
3.64
3.04
5.12
2.91
4.73
7.98
Average
Moisture
Content
<%>*
40.8
40.8
36.6
41.8
43.7
33.4
38.3
34.6
28.2
31.8
28.8
28.0
          *After grinding

-------
         TABLE 5

COST OF MATERIAL GROUND
         (DOLLARS)


Experi- Grate
ment Opening
No. In.
1
2
3
4
£ 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

2"
4"
2"
4"
4"
6"
4"
6"
4"
6"
4"
2"
Average for 2"
Average for 4"
Average for 6"

Weight of
Refuse
Ground
Tons
137.70
149.65
138.10
128.90
105.30
133.00
141.55
126.90
132.05
154.00
157.10
153.10
= $4.32
= $4.09
= $3.91

Cost to
Operate
System
320.52
315.40
319.27
314.69
313.45
312.20
313.45
311.78
315.53
369.56
373.30
379.54

Hammer
and
Grate
Changes
Cost
82.92
58.16
81.19
52.17
35.04
83.58
59.95
40.91
42.74
36.98
54.97
57.30


Hammer
Build-up
Cost
133.60
138.35
119.50
101.85
87.15
74.60
68.25
60.90
63.90
59.35
87.30
89.55


Depreci-
ation on
System
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81
56.81


Basic
Cost/
Ton
4.31
3.80
4.18
4.08
4.68
3.96
3.52
3.71
3.63
3.39
3.64
3.81


Est.
Misc.
Cost/
Ton
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.24


Cost/
Ton
4.55
4.04
4.42
4,32
4.92
4.20
3.76
3.95
3.87
3.63
3.88
4.05


-------
ground by the hammermill, using 2.5-inch perforated plates, was




added after completion of the grinding study.  Data collected




included temperatures during composting, C/N analysis of samples




taken at the end of the composting cycle and of the various screening




fractions, and material balances for each windrow as it was screened.




While it would have been desirable to completely monitor the C/N




ratio and moisture throughout the composting cycle, this was not




possible because the tests were not initiated until near the end of




the grinding study.  Temperature data for each windrow were available




from routine plant control data.




     The yield (tons of screened product) of compost from the rasper




ground material was less in relation to the amount of material fed




to the screen (8.6/20.4) than for hammermill ground material (i.e.,




9.1/15.0 for 4-inch grate spacing).  In addition the processing




rate was less; 2.0 tons per hour for rasper material compared to 2.1




to 2.4 tons per hour for hammermill material.  More important, however,




is the observation that the C/N for the product passing the screen




was significantly higher (38) for the rasper ground material than




for the hammermill material (29-32).  If the two tons of rasper




material that are unaccounted for were assumed to have passed the




screen the difference in production would have been less, but still




appreciable (Table 6).




     Examination of the average windrow temperature profiles for




each test material does not reveal any significant differences
                              231

-------
                                            TABLE 6

                   COMPARISON OF COMPOST PRODUCED FROM RASPER GROUND REFUSE

                       TO COMPOST PRODUCED FROM HAMMERMILL GROUND REFUSE
Grate Composted Refuse Screened Product Rejects
Opening Tons*
Grinding Process In. Screened
Hammermill
Hammermill
Hammermill
(Perf Plate)
Hammermill
Rasper
Special***
6" 14.6
4" 15.0
2" 23.2
2-1/2" 19.8
(Perf Plate)
1-1/4" 20.4
(Perf Plate)
11.9
C/N Tons Tons/Hr* C/N Tons* C/N
38 9.7 2.6 29 4.8 74
48 9.1 2.1 31 6.0 60
41 13.4** 2.4 32 7.5** 54
36 11.4 2.4 30 8.5 64
45 8.6** 2.0 38 9.8** 74
25 10.5 5.2 22 1.8 61
  *Dry weight basis.
 **Losses assumed to have occurred during processing.
***Windrow placed back on field for additional composting.

-------
among the various materials (Figure 2).   A drop in the temperature




of the 6-inch grate hammermill material  during the second half of




the composting cycle indicated a possible lack of moisture.  This




tends to confirm an observation made during the grinding study




that the larger sized material failed to accept and absorb water




as readily during processing and composting as did the smaller




sized materials.




     The data would seem to refute the subjective observation that




the compost from hammermill processed refuse is inferior to compost




from refuse processed through the rasper.  Observations that the




larger sized material presents a less pleasing appearance in the




windrow and causes a bigger housekeeping problem than does the




smaller material, remain valid.






                      Refuse Baling Project






     In January 1970, the USPHS-TVA Composting Project's facilities,




equipment and labor force were used in a refuse baling project.




A cooperative effort among various sections of the Bureau of




Solid Waste Management, the project objective was to produce bales




of solid waste suitable for use in sea disposal experiments.




     Since details of the sea  disposal  experiments are not germane




to this report they are not given herein.  With respect to the




baling operation at Johnson City, 180 tons of refuse were processed
                              233

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   160
L.  150
  140
   130
K  120
a
z
  100
                                                         2'/j" Perforated Plates —
                    10       15       20      25       30


                              COMPOSING TIAAE (days)
35
            Figure 2.   Temperatures  at the 18-inch depth of  the grinding

       study test windrows  reveal no significant differences  among the

       various materials.
                                   234

-------
through the Gruendler hammermill and were baled into 83 bales.




The bales averaged 1.6 tons each, and 31 of the 83 bales had a




density of 64 pounds per cubic foot or more.




     This undertaking possibly represents one of the largest




production runs on baling solid wastes ever performed hitherto  in




the United States.  During times when snow covered the ground,




large flocks of birds, probably in search of food, attacked the




bales and caused extensive damage to them.  This interesting




observation indicated the possibility of this occurring during




baling operations if this technique becomes part of landfill or




solid waste management processes.  Appendix II provides details of




the baling experiment.






                  Composting Leaves with Refuse






     During December 1970, approximately 46 tons of leaves (primarily




from hardwood trees) were received from Johnson City.  Because  of




the scheduled plant shutdown for maintenance, the leaves helped to




fill some windrow spaces on the field and provided an opportunity




to obtain preliminary information relative to the composting of leaves




with municipal refuse.  It was decided to explore the feasibility of




disposing of leaves directly through the routine municipal refuse




composting cycle without processing them by grinding.  However,




one batch of leaves was ground.
                              235

-------
     Four windrows with various combinations of leaves and refuse

were placed on the field.  Samples were taken from the windrows

at 5-, 10-, 20-, 30-, 40-, and 50-day intervals, and the C/N were

determined at the intervals shown below.

                                  Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio (C/N)

                                     Composting Time (days)

     Material                   5_    10     £0     3£     40_   ,50

     1 Leaves                   50   54     52      -     53    51

     1/2 Leaves - 1/2 Refuse*    -   48     51     39     43    35

     1/4 Leaves - 3/4 Refuse    39   41     37     30     27    24

     1/4 Leaves - 3/4 Refuse**  40   40     40     33     32    27
      *Dry weight ratio.
     **Leaves were ground.

     Results of the C/N analyses indicate that in the absence of

refuse, unground leaves would not decompose within the limits of

the composting cycle normally used in this process.  It appears

however, that refuse will aid the decomposition of the unground

leaves, especially when mixed in a ratio of 3 parts refuse to 1 part

unground leaves (by dry weight).  At this ratio, there appeared to

be little difference in composting rate between the unground leaves

and the ground leaves.  Temperature measurements of each test windrow

also confirmed the existence of these general trends.
                              236

-------
     The windrow containing only leaves was allowed to remain




on the field for an additional 50 days.  The C/N ratio at the end




of the 100 days was 46, indicating that little decomposition had




occurred, inasmuch as the original C/N was 50.




     The windrows containing 50 percent (of total weight) or more




leaves were difficult to turn in that the windrow turning machine




frequently became clogged because of the larger windrow volume




caused by the addition of leaves.




     While the data are only preliminary, they do indicate that




some leaves (at least in a ratio of 3 parts refuse to 1 part leaves




by dry weight) collected by a municipality could be disposed of




without being ground by composting them directly with municipal




refuse.  No detrimental effects to the routine composting cycle




would be expected.  The leaves did appear to enhance the appearance




of the resulting compost.






                       Drying the Compost






     A grain dryer was rented for the purpose of drying compost for




use in the air classifier evaluation.  While the installation and




operation were somewhat inefficient, the dryer served its intended




purpose (Figures 3 and 4).




     Three test runs were completed using an average of 33 tons




(wet weight) of composted refuse.  The average moisture content
                              237

-------
      Figure 3.   A grain dryer  was  used to dry unscreened and
 screened  composted refuse.
     Figure 4.  A  grain dryer was used to dry unscreened
 composted  refuse.  Note the water vapor being forced from the
material.
                             238

-------
of the compost in the runs was 47 percent (wet weight).   After




two hours of drying, the moisture was reduced to an average of




38 percent  (wet weight) at a cost of $0.23 per ton initial material.




After 3.5 hours of drying time, the moisture level was reduced to




16 percent  (wet weight) at an average operating cost of $0.29 per ton




initial material.




     This type of dryer, with properly designed ducts and layout,




could provide an acceptable means for drying large quantities of




compost for processing.






                   Screening Composted Refuse






     Screening Process.  The screening process as used to screen




the composted refuse is depicted in Figure 5.




     The scalping screen, fabricated of six 12 x 4 feet - 3/4 inch




expanded metal sheets with 3/4 x 1-1/4 -inch diamond shape openings,




was installed for the purpose of removing the larger pieces of




plastic film, glass, metal, and similar materials prior to passage




to the vibrating screen.  It was felt that perhaps this screen




would permit more efficient screening through the vibrating screen




and negate the need for the previously installed rotary screen.




However, while a slight improvement in the operation of the




vibrating screen was noted, it did not permit removing the rotary




screen because a large amount of acceptable composted refuse




continued to be passed to the rotary screen for screening.  Material
                               239

-------
 Rejects from Rotary
Screen to Reject Pile
             Scalping Screen

Rejects from Scalping
Screen to Reject Pile
                                         Rejects from
                                         Vibrating Screen
                                                                       Unscreened
                                                                                   IN
  Composted Refuse

"Vibrating Screen
                                                                     Screened Compost Passing
                                                                          Vibrating Screen
                                                                           (Better Grade)
                                Screened Compost
                              Passing Rotary Screen
                                 (Poorer Grade)
   Figure  5.   Screening  process used  to screen the  composted  refuse.
                                         240

-------
passing the scalping screen was fed to the vibrating screen.




Material not passing the scalper was rejected.




     The vibrating screen is an inclined screen with 7/16 inch




hexagonal openings.  In initial trails, wire mesh screens with




openings of I/A and 1/2 inches were used.  They proved to be




unsuitable because the material clogged the screen.  Material




that passed through this screen was more thoroughly decomposed




and was the most acceptable of the product in terms of both




appearance and C/N ratio (Table 7 and Figure 6).  Material not




passing this screen was transferred to the rotary screen.




     The rotary screen consisted of six 4- x 16-foot screens with




7/16  inch hexagonal shaped openings arranged in hexahedron shape.




Material passing through this screen comprised the poorest grade




of screened compost as it contained more of the noncomposted or




partially composted cardboard and glass particles than did that




which passed through the vibrating screen.  Material not passing




through it was rejected.  However, while the material that passed




through the rotary screen was of a rougher grade than that passed




through the vibrating screen (Table 7 and Figure 7), it was




acceptable for many uses, especially for land reclamation projects.




     Analysis of samples taken prior to screening and after screening




indicated that significant amounts of polychlorinated biphenyls in




the composted refuse were being removed by screening.6  This is




an indication that many plastic materials were being removed.
                               241

-------
                            TABLE 7

           CARBON TO NITROGEN RATIO OF COMPOST FROM

             VIBRATING SCREEN AND ROTARY SCREEN
Sampling
I*





!!**







Vibrating
28
28
30
28
30
20
Average 27
22
18
19
22
27
29
21
Average 23
C/N of Compost
Screen Rotary Screen
30
34
35
32
45
23
33
25
21
21
25
30
33
31
27
    Average of All Screened Compost = 28
 *Special test windrows - grinding study.
**Sampling of randomly selected windrows.
                              242

-------
      Figure 6.   A better  compost was obtained by screening through
 a vibrating screen.   Note the difference in  the appearance of this
 product and the material  that was screened through the rota
Screen (Figure 7).
      Figure 7.  The compost rejected by the vibrating screen was
 screened by the rotary screen.   This was a poorer
 compost (Figure 6).
                              243

-------
     As discussed in Volume I, grinding of the screened compost




was not a successful operation.  Additional attempts made during this




reporting period with the use of the Sedberry grinder, were again




unsuccessful.



     Compost Screening Rates.  Records were maintained over different




periods to determine the rate of screening the composted refuse.



     In 109 total hours (actual running time), 868 tons of




composted refuse were screened at a rate of 8 tons per hour on




a wet weight basis.  Thirty-seven percent (316 tons) of this



material passed through the vibrating screen at approximately 2.9




tons per hour.  Of the material rejected by the vibrating screen




251 tons, equivalent to 29% of the initial weight, passed through



the rotary screen at a rate of 2.3 tons per hour.  Therefore,




the total production of screened compost was 567 tons (66 percent)



at a rate of 5.2 tons per hour (wet weight basis).  Based upon




random sampling, screened compost averaged 46 percent moisture.




Therefore, the dry weight processing rate for producing screened




compost would be 2.8 tons per hour.  This is the same average rate



achieved during processing of the special test windrows for the




grinding study.  Rejects during this screening totalled 34 percent



(301 tons) of the material fed to the screens.   While the scalping




screen aided the overall screening operation somewhat, it could be




removed without undue effect upon the product or process.
                              244

-------
     The zig-zag air classifier* could be connected directly in




line to process material produced  by either the vibrating screen




or the rotary screen.  The classifier has the capacity to handle




the production from either or both of the screens.  However, since




the material from the viibrating screen is superior in quality, it




would not be desirable to process the product of both screens at




one time unless the products are to be stockpiled for a period




before use.   This storage would act as an additional curing time




for the rotary screened material.






                 Air Classification of Compost






     The presence of glass and other dense particles small enough




to pass the screens used in screening the composted refuse resulted




in a compost product objectionable for some uses.  Preliminary




data obtained at Sanford Research Institute indicated that a zig-




zag air classifier could remove such glass.7  Subsequently, a unit




was procurred for installation at the Johnson City composting




project.




