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Container Maintenance


     Container life depends upon the quality of containers

purchased, the refuse they hold, the use  (or abuse)  they

receive, and the maintenance given them.  A reasonable  life

expectancy on a high quality container should average around

ten years.  Maintenance costs includes cleaning, painting,  and

welding the container.  As previously mentioned, a  surplus

inventory of ten percent should be kept on hand for  service

needs.

     Maintenance costs will vary with usage. Costs will

generally range from 50 to 100 percent of initial purchase

costs over the economic life of the container.  Roll-off

container and lugger box maintenance costs will approximate

the 50 percent level while costs for bins will be nearer the

100 percent level since bins are fabricated of lighter  weight

steel than lugger boxes and/ or roll-off containers.  Also,

bins are commonly emptied by "banging out" the contents into

the collection vehicle.  A container inventory showing  the  cost

of each container should be kept and shown as part  of a

Management Information System (for example, see Appendix VI).


Equipment Replacement*


     Every commercial refuse collection operation,  from the

single-truck operator to the multi-fleet manager, must  decide

if and when to replace collection vehicles and containers.


     *For more information on this subject see:  On trading in used
equipment.  Solid Wastes Management, 16(6):31, 62, 78, June 1973.

                              (28)

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Since equipment represents the major cost of collection,  this
is a very significant decision.
     In determining the most economical replacement time,  the
significant point to bear in mind is that accurate maintenance
and repair cost figures must be kept on each and every piece
of equipment.  In addition, a thorough study should be made
of the factors that have a bearing on the final result, incud-
ing adjustments for price increases and the changing value
of the dollar.  These factors generally can be identified  as
follows:
        Depreciation
        Investment
        Maintenance and repair
        Downtime
        Obsolescence
                             (29)

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     Table 2 shows representative costs for these four factors.



It is assumed that the equipment operates for 2,000 hours per



year, and that the vehicle was originally purchased at a cost



of $40,000.  Maintenance and repair has already been discussed,



and the other factors are briefly presented below:



    1.   Depreciation.  Depreciation represents the differ-



         ence between the purchase price and resale or trade-



         in value.  In other words, this is the cost of the



         equipment attributed to usage and general  condition.



         Depreciation costs favor keeping the equipment for



         longer periods of time since hourly costs  of deprecia-



         tion decrease in later years.



    2.   Investment.   With increasing prices, and  a trend



         toward use of larger and more productive equipment,



         capital investment required for purchase and replace-



         ment of equipment rises with each passing  year.



         Whether the equipment is purchased for cash, on instal-



         lments, rental-purchase, or lease agreement, some



         type of interest charge, finance expense,  insurance



         and taxes must be allocated to t - vehicle.  To keep



         the example simple, it will be assumed the hauler



         purchased the equipment for cash, with the cost of



         insurance, interest, and taxes equal to 12 percent of
                            (30)

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the average yearly investment for the equipment.



As can be seen from the tabulated information, the



investment cost per cumulative hour decreases as the



equipment ages.  So investment costs, similar to



depreciation, also favor retaining the equipment for



longer periods of time.



Dciwnt ime.   Downtime should be considered as an oper-



ating expense.  Inasmuch as downtime will vary greatly



according to the make, model, age, and preventative



maintenance, it also is important to record these



costs accurately and on an individual-machine basis.



Excessive downtime means missed collection schedules,



overtime payments, or extra equipment.



In Table 2, downtime charges are based on an assumed



average owning and operating cost of $25 per hour.



It becomes apparent that downtime costs favor trading



in for a new piece of equipment each year if this



factor alone were considered.



Obsolescence.   Obsolescence is often overlooked in



equipment replacement considerations.



The productive capacity of available collection equip-



ment has increased slowly over the past ten years.



The increased productivity does not follow a smooth



curve, such as increasing 2 percent per year, but



rather an erratic one which rises with the introduction
                     (31)

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         of new models.
         For illustrative purposes, assume that a new model
         every three years increases productive potential by
         2 percent annually.  This would mean that if equip-
         ment were operated 2,000 hours a year, it must operate
         an average of 40 extra hours (2 percent of 2,000)
         for each year the equipment was retained after it had
         been superceded by a new model.  Again using $25
         per hour as the average owning and operating cost of
         equipment, the actual cost of keeping obsolescent
         equipment would increase $1,000 annually, as shown
         in Table 2.
Summary
     Table 3 summarizes the cumulative effects of the five
factors and points to the optimum replacement time for the
example cited.   It indicates that the sample equipment should
be traded in after the second year.  It should be pointed out,
however, that this data is somewhat hypothetical.  The
critical point to remember is that with accurate records for
each piece of equipment, and informed projections, losses
resulting from improper replacement of equipment can be
avoided.  Not only will a planned equipment replacement program
upgrade the quality of the equipment on the job, it also
develops  a cost-minded atmosphere, increases overall efficiency
and saves dollars that otherwise would have to be spent in
maintenance costs.
                             (32)

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                         Depreciation
Year
Trade-in value ($ of
delivery price)
Trade-in value
Yearly depreciation
Cumulative depreciation
Cumulative hours of operation
Depreciation $/hr
1

