HEALTH GUIDELINES
/ -
FOR WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES
PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Water Programs
Water Hygiene Division
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HEALTH GUIDELINES
FOR
WATER AND RELATED LAND
RESOURCES PLANNING,
DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
A guideline prepared
by the Water Hygiene Division
for use by Regional Offices
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Water Programs
Water Hygiene Division
October 1971
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FOREWORD
Two hundred million Americans are dependent upon the Nation's water resources every day of their
lives. In 1965 we used an estimated 270 billion gallons of water per day, and by the year 2020, our
water requirements will exceed 1300 billion gallons each day. We consume a tremendous amount
of water, and we expect it to be of a high quality.
As we enter the decade of the 70's with mounting public support for the improvement of their
environment, recognition of the need to plan for both healthful quality and adequate quantities
of water places ever greater responsibilities on health oriented environmentalists: We must develop
means for assuring future generations of the water they will need. This responsibility requires
careful planning on our part today.
This set of guidelines has been developed as an aid for futhering such effective planning, from the
perspective of Man's health, for the development and use of our Nation's water and related land
resources. The wise application of the guidelines will result in current and future benefits in such
areas as improved recreational developments and reduced vector control problems, as well as in
improved public water supply systems. With their impact on generations yet to come, these'
guidelines may help us to begin repaying our environmental debts.
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CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
CHAPTER I PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 1
CHAPTER II SHELLFISH GROWING AND HARVESTING WATERS 8
CHAPTER III RECREATION AREA DEVELOPMENT 16
CHAPTER IV VECTOR CONTROL 31
CHAPTER V SOLID WASTES MANAGEMENT 39
CHAPTER VI RADIOLOGICAL HEALTH 45
CHAPTER VII AIR POLLUTION 52
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INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
These GUIDELINES were developed in response to the interest of many Federal and State agencies
and others in the health aspects of water and related land resources planning, development and
management. They are not intended to supplant the consultation and review of water and related
land resources projects which should be sought on health matters from responsible Federal, State
and local agencies.
In many instances the GUIDELINES simply point up areas of concern which should be given
further study; a list of papers, reports, and references included at the end of each chapter may
be useful in this further study. The GUIDELINES represent the current state of knowledge with
regard to the health aspects of water and related land resouces; as further information and findings
become available, modifications and additions will be desirable.
Preparation covered a period of over two years and involved extensive consultation and advice with
individuals and offices involved in the different phases of water resources activities. The Division
of Water Hygiene gratefully acknowledges assistance and technical advice from many quarters,
including the following units:
Bureau of Community Environmental Management, Department of Health Education,
and Welfare
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs, Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Radiation Programs, Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Programs, Environmental Protection Agency
Shellfish Sanitation Branch, Food and Drug Administration, Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare
VI
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CHAPTER I - PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
In the PHS Drinking Water Standards, I/ a water supply system is defined to include "the works and
auxiliaries for collection, treatment, storage and distribution of the water from the source of supply
to the free-flowing outlet of the ultimate consumer." A public water supply system is intended to
furnish water for drinking, food processing or other intimate human uses as well as for a variety of
commercial, industrial, municipal and other uses.
The exact definition of a public water supply system differs from State to State, varying as to the
number of families or customers served, but for purposes of this document, includes the idea of
service to a community and/or the availability of the system for service to the general public.
The protection and safety of a public water supply system depends upon the sanitary environment,
quality and quantity of source waters, the effectiveness and reliability of treatment processes, the
integrity and capacity of storage and distribution systems, quality control surveillance, and upon
the qualifications and effectiveness of the operating personnel. Details regarding the sanitary
maintenance and evaluation for all aspects of public water supply systems are covered in the Manual
for Evaluating Public Drinking Water Supplies. 21
Drinking Water and Health
Provision of adequate quantities of safe water for drinking and other human uses is important to
the public health both because contaminated water can produce disease and illness and because
the ready availability of safe water can stimulate better personal hygiene thereby resulting in
improved health.
The association of health and water is usually connected with massive outbreaks of typhoid fever
and other water-borne diseases which occured over 50 years ago in the United States and the
Western countries but have since been largely eliminated by improved water treatment and supply
practices. However, it is seldom realized that disease outbreaks still stem from contaminated
drinking water; from 1946 to 1960, 228 outbreaks of disease or poisoning with 25,984 cases were
attributed to drinking water. JL/ Additionally, a variety of significant outbreaks affecting thousands
of people have occurred more recently, including ill health from hepatitis, 4/ salmonellosis 5/
and gastroenteritis. &/ These outbreaks have been associated with breakdowns both in distribution
and treatment processes.
The availability of safe water and modern sanitary facilities in individual homes facilitates good
personal hygiene practices and is accepted as a key feature of modern life. However, many
disadvantaged persons in cities, small towns, and rural areas still do not have adequate supplies of
safe water and needed sanitary facilities in their homes. A recent study 2J of American Indian
communities has shown that the provision of safe water supply and sanitary facilities in the home
reduced the incidence of selected diseases.
Relation of Public Water Supply Systems to
Water Resources Developments
The planning and development of reservoir projects should include consideration not only of the
quantity needs of municipalities for water, but also the quality aspects. The effect of all water
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resources developments upon existing public water supplies should also be considered, especially
where the effect may be negative.
In choosing between waters of differing quality, preference should be given to the use of the higher
quality water for municipal and drinking purposes. Quality considerations should include a sanitary
survey and analysis of the involved watershed, an evaluation of raw water quality and an analysis of
trends and forecasts regarding future raw water quality and its relationship to planned water
pollution control efforts.
The sanitary survey and analysis of the watershed should be performed by sanitary engineers or
other public health specialists and should include examination and evaluation of all existing or
potential public health hazards and sources of contamination. Elements to be considered in the
survey would include:
1) Possible development and activity on the watershed and possible means for control
thereof, such as: residential, industrial, recreation, etc. development; and plans for zoning
controls and proposed ownership of the watershed lands, particularly adjacent to the
reservoir.
2) Major sources of natural contamination including animals, drainage from swamps,
bogs, and mineral deposits and silt from soil erosion.
3) Major sources of man-made contamination including industrial, farm, municipal and
individual home sources.
The determination of raw water quality is frequently difficult because of lack of data on elements
important to drinking water quality, variable conditions in the stream which may cause temporal
changes in quality and uncertainty with regard to the effects of impoundment on the water
quality. 8/ Sampling and analysis of a stream should be planned to include the bacterial, chemical,
physical and radiochemical measures which are important to drinking water quality and should be
of such frequency and timing as to give an accurate portrayal of the stream's water quality. Samples
should be analyzed by methods described in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater 9/ or by comparably recognized techniques.
Water pollution and river basin authorities should be contacted with regard to trends in contaminant
levels and forecasts for the future. Such an analysis could indicate that current problems may be
solved prior to the time that stored water would be used for municipal purposes or that new
problems would require new attention and solutions.
Raw Water Quality and Treatment
The quality of the source waters will determine the treatment processes required to produce a water
that meets the PHS Drinking Water Standards. High quality water may require minimal treatment
.whereas low quality water may require extensive treatment to produce a potable water. In the
economic analysis of reservoir projects consideration should be given to the costs of water treatment
in evaluating alternate means for providing municipal water supply. Municipal supply intakes should
be constructed with multilevel inlets so that, where stratification occurs, the best quality water can
be taken into the system; or provision should be made for mixing so as to prevent stratification.
In the past many drinking water supplies from protected well sources have been served to customers
without any treatment. However, instances of back-siphonage and contamination in distribution
systems together with related disease outbreaks, have demonstrated the need for maintaining
residual levels of a disinfectant, usually chlorine, throughtout the system. Consequently, the
minimum recommended treatment for all public water supply systems is disinfection.
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Guides herein are for raw water quality which is to be given two categories of treatment,
"Disinfection Only" and "Conventional Treatment." However, it is also recognized that certain
waters will require intermediate degrees of treatment between "Disinfection Only" and
"Conventional Treatment" and that others will require an advanced level of treatment beyond
"Conventional Treatment."
A. Disinfection Only
Where ground waters are subject to only low levels of contamination, treatment no
greater than disinfection may be adequate.
The raw water quality considered satisfactory for this degree of treatment should meet
the following requirements (where constituent standards already exist, they are taken
from the 1962 Edition of the PHS Drinking Water Standards; for the coverage of new
constituents, limits are cited from the current recommendations of the Task Force for
Revision of the Standards):
a) Bacteriological:
1. Coliform Group Less than 100/100 ml. as measured by a monthly arithmetic mean.
2. Fecal Coliform: If fecal coliform density is measured, the above total coliform
density may be exceeded, but fecal coliform density should not exceed 20/100 ml. as
measured by a monthly arithmetic mean.
b) Physical: Should meet Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards, including limits
as follows:
Turbidity 5 units
Color 15 units
Threshold Odor Number 3
c) Chemical: Chemicals present should not exceed the following concentrations:
Substance Concentration (mg/1)
Arsenic (As) 0.01
Barium (Ba) 1
Cadmium (Cd) 0.01
Carbon Chloroform Extract (CCE) 0.2
Chloride (Cl) 250
Chromium (hexavalent, Cr+6) 0.05
Copper (Cu) 1
Cyanide (CN) 0.01
Detergents (Methylene Blue Active Substances) 0.5
Fluoride (F)o
50.0-53.7oF Annual average of 1.7
53.8-58.30F maximum daily air 1.5
58.4-63.8 F temperatures 1.3
63.9-70.6° F 1.2
70.7-79.2°'F 1.0
79.3-90.5°F 0.8
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Substance Concentration (mg/1)
Iron(Fe) 0.3
Lead(Pb) 0.05
Manganese (Mn) 0.05
Mercury (Hg) 0. 005
Nitrogen [Nitrate-Nitrogen +
10 (Nitrite-Nitrogen) ] 1 o
Phenols 0.001
Selenium (Se) 0.01
Silver (Ag) 0.05
Sulfate(SO4) 250
Total Dissolved Solids 500
Zinc(Zn) 5.
d) Radioactivity: Should meet the Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards
including the following:
1) Radium-226 3 M/i c/liter
Strontium-90 10 M M c/liter
(When these concentrations are exceeded, the water will still be acceptable if surveillance
of total intakes of radioactivity from all sources indicates that such intakes are within the
limits recommended by the Federal Radiation Council for control action.)
2) In the absence of Strontium-90 and alpha emitters:
Gross beta concentrations - 1000ju/i c/liter
(When these concentrations are exceeded, the water will still be acceptable if more
complete analyses indicate that concentrations of nuclides are not likely to cause
exposures greater than the Radiation Protection Guides as approved by the President
on recommendation of the Federal Radiation Council.)
e) Pesticides: Should not exceed the following limits:
Pesticide Maximum Acceptable
Concentration (ppm)
Aldrin 0.01
Dieldrin* 0.01
Chlordane 0.01
DDT 0.1
Endrin 0.003
Heptachlor** 0.02
Heptachlor Expoxide** 0.02
Lindane 0.1
Methoxychlor 0.5
Toxaphene 0.1
2,4-D 1.0
2,4,5-TP 0.2
Total Organophosphorous and Carbamate Compounds *** 0.1
*Limit for total Aldrin and Dieldrin is 0.01 ppm.
**Limit for total Heptachlor and Heptachlor Epoxide is 0.02 ppm.
***Expressed in terms of parathion equivalent cholinesterase inhibition.
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Disinfection will normally be accomplished by chlorination with a minimum residual to be
maintained in distant parts of the distribution system of 0.1 - 0.2 milligram per liter for free
chlorine. The manual for Evaluating Public Drinking Water Supplies gives details regarding
chlorination and other types of disinfection treatment.
Intermediate Treatment
Many surface waters are of such a degree of purity as usually to meet the recommended guide
limits for "Disinfection Only." Such waters would be derived from grassy, wooded terrain
including little swamp land or land which is exposed or under cultivation. When adequate
storage is provided in reservoirs and strict control of contamination is practiced on the catchment
and storage areas, a high quality raw water can usually be obtained.
However, all surface waters are subject to temporary deterioration in quality through increased
levels of turbidity, algae growths, and miscellaneous contaminants. Such contaminants will hinder
the effectiveness of disinfection treatment and may reduce the aesthetic properties of the water for
drinking purposes. All surface waters therefore, should receive some degree of treatment more
extensive than "Disinfection Only."
Where surface waters meet or come close to meeting the recommended guide limits for "Disinfection
Only," they should be given a degree of intermediate treatment such as flocculation, sedimentation
or filtration or some combination of such treatments, in addition to disinfection.
Some ground waters may contain chemicals or other substances which are removable by less than
"Conventional Treatment;" these should be given an intermediate degree of treatment appropriate
to the raw water quality problem involved. In any case the objective of the treatment will be to
provide continuously an adequate quantity of safe water, meeting the Public Health Service
Drinking Water Standards.
C. Conventional Treatment
Waters which are too contaminated for treatment by intermediate means will require conventional
treatment. This higher degree of treatment is defined to mean pre-disinfection, coagulation,
sedimentation, rapid granular filtration and post-disinfection.
Even though conventional treatment is to be provided, every effort should be made to prevent and
control contamination of the raw water source. Where recreational use is permitted on a reservoir,
such use should be accompanied by sanitary controls and should be prohibited in a restricted area
surrounding the water supply intake.