     The unit was designed to process 16,000 pounds of compost




per hour.  It was constructed with a 10-stage, 8-inch by 45-inch




SSI zig-zag air column, a 51-inch clockwise cyclone, a 10-inch




rotary discharge valve equipped with motors and drive, and a




35-inch industrial fan with a 7-1/2 horsepower drive motor.
     *Discussed in later section.
                              245

-------
     The contractor performed some preliminary operational test runs




of the equipment on site.  Results indicated that the unit offered the




potential to effect a satisfactory separation of glass from the undried




screened compost, and that it would also adequately separate plastic




film from the ground refuse  (Table 8).




     To obtain operating data on this unit and establish optimum




operating conditions, a statistically designed evaluation was planned.




However, seasonal weather conditions and operating problems with




the unit delayed this evaluation. Shortly after the preliminary




operations began the drive shaft on the feed hopper broke within




less than 20 hours of operation.  At the time this happened, the




unit was processing material screened through the rotary screen,




probably the lightest job the classifier would be expected to handle.




     On the basis of information obtained from the SRI contractor and




preliminary testing at Johnson City, experiments were designed for




the following:




     1.  To define the critical velocity levels for separating the




various materials in ground solid waste (without screening).




     2.  To determine the classifier's capability for removing




glass from the screened compost.




     3.  To determine the classifier's capability for removing




plastics from the ground refuse prior to composting.




     4.  To determine the classifier's capability to  remove




glass from the ground refuse prior to composting.
                              246

-------
                                    TABLE 8

               RESULTS OF INITIAL OPERATIONAL TESTING OF ZIG-ZAG

                                 AIR CLASSIFIER
Material
Tested
Pressure Drop
Across Column
(In H?0)
Remarks
Raw refuse from rasper


Raw refuse from rasper


Composted refuse 42-days (field)

Composted refuse 42-days (field)


Wet screened composted refuse
 rotary screen
Wet screened composted refuse
 rotary screen

Wet screened composted refuse
 vibrating screen
0.3 to 0.5


    6

  0.5
  0.5
Removed all glass
except sand size

Removed most plastic
film

Removed most glass

Removed most plastic
film

Wet compost formed mud
balls around glass

'(Lost approximately 10%
compost with glass)

Removed most plastic
film

Removed all glass
except sand size

(About 90% of feed
removed as lights)
                                      247

-------
     The delay  in  initiating the evaluation made it impossible to




 complete the  investigations.  Therefore, objective number 2 was




 selected as having the most importance, since fulfilling it would




 supply information relative to the original purpose for purchasing




 the classifier.  Objective number 4 was modified and was fulfilled




 in its modified form.




     Information available indicates the following:




     1.  For  the purpose of removing objectionable glass




 particles from  screened composted refuse, apparently no significant




 difference exists  between the wet material (approximately 35 percent




 moisture - wet weight) and dry material (15 percent moisture).  The




 best operating condition was with a pressure drop of between 4.6




 and 6 inches  of water.  The 6-inch level resulted in a greater loss




 of compost in the  heavy glass fraction, but produced a product free




 of objectionable glass particles.  Although test conditions involved




 a feed rate of about 4 to 5 T/hour, indications were that with




 properly screened  and dried compost the air classifier could process




 somewhat more and  possibly even attain the designed rate of 8 T/hour.




     2.  The  classifier as  designed was not adequate for processing




 ground raw refuse  or unscreened composted refuse.  The difficulties




were apparently the result of inadequate design for processing such




materials (see number 4).  The tests conducted with ground raw refuse




 and unscreened material did show that the classifier will remove most




 of the plastic film from these materials.
                              248

-------
     3.  Operating difficulties encountered during testing involved




an accumulation of the wet screened compost (light fraction) in the




horizontal transfer duct between the zig-zag column outlet and the




cyclone inlet.  This could possibly be eliminated by designing the




duct to have a steeper incline.  Processing the dry compost created




a dust problem, however, the dust could be controlled by appropriate




dust collectors.




     4.  With respect to the ground refuse and unscreened material,




the cyclone discharge valve was too small and often became clogged




with the lighter material.   Moreover, feeder blades, located in the




feed hopper to the zig-zag column, were too small to freely process




this rough material.  Even though the feed rate was reduced to




approximately 1 T/hour, clogging still occurred and resulted in




damage to the blades.  Larger feeder blades, spring loaded to "give"




when metals, glass, and other similar objects tend to lodge between




the blades and the wall, would help to solve this problem.  It was




found advisable to replace the neoprene seals on the feeder blades




with thicker seals.  The capability of creating a larger pressure




drop across the column (and thus a greater air velocity) would be




desirable for processing these rough materials.  Wear data due to




the pressure of such materials are not available.  On the basis of




limited observations, the processing of large quantities of screened




compost containing glass particles would probably result in excessive
                               249

-------
wear of the neoprene seals and the metal plates in the zig-zag column.




Processing of raw ground refuse may result in more severe wear.




Based upon the testing, the unit as installed and modified at Johnson




City is capable of removing objectionable glass from screened composted




refuse.  Prescreening is recommended because tests with only coarse




screening and with no screening did not produce an acceptable product.




Recycling of the light fraction in these cases did not prove successful.




The unit, as designed, is not recommended for processing raw refuse,




unless the refuse is ground to a finer particle size than was produced




at Johnson City.






           Quality of Compost Produced at Johnson City






     The physical appearance of the compost produced at Johnson




City improved during the course of this reporting period.  This




improvement was primarily the result of improved screening operations.




Some material processed through the air classifier was trucked to




Horicultural Crops Research Center, North Carolina State University,




Fletcher, North Carolina.  The investigators were exceptionally




pleased with the physical appearance and noted the absence of glass




from the product.8




     A number of analyses made during the last year of the project




afforded an opportunity to obtain information relative to the quality




of compost being produced.  Compost produced at a Brikallare process
                              250

-------
composting plant at Blaubeuran, West Germany, was analyzed by personnel




of BSWM and compared with compost produced at Johnson City by the




windrowing process.




     Differences were noted in some of the parameters tested; however,




neither compost appeared to be superior in any significant characteristic




(Tables 9 and 10).  Few data were available to permit a comparison of soil




and plant responses to the respective composts.  The data that




were available, however, did not provide any reason to suspect that




one would show a significant improvement over the other in this respect.




     Results of tests reported in Volume I indicated that the




average C/N of routine 42-day old composted refuse was approximately




34.  The average C/N  obtained for all samples of compost assayed




during the present period was 28, with one set from the vibrating




screen averaging as low as 23.  The best C/N for any windrow was 18.




A ratio of 20 or less is generally agreed to be optimum.




     It would appear that the major objectionable feature of the




compost produced at Johnson City during this reporting period




was the quantity of glass remaining in the product.  However,




there are methods to remove the glass, the air classifier being




one.  A problem that was noted in the study was the lack of a




standard for characterizing compost.  Compost has been used to




describe almost anything from unmilled raw refuse to completely




decomposed animal wastes free of glass, plastics, and other
                              251

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                                    TABLE 9

                   CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF JOHNSON CITY

                             AND WEST GERMAN COMPOST
Carbon-total %
organic
inorganic*
Nitrogen (Kejeldahl)
C/N ratio
Hydrogen %
Oxygen-total %
organic
inorganic*
P 7
£ • /o
C.O.D. (ing/gram)
Volatile (600 C) %
Ash (600 C) %
Volatile (950 C) %
Ash (950 C)%
BTU/lb
a (1 part sample +
b (1 part sample +

Compost
20.45
19.39
1.06
% 0.91
22.47
2.59
16.94
12.71
4.23
0.31
414
39.90
60.10
41.53
58.47
3576
2 parts water w/v)** 7.5
50 parts water w/v)** 8.5
Johnson City
#1 Compost #2
21.89
20.82
1.07
0.98
22.37
2.72
18.27
14.00
4.27
0.34
420
42.70
57.30
44.53
55.47
2714
7.3
7.9
German
Compost
27.14
24.44
2.71
1.18
23.00
1.95
18.12
7.27
10.71
0.37
339
40.08
59.92
49.07
50.93
3848
7,6
8.4
     *From carbonate.
    **Proportions proposed by Carnes and Lossin in their study of the buffer
systems in compost.
                                       252

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                      TABLE 10




ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF JOHNSON CITY AND GERMAN COMPOSTS
Johnson City Compost
K
Na
Ca
Mg
Fe
Al
Cu
Mn
Ni
B
Zn
Hg
Pb
ug/gram
or ppm
1692
2786
19811
4376
2407
7005
370
418
24
321
776
0.18
4.83
%
0.17
0.27
1.98
0.44
0.24
0.71
0.04
0.04
0.002
0.03
0.08
0.00002
0.0005
German
ug/gram
or ppm
1974
1136
63733
3979
2467
7669
257
520
20
277
590
N.D.
6.33
%
0.20
0.12
6.37
0.39
0.25
0.77
0.03
0.05
0.002
0.03
0.06
	
0.0007
                         253

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objectionable matter.  Therefore, difficulty arises in trying to




compare data between projects because of this lack of a suitable




standard.  As an example, the "compost" applied to the "Cane




Patch" strip mine demonstration in 1968* was unscreened material




and contained large quantities of glass, plastic, can opening tabs,




and many similar items.  The "compost" presently being applied in the




demonstrations is relatively free of such items after screening.




Yet, both products are designated as compost.  Compost produced from




food wastes, animal wastes, leaves, and similar organic materials




would be expected to be of a better quality than compost produced




from mixed municipal refuse, yet both products are called compost.




The same situation exists for material that has been stored and




aged for years as compared to material that has only composted for




a few weeks.  There exists a need to establish standards for compost.




Standards should, as an example, include:




     Moisture, when package                            %




     Organic matter                                    %




     Inert material                                    %




       Maximum glass                                   %




     Nitrogen                                          %




     Phosphorous                                       %




     Principal Constituents                            %
     *See section "Compost Utilization Research and Demonstrations."
                              254

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       Ground Refuse                                   %




       Sewage Sludge                                   %




       Animal Manure                                   %




     Particle Size, etc.




These are offered as examples only.   As more is learned concerning




potential effects on soils, plants,  etc. from heavy metals and




other trace materials which might be present in the compost, provisions




would be needed to measure and report such things,  as they may




determine the final recommended disposition of the  compost.






                 SUMMARY OF MEDICAL  SURVEILLANCE






     The compost demonstration project involved work with potential




occupational exposures that had not  been previously encountered.




Responsibility for health surveillance of employees at the composting




plant was assigned to the Knoxville  Medical Office  of the TVA.




     Before the plant was put into operation on June 20, 1967,




all TVA operating  employees at the  project had received pre-employment




physical examinations.  They were also tested for tuberculosis and




histoplasmosis and immunized against smallpox and typhoid.  Public




Health Service employees at the project were also provided these




tests and immunizations.  Regularly  scheduled medical services




included typhoid, tetanus toxoid, smallpox, and poliomyelitis




immunizations which were kept current throughout each employee's




entire period of employment.  Influenza and Rocky Mountain spotted




fever vaccines were administered to  employees who wanted them.
                               255

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      Close  surveillance  over health status and health needs of




 employees was maintained.  The Chief, Eastern Area Medical Service




 and  the  Supervising Nurse  of the Eastern Area made more frequent




 visits to the project  than are ordinarily required for most TVA




 field projects.   They  also were in frequent communication with




 supervisors in both TVA  and PHS.  Annual chest X-rays were performed




 either in the Knoxville  Medical Office or through arrangements with




 private medical  facilities in Johnson City.  Periodic health




 examinations were performed on the Mobile Health Clinic, with




 followup by the  Chief, Eastern Area Medical Service, or in the




 Knoxville Medical Office.




      The Nurse in the Mobile Health Station assigned to the




 Eastern Area of  the Division of Power Construction was located




 in the Johnson City area for over a year while the composting




 plant was in operation.  She visited the plant to administer




 and  interpret tests and  immunizations and provided other services




 such as treatment of injuries and illness.  First-aid kits and




 supplies were maintained at the plant site for treatment of minor




 injuries.




     Unexpected positive reactions to annual tuberculin skin tests




were discovered in 7 of  13 employees at the compost plant in




 October 1968.  Follow-up chest X-rays were performed on all employees




with interpretation by a radiologist.   No significant abnormalities
                              256

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were disclosed.  After consultation with the National Communitive




Disease Center respresentatives, it was tentatively concluded that




contact with human tuberculosis bacillus had occurred but was




unrelated to  the compost material.  Each worker who reacted positively




was kept under surveillance and received additional tests periodically.




     In November of  1969, the 16 employees at the project (TVA and




PHS) were given onsite physical examinations which included chest




X-ray, electrocardiogram, tonometry, urinalysis, and complete blood




analyses by the SMA-12 and SMA-7 in the Central Medical Laboratory,




Chattanooga.  No significant abnormalities were found.  A TVA




physician reviewed the results of the examinations with each employee.




     With the discontinuance of plant operation on June 30, 1971,




medical services for the project ended.






        COMPOST UTILIZATION RESEARCH AND DEMONSTRATIONS






     Evaluating a material such as compost, which has very little




inorganic fertilizer value, is extremely difficult since any response




brought about by its use on crops would be expected to accrue over a




number  of years.  Physical properties of the soil do not change rapidly




excepting as a result of extreme stress.  The objective of the compost




research projects and demonstrations was to study crop responses and




changes in soil characteristics from use of the compost under varying




conditions, and thereby provide a better basis on which to evaluate the




material.
                              257

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     The research projects were statistically designed and controlled




experiments established to obtain research data on crop and soil




responses to composted municipal refuse.  The demonstrations were




established in cooperation with farmers and other users to obtain




data about the use of compost under actual field conditions.  The




conditions under which the demonstrations were carried out were not




as completely controlled as for the research projects, but they do




provide data with respect to user reaction and evaluation of the




compost.






                Compost Utilization Demonstrations






     The primary objective of the compost demonstrations was to




investigate the potential uses of compost and its effects on




crop production in each use  under actual field conditions.  Also




important was introducing the product to potential users and




observing their reactions with respect to specific conditions of




use.  The demonstrations have helped determine some of the benefits




and problems associated with the use of compost as a soil conditioner.




     Demonstrations were established on field crops, horticultural




crops, home gardens, lawn establishments, road bank stabilization, and




for the reclamation of spoiled lands.  During two years, 172




demonstrations—using approximately 4,775 tons of compost—were




established by the TVA Agriculturist.
                              258

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     The following evaluation of the demonstrations is based




primarily on those projects which were conducted over a two-year




period.  Special-interest demonstrations are also included.




     Reclaiming a Fly Ash Pond. Fly ash ponds result in conjunction




with TVA steam power generating plants.  Ponds receive the ash




created by the burning of coal.  Little success has been achieved




in reclaiming these areas by conventional means.  This project was




established at the John Sevier Steam Plant in Rodgersville, Tennessee.




