United States
Agency
ESJ-W-,;
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-------
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
THE ADMINISTRATOR
Message from the Administrator
Over the past 25 years, our nation has made tremendous progress in protecting public health and
our environment while promoting economic prosperity. Businesses as large as iron and steel
plants and businesses as small as the dry cleaner on the corner have worked with EPA to find
ways to operate cleaner, cheaper, and smarter. As a result, we no longer have rivers catching on
fire. Our skies are clearer. American environmental technology and expertise are in demand
throughout the world.
The Clinton Administration recognizes that to continue this progress, we must move beyond the
pollutant-by-pollutant approaches of the past to comprehensive, facility-wide approaches for the
future. Industry by industry and community by community, we must build a new generation of
environmental protection.
Within the past two years, the Environmental Protection Agency undertook its Sector Notebook
Project to compile, for a number of key industries, information about environmental problems and
solutions, case studies and tips about complying with regulations. We called on industry leaders,
state regulators, and EPA staff with many years of experience in these industries and with their
unique environmental issues. Together with notebooks for 17 other industries, the notebook you
hold in your hand is the result.
These notebooks will help business managers to better understand their regulatory requirements,
learn more about how others in their industry have undertaken regulatory compliance and the
innovative methods some have found to prevent pollution in the first instance. These notebooks
will give useful information to state regulatory agencies moving toward industry-based programs.
Across EPA we will use this manual to better integrate our programs and improve our compliance
assistance efforts.
I encourage you to use this notebook to evaluate and improve the way that together we achieve
our important environmental protection goals. I am confident that these notebooks will help us to
move forward in ensuring that in industry after industry, community after community
environmental protection and economic prosperity go hand in hand.
Carol M. Brownor
Recycled/Recyclable Printed with Vegetable Based Inks on Recycled Paper (20% Postconsumer)
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Frofect
EPA/310-R-95-010
EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project
Profile of the Nonferrous Metals Industry
September 1995
Office of Compliance
Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M St., SW (MC 2221-A)
Washington, DC 20460
For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office
Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
ISBN 0-16-048277-1
SIC Codes 333-334
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
This report is one in a series of volumes published by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to provide information of general interest regarding
environmental issues associated with specific industrial sectors. The documents
were developed under contract by Abt Associates (Cambridge, MA), and Booz-Allen
& Hamilton, Inc. (McLean, VA). This publication may be purchased from the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. A listing of
available Sector Notebooks and document -numbers is included at the end of this
document.
All telephone orders should be directed to:
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC 20402
(202) 512-1800
FAX (202) 512-2250
8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., EST, M-F
Using the form provided at the end of this document, all mail orders should be
directed to:
U.S. Government Printing Office
P.O. Box 371954
Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954
Complimentary volumes are available to certain groups or subscribers, such as
public and academic libraries, Federal, State, local, and foreign governments, and the
media. For further information, and for answers to questions pertaining to these
documents, please refer to the contact names and numbers provided within this
volume.
Electronic versions of all Sector Notebooks are available on the EPA Enviro$en$e
Bulletin Board and via Internet on the Enviro$en$e World Wide Web.
Downloading procedures are described in Appendix A of this document.
Cover photograph courtesy of Reynolds Aluminum Recycling Company,
Richmond, Virginia. Special thanks to Terry Olbrysh for providing photographs.
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
Contacts for Available Sector Notebooks
The Sector Notebooks were developed by the EPA Office of Compliance. Particular
questions regarding the Sector Notebook Project in general can be directed to the
EPA Work Assignment Managers:
Michael Barrette
U.S. EPA Office of Compliance
401 M St., SW (2223-A)
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 564-7019
Gregory Waldrip
U.S. EPA Office of Compliance
401 M St., SW (2223-A)
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 564-7024
Questions and comments regarding the individual documents can be directed to the
appropriate specialists listed below.
Document Number
Industry
Contact
Phone (202)
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
R-95-001.
R-95-002.
R-95-003.
R-95-004.
R-95-005.
R-95-006.
R-95-007.
R-95-008.
R-95-009.
R-95-010.
R-95-011.
R-95-012.
R-95-013.
R-95-014.
R-95-015.
R-95-016.
-R-95-017.
EPA/310-R-95-018.
Dry Cleaning Industry
Electronics and Computer Industry
Wood Furniture and Fixtures Industry
Inorganic Chemical Industry
Iron and Steel Industry
Lumber and Wood Products Industry
Fabricated Metal Products Industry
Metal Mining Industry
Motor Vehicle Assembly Industry
Nonferrous Metals Industry
Non-Fuel, Non-Metal Mining Industry
Organic Chemical Industry
Petroleum Refining Industry
Printing Industry
Pulp and Paper Industry
Rubber and Plastic Industry
Stone, Clay, Glass and
Concrete Industry
Transportation Equipment
Cleaning Industry
Joyce Chandler
Steve Hoover
Bob Marshall
Walter DeRieux
Maria Malave
Seth Heminway
Greg Waldrip
Keith Brown
Suzanne Childress
Jane Engert
Keith Brown
Walter DeRieux
Tom Ripp
Ginger Gotliffe
Maria Eisemartn
Maria Malave
Scott Throwe
564-7073
564-7007
564-7021
564-7067
564-7027
564-7017
564-7024
564-7124
564-7018
564-5021
564-7124
564-7067
564-7003
564-7072
564-7016
564-7027
564-7013
Virginia Lathrop 564-7057
A Federal Facilities Profile is under development and will be completed later in 1995.
(Contact: Sarah Walsh, 202-260-6118)
September 1995
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SIC Codes 333-334
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Sector Notebook Project
NONFERROUS METAL INDUSTRIES
(SIC 333-334)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. INTRODUCTION To THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT 1
LA. Summary of the Sector Notebook Project 1
LB. Additional Information 2
H. INTRODUCTION TO THE NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRY 4
n.A. Introduction and Background of the Notebook 4
n.B. Organization of the Nonferrous Metals Notebook 5
ffl. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ALUMINUM PROCESSING INDUSTRY 7
ffl.A. Characterization of Industry - Aluminum 7
ffl.A.l. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution -
Aluminum*. 7
ffl.A.2. Product Characterization - Aluminum 8
ffl.A.3. Economic Trends - Aluminum 8
ffl.B. Industrial Process Description - Aluminum 9
ffl.B.l. Industrial Processes in the Primary and
Secondary Aluminum Industry 9
ffl.B.2. Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs 15
IV. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COPPER PROCESSING INDUSTRY 19
IV.A. Characterization of the Industry - Copper 19
rV.A.l. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution -
Copper 19
IV.A.2. Product Characterization - Copper 20
IV.A.3. Economic Trends - Copper 21
IV.B. Industrial Process Description - Copper 21
ffl.B.l. Industrial Processes in the Primary and
Secondary Copper Industry 21
ffl.B.2. Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs 27
SIC Codes 333-334
IV
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VI.
NONFERROUS METAL INDUSTRIES
(SIC 333-334)
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT'D)
Page
V. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY LEAD PROCESSING INDUSTRY 30
V.A. Characterization of the Industry - Lead.
.30
V.A.I. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution -
Lead
.30
V.A.2. Product Characterization - Lead 31
V.A.3. Economic Trends - Lead 31
V.B. Industrial Process Description - Lead 32
V.B.I. Industrial Processes in the Primary and
Secondary Lead Processing Industry 32
V.B.2. Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs 37
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ZINC PROCESSING 40
VI.A. Characterization of the Industry - Zinc 40
VI.Al. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution 40
VI.A.2. Product Characterization - Zinc 41
VI.A.3. Economic Trends - Zinc 41
VLB. Industrial Process Description - Zinc 50
VII. MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICALS IN WASTESTREAM 51
VIII. CHEMICAL RELEASE AND TRANSFER PROFILE 53
VTILA. EPA Toxics Release Inventory for the Nonferrous
Metals Industry 56
Vin.B. Summary of the Selected Pollutants Released 65
VTH.C. Other Data Sources 69
Vm.D. Comparison of Toxic Release Inventory Data 70
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IX.
X.
XI.
xn.
NONFERROUS METAL INDUSTRIES
(SIC 333-334)
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT'D)
Page
POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES 73
LX.A. Identification of Pollution Prevention Activities in Use 73
LX.B. Important Pollution Prevention Case Studies 75
SUMMARY OF APPLICABLE FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATION 77
X.A. General Description of Major Statutes 77
X.B. Industry-Specific Requirements 88
X.C. Pending and Proposed Regulatory Requirements 95
COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT PROFILE 98
XI.A. Nonferrous Metals Industry Compliance History 102
XI.B. Comparison of Enforcement Activity Between Selected
Industries 104
XI.C. Review of Major Enforcement Actions 109
XLC.1. Review of Major Cases 109
XI.C.2. Supplemental Environmental Projects 110
COMPLIANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES 113
XII.A. Sector Related Environmental Programs and Activities 113
Xn.B. EPA Voluntary Programs 113
XII.C. Trade Association/Industry Sponsored Activity 120
XDI RESOURCE MATERIALS/BIBLIOGRAPHY 123
SIC Codes 333-334
VI
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRY
(SIC 333-334)
EXHIBITS INDEX
Page
Exhibit 1 Bayer Process (Alumina Refining) 11
Exhibit 2 Aluminum Anodes 13
Exhibit 3 Process Materials Inputs/Pollution Outputs - Aluminum 16
Exhibit 4 Primary Copper Production Process 23
Exhibit 5 Cutaway View of a Fierce-Smith Converter for Producing
Blister Copper from Matte 24
Exhibit 6 Process Materials Inputs/Pollution Outputs - Copper 28
Exhibit 7 Primary Lead Production Process 34
Exhibit 8 Process Materials Inputs/Pollution Outputs - Lead 37
Exhibit 9 Secondary Zinc Production Process 46
Exhibit 10 Process Materials Inputs/Pollutant Outputs - Zinc 49
Exhibit 11 Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for SIC 333-334 52
Exhibit 12 Top 10 TRI Releasing Primary Smelting and Refining
Facilities (SIC 333) 57
Exhibit 13 Top 10 TRI Releasing Primary Metal Industries
Facilities 57
Exhibit 14 TRI Reporting Primary Smelting and Refining Facilities
(SIC 333) by State 58
Exhibit 15 Releases for Primary Smelting and Refining Facilities (SIC 333)
in TRI, by Number of Facilities 59
Exhibit 16 Transfers for Primary Smelting and Refining Facilities (SIC 333)
in TRI, by Number of Facilities 60
September 1995
VII
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Sector Notebook Project
NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRY
(SIC 333-334)
EXHIBITS INDEX (CONT'D)
Page
Exhibit 17 Top 10 TRI Releasing Primary Smelting and Refining
Facilities (SIC 334) 61
Exhibit 18 TRI Reporting Primary Smelting and Refining Facilities
(SIC 334) by State 62
Exhibit 19 Releases for Primary Smelting and Refining Facilities (SIC 334)
in TRI, by Number of Facilities 63
Exhibit 20 Transfers for Primary Smelting and Refining Facilities
(SIC 334) in TRI, by Number of Facilities 64
Exhibit 21 Pollutant Releases (Short Tons/Year) 69
Exhibit 22 Summary of 1993 TRI Data: Releases and Transfers
by Industry 71
Exhibit 23 TRI Data for Selected Industries 72
Exhibit 24 Hazardous Wastes Relevant to the Nonferrous Metal
Industry 94,95
Exhibit 25 Five Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for
the Nonferrous Metals Industry 103
Exhibit 26 Five Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary
for Selected Industries » 105
Exhibit 27 One Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary
for Selected Industries 106
Exhibit 28 Five Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by
Statute for Selected Industries .107
Exhibit 29 One Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by
Statute for Selected Industries 108
Exhibit 30 Supplemental Environmental Projects 111,112
Exhibit 31 Nonferrous Metals Producers Participating in
the 33/50 Program 115,116,117
SIC Codes 333-334
Vlll
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRY
(SIC 333-334)
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AFS - AIRS Facility Subsystem (CAA database)
AIRS - Aerometric Information Retrieval System (CAA database)
BIFs - Boilers and Industrial Furnaces (RCRA)
BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CAA - Clean Air Act
CAAA - Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
CERCLA- Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act
CERCLIS - CERCLA Information System
CFCs - Chlorofluorocarbons
CO - Carbon Monoxide
COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand
CSI- Common Sense Initiative
CWA - Clean Water Act
D&B - Dun and Bradstreet Marketing Index
ELP- Environmental Leadership Program
EPA - United States Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA - Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
FIFRA - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FINDS - Facility Indexing System
HAPs - Hazardous Air Pollutants (CAA)
HSDB - Hazardous Substances Data Bank
IDEA - Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis
LDR - Land Disposal Restrictions (RCRA)
LEPCs - Local Emergency Planning Committees
MACT - Maximum Achievable Control Technology (CAA)
MCLGs- Maximum Contaminant Level Goals
MCLs- Maximum Contaminant Levels
MEK - Methyl Ethyl Ketone
MSDSs - Material Safety Data Sheets
NAAQS - National Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAA)
NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement
NCDB - National Compliance Database (for TSCA, FIFRA, EPCRA)
NCP - National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
NEIC - National Enforcement Investigation Center
NESHAP - National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NO2 " Nitrogen Dioxide
NOV - Notice of Violation
NOx - Nitrogen Oxide
NPDES - National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (CWA)
September 1995
IX
SIC Codes 333-334
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRY
(SIC 333-334)
LIST OF ACRONYMS (CONT'D)
NPL - National Priorities List
NRC - National Response Center
NSPS - New Source Performance Standards (CAA)
OAR - Office of Air and Radiation
OECA - Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
OPA - Oil Pollution Act
OPPTS - Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OSW - Office of Solid Waste
OSWER - Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OW - Office of Water
P2- Pollution Prevention
PCS - Permit Compliance System (CWA Database)
POTW - Publicly Owned Treatments Works
RCRA - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RCRIS - RCRA Information System
SARA - Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SDWA - Safe Drinking Water Act
SPL - Spent Potliner
SEPs- Supplementary Environmental Projects
SERCs - State Emergency Response Commissions
SIC - Standard Industrial Classification
SO2- Sulfur Dioxide
TOC - Total Organic Carbon
TRI - Toxic Release Inventory
TRIS - Toxic Release Inventory System
TCRIS - Toxic Chemical Release Inventory System
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act
TSS - Total Suspended Solids
UIC - Underground Injection Control (SDWA)
UST - Underground Storage Tanks (RCRA)
VOCs - Volatile Organic Compounds
SIC Codes 333-334
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRY
(SIC 333-334)
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT
I.A. Summary of the Sector Notebook Project
Environmental policies based upon comprehensive analysis of air,
water, and land pollution are an inevitable and logical supplement to
traditional single-media approaches to environmental protection.
Environmental regulatory agencies are beginning to embrace
comprehensive, multi-statute solutions to facility permitting,
enforcement and compliance assurance, education/outreach, research,
and regulatory development issues. The central concepts driving the
new policy direction are that pollutant releases to each environmental
medium (air, water, and land) affect each other, and that
environmental strategies must actively identify and address these
inter-relationships by designing policies for the "whole" facility. One
way to achieve a whole facility focus is to design environmental
policies for similar industrial facilities. By doing so, environmental
concerns that are common to the manufacturing of similar products
can be addressed in a comprehensive manner. Recognition of the need
to develop the industrial "sector-based" approach within the EPA
Office of Compliance led to the creation of this document.
The Sector Notebook Project was initiated by the Office of Compliance
within the Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA)
to provide its staff and managers with summary information for
eighteen specific industrial sectors. As other EPA offices, States, the
regulated community, environmental groups, and the public became
interested in this project, the scope of the original project was
expanded. The ability to design comprehensive, common sense
environmental protection measures for specific industries is
dependent on knowledge of several inter-related topics. For the
purposes of this project, the key elements chosen for inclusion are:
general industry information (economic and geographic); a description
of industrial processes; pollution outputs; pollution prevention
opportunities; Federal statutory and regulatory framework; compliance
history; and a description of partnerships that have been formed
between regulatory agencies, the regulated community, and the public.
For any given industry, each topic listed above could alone be the
subject of a lengthy volume. However, in order to produce a
September 1995
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
manageable document, this project focuses on providing summary
information for each topic. This format provides the reader with a
synopsis of each issue, and references where more in-depth
information is available. Text within each profile was researched from
a variety of sources, and was usually condensed from more detailed
sources pertaining to specific topics. This approach allows for a wide
coverage of activities that can be further explored based upon the
citations and references listed at the end of this profile. As a check on
the information included, each notebook went through an external
review process. The Office of Compliance appreciates the efforts of all
those that participated in this process and enabled us to develop more
complete, accurate, and up-to-date summaries. Many of those who
reviewed this notebook are listed as contacts in Section IX and may be
sources of additional information. The individuals and groups on this
list do not necessarily concur with all statements within this notebook.
I.B. Additional Information
Providing Comments
OECA's Office of Compliance plans to periodically review and update
the notebooks and will make these updates available both in hard copy
and electronically. If you have any comments on the existing
notebook, or if you would like to provide additional information,
please send a hard copy and computer disk to the EPA Office of
Compliance, Sector Notebook Project, 401 M St., SW (2223-A),
Washington, DC 20460. Comments can also be uploaded to the
Enviro$en$e Bulletin Board or the Enviro$en$e World Wide Web for
general access to all users of the system. Follow instructions in
Appendix A for accessing these data systems. Once you have logged in,
procedures for uploading text are available from the on-line
Enviro$en$e Help System.
Adapting Notebooks to Particular Needs
The scope of the existing notebooks reflect an approximation of the
relative national occurrence of facility types that occur within each
sector. In many instances, industries within specific geographic regions
or States may have unique characteristics that are not fully captured in
these profiles. For this reason, the Office of Compliance encourages
State and local environmental agencies and other groups to
supplement or re-package the information included in this notebook to
include more specific industrial and regulatory information that may
be available. Additionally, interested States may want to supplement
the "Summary of Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations" section
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September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
with State and local requirements. Compliance or technical assistance
providers may also want to develop the "Pollution Prevention" section
in more detail. Please contact the appropriate specialist listed on the
opening page of this notebook if your office is interested in assisting us
in the further development of the information or policies addressed
within this volume.
If you are interested in assisting in the development of new notebooks
for sectors not covered in the original eighteen, please contact the
Office of Compliance at 202-564-2395.
September 1995
SIC Codes 333-334
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
H. iNTRODUCnON TO THE NONFERROUS METALS INDUSTRY
This section provides background information on the Nonferrous
Metals Industry and the organization of this sector's notebook.
IIJV. Introduction and Background of the Notebook
The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code 33 is composed of
establishments that engage in: the primary and secondary smelting
and refining of ferrous and nonferrous metal from ore or scrap; rolling,
drawing, and alloying; and the manufacturing and casting of basic
metal products such as nails, spikes, wire, and cable. Primary smelting
and refining produces metals directly from ores, while secondary
refining and smelting produces metals from scrap and process waste.
Scrap is bits and pieces of metal parts, bars, turnings, sheets, and wire
that are off-specification or worn-out but are capable of being recycled.
Two metal recovery technologies are generally used to produce refined
metals. Pyrometallurgical technologies are processes that use heat to
separate desired metals from other less or undesirable materials. These
processes capitalize on the differences between constituent oxidation
potential, melting point, vapor pressure, density, and/or miscibility
when melted. Examples of pyrometallurgical processes include drying,
calcining, roasting, sintering, retorting, and smelting.
Hydrometallurgical technologies differ from pyrometallurgical
processes in that the desired metals are separated from undesirables
using techniques that capitalize on differences between constituent
solubilities and/or electrochemical properties while in aqueous
solutions. Examples of hydrometallurgical processes include leaching,
chemical precipitation, electrolytic recovery, membrane separation, ion
exchange, and solvent extraction.
During pyrometallic processing, an ore, after being concentrated by
beneficiation (crushing, washing, and drying) is sintered, or combined
by heat, with other materials such as baghouse dust and flux. The
concentrate is then smelted, or melted, in a blast furnace in order to
fuse the desired metals into an impure molten bullion. This bullion
then undergoes a third pyrometallic process to refine the metal to the
desired level of purity. Each time the ore or bullion is heated, waste
materials are created. Air emissions such as dust may be captured in a
baghouse and are either disposed of or returned to the process
depending upon the residual metal content. Sulfur is also captured,
and when concentrations are above four percent it can be turned into
sulfuric acid, a component of fertilizers. Depending upon the origin of
SIC Codes 333-334
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonfetrous Metals
the ore and its residual metals content, various metals such as gold and
silver may also be produced as by-products.