The design of water treatment plants will vary with local circumstances and should be based on
quality problems in the water to be treated.
The raw water quality considered satisfactory for conventional treatment should (in addition to
meeting the applicable State Water Quality Standards) meet the following:
a) Bacteriological:
1) Total Coliform Density: Less than 20,000/100 ml. as measured by a monthly
geometric mean or,
2) Fecal Coliform Density: If fecal coliform density is measured, the above total
coliform density may be exceeded but fecal coliform should not exceed 2,000/100 ml.
as measured by a monthly geometric mean.
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b) Physical: Elements of Color, Odor, and Turbidity contribute significantly to the
treatability and potability of the water.
Color 75 units
(This limit applies only to non-industrial sources; industrial concentrations of color should
be handled on a case-by-case basis and should not exceed levels which are treatable by
conventional means.)
Threshold Odor Number 5
Turbidity Variable
(Factors of nature, size, and electrical charge for the different particles causing turbidity
require a variable limit. Turbidity should remain within a range which is readily treatable
by complete means; it should not overload the water treatment works; and it should not
change rapidly either in nature or in concentration where such rapid shifts would upset
normal treatment operations.)
c) Chemical: Since conventional treatment generally produces little reduction in chemical
constituents, raw water should meet the limits given for "Disinfection Only."
d) Radioactivity: Should meet requirements for radioactivity as shown for "Disinfection
Only."
e) Pesticides: Should meet requirements for pesticides as shown for "Disinfection Only."
Advanced Treatment
Water of poorer quality (but not sewage) should receive advanced treatment as determined by the
user's engineer or consultant and should only be used if no raw water supply of better quality is
available. The treated water should continuously meet limits of the Public Health Service Drinking
Water Standards unless an exception, related to potability and aesthetic properties, is approved by
the State agency responsible for public water supply systems. Additional measurements for
constituents, not covered in the Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards, may be necessary
under these circumstances.
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References
1. "Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards, 1962, "PHS Publication No. 956, USDHEW,
PHS, 1962.
2. "Manual for the Evaluation of Public Drinking Water Supplies, "PHS Publication No. 1820,
USDHEW, PHS, 1969.
3. Weibel, S. R. et al, "Waterborne - Disease Outbreaks, 1946-60," Journal AWWA, Vol. 56,
No. 8, Aug. 1964.
4. "Infectious Hepatitis Outbreak," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, October 11, 1969,
National Communicable Disease Center.
5. Ross, E. C. et al, "Salmonella Typhimurium Contamination of Riverside California, Supply,"
Journal AWWA, Vol. 58, No. 2., Feb. 1966.
6. Borden, H. E. et al. "A Waterborne Outbreak of Gastroenteritis in Western New York State,"
American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 60, No. 2, Feb. 1970.
7. "Health Program Evaluation: Impact Study of the Indian Sanitation Facilities Construction ,
Act." Division of Indian Health, USDHEW, PHS, July 1968.
8. "Water Quality Behavior in Reservoirs," PHS Publication No. 1930, USDHEW, PHS, 1969.
9. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater," 11th Ed., American Public
Health Association, New York, 1960.
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CHAPTER II - SHELLFISH GROWING AND HARVESTING WATERS
In the production of shellfish for direct market harvesting, the quality of waters over the shellfish
growing areas is of public health importance due to the ability of shellfish to concentrate
bacteriological, radiological, or chemical pollutants. The waters of areas approved for the direct
market harvesting of shellfish must be free of potentially harmful concentrations of pathogenic
microorganisms, radionuclides, heavy metals, pesticides, other potentially toxic organic compounds,
and marine toxins.
Sanitary control of shellfish in the U.S. is conducted through the National Shellfish Sanitation
Program, a cooperative enterprise with participation by the Public Health Service, State control
agencies, and the shellfish industry. The participants jointly have developed sanitation guidelines for
the sanitary control of shellfish growing areas, and for harvesting and processing. These guidelines,
titled the National Shellfish Sanitation Manual of Operations I/ are revised and amended periodically
at National Shellfish Sanitation Workshops. Interim revisions may be made through joint action of
the participants in the program. Currently, the program is coordinated by the Shellfish Sanitation
Branch, Division of Sanitation Control, Bureau of Foods and Pesticides, U.S. Food and Drug
Administration.
Classification of Growing Areas
The sanitary quality of a shellfish growing area is determined by a sanitary survey which includes:
1. A reconnaissance of the watershed to locate and quantify the sources of domestic and
industrial pollution that may potentially effect the quality of the growing area.
2. Hydrographic surveys, supported by bacteriological and chemical analyses to determine
the course and fate of the pollutants and the residual levels of pollutants in the water over the
shellfish beds and the shellfish meats.
Based on the findings of these surveys, the shellfish area is classified into one of four categories,
defined in detail in the Manual of Operations, Part I - Sanitation of Shellfish Growing Areas. The
following is an abstract of the manual requirements for these four categories:
Approved Areas - Growing areas may be designated as approved when (a) the sanitary survey
indicates that pathogenic microorganisms, radionuclides, and/or harmful industrial wastes do not
reach the areas in dangerous concentration, and (b) this is verified by laboratory findings whenever
the sanitary survey indicates the need. Shellfish may be taken from such areas for direct marketing.
Satisfactory Compliance - This item will be satisfied when the following criteria are met:
a. The area is not so contaminated with fecal material that consumption of the shellfish
might be hazardous, and
b. The area is not so contaminated with radionuclides or industrial wastes that consumption
of the shellfish might be hazardous, and
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c. The median coliform MPN of the water does not exceed 70/100 ml, and not more than 10
percent of the samples ordinarily exceed an MPN of 230/100 ml for a 5-tube decimal dilution
test (or 330/100 ml, where the 3-tube decimal dilution test is used) in those portions of the area
most probably exposed to fecal contamination during the most unfavorable hydrographic and
pollution conditions.
The MPN values are based on an assumed normal ratio of coliforms to pathogens and would not be
applicable to any situation in which an abnormal ratio of coliforms to pathogens might be present.
Consideration must also be given to the possible presence of industrial or agricultural wastes in
which there is an abnormal coliform to pathogen ratio.
Conditionally Approved Areas - The suitability of some areas for harvesting shellfish for direct
marketing is dependent upon the attainment of an established performance standard by sewage
treatment works discharging effluent directly or indirectly to the area. In other cases, the sanitary
quality of the area may be affected by seasonal population increases, runoff from farm lands, or
sporadic use of a dock or harbor facility. When not adversely affected by these factors, such areas
may be classified as conditionally approved.
State shellfish control agencies shall establish conditionally approved areas only when satisfied that
(a) all necessary measures have been taken to insure that performance standards will be met and (b)
that precautions have been taken to assure that shellfish will not be marketed from the areas
subsequent to any failure to meet the performance standards and before the shellfish can purify
themselves of polluting microorganisms or chemical pollutants.
Satisfactory Compliance - For information on satisfactory compliance specifications for this
classification, the National Shellfish Sanitation Manual of Operations, Part I should be consulted.
Restricted Areas - An area may be classified as restricted when a sanitary survey indicates a degree
of pollution which would make it unsafe to harvest the shellfish for direct marketing. Alternatively,
the states may classify such areas as prohibited. Shellfish from such areas may be marketed after
purification or relaying as provided for in Section D of the Manual.
Satisfactory Compliance - This item will be satisfied when the following water quality criteria are
met in areas designated by the states as restricted.
a. The area is so contaminated with fecal materials that direct consumption of the shellfish
might be hazardous, but
b. 1) The area is not so contaminated with radionuclides or industrial wastes that
consumption of the shellfish might be hazardous, and
2) The coliform median MPN of the water does not exceed 700/100 ml and not more
than 10 percent of the samples exceed an MPN of 2300/100 rnl in those portions of the
area most probably exposed to fecal contamination during the most unfavorable
hydrographic and pollution conditions.
c. Shellfish from restricted areas are not marketed without controlled purification or relaying.
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Prohibited Areas - An area shall be classified prohibited if the sanitary survey indicates that
dangerous numbers of pathogenic microorganisms might reach an area. The taking of shellfish
from such areas for direct marketing shall be carefully prohibited. Relaying or other salvage
operations shall be carefully supervised to insure against polluted shellfish entering trade
channels. Actual and potential growing areas which have not been subjected to sanitary surveys
shall be automatically classified as prohibited. Satisfactory Compliance - This item will be satisfied
when:
a. An area is classified as prohibited if a sanitary survey indicates either of the following
degrees of pollution:
1) The area is so contaminated with radionuclides or industrial wastes that consumption
of the shellfish might be hazardous, and/or
2) The median coliform MPN of the water exceeds 700/100 ml or more than 10 percent
of the samples have a coliform MPN in excess of 23 OO/100 ml.
b. No market shellfish are taken from prohibited areas except by special permit as described in
Section D of the Manual.
c. Coastal areas in which sanitary surveys have not been made shall be automatically classified
as prohibited.
Radioactivity
Radioactive wastes entering the water environment constitute a potential hazard to humans through
consumption of shellfish which have taken up the radioactive material from the water. The principal
potential sources of such materials are the liquid waste discharges from nuclear energy applications,
such as nuclear power ships, or nuclear power plants. Radioactive wastes from these sources may
be discharged into shellfish waters at concentrations not exceeding the applicable standards21 (or
comparable State regulations). Due to the accumulation of radionuclides in aquatic food chains,
3»4/ however, it is possible for certain radionuclides to be present in edible portions of human food
organisms in quantities sufficient to be of public health concern, even though the concentrations
of the radionuclides in water are within permissible limits according to these standards.
The radionuclides of public health significance which may be found in shellfish include the
following:
a. Fission products which include radioisotopes of zirconium ruthenium, iodine, cerium, and
strontium.
b. Activation products which include radioisotopes of chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt,
copper, and zinc.
A proposed Appendix C, "Interim Guidelines for Radionuclides for Shellfish" was adopted at the
1968 National Shellfish Sanitation Workshop. -5/ This document should be consulted for details of
surveillance methods and recommended limits of radionuclides in shellfish.
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Table 1 presents a list of selected controlling radionuclides and the recommended guide for
radioactivity in shellfish for an assumed intake of 50 grams per day. If the concentration of any
single nuclide in shellfish reaches the recommended guide value, the shellfish should be released for
public consumption only after a comprehensive evaluation of the dose to the exposed population
from all environmental sources shows that the Federal Radiation Council's Radiation Protection
Guides 2/ will not be exceeded. If more than one nuclide is present in significant amounts, an
additional evaluation must be performed as shown in the "Interim Guidelines for Radionuclides in
Shellfish." i/
Table I - Recommended Guides for Selected Radionuclides
Selected Maximum Maximum Radiological Guide
Radio- Permissible Permissible for Radioactivity
nuclide Concentration Radioactivity in Shellfish (Assuming
(MPC)w(a) intake aSOg/day intake)
uCi/cc uCi/day uCi/g
xlO-4
51Cr 6.67 1.47 0.03
54Mn 0.333 0.0733 0.001
58Co 0.333 0.0733 0.001
59Fe 0.2 0.044 0.0009
60Co 0.167 0.0367 0.0007
64Cu 1.0 0.22 0.004
65Zn 0.333 0.0733 0.001
90Sr - 0.0002 0.000004
95Zr 0.2 0.044 0.0009
103Ru 0.267 0.0587 0.001
106Ru 0.0333 0.00733 0.0001
13 lj - 0.0001 0.000002
144Ce 0.0333 0.00723 0.0001
a. (MPC)W for 168-hour week multiplied by a factor of 1/30 for exposure
From the standpoint of public health, radionuclide levels in shellfish cannot be the only source of
radionuclides considered. The basic approach specified by the Federal Radiation Council is to limit
total intake of radionuclides from all sources so that Radiation Protection Guides are not exceeded.
Under circumstances in which the concentrations in shellfish remain well below the guideline values,
there is no need for public health concern from this vector. If the concentrations approach or
exceed the guidelines, the public health significance must be evaluated in the context of radionuclide
intake from all sources so that the total exposure does not exceed the Radiation Guides.
Control of population exposure from radionuclides occurring in the environment is accomplished
either by restriction of the entry of radionuclides into the environment or through measures
designed to limit the intake of radionuclides by individuals. Both modes of control involve the
consideration of actual or potential concentrations of radioactivity in water or food (shellfish).
Controls should be based upon an evaluation of population exposure with regard to the
radioactivity intake via shellfish consumption is appropriate, except for the special case of
accidental release or discharge of major significance.
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Trace Metals
The capacity of shellfish to concentrate certain metals up to many hundreds of times those levels
found in their environment means that molluscs exposed to pollution may contain quantities of
such metals that might produce toxicities in the human consumer. 21 The human hazard presented
by the accumulation of toxic chemicals by shellfish is illustrated by the well-known Minimata
disease outbreaks in Japan. .§/ 27 Sanitary surveys of shellfish growing areas must include
identification of potential sources of pollution containing these metals, supplemented by
hydrographic studies and analyses of water and shellfish meats to assure that harmful quantities of
these agents do not reach the growing area.