Preliminary results (Figures 8 and 9) appear excellent but full




evaluation will require observation over the next two to three years.




     Compost is Successfully Used to Grow Hurley Tobacco.  Burley




tobacco is the leading cash crop in upper east Tennessee.  There




are over 2,000 acres of tobacco allotted to Washington County—an




average of 0.5 acres per farm.   The average yield in 1968 was 2,414




pounds per acre (Ibs/A); in 1969, 2,448 Ibs/A; and 1970, 2,649 Ibs/A.




The average market price for burley tobacco is about $70 per




hundred-weight ($70/cwt.).  The gross annual farm income from




tobacco sales in Washington County is greater than $3.5 million.




     Tobacco is often grown in the same soil each year until




yields begin to decrease or disease forces the farmer into a




rotation with other crops.  When this happens, less fertile soil




is used to produce tobacco.  Maintaining good soil conditions




is therefore essential.  The farmer may apply barnyard manure
                              259

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                                                  «, •<*>
     Figure 8.  A fly ash pond at the John Sevier Steam Plant,
Rogersville,Tennessee was barren of plant life prior to
reclaiming with compost, fertilizer, and seed in September 1970.

      Figure 9.  The reclaimed f ly ash pond shows good plant
 growth in July,  1971.
                              260

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and plow under green cover crops to help replenish the soil




organic matter that is diminished by the large applications of




inorganic fertilizers needed for burley tobacco.  Twenty-five




demonstrations were initiated to observe the effects of compost




as a potential organic supplement for growing burley tobacco.




     Using application rates of 12 to 60 tons per acre (T/A),




the demonstrations show compost to have positive physical effects




on many soils used for growing burley tobacco in east Tennessee




and western North Carolina.  None of the demonstrations produced




adverse effects on tobacco yields.  On several projects, yields




were increased when compared to plots not receiving a treatment




of compost.  The most favorable response from the use of compost




has been on soils that have been intensely cropped without




benefits from applications of barnyard manures or green cover




crops.




     Compost compares favorably with barnyard manures as an




organic supplement, and the presence of certain trace elements




in compost can be beneficial when applied in proper amounts to




deficient soils.




     Results from demonstrations thus far have shown that compost




has residual value on subsequent crops of tobacco.  If "uncured"




or "green" compost is applied in large quantities immediately




prior to planting tobacco, certain plant nutrients are immobilized
                              261

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while the compost is undergoing further microbial decomposition.




This condition can be corrected by adding inorganic fertilizers,




reducing the application rates, or applying the compost well in




advance of the tobacco crop.  Longer composting times and/or




curring times will also correct this situation.




     The addition of compost to tobacco soils can be beneficial




in maintaining or correcting adverse pH conditions.  Since




compost has some liming effects, the addition of compost to the




normal inorganic fertilizer program can be expected to have a




positive synergistic effect on acid soils.




     A preliminary survey of farmers in the area indicates a




positive demand for compost as an organic amendment for growing




burley tobacco in east Tennessee and western North Carolina.




These results are based on one to three consecutive years of




observation.  The effects of annual applications of large quantities




of compost over long periods of time are not known.  Present




results, however, do indicate that with proper management, compost




can be used effectively on tobacco soils.




     Compost Proves Beneficial in Growing Corn.  Although corn is




usually considered a low-value cash crop, it is important in the




area.  A large percentage of the corn produced is fed to dairy or




beef cattle as silage.   Farms are small and intense cropping




practices are followed.   Dairy and beef cattle farmers have little
                              262

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need for outside organic supplements since their own operations




supply large quantities.  However, many part-time farmers with no




source of organic manures still grow corn for human consumption




either at home or in local markets.  This situation creates a




possible outlet for compost.




     The results from demonstrations on corn thus far indicate




substantial benefits from compost.  Figures 10, 11, and 12




serve to illustrate these results.  The addition of compost to




soils used for growing corn can increase yields, improve soil




moisture relationship, improve bulk density, and increase organic




matter.  The increased corn yields, as in some other crops, is




offset by the costs involved in hauling and spreading the compost.




The benefits from using compost on corn are improved when the




corn is harvested for silage.  This is attributed to the fact




that for silage the entire stalk of corn is harvested while for




grain the entire stalk remains intact and can be plowed back




into the soil as an organic supplement.




     The addition of compost to infertile, non-productive soils




can improve soil   conditions and increase the productive capacity




of these soils.  However, the long-range effects, from continuous




application of large quantities of compost, on soil-plant-animal




relationships have not been defined.
                              263

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           «*<>,
       Figure 10.   The control plot (nitrogen and compost  not used)  has
fewer and smaller corn stalks  than  the composted plots shown in figures 11
and 12, (Photographed in July  1971).
                                  264

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      Figure 11.  The corn grain research plot receiving  a  complete
fertilizer  treatment but  no  compost  shows fewer  and smaller corn
 stalks in July 1971 than  the corn treated  with 100 tons
 per acre of compost only (Figure 12)
     Figure  12.  The  corn plot receiving  100 tons per acre of
compost but no  nitrogen fertilizer shows larger corn and more
corn stalks than plots receiving only fertilizer (Figure 11)
and no  fertilizer  (Figure 10).
                             265

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     Compost as an Organic Supplement for Horticultural Crops.



The production of high-value horticultural cash crops in upper




east Tennessee and western North Carolina is being recommended




as a means of supplementing farm income.  The restrictions on



tobacco allotments are largely responsible for these recommendations.




The acreage of highly productive soil is small and is not entirely the



result of topography.  Another factor is that inadequate farm practices




have resulted in excessive erosion.



     The need for maintaining the productive capacity of soils




is extremely important.  Increased total population in the area




combined with a decrease in farm population and more competitive




marketing have made it necessary to increase production simultaneously




with a decrease in acreage allotments for tobacco.  To meet these



production demands, the farmer has relied on inorganic fertilizers,




which in turn have increased the need for maintaining or improving




the soil organic matter—normally provided in the form of barnyard



manure and green cover crops.  Compost may be an adequate substitute



and provide valuable trace minerals as well.




     For certain horticultural crops, such as tomatoes, the yield



may be increased by the practice of mulching for weed control and




conservation of moisture.  In this area either straw or plastic




sheeting is used.  Five demonstrations using compost on tomatoes



were begun in 1970.  In four of these, compost was applied as
                              266

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a mulch; and in the fifth, it was plowed under prior to planting.




No observable beneficial results were obtained from plowing in




the compost, whereas using compost as a mulch resulted in a notable




increase in yield.  Good weed control, which is a requirement for




a good mulch, also was obtained.  More detailed demonstrations




will be established in 1971 to determine the effect of compost




on soil and plants.




     Demonstrations on horticultural crops indicate that compost




has potential as an organic supplement.  The response from compost




users has been favorable.  The interest generated on behalf of




many home gardeners has become widespread throughout the area.




Compost relatively free from glass and other foreign matter




could be marketed locally based on response from those using or




observing results from compost in previous cooperative demonstrations.




     No adverse effects from the use of compost have been observed




thus far; however, supplemental research and demonstrations are




necessary to establish guidelines for the use of compost especially




when fortified with municipal sewage sludges.




     Compost as a Mulch for Flowers, Trees, and Shrubs.  Twenty




demonstrations were initiated in which compost was used as a




mulch for shrubs, flowers, and trees.  There was no report of




compost adversely affecting growth in any of the demonstrations




even when applied up to six inches deep.  Compost, used as a
                             267

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mulch and worked into the soil,  gave excellent results when applied




to flower beds, particularly roses.  Some adverse growth patterns




were experienced when acid-loving shrubs were planted directly




into a compost-soil medium.  The possibility of adjusting the pH




of the compost to increase the utility of the product is being




studied.




     Use of Compost for Establishing Grass Sod.  Fifteen demonstrations




were established which involved the starting or maintenance of




grass sod on lawns, pastures, and golf courses.  Compost apparently




was of little value when applied as a topdressing for lawn or




pasture maintenance.  Although there was a difference between areas




receiving compost and those receiving none, it is doubtful that the




economic benefit would be worth the costs of hauling and spreading.




This may not be the case in the maintenance of golf courses where




compost has proven to be valuable supplement in maintaining tees and




fairways.  The golf professional at Johnson City Municipal Golf




Course says that compost has been a valuable asset in his golf




course operations.  He places a value of $10/T on the compost.  Other




than on golf courses, compost proved to be the most beneficial in




grass establishment when disced into the soil rather than applied as




a topdressing.




     In similar demonstrations, compost definitely proved beneficial




in aiding soil stabilization and grass establishment on areas where
                              268

-------
efforts to obtain a sod cover had been less than satisfactory.




In many of these instances, compost was disced into the soil.




Figures 13, 14, 15, and 16 provide examples of the demonstrations




and depict the results obtained.




     Use of Compost in Reclaiming Strip-Mine Lands.  There are




about 800,000 acres of defaced strip mine land in the United States




which need to be reclaimed or stabilized to reduce erosion and




stream pollution.  The use of chemical fertilizers and lime for




reclaiming these areas may provide satisfactory initial results.




However, due to recurring acidic conditions and lack of organic




matter, such results are often short-lived. Preliminary research




indicates that the most adverse effects from erosion occur during




the first six months after strip mining.  Therefore, this is the




critical time for reclaiming operations since the most severe




erosion occurs during this period, thereby removing most of the




organic matter which might be present.  With little organic matter,




six months is not sufficient time for plants to develop, even with




fertilizer applications.  Thus, erosion continues.  Even if immediate




seeding and fertilization are accomplished, the absence of soil and




organic matter for a good seedbed often prevents the plant root




development needed to check erosion.  Even repeated seeding and




fertilizer treatments do not assure satisfactory results.




     The potential value of compost in reclaiming these strip




mine spoils has been apparent in demonstrations conducted to
                             269

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     Figure  13.  A roadbank at  the Boone  Dam TVA Reservation was
 stabilized with compost in the summer of 1969.  The bank shows
 thick grass cover in July 1971
    Figure 14.  A play area at  the Municipal Park,  Jonesboro,
Tennessee was stabilized with compost in 1968.  For  eight years
erosion formed a ditch requiring fill soil and seeding each year.
This photograph was taken in July, 1971.
                               270

-------
     Figure 15.  Compost was used in the spring of 1968 to help
  establish the ground cover shown in July 1971.
     Figure 16.  In July 1971 land at the Tri-Cities Airport is
covered with a good growth of grass.  The area was treated with
30 tons per acre of compost in 1970 after earlier conventional seeding
methods had failed.
                               271

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date  (Figures 17 and 18).  Superior results have been achieved




where compost was applied as a mulch to supplement a fertilizer




and seeding program.  The long term effects of using compost in




strip mine reclamation programs would appear to be desirable.




Compost rates up to 180 T/A have been used successfully in




demonstrations.  As a supplement to the compost utilization




demonstration on strip mines, a research project designed to




provide information about the optimum rates of application of




compost needed to reclaim the strip mines was initiated in




October 1970.  Data will have to be collected over several years




to obtain meaningful results.  Preliminary results, however, are




encouraging (Figures 19 and 20) and indicate favorable responses




to amounts of compost lesser than those applied in the 1968




demonstration.




     Summary of Compost Utilization Demonstrations.  After the




first year, most cooperators felt that the compost was beneficial.




They stated, however, that removal of the glass and plastic would




increase the compost's utility.  Less than five percent thought




that compost was detrimental to crop growth.  Improved water-holding




capacity, improved soil tilth, and increased crop responses to




inorganic fertilizers were favorable benefits attributed to the




compost by the users.




     During the first year of the demonstrations, much of the




responsibility of getting the material into the soil was left to
                             272

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     Figure 17.  In 1968, this area of the "Cane  Patch" strip mine which
had  remained barren for approximately 13 years received fertilizer and
seeding  treatments.  Two areas also received 72 tons/acre and 184 tons/acre
of unscreened  compost.   Note  the  severe  soil conditions and erosion on the
control  area in the foreground.   The edge of  the compost treated  area  is in
 the background.   See Figure  18.   (Photographed July 1971).
     Figure 18.  The "Cane Patch" strip mine compost demonstration shows
the lush growth of grass, natural vegetation, and pine trees remaining
after over 3 years since planting on compost treated areas.  See Figure
17. (Photographed July 1971.)
                                     273

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    •:*»*,-  - r- -_ ».l&^-«wff«P>''-«
    £*-.+'                    -* *
      Figure 19.   This photograph of the  experimental strip mine
 reclamation project shows the density of grass cover  in  July 1971 on
 plots receiving the  smallest rates (14  dry tons/acre)  of compost.   The
 project was begun  in  the  fall of 1970.
     Figure 20.  This photograph of the experimental strip mine
reclamation project shows the grass growth in July 1971 on the plots
receiving the largest amounts (26 dry tons/acre) of compost.
                                    274

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the individual user.  The majority of the material was hauled




in dump trucks by TVA and left in stockpiles at the test sites.




Since in most cases there were no mechanical means of spreading




the compost on the fields, the individual user was asked to




spread the material.




     The willingness of most cooperators to try a new product was




most encouraging, especially since the physical appearance of the




compost at that time was unacceptable because the screening




process was not established.  Most of the individuals made an




effort to follow instructions concerning its use.




     During the second year of demonstrations, the procurement




of a truck with compost spreading equipment (Figure 21) eliminated




the need for the user to spread the material.  This resulted in




more reliable application data.  Also, the physical appearance




of the compost was greatly improved as a result of better screening.




This increased its potential uses and also improved public reaction




with respect to the demonstrations.  However, compost for the




"carriage" trade would have required the removal of more glass.




     Results from two years of compost demonstrations were more




favorable than those from one year's demonstration.  Most cooperators




felt that compost could be beneficial to crops but the cost of




distribution would be expensive.   None thought compost was detrimental




to crop growth.  Benefits listed by cooperators were improved
                             275

-------
     Figure 21.  A truck with a spreading attachment was used to apply
compost on compost demonstration areas.
                                 276

-------
moisture-holding capacity, improved tilth, easier tillage, and




increased response to inorganic fertilizers.  The value users




placed on the compost averaged $5.80 per ton.  In addition,




composting may provide an ecologically desirable means of disposing




of organic solid wastes.




     The compost used in the tests improved the pH of the soil,




increased the soil's moisture-holding capacity, and improved the




soil's bulk density.  Significant increases in the yields of




grain sorghum, corn, and bermudagrass were obtained.  In corn




experiments, a value of $1.65 to $5.80 per ton was estimated




for the compost on the basis of yield only.  The value for the




compost when used with grain sorghum was estimated to be from




$1.10 to $2.20 per ton.