Production operations under this SIC code are subject to a number of
regulations, including those imposed by the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA), the Clean Water Act (CWA), and the Clean
Air Act (CAA). A number of RCRA-listed hazardous wastes are
produced during primary refining operations which require the
heating of ores to remove impurities. Specific pretreatment standards
under the CWA apply to the processes associated with copper and
aluminum. Lastly, large amounts of sulfur are released during copper,
lead, and zinc smelting operations which are regulated under the CAA.
The Department of Commerce classification codes divide this industry
by production process. The two-digit SIC code is broken down as
follows:
SIC 331 - Steel Works, Blast Furnaces, and Rolling and
Finishing Mills (covered in a separate profile)
SIC 332 - Iron and Steel Foundries (covered in a separate
profile)
SIC 333 - Primary Smelting and Refining of Nonferrous
Metals
SIC 334 - Secondary Smelting and Refining of Nonferrous
Metals
SIC 335 - Rolling, Drawing, and Extruding of Nonferrous
Metals (not covered in this profile)
SIC 336 - Nonferrous Foundries (castings) (not covered in
this profile)
SIC 339 - Miscellaneous Primary Metal Products (not covered
in this profile).
II.B. Organization of the Nonferrous Metals Notebook
SIC 33 is a diverse industrial area which is comprised of many different
manufacturing processes. It is because of this diversity of processes and
related pollutant issues that this notebook focuses only on SIC 333 and
334; Primary and Secondary Nonferrous Metals Processing. The
metals aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc were chosen for inclusion in
this profile because they are the four most widely used nonferrous
metals in the United States. Where possible, information for the four
metals is discussed separately. However, due to the SIC groupings, in
many instances data for all four metals and other processes are
intermingled. Every effort will be made to highlight where separate
September 1995
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
information is available and where information concerning more than
one of title metals has been intermingled.
The notebook begins with a discussion of the primary and secondary
aluminum industries. This discussion is comprised of economic and
geographic characterizations of the industries and detailed discussions
of the industrial processes involved, including production line raw
material inputs and pollution outputs. The following three sections
provide the same information for copper, lead, and zinc, respectively.
The notebook continues with EPA Toxics Release Inventory data for
the nonferrous metals industry. Much of this information is
intermingled, but where possible has been separated. The notebook
concludes with sections discussing pollution prevention opportunities,
pending and proposed regulatory requirements, compliance and
enforcement information, and compliance activities and initiatives.
SIC Codes 333-334
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project Nonferrous Metals
i
m. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ALUMINUM PROCESSING INDUSTRY
III.A. Characterization of Industry - Aluminum
This section provides background information on the size, geographic
distribution, employment, production, sales, and economic condition
of the Primary and Secondary Aluminum Industry. The type of
facilities described within the document are also described in terms of
their Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes.
ni.A.l. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution - Aluminum
The following discussion is based upon the following materials:
"Aluminum Know the Facts, July 1994," the Aluminum
Association; "Industry & Trade Summary - Aluminum," the U.S.
Trade Commission; and "U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994 - Metals,"
U.S. Department of Commerce.
Variation in facility counts occur across data sources due to many
factors, including reporting and definitional differences. This
document does not attempt to reconcile these differences, but rather
reports the data as they are maintained by each source.
In 1993, the majority of primary aluminum producers (SIC 3334) in the
U.S. were located either in the Northwest (39.1 percent of U.S. capacity)
or the Ohio River Valley (31.1 percent of U.S. capacity), while most
secondary aluminum smelters were located in Southern California and
the Great Lakes Region. The reason for the difference in plant
locations is due to the energy intensive nature of the primary
aluminum smelting process and the cost of fuels. Primary smelters are
located in the Northwest and Ohio River Valley to take advantage of
the abundant supplies of hydroelectric and coal-based energy, while
secondary smelters locate themselves near major industrial and
consumer centers to take advantage of the large amounts of scrap
generated. Secondary smelting uses 95 percent less energy to produce
the same product than primary reduction. On the average, a third of
primary production costs are attributable to the cost of energy.
The domestic primary aluminum smelting industry consists of 23
smelting facilities operated by 13 firms which employ approximately
20,000. Of the thirteen firms, four integrated producers, Alcoa,
Alumax, Reynolds, and Kaiser, accounted for 63 percent of 1993's
capacity. The secondary smelting industry operates an estimated 68
plants employing 3,600. These figures have remained stable since 1988
and reflect an industry that emerged strong and competitive following
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the contractions and restructuring of the early 1980's that were caused
by worldwide price swings and supply/demand disequilibrium.
About 40 percent of the domestic supply of aluminum is recovered by
secondary refiners (SIC 334) from both purchased new and old
aluminum scrap. New scrap is material generated during the
fabrication of aluminum products. Old scrap includes products such as
aluminum pistons and other aluminum engine or body parts from
junked cars, used aluminum beverage cans, doors and siding, and used
aluminum foil. In 1993, 2.3 million metric tons (Mmt) of metal,
valued at an estimated $3.5 billion, were recovered from both new and
old aluminum scrap. Of this total, approximaterly 55 percent was
recovered from old scrap. Recycling rates for aluminum beverage
containers reached 63 percent (60 billion cans) in 1993, keeping more
than two billion pounds of material out of landfills.
m.A.2. Product Characterization - Aluminum
The primary and secondary aluminum industry produces ingots of
pure (greater than 99 percent) aluminum that serve as feedstock for
other materials and processes. Within the U.S., the leading end-users
of aluminum come from three industries; containers and packaging,
transportation, and building and construction. In 1993, demand from
the three industries accounted for an estimated 60 percent of the eight
Mmt of aluminum ingot and semifabricated products produced, with
containers and packaging alone accounting for more than 25 percent of
total shipments. Examples of materials produced with aluminum are:
sheet metal; aluminum plate and foil; rod, bar, and wire; beverage cans,
automobiles, aircraft components, and window/door frames.
m.A.3. Economic Trends - Aluminum
The amount of aluminum a plant could produce if working at
engineered (full) capacity held steady in 1993. This was due to two
factors: reduced hydroelectric supplies in the Northwest and falling
aluminum prices. Hydroelectric supplies were reduced in the
Northwest due to drought. Prices for primary aluminum fell to record-
lows in 1993 despite a slight global increase in demand, due in large
part to a flood of exports from the former Soviet republics.
U.S. aluminum shipments increased 12 percent in 1994, based on
increased demands in the beverage can stock and transportation
sectors. At present, the automotive sector is the largest end-user. The
next largest end-user is the beverage can stock.
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Automotive use of aluminum is expected to sky-rocket as the sector
increases its use of aluminum to increase fuel efficiency. Chrysler
Corporation may begin building an aluminum-intensive car in 1996,
employing 600-700 pounds of aluminum per car. The reduction in
weight for a midsize vehicle would cut gasoline consumption by one
gallon for each 100 miles driven.
III.B. Industrial Process Description - Aluminum
This section describes the major industrial processes within the
Primary and Secondary Aluminum industry, including the materials
and equipment used, and the processes employed. The section is
designed for those interested in gaining a general understanding of the
industry, and for those interested in the inter-relationship between the
industrial process and the topics described in subsequent sections of
this profile pollutant outputs, pollution prevention opportunities,
and Federal regulations. This section does not attempt to replicate
published engineering information that is available for this industry.
Refer to Section XII for a list of reference documents that are available.
This section specifically contains a description of commonly used
production processes, associated raw materials, the byproducts
produced or released, and the materials either recycled or transferred
off-site. This discussion, coupled with schematic drawings of the
identified processes, provides a concise description of where wastes
may be produced in the process. This section also describes the
potential fate (air, water, land) of these waste products.
ni.B.l. Industrial Processes in the Primary and Secondary Aluminum Industry
The following discussion is based in part upon the following
documents: "Background Listing Document for K088," and AP42 from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and materials provided by
The Aluminum Association, Incorporated.
Primary Aluminum Processing
September 1995
Primary aluminum producers generally employ a three step process to
produce aluminum alloy ingots. First, alumina is extracted from
bauxite ore using the Bayer process (See Exhibit 1). In the Bayer process,
finely crushed bauxite is mixed with an aqueous sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) solution to form a slurry. The slurry is then reacted at a
high temperature under steam pressure in a vessel known as a
digester, and creates a mixture of dissolved aluminum oxides and
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bauxite residues. During the reaction a majority of the impurities such
as silicon, iron, titanium, and calcium oxides drop to the bottom of the
digester and form a sludge. The remaining sodium aluminate slurry is
then flash cooled by evaporation and sent for clarification. During
clarification, agents such as starch are added to help any fine impurities
that remain in the slurry, such as sand, to drop out, further purifying
the sodium aluminate solution. The solution is then fed into a
precipitation tank to be crystallized. In the precipitator the solution is
allowed to cool with the addition of a small amount of aluminum
hydroxide "seed." The seed stimulates the precipitation of solid crystals
of aluminum hydroxide and sodium hydroxide.
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Exhibit 1 - Bayer Process (Alumina Refining)
Impurities Condensate
Fuel
A1203
Source: Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Anthony J. Buonicore and Wayne T. Davis, ed., Air & Waste
Management Association, Van Norstrand Reinhold.
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The aluminum hydroxide crystals settle to the tank bottom, and are
removed. The crystals are then washed to remove any caustic soda
residues, vacuum dewatered, and sent on for calcination. In the
calciners (a type of rotating kiln) the aluminum hydroxide is roasted
for further dewatering.
In the second step, the aluminum oxide (alumina) produced during
the Bayer process is reduced to make pure molten aluminum.
Alumina is a fine white powder, and consists of about equal weights of
aluminum and oxygen. The strong chemical bond that exists between
the aluminum and oxygen makes separating them difficult
pyrometallurgical separation requires a temperature of about 3600
degrees F. However, in 1866 it was discovered that alumina will
dissolve when placed in the molten metal cryolite at around only 1742
degrees F. Once dissolved, the aluminum oxide is readily separated
into aluminum and oxygen by electric current. The Hall-Heroult
process, as this type of electrolytic reduction is known, begins with the
placement of the alumina into electrolytic cells, or "pots," filled with
molten cryolite (See Exhibit 2). Though the process requires large
amounts of electricity (six or seven kilowatts of electricity per pound of
aluminum produced), only a low voltage is needed. This allows the
pots to be laid out in a series along one long electrical circuit to, form
what is known as a "potline." Within each pot a positive electric
current is passed through the cryolite by means of a carbon anode
submerged in the liquid cryolite. The oxygen atoms, separated from
aluminum oxide, carry a negative electrical charge and are attracted to
the carbon anodes. The carbon and the oxygen combine immediately
to form carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. These gases bubble free
of the melt. The aluminum (which is more than 99 percent pure)
collects at the bottom of the pot, is siphoned off, placed into crucibles,
and then transferred to melting/holding furnaces.
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Exhibit 2 - Aluminum Anodes
Anode Bus
Anode Rod
Steel Anode
Stud
Anode
Casii
Alumina
Burner
Cathode
Bus
Carbon
Rammed Block
Carbon Lining Cradle
Vertical Stud Soderberg Cell
jelCa
Steel Cathode
Collection Bar
Anode Beam
Alumina
Hopper
Gas Off Take
Frozen Flux and
Alumina
Steel Shell
Gas Collection Hoods
Molten Aluminum
Carbon Cathode
Iron Cathode Bar
Insulation
Center-Worked Prebake Cell
Source: The Aluminum Association.
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The third step consists of either mixing the molten aluminum with
other metals to form alloys of specific characteristics, or casting the
aluminum into ingots for transport to fabricating shops. Casting
involves pouring molten aluminum into molds and cooling it with
water. At some plants, the molten aluminum may be batch treated in
furnaces to remove oxide, gaseous impurities and active metals such as
sodium and magnesium before casting. Some plants add a flux of
chloride and fluoride salts and then bubble chlorine gas, usually mixed
with an inert gas, through the molten mixture. Chloride reacts with
the impurities to form HCL, A^Os, and metal chloride emissions. A
dross forms to float on the molten aluminum and is removed before
casting.
Two types of anodes may be used during the reduction process; either
an anode paste or a pre-baked anode. Because the carbon is consumed
during the refining process (about one-half pound of carbon is
consumed for every pound of aluminum produced), if anode paste
(Soderberg anode) is used, it needs to be continuously fed through an
opening in the steel shell of the pot. The drawback to pre-baked anodes
is that they require that a pre-baked anode fabricating plant be located
nearby or on-site. Most aluminum reduction plants include their own
facilities to manufacture anode paste and/or pre-baked anode blocks.
These pre-baked blocks, each of which may weigh 600 or 700 pounds,
must be replaced after 14 to 20 days of service.
One waste material produced during the primary production of
aluminum are fluoride compounds. Fluoride compounds are
principally produced during the reduction process. One reason that
pre-baked anodes are favored is that the closure of the pots during
smelting facilitates the capture of fluoride emissions, though many
modern smelters employ other methods to capture and recycle
fluorides and other emissions.
The pots used to hold the aluminum during smelting range in size
from 30 to 50 feet long, 9 to 12 feet wide, and 3 to 4 feet high, and are
lined with refractory brick and carbon. Eventually the carbon linings
crack and must be .removed and replaced. However, during the
aluminum reduction process iron cyanide complexes form in the
carbon portion of the liners. When the linings are removed they are
"spent," and are considered to be RCRA listed hazardous waste K088.
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Secondary Aluminum Processing
m.B.2.
In the secondary production of aluminum, scrap is usually melted in
gas- or oil-fired reverberatory furnaces of 30,000 to over 100,000 pounds
capacity. The furnaces have one or two charging wells separated from
the main bath by a refractory wall that permits only molten metal into
the main bath. The principal processing of aluminum-base scrap
involves the removal of magnesium by treating the molten bath with
chlorine or with various fluxes such as aluminum chloride,
aluminum fluoride, or mixtures of sodium and potassium chlorides
and fluorides. To facilitate handling, a significant proportion of the old
aluminum scrap, and in some cases new scrap, is simply melted to
form sweated pig that must be processed further to make specification-
grade ingot.
Another method of secondary aluminum recovery uses aluminum
drosses as the charge instead of scrap. Traditionally, the term dross was
defined as a thick liquid or solid phase that forms at the surface of
molten aluminum, and is a by-product of melting operations. It is
formed with or without fluxing and the free aluminum content of this
by-product can vary considerably. Most people in the industry have
generally referred to dross as being lower in aluminum content, while
the material with a higher aluminum content is referred to as "skim,"
or "rich" or "white dross." If a salt flux is used in the melting process,
the by-product is usually called a "black dross" or "salt cake." Drosses
containing about 30 percent metallics are usually crushed and screened
to bring the metallic content up to about 60 to 70 percent. They are
then melted in a rotary furnace, where the molten aluminum metal
collects on the bottom of the furnace and is tapped off. Salt slags
containing less than 30 percent metallics may be leached with water to
separate the metallics. In addition to this classic dross-recycling process,
a new dross treatment process using a water-cooled plasma gas arc
heater (plasma torch) installed in a specially-designed rotary furnace
was patented recently. The new process eliminates the use of salt flux
in the conventional dross treatment process, and reports recovery
efficiencies of 85 to 95 percent.
Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs
The material inputs and pollution outputs resulting from primary and
secondary aluminum processing are presented by media in Exhibit 3.
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Exhibit 3
Process Materials Inputs/Pollution Outputs - Aluminum
Process || Material Input || Air Emissions
Bauxite Refining
Alumina
Clarification and
Precipitation
Alumina
Calcination
Primary
Electrolytic
Aluminum Smelting
Secondary Scrap
Aluminum Smelting
Secondary
Aluminum Dross
Recycling
Bauxite, sodium
hydroxide
Alumina slurry,
starch, water
Aluminum hydrate
Alumina, carbon
anodes, electrolytic
cells, cryolite
Aluminum scrap, oil
or gas, chlorine or
other fluxes
(aluminum chloride,
aluminum fluoride,
sodium and potassium
chlorides, and
fluorides)
Aluminum dross,
water
Particulates
Particulates and
water vapor
Fluoride, both
gaseous and
particulates,
carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide,
C2F6, CF4, and
perflourinated
carbons (PFC)
Particulates and
HCL/C12
Particulates
Process Wastes
Wastewater
containing
starch, sand,
and caustic
Wastewater,
salts
Other Wastes
Residue
containing
silicon, iron,
titanium,
calcium oxides,
and caustic
Spent potliners,
K088
Slag containing
magnesium and
chlorides
Primary Aluminum Processing
Primary aluminum processing activities result in air emissions,
proccess wastes, and other solid-phase wastes. Large amounts of
particulates are generated during the calcining of hydrated aluminum
oxide, but the economic value of this dust for reuse in the process is
such that extensive controls are used to reduce emissions to relatively
small quantities. Small amounts of particulates are emitted from the
bauxite grinding and materials handling processes. Emissions from
aluminum reduction processes are primarily gaseous hydrogen
fluoride and particulate fluorides, alumina, carbon monoxide, volatile
organics, and sulfur dioxide from the reduction cells; and fluorides,
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vaporized organics and sulfur dioxide from the anode baking furnaces.
A variety of control devices such as wet scrubbers are used to abate
emissions from reduction cells and anode baking furnaces.
Wastewaters generated from primary aluminum processing are
produced during clarification and precipitation though much of this
water is fed back into the process to be reused.
Solid-phase wastes are generated at two stages in the primary
aluminum process; red mud produced during bauxite refining, and
spent potliners from the reduction process. Red mud normally
contains significant amounts of iron, aluminum, silicon, calcium, and
sodium. The types and concentrations of minerals present in the mud
depends on the composition of the ore and the operating conditions in
the digesters. Red mud is managed on site in surface impoundments,
and has not been found to exhibit any of the characteristics of
hazardous waste (1990 Report to Congress on Special Wastes from
Mineral Processing). The process does however, generate hazardous
waste. The carbon potliners used to hold the alumina/cryolite solution
during electrolytic aluminum reduction process eventually crack and
need to be removed and replaced. When the liners are removed they
are "spent," and are considered to be RCRA listed hazardous waste
K088.
Secondary Aluminum Processing
Secondary aluminum processing also results in air emissions,
wastewaters, and solid wastes. Atmospheric emissions from
reverberatory (chlorine) smelting/refining represent a significant
fraction of the total particulate and gaseous effluents generated in the
secondary aluminum industry. Typical furnace effluent gases contain
combustion products, chlorine, hydrogen chloride and metal chlorides
of zinc, magnesium, and aluminum, aluminum oxide and various
metals and metal compounds, depending on the quality of scrap
charges. Emissions from reverberatory (fluorine) smelting/refining are
similar to those from reverberatory (chlorine) smelting/refining. The
use of AlFs rather than chlorine in the demagging step reduces
demagging emissions. Fluorides are emitted as gaseous fluorides or as
dusts. Baghouse scrubbers are usually used for fluoride emission
control.
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Solid-phase -wastes are also generated during secondary scrap
aluminum smelting. The slag generated during smelting contains
chlorides resulting from the use of fluxes and magnesium. Waste
waters are also generated during secondary aluminum processing
when water is added to the smelting slags to aid in the separation of
metallics. The waste waters are also likely to be contaminated with salt
from, the various fluxes used.
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IV. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COPPER PROCESSING INDUSTRY
IV.A. Characterization of the Industry - Copper
This section provides background information on the size, geographic
distribution, employment, production, sales, and economic condition
of the Primary and Secondary Copper Industry. The type of facilities
described within the document are also described in terms of their
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes.
IV.A.I. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution - Copper
The following discussion is based in part upon the following
documents: "U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994 - Metals," U.S.
Department of Commerce, and information provided by the U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines.
Variation in facility counts occur across data sources due to many
factors, including reporting and definitional differences. This
document does not attempt to reconcile these differences, but rather
reports the data as they are maintained by each source.
Copper ore is mined in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
but is primarily processed and consumed by countries in the Northern
Hemisphere. The U.S., is both a major producer (second only to Chile)
and consumer of copper.