75%
30,000
10,000
10,000
2,000
5.00
2

60%
24,000
6,000
16,000
4,000
4.00
3

50%
20,000
4,000
20,000
6,000
3.33
4

40%
16,000
4,000
24,000
8,000
3.00
5

35%
14,000
2,000
26,000
10,000
2.60
Investment Costs
Year
Investment, start
Year-end value
Average yearly investment
Investment cost @ 12%
Cumulative investment
cost
Cumulative hours of operation
Cumulative investment $/hr
1
40,000
30,000
35,000
4,200

4,200
2,000
2.10
2
30,000
24,000
27,000
3,240

7,440
4,000
1,86
Maintenance
Year
Ayailabili.ty
Maintenance § repair cost
Cumulative repair cost
Cumulative hours operation
Cumulative repair $/hr
1
95%
2,000
2,000
2,000
1.00
2
93%
3,000
5,000
4,000
1.25
3
24,000
20,000
22,000
2,640

10,080
6,000
1.68
and Repair
3
90%
4,500
9,500
6,000
1.58
4
20,000
16,000
18,000
2,160

12,240
8,000
1.53
Costs
4
88%
6,000
15,500
8,000
1.94
5
16,000
14,000
15,000
1,800

14,040
10,000
1.40

5
85%
7,500
23,000
10,000
2.30
Table II:   Equipment costs for a $40,000 vehicle
           over a five-year period.
                  (33)

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                          Downtime  Costs
Year
Availability
Hours not available
Rental cost @ $25/hr
Cumulative downtime cost
Cumulative machine hours
Cumulative downtime $/hr

Year
Obsolescence factor
Extra hors required to
match production of new
model
Cost @ $25/hr
Cumulative cost
Cumulative hours of operation
Obsolescence $/hr
1
95%
100
2,500
2,500
2,000
1.25

1
2


40
1,000
1,000
2,000
0.50
2
93%
140
3,500
6,000
4,000
1.50

2
2


80
2,000
3,000
4,000
0.75
3
90%
200
5,000
11,000
6,000
1,83
Obsolescence
3
2


120
3,000
6,000
6,000
1.00
4
88%
240
6,000
17,000
8,000
2.13
Cost
4
2


160
4,000
10,000
8,000
1.25
5
85%
300
7,500
24,500
10,000
2.45

5
2


180
5,000
15,000
10,000
1.50
Table II;  (Cont.)
                (34)

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Year
Hours
Depreciation costs
Investment costs
Maintenance § repair costs
Downtime costs
Obsolescence costs
Total cumulative $/hr
1
2,000
5,00
2.10
1.00
1.25
0.50
9.85
2
4,000
4,00
1.86
1.25
1.50
0.75
9.36
3
6,000
3.33
1.63
1.53
1.83
1.00
9.42
4
8,000
3.00
1.53
1.94
2.13
1.25
9.85
5
10,000
2.60
1.40
2.30
2.45
1.50
10.25
Table III:  Total equipment costs over a five-year
            period.
                   (35)

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                          SECTION III



                            ROUTING






Introduction






    To understand the importance of routing, consider the follow-



ing:   A collection vehicle and crew are generating revenue only



during collections; travel time between customers and to and from



the disposal site are necessary, but in essence represent lost or



non-productive time.  Therefore, proper routing of collection



vehicles to minimize travel time between collection stops (i.e.,



customers), between the yard and route and between the route and



the disposal site is essential to maintaining cost-effective



operations and assessing equipment and personnel requirements.



    Basically, routing is simply the order in which customers are



serviced -- the chronology of the service area.  It should take



into consideration many factors:  potential hours of operation,



customer density, topography, haul distance, vehicle size and type,



container types and locations, frequency of collection, waste gen-



eration rate, etc.  Each factor determines, to some extent, the



productive work capability of the vehicle and crew.





Types of Routes






    Crew assignments for routes may be made on a "daily route" or



"task" basis.  Under the daily route method, a specific route is



determined for completion each day.   When the route is completed,
                                (36)

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the crew is sent home or assigned to other work.  This is the most

prevalent type of route for several reasons.  First, customers are

usually billed for frequency of pickup, and usually expect to be

serviced on specific days.  Second route makeup can be balanced

and changed according to changes in customer numbers and needs.

Third, the crew is given a certain area (route) to collect, after

which they can go home, thus providing an incentive for the col-

lection crews.  Finally, the route represents a standard against

which both performance and cost can be measured.  A slight modi-

fication of this concept, where a number of routes are serviced

on a given day, is to provide that the drivers may go home when
      • ";V
all routes to be serviced that day are collected, thus providing

a means of assuring proper completion of each and every route.

    The less utilized "task" method defines the route as a much

larger area, for example, a full week's collection area.  A crew

collects for the full work period each day and commences collec-

tions where operations were ceased the preceding day.  The entire

area is completed by the end of the week.


Routing Techniques


    Routing can be accomplished by manual means or with the use of

electronic computers.  The former method is more widely used.

Once again, the importance of a working knowledge of the service

area cannot be overemphasized as the single most important deter-

minant of routing.  Regardless of the method employed, routes
                                (37)

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should be regularly reviewed to assure maximum efficiency of opera-

tions.