     The most favorable responses to compost applications, based




on two years of demonstrations, occurred with:  (1) high-value cash




crops, (2) soil stabilization and erosion control projects, and




(3) home and garden uses.  However, the effects of continuous




and intermittent use of large quantities of compost on soils and




plants are yet to be determined.  Since compost contains many




elements, the possibility of an accumulation of an element or elements




in excessive amounts is possible—especially where large




amounts of compost are applied annually.




             Compost Utilization Research Projects




     Experiments were designed to measure the response of indicator




crops to compost.  Tests using forage sorghum, common bermudagrass,
                            277

-------
and corn were conducted during the 1969-71 seasons.4'9  These crops




were selected because they are good indicator crops in research




and are also important regional crops.




     The forage sorghum and bermudagrass experiments were conducted




by the Soils and Fertilizer Research Branch, Division of Agricultural




Development, TVA, at the National Fertilizer Development Center at




Muscle Shoals, Alabama.  The corn grain research project was conducted




at the Johnson City location by the Test and Demonstration Branch,




Division of Agricultural Development, TVA.




     Use of Compost for Sorghum Production.  This experiment




evaluated the effects of municipal compost and nitrogen applications




on sorghum yields and soil characteristics.  Prior to the 1969 and




1970 growing seasons, municipal compost from Johnson City, Tennessee,




was applied in fall, spring, or combination applications at rates




totaling from 0 to 146 tons per acre (T/A) for the 2 years on plots




12 by 30 feet each.  Fall applied compost was plowed under shortly




after application, while spring applications were incorporated into




the soil by discing.  Compost rates were compared with those involving




80 and 160 pounds of nitrogen per acre (Ib/A), with three treatments




supplying both nitrogen and compost, and a check treatment with no




nitrogen or compost.  Application methods and nitrogen treatments




were the same in both years.  Chemical analyses of the compost at




the time of application were as follows:
                            278

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                               -Element, (%, dry weight.)-
Application
Time
Fall 1968
Spring 1969
N
1.
1.

2
3
P
0.24
0.40
K
0.80
0.96
C
34
26

.2
.8
Ca
3.6
6.4
Na
0.49
0.82
Mg
0.49
0.87
S
0.4
0.4
Zn
0.13
0.15
Fall 1960 and
  Spring 1970         1.3  0.26  0.97 27.3   4.6  0.67  0.60 0.5  0.15
Prior to planting, phosphorous and potassium were applied at rates

adequate for maximum plant growth.  Crops were harvested twice,

at the early dough stage and a ratoon crop 2 to 3 months later.

     Yields of forage sorghum in 1969 and 1970 (Table 11) increased

in a curvilinear manner with increases in compost rates.  Nitrogen

plus compost resulted in greater yields than compost alone or

nitrogen alone.  Yields were lower in 1970 than in 1969 because

of later planting and a less favorable mid-summer rainfall pattern.

At the lower rates at which these comparisons were made, it made

no difference whether compost was applied in the fall or spring

or in split applications.

      In 1969, 41 tons of compost was required to produce as much

sorghum as 80 Ib/A of nitrogen, while no amount of compost

produced as much forage as 160 Ib/A of nitrogen.  In 1970, 16 T/A

of compost produced yields equivalent to 160 Ib/A of nitrogen, a
                             279

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oo
o
                                                    TABLE  11



              FORAGE  SORGHUM YIELD AND N UPTAKE AT MUSCLE  SHOALS, AS AFFECTED BY COMPOST AND N RATES
Total
compost
applied
T/A
0
0
10
0
20
16
18
20
20
37
73
146
73
Annual
N rate
Ib/A
0
80
0
160
0
0
0
80
160
0
0
0
160
Total yield of forage sorghum, T/A
1969
5.4g
6.9de
5.8fg
8.2b
6.3e
5.9fg
6.2f
7.9bc
8.9a
6.2f
6.9de
7.5cd
9.4a
1970
2.8h
4.6e
3.3g
5.2d
3.7g
3.6g
4. If
5.5bc
5.7b
4.6e
5.2cd
6.3a
6.5a
1971
4.2g
4.8f
5.2de
4.7f
5.6bcd
5.8bc
5.6bcd
5.5bcd
5.4cd
5.8bc
6.1b
6.7a
6.1b
Avg.
4.2h
5.4f
4.7g
6. Ode
5.2fg
5.2f
5.3fg
6.3cd
6.7bc
5.5ef
6.2d
6.7b
7.3a
Total N uptake, Ib/A*
1969
80g
144d
85g
209ab
102f
88fg
92fg
I69c
200b
lOlf
115e
141d
217a
1970
411
90e
56h
137b
58gh
63g
63fgh
105d
130c
82f
91e
14 2b
17 la
1971
38g
59f
61ef
60 f
77c
75cd
68de
74cd
65ef
81c
104b
135a
10 5b
Avg.
54h
97d
67g
135b
79f
75fg
74fg
116c
132b
88e
106d
139b
164a
         *Values  having the same letter in each column are not  significantly different at the 5% level.

-------
result influenced to some extent by the residual effect from




the 1969 compost application.




      Residual yields taken in 1971 showed much the same response




to compost as 1969 and 1970 yields; there was little residual




effect from the nitrogen treatments.




      The effects of compost and nitrogen on total nitrogen




uptake were similar to those on yield except that nitrogen




uptake was more linear with amounts of applied compost.  As




was true for yield, large tonnages of compost were required




to equal the effect of even the 80 Ib/A nitrogen application.




      The relative effects of nitrogen and compost on total yield




and nitrogen uptake over the 3-year period are shown graphically




in Figure 22.  The 20 T/A application of compost resulted in an




average annual yield increase of 1 T/A or 3 tons over the 3-year




period.  This would have had a value of approximately $75 or about $1.65




per ton of compost applied.  At rates above 20 T/A the yield increases




had a value of about $0.45 per ton of compost applied.  Equating




yield increases from compost with the cost of fertilizer nitrogen




needed to give equivalent increases provides an even less favorable




economic comparison, since 2 pounds of nitrogen produced almost as




much yield increase as 1 ton of compost.




      Table 12 shows the effect of compost and nitrogen on the




concentration of elements in the whole sorghum plant.  Nitrogen




concentrations were increased somewhat by increasing compost
                             281

-------
                                                              - 450
                                             SORGHUM YIELD
                                      	 N UPTAKE
        20
         36              73
          TOTAL COMPOST APPLICATION, TONS/ACRE
                                                             146
                                                                150
uptake as a
Figure 22.  Three-year total Sorghum  yield and nitrogen
     .ffected by  compost  and nitrogen  rates of application.
                             282

-------
                                                    TABLE 12




               EFFECT OF COMPOST AND N ON NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION IN FORAGE SORGHUM, MUSCLE SHOALS
00
2-year total compost
application, T/A
0
0
20
20
37
73
146
73
Annual
N rate
Ib/A
0
160
0
160
0
0
0
160
Elemental concentration, first harvest 1970
N, %
0.63
1.23
0.76
1.05
0.76
0.75
0.98
1.19
P 7
r , A,
0.22
0.18
0.20
0.17
0.25
0.22
0.24
0.20
K, %
1.70
1.25
0.67
1.47
1.78
1.99
0.06
2.17
Ca, %
0.21
0.28
0.19
0.24
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.23
MR, %
0.08
0.12
0.09
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.09
0.11
Na , ppm
46
89
39
89
38
64
54
72
Zn, ppm
32
36
34
47
41
50
57
61
Cu , ppm
4.0
5.7
4.4
5.3
4.4
5.1
5.6
6.4

-------
rates but less than with added fertilizer nitrogen.  Phosphorus,




Ca, and Mg concentrations changed little with increasing compost




rates.  Soil tests prior to initiating the experiment showed that




these nutrients were present in the soil in adequate to luxury




amounts.




      Potassium levels were generally higher with increasing compost




rates and lower with applied nitrogen.  Other workers have reported




refuse and sewage sludge to be low in potassium.  However, when




50 or more tons per acre are applied, even very low concentrations




of a nutrient result in large actual applications.  Sodium con-




centration was of interest, since the newsprint component of refuse




is high in Na.  Compost application had relatively little effect on




Na concentration except at very high compost rates, but nitrogen




application increased it markedly, especially with no compost




or at low rates, for an unknown reason.  Zinc and Cu concentrations




were increased by both compost and nitrogen.  The rather large




increase in Zn concentration in plant tissue as well as in the




soil points  up the need for careful chemical evaluation of sludges




and composts before large tonnages are applied to soil to avoid heavy




metal toxicity problems.




      Several physical and chemical soil evaluations made after




sorghum harvest in 1970 are summarized in Table 13.  Bulk density




and compression strength measured with a penetrometer were both
                             284

-------
                                                     TABLE  13


            EFFECT OF COMPOST AND N ON  PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOIL AT MUSCLE  SHOALS
ro
00
Moisture
2-year holding
total compost Annual capacity
application N rate at 1/3 bar
T/A Ib/A %
0
0
20
20
37
73
146
73
0 11.1
160
0
160
0
0 13.0
0 15.3
160
Soil
Moisture
12.4
11.0
12.5
11.6
12.9
13.3
14.8
13.5
Unconf ined
compression
Bulk strength
density* Ib/sq in*
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
37a
37a
32ab
30bc
27cd
22e
12f
25de
40a
32b
40a
36ab
36ab
33b
2 Id
26c
Organic
matter
1.58
1.47
1.81
1.99
1.96
2.66
4.22
2.58
Extractable
nutrients
Ib/A
pH
.5
5.1
6.2
6.0
6.2
6.6
6.8
6.4
K
172
138
175
130
205
247
295
191
Ca
1471
1310
2083
2034
2323
2981
3489
2831
Mg
161
139
177
172
183
199
208
168
Zn
6
5
26
31
34
81
436
77
      *Values having  the  same  letter  in  each  column are not  significantly different  at  the  5%  level.

-------
decreased significantly by heavy compost applications, while




soil moisture content and moisture-holding capacity were increased.




This improvement could be observed during every period of moisture




stress, as less leaf curling occurred on all plots receiving




16 or more T/A annually.




      Compost applied for the 1969 crop was quite coarse and the




spring applications disked in at rates of 25 or 50 T/A prevented




the preparation of a firm seedbed and caused a reduction in stand.




No unfavorable physical effects were noted from finely ground




compost applied for the 1970 crop.




      Compost applications increased soil organic matter content




from 1.6% with no compost to 4.2% at the highest compost rate.




The effects of lower compost rates were intermediate.  Levels of




K, Ca, Mg, and Zn and pH were all increased.  The increase in




Zn level creates the potential for an unfavorable crop response.




However, since compost resulted in pH values above 6.0 along with




the higher Zn levels, no adverse effects of Z.n were observed in




this experiment.




      Evaluation of Compost on Common Eermudagrass.9 Compost was




topdressed on common bermudagrass sod in November 1968 at rates




of 0, 4, 8, and 12 T/A.  In the winter of 1969-70, compost was




applied to the same plots at triple the 1968 rate.  Nitrogen rates




of 0 and 160 Ib/A were superimposed on plots at each compost rate.




One-half of the nitrogen was applied in April and the other half




after the second harvest.  The grass was cut four times.
                              286

-------
      Common bermudagrass yields (Table 14) show that bermudagrass


sod can accept heavy applications of surface-applied compost and


show a slight yield response.  Without added nitrogen the high


compost rate produced significantly more forage than no compost in


1969, while all compost rates were better than no compost in 1970.


Where nitrogen was applied, compost did not increase yields


significantly in 1969, but the two highest rates were better than


no compost in 1970.  As with sorghum, yield increases from compost


were insufficient to pay the cost of composting, transportation,


and application.


      It seems that the most critical consideration for compost


being used on forage land is the possible presence of glass, metal,


or other foreign material in particles big enough to be ingested


by grazing animals or picked up in harvested hay.


      Corn Grain Research Project at Johnson City.  This project was


designed to evaluate the response of corn yields and soil characteristics

                          rt
to the addition of compost .*


      Application rates for fall or spring-applied compost ranged


from 0 to 200 T/A.  The objective was to determine the soil and


crop improvement resulting from various rates of compost and the


maximumm amounts of compost that can be applied without adverse


affects.  Fall applications of 4, 8, 50, 100, and 200 T/A were


plowed under.  Spring applications  of compost were disked into
     *See Figures 10, 11, and 12 for an indication of the plant growth
response to the compost.
                             287

-------
                            TABLE 14

             COMMON BERMUDAGRASS YIELD, AS AFFECTED

                 BY COMPOST AND N, MUSCLE SHOALS
Compost rate, T/A
1969
0
0
4
4
8
8
12
12
1970
0
0
12
12
24
24
36
36
N rate, Ib/A
0
160
0
160
0
160
0
160
Dry forage yield, T/A*
1969 1970 Avg.
2.9c
5. la
3.3bc
5.0a
3.4bc
5.6a
3.5b
5.3a
1.2d
2.5b
.18c
2.9ab
2.8c
3.2a
2.1c
6.0a
2.0d
3.8b
2.5c
3.9b
2.6c
4.4a
2.8c
4. lab
     *Values having the same letter in each column are not
significantly different at the 5% level.
                              288

-------
the soil.  Nitrogen application rates of 80 and 160 Ib/A were




compared alone and with 8 T/A of spring-applied compost.  Plot




size was 12 by 30 feet with all treatments replicated 4 times.




The area was fertilized with phosphorus and potassium at rates




adequate for maximum plant growth.




     After planting the soil was sprayed with 2-1/2 Ib/A of




Atrazine for weed control.  The 1970 corn was planted late because




early adverse weather conditions in 1969 accounted for some reduction




in plant population.  During the first year (1969), there was




reduced germination in plots receiving 50, 100, and 200 T/A.




During the second year (1970), no significant reduction in germination




was observed, although some difficulty in preparing a firm seedbed




was again noted in the 50, 100, and 200 T/A compost treatments.




     It was also noted that throughout the research field the




50, 100, and 200 T/A treatments resulted in an increase in the




elevation of the soil as compared to the other treatments.  A




nutrient deficiency was observed early in the 1969 growing season




but was not evident in the 1970 crops, except in the control plot




where nitrogen deficiency symptoms were noted.  By observation,




the 8 T/A compost + 160 Ib/A nitrogen, and the 50, 100, and 200 T/A




of compost treatments produced the most rapid growth throughout




the growing season.
                            289

-------
     Without added nitrogen  (Table 15, Figure 23) average yield for




1969-71 increased inn a curvilinear manner with increasing compost




rates up to 50 T/A annually, but then decreased slightly.  The




200 T/A rate of unscreened compost used in the first year prevented




a sufficiently firm seedbed, so that the stand of plants was




reduced about 10%.  No stand problems resulted from screened compost




used in subsequent years.