The domestic primary unwrought, or unworked, integrated copper
industry consists of mines, concentrators, smelters, refineries, and
electrowinning plants (SIC 3331 encompasses facilities engaging in
primary smelting and refining, but not mining). The number of
operating mines producing copper has decreased from 68 mines in 1989
to 65 mines in 1992. Of the 65 mines actively producing copper in the
U.S., 33 list copper as the primary product. The remaining 32 mines
produce copper either as a byproduct or co-product of gold, lead, zinc, or
silver (U.S. DOI, Bureau of Mines). Nineteen of the 33 active mines
that primarily produce copper are located in Arizona, which accounts
for 65 percent of domestically mined copper ore. The remaining mines
are located throughout New Mexico and Utah, which together account
for 28 percent of domestic production, and Michigan, Montana, and
Missouri account for the remainder (U.S. DOI, Bureau of Mines). Five
integrated producers, Phelps Dodge Corp., Magma Copper Co.,
ASARCO Incorporated, Kennecott Corp., and Cyprus-AMAX Minerals
Co., produce over 90 percent of domestic primary copper.
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In 1988, there were 17 copper mines in the U.S. using leaching
methods, with total production of approximately 227,000 metric tons of
electrowon copper (U.S. EPA; U.S. DOI, Bureau of Mines). According to
the U.S. Bureau of Mines, in 1991 441,000 metric tons of copper (an
increase of 94 percent in three years) were recovered by
leaching/electrowinning methods (U.S. DOI, Bureau of Mines). While
solution operations are conducted throughout the Southwestern U.S.,
almost 75 percent of the facilities (14) are located in Arizona. There are
two facilities in New Mexico, one in Utah, and one in Nevada.
In 1991, the consumption of refined copper in the U.S. decreased by
four percent from 1990 levels. In 1992, refined copper was consumed at
approximately 20 wire-rod mills, 41 brass mills, and 750 foundries,
chemical plants, and other manufacturers. According to the Bureau of
Mines, in 1992 U.S. consumption of copper was about 2.2 million tons.
Consumption in 1993 and 1994 rose sharply to almost 2.7 million tons.
Fifty-six percent of recycled, or secondary copper, is derived from new
scrap, while 44 percent comes from old scrap. Domestically, the
secondary copper smelting industry is led by four producers: Franklin,
Southwire Co., Chemetco., and Cerro Copper Co. Like the secondary
aluminum industry, these producers buy the scrap they recycle on the
open market, in addition to using scrap generated in their own
downstream productions. The secondary copper industry is
concentrated in Georgia, South Carolina, Illinois, and Missouri.
IV.A.2. Product Characterization - Copper
Because of its superior electrical conductivity, the leading domestic
consumer of refined copper is wire mills, accounting for 75 percent of
refined copper consumption. Brass mills producing copper and copper
alloy semi-fabricated shapes are the other dominant domestic
consumers at 23 percent. The dominant end-users of copper and
copper alloy are the construction and electronic products industries,
accounting for 65 percent of copper end-usage. Transportation
equipment such as radiators also account for a fair amount of copper
end-usage at 11.6 percent. Copper and copper alloys powders are used
for brake linings and bands, bushings, instruments, and filters in the
automotive and aerospace industries, for electrical and electronic
applications, for anti-fouling paints and coatings, and for various
chemical and medical purposes. Copper chemicals, principally copper
sulfate and the cupric and cuprous oxides, are widely used as algaecides,
fungicides, wood preservatives, copper plating, pigments, electronic
applications, and numerous special applications.
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IV.A.3. Economic Trends - Copper
Conditions in the U.S. copper industry continued to improve during
1993, and refined copper production increased approximately seven
percent by mid-year as compared to the first half of 1992. U.S. copper
consumption is estimated to grow by approximately 1.5 to 7 percent
through 2000, while global consumption is expected to increase
approximately two percent through the same period. The foreign
market, particularly the Asian Pacific region, is expected to be a growing
market because of its strong automobile, air conditioning, and
consumer electronics industries. China is expected to see the largest
increase in demand if economic reforms continue.
IV.B. Industrial Process Description - Copper
This section describes the major industrial processes within the
Primary and Secondary Copper Processing industry, including the
materials and equipment used, and the processes employed. The
section is designed for those interested in gaining a general
understanding of the industry, and for those interested in the inter-
relationship between the industrial process and the topics described in
subsequent sections of this profile pollutant outputs, pollution
prevention opportunities, and Federal regulations. This section does
not attempt to replicate published engineering information that is
available for this industry. Refer to Section IX for a list of reference
documents that are available.
This section specifically contains a description of commonly used
production processes, associated raw materials, the byproducts
produced or released, and the materials either recycled or transferred
off-site. This discussion, coupled with schematic drawings of the
identified processes, provide a concise description of where wastes may
be produced in the process. This section also describes the potential fate
(air, water, land) of these waste products.
IV.B.l. Industrial Processes in the Primary and Secondary Copper Processing
Industry
The following discussion is based upon materials provided by the
International Copper Association, Ltd., and the following
documents: "Copper Technology and Competitiveness," Congress
of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment and
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"Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP42)," the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Primary Copper Processing
Copper is mined in both open pits and underground mines,
depending upon the ore grade and the nature of the ore deposit.
Copper ore typically contains less that one percent copper and is in
the form of sulfide minerals. Once the ore is delivered above the
ground, it is crushed and ground to a powdery fineness, after which
it is concentrated for further processing. In the concentration
process, ground ore is slurried with water, chemical reagents are
added, and air is blown through the slurry. The air bubbles attach
themselves to the copper minerals and are then skimmed off of the
top of the flotation cells. The concentrate contains between 20 and
30 percent copper. The "tailings," or gangue minerals, from the ore
fall to the bottom of the cells and are removed, dewatered by
"thickeners," and transported as a slurry to a tailings pond for
disposal. All water used in this operation, from dewatering
thickeners and the tailings pond, is recovered and recycled back into
the process.
Copper can be produced either pyrometallurgically or
hydrometallurgically depending upon the ore-type used as a charge.
The ore concentrates, which contain copper sulfide and iron sulfide
minerals, are treated by pyrometallurgical processes to yield high
purity copper products. Oxide ores, that contain copper oxide
minerals which may occur in other parts of the mine, together with
other oxidized waste materials, are treated by hydrometallurgical
processes to yield high purity copper products. Both processes are
illustrated in Exhibit 4.
Copper conversion is accomplished by a pyrometallurgical process
known as "smelting." During smelting the concentrates are dried and
fed into one of several different types of furnaces. There the sulfide
minerals are partially oxidized and melted to yield a layer of "matte," a
mixed copper-iron sulfide, and "slag," an upper layer of waste.
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Nonferrovs Metals
Exhibit 4 - Copper Production Process
Waste
./Scrap Sulfide Ore Oxide and Sulfide Ore
^ ;o.S - 2% copper) X (0.3 - 2% copper)
Concentrating 1 Leaching
Concentrates |T (20 - 30% copper) Leach Solution ;i-6gr
^1 Smrl«"» 1^ Cement Copper 1 r ,.,,,- L^ ^T
ams/liter of copper)
Solvent 1
1 1 f 80 - 90% coooer) 1 1 ^Extraction |
Copper Matte X (50 - 75% copper)
Converting
MBM
Blister Copper 1 ^98.5% copper) Ele
Anode
Casting
Copper Anodes W ^99.5% copper)
1 Electrolytic 1
1 Refining 1
Copper Cathodes (99.99% copper)
Copper Alloys Refined
Shapes Copper Shapes
i (30 - 40 grams/liter of copper)
.ctrowinning 1
Source: Office of Technology Assessment.
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The matte is further processed by a process known as "converting."
The slag is tapped from the furnace and stored or discarded in slag
piles on site. A small amount of slag is sold for railroad ballast and
for sand blasting grit. A third product of the smelting process is
sulfur dioxide, a gas which is collected, purified, and made into
sulfuric acid for sale or for use in hydrometallurgical leaching
operations.
Following smelting, the copper matte is fed into a converter.
During this process the copper matte is poured into a horizontal
cylindrical vessel (approximately 30 x 13 feet) fitted with a row of
pipes (See Exhibit 5). The pipes, known as "tuyeres," project into
the cylinder and are used to introduce air into the converter. Lime
and silica are added to the copper matte to react with the iron oxide
produced in the process to form slag. Scrap copper may also be
added to the converter. The furnace is rotated so that the tuyeres
are submerged, and air is blown into the molten matte causing the
remainder of the iron sulfide to react with oxygen to form iron
oxide and sulfur dioxide. Following the "blow," the converter is
rotated to pour off the iron silicate slag.
Exhibits
Cutaway View of a Fierce-Smith Converter for Producing Blister
Copper from Matte
dMUStgM
siliceous
flux
Source: Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. A. K. Biswas and W. D. Davenport, Pergamon Press.
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Once all of the iron is removed, the converter is rotated back and
given a second blow during which the remainder of the sulfur is
oxidized and removed from the copper sulfide. The converter is
then rotated to pour off the molten copper, which at this point is
called "blister" copper (so named because if allowed to solidify at
this point, it will have a bumpy surface due to the presence of
gaseous oxygen and sulfur). Sulfur dioxide from the converters is
collected and fed into the gas purification system together with that
from the smelting furnace and made into sulfuric acid. Due to its
residual copper content, slag is recycled back to the smelting furnace.
Blister copper, containing a minimum of 98.5 percent copper, is
refined to high purity copper in two steps. The first step is "fire
refining," in which the molten blister copper is poured into a
cylindrical furnace, similar in appearance to a converter, where first
air and then natural gas or propane are blown through the melt to
remove the last of the sulfur and any residual oxygen from the
copper. The molten copper is then poured into a casting wheel to
form anodes pure enough for "electrorefining."
In electrorefining, the copper anodes are loaded into electrolytic
cells and interspaced with copper "starting sheets," or cathodes, in a
bath of copper sulfate solution. When a DC current is passed
through the cell the copper is dissolved from the anode, transported
through the electrolyte, and re-deposited on the cathode starting
sheets. When the cathodes have built-up to sufficient thickness
they are removed from the electrolytic cell and a new set of starting
sheets is put in their place. Solid impurities in the anodes fall to the
bottom of the cell as a sludge where they are ultimately collected
and processed for the recovery of precious metals such as gold and
silver. This material is known as "anode slime."
The cathodes removed from the electrolytic cell are the primary
product of the copper producer and contain 99.99+ percent copper.
These may be sold to wire-rod mills as cathodes or processed further
to a product called "rod." In manufacturing rod, cathodes are
melted in a shaft furnace and the molten copper is poured onto a
casting wheel to form a bar suitable for rolling into a 3/8-inch
diameter continuous rod. This rod product is shipped to wire mills
where it is extruded into various sizes of copper wire.
In the hydrometallurgical process, the oxidized ores and waste
materials are leached with sulfuric acid from the smelting process.
Leaching is performed in situ, or in specially prepared piles by
distributing acid across the top and allowing it to percolate down
through the material where it is collected. The ground under the
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leach pads is lined with an acid proof, impermeable plastic material
to prevent leach liquor from contaminating groundwater. Once the
copper-rich solutions are collected they can be processed by either of
two processes - the "cementation" process or the "solvent
extraction/electrowinning" process (SXEW). In the cementation
process (which is rarely used today), the copper in the acidic
solution is deposited on the surface of scrap iron in exchange for the
iron. When sufficient copper has been "cemented out" the copper-
rich iron is put into the smelter together with the ore concentrates,
for copper recovery via the pyrometallurgical route.
In the SXEW process, the pregnant leach solution (PLS) is
concentrated by solvent extraction. In solvent extraction, an organic
chemical that extracts copper but not impurity metals (iron and
other impurities) is mixed with the PLS. The copper-laden organic
solution is then separated from the leachate in a settling tank.
Sulfuric acid is added to the pregnant organic mixture, which strips
the copper into an electrolytic solution. The stripped leachate,
containing the iron and other impurities, is returned to the
leaching operation where its acid is used for further leaching. The
copper-rich strip solution is passed into an electrolytic cell known as
an "electrowinning" cell. An electrowinning cell differs from an
electrorefining cell in that it uses a permanent, insoluble anode.
The copper in solution is then plated onto a starting sheet cathode
in much the same manner as it is on the .cathode in an
electrorefining cell. The copper-depleted electrolyte is returned to
the solvent extraction process where it is used to strip more copper
from the organic. The cathodes produced from the electrowinning
process are then sold or made into rod in the same manner as those
produced from the electrorefining process.
Electrowinning cells are used also for the preparation of starting
sheets for both the electrorefining and electrowinning processes.
Here copper is plated onto either stainless steel or titanium
cathodes. When sufficient thickness has built-up, the cathodes are
removed and the copper plating on both sides of the stainless steel
or titanium is stripped off. After straightening and flattening, these
copper sheets are fabricated into starting sheet cathodes by
mechanically attaching copper strips to be used as hangers when
they are in the electrolytic cell. Both the starting sheet and the strips
become part of the final product. The same care in achieving and
maintaining purity must be maintained with these materials as is
practiced for the electrodeposited copper.
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An activity that is carried out concurrently with the primary copper
production is sulfur fixation. As mentioned above, in the
pyrometallurgical process most of the sulfur in the ore is transformed
into sulfur dioxide (though a portion is discarded in the slag). The
copper smelting and converting processes typically generate over half a
ton of sulfur dioxide per ton of copper concentrate. In order to meet
CAA emission standards, sulfur dioxide releases must be controlled.
This is accomplished by elaborate gas collection and filtration systems
after which the sulfur dioxide contained in the off-gases is made into
sulfuric acid. In general, if the sulfur dioxide concentration exceeds
four percent it will be converted into sulfuric acid, an ingredient in
fertilizer. Fugitive gases containing less than four percent sulfuric acid
are either released to the atmosphere or scrubbed to remove the sulfur
dioxide. The sulfur recovery process requires the emissions to flow
through a filtering material in 'the air emissions scrubber to capture the
sulfur. A blowdown slurry is formed from the mixture of the filtering
material and sulfur emissions. This slurry contains not only sulfur,
but cadmium and lead, metals that are present in copper ore. The acid
plant blowdown slurry/sludge that results from thickening of
blowdown slurry at primary copper facilities is regulated by RCRA as
hazardous waste K064.
Secondary Copper Processing
The primary processes involved in secondary copper recovery are scrap
metal pretreatment and smelting. Pretreatment includes cleaning and
concentration to prepare the material for the smelting furnace.
Pretreatment of the feed material can be accomplished using several
different procedures, either separately or in combination. Feed scrap is
concentrated by manual and mechanical methods such as sorting,
stripping, shredding, and magnetic separation. Feed scrap is sometimes
briquetted in a hydraulic press. Pyrometallurgical pretreatment may
include sweating, burning of insulation (especially from scrap wire),
and drying (burning off oil and volatiles) in rotary kilns.
Hydrometallurgical methods include flotation and leaching with
chemical recovery.
After pretreatment the scrap is ready for smelting. Though the type
and quality of the feed material determines the processes the smelter
will use, the general fire-refining process is essentially the same as for
the primary copper smelting industry.
IV.B.2. Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs
The material inputs and pollution outputs resulting from primary and
secondary copper processing are presented by media in Exhibit 6.
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Exhibit 6
Process Materials Inputs/Pollution Outputs - Copper
Process
Copper Concentration
Copper Leaching
Copper Smelting
Copper Conversion
Electrolytic Copper
Refining
Secondary Copper
Processing
Material Input
Copper ore, water,
chemical reagents,
thickeners
Copper concentrate,
sulfuric acid
Copper concentrate,
siliceous flux,
Copper matte, scrap
copper, siliceous flux
Blister copper
Air Emissions
Sulfur dioxide,
particulate
matter containing
arsenic,
antimony,
cadmium, lead,
mercury, and zinc
Sulfur dioxide,
particulate
matter containing
arsenic,
antimony,
cadmium, lead,
mercury, and zinc
Particulates
Process Wastes
Flotation
wastewaters
Uncontrolled
leachate
Process
wastewater
Slag granulation
waste
Other Wastes
Tailings
containing waste
minerals such as
limestone, and
quartz
Heap leach
waste
Acid plant
blowdown
slurry/sludge
(K064), slag
containing iron
sulfides, silica
Acid plant
blowdown
slurry/sludge
(K064), slag
containing iron
sulfides, silica
Slimes containing
impurities such as
gold, silver,
antimony,
arsenic, bismuth,
iron, lead, nickel,
selenium, sulfur,
and zinc
Slag
Primary Copper Processing
Primary copper processing results in air emissions, process wastes, and
other solid-phase wastes. Particulate matter and sulfur dioxide are the
principal air contaminants emitted by primary copper smelters. Copper
and iron oxides are the primary constituents of the particulate matter,
but other oxides, such as arsenic, antimony, cadmium, lead, mercury
and zinc, may also be present, with metallic sulfates and sulfuric acid
mist. Single stage electrostatic precipitators are widely used in the
primary copper industry to control these particulate emissions. Sulfur
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oxides contained in the off-gases are collected, filtered, and made into
sulfuric acid.
Large amounts of water are used in the copper concentration process
though disposal of liquid wastes is rarely a problem because the vast
majority of the water is recycled back into the process. Once the
wastewater exits the flotation process it is sent to a sediment control
pond where it is held long enough for most of the sediment to settle.
The seepage and leaking of sulfuric acid solutions used in leaching can
also produce liquid wastes, however this potential is off-set by the
copper producer's interest to collect as much of the copper-bearing
leachate as possible. Older operations generally do not have protective
liners under the piles, and experience some loss of leachate. New
leaching operations use impermeable membranes to confine leach
solutions and channel them to collection ponds.
Electrolytic refining does produce wastewaters that must be treated and
discharged, reused, or disposed in some manner. Many facilities use a
wastewater treatment operation to treat these wastes.
Primary copper processing primarily generates two solid-phase wastes;
slag and blowdown slurry/sludge. Slag is generated during the
smelting, converting, fire refining, and electrolytic refining stages. Slag
from smelting furnaces is higher in copper content than the original
ores taken from the mines. These slags therefore, may be sent to a
concentrator and the concentrate returned to the smelter. This slag
processing operation results in slag tailings. Slag resulting from
converting and fire refining also is normally returned to the process to
capture any remaining mineral values. Blowdown slurry/sludge that
results from the sulfur recovery process is regulated by RCRA as
hazardous waste K064.
Secondary Copper Processing
Secondary copper processing produces the same types of wastes as
primary pyrometallurgical copper processing. One type of secondary
processing pollutant that differs from primary processing is the air
emissions. Air pollutants are generated during the drying of chips and
borings to remove excess oils and cuttings fluids and causes discharges
of large amounts of dense smoke containing soot and unburned
hydrocarbons. These emissions can be controlled by baghouses and/or
direct-flame afterburners.
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V. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY LEAD PROCESSING INDUSTRY
V. A. Characterization of the Industry - Lead
This section provides background information on the size, geographic
distribution, employment, production, sales, and economic condition
of the Primary and Secondary Lead Industry. The type of facilities
described within the document are also described in terms of their
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes.
V.A.I. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution - Lead
The following discussion is based upon "U.S. Industrial Outlook
1994 - Metals," U.S. Department of Commerce, and information
provided by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines.
Variation hi facility counts occur across data sources due to many
factors, including reporting and definitional differences. This
document does not attempt to reconcile these differences, but rather
reports the data as they are maintained by each source.
The U.S. is the world's third largest primary lead producer with 1/7 of
all production reserves. Over 80 percent of the lead ore mined
domestically comes from Missouri. The mines with the largest ore
capacity are owned by Asarco Inc., The Doe Run Co., and Cominco
American Inc., the first two of which are also integrated producers of
refined lead materials. The majority of lead ores mined in the U.S. are
smelted in conventional blast furnaces and are refined using
pyrometallurgical methods.
In 1993, the lead industry employed 600 workers at primary smelters
and refineries, and 1,700 at secondary smelters and refineries. Primary
and secondary smelter and refinery employment was not expected to
change in 1994 (U.S. DOI, Bureau of Mines, 1995).
The U.S. is the world's largest recycler of lead scrap and is able to meet
about 72 percent of its total refined lead production needs from scrap
recycling. At the end of 1991, the secondary lead industry consisted of
16 companies that operated 23 battery breakers-smelters with capacities
of between 10,000 and 120,000 metric tons a year (mt/y); five smaller
operations with capacities between 6,000 and 10,000 mt/y; and 15
smaller plants that produced mainly specialty alloys for solders, brass
and bronze ingots, and miscellaneous uses. Sanders Lead Co., East
Perm Mfg. Co., and Schuylkill Metals Corp. are some of the larger
secondary lead producers in the United States.