    Manual routing ranges from random collection to formalized

decision models.  The random collection is based on driver know-

ledge and competence, and should be used with discretion and cau-

tion.  Decision models are characterized by two primary approaches:

(1)  the hueristic approach developed by the EPA - Office of Solid

Waste Management Programs, and (2) routing instructions developed

by Public Technology, Incorporated (PTI).

    The hueristic approach applies "rules" or "hueristics" to ob-

tain an acceptable although not necessary optimum, collection

route.  Hueristic routing determines the path the collection

vehicle is to follow as it services each customer on a route by

asking decision questions.  The method reduces driving time on the

collection route by minimizing the 'dead' distance (street segments

having no customers or those that are transversed more than once),

backing of vehicles, U-turns, left-hand turns, and collection on

major streets during rush hour traffic.  An example of a decision

model is shown in Figure 14.  A full description of the EPA huer-

istic approach to routing is available by writing to:

                     Systems Management Division
                     Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
                     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                     Washington, D.C.  20460

    Routing instructions developed by PTI incorporate mathematical

techniques to minimize retracing of areas within a "district" (a
                              (38)

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 Determine the Starting Point for the
    Design of the  Collection Route
                                       Proceed Straight and
                                       Assign This Street
                                       Segment to the Route
                                        Turn Right and Assign
                                        This Street Segment
                                        to the Route
                                        Turn  Left and Assign
                                        This  Street Segment
                                        to the Route
                                        The Design of the
                                        Collection Route is
                                        Complete
   Proceed to the Closest Street
   Segment Where Services do Exist and
   Assign This Street Segment to Route
Figure 14.
Heuristic Routing  Segment  Selection Procedure
for  collection from  both sides of  the street.
                               (39)

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district, as defined by PTI is the area covered by one truck per
day; a "route" is defined as a tour through the district).  The
PTI system is currently being published and should be available
for dissemination about June 1974, (PTI, 1140 Connecticut Ave.,
Washington, B.C.)
    Computerized routing services are available from several firms
including IBM, Boeing Computer Systems, and PTI.  Computerized
routing does not replace the need for service area assessment;  in
fact, this method requires substantial data gathering for neces-
sary input.  Existing routing models can create balanced workloads
and optimal routes provided sufficient service area information is
available.  Their major drawback is the insensitivity to certain
service area factors, such as climate, topography, and seasonal
variations which are often difficult to quantify for use in com-
puters.  For example, load quantities in cubic yards may vary
significantly from day to day or month to month.  For small to
medium sized commercial collection operations, manual routing
would be the more cost-effective alternative, since programming,
processing, and data collection and updating represent fairly sig-
nificant costs.
    Some have suggested that psychological considerations (such
as pointing the end of the route toward the yard) may positively
affect performance on the route.  Certainly, equipment operator
considerations are a major factor in routing.
    Routing determines the number of vehicles of a given type and
                               (40)

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size required to properly service customers in the proposed collec-
tion area.  This number, when increased to compensate for mainten-
ance and backup requirements, can be used to estimate capital and
personnel requirements as previously discussed.  The collection
fleet size also relates to the need for support facilities.
                                (41)

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                          SECTION IV



                          FACILITIES





    Facilities and yard requirements are important considerations



for a commercial collection operation.   A municipal operation is



usually housed in a city yard along with other municipal equipment



and vehicular operations.  Private collectors, however, should



select facilities considering several factors including conven-



ience to the collection area and disposal site, appropriate zon-



ing, sufficient space for current operations and future expansion,



and the amount of operational and spare equipment.  Functions re-



quiring space consideration include the following:



    (1)  Office space to house supervisory,  bookkeeping, and



         clerical functions, with adequate record keeping and



         filing space.



    (2)  Employee parking during working hours.



    (3)  Vehicle storage - overnight parking of operational



         and spare collection vehicles.



    (4)  Container storage for extra containers purchased to



         supplement assigned containers during maintenance



         and repair.



    (5)  Maintenance.  Pending an on-site or contractual main-



         tenance decision, varying amounts of space will be re-



         quired to maintain collection vehicles and containers.



         Assuming on-site maintenance is to  be performed, garage



         space must be allocated as well as  a painting area for



         both vehicles and containers.





                                (42)

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        (6)  Circulation and fueling space, adequate space for



             maneuvering and for refueling equipment.



        (7)  Employee convenience - depending on the number of



             amenities offered to employees, consideration should



             be given to conference rooms for training, lunch



             rooms, and shower and locker rooms.



    Of the preceding functions, the vehicle maintenance area is pro-



bably the most sensitive.   Servicing heavy motorized equipment has



many peculiarities not comparable with other types of equipment.



When planning such a shop, one should be very familiar with the



problems involved.  Much of the maintenance equipment presently



available is for automobile shops and not suited for a truck shop.



    Consideration should be given to centralized grease, motor oil,



air, heavy duty electrical, and drain oil lines with taps at stra-



tegic locations in the shop.  Hoists of various types and floor



loadings should be of adequate capacity to handle the heaviest



equipment in the fleet, fully loaded.  Ceiling clearance should



be adequate to raise the longest dump bodies to full height.