     Response of corn to compost and nitrogen was also somewhat




variable among treatments that differed little in the total amount




of compost or nutrients supplied.  Fertilizer nitrogen increased




grain yields both in the presence and absence of 8 T/A of compost.




     At the 50 T/A rate each ton of compost produced about 84




pounds of grain per ton of compost.  This would have a value of




about $2.  About 6 to 8 pounds of nitrogen appears to equal a ton




of compost for corn production.




     Studies of compost effects on moisture-holding capacity,




bulk density, and nutrient content of the soil showed that the




effects were very similar to those reported in Table 13 for the




Muscle Shoals sorghum experiment.




     Summary of Compost Utilization Research Projects.  The data




from experiments show that large tonnages of municipal compost can




be applied on grassland or cropland and result in positive yield




responses.
                            290

-------
                                    TABLE 15

             RESPONSE OF CORN TO COMPOST, JOHNSON CITY EXPERIMENT
1969 responses (per acre)
Treatment
1 -
2 -
3 -
4 -
5 -
6 -
7 -
8 -
9 -
10 -
11 -
12 -
13 -

None
80 Ib N
4T-Spring
160 Ib N
8T-Spring
8T-Fall
4T-Fall
8T-Spring + 80 Ib N
8T- Spring + 160 Ib N
8T-Fall
50T-Fall
lOOT-Fall
200T-Fall
LSD, 5% level
Stalks
8230
8470
8230
8230
8710
8230
7745
8710
8470
8230
7745
7745
6775
N.S.
1970 responses (per acre)
Ear Corn
Pounds
3570
4960
3235
4350
4325
3810
3900
4900
5870
3780
4535
4990
4295
855
Bushels
55
76
49
73
66
58
60
75
90
58
69
76
66
13
Stalks
15,250
15,250
15,000
13,310
15,000
14,035
15,250
13,795
15,000
14,760
15,730
14,520
13,550
N.S.
Ear Corn
Pounds
2615
4260
3075
4090
4015
4090
4600
4865
6220
4260
6825
5760
6120
990
Bushels
37
61
44
58
57
58
66
70
89
61
97
82
87
14
Compost contained 40% moisture; application rates are on a dry basis.   Nitrogen
was applied in spring as ammonium nitrate.   Pounds and bushels of ear corn are
on the basis of 15.5% moisture (70 pounds per bushel).  The corn variety was
Funk's G-5757.
                                      291

-------
LL)
DC
O
UJ
>- 4
IT
O
     I  I
   04 8
  50              100

ANNUAL COMPOST APPLICATION, TONS/ACRE
200
         Figure 23.  Three-year average corn yield,  as affected by compost

    and nitrogen application.   (Values having same letter are not

    significantly  different  at the  5%  level).
                                 292

-------
     Economic comparisons indicate that the actual value of compost




in terms of crop response is only $1 to $2 per ton, with the




value declining as the rate increased.  Its monetary value is




even less when compared to the value of chemical fertilizer needed




to produce equivalent yields.  Compost has favorable effects




on the physical condition of the soil which cannot be achieved




with fertilizer and which may be of economic value.




     It is possible that the residual response to compost is such




that an extremely long-term experiment would show sufficient




cumulative benefits for the economics of its use to appear more




favorable.  However, the possible toxic effects of heavy metal




accumulations must also be considered, although this problem




may be alleviated by omitting sewage sludge from the compost




process.






             PROJECT INTEREST AND PUBLIC RELATIONS






     The project attracted considerable interest from both




technical and nontechnical individuals representing various




organizations, all levels of government, foreign countries,




and other entities.  Records were maintained relative to visitors,




requests for information, and other public relations aspects of




the project.  Accommodating visitors, processing requests, and




carrying on  associated functions consumed a significant amount of
                            293

-------
time of the administrative and technical staff throughout the




life of the project.






                          Visitors






     The project received and   accommodated approximately 1,000




visitors from July 1967 through June 1971.  Many were from foreign




countries  (14 foreign countries represented) and many represented




various levels of government (Appendix III).






            Request for Information and Services






     Request for information originated from varied sources.




Many were  from "VIP's," consultants, and municipal departments




(i.e., planning commissions, health departments, sanitation




departments, etc.) interested in the feasibility of windrow composting




of municipal refuse (Appendix III).  P.equests made directly to this




project for the report "Composting of Municipal Solid Waste in the




United States" amount to approximately 300.




     Compost samples were supplied to various investigators.  The




project also provided cooperative aid to a number of outside




organizations.  As an example, ground raw refuse was supplied




to All American Environmental Control Corporation, Wilmington,




Delaware for use in mushroom  growing experiments.  Union Carbide




Corporation, Bound Brook, New Jersey requested aid in conducting




plastic biodegradability tests.  There x^ere others throughout the




life of the project.
                             294

-------
     The TVA Agriculturist provided compost to individuals other




than the cooperators involved in demonstrations.   During the spring




of 1971, requests for compost received from individuals appeared




to increase significantly over the preceeding year.   During an




eight-day period, 30 requests were received for compost.  However,




since the  plant was ceasing operations on June 30,  1971, most




requests could not be honored inasmuch as the compost was being




stockpiled for demonstration and research projects during FY 1972 and




beyond.






                    PROJECT TERMINATION






     The four-year operation of the plant provided sufficient




data to evaluate the feasibility of composting municipal refuse




from health and economic standpoints, as well as  to acquire




information on the design and operation of the processing and




handling equipment.'^    Although various aspects of windrow




composting such as "standards" development were identified as




potential areas needing additional study, the basic objectives




of the project were met.  This circumstance, concurrent with the




emergence of high priority solid waste research needs and limited




funds, resulted in the decision to end support of the plant operations,




Receiving of solid waste for processing was discontinued June 25,




1971.
                            295

-------
     TVA completed the final processing of the compost remaining




on the field, and  stockpiled the finished product to continue




its research work.  Research planned by TVA will seek to determine




whether the compost produced at the plant can be used to increase




production of tobacco, tomatoes, flowers, shrubbery, and other




high-value specialty crops.  The TVA Agriculturist will continue




his evaluation of the demonstration sites which were established




during the past two years.




     While composting in the United States has suffered from




poor economics, additional evaluation of its uses on selected soils




and plants will help determine beneficial properties of the compost




and potential monetary values not now available.  Such data may




enhance the value of compost and bring composting as a waste




management technique into a more favorable position.




     Perhaps the greatest potential application of compost is as




an aid in reclaiming spoiled land areas such as those resulting




from strip mining activities.  While the cost of transporting




the compost and applying it to the land may be high, potential




benefits may justify the expense.  Also potential exists for railhaul




of refuse to strip mines and other spoiled land areas for composting




and use of the compost on site.   In addition, compost has many other




potential applications as a soil amendment.
                            296

-------
     An unknown remaining with regards to the use of compost




on lands, especially crop producing lands, is the question




concerning application of toxic materials such as heavy




metals contained in the compost.  The potential for this




happening is more with compost containing sewage sludge.  The




problem should not be ignored, however, with compost derived




from other sources.  What happens to these materials if they




are leached to ground water or taken up by the plant and




transmitted to animal and man is still unknown.  While the




hazard appears to be small, the problem must not be ignored.
                            297

-------
                              REFERENCES
1.  Stone, G. E., and C. C. Wiles.   Interim report  with operational  data;
       Joint USPHS-TVA Composting Project,  Johnson  City,  Tennessee,
       June 1967-September 1969.  Environmental  Protection Publication
       SW-31r.lof.  [Cincinnati], U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency,
       1972.  212 p.  [Restricted distribution.]

2.  Personal communication.  D. Milam,  Rural Sanitation Service,  Carter
       County, Tennessee, to C. C.  Wiles.

3.  Breidenbach, A. W.,  et al.  Composting  of municipal solid wastes in
       the United States.  Environmental Protection Publication SW-47r.
       Washington, U.S.  Government  Printing Office, 1971.   103 p.

4.  Duggan, J. C.  Evaluation of compost demonstrations,  August 1,  1969,
       to May 31, 1970.   Muscle Shoals,  Ala.,  Tennessee Valley Authority,
       Test and Demonstration Branch,  Division of Agricultural Develop-
       ment.

5.  Division of Research and Development, Bureau of Solid Waste Manage-
       ment.  Unpublished data.

6.  Personal communications.  R. A.  Carnes, Research  Services, Office
       of Research and Monitoring,  U.S.  Environmental Protection
       Agency, to C. C.  Wiles.

7.  Boettcher, R. A.  Air classification of solid wastes;  performance
       of experimental units and potential  applications for solid waste
       reclamation.  Environmental  Protection Publication SW-30c.
       Washington, U.S.  Government  Printing Office, 1972.   73 p.

8.  Personal communications.  Staff members, Horticultural Corps
       Research Center,  North Carolina State University,  Fletcher,
       North Carolina, to C. C. Wiles.

9.  Mays, D. A., G. L. Terman, and  J.  C. Duggan.  Municipal compost:
       effects on crop yields and soil properties.  Journal of Environ-
       mental Quality, 2(l):89-92,  Jan.-Mar. 1973.
                                  298

-------
APPENDIX I

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-68)
                                             APPENDIX I

                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired  100
EASTERN DISTRICT

Account Title
USPHS-TVA Composting Plant
Delivery and Receiving
Operation HRS YTD
11- Salaries, SI 307.5 2125.0
OT 33-0 71.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 15.0 355-5
OT 5.0 53.0
12 - Benefits
Total saxary expense
25 - Tire repairs, loader repairs
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Delivery and Receiving
Picking and Sorting
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 337.5 2hl.h.O
OT 9.0 2U.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
/ Total
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST - 3^.0
OT - 27.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Picking and Sorting
Grinding
Rasper Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 29.0 809-5
OT 2.0 12.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total



Account
Number


012-01.11



012-01.12





012-02.11


012-02.12




012-03.11



MONTH OF
Erpe
This
Month



1,263
181
230
1,67^
9
1,583

78
31
Lk
123
292
14-15
2,098

1,260
U2
22*t-
1,526
29
1,555

-
_
-
1,555
130
12
2k
166
166

JUNE
nee
Fiscal Yea*
To Date



8,U25
372
1,^83
10,280
120
10714-00

1,665
308
305
2,278
351
k,oko
6,669
17,069

8,670
113
1,^33
10,216
166
10 , 382

163
lit-7
28
338
111
14.1+9
10,831
3,363
62
576
1+, 001
l+,001

19

Budget
























70

Expended
























                                                  300

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-6
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PEOPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired  IQQ
EASTERN DISTRICT

Account Title
Grinding - Continued
Rasper Maintenance HRS YTD
11 - Salaries, ST - 128.5
OT - 33.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
HanHnermill Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 110.0 653.0
OT 1.0 8.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Hammermill Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 3.0 178.5
OT 2.0 5.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Hammers, belts, miscellaneous
Total
Total Grinding
Sludge Thickening and Mixing
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 2.0 139.5
OT - 3-5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 1.0 l6k.O
OT - 16 . 5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Sludge Thickening and Mixing



Account
Number

012-03.12



012-03.21



012-03.22





012-OU.ll


012-0^.12





MONTH OF
Expe
This
Month


-
_
-

532
6
97
635
hk
679

16
12
3
31
293
32^
1,169

9
1
10
10

5
1
6
10
16
26

JUNE
nse
Fiscal Yeai
To Date


6l6
197
92
905
803
1,708

3, Ola
h8
566
3,655
89
3,7^

913
30
11*6
1,089
1,818
2,907
12,360

575
16
98
689
8
697

76k
102
135
1,001
720
1,721
2,1+18

19

Budget
























70

Expended
























                                                   301

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-68)
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired
EASTERN DISTRICT

Account Title
HRS YTD
Composting
Hauling Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 178.5 1507.5
OT 6.5 19.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Hauling Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST - 106.5
OT - 5.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and. materials
Total
Turning and Wetting Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 224.5 1432.5
•OT 7.0 Ik . 0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Turning and Wetting Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 51.0 293.0
OT 1.5 7-5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
25 - Tire repairs, services
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Composting
Curing
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 8.0 146.0
OT - 3.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
- .


Account
Number
012-05.11


012-05.12



012-05.21



012-05.22




012-06.11



MONTH OF
ExiDe
This
Month
759
3^
138
931
686
1,617

-
~
-

915
37
145
1,097
203
1,300

250
10
U5
305
150
1458
913
3,831
35
6
41
41

JUHE
nse
Fiscal Yeai
To Date
6,213
97
1,099
7,^09
3
4,244
11,656

523
30
75
628
281
909

5,978
7U
1,019
7,071
711
7,782

1,398
^5
237
1,680
836
1,415
3,931
24,278
616
19
ill
746
125
22
893

19 r

Budget




















ro

Per Cent
Fjcpended




















                                                  302

-------
TVA 5133  (DRP-6-f
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. T. Expired _
EASTERN DISTRICT

Account Title
HRS YTD
Curing - Continued
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST - -
OT - -
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Curing
Regrinding and Screening
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 218.0 1782.0
OT 8.0 27.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 57.0 647.5
OT 31.0 39.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Regrinding and Screening
Hauling Rejects
Operation
11 - Salaries, ST 257-5 1712.5
OT 20.0 Ml. 5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Truck
Maintenance
11 - Salaries, ST 20.0 199-5
OT 2.0 2.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Total Hauling Rejects


Account
Number

012-06.12





012-07.11


012-07.12




012-08.11


012-08.12




MONTH OF
Expe
This
Month


-
15
15
56

93^
^3
166
1,143
2?4
1,417

279
197
51
527
622
1,149
2,566
1,096
106
199
1,401
522
1,923

96
12
17
125
125
2,048
JUNE
nse
Fiscal Yeai
To Date


-
^7
47
940

7,763
147
1,284
9,194
550
2,579
12,323

3,197
247
559
4,003
1,302
5,305
17,628
7,052
228
1,240
8,520
15
3,853
12,388

937
12
125
1,074
309
1,383
13,772
19 '

Budget























TO

Per Cent
Expended























                                                  303

-------
TVA 5133 (DRP-6-e
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired   10Q
EASTERN DISTRICT MONTH OF JUNE 1970
Account Title
HRS YTD
Disposal of Norunarketable Processed Mat'l
11 - Salaries, ST - 369- 0
OT - 5.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
60 - Truck use
Total
Distributing Processed Material
11 - Salaries, ST 19.0 683.5
OT 1.5 36.5
12 - -Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials, services
60 - Truck use
Total
General Expense
Operation of Grounds
11 - Salaries, ST 83.5 693.5
OT 8.0 106.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Maintenance of Grounds
11 - Salaries, ST 5.0 1*0.0
OT - 3.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Supervision
11 -"Salaries, ST 251.0 236?. 0
OT 27.0 208.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
21 - Travel expense
60 - Truck use
Total
Account
Number
012-09
012-10
012-19.11
012-19.12
012-19.21
Expense
This
Month
-
-12
-12
85
8
15
108
-2<*
81*
276
37
35
31+8
3^8
21
It
25
6
31
1,508
191
280
1,979
5^
9^
2,127