Trace metals are among the most common inorganic wastes. Typical trade wastes such as those from
copper plating, copper pickling, and cuprammonium rayon manufacture contribute the greatest
amounts of copper to streams and other water bodies. Cadmium occurs as an impurity in zinclead
ores in phosphate deposits. It is used to alloy with copper, lead, silver, aluminum, and nickel, and
in electroplating, ceramics, pigmentation, photography, and nuclear reactors. Organic mercury
compounds are used in herbicides, fungicides, medicines, slime control in paper mills, and in various
chemical processes. Small quantities of methyl mercury continuously discharged from a factory
during the production of acetaldehyde was considered to be the causative agent of Minamata disease.
Capabilities for Uptake
Most trace metals either are not significantly accumulated by shellfish or kill the shellfish before
levels hazardous to humans can be accumulated. To date six exceptions to this rule have been
determined. Certain shellfish species are known to be capable of accumulating zinc, copper,
cadmium, mercury, lead, and chromium in sufficient quantity to pose health hazards to human
beings.
Recent studies in estuaries and in controlled laboratory experiments lead to the following general
conclusions on trace metal accumulation by shellfish.
1. Each species has a different pattern of accumulation of specific metals.
2. A seasonal cycle for trace metal levels in shellfish may be expected.
3. Levels of the metals in the overlying water cannot accurately be determined on the basis of
the levels in shellfish; they might have been high in the water for a short period of time, or low
for a long period of time.
4. The rate of depletion of metals by shellfish is slow, sometimes requiring many months.
Because of this, the depuration process, applicable to the removal of bacteria from shellfish is
not feasible for the cleansing of shellfish contaminated with metals.
Tolerance limits for metals in shellfish which would protect the human consumer have been the
subjects of studies. However, the 1968 Shellfish Sanitation Workshop, in discussing a proposed
guideline recommended that inclusion of Guides for Trace Metals in Shellfish in Part 1 of the
manual be deferred. Ifi/ In recommending this action, it was the opinion expressed at the workshop
that overall knowledge of trace metals in shellfish is insufficient to warrant including such
guidelines, but surely indicates potential problems.
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Pesticides
Pesticides reach shellfish growing areas from many sources, including sewage and industrial waste
discharge, runoff from land used for agriculture and forestry, the use of herbicides for the control
of aquatic vegetation, and the use of pesticides for the control of shellfish predators. Shellfish
rapidly accumulate pesticides and herbicides, often to a concentration which is toxic to the molluscs.
Surveys of the pesticide content of shellfish in several estuaries in the U.S. have shown that, in
general, the pesticide levels are low; but in certain isolated instances, the concentrations approached
those that might be considered hazardous.
The National Shellfish Sanitation Program has adopted guidelines for concentrations of certain
pesticides in shellfish. -LI/ Limits for other pesticides will be included as additional research findings
are obtained. The Recommended Guidelines are shown in Table 2.
Pesticide Concentration in Shellfish
(ppm - drained weight)
Aldrin * 0.20
BHC 0.20
Chlordane 0.03
DDT)
DDE) ANY ONE OR ALL, NOT TO EXCEED 1.50
ODD)
Dieldrin * 0.20
Endrin * 0.20
Heptachlor * 0.20
Heptachlor Epoxide * 0.20
Lindane 0.20
Methoxychlor 0.20
2,4-D 0.50
* It is recommended that if the combined values obtained for Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin,
Heptachlor, and Heptachlor Epoxide exceed 0.20 ppm, such values be considered as "alert" levels
which indicate the need for increased sampling until results indicate the levels are receding. It is
further recommended that when the combined values for the above five pesticides reach the 0.25
ppm level, the areas be closed until it can be deomonstrated that the levels are receding.
Marine Biotoxins
Paralytic shellfish poison (PSP, also called Saxitoxin) is produced in certain marine dinoflagellates
used as food by shellfish. The toxin, released during digestion by molluscs is assimilated and
migrates to certain specific tissues varying with the species of shellfish. The toxin is retained by the
shellfish in concentrations many times greater than it exists in the water. PSP is found in the west
coast areas of the U.S., Canada, and Alaska. It also occurs in the Bay of Fundy and the St.
Lawrence estuaries on the east coast. In some areas it occurs seasonally; in other areas, notably in
Alaska and Canada, it is found during the entire year. The Manual recommends that if the PSP
content reaches a level of 80 micrograms per 100 grams of the edible portions of raw shellfish meat,
the area shall be closed to the taking of those edible species of shellfish subject to these toxins.
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Another marine biotoxin has been found in shellfish on the Gulf Coast. The occurrence of this toxin
in shellfish has been associated with blooms of the dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve. Quantitative
standards criteria have not been developed to date for this biotoxin in water or shellfish, but State
shellfish sanitation control authorities may elect to close shellfish areas to harvesters if the presence
of this toxin is detected in shellfish.
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References
1. "National Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Operations," in three parts: "Part I -
Sanitation of Shellfish Growing Areas;" "Part II - Sanitation of Harvesting and Processing of
Shellfish;" and "Part III - Public Health Service Appraisal of State Shellfish Sanitation Programs,"
Publication No. 33, US DHEW, PHS, 1965.
2. "Standards for Protection Against Radiation," Part 20 of Title 10 of Code of Federal
Regularions, Aug. 9, 1966.
3. Gong, J. K., et al, "Uptake of Fission Products and Neutron-Induced Radionuclides by the
Clam," Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, Vol. 95, pp. 451-54,
1957.
4. "Studies on the Fate of Certain Radionuclides in Estuarine and Other Aquatic Environments,"
PHS Publication No. 999-R-3, US DHEW, PHS, May 1963.
5, "Interim Guidelines for Radionuclides in Shellfish," Proceedings, Sixth National Shellfish
Sanitation Workshop, US DHEW, PHS, ppg. 44-46, 54-58, 1969.
6. "National Committee on Radiation Protection: Maximum Permissible Body Burdens and
Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Radionuclides in Air and in Water for Occupational
Exposure," National Bureau of Standards Handbook 69, 1959.
7. Pringle, B. H., et al, "Trace Metal Accumulation by Estuarine Mollusks," Journal of the
Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. SA3, Proc. Paper 5970 pp. 455-75, June 1968.
8. Irukayama, K., "The Pollution of Minimata Bay and Minimata Disease" in Advances in Water
Pollution Research, Vol. 3, pp. 153-165, 1967.
9. Ui, J., "Discussion of: The pollution on Minimata Bay and Minimata Disease." in Advances in
Water Pollution Research, Vol. 3, pp. 167-174, 1967.
10. "Task Force Report on Guidelines for Pesticides, Radionuclides, Metals, and Manual Changes
for Marine Toxins," Proceedings, Sixth National Shellfish Sanitation Workshop, US DHEW, PHS,
pp. 44-45, 1969.
11. "Proposed Appendix B: Interim Guidelines for Pesticides in Shellfish. Proceedings, Sixth
National Shellfish Sanitation Workshop," US DHEW, PHS, pp. 53-54, 1969.
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CHAPTER III - RECREATION AREA DEVELOPMENT
This guideline has been prepared for the use of planners and others interested in water and related
land use development. It is intended to serve as an introduction to the factors of concern to health
authorities in the development of recreation areas. Winter sports are not considered. Material in PHS
Publication No. 1195, Environmental Health Practice in Recreational Areas,!/ was heavily used in
the preparation of this chapter. This manual should be consulted for additional details.
In many instances the planning, provision, and maintenance of facilities in recreation areas have not
kept pace with the rapidly increasing visitor load. As a result optimum use of such areas is not
possible and deterioration of overtaxed facilities is frequently encountered. Where facilities such as
water supply, sewage disposal, and solid waste handling are inadequate or lacking, the visitors will
fend for themselves, often creating conditions which are aesthetically offensive as well as serious
environmental health hazards for themselves and neighboring community residents or visitors.
Available recreation facilities will need to be at least tripled by the year 2000 to meet the needs of
the Nation's exploding population and increased leisure time. Estimates are that adequate
environmental health safeguards comprise approximately 30 percent of development costs of new
recreation areas. Since these safeguards represent such an appreciable investment, care should be
taken in properly planning, constructing, and maintaining adequate facilities.
Adequate consideration of factors influencing the public health can best be achieved through
active cooperation between health and recreation agencies. The development and review of plans of
proposed developments and facilities including a review of site selection by qualified public health
engineers is recommended. A program of periodic surveys and inspection of facilities and their
operation in recreation areas should be established by public health and recreation authorities. It
is recognized that developments in remote areas, wilderness areas, and low-density use areas will
often be served by primitive sanitary facilities.
Site Selection
Sites selected for recreation areas should be well drained, gently sloping, free from topographical
or geological hindrances, and suitable for the use or development of a safe and adequate drinking
water supply and of sewage disposal works.
Sites should be free from heavy traffic, air pollution sources, and noise sources. Avoiding locations
near swamps and marshes, where insects such as mosquitoes may breed and cause severe annoyance
and discomfort, will significantly enhance enjoyment and utilization of the area by the visiting
public.
Other considerations are:
1) Hazard free entrance to and exit from the recreation area.
2) Surfaced and looped roadways within recreation areas.
3) Availability of an entomological survey of the area.
4) Preclusion of flooding of the recreation area's sanitary facilities.
5) Control of undergrowth in developed places.
6) Not subject to unusual wind conditions.
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Watershed Management
Watershed management involves the supervision, regulation, maintenance, and wise use of the
aggregate resources of a drainage basin to provide an optimum yield of water of desirable quality,
including the control of erosion, pollution, and floods. Because the condition of the soil and the
growth it supports have a marked influence on the quality and quantity of water contributed by a
watershed, the use of various control measures and management practices is essential to conserve
water and land resources and to prevent economic losses to municipal, industrial, and agricultural
water supplies, fisheries, and recreation. In carrying out the various functional activities on
watershed lands, including grazing of livestock and game, logging, roadbuilding, mining,
house-building, fire control, sewage disposal, and recreation, it is essential that satisfactory watershed
conditions be preserved.
Of particular concern are:
1) Erosion control both during and following construction.
2) Logging practices.
3) Prevention of overgrazing by livestock and game.
4) Control of the disposal of domestic and industrial liquid and solid wastes in and adjacent
to recreation areas and watercourses.
5) Control of mining and ore-processing operations.
6) Evaluation of potential health hazards through consideration of the toxicity, persistence,
and exposure factors of pesticides or other chemicals to be used.
7) Prohibition of uncontrolled camping in areas without basic facilities.
Water Supply (See also Chapter 1)
An adequate supply of water under pressure which meets the source and protection, bacteriological,
chemical, physical, and radiological requirements of the Public Health Service Drinking Water
Standards 37 is essential for the convenience, comfort, safety, and health of visitors and resident
staffs at outdoor recreation areas.
Points which should be considered are:
1) Extension to the recreation area of any State approved public water supply system where
feasible.
2) Quality and quantity of water supplies available.
3) Degree of treatment necessary to provide water meeting the USPHS Drinking Water
Standards.
4) Appropriate steps to provide disinfection as well as to prevent chance contamination of
hauled water.
5) Completion of a sanitary survey by a qualified person as part of the collection of initial
engineering data on the development of the water supply source and its capacity.
6) Design, construction, and supervision of the proposed water facilities to minimize
potential vandalism.
7) Qualified supervision, operation, and maintenance of the water treatment equipment.
8) Protection of the water quality through the design, construction, and maintenance of the
distribution system.
9) Design system to permit emergency operations.
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Sewage Disposal
Safe disposal of human and domestic wastes in recreation areas is necessary for the preservation of
the surface and ground waters and the restoration of such waters to the best possible condition
consistent with the public health and welfare. Proper sewage disposal prevents damage caused by
sewage to the propagation and preservation of fish and wildlife, and is essential to protect the
visiting public, employees, and nearby communities from diseases transmitted through sewage.
. Some important health related factors are:
1) Provision of a properly designed, constructed, and supervised water-carried
sewage-disposal system. Experience has shown that pit toilets are a poor second choice
and should only be used for remote and lightly used recreation areas.
2) Locating outfalls to minimize the potential effects of sewage effluents.
3) Proximity of septic tank and subsurface disposal systems to buildings, beaches, camping
and picnic areas, and water supply systems.
4) Properly planned sludge disposal.
5) Plans for the installation of sewage disposal facilities must provide for adequate operation
and maintenance.
Plumbing
Plumbing includes "the practice, materials, and fixtures used in the installation, maintenance,
extension, and alteration of all piping, fixtures, appliances, and appurtenances in connection with
any of the following: sanitary drainage or storm drainage facilities, the venting system, and the
public or private water supply systems within or adjacent to any building structure, or conveyance;
also the practice and materials used in the installation, maintenace, extension, or alteration of storm
water, liquid waste, or sewerage and water supply systems of any premises to their connection with
the public sewer system (or public water system) or other acceptable disposal facility." 3/
In planning the following should be considered:
1) The minimum number of plumbing fixtures should be based upon peak visitor day use
(see Table 1).
2) Materials used and their installation should conform to the minimum standards of the
National Plumbing Code (as revised) or to local and State codes if they are more
restrictive.
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Male Female
1/75 1/50
Facility
Swimming Pools *
(Based on maximum
load of bathers)
Comfort Stations
Campground Sites
1-20 1 2
21-30 2 3
Picnic Areas Parking
1-40 1 2
41-80 2 4
81-120 3 6
Table 1
Sanitary Facilities for Recreation Areas .£/
Waterclosets Urinals Lavatories
1/75 males
I/100 males
I/100 females
Showers
1/50 males
1/50 females
(minimum of 2)
1
2
1
2
3
2
4
2
4
6
Each comfort station should be designed to provide service for sites no further than 500
feet away.