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V.A.2. Product Characterization - Lead
Within the U.S., the power storage battery industry is the largest end-
user of lead, accounting for 83 percent of the estimated 1.357 Mrnt
domestically consumed in 1993. Demand for lead by the lead-acid
battery industry rose 12 percent to 1.12 Mmt in 1993 due to a significant
increase in consumer need for batteries. Industrial demand for
batteries rose as well, due both to the growth in demand for stationary
batteries used in telecommunications and back-up power systems for
computers, lighting, and security systems, as well as an increased need
for mobile batteries used in fork lifts and other battery-powered
vehicles. Additional lead end-uses and users of consequence are
ammunition, consumers of lead oxides used in television glass and
computers, construction (including radiation shielding) and protective
coatings, and miscellaneous uses such as ballasts, ceramics, and crystal
glass.
V.A.3. Economic Trends - Lead
In 1994, domestic consumption of lead is expected to increase seven
percent to 1.5 Mrnt. This increase is based in part on expected increased
demand from the automobile sector for both original and replacement
equipment batteries. This increased consumption should continue to
be met by the secondary lead industry, which is expected to continue to
supply approximately 72 percent of total domestic production.
Through 1998, production of unwrought lead is expected to grow 1.4
percent to 1.3 Mmt, while U.S. consumption is estimated to increase 1.4
percent to 1.6 Mmt.
Power storage batteries, both industrial and automotive, will continue
to be the largest end-users. Demand for power storage batteries may be
greater than initially expected due to several factors. California and
nine Northeastern States have recently passed laws requiring the
production, but not the consumer use of, electric vehicles. Other
innovative uses of lead include lead-acid batteries for load-leveling of
electricity. Using batteries for load-leveling reduces the total installed
generating capacity needed by charging the battery at times of low
demand for electricity, then discharging it to level the power supply at
times of peak demand. A pilot facility in Chino, CA has already come
on line with a battery which uses 2,000 pounds of lead and has a
capacity of 40 megawatt hours. Another potential use for refined lead
is the containment of high-level radioactive waste. Argentina and
Sweden already employ it for this purpose and this use is being
considered elsewhere, including the United States. A final innovative
application being tested for lead is its use as a road paving stabilizer.
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Tests have shown that certain lead compounds can double the life of
asphalt while only adding four to five percent to production costs.
V.B. Industrial Process Description - Lead
This section describes the major industrial processes within the
Primary and Secondary Lead Processing industry, including the
materials and equipment used, and the processes employed. The
section is designed for those interested in gaining a general
understanding of the industry, and for those interested in the inter-
relationship between the industrial process and the topics described in
subsequent sections of this profile pollutant outputs, pollution
prevention opportunities, and Federal regulations. This section does
not attempt to replicate published engineering information that is
available for this industry. Refer to Section IX for a list of reference
documents that are available.
This section specifically contains a description of commonly used
production processes, associated raw materials, the byproducts
produced or released, and the materials either recycled or transferred
off-site. This discussion, coupled with schematic drawings of the
identified processes, provide a concise description of where wastes may
be produced in the process. This section also describes the potential fate
(air, water, land) of these waste products.
V.B.I. Industrial Processes in the Primary and Secondary Lead Processing
Industry
The following discussion is based upon the following documents:
"Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP42)," "Background
Listing Document for K065," "1990 Report to Congress on Special
Wastes From Mineral Processing," published by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and "Recycled Metals in The
United States, A Sustainable Resource," published by U.S. Department
of the Interior, Bureau of Mines.
Primary Lead Processing
The primary lead production process consists of four steps: sintering,
smelting, dressing, and pyrometallurgical refining (See Exhibit 7). To
begin, a feedstock comprised mainly of lead concentrate is fed into a
sintering machine. Other raw materials may be added including iron,
silica, limestone flux, coke, soda, ash, pyrite, zinc, caustic, and
particulates gathered from pollution control devices. In the sintering
machine the lead feedstock is subjected to blasts of hot air which burn
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off the sulfur, creating sulfur dioxide. The lead material existing after
this process contains about nine percent of its weight in carbon. The
sinter is then fed along with coke, various recycled and cleanup
materials, limestone, and other fluxing agents into a blast furnace for
reducing, where the carbon acts as a fuel and smelts or melts the lead
material. The molten lead flows to the bottom of the furnace where
four layers form: "speiss" (the lightest material, basically arsenic and
antimony); "matte" (copper sulfide and other metal sulfides); blast
furnace slag (primarily silicates); and lead bullion (98 weight percent
lead). All layers are then drained off. The speiss and matte are' sold to
copper smelters for recovery of copper and precious metals. The blast
furnace slag which contains zinc, iron, silica, and lime is stored in piles
and partially recycled. Sulfur oxide emissions are generated in blast
furnaces from small quantities of residual lead sulfide and lead sulfates
in the sinter feed.
Rough lead bullion from the blast furnace usually requires preliminary
treatment in kettles before undergoing refining operations. During
dressing the bullion is agitated in a dressing kettle and cooled to just
above its freezing point (700 to 800 degrees F). A dross, which is
composed of lead oxide, along with copper, antimony, and other
elements, floats to the top and solidifies above the molten lead.
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Exhibit 7 - Primary Lead Production Process
_ NH4CI
_ Soda ash
Sulfur
__ Flue dust
Coke
_ Limestone
__ Silica
Soda ash
Sulfur
Pig iron
PbO
Coke
Source: Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Anthony J. Buonicore and Wayne T. Davis, ed., Air & Waste
Management Association, Van Norstrand Reinhold.
The dross is removed and fed into a dross furnace for recovery of the
non-lead mineral values. To enhance copper recovery, drossed lead
bullion is treated by adding sulfur bearing materials, zinc, and/or
aluminum, lowering the copper content to approximately 0.01 percent.
During the fourth step the lead bullion is refined using
pyrometallurgical methods to remove any remaining non-lead saleable
materials (e.g., gold, silver, bismuth, zinc, and metal oxides such as
antimony, arsenic, tin, and copper oxide). The lead is refined in a cast
iron kettle during five stages. Antimony, tin, and arsenic are removed
first. Then gold and silver are removed by adding zinc. Next, the lead
is refined by vacuum removal of zinc. Refining continues with the
addition of calcium and magnesium. These two materials combine
with bismuth to form an insoluble compound that is skimmed from
the kettle. In the final step caustic soda and/or nitrates may be added to
the lead to remove any remaining traces of metal impurities. The
refined lead will have a purity of 99.90 to 99.99 percent, and may be
mixed with other metals to form alloys or it may directly be cast into
shapes.
The processes used in the primary production of lead produce several
waste streams of concern under different regulatory scenarios. The
listed RCRA hazardous wastes include smelting plant wastes that are
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sent to surface impoundments to settle. The impoundments are used
to collect solids from miscellaneous slurries, such as acid plant
blowdown, slag granulation water, and plant washings. Acid plant
blowdown is generated during the production of lead the same way it is
produced at a copper plant; during the recovery of sulfur dioxide
emissions. Slag granulation water is produced when hot slag from the
process is sprayed with water to be cooled and granulated before
transport to a slag pile. Plant washing is a housekeeping process and
the washdown normally contains a substantial amount of lead and
other process materials. When these materials accumulate in a surface
impoundment or are dredged from the surface impoundment they are
regulated as hazardous waste K065.
Secondary Lead Processing
The secondary production of lead begins with the recovery of old scrap
from worn-out, damaged, or obsolete products and new scrap that is
made of product wastes and smelter-refinery drosses, residues, and
slags. The chief source of old scrap in the U.S. is lead-acid batteries,
though cable coverings, pipe, sheet, and terne bearing metals also serve
as a source of scrap. Solder, a tin-based alloy, may also be recovered
from the processing of circuit boards for use as lead charge.
While some secondary lead is recovered directly for specialty products
like babbitt metal, solder, re-melt, and copper-base alloys, about 97
percent of secondary lead is recovered at secondary lead smelters and
refineries as either soft (unalloyed) or antimonial lead, most of which
is recycled directly back into the manufacture of new batteries. Unlike
copper and zinc, where scrap processing varies tremendously by scrap
type and ultimate use, the dominance of lead battery scrap allows for a
more standard secondary recovery process. Prior to smelting, batteries
must be broken by one of several techniques, and classified into their
constituent products. The modern battery breaking process classifies
the lead into metallics, oxides and sulfate fragments, and organics into
separate casing and plate separator fractions. Cleaned polypropylene
case fragments are recycled back into battery cases or other products.
The dilute sulfuric acid is either neutralized for disposal, or recycled
into the local acid market. One of three main smelting processes is
then used to reduce the lead fractions to produce lead bullion.
The majority of domestic battery scrap is processed in blast furnaces or
rotary reverberatory furnaces. Used to produce a semisoft lead, a
reverberatory furnace is more suitable for processing fine particles and
may be operated in conjunction with a blast furnace. The reverberatory
furnace is a rectangular shell lined with refractory brick, and is fired
directly with oil or gas to a temperature of 2300 degrees F. The material
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is heated by direct contact with combustion gases. The average furnace
can process about 50 tons per day. About 47 percent of the charge is
recovered as lead product and is periodically tapped into mold or
holding pots. Forty-six percent of the charge is removed as slag and
later processed in blast furnaces. The remaining seven percent of the
furnace charge escapes as dust or fume. Short (batch) or long
(continuous) rotary furnaces may be used. Slags from reverberatory
furnaces are processed through the blast furnace for recovery of
alloying elements.
Blast furnaces produce hard lead from charges containing siliceous slag
from previous runs (about 4.5 percent of the charge), scrap iron (about
4.5 percent), limestone (about 3 percent), and coke (about 5.5 percent).
The remaining 82.5 percent of the charge is comprised of oxides, pot
furnace refining drosses, and reverberatory slag. The proportions of
rerun slags, limestone, and coke, respectively vary to as high as eight
percent, ten percent, and eight percent of the charge. Processing
capacity of the blast furnace ranges from 20 to 80 tons per day. Similar
to iron cupolas, the blast furnace is a vertical steel cylinder lined with
refractory brick. Combustion air at 0.5 to 0.75 pounds per square inch is
introduced through tuyeres (pipes) at the bottom of the furnace. Some
of the coke combusts to melt the charge, while the remainder reduces
lead oxides to elemental lead.
As the lead charge melts, limestone and iron float to the top of the
molten bath and form a flux that retards oxidation of the product lead.
The molten lead flows from the furnace into a holding pot at a nearly
continuous rate. The product lead constitutes roughly 70 percent of the
charge. From the holding pot, the lead is usually cast into large ingots,
called pigs or sows. About 18 percent of the charge is recovered as slag,
with about 60 percent of this being matte. Roughly five percent of the
charge is retained for reuse, and the remaining seven percent of the
charge escapes as dust or fume.
Refining/casting is the use of kettle type furnaces for re-melting,
alloying, refining, and oxidizing processes. Materials charged for re-
melting are usually lead alloy ingots that require no further processing
before casting. Alloying furnaces simply melt and mix ingots of lead
and alloy materials. Antimony, tin, arsenic, copper, and nickel are the
most common alloying materials. Refining furnaces, as in primary
lead production, are used either to remove copper and antimony to
produce soft lead, or to remove arsenic, copper, and nickel for hard lead
production.
Newer secondary recovery plants use lead paste desulfurization to
reduce sulfur dioxide emissions and waste sludge generation during
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smelting. At the Doe Run Resource Recycling Facility, battery paste
containing lead sulfate and lead oxide is desulfurized with soda ash to
produce market grade sodium sulfate solution. The desulfurized paste
is processed in a reverberatory furnace. The lead carbonate product
may then be treated in a short rotary furnace. The battery grids and
posts are processed separately in a rotary smelter.
V.B.2. Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs
The material inputs and pollution outputs resulting from primary and
secondary lead processing are presented by media in Exhibit 8.
Exhibits
Process Materials Inputs/Pollution Outputs - Lead
Process
Lead Sintering
Lead Smelting
Lead Dressing
Lead Refining
Lead-acid Battery
Breaking
Secondary Lead
Smelting
Material Input
Lead ore, iron, silica,
limestone flux, coke,
soda, ash, pyrite,
zinc, caustic, and
baghouse dust
Lead sinter, coke
Lead bullion, soda
ash, sulfur, baghouse
dust, coke
Lead drossing bullion
Lead-acid batteries
Battery scrap, rerun
slag, drosses, oxides,
iron, limestone, and
coke
Air Emissions
Sulfur dioxide,
p articulate
matter containing
cadmium and
lead
Sulfur dioxide,
particulate
matter containing
cadmium and
lead
Sulfur dioxide,
particulate
matter containing
cadmium and
lead
Process Wastes
Plant washdown
wastewater, slag
granulation water
Other Wastes
Slag containing
impurities such as
zinc, iron, silica,
and lime, surface
impoundment
solids (K065)
Slag containing
such impurities as
copper, surface
impoundment
solids (K065)
Polypropylene
case fragments,
dilute sulfuric
acid
Slag, emission
control dust
(K069)
Primary Lead Processing
Primary lead processing activities usually result in air emissions,
process wastes, and other solid-phase wastes. The primary air
emissions from lead processing are substantial quantities of SO2 and/or
particulates. Nearly 85 percent of the sulfur present in the lead ore
concentrate is eliminated in the sintering operation. The offgas
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containing a strong stream of SO2 (five to seven percent SC>2) is sent to a
sulfuric acid plant, while the weak stream (less than 0.5 percent SC>2) is
vented to the atmosphere after removal of particulates. Particulate
emissions from sinter machines range from five to 20 percent of the
concentrated ore feed. Approximately 15 percent of the sulfur in the
ore concentrate fed to the sinter machine is eliminated in the blast
furnace. However, only half of this amount, about seven percent of
the total sulfur in the ore, is emitted as SC>2. Particulate emissions
from blast furnaces contain many different kinds of material, including
a range of lead oxides, quartz, limestone, iron pyrites, iron-limestone-
silicate slag, arsenic, and other metallic compounds associated with
lead ores. The emission controls most commonly employed are fabric
filters and electrostatic precipitators.
As mentioned above, approximately seven percent of the total sulfur
present in lead ore is emitted as SOz The remainder is captured by the
blast furnace slag. The blast furnace slag is composed primarily of iron
and silicon oxides, as well as aluminum and calcium oxides. Other
metals may also be present in smaller amounts including antimony,
arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead,
manganese, mercury, molybdenum, silver, and zinc. This blast furnace
slag is either recycled back into the process or disposed of in piles on
site. About 50-60 percent of the recovery furnace output is slag and
residual lead that are both returned to the blast furnace. The
remainder of this dross furnace output is sold to copper smelters for
recovery of the copper and other precious metals.
Slag from the primary processing of lead that is not recycled was
retained within the Bevill exemption and addressed in the 1990 Report
to Congress. In the subsequent regulatory determination (56 PR 27300),
EPA determined that regulation of this waste under Subtitle C was not
warranted.
The smelting of primary lead produces a number of wastewaters and
slurries, including acid plant blowdown, slag granulation water, and
plant washdown water. Slag granulation water is generated when slag
is disposed. It can either be sent directly to a slag pile or granulated in a
water jet before being transported to the slag pile. The granulation
process cools newly generated hot slag with a water spray. Slag
granulation water is often transported to surface impoundments for
settling. Plant washdown water results from plant housekeeping and
normally contains a substantial amount of lead and other process
materials. Acid plant blowdown results from the conversion of SO2 to
sulfuric acid. All of these materials are included in the definition of
hazardous waste K065.
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Secondary Lead Processing
Secondary lead processing results in the generation of air emissions
and solid-phase wastes. As with primary lead processing, reverberatory
and blast furnaces used in smelting account for the vast majority of the
total lead emissions. Other emissions from secondary smelting include
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, antimony, arsenic, copper, and tin.
Smelting emissions are generally controlled with a settling and cooling
chamber, followed by a baghouse. Other air emissions are generated
during battery breaking. Emissions from battery breaking are mainly
sulfuric acid and dusts containing dirt, battery case material, and lead
compounds. Emissions from crushing are also mainly dusts.
The solid-phase wastes generated by secondary processing are emission
control dust and slag. Slag is generated from smelting, and the
emission control dust, when captured and disposed of, is considered to
be hazardous waste K069.
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VI. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ZINC PROCESSING
VI.A. Characterization of the Industry - Zinc
This section provides background information on the size, geographic
distribution, employment, production, sales, and economic condition
of the Primary and Secondary Zinc Industry. The type of facilities
described within the document are also described in terms of their
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes.
VI.A.l. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution - Zinc
The following discussion is based upon "U.S. Industrial Outlook
1994 - Metals," U.S. Department of Commerce, and information
provided by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines.
Variation in facility counts occur across data sources due to many
factors, including reporting and definitional differences. This
document does not attempt to reconcile these differences, but rather
reports the data as they are maintained by each source.
Zinc is the fourth most widely used metal after iron, aluminum, and
copper (lead is fifth). In abundant supply world-wide, zinc is mined
and produced mainly in Canada, the former Soviet Union, Australia,
Peru, Mexico, and the United States. Historically, in the U.S.
recoverable zinc has been mined in 19 States: Alaska, Arizona,
Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New
Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee,
Utah, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. In 1993, nearly 50 percent
of all domestic zinc was produced in Alaska. Except for Missouri (eight
percent) other exact state production figures were withheld to protect
company proprietary data. Other top producing states in order of
output were Tennessee, New York, and Missouri.
In 1993, the zinc industry employed 22,250 workers at mines and mills
and 1,400 at primary smelters. For 1994, mine and mill employment
was expected to stay at 2,200 and employment at zinc smelters was
expected to decrease to 1,100 (U.S. DOI, Bureau of Mines, 1995).
Employment decreases for primary smelters was attributed to the
indefinite closures of a smelter in Oklahoma in later 1993. The four
primary zinc smelters in the U.S., are located in Illinois, Oklahoma,
Tennessee and Pennsylvania. There are currently 10 secondary zinc
recovery plants in the U.S. (U.S. EPA, AP42,1993).
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Nbnferrous Metals
VI.A.2. Product Characterization - Zinc
The U.S. accounts for almost one-quarter of worldwide slab zinc
consumption and is the world's single largest market. About 80
percent of zinc is used in metal form while the rest is used in
compound form. Ninety percent of zinc metal is used for galvanizing
steel (a form of corrosion protection) and for alloys, and is used in a
wide variety of materials in the automotive, construction, electrical,
and machinery sectors of the economy. Zinc compound use also varies
widely, but is mainly found in the agricultural, chemical, paint,
pharmaceutical, and rubber sectors of the economy.
VLA.3. Economic Trends - Zinc
In 1993, both domestic mine and slab zinc production were down, with
slab zinc production down 4.75 percent to .381 Mmt. This production
slump was off-set by domestic consumption which increased
significantly in 1993, up eight percent, to 1.15 Mmt due to a surge in
galvanized steel shipments. Strong growth in automobile demand and
continued improvement in the construction industry led to increased
consumption along with increased zinc die casting consumption.
Consumption of zinc compounds also increased, especially of zinc
oxide which increased over 27 percent. More than half of domestic
zinc oxide production went to the rubber industry, primarily for use in
producing tires (zinc is used in the compounding of rubber before it is
cured).
In 1994, domestic refined zinc production is expected to continue its
downward trend and drop 3.5 percent from .381 to .370 Mmt. However,
domestic demand for zinc is expected to grow 4.2 percent in 1994 to 1.22
Mmt due to increases in all end uses except for nonresidential
construction. This increased domestic demand should be met in large
part by imports from Canada and Mexico. Imports of slab zinc mainly
from these two countries in 1993 made up for almost 65 percent of
domestic consumption. Zinc alloy was given preferential status in the
Generalized System of Preferences 1990, which allows Mexico and
member countries to export zinc alloys to the U.S. duty free. Tariffs on
zinc from Canada will be phased out by 1998 due to the U.S.-Canada
Free Trade Agreement. Zinc from the former Soviet Union is not
expected to be used for U.S. consumption though its production is
expected to negatively affect the U.S. market. This situation is similar
to that for other metals in that over-production by former eastern bloc
countries causes world prices to drop as London Metal Exchange
warehouse supplies increase.