Fiscal Yeai
To Date
1,515
29
271
1,815
2U8
2,063
2,900
190
H97
3,587
281
857
^,725
2,1*1*1
1+81*
299
3,22U
83
3,307
177
17
30
221*
230
20
1*71*
13,826
1,385
2,1*23
17,631*
M3
957
19,00i*

Budget
















Per Cent
Expended











,




                                                 304

-------
TVA 5133  (DRP-6-£
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESEBVOIR PHOPERTIES
Per Cent of
F. Y. Expired  100
EASTERN DISTRICT MONTH OF JUNE 1970
Account Title
HRS YTD
Processing Building Cleanup
11 - Salaries, ST 98.0 1731.0
OT 3.0 56.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Office and Lab Expense
11 - Salaries, ST 14.0 481.5
OT - 1*9.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
25 - Contractual services
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Trailer rental
62 - Office equipment rental
Total £/
Utilities
11 - Salaries, ST 34.0 138.0
OT - 1.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
23 - Power
- Water
- Telephone
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Gasoline
26 - Gasoline purchases
Other
11 - Salaries, ST - 292.5 1286.0
OT 2.5 45.5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
21 - Travel
22 - Freight
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total 2/
Total General Expense
I/ Includes $1428 expended on "baling expera
2/ Includes $3915 expended on various expei
Account
Number
012-19.31
012-19. Ui
012-19.51
012-19.61
012-19.71
ment .
•iments.
Expense
This
Month
375
Ik
63
452
452
k7
3
50
20
38
22
130
177
32
209
91+3
81
21
370
1,624
713
-1,269
lit
-233
-1,488
514
7
-967
4,458

Fiscal Yeai
To Date
6,46o
268
1,061
7,789
246
8,035
1,858
280
258
2,396
82
180
766
152
3,576
689
7
121
817
5,509
418
286
836
7,866
2,6lk
5,671
244
983
6,898
50
53
4,302
153
11,456
56,332

Budget















Per Cent
Expended







i







                                                  305

-------
TVA 5133'(DRP-6-68)
                                        STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                    DIVISION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
                       7

      Per Cent of
      F.  Y.  Expired   100
       EASTERN
                                 DISTRICT
                                                            MONTH OF
JUNE
.197_0_

Account Title
HRS YTD
General Expense Distribution
86 - Gas and oil issues to TVA
Modification & Additions to Plant Equip.
11 - Salaries, ST 410.5 3095-0
OT 10.0 167.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
22 - Freight
23 - Equipment rental
25 - Contractual serv. , Cobey aircond.
26 - Supplies and materials
31 - Equipment
60 - Truck use
82 - Suborder costs
Total
Activity Totals - USPHS-TVA Compost Plant
11 - Salaries, ST, Ann.TL 2232.0 22902. \
Ann.SP 35.0 312. C
Hrly TL 175.0 2498.'
OT-Ann TL l80.0 1094.^
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
21 - Travel
22 - Freight
23 - Telephone, util.
- Equipment rental
25 - Other services
26 - Supplies and materials
31 - Equipment
60 - Transp. Branch equip, use
62 - Office equipment use
66 - Reproduction
70 - Warehouse issues
82 - Transferred costs
Gross
86 - Distribution
Expenditures
50 - Income
Net.


Account
Number
012-20.61

012-50



012
)

012-20
012-999


Expe
This
Month

-202

2,092
6k
380
2,536
5,792
1,352
9,681

10,128
272
569
1,051
1,942
13,962
54
1,045
282
9,224
1,356
1,584
22
31
27,560
-202
27,358
-27,358
-

nse
Fiscal Yeai
To Date

-1,580

15,644
1,012
2,637
19,293
133
1,470
775
18,256
3,579
24
43,531

101,071
2,420
9,557
6,214
19,189
138,451
463
187
6,212
1,470
2,693
38,772
3,583
13,732
154
13
216
205,946
-1,579
204,367
-204,367
-


Budget







105,755
2,050
9,170
19,^55
136,430
500
200
6,000
1,500
3,000
30,500
3,000
14 , 560
150
240
3,920
200,000
-2,000
198,000
-198,000
-


Expended
_ , ...







96
118
68
99
r 101
93
94
104
98
90
127
119
94
103
90
103
79
103
103
-

                                                  306

-------
TVA 9710 (DRP-12-70)
                                      STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                  USPHS  -  TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT


                                                          MONTH OF
     Percent of
     F. Y. Expired  100
JUNE
. 197JL

Account Title
HRS YTD
RECEIVING AND PRIMARY PROCESSING
11 - Salaries, ST l+Ql+.O 56^1.0
OT - 90 . 5
12 - Benefits
Total sa.lary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
GRINDING
11 - Salaries, ST 160.0 2576.5
OT
12 - Benefits
Tota.l salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
SLUDGE THICKENING AND MIXING
COMPOST PROCESSING
11 - Salaries, ST 309-0 3508.5
OT it. 5 1+5.0
12 - Benefits
Tota.l salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
70 - Warehouse issues
Tota.1
REGRINDING AND SCREENING
11 - Salaries, ST 571.0 2831.0
OT 1+0.5 105.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
23 - Equipment rental
25 - Repairs
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
HAULING REJECTS
11 - Salaries, ST 129.0 1728.0
OT - 25-5
12 - Benefits
Total sa.lary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total


Account
Number

72-01



72-03


72-0*+
72-05



72-07



72-08




Expe
This
Month

1,670.81
227-50
1,898.31
1,898.31

751.77
126.00
877 . 77
877.77
.

1,1+70.33
26.29
278.09
1,77^.71
5!+. 27
757.62
2 , 586 . 60

2,708.96
21+7.19
500.60
3,1+56.75
50.00
157.00
33-12
3,696.87

610.37
115.1+1+
725.81
385.02
1,110.83

nse
Fiscal Yeai
To Date

22,766.19
515-1+8
3,81+6.05
27,127.72
50.32
27,178.01+

12,005.88
22.00
2,10l+.8o
lit, 132. 68
61+8.33
lit ,781. 01


15,956.73
21+1+.32
2,970.19
19,l?1.2l+
560 . 03
6,677.82
23.61+
26,1+32.73

12,l+2l+.95
625.00
2,272.17
15,322.12
150.00
1+.50
1,385.98
65^.90
17,517.50

7,812.19
ll+l.l+O
JLJ+68 .33
9,1+22.52
13.95
3,823.23
13,259-70


Budget























Percent
expended






















                                               ^307

-------
TVA 9710 (DRP-12-70)
                                      STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                  USPHS - TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT

                                                          MONTH  OF
Percent of
F. Y. Expired  100
                                                                        JUNE
           19 71
Account Title
HRS YTD
UTILIZATION AND DEMONSTRATIONS
11 - Salaries, ST 9.0 21+62.0
OT - 6l . 5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
21 - Travel
22 - Freight
23 - Communications
25 - Contractual services, equip, rental
26 - Supplies, services
60 - Truck use
Total
PLANT EQUIP. & GROUNDS MAINTENANCE
11 - Salaries, ST 620.0 1*908.5
OT 88.0 263.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
23 - Equipment rental
25 - Contractual services
26 - Supplies and materials
31 - Equipment purchased
60 - Truck use
70 - Warehouse issues
Total
GENERAL PROJECT EXPENSES
Supervision
11 - Salaries, ST 261*. 0 2312.0
OT 1+1.0 179-5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Truck use
Total
Office and Lab Expense
11 - Salaries, ST 2.0 176.0
OT - k . 0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
25 - Contractual services
26 - Supplies and materials
60 - Trailer rental
62 - Office equipment rental
Total
Account
Wr
72-10
1+1-020
72-11
72-19.1
72-19.2
Expense
This
Month
1+7.02
8.89
55-91
299- 71+
161.1+6
517.11
3,Ol3.oU
51+2.10
1+71.06
1+,026.20
187- 2U
989.75
8.28
5,211.1+7
1,709.99
312 . 08
32U.27
2,3^6.31+
128.1+6
2,l+7U.8o
7.55
.91+
8.U9
20.00
68.00
12.25
108. 7*+

Fiscal Yeai
To Date
13,821.09
31+0.1+8
2,^57.68
16,519.25
282.26
18; 87
28.00
112.50
1+07.78
2,1+1+<5.2U
iq,Ri^.qo
23,980.1+9
1,608.90
1+,TC56.0^
29,71+5.142
1+1.00
1,502.37
10,320.87
235.58
26.91
P^.20
^1,897.35
lU, 1+33. 11
1,291+. 77
p,666.6i
18, 39^. *+9
5.00
810.3!+
19,209.83
651.37
19.71+
79.07
750.18
103.00
26.00
795.60
11+7.15
1,821.93

Budget












Percent
Expended












                                                308

-------
TVA 9710 (DRP-12-70)
                                      STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                  USPHS - TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT


                                                          MONTH OF
      Percent  of
      F.  Y.  Expired  100
JUNE
                 1971
Account Title
HRS YTD
Utilities
23 - Power
- Water
- Telephone
Total
Travel
21 - Travel (per diem)
60 - Car expense
Total
Other
11 - Salaries, ST -379-0 185.5
OT i*.0 28.0
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
25 - Contractual services
26 - Supplies and materials
- Gasoline and oil
60 - Truck use
70 - Warehouse issues
Total
Total General Project Expenses
General Expense Distribution
86 - Gas and oil issues to TVA
SPECIAL PROJECTS
MODIFICATIONS & ADDITIONS TO PLANT & EQUIP.
Used 5-Ton GMC Dumpster Truck & Containers
11 - Salaries, ST - 231*. 5
OT - 2.0
12 - Benefits
Total
22 - Freight
25 - Repair services, crating equip.
26 - Repair parts
26 - Truck purcha.se price
31 - Dumpster container purchase price
Total
Account
^ber
72-19-3
72-19.1*
72-19-5
72-20.5
72-1*0.1
72-50
Expense
This
Month
565.1*1
83.05
22.27
B70.73
61.21
57-17
11.8.38
-1,911.21
25.56.
-366.38
-2,252.03
81*8.36
956.88
1*0.50
-1*06.29
2,966.36
-r!1+7.73



-

Fiscal Year
To Date
6, 36k. 70
968.31*
266.75
7,5_29.79
391. 31*
21*0 . 91
632.25
836.88
136.27
152.30
1,125.1*5
21.5!*
3,753.92
3,981.61
131.38
67.72
9,081.62
38,31*5.1*2
-1,973.1*1

1,227.07
13.00
232.09
1,1*72.16
71*. 61
360.51
653.55
1*95.00
1*50.00
3,505.83

Budget














Percent
Expended














                                                309

-------
TVA 9710 (DRP-12-70)
                                      STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                  USPHS - TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT


                                                         MONTH  OF
     Percent of
     F. Y. Expired  100
JUNE
1971
Account Title
flRS YTD
Belt Conveyor #8
11 - Salaries, ST 69-0
OT -
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Scalper
11 - Salaries, ST - 819-0
OT - 2 . 5
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
23 - Equipment rental
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Air Classifier
11 - Salaries, ST - 309-0
OT
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
23 - Crane rental
25 - Repair services
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Belt Conveyor #9
11 - Salaries, ST - 62.0
OT -
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
2b - Supplies and materials
Total
Belt Conveyor #10
11 - Salaries, ST - 76.0
OT - -
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
26 - Supplies and materials
Total
Account
Number
72-51
72-52
72-53
72-5>+
72-55
Expense
This
Month

-
-


-


-

-
-

-
-

Fiscal Year
To Date
361.3!+
69-23
^30.57
3^.86
MS5.U3
^,239-37
16 . 00
805-33
5,060.70
101.25
863.16
6,025.11
1,632. *a
301 . 9^
1,93U.35
112 . 50
123 A9
876.U3
3,0^6.77
327-99
62. OU
390.03
719.26
1,109.29
t+26.62
80.69
507.31
71U.19
1,221.50

Budget
















Percent
Expended
















                                               310

-------
TVA 9710 (DRP-12-70)
                                      STATEMENT OF OPERATIONS

                                  USPHS - TVA COMPOSTING PROJECT


                                                          MONTH OF
    Percent of
    F.  Y.  Expired  100
JUNE
               19 71
Account Title
HRS YTD
ACTIVITY TOTALS
11 - Salaries, ST. Ann. TL 1607.0 21+135. C
Ann. SP 32.0 1222. C
Hrly. TL 1+50.0 25^1. ^
OT 178.0 811. C
12 - Benefits
Total salary expense
21 - Travel
22 - Freight
23 - Telephone, util., equip, rental
25 - Other services
26 - Supplies and materials
31 - Equipment
60 - Transp. Branch equip, use
62 - Office equipment use
66 - Maps & reproduction
70 - Warehouse issues
82 - Shop, lab., and other
Gross
- Distribution
Net direct expenditures
Overheads
Total Expenditures
50 - Income
Net*
*The following items, included in
activity totals, are not a part of
DRP's budget:
Manhours, ATL & ASP ,238.0 1918.0
Agri . Development Expend .
Overheads
Income
I/ June expenditure figures were not ava.i
on this statement.
Account
Number



















72-20



72-999








lable in tin

Expense
This
Month

8,201.55
279-57
1,597-51
1,153.22
1,686. Ul
12,918.26
6l . 21
-
720.73
187 . 2k
3,326.00
-
1,639-63
12.25
-
_
-
18,865.32
-11+7.73
18,717.59
2,159.76
»^0,877.35
-20,877-35
-




-
2,159.76
-2,159-76
e to include

Fiscal Year
To Date

115,235.09
9,091.57
8,577.02
l+,977.36
23,625.15
161,506.19
673.60
93- '+8
8, 082. 5)4
2,165.141
25,522.7^
685.58
15,6o6.33
11+7.15
_
116.56
-
21l+,599-58
-1,973. ^1
212,626.17
22,1+11.90
235,038.07
-235,038.07
-




li+,82i+.6o
22,1111.90
-37,236.5u


Budget

116,915
18,060
8,100
3,670
25,910
172,655
800
100
6,000
2,000
28,600
570
15,000
150
1+00
100
625
227,000
-2,000
225,000
18,000
21+3,000
-21+3,000
-




20,000
18 . 000
-',8,000


Percent
Expended

99
50
106
136
91
9>+
81+
93
135
108
89
120
10l+
98

117
_
95
99
95
125
97
97
-




7^
125
98


                                                311

-------
                        APPENDIX II

    TECHNICAL REPORT ON JOHNSON CITY BALING EXPERIMENT

Technical Details

A.  Quantity, Weight, and Size of Bales Produced

    1.  Table II-l is a listing of the bales produced by serial

    number.  Included are their weights, the moisture measured

    from refuse samples taken as the bale was produced, density,

    volume, and other remarks.  Table II-2 is a list of bales

    according to their quality (premium, good, poor, etc.).