    The shop should be designed for minimum aisle space and move-



ment within the building.  An ideal layout would allow trucks to



enter and leave any shop bay from the outside without disturbing



any other truck in the building.  To accomplish this, the build-



ing could be constructed with two rows of shop bays  facing each



other.  Shop benches and equipment would be down the center, and



the two outside walls would have overhead doors for  their entire



length.  Bridge cranes could then be installed  to run the entire
                               (43)

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length of the shop and cover any part of the floor.  Proper ex-
terior striping would direct and restrict the flow of traffic to
and from the shop.
    Truck storage can also be a problem.  It is usually desirable
to locate storage areas so as to minimize interruption of local
traffic.  As the trucks are large, noisy and, at best, unattrac-
tive, they should be parked and stored away from residential neigh-
borhoods.
    Indoor versus outdoor storage should be weighed in terms of
whether the added cost of buildings and the like can be justified
by lengthened life and reduced maintenance.  There is no way to
determine this accurately without long years of comparative exper-
ience in a specific operation.  Indoor versus outdoor parking,
therefore, becomes a rather academic question when considered
structly on its own merit.  Other factors which must be considered
are:
    (1)  Building costs.
    (2)  Availability of unused space.
    (3)  Availability of temporary or portable buildings and
         whether they are acceptable.
    (4)  Administrative policy with regard to public relations
         insofar as appearance of trucks and lots is concerned.
    (5)  Importance of geographical distribution of the trucks
         relative to operating cost.
    (6)  Zoning requirements and regulations.
                                (44)

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                         SECTION V

                  PERSONNEL CONSIDERATIONS


Introduction


     In most instances, refuse collection is viewed  as  a

mundane and necessary task, neither glamorous  nor  challenging.

As a result, collection personnel often  reflect  this attitude.

Apathy, absenteeism, poor work habits, and  injuries  follow.

Thus, proper selection and training of collection  personnel

is important to operations.

     Effective personnel administration  requires policies

that: *

     1.  Attract qualified people to  the field of  refuse

         collection through a reputation for fairness,

         career opportunities, able management,  and  working

         conditions that are as favorable as possible.

     2.  Provide wages that are at least equal in  pay to

         similar work in other industries,  with  emphasis

         on the fact that work must sometimes  be performed

         under unfavorable physical conditions.

     3.  Encourage continued service  on  a career basis  through

         dependable and stable employment,  with  opportunities

         for advancement and eventual retirement.

     4.  Guarantee equal opportunities for  all qualified  persons

         to compete for hiring and promotion under impartial

         and high-standard examinations.
      *Technical knowledge is a must for new employees.  Solid Wastes
 Management, 15(3):47, 84, Mar. 1972.

                            (45)

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     5.  Train employees to do their work better and easier



         as a means of increasing competence and achieving



         advancement.



     6.  Protect employees from arbitrary separation for



         trivial or personal reasons, but provide a means



         of discharging incompetent and other undesireable



         workers for justified cause.





Selection





     Selection of personnel may pose a considerable problem due



to the stigma generally attached to refuse collection.  Many



refuse collectors are "drifters", continually jumping between



municipal and private collectors when a more favorable condi-



tion (usually salary) exists.  Personnel turnover is expensive



and inefficient:  retraining is necessary and it takes time for



a collector to become route and crew oriented.  Obviously,



mechanized systems allow for greater employee stability,



particularly systems where a one-man crew can collect a route



without having to leave his vehicle.  There are several



important employee attributes to consider in selecting the



relative importance of each and varies with the collection



method utilized.  Physical strength is required to cope with



refuse collection.  Some small commercial accounts may place



their refuse in 30 to 60 gallon containers.  Manual collection



of these containers is akin to residential refuse collection



problems:  overloaded containers, hazardous materials, etc.
                            (46)

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     When collecting bins for side and rear-end loaders it



is often necessary to position the bins (rolling them out



from an enclosed area or turning them around),   Although



castered, a large bin may weigh several hundred pounds, and



the effort required to start rolling a bin is  often very



straining.  Rigid physical examinations should  therefore be



provided to candidate personnel to determine physical quali-



fications.  Determining physical qualifications before



employment will minimize some of the problems  with employee



turnover due to injuries sustained in prior jobs and minimize



subsequent insurance claims.



     Many municipalities classify their commercial collection



drivers as equipment operators, and use comparable jobs in



the private sector to establish benchmarks for salary range.



Certainly the skill of the operator in handling and maneuvering



the equipment is critical to both speed and productivity.



     Downtime is an evil that all collection operations must



face.  Although preventive maintenance can circumvent many



unexpected maintenance problems, collection equipment is prone



to eventual failure for any number of reasons.   Should small



maintenance problems occur on route, personnel with mechanical



skills can reduce downtime by making on-the-spot corrections



and continuing on the route.  In small commercial operations



where crewmen may also be required to perform equipment maint-



anance, such skills as welding may be important to look for in
                             (47)

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prospective personnel.



     Congeniality of refuse collectors is an attribute often



overlooked during personnel selection.  Often the only contact



with a customer  (aside from billing) will be made during



collection operations.  A congenial employee can do a great



deal toward promoting a healthy customer relationship.



     Intelligence (not to be confused with educational level)



is an extremely  important attribute when selecting personnel.



Highly sophisticated and costly equipment must be properly



operated.  Collection personnel will have to make many decisions



each day, fill out forms correctly and completely and have



technical understanding of collection operations and procedures.