* One drinking fountain, not installed in toilet room, should be provided.
Building and Housing Hygiene
Housing of a healthful quality must provide for fulfillment of the physiological needs of man, which
include: a thermal environment that not only is conducive to good health but is comfortable and
promotes efficiency of living; air that is chemically pure and free from objectionable odors; humidity
that is healthful and comfortable; and air movement that will provide the necessary air changes to
assist in maintaining the desired thermal conditions and air purity. Housing should be free of noise
that may impair health. Lighting should be quantitatively and qualitatively adequate, including both
natural and artificial sources. All buildings and dwelling units should be constructed and maintained
in accordance with the minimum requirements set forth in the "APHA-PHS Recommended Housing
Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" 5/ or requirements that are substantially equivalent. The
"Basic Principles of Housing and its Environment" w is another good reference in the field of
housing. Those concerned with the design, operation, and maintenance of public buildings should
consult these references for more complete coverage of this subject. Plans and specifications
covering housing, dormitories, camps, hotels, restaurants, and similar facilities should be submitted
to the appropriate authorities having jurisdiction for review and recommendations.
Some of the more important aspects of housing not covered elsewhere in this Guideline are:
1) Provision of adequate openable window area for habitable rooms.
2) Provision of adequate outlets where electric service is available.
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3) Provision of adequate safe heating facilities.
4) Provision of screens for doors and openable windows during seasons when it is necessary to
protect against mosquitoes, flies, and other insects.
5) Protection of buildings against rodent entry.
6) Construction of water closet compartment and bathroom floor surfaces of material impervious
to water.
Milk and Food Sanitation
Despite the progress which has been achieved in food protection programs, foodborne illness
continues to be a major public health problem The incidence of such illness can be reduced by the
application of the basic principles of food protection. To achieve this on a day-to-day basis, however,
better understanding on the part of many food-service employees and employers must be developed,
and this in turn will necessitate a maximum of cooperation between public health agencies and the
food service industry. The need for even greater attention to this problem in recreation areas is due
to the seasonal operation of many areas and the widely fluctuating visitor load that must be
accommodated by food service facilities provided. Seasonal employees who lack adequate training
in good foodhandling practices introduce additional hazards. The applicable State and local milk
sanitation laws and regulations and the Public Health Service "Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk
Ordinance"^/ should be followed for the dispensing of milk and milk products. The "Food Service
Sanitation Manual"^/ including "A Model Food Service Sanitation Ordinance and Code, 1962
Recommendations of the Public Health Service" is a basic reference in the field of food sanitation.
Where ice is produced for public use the "Sanitary Standard for Manufactured Ice - 1964
Recommendations of the Public Health Service"^/ should be applied. A basic reference for the
dispensing of foods and beverages is "The Vending of Foods and Beverages," LQ/ a sanitation
ordinance and code recommended by the Public Health Service. Before construction of a food
service establishment is initiated, properly prepared plans and specifications showing layout,
arrangement, and construction materials and the location, size, and type of fixed equipment and
facilities should be submitted for approval to the health authority having jurisdiction.
Solid Waste Disposal (See also Chapter V)
Public Health problems are often associated with improper storage, collection, and disposal of
solid waste in recreation areas. Experience has shown that the application of the basic principles of
sanitation to solid waste handling results in substantial reductions in fly, rodent, and other insect
problems. U7 Inadequate handling and disposal of solid wastes may also result in the increased
incidence of certain diseases in humans and animals. \2J L2/ Many hazards and nuisances, such as
fire, smoke, odors, and unsightliness, are also created by poor solid waste handling practices. The
full appreciation of recreation area values by the public is often diminished by the disorder of
accummulated solid waste.
Among the elements to be considered in planning are:
1) Collection of solid waste in durable, watertight, rust-resistant, nonabsorbent, and easily
washable covered containers.
2) An adequate solid waste collection plan (number of containers, and frequency of
collection) to prevent unsightliness and fly and rodent problems.
3) Disposal means for trash and garbage.
a) by sanitary landfill
b) by incineration
c) by garbage grinding (to sewage system)
4) Prohibition of open burning other than campfires.
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Compatibility of Recreation and Public Drinking Water Supply 1_5/ 16/ IT/
The competition among multiple uses of our land and water resources demands assessment of the
compatibility of uses such as recreation and domestic water supply. There is no doubt that
recreation comprises one of the major uses of water resources, representing major economic and
social benefits. Domestic use is also a major benefit and may often be the most exacting use of
the water resources. When various uses are not compatible and conflicts exist, compromise is
necessary. Where multiple use calls for both water supply and recreation, the following factors
should be considered:
1) Present physical, chemical, and bacteriological quality of the water resource.
2) Comparison of the probable degree of contamination of the water resulting from
recreational and other uses such as mining, logging, road building and right of way
maintenance; the resulting water quality should meet health guidelines and the
applicable State or Federal standards for recreational and water supply use.
3) Degree of toxicological contamination and deterioration of water quality caused by
wasted oils, motor fuels, pesticides, and other chemicals used to maintain and operate
recreation facilities and equipment.
4) Control of taste, odor, and color producing algal growth.
5) Degree of water treatment required to handle anticipated pollution loads in order to
produce water meeting the PHS Drinking Water Standards.
6) Provision for multiple elevation withdrawal points in the water supply intake to allow the
advantage of planned withdrawal of the highest quality of water under varying conditions
of water quality in the reservoir.
7) Designation of a restricted area around the water supply intake in which recreational use
is prohibited to prevent vandalism and to provide some holding time for the recreation
water prior to its use for public drinking water supply.
8) Complete clearance of the restricted area of vegetation, buildings, manure deposits, swamp
debris, and other sources of contaminants.
9) Monitoring of the water quality on a regular basis.
These factors are normally considered in any drinking water supply development project. They are
included here to remind planners that they should not be overlooked in multiple-use projects.
Body Contact Recreation Water Quality
Limited biological, chemical, and physical quality guidelines are outlined below. IQJ Where
questions arise regarding the health aspects of water quality, local and State health authorities
should be consulted. Reference should also be made to State Water Quality Standards and the water
pollution control authorities responsible for the administration of such standards. Final judgment
on the acceptability of the use of any water classified under these guidelines should also include
consideration.of the significance of the findings of a complete sanitary survey and continuous
surveillance of possible hazards including a review of epidemiological data and appropriate safety
considerations.
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A. Biological:
The fecal coliform density should not exceed an arithmetic mean of 200/100 ml with a
sampling frequency of 5 samples per 30-day period taken during peak recreational use. Not
more than 10 percent of the samples' fecal coliform densities during any 30-day period should
exceed 400/100 ml.
B. Chemical:
The water should contain no chemical which could cause toxic reaction if ingested or
irritation to the skin or eyes upon contact. The water's pH should be within the range 6.5-8.3.
C. Physical:
The water's color should not exceed 15 standard units and its turbidity should not exceed 30
standard units.
Swimming Pools and Outdoor Bathing Places
Public health authorities have been concerned with sanitation and safety problems involving
swimming and bathing for many years. While the problem of accidents and drownings are the most
dramatic events relating to swimming, the communicable disease aspects must also be given
attention.
The following factors should be considered:
1) Design, construction, and operation of proposed swimming pools in accordance with
requirements of the health authority having jurisdiction or in accordance with the standards
outlined in the "Suggested Ordinance and Regulations Covering Public Swimming Pools" 121
and "Environmental Health Practice in Recreation Areas."
2) Acceptability to health authorities of the proposed water supply system to serve as a potable
water source for the pool area.
3) Discharge of the swimming pool water through an air gap to the waste water receiver and
recharge of the swimming pool through an air gap.
4) Proper design for "use loading."
5) Practice of continuous disinfection of pool water, where possible.
6) Routine examination of bacteriological samples taken from swimming pools and bathing places.
7) Decisions on the use of natural bathing areas based upon the results of chemical analyses,
bacteriological examinations, and a sanitary survey of the proposed natural bathing area.
8) Elimination of possible gross animal pollution of the bathing area.
9) Evaluation of the effects of peak visitor days on water quality and recreational use.
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Bathing Load for Outdoor Pools and Beaches (Without Disinfection)
In a swimming pool whose water is derived from a public or other supply of drinking water quality,
the presence of organisms of the coliaerogenes group should be considered as an indication of
pollution by fecal matter. The presence of such bacteria in natural bathing places, however, may be
an indication of generally harmless soil bacteria. The portion of the total coliforms which is of fecal
origin varies radically in surface waters. Routine bacteriologic tests can detect the degree of the more
hazardous fecal contamination through fecal coliform density determinations. Where outdoor
beaches are used, the fecal contamination may be caused by sewage from boats, individual dwellings,
hotels, factories or other establishments, public sewerage systems, refuse dumping, warmblooded
animals, and bathers themselves.
Where a beach will be dependent upon stream flow or lake circulation for cleansing and dilution, the
amount of water flowing past the beach during the time of its use should be ascertained. Any small
stagnant pool patronized by a number of bathers is certain to show bacteriologic pollution in
considerable amounts unless disinfection is provided. While no specific amount of diluting water for
outdoor beaches can be set on a scientific basis, a figure of 500 gallons per bather per day has been
used in the past. The American Public Health Association publication, "Recommended Practice for
Design, Equipment and Operation of Swimming Pools and Other Public Bathing Places," 20/ states
"the total number of bathers using a fill and draw swimming pool shall not exceed one person for
each 500 gallons of water in the pool between complete changes of pool water without disinfection."
The "Becker" formula has been used in New York State ?_0/ as a practical guide in determining
necessary volumes of diluting water for outdoor beaches. This formula is Q = 6.25T2 where Q =
quantity of water per bather in gallons and T = replacement period in hours. As an example if the
water circulation is such that the beach volume will be replaced in eight hours, then Q will be 400
gallons/per bather; the number of bathers permitted in eight hours would be the total volume of
the swimming area divided by 400.
Whether or not disinfection is employed, every effort should be made to eliminate all sources of
sewage pollution on small streams or lakes used for bathing and careful sanitary surveys of the
watershed are recommended. It is, of course, desirable that bathing be limited to clear bodies of
water and that muddy bottoms which will cause turbid water be avoided.
Recreation Vehicle Parking Areas
The great increase in the number of recreation vehicles on the highways during the vacationing
months is quite evident to the motoring public and reflects the increasing amount of leisure time
and extra spending power being enjoyed by more people each year. It also points out the
continuing need to expand recreation vehicle parking areas together with related facilities that
meet standards of health and safety.
Considerations involving standards of health and safety are:
1) Design of parking facilities for both self-contained and non-self-contained recreation
vehicles.
2) Provision of a sanitary station for the disposal of holding tank wastes. (For design see
"Environmental Health Practice in Recreation Areas." I/)
3) Design of recreation vehicle parking areas for overnight or destination use.
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4) Availability of adequate water supply and satisfactory means of sewage disposal at each
parking site.
5) Design of approach roads for trailer traffic.
6) Conformance of the spacing of recreation vehicles to the minimum 15 foot separation
specified by the National Fire Protection Association.
7) Separation of at least 60 feet between the recreation water tank filling station and the
sanitary station.
8) Special provisions for the disposal of sink wastes.
9) Development of detailed plans for solid waste disposal.
10) Convenience and adequacy of service buildings for their anticipated use.
11) Provision of electrical service by underground cable.
12) Submission of detailed plans and specifications of the recreation vehicle parking areas to the
health authority having jurisdiction for review and approval.
Boating
The boating industry reported in 1962 that there are more than eight million pleasure boats being
used for recreation in U.S. waters and the trend is increasing upward. More and more of these boats
are being equipped with a galley and toilet facility. Sewage, galley wastes, and other debris are
therefore being discharged into our water-courses threatening to damage the recreational values of
swimming, fishing, and other aquatic sports. The dredging of boat basins and the construction of
small craft harbors, marinas, boat launching ramps, and docking floats are but a few of the projects
being constructed or planned for recreation areas. Such new developments which attract and serve
boating enthusiasts may create water pollution and related health problems of concern to public
health and recreation authorities.
For this reason it is most important that the planning of such developments consider the
environmental health aspects involved such as:
1) Inclusion of adequate separate facilities for collection and disposal of sewage, waste oils
and fuel, and solid wastes accumulated on boats in the planning and design of proposed
marinas.
2) Location of a permanent comfort station with sanitary facilities for both sexes near the
piers.
3) Provision of a water-carried sewage-disposal system including adequate treatment.
4) Provision of land disposal of wastes from floating facilities.
5) Provisions to eliminate waste and spillage during storage and dispensing of gasoline from
floating facilities.
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6) Regulation of construction and use of boats with marine toilets.
7) Inclusion of good solid waste disposal practice.
8) Establishment of restricted areas around water supply intakes.
9) Boats should meet safety requirements recommended by the U.S. Coast Guard and
regulations should be established to control health and accident hazards associated with
boating.
10) Full separation of boating and swimming areas.
11) Adequate parking facilities for automobiles and trailers.
Fish Cleaning Facilities
Fishing is an activity many visitors enjoy while visiting recreation areas, especially where natural
reproduction and stocking of local waters is accomplished. Where fishing is productive, consideration
should be given to the installation of fish cleaning facilities near boat docking and launching areas.