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Domestically, the long-term demand for zinc is expected to increase,
with consumption rising about 2.2 percent a year to reach 1.27 Mmt by
1998. Galvanization using zinc is expected to continue as the largest
end-user of zinc, and it is predicted that by 1995 virtually all
automobiles sold in the U.S. will be made from two-sided steel,
enabling these vehicles to last at least ten years without any perforation
damage. Zinc die-casting is also expected to increase in use as new
applications are put into use.
VLB. Industrial Process Description
VI.B.l.
This section describes the major industrial processes within the
Primary and Secondary Zinc Processing industry, including the
materials and equipment used, and the processes employed. The
section is designed for those interested in gaining a general
understanding of the industry, and for those interested in the inter-
relationship between the industrial process and the topics described in
subsequent sections of this profile pollutant outputs, pollution
prevention opportunities, and Federal regulations. This section does
not attempt to replicate published engineering information that is
available for this industry. Refer to Section IX for a list of reference
documents that are available.
This section specifically contains a description of commonly used
production processes, associated raw materials, the byproducts
produced or released, and the materials either recycled or transferred
off-site. This discussion, coupled with schematic drawings of the
identified processes, provide a concise description of where wastes may
be produced in the process. This section also describes the potential fate
(air, water, land) of these waste products.
Industrial Processes in the Primary and Secondary Zinc Processing
Industry
The following discussion is based upon the following documents:
"Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors(AP42), " "Background
Listing Document for K065," "1990 Report to Congress on Special
Wastes from Mineral Processing," published by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and "Recycled Metals in the United
States, A Sustainable Resource," published by U.S. Department of the
Interior, Bureau of Mines.
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Primary Zinc Processing
The primary production of zinc begins with the reduction of zinc
concentrates to metal (the zinc concentration process consists of
separating the ore, which may be as little as two percent zinc, from
waste rock by crushing and flotation, a process normally performed at
the mining site and discussed in more detail in the Metal Mining
Profile). Zinc reduction is accomplished in one of two ways: either
pyrometallurgically by distillation (retorting in a furnace) or
hydrometallurgically by electrowinning. Because hydrometallurgical
refining accounts for approximately 80 percent of total zinc refining,
pyrometallurgical zinc refining will not be discussed in detail in this
profile.
Four processing stages are generally used in hydrometallurgic zinc
refining: calcining, leaching, purification, and electrowinning.
Calcining, or roasting, is common to both pyrometallic and electrolytic
(a form of hydrometallurgy) zinc refining, and is performed- to
eliminate sulfur and form leachable zinc oxide. Roasting is a high-
temperature process that converts zinc sulfide concentrate to an
impure zinc oxide called calcine. Roaster types include multiple-
hearth, suspension, or fluidized-bed. In general, calcining begins with
the mixing of zinc-containing materials with coal. This mixture is
then heated, or roasted, to vaporize the zinc oxide which is then
moved out of the reaction chamber with the resulting gas stream. The
gas stream is directed to the bag-house (filter) area where the zinc oxide
is captured in bag-house dust.
In a multiple-hearth roaster, the concentrate drops through a series of
nine or more hearths stacked inside a brick-lined cylindrical column.
As the feed concentrate drops through the furnace, it is first dried by
the hot gases passing through the hearths and then oxidized to produce
calcine. Multiple hearth roasters are unpressurized and operate at
approximately 1,300 degrees F.
In a suspension roaster, the concentrates are blown into a combustion
chamber. The roaster consists of a refractory-lined cylindrical shell,
with a large combustion space at the top and two to four hearths in the
lower portion. Additional grinding, beyond that required for a
multiple hearth furnace, is normally required to assure that heat
transfer to the material is sufficiently rapid for desulfurization and
oxidation reaction to occur in the furnace chamber. Suspension
roasters are also unpressurized and operate at about 1,800 degrees F.
Fluidized bed roasters require that the sulfide concentrates be finely
ground. The concentrates are then suspended and oxidized on a
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feedstock bed supported on an air column. As in the suspension bed
roaster, the reduction rates for desulfurization are more rapid than in
the older multiple-hearth processes. Fluidized-bed roasters operate
under a pressure slightly lower than atmospheric and at temperatures
averaging 1,800 degrees F. In the fluidized-bed process, no additional
fuel is required after ignition has been achieved. The major
advantages of this roaster are greater throughput capacities and greater
sulfur removal capabilities. All of the above calcining processes
generate sulfur dioxide, which is controlled and converted to sulfuric
acid as a marketable process by-product.
Electrolytic processing of desulfurized calcine consists of three basic
steps; leaching, purification, and electrolysis. Leaching refers to the
dissolving of tike captured calcine in a solution of sulfuric acid to form
a zinc sulfate solution. The calcine may be leached once or twice. In
the double-leach method, the calcine is dissolved in a slightly acidic
solution to remove the sulfates. The calcine is then leached a second
time in a stronger solution which dissolves the zinc. This second
leaching step is actually the beginning of the third step of purification
because many of the iron impurities (such as goethite and hematite)
drop out of the solution as well as the zinc.
After leaching, the solution is purified in two or more stages by adding
zinc dust. The solution is purified as the dust forces deleterious
elements to precipitate so that they can be filtered out. Purification is
usually conducted in large agitation tanks. The process takes place at
temperatures ranging from 104 to 185 degrees F, and pressures ranging
from atmospheric to 2.4 atmospheres. The elements recovered during
purification include copper as a cake and cadmium as a metal. After
purification the solution is ready for the final step; electrowinning.
Zinc electrowinning takes place in an electrolytic cell and involves
running an electric current from a lead-silver alloy anode through the
aqueous zinc solution. This process charges the suspended zinc and
forces it to deposit onto an aluminum cathode (a plate with an opposite
charge) which is immersed in the solution. Every 24 to 48 hours, each
cell is shut down, the zinc-coated cathodes removed and rinsed, and
the zinc mechanically stripped from the aluminum plates. The zinc
concentrate is then melted and cast into ingots, and is often as high as
99.995 percent pure.
Electrolytic zinc smelters contain as many as several hundred cells. A
portion of the electrical energy is converted into heat, which increases
the temperature of the electrolyte. Electrolytic cells operate at
temperature ranges from 86 to 95 degrees F at atmospheric
temperature. During electrowinning a portion of the electrolyte passes
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through cooling towers to decrease its temperature and to evaporate
the water it collects during the process.
Sulfur dioxide is generated in large quantities during the primary zinc
refining process and sulfur fixation is carried out concurrently with the
primary production process in order to meet CAA emission standards.
Concentrations of sulfur dioxide in the off-gas vary with the type of
roaster operation. Typical concentrations for multiple hearth,
suspension, and fluidized bed roasters are 4.5 to 6.5 percent, 10 to 13
percent, and 7 to 12 percent respectively. This sulfur dioxide is then
converted into sulfuric acid.
The sulfur recovery process requires that the emissions from the zinc
calcining, or roasting process, where over 90 percent of potential sulfur
dioxide is generated during primary zinc refining, flow through a
filtering material in the air emissions scrubber to capture the sulfur. A
blowdown slurry is formed from the mixture of the filtering material
and sulfur emissions. This slurry contains not only sulfur, but
cadmium and lead, materials that are always present in zinc ore. The
acid plant blowdown slurry/sludge that results from thickening of
blowdown slurry at primary zinc facilities is regulated by RCRA as
hazardous waste K066.
During the electrolytic refining of zinc, solid materials in the
electrolytic solution that are not captured previously during
purification may precipitate out in the electrolytic cell. When the cells
undergo their periodic shutdown to recover zinc, this precipitated
waste (known as anode slimes/sludges) is collected during cell
cleaning. Once collected it is sent to a waste water treatment plant and
the resulting sludges are also regulated by RCRA as hazardous waste
K066.
Secondary Zinc Processing
The secondary zinc industry processes scrap metals for the recovery of
zinc in the form of zinc slabs, zinc oxide, or zinc dust. Zinc recovery
involves three general operations; pretreatment, melting, and refining
(see Exhibit 9). Secondary recovery begins with the separation of zinc-
containing metals from other materials, usually by magnetics, sink-
float, or hand sorting. In situations where nonferrous metals have
been mixed in shredder scrap, zinc can be separated from higher-
melting metals such as copper and aluminum, by selective melting in a
sweating furnace. A sweating furnace (rotary, reverberatory, or muffle
furnace) slowly heats the scrap containing zinc and other metals to
approximately 787 degrees F. This temperature is sufficient to melt
zinc but is still below the melting point of the remaining metals.
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Exhibit 9 Secondary Zinc Processing
z
o
5
Q * ui <
cn± I xo:
uiae t: = O
ac<« OS 10
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Molten zinc collects at the bottom of the sweat furnace and is
subsequently recovered. The remaining scrap is cooled and removed
to be sold to other secondary processors. In the case of zinc-galvanized
steel, the zinc will be recovered largely in furnace dust after the scrap is
charged into a steel making furnace and melted. Almost all of the zinc
in electric arc furnace (EAF) dust is first recovered in an upgraded,
impure zinc oxide product and is then shipped to primary
pyrometallurgical zinc smelter for refinement to metal.
Clean new scrap, mainly brass and rolled zinc clippings and reject
diecastings, generally require only re-melting before reuse. During
melting, the zinc-containing material is heated in kettle, crucible,
reverberatory, and electric induction furnaces. Flux is used to trap
impurities from the molten zinc. Facilitated by agitation, flux and
impurities float to the surface of the melt as dross, and is skimmed
from the surface. The remaining molten zinc may be poured into
molds or transferred to the refining operation in a molten state.
Drosses, fragmentized diecastings, and mixed high-grade scrap are
typically re-melted, followed by zinc distillation with recovery as metal,
dust, or oxide. Sometimes, high-purity drosses are simply melted and
reacted with various fluxes to release the metallic content; often the
recovered metal can be used directly as a galvanizing brightener or
master alloy. Zinc alloys are produced from pretreated scrap during
sweating and melting processes. The alloys may contain small
amounts of copper, aluminum, magnesium, iron, lead, cadmium, and
tin. Alloys containing 0.65 to 1.25 percent copper are significantly
stronger than unalloyed zinc.
Medium and low-grade skims, oxidic dust, ash, and residues generally
undergo an intermediate reduction-distillation pyrometallurgical step
to upgrade the zinc product before further treatment; or, they are
leached with acid, alkaline, or ammoniacal solutions to extract zinc.
For leaching, the zinc containing material is crushed and washed with
water, separating contaminants from zinc-containing material. The
contaminated aqueous stream is treated with sodium carbonate to
convert zinc chloride into sodium chloride and insoluble zinc
hydroxide. The sodium chloride is separated from the insoluble
residues by filtration and settling. The precipitate zinc hydroxide is
dried and calcined (dehydrated into a powder at high temperature) to
convert it into crude zinc oxide. The zinc oxide product is usually
refined to zinc at primary zinc smelters. The washed zinc-containing
metal portion becomes the raw material for the melting process.
Distillation retorts and furnaces are used either to reclaim zinc from
alloys or to refine crude zinc. Bottle retort furnaces consist of a pear-
shaped ceramic retort (a long-necked vessel used for distillation).
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Bottle retorts are filled with zinc alloys and heated until most of the
zinc is vaporized, sometimes as long as 24 hours. Distillation involves
vaporization of zinc at temperatures from 1800 to 2280 degrees F, and
condensation as zinc dust or liquid zinc. Zinc dust is produced by
vaporization and rapid cooling, and liquid zinc results when the
vaporous product is condensed slowly at moderate temperatures.
A muffle furnace is a continuously charged retort furnace which can
operate for several days at a time. Molten zinc is charged through a
feed well that also acts as an airlock. Muffle furnaces generally have a
much greater vaporization capacity than bottle retort furnaces.
Air pollution control can be an area of concern when pyrometallurgical
processes are employed in the secondary recovery of zinc. When the
recovery process used is simply an iron pot re-melt operation to
produce zinc metal, fumes will not normally be generated. If slab zinc
is needed and a rotary furnace is used, any air emissions are captured
directly from the venting system (a rotating furnace sweats, or melts,
the zinc separating it from drosses with different melting points, which
allows it to be poured off separately). Air emissions become more of a
concern when more complicated processes are used to produce zinc
powder. Retort and muffle furnaces used to produce zinc powder heat
the zinc and other charges to such a high temperature that the zinc
vaporizes and is captured in the pollution control equipment. It is this
zinc oxide dust that is the process1 marketable product. Hoods are
employed around the furnace openings used to add additional charge.
The fumes collected from the hoods are not normally of high quality
and will be used for products like fertilizer and animal feed.
For the most part, the zinc materials recovered from secondary
materials such as slab zinc, alloys, dusts, and compounds are
comparable in quality to primary products. Zinc in brass is the
principal form of secondary recovery, although secondary slab zinc has
risen substantially over the last few years because it has been the
principal zinc product of EAF dust recycling. Impure zinc oxide
products and zinc-bearing slags are sometimes used as trace element
additives in fertilizers and animal feeds. Currently about 10 percent of
the domestic requirement for zinc is satisfied by old scrap.
Due to environmental concerns, both domestic and world-wide
secondary recovery of zinc (versus disposal) is expected to increase.
However, the prospect for gains higher than 35 to 40 percent of zinc
consumption is relatively poor because of the dissipative nature of zinc
vapor.
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VI.B.2. Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs
The material inputs and pollution outputs resulting from primary and
secondary zinc processing are presented by media in Exhibit 10.
I
Process Materials In
Process
Zinc Calcining
Zinc Leaching
Zinc Purification
Zinc Electrowinning
Secondary Zinc
Smelting
Secondary Zinc
Reduction
Distillation
Material Input
Zinc ore, coke
Zinc calcine, sulfuric
acid, limestone, spent
electrolyte
Zinc-acid solution,
zinc dust
Zinc in a sulfuric
acid/aqueous
solution, lead-silver
alloy anodes,
aluminum cathodes,
barium carbonate, or
strontium, colloidal
additives
Zinc scrap, electric
arc furnace dust,
drosses, diecastings,
fluxes
Medium-grade zinc
drosses, oxidic dust,
acids, alkalines, or
ammoniacal solutions
ixhibitlO
juts/Pollution Outputs - Zinc
Air Emissions
Sulfur dioxide,
particulate
matter containing
zinc and lead
Particulates
Zinc oxide fumes
Process Wastes
Wastewaters
containing
sulfuric acid
Wastewaters
containing
sulfuric acid, iron
Dilute sulfuric
acid
Other Wastes
Acid plant
blowdown slurry
(K066)
Copper cake,
cadmium
Electrolytic cell
slimes/sludges
(K066)
Slags containing
copper,
aluminum, iron,
lead, and other
impurities'
Slags containing
copper,
aluminum, iron,
lead, and other
impurities
Primary Zinc Processing
Primary zinc processing activities generate air emissions, process
wastes, and other solid-phase wastes. Air emissions are generated
during roasting, which is responsible for more than 90 percent of the
potential SO2 emissions. Approximately 93 to 97 percent of the sulfur
in the feed is emitted as sulfur oxides. Sulfur dioxide emissions from
the roasting process at all four primary zinc processing facilities are
recovered at on-site sulfuric acid plants. Much of the particulate matter
emitted from primary zinc facilities is also attributable to roasters.
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Though the amount and composition of p articulate varies with
operating parameters, the particulate is likely to contain zinc and lead.
Wastewaters may be generated during the leaching, purification, and
electrowinning stages of primary zinc processing when electrolyte and
acid solutions become too contaminated to be reused again. This
wastewater needs to be treated before discharge.
Solid wastes, some of which are hazardous, are generated at various
stages in primary zinc processing. Slurry generated during the
operation of sulfuric acid plants is regulated as hazardous waste K066 as
is the sludge removed from the bottom of electrolytic cells. The solid
copper cake generated during purification is generally sent off-site to
recover the copper.
Secondary Zinc Processing
Secondary zinc processing generates air emissions and solid-phase
wastes. Air emissions result from sweating and melting and consist of
particulate, zinc fumes, other volatile metals, flux fumes, and smoke
generated by the incomplete combustion of grease, rubber, and plastics
in zinc scrap. Zinc fumes are negligible at low furnace temperatures.
Substantial emissions may arise from incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous material in the zinc scrap. These contaminants are
usually controlled by afterburners, and particulate emissions are most
commonly recovered by fabric filters. Emissions from refining
operations are mainly metallic fumes. Distillation/oxidations
operations emit their entire zinc oxide product in the exhaust dust.
Zinc oxide is usually recovered in fabric filters with collection
efficiencies of 9 to 99 percent.
The secondary zinc recovery process generates slags that contain metals
such as copper, aluminum, iron, and lead. Though slag generated
during primary pyrometallurgical processes is exempt from regulation
as a hazardous waste under RCRA, slag resulting from secondary
processing is not automatically exempt. Therefore if secondary
processing slag exhibits a characteristic (e.g., toxicity for lead), it would
need to be managed as a hazardous waste.
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VII. MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICALS IN WASTESTREAM
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (EPA) requires facilities to report
information about the management of TRI chemicals in waste and
efforts made to eliminate or reduce.those quantities. These data have
been collected annually in Section 8 of the TRI reporting Form R
beginning with the 1991 reporting year. The data summarized below
cover the years 1992-1995 and is meant to provide a basic
understanding of the quantities of waste handled by the industry, the
methods typically used to manage this waste, and recent trends in these
methods. TRI waste management data can be used to assess trends in
source reduction within individual industries and facilities, and for
specific TRI chemicals. This information could then be used as a tool
in identifying opportunities for pollution prevention compliance
assistance activities.
While the quantities reported for 1992 and 1993 are estimates of
quantities already managed, the quantities reported for 1994 and 1995
are projections only. The EPA requires these projections to encourage
facilities to consider future waste generation and source reduction of
those quantities as well as movement up the waste management
hierarchy. Future-year estimates are not commitments that facilities
reporting under TRI are required to meet.
Exhibit 11 shows that the primary and secondary metals industry
managed about 1.9 billion pounds of production-related waste (total
quantity of TRI chemicals in the waste from routine production
operations) in 1993 (column B). Column C reveals that of this
production-related waste, 35 percent was either transferred off-site or
released to the environment. Column C is calculated by dividing the
total TRI transfers and releases by the total quantity of production-
related waste. In other words, about 70 percent of the industry's TRI
wastes were managed on-site through recycling, energy recovery, or
treatment as shown in columns D, E and F, respectively. The majority
of waste that is released or transferred off-site can be divided into
portions that are recycled off-site, recovered for energy off-site, or
treated off-site as shown in columns G, H, and I, respectively. The
remaining portion of the production-related wastes (12.8 percent),
shown in column J, is either released to the environment through
direct discharges to air, land, water, and underground injection, or it is
disposed off-site.
From the yearly data presented below it is apparent that the portion of
TRI wastes reported as recycled on-site has increased and the portions
treated or managed through energy recovery on-site have remained
steady, but are projected to decrease, between 1992 and 1995.
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Exhibit 11
Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for SIC 333-334
A
Year
1992
1993
1994
1995
B
Production
Related
Waste
Volume
(I06lbs.)»
1,875
1,991
2,014
2,023
C
% Reported as
Released
and
Transferred
28%
35%
D
E
F
On-Site
%
Recycled
42.98%
44.77%
46.79%
48.42%
% Energy
Recovery
1.05%
0.99%
0.88%
1.01%
% Treated
23.93%
23.75%
23.12%
21.16%
G
H
I
Off-Site
%
Recycled
17.38%
17.17%
16.60%
16.39%
% Energy
Recovery
0.15%
0.16%
0.14%
0.18%
%
Treated
0.89%
0.33%
0.35%
0.39%
J
Remaining
Releases
and
Disposal
12.68%
12.85%
12.11%
12.45%
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VIII. CHEMICAL RELEASE AND TRANSFER PROFILE
This section is designed to provide background information on the
pollutant releases that are reported by this industry. The best source of
comparative pollutant release information is the Toxic Release
Inventory System (TRI). Pursuant to the Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know Act, TRI includes self-reported facility
release and transfer data for over 600 toxic chemicals. Facilities within
SIC Codes 20-39 (manufacturing industries) that have more than 10
employees, and that are above weight-based reporting thresholds are
required to report TRI on-site releases and off-site transfers. The
information presented within the sector notebooks is derived from the
most recently available (1993) TRI reporting year (which then included
316 chemicals), and focuses primarily on the on-site releases reported
by each sector. Because TRI requires consistent reporting regardless of
sector, it is an excellent tool for drawing comparisons across industries.