     Figures 15-17 show representative sample of job descrip-



tions and qualifications needed for "line" personnel in com-



mercial refuse collection.





Training





     Training collection personnel is of the utmost importance.



Knowledge of the equipment used, routes covered, and procedures



to follow must become second nature to drivers (and leaders



if used).  Drivers must have a chauffers license and should be



subjected to tests which measure depth perception, peripheral



vision, color vision, etc., as part of the training.  Although



the initial expense of such testing may appear to be substan-



tial, they will prove to be economical over the course of time



when costs for maintenance are considered.
                             (48)

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                     CITY OF SCOTTSDALE

              REFUSE COLLECTION SENIOR FOREMAN
DEFINITION:
Under direction, plans, directs and reviews the operations of

the Municipal refuse collection devision.



TYPICAL TASKS:

Reviews the work of subordinate foremen, each supervising

several crews of equipment operators and laborers engaged in

refuse collection; resolves personnel problems; reviews schedules

and work assignments; compiles unit production and cost sta-

tistics; assists management with long range planning, equip-

ment modification and other improvements;  prepares preliminary

division budget and reviews expenditure of allotted funds;

confers with equipment maintenance division concerning equip-

ment operation, repair, purchase and preparation of specifica-

tions; supervises the ordering of materials and services; super-

vises the skill and safety training of all employees; and per-

forms related work as required,



EMPLOYMENT STANDARDS:

Any combination of training and experience equivalent to com-

pletion of high school plus considerable experience as a refuse

collection foreman or as a manager or supervisor in fleet

operations in any large materials handling organization.


          FIGURE 15.  Personnel job description for collection
                      senior foreman.

                             (49)

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Considerable knowledge of effective and efficient methods and
procedures for scheduling and accomplishing refuse collection
work; considerable knowledge of the operation of large auto-
motive equipment; ability to plan, lay out, coordinate, inspect
and schedule the work of a large refuse-collection division;
ability to keep accurate records and make reports.

          FIGURE 15. (Continued)
                            (50)

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                     CITY OF SCOTTSDALE

                  REFUSE COLLECTION FORMAN
DEFINITION:
Under direction, supervises and coordinates the activities of

several refuse collection crews, and performs related work as

required.



TYPICAL TASKS:

Plans, assigns and reviews the work of several crews of equip-

ment operators and laborers engaged in a city-wide refuse col-

lection program; makes certain that all necessary tools and

equipment are provided and that they meet safety standards;

checks equipment and arranges for maintenance and repair as

needed; performs time studies of new and existing accounts, and

designs and modifies collection routes as necessary; resolves

customer complaints; directs and assists in the training and

evaluation of new employees; helps develop safety programs and

conducts safety meetings; maintains records such as activities,

accidents, equipment usage and condition, time sheets, and

inventory; submits related reports.



EMPLOYMENT STANDARDS;

Any combination of training and experience equivalent to com-

pletion of high school, plus considerable experience as a labor

foreman, preferably  in public construction, maintenance or

refuse collection and disposal.


          FIGURE 16.   Personnel job description for collection
                      foreman.

                             C51)

-------
Good knowledge of the materials, methods and techniques com-
monly used in refuse collection; good knowledge of the opera-
tion and maintenance requirements of trucks and other heavy
automotive equipment; ability to acquire and apply knowledge
of supervisory techniques; ability to plan and coordinate the
work of a large number of subordinates; ability to keep accurate
records and to make reports; ability to deal effectively with
the public.
          FIGURE 16.  (Continued)
                           C52)

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                     CITY OF SCOTTSDALE

                   EQUIPMENT OPERATOR III
DBFINTION:
Under general supervision, operates heavy automotive equip-

ment having complex operation requirements and entailing

considerable manipulative difficulty, and performs related

work as required.



TYPECAL TASKS;

Drives heavy garbage truck with hydraulic lifting, loading,

and packing controls on established route or specia,! assign-

ment; operates controls to pick-up large refuse containers or

trailers, empty into body of truck, and replace in proper

position; compacts refuse to rear of truck; empties load of

compacted material at landfill or into transfer-trailer; per-

forms routine maintenance checks of equipment and notifies

mechanics, of any malfunctions or needed repairs; keeps simple

records of mileage, activities, tonage and equipment down-

time; may operate other heavy trucks or equipment as required.



EMPLOYMENT STANDARDS:

Any combination of training and experience equivalent to com-

pletion of eighth grade, plus considerable experience or

formal training in the operation of complex automotive equipment,


          FIGURE 17,  Personnel job description for collection
                      foreman.


                            C53)

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Good knowledge of the operation and maintenance requirements of



heavy trucks and automotive equipment; ability to operate heavy



duty equipment skillfully and safely; ability to keep simple



records, read maps and follow oral and written directions;



good manual and finger dixterity.







NECESSARY SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS:



Possession of, or ability to obtain, a valid Arizona Class



A Chauffeur's license.






          FIGURE 17.  (Continued)
                           (.54)

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     When assigned to a new route, a man should spend a

minimum of five days with an experienced member of the collection

force to learn proper procedures and use of the equipment.

     Initial training should also include first aid and  fire-

fighting techniques  (at minimum, orientation to fire extinguisher

use).  Safety precautions (discussed in the following section)

should also be detailed during training.  Training course

methods and outlines can be obtained from the National Solid

Waste Management Association.  (See address on page 17).