These facilities are essential to control nuisances, odor, and pollution from the indiscriminate
cleaning of fish and disposal of the resulting wastes into lakes, reservoirs, and along shorelines.
In planning these facilities consideration should be given to the following factors.
1) Screening or full enclosure of the facility.
2) Provision of tables having impervious, nonabsorbent surfaces sloping to central drains
or of adequately maintained wood tables.
3) Provision of potable water under pressure, adequately protected against back-flow.
4) Provision of adequate disposal of collected wastes and maintenance of the facility in a
clean condition.
Insect and Rodent Control (See also Chapter IV)
Several groups of arthropods and rodents may create serious public health and nuisance problems
at recreation areas. These include species that are vectors of human disease organisms or which
serve as reservoirs of these organisms or otherwise interfere with man's health, welfare, and comfort.
A number of aquatic insects may be encountered at recreation areas located along the shore of
impoundments. Mosquitoes are undoubtedly the most important of these insects, since several
species serve as vectors of encephalitis and malaria, and others create public health problems
because of their vicious biting habits. 21/ Other groups of aquatic insects such as deer files,
horseflies, black flies, and biting midges are vicious biters of man and sometimes are involved in
transmission of disease. In addition to the aquatic insects, people who visit water-related and other
recreation areas are often exposed to terrestrial arthropods such as ticks, mites, fleas, and flies, and
rodents including ground squirrels, rats, and mice. 22/ 23/ The public health importance of these
arthropods and rodents involves a number of human diseases including Rocky Mountain spotted
fever, Colorado tick fever, tularemia, relapsing fever, tick paralysis, typhus, plague, bacillary
dysentery, and typhoid fever. Irritation, discomfort and annoyance caused by bites of the
arthropods can seriously reduce the use of an otherwise attractive recreation area. Thus it becomes
most important that measures be taken to eliminate or reduce such insect populations. State
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health agencies should be asked for preconstruction surveys and technical assistance in preparing
control programs based on the following principles:
1) Delineation of mosquito production sites.
2) Implementation of mosquito control practices in preparation of the reservoir basin prior
to impoundage.
3) Utilization of naturalistic and source reduction measures.
4) Planning for maintenance practices to control mosquito production within flight range
of recreational and inhabited areas.
State and Federal health agencies will also provide technical information concerning:
1) Steps to be taken to control terrestrial arthropods and rodents.
2) Hazards to humans and animals posed by proposed chemical control measures against
insects and rodents.
Campgrounds, Playgrounds, and Picnic Areas
Camping is often a necessary part of any outdoor recreation outing that extends beyond one day.
Many vacationers stay in motels and hotels; however, tents, and recreation vehicles have loomed
larger and larger on the recreation scene in recent years. Camping is increasing at a faster rate than
the provision of sites and facilities for camping. Increases in camping will most certainly accompany
increases in travel, for camping makes it possible for families to enjoy weekends and vacations
economically far from home.
When resources are developed for boating, fishing, hunting and related activities, adequate facilities
for camping also should be provided. Studies of participation in outdoor recreation have shown that
substantial numbers of campers prefer remote areas, while many others prefer camping in an area
where they can visit with other campers. 24/ Consequently both types of camping areas are needed,
with proper consideration given for environmental health factors relating to this mode of recreation.
Factors of importance are:
1) Provision of level and well drained tent areas.
2) Plans for regular maintenance of the grounds (cleaned, mowed, and poisonous plants and
hazards removed).
3) Remoteness of playgrounds from traffic areas, hazardous topographic features, and
hazardous land uses.
4) Convenient location of water supply hydrants and comfort stations in the area.
5) Camping units should be located on one-way loop roads and/or cul-de-sacs.
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STABLE SANITATION
The primary environmental health concern associated with the use of horses is the stabling of these
animals and related manure disposal. Accumulations of such wastes afford breeding places for flies
and unless controlled, will invariably produce large numbers of flies. Public health officials
recognize that flies constitute a public health hazard and that the abatement of fly populations is
essential to the control of certain communicable diseases.
These principles should be applied:
1) Stables convenient to recreation areas, but located to minimize potential odor and
nuisance problems.
2) Provision of water outlets for hosing down feed and tack rooms, adequately protected
against back-flow.
3) Provision of adequate water supply and drainage lines.
4) Implementation of insect and rodent control practices.
5) Handling and disposal practices for manure that prevent the breeding of flies.
27
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CONCLUSION
If these factors or principles have been considered and properly resolved, adequate attention has
been given to health considerations in the project development. However, if they have not been
considered and resolved, the health and well-being of recreationists will not only be endangered but
the project will fall short of its optimal development and use. Additional funds for sanitary and
related facilities will often be justified in achieving an optimal result from the expenditure of the
basic development funds. Health agencies at the local, State, and Federal level can be of
considerable assistance in providing the technical direction necessary to insure the inclusion of a
healthful environment in the development of water resources.
28
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References
1. "Environmental Health Practice in Recreation Areas," PHS Publication No. 1195, US DHEW,
PHS, 1965.
2. "Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards 1962," PHS Publication No. 956, US DHEW,
PHS, 1962.
3. The National Plumbing Code, ASA-A40.8-1955, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
27 West 39th St., New York, N. Y., 1955.
4. "National Park Service Building Construction Handbook," USDI, N.P.S., 1958.
5. "APHA-PHS Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance," PHS
Publication No. 1935, US DHEW, PHS, 1969.
6. "Basic Principles of Housing and its Environment," APHA, 1790 Broadway, New York,
N. Y. 1970.
7. "Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance," PHS Publication No. 229, US DHEW, PHS, 1965.
8. "Food Service Sanitation Manual," PHS Publication No. 934, US DHEW, PHS, 1962.
9. "Sanitary Standard for Manufactured Ice," 1964 Recommendations of the Public Health
Service, US DHEW, PHS, 1964.
10. "The Vending of Foods and Beverages," A Sanitation Ordinance and Code, US DHEW, PHS,
1965.
11. Weaver, L., "Refuse and Litter Control in Recreation Areas," Public Works Magazine, April
1967.
12. Anderson, R. J., "Public Health Aspects of Solid Waste Disposal," Public Health Reports, Vol.
79, No. 2, pp. 93-100, February 1964.
13. "Solid Waste/Disease Relations - A Literature Survey," PHS Publication No. 999-UIH-6, US
DHEW, PHS, 1967.
14. "Solid Waste Management in Recreational Forest Areas," Study for the Forest Service, USDA,
by the US DHEW, PHS, 1969.
15. "Recreational Use of Domestic Water Supply Reservoirs, Revised 1965," AWWA Yearbook,
p. 25, October 1969.
16. Carswell, J. K. et al, "Research on Recreational Use of Watersheds and Reservoirs," JAWWA,
Vol. 61, pp. 297-304, June 1969.
17. Lee, R. D. et al, "Watershed Human Use Level and Water Quality," JAWWA, Vol. 62, pp.
412-422, July 1970.
18. "Report of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria," Department of the Interior, 1968.
29
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19. "Suggested Ordinance and Regulations Covering Public Swimming Pools," Joint Committee on
Swimming Pools and Bathing Places, the APHA, CSSE and CMPHE in cooperation with the
PHS, APHA, 1790 Broadway, New York, N. Y., 1963.
20. "Recommended Practice for Design, Equipment and Operation of Swimming Pools and Other
Public Bathing Places," APHA, 1790 Broadway, New York, N. Y., 1957.
21. Hess, A. D., "Vector Problems Associated with the Development and Utilization of Water
Resources in the United States," Proceedings 10th International Congress on Entomology
(1956)3:595-601, 1958.
22. "Household and Stored-Food Insects of Public Health Importance," US DHEW, PHS, 1960.
23. "Control of Domestic Rats and Mice," PHS Publication No. 563, US DHEW, PHS, 1969.
24. Mueller, Eva and Gurin, Gerald, "Participation in Outdoor Recreation, Factors Affecting
Demand Among American Adults," Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission
Report 20, 1962.
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CHAPTER IV - VECTOR CONTROL
Health Guidelines for Vector Control are intended for the use of public health agencies, water
resource construction and operation agencies. The Guidelines should assist in the study and
evaluation of vector control problems and in the prevention and control of disease vectors and
pests which may be associated with water and related land resources.
The Guidelines may be broken down into two categories:
1. Principles and Practices for the Prevention and Control of Vector Problems
2. Field Survey and Epidemiological Surveillance
Major vectors considered include mosquitoes from the water resource and terrestrial arthropods
and rodents from the related land resource.
The major diseases transmitted by mosquitoes are malaria, yellow fever, dengue, encephalities, and
filariasis. Control programs and climate have now reduced malaria, yellow fever, dengue, and
filariasis to minor or historical importance in the United States. Five types of encephalitis continue
to occur in epidemic form in many parts of this country, however, and are the most important
mosquito-borne diseases in the United States today. From 1956-1968 U 3, 121 cases of human
encephalitis were identified as mosquito-borne, with the incidence from various strains as follows:
Western Encephalitis 665 cases
Eastern Encephalitis 92 cases
St. Louis Encephalitis 2127 cases
California Encephalitis 236 cases
(Not identified by most
laboratories prior to 1964)
Venezuelan Encephalitis 1 case
Total 3,121 cases
Maps in Figure 1 illustrate the relative occurrence of the major types of encephalitis in the U.S.
At present, ticks are known to transmit five groups of deadly diseases: rickettsial, such as spotted
fever; bacterial, such as tularemia; spirochetal, such as relapsing fevers; viral, such as Colorado
tick fever, and protozoal, such as Texas cattle fever. They also produce a toxic paralysis. Tick
transmitted diseases have occurred primarily in the South Atlantic, Appalachian, and Western
states. Lowest incidences occur in New England, New York, the West Central states, Hawaii, and
Alaska. Since ticks are so widespread, however, the hazard from them should be considered in
all regions.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF VECTOR
PROBLEMS
In the prevention and control of vector problems, special emphasis must be placed upon the
prevention of physical conditions which may result in increased vector populations and upon the
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FIGURE 1
ts>
ARTHROPOD-BORNE
EASTERN
ST. LOUIS
ENCEPHALITIS
CALIFORNIA
ACTIVITY
iTBO ACTIVITY WITHIN BTATK
WESTERN
-------
establishment of physical conditions which will minimize or eliminate existing vector problems;
attention must also be given to factors such as the maintenance of basic sanitation standards,
programs for the application of insecticides, location of habitable areas away from potential
mosquito production areas, and so forth. The following principles and practices for prevention
and control of vector problems should be followed in the planning, design, construction,
operation, and maintenance of water and related land resource projects.
A. Impoundments
Practices leading to the prevention and source reduction of mosquito and other
aquatic insect breeding sites include the following:
1. All borrow pits and other potential ponding areas associated with construction of the
dam, relocation of highways or roads, etc., which are located above maximum pool level
should be made self-draining.
2. Prior to impoundage, the reservoir basin should be prepared as follows:
a. The normal summer fluctuation zone of the permanent pool should be selectively
cleared except for isolated trees and sparse vegetation along abrupt shorelines
which will be exposed to wave action.
b. Dense stands of timber rooted below the normal summer minimum pool level but
extending above that level should be selectively cleared.
c. Borrow pits, depressions, marshes, and sloughs which will be flooded by the
reservoir at maximum pool level and which would retain water at lower pool levels
should be provided with drains to insure complete drainage with fluctuation of
water levels.
d. If the summer fluctuation zone of the permanent pool is limited to a few feet,
consideration should be given to "building out" mosquito-producing areas located
within flight range of population groups or recreation areas through the use of
measures such as deepening and/or filling. This would minimize the need for
repetitious measures for controlling vegetation and mosquito production.
e. If releases of water during portions of the year coincident with the mosquito
breeding season are quite small, consideration should be given to provision of low
flow channels in drainage systems below the dams.
3. After im poundage, the following maintenance measures should be carried out in all
potential mosquito-producing areas located within flight range of human population
groups or recreation areas frequented by significant numbers of persons:
a. All dense vegetation should be removed periodically from flat, protected areas
within the normal summer fluctuation zone of the permanent pool.
b. Vegetation, debris, and flotage should be removed periodically from all drains to
insure free flows.
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4. Water level management to minimize conditions favorable for mosquito production
should be used to the maximum degree permitted by the primary purposes of the
reservoir. This will minimize the need for repetitious measures for controlling vegetation
and mosquito production.
5. As a general principle, waterside recreation areas, particularly those which have facilities
for overnight human occupancy, should be located along sections of the reservoir which
have a low production potential for mosquitoes and other aquatic insects of public health
importance.
6. Biological control measures such as maintaining populations of mosquito larva predators
should be exercised as needed.
B. Recreational Areas
1. Proper storage, collection, and disposal of solid wastes should be practiced in order to
prevent and control flies, wasps, other noxious insects, rats, wild rodents, and other
small mammals. Disposal of containers such as tin cans which would hold water reduces
the breeding of mosquitoes within recreation areas.
2. All buildings should be rodent proofed at recreation areas where rodents which may
create public health hazards are prevalent.