Although this sector notebook ddes not present historical information
regarding TRI chemical releases over time, please note that in general,
toxic chemical releases have been declining. In fact, according to the
1993 Toxic Release Inventory Data Book, reported releases dropped by
42.7% between 1988 and 1993. Although on-site releases have
decreased, the total amount of reported toxic waste has not declined
because the amount of toxic chemicals transferred off-site has
increased. Transfers have increased from 3.7 billion pounds in 1991 to
4.7 billion pounds in 1993. Better management practices have led to
increases in off-site transfers of toxic chemicals for recycling. More
detailed information can be obtained from EPA's annual Toxics
Release Inventory Public Data Release book (which is available
through the EPCRA Hotline at 1-800-535-0202), or directly from the
Toxic Release Inventory System database (for user support call 202-260-
1531).
Wherever possible, the sector notebooks present TRI data as the
primary indicator of chemical release within each industrial category.
TRI data provide the type, amount, and media receptor of each
chemical released or transferred. When other sources of pollutant
release data have been obtained, these data have been included to
augment the TRI information.
TRI Data Limitations
The reader should keep in mind the following limitations regarding
TRI data. Within some sectors, the majority of facilities are not subject
to TRI reporting because they are not considered manufacturing
industries, or because they are below TRI reporting thresholds.
September 1995 53 SIC Codes 333-3&T"
-------
Nonfenous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
Examples are the mining, dry cleaning, printing, and transportation
equipment cleaning sectors. For these sectors, release information
from other sources has been included.
The reader should also be aware that TRI "pounds released" data
presented within the notebooks is not equivalent to a "risk" ranking
for each industry. Weighting each pound of release equally does not
factor in the relative toxicity of each chemical that is released. The
Agency is in the process of developing an approach to assign
toxicological weightings to each chemical released so that one can
differentiate between pollutants with significant differences in toxicity.
As a preliminary indicator of the environmental impact of the
industry's most commonly released chemicals, the notebook briefly
summarizes the toxicological properties of the top five chemicals (by
weight) reported by each industry.
Definitions Associated With Section IV Data Tables
General Definitions
SIC Code the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) is a statistical
classification standard used for all establishment-based Federal
economic statistics. The SIC codes facilitate comparisons between
facility and industry data.
TRI Facilities are manufacturing facilities that have 10 or more full-
time employees and are above established chemical throughput
thresholds. Manufacturing facilities are defined as facilities in
Standard Industrial Classification primary codes 20-39. Facilities must
submit estimates for all chemicals that are on the EPA's defined list
and are above throughput thresholds.
Data Table Column Heading Definitions
The following definitions are based upon standard definitions
developed by EPA's Toxic Release Inventory Program. The categories
below represent the possible pollutant destinations that can be
reported.
RELEASES are an on-site discharge of a toxic chemical to the
environment. This includes emissions to the air, discharges to bodies
of water, releases at the facility to land, as well as contained disposal
into underground injection wells.
SIC Codes 333-334
54
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
Releases to Air (Point and Fugitive Air Emissions) Include all air
emissions from industry activity. Point emissions occur through
confined air streams as found in stacks, ducts, or pipes. Fugitive
emissions include losses from equipment leaks, or evaporative losses
from impoundments, spills, or leaks.
Releases to Water (Surface Water Discharges) - encompass any releases
going directly to streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, or other bodies of water.
Any estimates for stormwater runoff and non-point losses must also be
included.
Releases to Land includes disposal of waste to on-site landfills, waste
that is land treated or incorporated into soil, surface impoundments,
spills, leaks, or waste piles. These activities must occur within the
facility's boundaries for inclusion in this category.
Underground Injection is a contained release of a fluid into a
subsurface well for the purpose of waste disposal.
TRANSFERS is a transfer of toxic chemicals in wastes to a facility that
is geographically or physically separate from the facility reporting
under TRI. The quantities reported represent a movement of the
chemical away from the reporting facility. Except for off-site transfers
for disposal, these quantities do not necessarily represent entry of the
chemical into the environment.
Transfers to POTWs are wastewaters transferred through pipes or
sewers to a publicly owned treatments works (POTW). Treatment and
chemical removal depend on the chemical's nature and treatment
methods used. Chemicals not treated or destroyed by the POTW are
generally released to surface waters or landfilled within the sludge.
Transfers to Recycling are sent off-site for the purposes of
regenerating or recovering still valuable materials. Once these
chemicals have been recycled, they may be returned to the originating
facility or sold commercially.
Transfers to Energy Recovery are wastes combusted off-site in
industrial furnaces for energy recovery. Treatment of a chemical by
incineration is not considered to be energy recovery.
Transfers to Treatment are wastes moved off-site for either
neutralization, incineration, biological destruction, or physical
separation. In some cases, the chemicals are not destroyed but prepared
for further waste management.
September 1995
55
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
Transfers to Disposal are wastes taken to another facility for disposal
generally as a release to land or as an injection underground.
V1HA. EPA Toxics Release Inventory for the Nonferrous Metals Industry
TRI release amounts listed below are not associated with non-
compliance with environmental laws. These facilities appear based on
self-reported data submitted to the Toxics Release Inventory program.
Exhibits 11-16 illustrate TRI releases and transfers for the primary
nonferrous metals smelting and refining industry (SIC 333). For SIC
333 as a whole, chlorine comprises the largest number of TRI releases.
This is reflected in the fact that chlorine is a by-product of the
magnesium industry and the largest reporter for SIC 333 is a
magnesium facility. The other top SIC 333 releases are copper
compounds, zinc compounds, lead compounds, and sulfuric acid, all of
which are by-products of the processes discussed previously.
The TRI database contains a detailed compilation of self-reported,
facility-specific chemical releases. The top reporting facilities for this
sector are listed below. Facilities that have reported only the SIC codes
covered under this notebook appear on the first list. The second list
contains additional facilities that have reported the SIC code covered
within this report, and one or more SIC codes that are not within the
scope of this notebook. Therefore, the second list includes facilities that
conduct multiple operations some that are under the scope of this
notebook, and some that are not. Currently, the facility-level data do
not allow pollutant releases to be broken apart by industrial process.
SIC Codes 333-334
56
September 1995
-------
Sectoi Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
Exhibit 12
Top 10 TRI Releasing Primary Metal Industries Facilities (SIC 333)
SIC Codes
3339
3339
3331
3331
3339
3331
3339
1021, 3331,
3351
3331
3321, 3365
Total TRI
Releases in
Pounds
73,300,250
42,728,498
14,773,759
11,717,315
8,194,328
8,142,539
7,085,302
6,223,505
5,970,420
4,496,188
Facility Name
Magnesium Corp. of
America, Rowley Plant
Asarco, Inc., E. Helena Plant
Phelps Dodge Mining Co.,
Hidalgo Smelter
Kennecott Utah Copper
DOE Run Co., Herculaneum
Smelter
Chino Mines Co., Hurley
Smelter
Asarco, Inc., Glover Plant
Cyprus Miami Mining Corp.
Asarco, Inc., Amarillo
Copper Refinery
GMC Powertrain Group,
Saginaw Grey Iron
City
Rowley
East Helena
Playas
Magna
Herculaneum
Hurley
Annapolis
Claypool
Amarillo
Saginaw
State
UT
MT
NM
UT
MO
NM
MD
AZ
TX
MI
bource: U.b LFA, 1 oxics Release Inventory Database, 1993.
Exhibit 13
Top 10 TRI Releasing Primary Smelting and Refining Facilities
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total TRI
Releases in
Pounds
73,300,250
42,728,498
14,773,759
1,1717,315
8,194,328
8,142,539
7,085,302
5,970,420
1,123,708
780,927
Facility Name
Magnesium Corp. of America, Rowley Plant
Asarco Inc., E. Helena Plant
Phelps Dodge Mining Co., Hidalgo Smelter
Kennecott Utah Copper
Doe Run Co., Herculaneum Smelter
Chino Mines Co., Hurley Smelter
Asarco, Inc., Glover Plant
Asarco, Inc., Amarillo Copper Refinery
Glenbrook Nickel Co.
Alcoa Rockdale Works
City
Rowley
East Helena
Playas
Magna
Herculaneum
Hurley
Annapolis
Amarillo
Riddle
Rockdale
State
UT
MT
NM
UT
MO
NM
MD
TX
OR
TX
bource: U.S. EPA, Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1993.,
Note: Being included on these lists does not mean that the release is associated with non-compliance
with environmental laws.
September 1995
57
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
Exhibit 14
TRI Reporting Primary Smelting and Refining Facilities (SIC 333) by State
State
AZ
CO
CT
IN
KY
MD
MO
MT
NC
NE
NJ
Number of
Facilities
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
2
1
1
State
MM
NY
OH
OR
PA
SC
TX
UT
VA
WA
Number of
Facilities
2
2
3
3
2
1
5
3
1
7
Source:
S. EPA, Toxics Release inventory uataoase,
SIC Codes 333-334
58
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
Exhibit 15
Releases for Primary Smelting and Refining (SIC 333) in TRI, by Number of
Facilities (releases reported in pounds/year)
Chemical Name
Copper
Chlorine
Sulfuric Acid
Hydrogen Fluoride
Manganese
Zinc Compounds
Chromium
Copper Compounds
Hydrochloric Acid
Lead Compounds
Arsenic Compounds
Antimony Compounds
Cadmium Compounds
Nickel Compounds
Nitric Acid
Aluminum (Fume Or
Dust)
Lead
Nickel
Silver Compounds
Barium Compounds
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium Compounds
Manganese Compounds
Selenium Compounds
Zinc (Fume Or Dust)
1,1,1 -Trichloroethane
Anthracene
Antimony
Cobalt
Cobalt Compounds
Cyanide Compounds
Ethylene Glycol
Phosphoric Acid
Thiourea
Ammonia
Beryllium Compounds
Cresol (Mixed Isomers)
Decabromodiphenyl
Oxide
Dichlorodifluoromethane
M-Xylene
Naphthalene
Phenol
Styrene
Thallium
Titanium Tetrachloride
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
Total
# Facilities
Reporting
Chemical
20
19
15
14
11
10
8
8
8
8
7
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Fugitive
Air
9412
153751
24527
1565588
15
47545
10
559987
3853
68834
7147
6319
1286
1323
15
5760
138589
345
848
5
270
981
250
620
1350
10190
75031
250
500
250
669
0
0
0
60
250
0
250
0
18000
14000
0
0
1900
5
250
18000
2,738,235
Point Air
248340
67037082
1013009
1520212
5130
102940
398
408015
6155294
274504
30181
4398
18912
8956
23670
32472
96836
781
2210
1850
28264
6181
592
823
38000
25682
0
25487
10915
5
262
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
250
0
0
467
0
0
250
250
0
77,122,618
Water
Discharges
508
2803
0
5
0
8505
5
1502
0
7263
3005
3143
311
225
0
44
18
4
270
0
9
11
250
0
250
46
0
0
5
0
255
500
0
0
0
0
0
250
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
29,188
Under-
ground
Injection
0
0
5700000
0
0
5
0
65000
5
730
52000
2100
0
4200
5
0
0
0
100
890
0
0
0
0
2300
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5300
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5,832,635
Land
Disposal
500254
11
100920
0
5
42345637
0
27574267
5
7713452
2190652
661740
39734
1149028
15
5
2352628
29052
19633
456308
7114
4824
190005
2400643
120265
4010295
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
255
0
0
750
0
0
0
0
0
5
755
0
0
91,868,262
Total
Releases
758514
67193647
6838456
3085805
5150
42504632
413
28608771
6159157
8064783
2282985
677700
60243
1163732
23705
38281
2588071
30182
23061
459053
35657
11997
191097
2402086
162165
4046213
75031
25737
11420
255
1191
500
0
0
5615
250
0
1250
250
18000
14000
467
1
1905
1010
500
18000
177,590,938
Average
Releases
per Facility
37926
3536508
455897
220415
468
4250463
52
3576096
769895
1008098
326141
112950
10041
193955
3951
7656
517614
6036
4612
114763
11886
3999
63699
800695
54055
1348738
25010
12869
5710
128
596
250
0
0
2808
250
0
1250
250
18000
14000
467
1
1905
1010
500
18000
Source: U.S. EPA, Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1993.
September 1995
59
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
Exhibit 16
Transfers for Primary Smelting and Refining (SIC 333) in TRI, by Number of
Facilities (Transfers reported in pounds/year)
Chemical Name
Copper
Chlorine
Sulfuric Acid
Hydrogen Fluoride
Manganese
Zinc Compounds
Chromium
Copper Compounds
Hydrochloric Acid
Lead Compounds
Arsenic Compounds
Antimony Compounds
Cadmium Compounds
Nickel Compounds
Nitric Acid
Aluminum
(Fume Or Dust)
Lead
Nickel
Silver Compounds
Barium Compounds
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium Compounds
Manganese Compounds
Selenium Compounds
Zinc (Fume Or Dust)
1,1,1-Trichloroethanc
Anthracene
Antimony
Cobalt
Cobalt Compounds
Cyanide Compounds
Ethylcnc Glycol
Phosphoric Acid
Thiourca
Ammonia
Beryllium Compounds
Crcsol (Mixed Isomcrs)
Decabromodiphcnyl Oxide
Dichlorodifluoromc thane
M-Xylcne
Naphthalene
Phenol
Styrene
Thallium
Titanium Tctrachloridc
4-Trimethylbcnzene
Total
# Facilities
Reporting
Chemical
20
19
15
14
11
10
8
8
8
8
7
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
225
POTW
Discharge
5
0
1
0
0
760
0
459
0
2401
386
1749
346
260
0
0
5
5
174
0
5
5
0
41
0
250
0
0
0
0
250
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
7,107
Disposal
17596
600
0
14
2692570
0
2900850
0
2253086
1649205
345100
26097
5
5
317650
5
5765
0
250
1200
0
19005
0
0
14032
4110
0
0
53213
0
0
0
0
0
0
4374
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10,304,732
Recycling
124723
9991
6454346
0
46752
750680
2361
3882069
0
2289461
174013
29836
420187
237910
0
3826700
640899
633
8756
0
55713
212387
15000
5639
0
412568
0
0
1911550
0
77640
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
750
0
0
21,590,564
Treatment
0
0
0
0
0
833231
0
93989
0
11239
634487
15262
62987
3931
11000
0
0
0
255
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
250
0
0
0
0
1813
8673
160
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,677,277
Energy
Recovery
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
Transfers
142324
9991
6454947
0
46766
4277241
2361
6877367
0
4556187
2458091
391947
509617
242106
11005
4144350
640909
638
14950
0
55968
212392
16200
5680
19005
412818
250
14032
1915660
0
77890
55026
8673
160
0
0
0
0
4374
0
0
0
0
0
755
0
0
33,579,680
Average
Transfers
per
Facility
7116
526
430330
0
4251
427724
295
859671
0
569523
351156
65325
84936
40351
1834
828870
128182
128
2990
0
18656
70797
5400
1893
6335
137606
83
7016
957830
0
38945
27513
4337
80
0
0
0
0
4374
0
0
0
0
0
755
0
0
108187.82
Source: U.S. EPA, Toxics Release Inventory Database,
SIC Codes 333-334
60
September 1995
-------
Sector N otebook Proj ect
Nonferrous Metals
Exhibits 17-20 illustrate the TRI releases and transfers for the secondary
nonferrous metals smelting and refining industry (SIC 334). For the
industry as a whole, the largest releases were the various metals:
aluminum (fume or dust), zinc compounds, lead compounds, copper
and zinc (fume or dust).
Exhibit 17
Top 10 TRI Releasing Secondary Smelting and Refining (SIC 334)
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total TRI
Releases in
Founds
881,970
854,630
758,089
329,250
288,070
184,460
147,455
146,852
140,000
131,899
Facility Name
Gulf Chemical & Metallurgical Corp.
Imco Recycling Inc.
Alabama Reclamation Plant
Imco Recycling Inc.
Alcan Recycling Div.
Wabash Alloys
Chemetco Inc.
Schuylkill Metals Corp.
Southern Reclamation Co.
North Chicago Refiners & Smelters
City
Freeport
Morgantown
Sheffield
Sapulpa
Berea
Wabash
Hartford
Baton Rouge
Sheffield
North
Chicago
State
TX
KY
AL
OK
KY
IN
IL
LA
AL
IL
Source: U.S. EPA, Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1993.
Note: Being included on these lists does not mean that the release is associated with non-compliance
with environmental laws.
September 1995
61
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
TMRe
Exhibit 18
orting Secondary Smelting and Refining Facilities (SIC 334) by State
State
AL
AR
AZ
CA
CT
FL
GA
IL
IN
KS
KY
LA
MA
MD
MI
MN
MO
Number of
Facilities
10
3
1
12
2
1
2
17
13
2
5
1
5
1
7
4
4
Source: U.S. EPA, Toxics Release
State
MS
NC
NJ
NM
NY
OH
OK
PA
RI
SC
TN
TX
UT
VA
WI
WV
Number of
Facilities
1
1
5
1
8
12
3
13
3
2
9
6
1
1
4
3
Inventory Database, 1993.
SIC Codes 333-334
62
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Mefafe
Exhibit 19
Releases for Secondary Smelting and Refining (SIC 334) in TRI, by Number of
Facilities (Releases reported in pounds/year)
Chemical Name
Copper
Nickel
Chlorine
Lead
Copper Compounds
Lead Compounds
Manganese
Aluminum (Fume Or
Dust)'
Zinc Compounds
Sulfuric Acid
Chromium
Zinc (Fume Or Dust)
Hydrochloric Acid
Nickel Compounds
Chromium Compounds
Ammonia
Antimony
Antimony Compounds
Silver
Silver Compounds
Manganese Compounds
Nitric Acid
Arsenic
Arsenic Compounds
Barium Compounds
Cadmium Compounds
Cobalt
Cadmium
Hexachloroethane
Aluminum Oxide
(Fibrous Form)
Barium
Beryllium
Methanol
Molybdenum Trioxide
Ammonium Sulfate
(Solution)
Cobalt Compounds
Mercury Compounds
Phosphoric Acid
Phosphorus
(Yellow Or White)
Polychlorinated
Biphenyls
Selenium
Xylene (Mixed Isomers)
1,1,1 -Trichloroethane
Totals
# Facilities
Reporting
Chemical
74
38
32
30
29
25
25
24
24
21
19
19
14
13
10
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
6
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Fugitive
Air
17235
5646
5103
13964
11921
11211
7848
34297
41195
6917
1465
57759
17116
1113
276
1343335
364
115
21
1033
1074
1008
310
10
298
545
905
250
0
0
20
0
1000
500
250
0
250
0
0
0
0
250
250
1,584,854
Point Air
56198
5873
6304
29230
35205
115573
3547
196604
263420
1730
1937
79392
604670
1492
617
168094
373
1294
517
823
3426
2628
308
573
2011
5409
680
874
11536
53
45
5
0
4205
0
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
0
1,604,652
Water
Discharges
2720
262
0
571
358
404
10
922
3049
0
255
331
0
297
0
53229
586
44
251
5
570
0
36
16
0
... 20
5
281
0
0
0
0
0
18750
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
82,977
Under-
ground
Injection
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
57053
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
57,064
Land
Disposal
221287
12934
0
750
1500
147930
74536
641760
0
0
2005
0
0
0
0
353800
5
67760
0
0
0
0
5
27104
0
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,551,401
Total
Releases
297440
24715
11407
44515
48984
275118
85941
873594
307664
8647
5662
137482
621786
2902
893
1975511
1328
69213
789
1861
5070
3636
659
27703
2309
5974
1610
1405
11536
53
65
5
Average
Releases
per
Facility
4019
650
356
1484
1689
11005
3438
36400
12819
412
298
7236
44413
223
89
219501
148
7690
88
207
634
455
94
3958
385
996
268
468
3845
27
33
3
1000| 500
23455
250
0
265
0
0
0
1
250
250
4,880,948
11728
250
0
265
0
0
0
1
250
250
Source: U.S. EPA, Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1993.