    2.  An attempt was made to account for all the raw incoming

    refuse to the compost plant in terms of the total weight of

    bales produced during the same period. - The following is a

    material balance made during the period of 1/19/70 through

    1/27/70 over which time the baling occurred.

    Refuse in pit at start of test              15 tons
    on 1/19/70

    Raw refuse received during baling test     208 tons

    "Rejects" or "noncompostables" removed      -8 tons
    from refuse

    Refuse left in pit area at end of test      35 tons

    Pit balance (35 - 15)                      -20 tons

    Total tonnage processed                    180 tons

    Total weight of bales produced             133 tons
    (This includes an estimated weight
    for broken bales.)

    Unaccounted for                             47 tons
                           312

-------
         A large amount of spillage occurred at various points,




    such as the conveyors, extruding material from the baler,




    material needed to "fill" the baler before making good bales,




    and miscellaneous wastes.  This total spillage was not




    weighed, but it was estimated to be between 10 and 15 tons.




    Another consideration is that there was some weight loss




    through vaporization during grinding.  At Center Hill




    facility, water loses of up to 6 percent (or 11 tons,




    in this case) have been measured under certain conditions.




    There is a possibility that the tonnage estimated in the pit




    before and after the experiment was in error or that the




    scale was in error though the latter was discounted.




B.  Details on Bailing Machine




    1.  The baling machine used in the study was a model 12375 high-




    pressure solid waste baler manufactured by the American Baler




    Company of Bellevue, Ohio.  The machine has a shipping weight




    of 33,000 pounds and sells for $42,000 (1970).  The nominal




    bale size produced is 30 inches by 40 inches by 72 inches, or




    approximately 50 cubic feet.  A 150 horsepower electric motor




    powers the main hydraulic system which consists of a single




    12—inch diameter hydraulic piston mounted horizontally.  The




    machine has been adapted from the company's paper baling




    design which is similar in concept to a conventional hay




    or straw baling machine.  The refuse must be shredded before
                           313

-------
    this machine can handle it.  The compaction effort applied

    on the refuse is approximately 330 pounds per square inch.

    This pressure is supplied by 3,000 psi of oil pressure acting

    in a 12 inch diameter hydraulic cyclinder.  Each bale is

    tied with five 1/8 inch diameter steel wires.  The wire

    tieing is accomplished by hand.  Two men are required to

    run the machine and tie wires.  A third man is to handle

    the bales.

         Cost Estimate for Baling (less shredding)

         Steel tie wire                     $ .30

         Labor, 3 men at $3.50 per hr.        .42 to 1.00 per ton

                                            (10.5 to 25 tons/hr.)

         Electricity                          .06

                           Total            $ .78 to 1.36 per ton

    The baler can handle 250 to 600 tons of refuse per 24 hours.

C.  Character of the Baled Refuse

    1.  The material used for the baling experiment was the normal

    municipal refuse received at the Johnson City compost plant.

    It is solid waste from the Johnson City area.  The following

    data were taken in order to describe the baled refuse:

         a.  Weight of the incoming material

         b.  Visual 35 mm color pictures of the incoming material.

         c.  The weight of rejects.*  Rejects were removed in the
     *Total weight of rejects for bales 1-20:  26 percent of
                                               incoming refuse weight
      Total weight of rejects for bales 21-83: 1 to 2 percent of
                                               incoming refuse weight
                           314

-------
normal manner with hand picking and magnetic separation up




through bale number 20.  Starting with bale number 21,




a special wiper was used to cancel the effect of the




magnetic separator so that all tin cans and most of the




metallic materials were ground and baled.  Heavy steel




items and nongrindable items were removed by hand.




d.  The refuse was hammermilled with the Model 48.4




Gruendler machine.  This unit is 53 inches wide and




the serial number is 2112.  The grinder has a 250




horsepower 1,175 rpm motor.  The grates used in the




study were the normal combination of 2" and 3" openings




used when making compost for bales numbers 1 through 20.




Starting with bale number 21, the grates were rearranged




to give 3" and 4" openings.  The Door-Oliver Rasper




was not used because its holes would plug with tin cans.




e.  Several 500-gram (approximately) samples of the




ground refuse were taken at the baler hopper.  These




samples were associated with a particular bale serial




number.  They were used for moisture determination and




other analysis as follows:




-particle size




-metal content




-glass content
                   315

-------
         -total cellulose

         -moisture  (samples dried at 100°C for 16 to 20 hours)

         The moisture values are given in Table II-l.  The remaining

         data will be reported later by research services.*

D.   Miscellaneous Problems Encountered

    1.  Moisture - The moisture content of the ground refuse

    presented perhaps the largest problem in baling.  As

    long as the moisture stayed in the range of 20 percent to

    about 35 percent or 40 percent, the baling machine worked

    very well.  However, when the moisture content exceeded

    40-45% the refuse was extruded from the open sides of the

    bale chamber.  Overall, the moisture probably averaged 30

    percent or 35 percent, but the occasional wet batch with

    45 percent or 55 percent of moisture would cause an extrusion

    to occur.  The baling pressure would then have to be reduced

    until the extruded zone was pushed out of the machine.  There

    is a possibility that the sides of the baling chamber could

    be more completely enclosed to reduce this tendency to

    extrude.

    2.  Bale Tie Wires - The baler operators occasionally could

    not get all five 1/8 inch steel tie wires wrapped around
    *Table II-3 - "Percent Composition By Weight" is an exact excerpt
from a memo from Israel R. Cohen, Research Services Laboratory, to
D. A. Oberacker, reporting the results of the analysis, dated
March 24, 1970.
                           316

-------
the bale.  This was usually due to an obstruction such as




a piece of metal in the wire guide channels in the rubber




bale separator blocks.  Occasionally, a bale would be formed




with all five wires, but a wire or two would snap due to




excess tension after it left the machine.  This is apparently




a matter of technique as to how tight to tie the wire.




3.  Bales Attacked by Birds - During periods when the ground




was covered with snow, large flocks of birds (starlings)




would cover the bales and vigorously attack them in search




of food.  Pictures were taken to record the effect of a few




hours of bird feeding on the bales.  The birds would round




out the edges and roughen up the sides of the bales.




Portions of the sides of the bale would be scattered around




the ground adjacent to the bales.  The birds disappeared




when the snow melted.




4.  Weather Conditions - A wide variety of weather conditions




was encountered during the baling project.  Temperatures




ranged from 50°F down to -20°F.  The baler itself did not




appear to be affected by temperature.  When the temperature




dropped below 15°F the refuse arrived in a frozen condition.




The frozen refuse did not compact to as high a density as




unfrozen refuse.




5.  Bale Perishability - While under pressure in  the baling




cham er the density of the bales was calculated to be as  high




as 80 Ibs/cu. ft.  Upon release  from the chamber  the material
                        317

-------
    began to expand and to flake off at the edges of the bale.

    Handling and transporting contributed damage to the bales.

    Sometimes composting set in and the bales dried out,

    contributing to the loss of weight and shape.

    6.  Compost Baling Test — One brief attempt was made to bale

    finished unscreened compost.  The moisture content was in the

    range of 60 percent (by wet weight) and the compost extruded

    from the open sides of the machine.  The extrusion was so

    extensive that no satisfactory bales were produced.

Future Recommendations

A.  Check accuracy of scale at Johnson City.

B.  Res tack the bales according to grade (reference Table II-2).

C.  Cover bales with tarpaulin for protection from weather and birds.

D.  Check temperatures within bales with a temperature probe.

E.  Steel strapping should be added to the bales to increase their

    stability for shipping.  Perhaps restrapping, reweighing, and

    loading on a trailer for shipping could be done in one operation

    to save wear and tear on the bales.
                              —DONALD A. OBERACKER
                                Acting Chief, Processing Section
                                Division of Research and Development
                                Bureau of Solid Waste Management
    (Note:  These recommendations made at the time of the departure
of the engineer were later carried out.)
Reference:  Trip Report dated February 5, 1970, Johnson City, Tennessee
            Composting Plant, Baling Experiment, January 15-28, 1970.

            Memo dated December 22, 1969, Proposed Refuse Grinding and
            Baling at Center Hill Laboratory.  Sent to Acting Chief,
            Sea Disposal Section; from Donald Oberacker.
                            318

-------
                                     TABLE II-l




REFUSE BALE LOG - JOHNSON CITY, TENNESSEE COMPOST PLANT,  AMERICAN 12,000 SERIES BALES
Bale
Serial
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Bale Net
Weight
Lbs.
2340
2300
2560
3280
2920
3040
—
3080
3540
2825
3045
3060
2275
3385
4000
3315
% H20 % H20 Calculated
Based on Based on Bale
Dry Wt. Wet Wt. Volume
cu. ft.
51.9 34.2 43.3
36.4
45.7
54.5
49.6 33.2 46.2
44.9
112.7 52.8
36.5 26.7 53.9
60.4
46.8
51.7
52.5
54.4
58.6
56.6 36.2 62.3
53.6
Calculated
Bale
Density
Ib/cu. ft.
54.1
63.1
56.0
60.1
63.2
67.9
—
57.2
58.6
60.5
59.0
58.4
41.9
57.8
64.2
61.9
Remarks

very poor - ends crooked
4 wires but fair
good
good
good
bale fell apart - bulged out
4 wires - fair
has five wires but top one slipped
down - still good
poor - 4 wires
very good
very good
poor - weighing delayed, fell off
baler - 4 wires
3 wires but fair
4 wires but good


-------
                                TABLE II-l (cont'd.)




REFUSE BALE LOG - JOHNSON CITY, TENNESSEE COMPOST PLANT, AMERICAN 12,000 SERIES BALER
Bale
Serial
No.
17
18
19
20
21
OJ
(0 99
0 ^z
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Bale Net
Weight
Lbs.
3075
3345
3410
3050
2325
2310
2295
2360
—
2490
—
2150
3080
2680
2680
2840
% H20 % H20 Calculated
Based on Based on Bale
Dry Wt. Wet Wt. Volume
cu. ft.
46.9
50.8
58.0
50.4
35.8 26.4 45.4
43.0 30.0 48.5
53.1
36.3 26.6 48.4

48.3
37.6 27.3
54.6
54.6
48.1 32.5 48.2
50.4
50.0
Calculated
Bale
Density
Ib/cu. ft.
65.6
65.9
58.9
60.6
51.3
47.6
43.2
48.8

51.6

56.4
56.4
55.6
58.3
56.9
Remarks

4 wires but good
excellent - tag hidden
very good
fell off baler, but otherwise
first containing coarse grind
very good





good,
and metals
fell off baler, braised, 4 wires,
but still good looking
4 wires, 1 loose, but good
cracked open, two wires broke
4 wires but good
cracked open, two wires broke
2 loose wires but good
very good, 1 slipped wire
4 wires but good
4 wires but good
very good

, s crap

, scrap






-------
                                TABLE II-1 (cont'd.)




REFUSE BALE LOG - JOHNSON CITY, TENNESSEE COMPOST PLANT AMERICAN 12,000 SERIES BALER
Bale
Serial
No.
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Bale Net
Weight
Lbs.
2660
3060
2900
2710
2890
2910
2495
3060
2200
3300
3070
2870
2700
2870
3070
3810
% H20 % H20 Calculated
Based on Based on Bale
Dry Wt. Wet Wt. Volume
cu. ft.
46.9
37.1 27.1 51.9
49.9
47.0
48.2
47.6
44.9
35.6 26.0 52.0
50.1
43.9 30.5 54.2
31.9 24.1 50.9
49.5
48.4
50.25
52.8
56.2
Calculated
Bale
Density
Ib/cu. ft.
56.8
59.1
58.2
57.6
60.0
61.0
55.6
58.9
41.3
60.9
60.5
58.0
55.9
57.1
58.2
67.8
Remarks
4 wires, 1 loose, but good
1 loose wire but very good
4 wires, 1 loose, but good
excellent
excellent
4 wires but very good
contains conveyor belt area times
2 inches (came out to be 8" to 10"
of bale length) of snow
4 wires but good
very good (wrong weight)
excellent
very good
4 wires but good
very good
4 wires but good
4 wires but good
was very good - now good - fell
off stack

-------
                                 TABLE II-1 (cont'd.)




REFUSE BALE LOG - JOHNSON CITY, TENNESSEE COMPOST PLANT AMERICAN 12,000 SERIES BALER
Bale
Serial
No.
49
50
51
52
53
OJ c/
NJ 54
(S3
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
Bale Net
Weight
Lbs.
4010
3710
3610
3335
3570
3680
3660
3940
3590
3310
3610
3590
4140
3350
3520
3150
3040
% H 0 % H 0 Calculated
Based on Based on Bale
Dry Wt. Wet Wt. Volume
cu. ft.
68.5 40.7 57.5
57.2
55.8
49 8
55.7
52.3
58.0
59.4
47.3 32.0 55.6
51.6
53.4
40.1 28.6 52.5
59.3
48.75
55.5 35.6 55.6
49.0
44.1 30.6 50.0
Calculated
Bale
Density
Ib/cu. ft.
69.8
64.8
64.7
67.0
64.0
70.4
63.1
66.4
64.5
64.1
67.7
68.4
69.8
68.6
63.4
64.4
61.2
Remarks
very good
bulgy sides but good
very good
very good





three wires - fair - arched
4 wires but good
4 wires but good
3 wires
1 wire slipped - very
3 wires plus 1 slipped
very good
very good
4 wires
very good
4 wires but good
4 wires but good
4 wires but good



good
wire








-------
OJ
K3
                                               TABLE II-l  (cont'd.)