3. Debris, rubbish, and other materials which may serve as harborage for rodents and other
small mammals should be removed periodically. At least twice a week removal of garbage
is necessary to minimize fly production during the summer months. Where pit privies are
provided, they should be fly tight and constructed to minimize the possibility of rodent
harborage. Where possible such unsatisfactory facilities should be replaced with modern
water carriage sewage disposal systems.
4. Brush and weeds along paths, trails, roadways, and other areas frequently used by visitors
should be treated with herbicides or removed in order to reduce the likelihood of tick and
chigger infestations, however herbicides should be used only in accordance with
recommendations of appropriate Federal or State agencies.
5. Tree holes which may hold water should be filled with sand or grout to eliminate breeding
places for mosquitoes and biting gnats.
6. Proper sewage and solid waste disposal is essential to prevent vector problems.
C. Waterfowl Refuges
1. Whenever possible, waterfowl habitat developments should be constructed so as to
minimize mosquito problems.
2. Waterfowl areas which are to be flooded during the mosquito season should be diked or
otherwise prepared with steep shorelines to preclude shallow water areas favorable for
mosquito production. Banks should not be made so steep as to impair stability.
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3. Provision should be made for water level management in waterfowl areas which will
minimize mosquito production. This recommendation is particularly applicable to shallow
areas used to provide establishment of food producing vegetation.
D. Irrigation
1. Project Conveyance and Distribution Systems
a. Lining or other satisfactory seepage control measures should be provided for all
sections of canals and laterals located in porous soil where excessive leakage would
result in waterlogged areas, seeps, and ponds.
b. Drains should be installed to prevent ponding of excess irrigation water and natural
runoff along the upper side of canals and laterals. All drainage crossing or inlet
structures should be placed on grade to prevent ponding.
c. Borrow areas should be made self-draining to prevent the retention of ponded water.
d. Where possible, provision should be made to prevent idle turnouts and other
hydraulic structures from retaining residual water.
e. Effective measures should be provided to prevent ponding of leakage from water
control structures.
f. Every effort should be made to establish delivery schedules which will provide
farmers with adequate but not excessive amounts of water at proper intervals to
insure efficient irrigation of the crops concerned.
g. Where feasible pipe should be used rather than open channels.
h. Vegetation and debris which would retard normal flows should be periodically
removed from conveyance channels, water control structures, and drains.
2. Project Drainage Systems
a. Trunk drainage systems should be installed to insure complete removal and proper
disposal of excess irrigation water, natural runoff, and seepage from both irrigable
and nonirrigable lands affected by the distribution and use of irrigation water on
the project.
b. Drainage ditches should be designed, constructed, and maintained so as to minimize
ponding in the channels and to insure free flows at all times.
c. Provision should be made to prevent water from ponding behind spoil banks.
d. Underdrains, culverts, inlets, etc., should be placed on grade to prevent ponding.
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3. Irrigated Farms
a. The sponsoring agency and other organizations concerned with irrigation agriculture
or mosquito control should encourage irrigation farmers to use the following
irrigation and drainage practices which will prevent or minimize mosquito sources:
1) The farm supply system, drainage system, and field layouts should be properly
fitted to the topography, soil, water supply, crops to be grown, and irrigation
methods to be used.
2) All surface irrigated fields should be properly leveled or graded to provide for
efficient water application and removal of excess water without ponding.
3) An adequate drainage system should be provided for removal of excess
irrigation water from all portions of the farm.
4) Irrigation methods should be used which will provide optimum irrigation
efficiencies.
5) Application of irrigation water should be limited to the amount required to
fill the crop root zone plus water to cover unavoidable losses and excess water
needed to prevent upward movement of salts.
6) Where feasible sprinkler systems should be employed.
E. Ponds
1. The pond basins should be cleared of trees, brush, and other dense vegetation prior to
impoundage.
2. Ponds should be constructed with steep banks to discourage growth of vegetation. Banks
should not be made so steep as to impair stability.
3. All dense vegetation should be removed periodically from shallow water areas.
4. A minimum depth of 2 feet should be maintained.
F. Channel Improvements and Drainage
1. Borrow areas resulting from construction of the project should be made self-draining.
2. Material excavated from channels should be disposed of in such a way that it will not
cause ponding of water.
3. Adequate drains should be installed to prevent ponding of water on berms or behind spoil
banks, levees, and dikes.
36
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4. Drainage ditches should be designed, constructed, and maintained to concentrate low
flows and reduce silt deposition and subsequent ponding, thereby insuring free flows at
all times.
5. Underdrains, culverts, inlets, etc., should be placed on grade to prevent ponding.
6. Collection sumps should be constructed with steep side slopes, and any emergent
vegetation should be removed periodically.
7. Sections of natural channels that are cut off or bypassed by new channels should be filled
or provided with adequate drains.
8. Interior drainage facilities should be well maintained to avoid excessive ponding.
9. The use of biological control measures such as stocking with the mosquitofish or top
minnows, such as Gambusia affinis should be used where feasible.
G. Waterways, Terraces, Floodways, Diversion Channels, and Drainage Ditches
1. Waterways, terraces, floodways, diversion channels, and drainage ditches should be
designed, constructed, and maintained to prevent the retention of ponded water or the
creation of ponded areas which would be suitable for mosquito production.
2. Biological control measures should be used where feasible.
H. Supplemental Chemical Control Measures
1. In situations where adequate vector control is not obtained through prevention and source
reduction measures, provision should be made for supplemental use of insecticides and
rodenticides to achieve the desired level of control. The use of such chemicals should be
closely regulated to prevent the possibility of water pollution resulting from such activity.
Field Survey and Epidemiological Surveillance
In order to insure that good principles and practices are actually being implemented, that vectors
are being controlled, and that disease and nuisance are being prevented, arrangements should be
made for routine field surveys and for epidemiological surveillance. The routine field surveys should
include not only inspections for implementation of physical measures, but also inspections for the
presence of adult and larval mosquitoes and other vectors. Regular information on vector
populations or disease occurrence is essential in guiding control programs or instituting new
programs to cope with existing vector problems as well as unforeseen or emergency situations.
37
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References
1. "Mosquitoes of Public Health Importance and Their Control". USDHEW, Public Health
Service, Atlanta, Georgia. Revised 1969.
2. "Ticks of Public Health Importance and Their Control". USDHEW, Public Health Service,
Atlanta, Georgia.
3. "Mosquito Prevention on Irrigated Farms". - Agriculture Handbook No. 319 U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. February 1967.
38
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CHAPTER V - SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
The management of solid wastes is a growing national problem and must meet limitations related to
public health, environmental protection and economic resource recovery. Local and State agencies
responsible and interested in public health, environmental protection, solid waste management,
water pollution, and water resources development should be consulted regarding such limitations on
a case-by-case basis.
Proper solid waste management will improve the safety and quality of the environment:
1) By eliminating harborage and food supply for rats, flies, mosquitoes, and other disease
vectors or nuisances.
2) By controlling air pollution through the elimination of open burning or, in the case of
incineration, more efficient combustion. Odors, fly ash, and smoke are controlled through
proper combustion control design and operation.
3) By safeguarding against surface and ground water pollution associated with improperly
disposed solid waste.
4) By reducing accident and fire hazards through the elimination of open burning or
dumping of solid waste.
5) By making solid waste disposal mechanisms aesthetically acceptable.
Solid waste management and its potential effects should be considered in water resources
development projects, particularly where recreation and water quality are of importance. Harborage
and food supply for insect and animal disease vectors or nuisances, surface and ground water
pollution, accident and fire hazards and aesthetic insult often result from improper storage of solid
wastes.
Accumulation and Storage
Solid wastes should be collected at appropriate intervals to prevent fly and insect breeding and the
occurrence of odor problems. The collection frequency should be adjusted in accordance with rates
of accumulation and climatologic and geographic factors. Plans should provide not only for the
efficient collection of the solid waste, but also for its effective and economic disposal. U
Disposal
After accumulation and collection, treatment and disposal of the solid waste must be accomplished.
Acceptable disposal occurs when no significant deterioration of the environment results from
disposal operations. Modern practices for disposal are discussed as follows:
39
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SANITARY LANDFILL
Sanitary landfill is an engineered method in which solid wastes are disposed by spreading them in
thin layers, compacting them to the smallest practical volume and covering them with earth each
day in a manner that minimizes environmental pollution. 2J The term "sanitary landfill" is
sometimes mistakenly associated with open dumping. Dumps, however are a source of many
environmental insults.
Advantages:
1. Where land is available, a sanitary landfill is usually the most economical method of
solid waste disposal.
2. The initial investment is low compared with other disposal methods.
3. A sanitary landfill is a complete or final disposal method as compared to incineration
and composting which require additional treatment or disposal operations for residue,
quenching water, unusable materials, etc.
4. A sanitary landfill can be put into operation within a short period of time.
5. A sanitary landfill can receive all types of solid wastes, eliminating the necessity of
separate collections.
6. A sanitary landfill is flexible; increased quantities of solid wastes can be disposed of
with little additional personnel and equipment.
7. Submarginal land may be reclaimed for use as parking lots, playgrounds, golf courses,
airports, etc.
Disadvantages:
1. In highly populated areas, suitable land may not be available within economical
hauling distance.
2. Proper sanitary landfill standards must be adhered to daily or the operation may
result in an open dump.
3. Sanitary landfills located in residential areas can result in extreme public opposition.
4. A completed landfill will settle and require periodic maintenance.
5. Special design and construction must be utilized for buildings constructed on
completed landfill because of the settlement factor.
6. Methane, an explosive gas, and the other gases produced from the decomposition of
the wastes may become a hazard or nuisance problem and interfere with the use of the
completed landfill.
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INCINERATION
Properly designed incinerators can be used for the treatment of solid wastes. It should be noted that
the incinerator does not eliminate the need for a sanitary landfill; it simply reduces the volume of
the material requiring eventual disposal.
Advantages:
1. Reduces the amount of solid waste requiring final disposal.
2. Allows more efficient collection practices in some situations by reducing haul
distances when the incinerator has a central location near the sources of waste.
Disadvantages:
1. Capital costs and operating costs are higher than for the sanitary landfill.
2. Requires full time operators to assure acceptable operation.
Water Resource Aspects of Solid Waste Disposal
Recreation Areas:
Recreation areas and their supporting facilities may be expected to generate significant amounts of
solid waste and to present varying problems of solid waste management. Solid waste management
for recreation areas is discussed in Chapter III.
Reservoir Planning:
Before impoundment, a survey should be made to locate solid waste disposal sites that will be
inundated. This survey should be part of a general assessment of pollution sources, levels, and
potential. If it is determined that these sites could cause a significant pollution problem, the
objectionable material should be removed or the location of the reservoir altered to avoid the
solid waste site.
The filling of a reservoir represents a change in hydrologic conditions which will raise the nearby
groundwater table. If the higher groundwater table intrudes upon a solid waste disposal site,
pollution could result. Further investigation and corrective and/or protective measures should be
taken accordingly.
Water Quality:
Most solid waste is ultimately placed in contact with the ground, permitting possible contact with
both ground and surface water which could cause subsequent impairment of water quality. I/
Investigations into the subject of contamination of water by solid waste disposal have established
the fact that the physical, biological, and/or chemical quality of surface and ground water may be
affected by nearby solid waste disposal sites. 4/ Turbidity is normally a problem only in the
immediate vicinity of the disposal site. Taste and odor may be particularly affected by hydrogen
sulfide absorbed by water passing through or over anaerobically decomposing wastes. Although
color may be present it is normally removed by natural purification processes.
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Bacterial contamination within and close to a disposal site may be very high. For sandy or granular
aquifers, bacterial contamination does not normally persist at depths greater than seven feet below
a disposal site and seldom persists in ground water in the direction of flow for more than 50 yards.
5/ In limestone, lava rock, most sandstones, granite, and other crystalline rocks, however, water
travels through discrete openings such as tubes, parting planes between layers, or fissures produced
by earth movements. No filtering action occurs in moving through these openings and contamination
can travel long distances modified only by dilution.
The mineral and organic substances in solid wastes are present in quantities capable of causing gross
contamination of surface and ground water supplies. Soluble inorganics such as chlorides,
ammonium hydroxide, and ammonium salts are not rapidly removed by natural means.
Decomposition of organic matter produces carbon dioxide, water, methane, ammonia, and
hydrogen sulfide. The increase in hardness caused by carbon dioxide and the increase in nitrate
content resulting from the oxidation of ammonia are among the most significant effects on water
quality. The highly soluble carbon dioxide also forms a weak acid which can dissolve metals and
other substances to produce undesirable contaminants.
Mechanisms of Contamination:
The major processes by which contaminants are produced or introduced into ground or surface
water, other than direct dumping, are infiltration and percolation, solid waste decomposition
processes, gas production and movement, leaching and ground water travel, and direct runoff. 6/
Infiltration and percolation of rainfall, runoff, irrigation, and flood water can produce
contaminating leachates. Decomposition of waste constituents by chemical and bacterial action
depends upon time, composition, availability of oxygen, temperature, moisture, salinity, and
other factors; and makes many chemical products available as contaminants. Aerobic decomposition
produces a rise in temperature and the primary products, carbon dioxide and water. Anaerboic
decomposition produces ammonia and methane as the primary products accompanied by a rise in
temperature.