September 1995
63
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
Exhibit 20
Transfers for Secondary Smelting and Refining (SIC 334) in TRI, by Number of
Facilities (Transfers reported in pounds/year)
Chemical Name
Copper
Nickel
Chlorine
Lead
Copper Compounds
Lead Compounds
Manganese
Aluminum (Fume Or
Dust)
Zinc Compounds
Sulfuric Acid
Chromium
Zinc (Fume Or Dust)
Hydrochloric Acid
Nickel Compounds
Chromium Compounds
Ammonia
Antimony
Antimony Compounds
Silver
Silver Compounds
Mancanesc Compounds
Nitric Acid
Arsenic
Arsenic Compounds
Barium Compounds
Cadmium Compounds
Cobalt
Cadmium
Hcxach lorocthane
Aluminum Oxide
(Fibrous Form)
Barium
Beryllium
Mcthanol
Molybdenum Trioxide
Ammonium Sulfate
(Solution)
Cobalt Compounds
Mercury Compounds
Phosphoric Acid
Phosphorus
(Yellow Or White)
Polychlorinatcd
Biphcnyls
Selenium
Xvlcnc (Mixed Isomers)
1.1,1 -Trichloroethane
Totals
# Facilities
Reporting
Chemical
74
38
32
30
29
25
25
24
24
21
19
19
14
13
10
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
6
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
POTW
Discharge
7024
282
2545
1106
82
810
501
500
1661
5
51
5
0
23
251
0
927
614
755
20
75
5
67
110
4448
257
5
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
250
0
0
0
0
22,384
Disposal
139130
9366
0
675459
658756
5543943
108806
966226
129752
0
11812
164242
750
34996
165015
621718
127443
935418
0
835
29005
1500
51353
196876
115647
0
905
12930
0
0
62710
0
0
0
0
33200
0
0
255
2673
0
0
10,800,721
Recycling
20126255
78143
0
1749221
806437
11216399
67048
15417
5571000
7332842
43378
1048567
56965
1531600
214000
0
8180
641800
8680
485550
128500
11299
0
55734
82700
393000
35045
23795
0
0
0
7930
0
165100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
51,904,585
Treatment
20233
3984
0
16055
537038
1020276
1236
0
229930
0
83
8180
27557
4777
4664
0
880
10710
0
186
0
750
1784
0
31094
0
15
900
0
0
250
0
17150
0
0
10
0
0
0
510
0
0
1,938,252
Energy
Recovery
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
Transfers
20292642
91775
2545
2441841
2002313
17781428
177591
982143
5932343
7332847
55324
1220994
85272
1571396
383930
621718
137430
1588542
9435
486591
157580
13554
53204
252720
233889
393257
35970
37625
0
0
62965
7930
0
182250
0
0
33210
0
250
255
3183
0
0
64,665,942
Total per
Facility
274225
2415
80
81395
69045
711257
7104
40923
247181
349183
2912
64263
6091
120877
38393
69080
15270
176505
1048
54066
19698
1694
7601
36103
38982
65543
5995
12542
0
0
31483
3965
0
91125
0
0
33210
0
250
255
3183
0
0
Source: U.S. EPA, Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1993.
SIC Codes 333-334
64
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nbnferrous Metals
VIII.B. Summary of the Selected Pollutants Released
The following is a synopsis of current scientific toxicity and fate
information for the top chemicals (by weight) that facilities within this
sector self-reported as released to the environment based upon 1993
TRI data. Because this section is based upon self-reported release data,
it does not attempt to provide information on management practices
employed by the sector to reduce the release of these chemicals.
Information regarding pollutant release reductions over time may be
available from EPA's TRI and 33/50 programs, or directly from the
industrial trade associations that are listed in Section IX of this
document. Since these descriptions are cursory, please consult the
sources referenced below for a more detailed description of both the
chemicals described in this section, and the chemicals that appear on
the full list of TRI chemicals appearing in Section IV.A.
The brief descriptions provided below were taken from the 1993 Toxics
Release Inventory Public Data Release (EPA, 1994), the Hazardous
Substances Data Bank (HSDB), and the Integrated Risk Information
System (IRIS), both accessed via TOXNET1. The information contained
below is based upon exposure assumptions that have been conducted
using standard scientific procedures. The effects listed below must be
taken in context of these exposure assumptions that are more fully
explained within the full chemical profiles in HSDB.
Chlorine
Toxicity. Breathing small amounts of chlorine for short periods of
time can affect the respiratory tract in humans, causing symptoms such
as coughing and chest pain. It is irritating to the skin, eyes, and
respiratory tract. Repeated long-term exposure to chlorine can cause
adverse effects on the blood and respiratory systems.
1 TOXNET is a computer system run by the National Library of Medicine that includes a number of
lexicological databases managed by EPA, National Cancer Institute, and the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health. For more information on TOXNET, contact the TOXNET help line at
1-800-231-3766. Databases included in TOXNET are: CCRIS (Chemical Carcinogenesis Research
Information System), DART (Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity Database), DBIR (Directory of
Biotechnology Information Resources), EMICBACK (Environmental Mutagen Information Center
Backfile), GENE-TOX (Genetic Toxicology), HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank), IRIS
(Integrated Risk Information System), RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances), and
TRI (Toxic Chemical Release Inventory). HSDB contains chemical-specific information on
manufacturing and use, chemical and physical properties, safety and handling, toxicity and biomedical
effects, pharmacology, environmental fate and exposure potential, exposure standards and regulations,
monitoring and analysis methods, and additional references.
September 1995
65
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonfenous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
Ecologically, chlorine is highly toxic to aquatic organisms at low doses.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that this
chemical is carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Most of the chlorine released to the
environment will quickly evaporate.
Physical Properties. Chlorine is a highly reactive gas.
Copper
Toxicity. Metallic copper probably has little or no toxicity, although
copper salts are more toxic. Inhalation of copper oxide fumes and dust
has been shown to cause metal fume fever: irritation of the upper
respiratory tract, nausea, sneezing, coughing, chills, aching muscles,
gastric pain, and diarrhea. However, the respiratory symptoms may be
due to a non-specific reaction to the inhaled dust as a foreign body in
the lung, and the gastrointestinal symptoms may be attributed to the
conversion of copper to copper salts in the body.
It is unclear whether long-term copper poisoning exists in humans.
Some have related certain central nervous system disorders, such as
giddiness, loss of appetite, excessive perspiration, and drowsiness to
copper poisoning. Long-term exposure to copper may also cause hair,
skin, and teeth discoloration, apparently without other adverse effects.
People at special risk from exposure to copper include those with
impaired pulmonary function, especially those with obstructive airway
diseases, since the breathing of copper fumes might cause exacerbation
of pre-existing symptoms due to its irritant properties.
Ecologically, copper is a trace element essential to many plants and
animals. However, high levels of copper in soil can be directly toxic to
certain soil microorganisms and can disrupt important microbial
processes in soil, such as nitrogen and phosphorus cycling.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that this
chemical is carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Copper is typically found in the environment as
a solid metal in soils and soil sediment in surface water. There is no
evidence that biotransformation processes have a significant bearing
on the fate and transport of copper in water.
SIC Codes 333-334
66
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
Hydrochloric Acid
Lead
Toxicity. Hydrochloric acid is primarily a concern in its aerosol form.
Acid aerosols have been implicated in causing and exacerbating a
variety of respiratory ailments. Dermal exposure and ingestion of
highly concentrated hydrochloric acid can result in corrosivity.
Ecologically, accidental releases of solution forms of hydrochloric acid
may adversely affect aquatic life by including a transient lowering of
the pH (i.e., increasing the acidity) of surface waters.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that this
chemical is carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Releases of hydrochloric acid to surface waters
and soils will be neutralized to an extent due to the buffering capacities
of both systems. The extent of these reactions will depend on the
characteristics of the specific environment.
Physical Properties. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is highly
corrosive.
Toxicity. Short-term lead poisoning is relatively infrequent and occurs
from ingestion of acid soluble lead compounds or inhalation of lead
vapors. Symptoms include nausea, severe abdominal pain, vomiting,
diarrhea or constipation, shock, tingling, pain, and muscle weakness,
and kidney damage. Death may occur in one to two days. If the patient
survives the acute episode, characteristic signs and symptoms of
chronic lead poisoning are likely to appear. Chronic lead poisoning
affects the gastrointestinal, neuromuscular, blood, kidney, and central
nervous systems. Individuals with chronic lead poisoning appear
ashen, with ari appearance of "premature aging," with stooped posture,
poor muscle tone, and emaciation. Neuromuscular syndrome (muscle
weakness, easy fatigue, localized paralysis) and central nervous system
syndrome (progressive mental deterioration, decreased intelligence,
loss of motor skills and speech, hyperkinetic and aggressive behavior
disorders, poorly controlled convulsive disorder, severe learning
impairment) usually result from intense exposure, while the
abdominal syndrome (anorexia, muscle discomfort, malaise, headache,
constipation, severe abdominal pain, persistent metallic taste) is a more
common manifestation of a very slowly and insidiously developing
intoxication.
September 1995
67
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
In the U.S., the central nervous system syndrome is usually more
common among children, while the gastrointestinal syndrome is more
prevalent in adults. Exposure to lead is also linked to decreased fertility
in men. Lead is a probable human carcinogen, based on sufficient
animal evidence and inadequate human evidence. Populations at
increased risk of toxicity from exposure to lead include developing
fetuses and young children, individuals with decreased kidney
function, and children with sickle-cell anemia.
Environmental Fate. If released or deposited on soil, lead will be
retained in the upper two to five centimeters of soil. Leaching is not
important under normal conditions, nor generally is the uptake of lead
from soil into plants. Lead enters water from atmospheric fallout,
runoff or wastewater; it is effectively removed from the water column
to the sediment predominantly by adsorption to organic matter and
clay minerals. Some lead reenters the water column through
methylation by microorganisms. Volatilization is negligible. Lead
does not appear to bioconcentrate significantly in fish but does in some
shellfish such as mussels. When released to the atmosphere, lead will
generally be in dust or adsorbed to particulate matter and subject to
gravitational settling.
Zinc and Zinc Compounds
Toxicity. Zinc is a nutritional trace element; toxicity from ingestion is
low. Severe exposure to zinc might give rise to gastritis with vomiting
due to swallowing of zinc dusts. Short-term exposure to very high
levels of zinc is linked to lethargy, dizziness, nausea, fever, diarrhea,
and reversible pancreatic and neurological damage. Long-term zinc
poisoning causes irritability, muscular stiffness and pain, loss of
appetite, and nausea.
Zinc chloride fumes cause injury to mucous membranes and to the
skin. Ingestion of soluble zinc salts may cause nausea, vomiting, and
purging.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that this
chemical is carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Significant zinc contamination of soil is only
seen in the vicinity of industrial point sources. Zinc is a relatively
stable soft metal, though burns in air. Zinc bioconcentrates in aquatic
organisms.
SIC Codes 333-334
68
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
VIII.C. Other Data Sources
The Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) contains a wide
range of information related to stationary sources of air pollution,
including the emissions of a number of air pollutants which may be of
concern within a particular industry. With the exception of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), there is little overlap with the TRI
chemicals reported above. Exhibit 21 summarizes annual releases of
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NOz), particulate matter of 10
microns or less (PM10), total particulates (PT), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Exhibit 21
Pollutant Releases (Short Tons/Year)
Industry
U.S. Total
Metal Mining
Nonmetal Mining
Lumber and Wood
Products
Wood Furniture and
Fixtures
Pulp and Paper
Printing
Inorganic Chemicals
Organic Chemicals
Petroleum Refining
Rubber and Misc. Plastic
Products
Stone, Clay, Glass, and
Concrete
Iron and Steel
Nonferrous Metals
Fabricated Metals
Electronics
Motor Vehicles, Bodies,
Parts, and Accessories
Dry Cleaning
CO
97,208,000
5,391
4,525
123,756
2,069
624,291
8,463
166,147
146,947
419,311
2,090
58,043
1,518,642
448,758
3,851
367
35,303
101
N02
23,402,000
28,583
28,804
42,658
2,981
394,448
4,915
108,575
236,826
380,641
11,914
338,482
138,985
55,658
16,424
1,129
23,725
179
PMio
45,489,000
39,359
59,305
14,135
2,165
35,579
399
4,107
26,493
18,787
2,407
74,623
42,368
20,074
1,185
207
2,406
3
PT
7,836,000
140,052
167,948
63,761
3,178
113,571
1,031
39,082
44,860
36,877
5,355
171,853
83,017
22,490
3,136
293
12,853
28
SO2
21,888,000
84,222
24,129
9,149
1,606
341,002
1,728
182,189
132,459
648,153
29,364
339,216
238,268
373,007
4,019
453
25,462
152
voc
23,312000
1,283
1,736
41,423
59,426
96,875
101,537
52,091
201,888
309,058
140,741
30,262
82,292
27,375
102,186
4,854
101,275
7 310
Source U.S. EPA Office of Air and Radiation, AIRS Database, May 1995.
September 1995
69
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
VHLD. Comparison of Toxic Release Inventory Between Selected Industries
The following information is presented as a comparison of pollutant
release and transfer data across industrial categories. It is provided to
give a general sense as to the relative scale of releases and transfers
within each sector profiled under this project. Please note that the
following table 'does not contain releases and transfers for industrial
categories that are not included in this project, and thus cannot be used
to draw conclusions regarding the total release and transfer amounts
that are reported to TRL Similar information is available within the
annual TRI Public Data Release book.
Exhibit 22 is a graphical representation of a summary of the 1993 TRI
data for the nonferrous metals industry and the other sectors profiled
in separate notebooks. The bar graph presents the total TRI releases
and total transfers on the left axis and the triangle points show the
average releases per facility on the right axis. Industry sectors are
presented in the order of increasing total TRI releases. The graph is
based on the data shown in Exhibit 23 and is meant to facilitate
comparisons between the relative amounts of releases, transfers, and
releases per facility both within and between these sectors. The reader
should note, however, that differences in the proportion of facilities
captured by TRI exist between industry sectors. This can be a factor of
poor SIC matching and relative differences in the number of facilities
reporting to TRI from the various sectors. In the case of nonferrous
metals industry, the 1993 TRI data presented here covers 208 facilities.
These facilities listed SIC 333-334 nonferrous metals industry as a
primary SIC code.
SIC Codes 333-334
70
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous \fetals
September 1995
71
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
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SIC Codes 333-334
72
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
IX. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES
The best way to reduce pollution is to prevent it in the first place.
Some companies have creatively implemented pollution prevention
techniques that improve efficiency and increase profits while at the
same time minimizing environmental impacts. This can be done in
many ways such as reducing material inputs, re-engineering processes
to reuse by-products, improving management practices, and employing
substitution of toxic chemicals. Some smaller facilities are able to
actually get below regulatory thresholds just by reducing pollutant
releases through aggressive pollution prevention policies.
In order to encourage these approaches, this section provides both
general and company-specific descriptions of some pollution
prevention advances that have been implemented within the
Nonferrous Metals Industry. While the list is not exhaustive, it does
provide core information that can be used as the starting point for
facilities interested in beginning their own pollution prevention
projects. When possible, this section provides information from real
activities that can, or are being implemented by this sector including
a discussion of associated costs, time frames, and expected rates of
return. This section provides summary information from activities
that may be, or are being implemented by this sector. When possible,
information is provided that gives the context in which the techniques
can be effectively used. Please note that the activities described in this
section do not necessarily apply to all facilities that fall within this
sector. Facility-specific conditions must be carefully considered when
pollution prevention options are evaluated, and the full impacts of the
change must examine how each option affects, air, land, and water
pollutant releases.
IX.A. Identification of Pollution Prevention Activities in Use
Pollution prevention, whether through source material
reduction/reuse, or waste recycling, is practiced in various sectors of
the nonferrous metals industry. Pollution prevention techniques and
processes currently used by the nonferrous metals industry can be
grouped into the following general categories:
Process equipment modification,
Raw materials substitution or elimination,
Solvent recycling, and
Precious metals recovery.
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It is interesting to note that while the stated rationale for the use of
many of these techniques or processes is applicable environmental
regulations, their use is both fairly universal and profitable-
Process equipment modification is used to reduce the amount of waste
generated. Many copper, lead, and zinc refiners have modified their
production processes by installing sulfur fixation equipment. This
equipment not only captures the sulfur before it enters the atmosphere
(helping the refining plant meet CAA sulfur standards), but processes it
so that a marketable sulfuric acid is produced. Another example is the
use of pre-baked anodes in primary aluminum refining. When a pre-
baked anode is used, the electrolytic cell, or pot, can be closed, thereby
increasing the efficiency of the collection of fluoride emissions. In
addition, new carbon liners have been developed which significantly
increase the life of the aluminum reduction cell. This has resulted in
large reductions in the amount of spent potliner material (hazardous
waste K088) generated by the aluminum industry.
Raw material substitution or elimination is the replacement of raw
materials with other materials that produce less waste, or a non-toxic
waste. Material substitution is inherent in the secondary nonferrous
metals industry primarily by substituting scrap metal, slag, and
baghouse dust for ore feedstock. All of these materials, whether in the
form of aluminum beverage cans, copper scrap, or lead-acid batteries,
are commonly added to other feedstock or charges (usually slag
containing residual metals) to produce marketable grades of metal.
Primary nonferrous metals refining also uses previously refined
metals as feedstock, especially zinc-containing electric arc furnace dust
(a by-product of the iron and steel industry).
Precious metals recovery is the modification of a refining process to
allow the capture of marketable precious metals such as gold and
silver. Like sulfur fixation, precious metals recovery is a common
waste minimization practice. During primary copper smelting,
appreciable amounts of silver and gold present in copper ore will be
concentrated into the anode copper and can be recovered as a by-
product in the electrorefining process (as the copper anode is
electrochemically dissolved and the copper attaches itself to the
cathode, silver and gold drop out and are captured in the slime at the
bottom of the tank). In the lead refining process the copper often
present in lead ore is removed during the initial lead bullion smelting
process as a constituent of dross. Silver and gold are removed from the
lead bullion later in the process by adding certain fluxes which cause
them to form an impure alloy. The alloy is then refined electrolytically
and separated into gold and silver. Precious metals recovery also takes
place during zinc refining to separate out copper, a frequent impurity
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in zinc ore. Copper is removed from the zinc ore during the zinc
purification process (after zinc undergoes leaching, zinc dust is added
which forces many of the deleterious elements to drop out; copper is
recovered in a cake form and sent for refining).
IX.B. Important Pollution Prevention Case Studies
Various pollution prevention case histories have been documented for
nonferrous metals refining industries. In particular, the actions of the
AMPCO Metal Manufacturing Company, Inc. typify industry efforts to
simultaneously lessen the impact of the industrial process on the
environment, reduce energy consumption, and lower production costs.
AMPCO Metal Manufacturing Company, Inc., in Ohio is participating
in the development of pollution prevention technologies. The project,
sponsored by the U.S. DOE and EPA, consists of researching and
developing the use of electric induction to replace fossil fuel
combustion currently used to heat tundishes. Tundishes are used to
contain the heated reservoir of molten alloy in the barstock casting
process. The fossil fuel combustion process currently used requires
huge amounts of energy and produces tremendous amounts of waste
gases, including combustion bases and lead and nickel emissions.
According to new OSHA regulations, lead emissions from foundries
must be reduced by 80 percent by 1998.
Heating the tundish by electric induction instead of fossil fuel
combustion will substantially improve the current process, saving
energy and reducing pollution. Energy efficiency will jump to an
estimated 98 percent, saving 28.9 billion Btu/yr/unit. Industry-wide
energy savings in 2010 are estimated to be 206 billion Btu/yr, assuming
a 70 percent adoption at U.S. foundries.
In addition to the energy savings, the new process also has substantial
environmental benefits. Along with the elimination of lead and
nickel gases, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxide
emissions from combustion will decrease. The consumption of
refractory (a heat-resisting ceramic material) will decline by 80 percent,
resulting in a similar reduction of refractory waste disposal. In all,
prevention of various forms of pollution is estimated to be 147 million
Ib (66.7 million kg)/yr by 2010.
Economically, the elimination of lead and nickel emissions will result
in an improved product because exposure of the metal to combustion
gases in the current process results in porosity and entrainment of
hydrogen gas in the metal. Overall, AMPCO estimates an annual
savings in operations and maintenance expenses of $1.2 million with
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the use of this technology. Assuming the same 70 percent industry
adoption, economic savings by 2010 could reach $5.8 million. Without
title new electric induction heating process, the capital costs required for
compliance could be $3 million.