     On-going training is also necessary to continually  keep

efficient operating  procedures foremost on the minds of  col-

lection personnel.   Training, however, should not be conducted

on the "employee   time".  If training  is conducted at  the  end

of a collection day, the men will likely be too weary  from

their work to be attentive.  Thus, training might well  be  given

on "company time"  even if it means paying  for  a  few  overtime

hours.  Again, long-term benefits will  likely  become  evident.


Safety*


     The more then 200,000  persons directly  involved in the

collection and transportation  of solid waste  presently lead

the nation in injury frequencies - some  10  times  the average

for all  industries combined.   While  the  accident  rate is higher

for residential  than commercial, and higher  for  manual than

mechanical systems,  every effort to  minimize  accidents should
     *Marceleno, T. Building safety into refuse collection.  APWA
 Reporter, 40(2) :18, Feb. 1973.

                               (55)

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 be made.   The  Environmental  Protection Agency  (Office  of



 Solid Waste Management  Programs),  in cooperation with  the



 American Public Works Association  (APWA), American Mutual



 Insurance  Alliance, Governmental Refuse Collection and



 Disposal Association  (GRCDA), and  the National Solid Wastes



 Management Association  (NSWMA) is  seeking to promote on-



 the-job safety through Operation Responsible, a public-



 private training effort.  Additionally, the GRCDA's Committee



 on Safety  Standards has issued Safety Standards for Solid



 Waste Management, covering safety  procedures, equipment safety



 specifications, and ordinances.  The latter is available by



 writing to the local chapter of GRCDA.



     Operation Responsible basically focuses on the key indi-



 viduals in the safety issue  - the  collection supervisor, the



 man in direct  charge of refuse collection activities.



 Before headway can be made with the individual collectors,



 supervisors must be convinced that safety pays off in terms



 of increased production, reduced inconveniences, and perhaps



 promotion.



     Supervisors can be familiarized with the program through



 one day seminars conducted by the  various participating



 organizations mentioned earlier and by the state solid waste



 agencies.  Since the specially developed materials are readily



 available  from the National Audio-Visual Center in Washington,



 D.C., they also can be used by other interested organizations.



 (Write  National Audio-Visual Center,  General Services Adminis-



tration,  Washington, D.C.   20409).




                             (56)

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     The 1970 Occupational Safety and Health Act  (OSHA)

requires practically all employers to maintain records of

work-connected injuries and illnesses.  Such documents

must consist of  (1) a continuing log of injuries  and  ill-

nesses, (2) a supplementary record of each  individual mishap

and sickness, and  (3) an annual summary of  all work-related

injuries and illnesses.  These logs must be retained  for 5

years.  The full details of OSHA requirements may be  obtained

by writing to the regional office of the U.S. Department of

Labor or the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.*


No'n-'Collection Personnel


     Non-collection personnel are required  in every commercial

collection operation.  Included are those of the  following

classifications:  Supervisory, Mechanical,  Bookkeeping/Clerical,

Data Processing  if the operation is large,  and Container repair

personnel.  Municipalities are in a better  position than private

firms to provide for these positions because portions of a

person's time may be allocated to similar requirements in other

municipal departments.  For example, in a small municipality

that provides commercial service, management of collection

operations may be only one of many tasks under the jurisdiction

of the Director  of Public Works.  Similiarly, a mechanic may

maintain refuse  collection vehicles as well as city-owned

automobilies, road maintenance vehicles, street sweepers, etc.
     "Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, Public Law 91-596; 84
 Stat.  1590, Dec. 29, 1970.


                           (.57)

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     Conversely, the small private hauler must often utilize



collection/non-collection personnel in dual roles.  For



example, the owner of a small commercial collection firm



could be the field foreman while also assuming responsibilities



as office manager and even the bookkeeper.  Once a business



grows, however, the owner can relinquish lesser responsibilities



to other personnel.



     Bookkeeping personnel should have an understanding of



accounting principles and  understand the billing rate structures



Without qualified bookkeeping personnel, account information



and billings may suffer.



     Secretarial/clerical positions should be filled with



qualified personnel who are capable of understanding the general



workings of the company.  Often these persons are subjected



to the public via customer questions and/ or complaints.



Amiable employees in these positions can assist in many facets



of an organization if properly screened and trained.



     As previously discussed, collection crews may also serve as



mechanics in many small commercial operations.  Again, as opera-



tions grow, full time mechanics will be required if maintenance



work is to be performed in-house (versus contract maintenance).



When hired, mechanics should be screened carefully to obtain



the services of those with foresight to see the advantages of



preventative maintenance and the capability of carrying out



specified maintenance functions.
                            (58)

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                          SECTION VI



                  CONTRACTUAL CONSIDERATIONS





    Contractual considerations are applicable to a private con-



tractor performing commercial collection service.  Municipal com-



mercial collection service is normally exempt from contractual



requirements as an ordinance provides collection service speci-



fications.



    A formal contract between a small individual customer and a



private commercial hauler may not be necessary.  However, when a



large waste generating customer or a city franchise is involved,



a written contract is normally provided.  A written contract for



large accounts may be necessary to define and/or specify collec-



tion procedures, frequencies, and equipment needs at a prescribed



cost.