For leaching and ground water travel to occur three conditions must be satisfied: (1) the disposal
site must be over, adjacent to, or in an aquifer, (2) the fill or a portion of it must be saturated, and
(3) leached fluids must be produced which have access to an aquifer. The possibility of
contamination from a solid waste disposal site will depend upon factors including the composition
and quantity of waste involved, the site's physical environment, the operation of the site, and the
volume and original quality of the water.
Sanitary Landfill Site Selection and Operation
The possibility that a landfill will pollute ground and surface waters in the area of the fill must be
considered. Various substances may be present in solid wastes which are capable of causing
contamination of surface and ground water supplies.
A competent sanitary engineer should be consulted to evaluate the water pollution potential
associated with disposal sites and the protective measures that may be necessary. The services of a
soil scientist or a groundwater geologist may also be useful.
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To minimize the potential of surface and/or groundwater contamination.the following guidelines
should be adhered to:
1) Solid waste should never be buried in direct contact with groundwater or surface water
supply; burial areas should also be located so as to minimize any contamination of waters
which may serve as sources for municipal or drinking water supplies.
2) Surface water passing over or through a disposal site should be minimized by proper
drainage. Finished sites should be covered and graded to control the flow of runoff across the
fill area.
3) Water should not be intentionally added to a solid wastes disposal site, except to
extinguish fires.
4) Site selection should be based upon evaluation of the entire physical environment
surrounding proposed sites.
5) Recommended procedures for the operation and maintenance of a sanitary landfill, using
sound engineering practices and judgment, should be implemented. 2J
6) In the planning, and implementation of solid waste disposal, consultation should be
sought from local, State and Federal agencies responsible for and interested in environmental
protection, public health, solid waste management, water pollution and water resources
development in order to minimize the hazard of water contamination and to institute
corrective engineering measures where needed to minimize water contamination.
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References
1. "Solid Waste Management in Recreational Forest Areas," Spooner, Charles S., Pub. No.
SW-16t, DHEW, PHS, 1969.
2. "Sanitary Landfill Facts," Sorg, T. J., and Hickman, H. L. Jr., Pub. No. SW-4ts, DREW, PHS,
1970.
3. Cummins, Rodney L., "Effects of Land Disposal of Solid Wastes on Water Quality," DHEW,
PHS, Washington, D. C, 1968.
4. "Hydrogeology of Solid Waste Disposal Sites in Northeastern Illinois," Hughes, G. M. et al, An
Interim Project Report for the DHEW, PHS, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1969.
5. "Effects of Refuse Dumps on Ground Water Quality." The Resources Agency of California,
State Water Pollution Control Board. Publication No. 24. Sacramento, Calif., 1961.
6. Landfills and Groundwater, Public Works, 94:141-142, Jan. 1963.
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CHAPTER VI - RADIOLOGICAL HEALTH
This guideline is directed to a general discussion of radiological health aspects of water and
related land resources in the United States. The problem areas, sources, mechanisms of exposure,
and surveillance, should be considered for the watershed of any project including water supply,
irrigation, or recreation as project purposes. In each of the areas discussed, more detailed
information is readily available, in the indicated references.
Sources of Radioactive Contamination
The sources of radioactive water contamination are numerous and include hospitals, industrial
laboratories, nuclear reactors, and fuel fabrication and reprocessing plants. Hospitals and certain
industrial and research laboratories dispose of low levels of water-borne radionuclides, used in
basic research and in treatment of patients, by flushing to sanitary sewers. Radioactive wastes can
also occur at these facilities through leakage from continuous processing systems. Considering the
diversity of radiological medical and research applications, almost any radionuclide might occur in
the liquid wastes of these facilities. The use of isotopes in medicine and research, however, is not
normally great enough in any given area to present a hazard to individuals through contamination of
the environment.
The principal types of reactors currently operating in the United States are electric power reactors,
production reactors, and research reactors. Of these three types, power reactors will present the
greatest problems of radioactive liquid waste disposal in the future due to the increased use of
nuclear power for generation of electricity. The data shown in Table 1 indicates that nuclear power
will move from its position of supplying approximately 6% of the electrical energy requirements in
1970 to around 30% in 1980. Production of liquid radioactive wastes can be expected to increase
with this increase in nuclear power generation. However, due to the management of the radioactive
waste treatment system and development of new technology, the release of radioactive material to
the environment will not increase proportionally but will be maintained at the lowest practicable
level.
TABLE 1
PROJECTED ENERGY SOURCES FOR ELECTRIC POWER
SOURCE 1970 1975 1980
Nuclear
Water
Oil
Gas
Coal
TOTAL
MW(e)x 103
20
46
23
69
172
330
%of
Total
6
14
7
21
52
100
MW(e)x 103
69
65
13
89
194
430
%of
Total
16
15
3
21
45
100
MW(e)x 103
160
70
16
75
214
535
%of
Total
30
13
3
14
40
100
45
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The types of nuclear power plants presently being designed and operated in the United States are
pressurized water reactors (PWR) and boiling water reactors (BWR). Both types of facilities have
been designed to release relatively low levels of liquid wastes during normal operation.
Low level liquid wastes are usually released directly to the condenser cooling water discharge canal
where they are diluted (by a factor of 1Q4 to 106) I/ with the condenser cooling water to acceptable
environmental levels. Where liquid wastes generated by reactors utilizing cooling towers are released
to the blow down of the cooling towers, available dilution is much smaller than for facilities not
using cooling towers. Provisions are made for removing radioactive contaminants contained in high
and intermediate level liquid wastes by one or more of the methods given below:
1. Storage to allow decay of relatively short-lived isotopes.
2. Filtration to remove particulate activity.
3. Ion-exchange to remove dissolved activity.
4. Distillation to reduce volume of wastes to be stored.
These treatment methods are commonly applied throughout the reactor industry and may also be
applied at any facility where radioactive liquid wastes are generated and discharged.
Uranium milling can contribute to the natural uranium activity of streams used for disposal of
wastes from the milling process. The concentration of uranium in such streams should be carefully
monitored and controlled in areas where uranium mining is prevalent.
With the projected increase in reactor use, reactor fuel reprocessing plants will become more
important as potentially hazardous sources of contamination. Such plants have a greater potential
for contaminated waste production than reactors, but will probably number less than 10 in the
United States by 1980.
Mechanisms of Human Exposure
Once water becomes contaminated with radioactive pollutants, the following pathways for
population exposure should be considered:
1. Human consumption of contaminated drinking water.
2. Use of contaminated water in recreational sports.
3. Concentration of pollutants in edible aquatic biota, especially fish and shellfish.
4. Irrigation and subsequent concentration of radionuclides by food crops.
5. Contamination of various foods by use of contaminated water for processing.
6. Settling of radioactivity and resuspension during periods of flooding. Radioactivity can
also be absorbed by particulate deposits and then desorbed upon changes in thermal, chemical,
or biological character of the stream.
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The most likely occurrence of hazardous exposure would be through drinking of contaminated
water and from consumption of contaminated food. Water resource development projects will be
most concerned when water supply, irrigation, and/or recreation are included as project purposes.
After an unintended release of radioactive materials into a waterway, two principal factors must be
considered in controlling exposure from drinking water:
1. Minimum travel time from point of release to water intake determines time available after
a release of pollutants during which authorities may discontinue intake of raw water in order to
avoid use of the polluted waters or to prepare treatment processes to remove the pollutants.
2. Water plant storage capacity and population usage rate-determines length of time water
intake may be stopped by authorities without discontinuing water service.
3. Water plant contamination removal efficiency-determines amount of contamination
which can be removed by treatment. This efficiency may vary for different pollutants.
4. Decay time during treatment and storage-accounts for radioactive decay during water
treatment and storage before use.
5. Dilution, both in-stream and in the treatment plant-determines the concentration which
may reach the individual customer.
In protecting the population from consumption of radiologically contaminated food, the efficiency
of food processing in removal of the contaminant and the decay time between contamination and
possible human consumption are important factors. Where food becomes grossly contaminated,
removal of the affected foods from the food supply is an obvious and effective method for
population exposure control.
Radioactive water contamination can also affect the industrial use of water at a particular location.
Any industry which manufactures a product which is affected by radiation such as film
manufacturers will be concerned about the concentration of radioactivity in their process water.
Radioactive contamination of land usually occurs via deposition of airborne contaminants or
through use of contaminated water for crop irrigation. The pathways for exposures of humans to
radioactive contaminants emitted by a source including exposure through the human food chain
are shown in Figure 2. 2J
The hazard presented in any case is highly dependent on the contaminating radionuclide. Land
contamination can create a more serious long-term exposure problem than water contamination
because very little dispersion or movement occurs following deposition and fixation in the soil.
The various pathways for population exposure discussed above demonstrate the importance of
zoning in areas where facilities discharging radioactive contaminants are located. During the initial
evaluation of the site for a facility emitting radioactive substances a certain area of restricted land
development is established around the facility. In many cases, it would be possible for population
or industrial growth in the area to progress to the point where the criteria established by the
original site evaluation will no longer be acceptable due to the larger populations which would be
exposed to radiation accidents. Certain zoning restrictions may therefore be required to prevent
unacceptable population, commercial, or indistrial growth in close proximity to the facility.
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Figure 2
Pathways for Human Exposure
to Radioactive Substances
Population
T
Farm Products
Meat Products
Surveillance and Control of Radioactive Contamination
The surveillance and control program proposed for a facility releasing radioactive liquid wastes to
surrounding waters depends upon the facility type and the levels of activity discharged relative to
permissible levels. There are two published guides currently used for specifying permissible
activity levels in water. The first is the "Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards - 1962". II
The "Radioactivity" section of the drinking water standards discusses, in general, surveillance of
drinking water sources and levels of radium-226 and strontium-90 at which various surveillance and
control actions are necessary. The second guide is Title 10, Part 20 of the Code of Federal
Regulations !/ entitled "Standards for Protection Against Radiation." This guide sets forth
"maximum permissible concentrations" (MPC) in air and water for most radioactive isotopes which
would be discharged to the air and water environment from nuclear installations.
The prime objectives
wastes are:
of environmental surveillance programs for facilities releasing radioactive
1. to verify the adequacy of source control
2. to provide data to estimate population exposure, and
3. to provide a source of data for public information.
This program should include emergency planning designed for the purpose of detecting individual
releases in time to take protective action. If environmental monitoring is conducted for the purpose
of initiating protective action, daily or continuous sampling with rapid analysis and alarm is
necessary, a requirement most routine environmental monitoring programs cannot meet. Protective
actions can appreciably reduce the dose received if initiated quickly. The signal for these actions
should come immediately from the facility in question, not several days or weeks later from
environmental sampling. For this reason it is essential that adequate source monitoring and control
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be in effect to immediately detect significant non-routine releases of radioactivity, and that agencies
responsible for public health be promptly notified so they can initiate necessary sampling programs
and protective actions if needed. A special preplanned emergency surveillance system is required to
adequately assess the public-health hazard in the event of a major accidental release of radioactivity
to the off-site area.
The surveillance guidance discussed in the remainder of the section pertains to the operation of
nuclear installations under conditions of normal discharging radioactive liquid wastes. The
complexity of a surveillance plan at a particular installation will depend on the types and levels of
radioactive releases.
A rountine program to meet the environmental surveillance objective given above has been described
in detail for a nuclear reactor plant in several references. 5/ 6j Tj These references include lists of
recommended sample types, frequencies, and radionuclides of principal interest. A typical program
for the water environment is outlined in Table 2.
TABLE 2
TYPICAL WATER AND LAND SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM
FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANT (8)
Indices
Surface Water
Receiving Waters
of the facility
Bottom sediments
Ground Water
Aquatic biota
Recommended Surveillance Program
Relative Frequency
Continuous composite
or weekly grab
Semi-annually
As applicable
(usually quarterly
or annually)
Variable
Analysis
Gross beta and
gamma scans.
Periodic beta
scintillation
analysis for 3H
with frequency a
function of the
levels measured
Gross beta and
gamma scans
Gross beta and
gamma scans
Gamma spectrum
analysis for
selected radio-
nuclides
Sampling Locations
Stream-above and
below the facility;
Reservoir, bay, lake-
nearest shoreline;
any nearby domestic
water suppliers using
the receiving waters
as a raw water source
Near reactor's outfall
or above and below
the outfall if the
receiving water is a
stream
Supplies within 5
miles of the facility
Near the reactor's
outfall or above and
below if receiving
water is a stream
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TABLE 2 CONT.
Food crops and
other vegetation
Soil
Season (before or
at harvesting time)
Annually
Gamma spectrum
analysis
90sVand 137Cs
or gross beta
Within a 10-15 miles
radius of the facility
Prevailing downwind
direction in nearest
agricultural areas
The federal government conducts a comprehensive nationwide environmental surveillance program
in the form of its national surveillance networks.9/ Information from these networks is used to
estimate public exposure and doses relatable to environmental radioactivity. The surveillance
system is designed to be responsive to changes in radioactivity levels in the environment. The
current surveillance activities include the collection and analysis of airborne particulates, water,
milk, total diets, human bones and organs, and special samples relating to human body burdens.