               REFUSE BALE LOG - JOHNSON CITY, TENNESSEE COMPOST PLANT AMERICAN 12,000 SERIES BALER
Bale
Serial
No.
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
8C
81
82
83
Bale Net
Weight
Lbs.
3370
3360
3210
3660
3530
3030
3400
3820
3650
3150
3830
3150
3250
3070
3170
3880
3020
3190
% H 0 % H 0 Calculated
Based on Based on Bale
Dry Wt. Wet Wt. Volume
cu. ft.
54.3
52.9
52.9
29.2 22.6 54.0
55.7
45.4
50.0
67.6 40.4 54.1
49.9
47.9
55.8
47.4
40.5 28.9 48.3
48.8
48.6
56.3
45.4
46.6
Calculated
Bale
Density
Ib/cu. ft.
62.1
61.6
60.8
67.5
63.4
66.0
68.0
70.6
71.2
65.9
68.6
66.5
67.4
63.0
65.2
69.0
66.6
68.4
Remarks
4 wires, 1 slipped wire
4 wires but good
4 wires, 1 slipped wire

4 wires but very good
77.1 Ib/cu. ft. while in
4 wires but very good
1 wire slipped but very
very good
1 wire slipped
3 wires - fair
4 wires
4 wires
3 wires
4 wires
4 wires
1 wire slipped





baler

good









3 wires but equally spaced
very good


-------
                                                TABLE II-2

                                             DENSITY OF BALES
PREMIUM GRADE
bales with 64.0
or over
Bale Nos.
6
15
17
18
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
56
57
58
59
60
PREMIUM
61
62
64
69
71
72
73
74
GRADE -
Ibs/cu ft
75
76-
77
78
80
81
82
83
32 bales
GOOD
bales with 58.0 to
63.99 Ibs/cu ft
Bale Nos.
2
4
5
9
10
11
12
16
GOOD
19
20
31
34
35
37
38
40
- 28
42 67
43 68
44 70
47 79
55
63
65
66
bales
POOR
bales with less than
58 Ibs/cu ft
Bale Nos.
1
3
8
13
14
21
22
23
POOR
24
26
28
29
30
32
33
36
- 20
39
41
45
46




bales
BROKE APART - 3 bales
 7    25    27

-------
          TABLE II-3




PERCENT COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT

Component
Paper - 3 sq. in
and larger
Paper - 3/8" -
4 sq. in.
Food & Fine
Organic
Textiles
Plastics
Wood
Metals & Foil
Ceramic & Misc.
Glass
TOTAL
Lab
Sample #1

11.5

37.5

22.5
14.9
2.6
0.2
5.1

5.7
100.0
Lab
Samples #2-6

1.1

51.6

22.3
6.8
1.3
0.4
2.1
3.0
10.4
99.0
Lab
Samples #7-22

7.0

31.2

29.6
4.5
1.9
0.2
7.5
1.2
15.1
98.2
             325

-------
                           APPENDIX III
                  VISITORS TO COMPOSTING PROJECT
                       JOHNSON CITY,  TENNESSEE
States
Alabama

California

Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Indiana

Iowa

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Foreign Countries

Australia

Canada

C z echo slovakia

England
Mississippi

Missouri

New Jersey

New York

North Carolina

Ohio

Oklahoma

Pennsylvania

South Carolina

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia

Wisconsin



India

Mexico

Nigeria

South Africa
                               326

-------
Ethiopia                                    Sweden




Germany                                     Switzerland




Holland                                     Taiwan




Groups




     A group of approximately ten teachers from the Johnson City School




system accompanied by City Manager, James M. Hosier, toured the plant




as part of their pre-school orientation.




     Twenty-four students from the In-Service Sanitarian School of




East Tennessee State University.




     Nine students of the College of Health, East Tennessee State




University.




     Forty-eight in-service sanitarians from East Tennessee State




University.




     Twenty-nine science and biology students from Elizabethtown High




School.




     Ten East Tennessee State University geology students.




     Approximately twenty-five members of the Upper East Tennessee




Soil Conservation Service.




     Forty-three students from the College of Health, East Tennessee




State University.




     Twelve students from the Environmental Health Class, East Tennessee




State University with their instructor.




     The Protector Environmental Club, composed of eleven students and




two teachers from North Junior High School, Johnson City.




     Eleven biology students from Clinch Valley College, Wise, Virginia,




with their instructor.
                                327

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     Thirty-two biology students from Elizabethton High School,




accompanied by their teacher.




     Thirty-four fourth grade students fron University High.




     Five students from the Health Science Department of East




Tennessee State University, accompanied by their instructor.




     State Solid Waste Directors from Regions III and IV




Program Review, Johnson City.




     Participants from OSWM Training Course in Composting Methods,




ETSO.
                               328

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              REQUESTS FOR INFORMATION ON COMPOSTING
Foreign




Bridgetown, Barbados




Santo Domingo, R. D.




Parkes, New South Wales, Australia




Bankok, Thailand




The Hauge, Holland




Bogota, D. E. Columbia




Vancouver, B. C. Canada




Varkaus, Finland




Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia




Pandung, Indonesia




Toronto, Ontario, Canada




British Embassy




Wexford, Ireland




Haellabrottet, Sweden




Journals and Publications




Refuse Removal Journal




Town & Country Shopper




The American City Magazine




Universities & Colleges & Other Schools




Manhattan College




University of Georgia
Terra Nova, B. C.




Vienna, Austria




Bilbai, Spain




Baroda, India




Bombay, India




Munich, Germany




Sarnia, Ontario, Canada




Birmingham, England




Poona, India




Powell River, B. C. Canada




Stockholm, Sweden




Saskatoon, Sask., Canada




Malenfield Gr.,  Switzerland




Sarnia, Ontario, Canada









New York, New York




Boulder, Colorado




Pittsfield, Massachusetts









Bronx, New York




Athens, Georgia
                                329

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Oregon State University




Washington University




Georgia Inst. of Technology




New York State College of Agriculture




Harvard Engineering Laboratory




Institute of Technology




North Carolina State University




University of Michigan




School of Public Health




Hollins College




University of Birmingham




Rollins College




Columbia University




East Term. State University




Lehigh University




Cornell University




Rutgers University




University of British Columbia




Northwestern University




Claremont College




Principia College




University of Tennessee




The Arthur E. Premm School




Clarendon Junior High
Corvallis, Oregon




St. Louis, Missouri




Atlanta, Georgia




Ithaca, New York




Cambridge, Massachusetts




Bandung, Indonesia




Raleigh, North Carolina




Ann Arbor, Michigan




Chapel Hill, North Carolina




Hollins, Virginia




Birmingham, England




Winger Park, Florida




New York, New York




Johnson City, Tennessee




Bethlehem, Pennsylvania




Ithaca, New York




New Brunswick, New Jersey




Vancouver, B. C. Canada




Evanston, Illinois




Clarement, California




Elsah, Illinois




Knoxville, Tennessee




Oakdale, New York




Clarendon, Texas
                               330

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Congressmen and Legislators




Honorable Jack Brooks




Senator Everette Dirkson




Congressman James H. Quillen




United States (Individuals)




Fort Smith, Arkansas




Newport, Arkansas




Meadow View, California




Vandenberg AFB, California




Porterville, California




Maitland, Florida




Boca Raton, Florida




Atlanta, Georgia




Decatus, Georgia




Kaneohe, Hawaii




Evanston, Illinois




Indianapolis, Indiana




Owensburg, Kentucky




Lexington, Kentucky




Hebron, Kentucky




Metairie, Louisiana




Natchitoches, Louisiana




Quincy, Massachusetts




Harwich, Massachusetts




Baltimore County, Maryland
Honorable Charles S. Gubser




Honorable Howard W. Cannon




Representative James Fulton









Twenty-nine Palms, California




Sacramento, California




Westbury, Connecticut




Casselberry, Florida




Pensacola, Florida




Ossining, New York




Plymouth, North Carolina




Columbus, Ohio




Tiffin, Ohio




Cottage Grove, Oregon




Lemont, Pennsylvania




Renfrew, Pennsylvania




Valencia, Pennsylvania




Greeneville, Tennessee




Johnson City, Tennessee




Lavinia, Tennessee




Morristown, Tennessee




Dallas, Texas




Longview, Texas




Garland, Texas
                                331

-------
Dowagiac, Michigan

Reno, Nevada

Bound Brook, New Jersey

Iceland, Suffolk County, New York

New York, New York

Consultants

Kramer, Comer ft Passe

Plastic Engineering, Inc.

W. E. Parfitt & Associates, Inc.

Greeley and Hansen, Engineers

Engineering International Corp.

Near East South Asia Engrs.

Manganaro, Martin, & Lincoln, Engrs.

Associated Engineering Services, Ltd.

A. Ahlstrom Osakeythio

George C. Sell & Associates, Inc.

Whitman, Requardt & Associates

Dayton & Knight, Ltd.

A. L. Verdonck, Prof. Egineer

Bowe, Walsh & Associates

Lawrence Halprin & Associates

Dr. C. L. Mantell, Consulting
   Chemical Engineer
Putney, Vermont

Grundy, Virginia

Radford, Virginia

Richmond, Virginia

Charleston, West Virginia

For

Miami County, Ohio

Bridgetown, Barbados

San Juan, Puerto Rico

New York-Chicago

The Hague, Holland

Agency for International Development

Danbury, Connecticut

Vancouver, B. C.

Varkaus, Finland

Chicago, Illinois

Baltimore, Maryland

Terra Nova, B. C.

Sarnia, Ontario, Canada

Huntington, New York

San Francisco, California

Manhasset, New York
                                332

-------
Malcolm Pirnie, Inc.

Green Engineering Company

Gore & Storrie, Consulting Engrs.

Rochester Engr. Society's Recycling
 of Solid Waste Committee

Concentrie Engineering Company

Heyl & Patterson

Steve Julius, Consulting Engrs. for
 Stevenson, Jordon & Harrison

The Rust Engineering Company

Walser & Suffin
Paramus, New Jersey

Sewickley, Pennsylvania

Toronto, Canada

Rochester, New York


Dallas, Texas

Pittsburg, Pennsylvania

New York, New York


Pittsburg, Pennsylvania

New York, New York
Organizations  (Health Departments, Sanitation Departments, Planning
               Commissions, Corporations, etc.)

Special Committee, Groton Board of Health   Groton, Massachusetts

Dept. of Water Supply &  Sewage Disposal     Flint, Michigan

C ity Council Committee

Manatee County Health Department

Sarasota County Health Department

Metropolitan Area Planning Council
North Carolina Foundation of Church-
 Related Colleges

Melpar, Inc.

Housing and Urban Development

Deputy Director  of  Engineering, Dept.
 Sanitation

Supt. Office  of  Sewage Treatment
Springfield, Massachusetts

Bradenton, Florida

Sarasota, Florida

Boston, Massachusetts

Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Falls Church, Virginia

Frankfort, Kentucky

New York, New York


Grand Rapids, Michigan
 Supervising  Sanitarian,  City Health Dept.   Grand Forks, North Dakota
                                333

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Bombay Municipal Corporation

Combustion Power Company, Inc.

Sarasota Horse Racing Association, Inc.

Northern Kentucky Area Planning Commission

Monsanto Company

N ittany Laboratory

Timber Products Company

Rickel, Inc.

City Manager

Auto Specialities Manufacturing Company

American Institute of Aeronautics &
  Astronautics

League of Women Voters of Sharon

Evergreen Soil Service

Cousins Industrial Waste Removal Company

Ecology, Inc.

Center for the Study of Organic Ecology

Commissioner, Buncombe County, North
  Carolina

A11 American Engineering Company

Touche Ross & Company

D epartment of Public Health

Legislative Council Commission

Director of Public Works

American Cyanamid Company

Director of Public Works
Bombay, India

Palo Alto, California

Sarasota Springs, New York

Newport, Kentucky

St. Louis, Missouri

Semont, Pennsylvania

Medford, Oregon

Kansas City, Missouri

Pacifica, California

Saint Joseph, Michigan

Tullahoma, Tennessee


Sharon, Massachusetts

Portland, Oregon

Toledo, Ohio

New York, New York

Los Angeles, California

Asheville, North Carolina


Wilmington, Delaware

St. Louis, Missouri

Peabody, Massachusetts

Nashville, Tennessee

Boulder, Colorado

Princeton, New Jersey

Edison, New Jersey
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Institute of Technological Research

Manager, Waste Disposal Services, Ct. of
 San Manteo

Westhills Homes, Inc.

Mayor

Task Force on Refuse Disposal

Private Refuse Collectors of Monroe
 County, Inc.

C onweb Corporation

Waste Mgmt., Public Health Engr. Service

United Kingdom Scientific Mission

Glass Container Mfg. Institute

Div. of Env. San., S. C. State Board
 of Health

National Organic Corporation

Div. of Engr. & Const., Dept. of
 Public Service

Council of Fertilizer Association
 of Ireland

Gruendler Crusher & Pulverizer Company

City Manager

C ommissioner of Public Works

City Manager

Director of Public Service

United Nations Industrial Development
 Organization

T. A. Crane, Ltd.

County Board of Supervisors

County Planning Department
Bogota, D. E. Columbia

Redwood City, California


Portland, Oregon

Tipton, Ohio

Providence, Rhode Island

Rochester, New York


St. Paul, Minnesota

Toronto, Ontario

British Embassy

Washington, D.C.

Columbia, South Carolina


Atlanta, Georgia

Cleveland, Ohio


Wexford, Ireland


Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Odessa, Texas

Mt. Vernon, New York

Lebanon, Ohio

Canton, Ohio

Vienna, Austria


Toronto, Canada

White Plains, New York

San Bernardino, California
                                335

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Market Development Manager, Alcoa

 International  Research  & Technology Corp.

 Georgia Department of Public Health

 McHenry County Board of Supervisors

 Franklin  Institute Research Laboratory

 County Commissioner, County of Allegheny

 Saskatoon Environmental Society

 Organization for  Environmental Quality

 League of Women Voters  of Baltimore County

Boston Environment Corporation

 Boulder Environmental Organization

 Housewives to  End Pollution

 Terrebone Parish  Health Unit

Mayor

 Department of  Engergy & Resources
 Management

 Webster Manufacturing,  Inc.

 Webster Manufacturing,  Inc.

Naturizer Company

 Phillips  & Davies Company

Town Clerk

 Department of  Sanitation

 Bio-Chemical Corporation of America

 General Products  of Ohio, Inc.

Aluminum  Company  of America

Director,of  Engr. Section, Japan
 Trade Center
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania

Washington, D.C.

Atlanta, Georgia

Huntley, Illinois

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Pittsburg, Pennsylvania

Saskatoon, Canada

Raleigh, North Carolina

Towson, Maryland

Boston, New York

Boulder, Colorado

Buffalo, New York

Houma, Louisiana

Old Westbury, New York

Kingston, Ontario


Tiffin, Ohio

Decatur, Georgia

Norman, Oklahoma

Knoxville, Tennessee

Brighton, South Australia

New York, New York

Salem, Virginia

Crestline, Ohio

Pittsburg, Pennsylvania

New York, New York
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