    When more than one contractor is qualified to provide collec-



tion service to a city or other well-defined service area, a bidding



situation may evolve.  There are many requirements that may have to



be met when submitting a bid:



     (1)  Satisfactory evidence of waste collection creden-



         tials  (experience, manpower, equipment)



     (2)  Compensation required to cover equipment and man-



         power requirements, applicable overhead, billing,



         etc.



     (3)  Bid bonds to bind the bidder to indemnify the cus-



         tomer/city against losses should the bidder not accept



         the contract.
                              C59)

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    (4)  Performance bond  to  guarantee adequate  job  performance.


    A joint effort in 1971 by the EPA, Office  of Solid  Waste Man-


agement Programs and the NSWMA provided recommended  bidding  in-

                               3c
structions for private haulers.


    Detailed information is available through  the  NSWMA.   Bidding


is very competitive and should not be taken  lightly.   If  a bidder


is unfamiliar with the collection area under bid,  a  detailed in-


spection should be conducted  to become familiar  with the  work con-


templated by the contract.  Projections of commercial  growth


should be obtained or estimated if a multi-year  contract  is  en-


visioned.  (Multi-year contracts are desirable if  new  equipment


purchase is required.  The multi-year contract enables  a  con-


tractor to amortize costs  and to be assured  that costs  will  be


covered for providing efficient service with modern  equipment).


When more than one firm is bidding for a contract, accuracy  of


bid preparation is of great importance.  The contract will nor-


mally be awarded to the best-qualified bidder with the  lowest bid


cost.   A bidding error may result in loss of a contract,  as  cor-


rections are often not accepted.


    The sample contracts in Appendix V for "Collection  and Dis-


posal of City Refuse," and "Compactor Agreement" were published


in the 1974 Sanitation Yearbook (an annual supplement  to  the


Solid Waste Management/Refuse Removal Journal).   The contractual


specifications in these two samples exemplify  the  stipulations


that bids may be required  to  cover.  The third contract is a


sample agreement between a customer and a private hauler,
    *Recommended bidding instructions for private haulers.  Solid

Wastes Management, 14(6):44; 74-75, June 1971.



                              (60)

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                         SECTION VII



                 BILLING/INFORMATION SYSTEMS





     Information needs of system managers grow as the operation



expands.  Managers must have ready access to management in-



formation on such variables as productivity, labor hours,



quantities hauled, and a host of other technical and cost



factors for effective operational management and control.  A



billing and information system, prepared by automated equip-



ment, is eventually an essential element of the efficient



commercial collection operation.



     The informational needs of a manager were addressed in



this projectjAppendix VI describes a simple, straightforward



Management Information System which can be used in conjunction



with customer billing to obtain important cost accounting



figures.  Any person or organization interested in commercial



refuse collection is strongly encouraged to review this appendix,



It should be pointed out that the MIS described in Appendix



VI is available from the Solid Waste Management Division of



EPA.



     Billing systems for small operations normally follow a



fairly typical pattern.  A bookeeper prepares invoices based



on the number of containers emptied during the billing period.



At the same time, outstanding balances are also checked.  Over-



due amounts are entered on the new invoice.  An inevitable



problem evolves as the operation grows:  the billing and
                            C61)

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accounting requirements exceed capabilities of manual methods.



At that point, computerized billing is the logical step to



maintain a current billing profile.



     One of the objectives of this project was to develop a



user charge system upon which customer charges could be based.



The user charge system described in Appendix VII provides a



method of allocating collection costs to each customer.  The



system has sufficient flexibility for adaptation by either



public or private collectors.  It provides a method of com-



puting and matching revenues and expenditures.  Finally, the



methodology described in Appendix VII can be performed manually



using straight forward measurement.
                            C62)

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                        SECTION VIII



                      PUBLIC RELATIONS





Introduction





     Few services are more visible to the public than refuse



collection.  Good public relations depend on competent,  polite



employees rendering efficient and effective service.   In fact,



collection personnel continually demonstrate the public  re-



lations policy of the collector.  If the employee is  slow to



respond, seems to lack interest, is poorly informed,  slovenly



in appearance, or generally not helpful, the citizen  is



likely to conclude that he is typical of the collection  service



as a whole.  Thus, the caliber of the collection personnel



employed, the quality of their performance, and their attitude



and manner determine the public's reaction.





Employee Morale





     Obviously care should be taken in the recruitment and



selection process to obtain the highest caliber of employees



possible.  Once employees are chosen, however, the ability to



improve the quantity and quality of his performance is largely



dependent on management techniques, capabilities, and concern.