Many States operate similar statewide networks that are coordinated with the Federal network
system. In addition, environmental surveillance programs are conducted in the vicinity of operating
nuclear facilities by the operator and health agencies. With such a system of National, State, and
facility surveillance programs in operation, the long-term trends of environmental radioactivity
resulting from the nuclear industry can be well documented. In addition, special surveillance
systems have been established which can be activated in the event of a facility accident and
which will indicate whether levels of radioactive contaminants exceed Federal Radiation Council
guidelines for protective action to control population exposure. LQ/ !_!/
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References
1. Blomeke, J. O. and Harington, F. E., "Management of Radioactive Wastes at Nuclear Power
Stations," ORNL 4070, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Jan. 1, 1968.
2. Terrill, J. G., Jr., et al, "Public Health Factors in Reactor Site Selection," Presented at the
ASCE National Meeting on Environmental Engineering, Chattanooga, Tenn., May 13-17, 1968.
3. "Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards-1962," PHS Publication No. 956, US DHEW,
PHS, 1962.
4. "Standards for Protection Against Radiation," Part 20 of Title 10 of Code of Federal
Regulations, Aug. 9, 1966.
5. Harward, E. D., "Environmental Surveillance of Nuclear Power Plants: The Public Health
Viewpoint," Presented at the Southeastern Electric Exchange, Atlanta, Ga., Oct. 22, 1968.
6. Weaver, C. L., and Harward, E. D., "Surveillance of Nuclear Power Reactors," Public
Health Reports, Vol. 82, No. 10, Oct. 1967.
7. Terrill, J. G., Jr., et al, "Environmental Surveillance of Nuclear Facilities," Nuclear Safety,
Vol. 9, No. 2. March-April 1968.
8. "Guide for Environmental Surveillance Around Nuclear Facilities," NF-67-8, US DHEW, PHS,
Rockville, Md., Dec. 1967.
9. Data Sections I and IV of Radiological Health Data and Reports, Vol. 9., No. 1., Jan. 1968.
10. "Background Material for the Development of Radiation Protection Standards," Staff Report
of the Federal Radiation Council. Report No. 5. July 1964.
11. Background Material for the Development of Radiation Protection Standards. Staff Report of
the Federal Radiation Council. Report No. 7. May 1965.
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CHAPTER VII - AIR POLLUTION
Air pollutants play a vital and interrelated role with other environmental contaminants in
effective water resources and land use management. It is, therefore, quite important in the planning
and management of a basin's water and land resources that air pollution factors receive careful
consideration.
The popular conception of a few years ago that air pollution and its effects were restricted or
peculiar only to the heavy industrialized urban areas of the country has been thoroughly exploded
and today it is well recognized that air pollution is of vital concern in suburban and rural areas as
well. Air pollution is also not restricted to human effects but manifests itself in esthetic and social
effects as well as effects on property, materials and vegetation. Thus it is obviously clear that an
effective grasp on control of air pollution must consider all the above interrelationships.
The control of air pollution must not only be meshed with the control of other environmental
pollutants but be attached on the basis of existing and future regional and urban growth patterns.
The purpose of this chapter of the Health Guidelines is to examine the various aspects of air
pollution which should be considered along with other environmental factors in overall water and
land resource management and planning.
National Air Pollution Control Management
The leadership of the Federal government in air pollution control management is strongly
established by the Clean Air Act. 1 Actual control and prevention of air pollution at its source,
however, is the responsibility of State and local governments. The Federal government provides the
research, financial assistance, and leadership necessary for the development of effective State,
regional, or local programs to prevent and control air pollution.
Federal authorities establish Air Quality Criteria, 2,3 define Control Techniques, 4,5 and designate
Air Quality Control Regions. State authorities establish air quality standards (based upon Federal
Air Quality Criteria) and establish implementation plans which call for the use of control
techniques and which are designed to meet the standards within a specified time frame.
Air Quality Control Regions and River Basin Planning
Air Quality Control Regions (AQCR's) may or may not be contiguous with river basins and will
overlap in some instances. These AQCR's are designated on the basis of meteorological, social,
and political factors which indicate that a group of communities should be treated as a unit for
setting limitations on concentrations of atmospheric pollutants. In general these AQCR's are
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centered on standard metropolitan statistical areas. Full development of the AQCR concept will
allow for the eventual establishment of over 200 regions in the U.S. Federal policy requires that air
quality standards be established by State authorities for the AQCR's based upon the Air Quality
Criteria and an implementation plan to achieve and maintain the standards within a reasonable time
frame must be developed. In River Basin Planning these AQCR's should be considered and the
applicable air quality control regulations evaluated for relationships to river basin planning..
Type and Sources of Air Pollutants
There are a wide variety of air pollutants which are present in the nation's atmosphere today. 6, 7, 8
The five most common pollutants in tons emitted per year are carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides,
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulates. The major sources of these are motor vehicles,
industrial plants, electric utility plants, space heating, and refuse disposal.
Air pollutants are emitted in a wide variety of quantities depending upon the source and operating
conditions. As an example Table 2 shows that, except for nitrogen and sulfur oxides, considerably
more pollutant quantities are emitted from back yard burning and burning dumps than from
multiple chamber incinerators. Of course, virtually no air pollution results from properly
constructed and maintained sanitary land fills.
Table 1
Relative Amounts* of Air Pollutants from Solid Waste Burning 9
Pollutant
Aldehydes
Benzo (a) pyrene (BaP)
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen Oxides
Sulfur Oxides
Ammonia
Organic Acids
Particulates
Multiple-Chamber
Incinerator
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Back Yard
Burning
3
60
200
0.25
0.4
5
2.5
17
Burning
Dump
4
40
280
30
0.5
8
2.5
5
* Relative amounts of pollutants were computed using the emission from multiple-chamber incinerators
as 1 for each pollutant.
Federal air pollution control experts have developed the following breakdown of air pollution
sources: 10
1. Fuel Combustion (Stationary Sources)
a. Residential - includes space heating, water heating, and cooking fuels
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b. Commercial-Institutional-Governmental-includes mainly space heating fuel
c. Industrial - includes space heating, process heating and steam and electric production fuels
d. Steam-Electric Power Plants - includes steam and electric production fuels
2. Industrial Process Losses - includes losses from all manufacturing processes
3. Solid Waste Disposal
a. Incineration
b. Open Burning
4. Transportation (Mobile Sources)
a. Motor Vehicles
b. Aircraft
c. Railroads
d. Ships
Effects of Air Pollutants
The effects of air pollutants upon the environment 11 in which we live are becoming more evident
and more people are expressing the need for eliminating these adverse effects. Some effects of
particulates and sulfur dioxide which have been established can be summarized as follows:
Particulates
1. Effects on Health
Analyses of numerous epidemiological studies clearly indicate an association between high levels of
air pollution, as measured by particulate matter together with sulfur dioxide, and the occurrence
of health effects. This association is most firm for the short-term air pollution episodes.
Conclusions which have been reached by various studies are:
a. At concentrations of 750 ug/m3 and higher for particulates on a 24-hour average, accompanied
by sulfur dioxide concentrations of 715 ug/m 3 and higher, excess deaths and a considerable
increase in illness may occur.
b. If concentrations above 300 ug/m3 for particulates persist on a 24-hour average are
accompanied by sulfur dioxide concentrations exceeding 630 ug/m3 over the same average period,
chronic bronchitis patients will likely suffer acute worsening of symptoms.
c. At concentrations over 200 ug/m3 for particulates on a 24-hour average, accompanied by
concentrations of sulfur dioxide exceeding 250 ug/m3 over the same average period, increased
absence of industrial workers due to illness may occur.
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d. Where concentrations range from 100 ug/m3 to 130 ug/m3 and above for particulates
(annual mean) with sulfur dioxide concentrations (annual mean) greater than 120 ug/m3, children
residing in such areas are likely to experience increased incidence of certain respiratory diseases.
e. At concentrations above 100 ug/m3 for particulates (annual geometric mean) with sulfation
levels above 30 mg/cm2-mo., increased death rates for persons over 50 years of age are likely.
2. Effects on Direct Sunlight
At concentrations ranging from 100 ug/m3 to 150 ug/m3 for particulates, where large smoke
turbidity factors persist, in middle and high latitudes direct sunlight is reduced up to one-third in
summer and two-thirds in winter.
3. Effects on Visibility
At concentrations of about 150 ug/m3 for particulates, where the predominant particle size ranges
from 0.2 u to 1.0 u and relative humidity is less than 70 percent, visibility is reduced to as low as
5 miles.
4. Effects on Materials
At concentrations ranging from 60 ug/m3 (annual geometric mean), to 180 ug/m3 for particulates
(annual geometric mean), in the presence of sulfur dioxide and moisture, corrosion of steel and zinc
panels occurs at an accelerated rate.
5. Effects on Public Concern
At concentrations of approximately 70 ug/m3 for particulates (annual geometric mean), in the
presence of other pollutants, public awareness and/or concern for air pollution may become evident
and increase proportionately up to and above concentrations of 200 ug/m3 for particulates.
Sulfur Dioxide
1. Effects on Health
Analyses of numerous epidemiological studies clearly indicate an association between high levels of
air pollution, as measured by sulfur dioxide, accompanied by particulate matter, and the occurrence
of health effects. This association is most firm for the short-term air pollution episodes. Conclusions
which have been reached by various studies are:
a. At concentrations of about 1500 ug/m3 (0.52 ppm) of sulfur dioxide (24-hour average), and
suspended particulate matter measured as a soiling index of 6 Cohs or greater, increased mortality
may occur.
b. At concentrations of about 500 ug/m3 (0.19 ppm) of sulfur dioxide (24-Jiour mean), with low
particulate levels, increased mortality rates may occur.
c. At concentrations ranging from 300 ug/m3 to 500 ug/m3 (0.11 ppm to 0.19 ppm) of sulfur
dioxide (24-hour mean), with low particulate levels, increased hospital admissions of older persons
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for respiratory disease may occur; absenteeism from work, particularly with older persons, may also
occur.
d. At concentrations of about 120 ug/m3 (0.046 ppm) of sulfur dioxide (annual mean),
accompanied by smoke concentrations of about 100 ug/m3, increased frequency and severity of
respiratory diseases in school children may occur.
2. Effects on Visibility
At a concentration of 285 ug/m3 (0.10 ppm) of sulfur dioxide, with comparable concentration
of particulate matter and relative humidity of 50 percent, visibility may be reduced to about five
miles.
3. Effects on Materials J
At a mean sulfur dioxide level of 345 ug/m3 (0.12 ppm), accompanied by high particulate levels,
the corrosion rate for steel panels may be increased by 50 percent.
4. Effects on Vegetation
a. At a concentration of about 85 ug/m3 (0.03 ppm) of sulfur dioxide (annual mean), chronic
plant injury and excessive leaf drop may occur.
b. At concentrations of about 145 ug/m3 to 715 ug/m3 (0.05 ppm to 0.25 ppm), sulfur dioxide
may react synergistically with either ozone or nitrogen dioxide in short-term exposures (e. g., 4
hours) to produce moderate to severe injury to sensitive plants.
Effect of Air Pollution Control on Other Environmental Aspects
In consideration of the air pollution aspects of regional environmental matters, careful attention
must be given to the effects of air pollution control upon other environmental areas. Control
techniques which reduce the amount of air pollutants discharged to the atmosphere usually result
in an increase of materials which must be disposed of by other means. For example, wet
collectors used for air cleaning devices result in water pollutants which may be discharged from
facilities. Gartrell9 has given an excellent review of the water pollution potential of air pollution
control devices. In this review he states that an impact on stream pollution has been experienced
in almost every type of industrial situation where extensive air pollution control or abatement has
been attempted. He cites air pollutants such as fluorine compounds from fertilizer, aluminum, steel,
and uranium processing plants; sulfur compounds from smelters, power plants, coke plants, and
refineries; particulates from power plants, blast furnaces, ferro-alloy, calcium carbide, and other
types of plants; and radioactive wastes from atomic energy installations.
In view of the significant effects which air pollution control can have on water pollution, solid
waste and other environmental factors and the significant effects which water resource development
can have on industrial development and other factors which may increase air pollution problems, it
is imperative that air pollution aspects be considered in river basin planning and development.
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References
1. The Clean Air Act, Public Law 88-206 as amended, 420SC 1857 et seg.
2. "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter," USDHEW, PHS, NAPCA Publication No. AP-49,
Jan. 1969.
3. "Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides," USDHEW, PHS, NAPCA Publication No. AP-50, Jan.
1969.
4. "Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants," USDHEW, PHS, NAPCA Publication No.
AP-51, Jan. 1969.
5. "Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants," USDHEW, PHS, NAPCA Publication
No. AP-52, Jan. 1969.
6. "Air Pollution Primer/'National Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association, New York,
N.Y., 1969.
7. "Cleaning Our Environment: The Chemical Basis for Action," American Chemical Society,
Sept. 1969.
8. Air Pollution, A.C. Stern Editor: Volume 111, Sources of Air Pollution and Their Control,
Academic Press, New York, N.Y. 1968.
9. "Abatement of Air Pollution Through Control of Solid Waste Disposal," C. Kurker, Paper
68-159, 61st Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, June 23-27, 1968, St. Paul, Minn.
10. "Emission Inventory," P. J. Bierbaum, prepared for Workshop on Regional Implementation
Plans, USDHEW, PHS, NAPCA, Unpublished, Dec. 1969.
11. Air Pollution, A. C. Stern, Editor: Volume 1, Air Pollution and Its Effects , Academic Press,
New York, N. Y., 1968.
frU.S.Government Printing Office: 1972-759-302/2117
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