It should be remembered that handling refuse every day is not



the most pleasant occupation, and for the sake of morale the



task be surrounded with as many positive attractions  as  can be
                            C63)

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provided.  If grumbling and discontent are allowed, the critical
attention of the public is soon drawn to the service.
     Various means may be used to establish positive employee
morale.  Vacations, sick leave, hours of work, and physical
surroundings all affect the conditions of service.  We have
found that one of the most critical environments of collection
is the vehicle cab.  Customizing the cab (additional insulation,
air conditioning, and even tape-deck stereos) has made that
environment much more pleasant.
     Credit unions, safety training, and recreation programs
also aid in improving general employee morale.  Open forum
meetings, suggestion boxes, and even questionnaires are among
the devices used to obtain employee support,

Employee-Customer Relatiojns

     In the eyes of the customer every employee represents the
refuse collection firm or agency, so employee actions are of
vital importance to the maintenance of good public relations.
It is generally conceded that refuse collectors should undergo
some training in public relations.  Group lectures, formal
classes, procedure manuals, and personal instruction have all
been proven effective as training devices.  Of course, the
size of the collection work force affects the manner in which
instruction have all been proven effective as training devices.
Of course, the size of the collection work force affects the
manner in which instruction is given.  Demonstrations before
                              (64)

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larger groups of employees are of great assistance to col-



lectors as well as to foremen, inspectors, and supervisors.



In smaller operations, however, such methods may not be



practical.  Regardless, one excellent means consists in



stating clearly the firm's public relations policy and then



presenting satisfactory methods of dealing with particular



situations.



     Some collection agencies delegate to inspectors the



authority to adjust controversies and to explain possible



difficulties.  In many areas, supervisors combine such public



relations work with other duties,



     While contacts between citizens and collection employees



are often face to face, there are also contacts via correspon-



dence and/or telephone.  Each request for information should



receive a prompt and courteous reply,  Correspondence should



be "personal'' in tone rather than like a legal code.  Each



written inquiry should be routed immediately to the person best



equipped to answer it, and those responsible for handling  in-



quiries must be properly trained,





Handling Complaints





     While much of v.hat has been said about handling requests



for information applies equally to the treatment of complaints,



the latter merit special consideration because of their im-



portance in public relations.  Complaints furnish a measure of



the success of the collection service and offer an opportunity



to create good will.



                           (65)

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     Good complaint procedure involves four principal stages:



(1) receiving the complaint;  (2)  assignment of responsibility



for investigation and correction;   (3) follow-up; and  (4)



notification of correction.



     In small operations, or where there is no central infor-



mation bureau, telephone operators should be supplied with



enough information of a routine type so as not to interfere



unduly with their work and yet take some of the burden from



the shoulders of the administrators.   When the operator cannot



answer a question, connection should be made with the inquirer



to the person who has been assigned to reply to such queries.



     The attitude of the person receiving the complaint is



of particular importance because the customer filing the com-



plaint is seldom in the best of temper.  Tactless employees,



or those who like to argue, are not suited to dealing with the



public in such situations.



     To ascertain the underlying cause of complaints, records



should be maintained and analyzed  periodically.  Monthly



analysis are desireable to show the total number of complaints



for the month and to classify their causes.  In addition, a



distribution by district, crew, or route is needed to keep



supervisors informed of the need for remedial action.  Recurring



complaints should be given prompt  attention.
                            (66)

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Good Relations Through Effective  Operation





     Effective and economical  operation of the collection



system is one of the best ways to gain the good will  and



approval of customers.  This may  call  for the careful training



of employees in the proper ways of doing their work,  thus



eliminating many complaints and promoting better public relations



     Spilling refuse cannot always be  avoided when containers



or vehicles are overloaded, but spillage resulting from employee



neglect should be cleaned up by collection personnel.  A



supervisor can discuss over-filled containers with the customer.



     Collection at night or in the early morning hours also



causes problems which can be largely overcome by training.



Reduction of noise is especially  important.  While it is im-



possible to collect refuse without some noise, the amount can



be reduced through an examination of operations and training



of the employees.  The language and the tone of voice used by



the workers during collection  should also be considered.





Cleanliness
     Customers may associate the collection of refuse with the



idea of uncleanliness - a negative picture which may be the



only one presented.  To substitute a different  picture, the



idea of cleanliness must first be instilled into the habits of



the collection personnel.  A start in this direction can be



made by improving the personal appearance of the collection



force.  Furnished uniforms, laundered at frequent intervals,
                             (67)

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                                                    MS: 1189

 go a long way toward relieving the stigma attached to col-
 lection work.  Even if uniforms are not worn, provision of
 clean,  standardized apparel can accomplish the same ends.
      Cleanliness should also apply to the collection equip-
 ment.   Equipment should be frequently cleaned, body work
 performed as needed, and the paint maintained.  Often col-
 lection vehicles are unattractive either through lack of
 paint  or soiled condition.  Regular cleaning is needed in
 order  to remove dirt, particles of refuse, and unpleasant
 odors.   The method and frequency of cleaning can be brought
 to the  attention of the employee during the training process.
 Some designers have conceived of bright, imaginative designs
 and colors for refuse equipment which make it both attractive
 and aesthetically pleasing.

 Driver  Courtesy

      The impression which collection equipment makes on the
 citizens depends on its use as well as on its appearance.
 A reckless driver or "road hog" is not liked under any circum-
 stances, but if he is driving a refuse collection vehicle his
 offense is magnified.  Operators of refuse collection vehicles
 should  be exemplary in courtesy and safety on the road.  The
 provisions of all related laws should be followed to promote
 safety.  Arguing with others as to the right of way, trying
 to "beat" the stoplights, and double parking which may lead
 to hazardous traffic conditions, should not be permitted.
«U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE4975 631-376/907 1-3
                             (68)

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