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X.
SUMMARY OF FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS
This section discusses the Federal statutes and regulations that may
apply to this sector. The purpose of this section is to highlight, and
briefly describe the applicable Federal requirements, and to provide
citations for more detailed information. The three following sections
are included.
Section X.A contains a general overview of major statutes
Section X.B contains a list of regulations specific to this industry
Section X.C contains a list of pending and proposed regulations
The descriptions within Section X are intended solely for general
information. Depending upon the nature or scope of the activities at a
particular facility, these summaries may or may not necessarily describe
all applicable environmental requirements. Moreover, they do not
constitute formal interpretations or clarifications of the statutes and
regulations. For further information, readers should consult the Code
of Federal Regulations and other state or local regulatory agencies. EPA
Hotline contacts are also provided for each major statute.
X.A. General Description of Major Statutes
Resource Conservation And Recovery Act
The Resource Conservation And Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 which
amended the Solid Waste Disposal Act, addresses solid (Subtitle D) and
hazardous (Subtitle C) waste management activities. The Hazardous
and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) of 1984 strengthened RCRA's
waste management provisions and added Subtitle I, which governs
underground storage tanks (USTs).
Regulations promulgated pursuant to Subtitle C of RCRA (40 CFR Parts
260-299) establish a "cradle-to-grave" system governing hazardous
waste from the point of generation to disposal. RCRA hazardous
wastes include the specific materials listed in the regulations
(commercial chemical products, designated with the code "P" or "U";
hazardous wastes from specific industries/sources, designated with the
code "K"; or hazardous wastes from non-specific sources, designated
with the code "F") or materials which exhibit a hazardous waste
characteristic (ignitibility, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity and
designated with the code "D").
Regulated entities that generate hazardous waste are subject to waste
accumulation, manifesting, and recordkeeping standards. Facilities
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that treat, store, or dispose of hazardous waste must obtain a permit,
either from EPA or from a State agency which EPA has authorized to
implement the permitting program. Subtitle C permits contain general
facility standards such as contingency plans, emergency procedures>
recordkeeping and reporting requirements, financial assurance
mechanisms, and unit-specific standards. RCRA also contains
provisions (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart S and §264.10) for conducting
corrective actions which govern the cleanup of releases of hazardous
waste or constituents from solid waste management units at RCRA-
regulated facilities.
Although RCRA is a Federal statute, many States implement the
RCRA program. Currently, EPA has delegated its authority to
implement various provisions of RCRA to 46 of the 50 States.
Most RCRA requirements are not industry specific but apply to any
company that transports, treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste.
Here are some important RCRA regulatory requirements:
Identification of Solid and Hazardous Wastes (40 CFR Part 261)
lays out the procedure every generator should follow, to
determine whether the material created is considered a
hazardous waste, solid waste, or is exempted from regulation.
Standards for Generators of Hazardous Waste (40 CFR Part 262)
establishes the responsibilities of hazardous waste generators
including obtaining an ID 'number, preparing a manifest,
ensuring proper packaging and labeling, meeting standards for
waste accumulation units, and recordkeeping and reporting
requirements. Generators can accumulate hazardous waste for
up to 90 days (or 180 days depending on the amount of waste
generated) without obtaining a permit.
Land Disposal Restrictions (LDRs) are regulations prohibiting
the disposal of hazardous waste on land without prior
treatment. Under the LDRs (40 CFR 268), materials must meet
land disposal restriction (LDR) treatment standards prior to
placement in a RCRA land disposal unit (landfill, land
treatment unit, waste pile, or surface impoundment). Wastes
subject to the LDRs include solvents, electroplating wastes,
heavy metals, and acids. Generators of waste subject to the LDRs
must provide notification of such to the designated TSD facility
to ensure proper treatment prior to disposal.
Used Oil Management Standards (40 CFR Part 279) impose
management requirements affecting the storage, transportation,
burning, processing, and re-refining of the used oil. For parties
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that merely generate used oil, regulations establish storage
standards. For a party considered a used oil marketer (one who
generates and sells off-specification used oil directly to a used oil
burner), additional tracking and paperwork requirements must
be satisfied.
Tanks and Containers used to store hazardous waste with a high
volatile organic concentration must meet emission standards
under RCRA. Regulations (40 CFR Part 264-265, Subpart CC)
require generators to test the waste to determine the
concentration of the waste, to satisfy tank and container
emissions standards, and to inspect and monitor regulated units.
These regulations apply to all facilities who store such waste,
including generators operating under the 90-day accumulation
rule.
Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) containing petroleum and
hazardous substance are regulated under Subtitle I of RCRA.
Subtitle I regulations (40 CFR Part 280) contain tank design and
release detection requirements, as well as financial responsibility
and corrective action standards for USTs. The UST program also
establishes increasingly stringent standards, including upgrade
requirements for,existing tanks, that must be met by 1998.
Boilers and Industrial Furnaces (BIFs) that use or burn fuel
containing hazardous waste must comply with strict design and
operating standards. BIF regulations (40 CFR Part 266, Subpart
H) address unit design, provide performance standards, require
emissions monitoring, and restrict the type of waste that may be
burned.
EPA's RCRA/Superfund/UST Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, responds to
questions and distributes guidance regarding all RCRA regulations.
The RCRA Hotline operates weekdays from 8:30 a.m. to 7:30 p.m., EST,
excluding Federal holidays.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, And Liability Act
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA), a 1980 law commonly known as Superfund,
authorizes EPA to respond to releases, or threatened releases, of
hazardous substances that may endanger public health, welfare, or the
environment. CERCLA also enables EPA to force parties responsible
for environmental contamination to clean it up or to reimburse the
Superfund for response costs incurred by EPA. The Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 revised
various sections of CERCLA, extended the taxing authority for the
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Superfund, and created a free-standing law, SARA Title III, also known
as the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
(EPCRA).
The CERCLA hazardous substance release reporting regulations (40
CFR Part 302) direct the person in charge of a facility to report to the
National Response Center (NRC) any environmental release of a
hazardous substance which exceeds a reportable quantity. Reportable
quantities are defined and listed in 40 CFR § 302.4. A release report
may trigger a response by EPA, or by one or more Federal or State
emergency response authorities.
EPA implements hazardous substance responses according to
procedures outlined in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) (40 CFR Part 300). The NCP
includes provisions for permanent cleanups, known as remedial
actions, and other cleanups referred to as "removals." EPA generally
takes remedial actions only at sites on the National Priorities List
(NPL), which currently includes approximately 1300 sites. Both EPA
and states can act at other sites; however, EPA provides responsible
parties the opportunity to conduct removal and remedial actions and
encourages community involvement throughout the Superfund
response process.
EPA's RCRA/Superfund/UST Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, answers
questions and references guidance pertaining to the Superfund
program. The CERCLA Hotline operates weekdays from 8:30 a.m. to
7:30 p.m., EST, excluding Federal holidays.
Emergency Planning And Community Right-To-Know Act
The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986
created the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
(EPCRA, also known as SARA Title IE), a statute designed to improve
community access to information about chemical hazards and to
facilitate the development of chemical emergency response plans by
State and local governments. EPCRA required the establishment of
State emergency response commissions (SERCs), responsible for
coordinating certain emergency response activities and for appointing
local emergency planning committees (LEPCs).
EPCRA and the EPCRA regulations (40 CFR Parts 350-372) establish
four types of reporting obligations for facilities which store or manage
specified chemicals:
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EPCRA §302 requires facilities to notify the SERC and LEPC of
the presence of any "extremely hazardous substance" (the list of
such substances is in 40 CFR Part 355, Appendices A and B) if it
has such substance in excess of the substance's threshold
planning quantity, and directs the facility to appoint an
emergency response coordinator.
EPCRA §304 requires the facility to notify the SERC and the LEPC
in the event of a release exceeding the reportable quantity of a
CERCLA hazardous substance or an EPCRA extremely
hazardous substance.
EPCRA §§311 and 312 require a facility at which a hazardous
chemical, as defined by the Occupational Safety and Health Act,
is present in an amount exceeding a specified threshold to
submit to the SERC, LEPC, and local fire department material
safety data sheets (MSDSs) or lists of MSDSs and hazardous
chemical inventory forms (also known as Tier I and II forms).
This information helps the local government respond in the
event of a spill or release of the chemical.
EPCRA §313 requires manufacturing facilities included in SIC
codes 20 through 39, which have ten or more employees, and
which manufacture, process, or use specified chemicals in
amounts greater than threshold quantities, to submit an annual
toxic chemical release report. This report, commonly known as
the Form R, covers releases and transfers of toxic chemicals to
various facilities and environmental media, and allows EPA to
compile the national Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) database.
All information submitted pursuant to EPCRA regulations is publicly
accessible, unless protected by a trade secret claim.
EPA's EPCRA Hotline, at (800) 535-0202, answers questions and
distributes guidance regarding the emergency planning and
community right-to-know regulations. The EPCRA Hotline operates
weekdays from 8:30 a.m. to 7:30 p.m., EST, excluding Federal holidays.
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Clean Water Act
The primary objective of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
commonly referred to as the Clean Water Act (CWA), is to restore and
maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's
surface waters. Pollutants regulated under the CWA include "priority"
pollutants, including various toxic pollutants; "conventional"
pollutants, such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended
solids (TSS), fecal coliform, oil and grease, and pH; and "non-
conventional" pollutants, including any pollutant not identified as
either conventional or priority.
The CWA regulates both direct and indirect discharges. The National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program (CWA §402)
controls direct discharges into navigable waters. Direct discharges or
"point source" discharges are from sources such as pipes and sewers.
NPDES permits, issued by either EPA or an authorized State (EPA has
presently authorized forty States to administer the NPDES program),
contain industry-specific, technology-based and/or water quality-based
limits, and establish pollutant monitoring and reporting requirements.
A facility that intends to discharge into the nation's waters must obtain
a permit prior to initiating its discharge. A permit applicant must
provide quantitative analytical data identifying the types of pollutants
present in the facility's effluent. The permit will then set forth the
conditions and effluent limitations under which a facility may make a
discharge.
A NPDES permit may also include discharge limits based on Federal or
State water quality criteria or standards, that were designed to protect
designated uses of surface waters, such as supporting aquatic life or
recreation. These standards, unlike the technological standards,
generally do not take into account technological feasibility or costs.
Water quality criteria and standards vary from State to State, and site to
site, depending on the use classification of the receiving body of water.
Most States follow EPA guidelines which propose aquatic life and
human health criteria for many of the 126 priority pollutants.
Storm Water Discharges
In 1987 the CWA was amended to require EPA to establish a program
to address storm water discharges. In response, EPA promulgated the
NPDES storm water permit application regulations. Storm water
discharge associated with industrial activity means the discharge from
any conveyance which is used for collecting and conveying storm
water and which is directly related to manufacturing, processing or raw
materials storage areas at an industrial plant (40 CFR 122.26(b)(14)).
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These regulations require that facilities with the following storm water
discharges apply for a NPDES permit: (1) a discharge associated with
industrial activity; (2) a discharge from a large or medium municipal
storm sewer system; or (3) a discharge which EPA or the State
determines to contribute to a violation of a water quality standard or is
a significant contributor of pollutants to waters of the United States.
The term "storm water discharge associated with industrial activity"
means a storm water discharge from one of 11 categories of industrial
activity defined at 40 CFR 122.26. Six of the categories are defined by
SIC codes while the other five are identified through narrative
descriptions of the regulated industrial activity. If the primary SIC code
of the facility is one of those identified in the regulations, the facility is
subject to the storm water permit application requirements. If any
activity at a facility is covered by one of the five narrative categories,
storm water discharges from those areas where the activities occur are
subject to storm water discharge permit application requirements.
Those facilities/activities that are subject to storm water discharge
permit application requirements are identified below. To determine
whether a particular facility falls within one of these categories, the
regulation should be consulted.
Category i: Facilities subject to storm water effluent guidelines, new
source performance standards, or toxic pollutant effluent standards.
Category ii: Facilities classified as SIC 24-lumber and wood products
(except wood kitchen cabinets); SIC 26-paper and allied products (except
paperboard containers and products); SIC 28-chemicals and allied
products (except drugs and paints); SIC 29-petroleum refining; and SIC
311-leather tanning and finishing.
Category iii: Facilities classified as SIC 10-metal mining; SIC 12-coal
mining; SIC 13-oil and gas extraction; and SIC 14-nonmetallic mineral
mining.
Category iv: Hazardous waste treatment, storage, or disposal facilities.
Category v: Landfills, land application sites, and open dumps that
receive or have received industrial wastes.
Category vi: Facilities classified as SIC 5015-used motor vehicle parts;
and SIC 5093-automotive scrap and waste material recycling facilities.
Category vii: Steam electric power generating facilities.
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Category viii: Facilities classified as SIC 40-railroad transportation; SIC
41-local passenger transportation; SIC 42-trucking and warehousing
(except public warehousing and storage); SIC 43-U.S. Postal Service; SIC
44-water transportation; SIC 45-transportation by air; and SIC 5171-
petroleum bulk storage stations and terminals.
Category ix: Sewage treatment works.
Category x: Construction activities except operations that result in the
disturbance of less than five acres of total land area.
Category xi: Facilities classified as SIC 20-food and kindred products;
SIC 21-tobacco products; SIC 22-textile mill products; SIC 23-apparel
related products; SIC 2434-wood kitchen cabinets manufacturing; SIC
25-furniture and fixtures; SIC 265-paperboard containers and boxes; SIC
267-converted paper and paperboard products; SIC 27-printing,
publishing, and allied industries; SIC 283-drugs; SIC 285-paints,
varnishes, lacquer, enamels, and allied products; SIC 30-rubber and
plastics; SIC 31-leather and leather products (except leather and tanning
and finishing); SIC 323-glass products; SIC 34-fabricated metal products
(except fabricated structural metal); SIC 35-industrial and commercial
machinery and computer equipment; ,SIC 36-electronic and other
electrical equipment and components; SIC 37-transportation
equipment (except ship and boat building and repairing); SIC 38-
measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments; SIC 39-
miscellaneous manufacturing industries; and SIC 4221-4225-public
warehousing and storage.
Pretreatment Program
Another type of discharge that is regulated by the CWA is one that goes
to a publicly-owned treatment works (POTWs). The national
pretreatment program (CWA §307(b)) controls the indirect discharge of
pollutants to POTWs by "industrial users." Facilities regulated under
§307(b) must meet certain pretreatment standards. The goal of the
pretreatment program is to protect municipal wastewater treatment
plants from damage that may occur when hazardous, toxic, or other
wastes are discharged into a sewer system and to protect the quality of
sludge generated by these plants. Discharges to a POTW are regulated
primarily by the POTW itself, rather than the State.or EPA.
EPA has developed technology-based standards for industrial users of
POTWs. Different standards apply to existing and new sources within
each category. "Categorical" pretreatment standards applicable to an
industry on a nationwide basis are developed by EPA. In addition,
another kind of pretreatment standard, "local limits," are developed by
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the POTW in order to assist the POTW in achieving the effluent
limitations in its NPDES permit.
Regardless of whether a State is authorized to implement either the
NPDES or the pretreatment program, if it develops its own program, it
may enforce requirements more stringent than Federal standards.
EPA's Office of Water, at (202) 260-5700, will direct callers with
questions about the CWA to the appropriate EPA office. EPA also
maintains a bibliographic database of Office of Water publications
which can be accessed through the Ground Water and Drinking Water
resource center, at (202) 260-7786.
Safe Drinking Water Act
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) mandates that EPA establish
regulations to protect human health from contaminants in drinking
water. The law authorizes EPA to develop national drinking water
standards and to create a joint Federal-State system to ensure
compliance with these standards. The SDWA also directs EPA to
protect underground sources of drinking water through the control of
underground injection of liquid wastes.
EPA has developed primary and secondary drinking water standards
under its SDWA authority. EPA and authorized States enforce the
primary drinking water standards, which are, contaminant-specific
concentration limits that apply to certain public drinking water
supplies. Primary drinking water standards consist of maximum
contaminant level goals (MCLGs), which are non-enforceable health-
based goals, and maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), which are
enforceable limits set as close to MCLGs as possible, considering cost
and feasibility of attainment.
The SDWA Underground Injection Control (UIC) program (40 CFR
Parts 144-148) is a permit program which protects underground sources
of drinking water by regulating five classes of injection wells. UIC
permits include design, operating, inspection, and monitoring
requirements. Wells used to inject hazardous wastes must also comply
with RCRA corrective action standards in order to be granted a RCRA
permit, and must meet applicable RCRA land disposal restrictions
standards. The UIC permit program is primarily State-enforced, since
EPA has authorized all but a few States to administer the program.
The SDWA also provides for a Federally-implemented Sole Source
Aquifer program, which prohibits Federal funds from being expended
on projects that may contaminate the sole or principal source of
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drinking water for a given area, and for a State-implemented Wellhead
Protection program, designed to protect drinking water wells and
drinking water recharge areas.
EPA's Safe Drinking Water Hotline, at (800) 426-4791, answers
questions and distributes guidance pertaining to SDWA standards. The
Hotline operates from 9:00 a.m. through 5:30 p.m., EST, excluding:
Federal holidays.
Toxic Substances Control Act
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) granted EPA authority to
create a regulatory framework to collect data on chemicals in order to
evaluate, assess, mitigafe, and control risks which may be posed by
their manufacture, processing, and use. TSCA provides a variety of
control methods to prevent chemicals from posing unreasonable risk.
TSCA standards may apply at any point during a chemical's life cycle.
Under TSCA §5, EPA has established an inventory of chemical
substances. If a chemical is not already on the inventory, and has not
been excluded by TSCA, a premanufacture notice (PMN) must be
submitted to EPA prior to manufacture or import. The PMN must
identify the chemical and provide available information on health and
environmental effects. If available data are not sufficient to evaluate
the chemical's effects, EPA can impose restrictions pending the
development of information on its health and environmental effects.
EPA can also restrict significant new uses of chemicals based upon
factors such as the projected volume and use of the chemical.
Under TSCA §6, EPA can ban the manufacture or distribution in
commerce, limit the use, require labeling, or place other restrictions on
chemicals that pose unreasonable risks. Among the chemicals EPA
regulates under §6 authority are asbestos, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
EPA's TSCA Assistance Information Service, at (202) 554-1404, answers
questions and distributes guidance pertaining to Toxic Substances
Control Act standards. The Service operates from 8:30 a.m. through
4:30 p.m., EST, excluding Federal holidays.
Clean Air Act
The Clean Air Act (CAA) and its amendments, including the Clean Air
Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990, are designed to "protect and
enhance the nation's air resources so as to promote the public health
and welfare and the productive capacity of the population." The CAA
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consists of six sections, known as Titles, which direct EPA to establish
national standards for ambient air quality and for EPA and the States to
implement, maintain, and enforce these standards through a variety of
mechanisms. Under the CAAA, many facilities will be required to
obtain permits for the first time. State and local governments oversee,
manage, and enforce many of the requirements of the CAAA. CAA
regulations appear at 40 CFR Parts 50-99.
Pursuant to Title I of the CAA, EPA has established national ambient
air quality standards (NAAQSs) to limit levels of "criteria pollutants,"
including carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter,
ozone, and sulfur dioxide. Geographic areas that meet NAAQSs for a
given pollutant are classified as attainment areas; those that do not
meet NAAQSs are classified as non-attainment areas. Under §110 of
the CAA, each State must develop a State Implementation Plan (SIP) to
identify sources of air pollution and to determine what reductions are
required to meet Federal air quality standards.
Title I also authorizes EPA to establish New Source Performance
Standards (NSPSs), which are nationally uniform emission standards
for new stationary sources falling within particular industrial
categories. NSPSs are based on the pollution control technology
available to that category of industrial source but allow the affected
industries the flexibility to devise a cost-effective means of reducing
emissions.
Under Title I, EPA establishes and enforces National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), nationally
uniform standards oriented towards controlling particular hazardous
air pollutants (HAPs). Title III of the CAAA further directed EPA to
develop a list of sources that emit any of 189 HAPs, and to develop
regulations for these categories of sources. To date EPA has listed 174
categories and developed a schedule for the establishment of emission
standards. The emission standards will be developed for both new and
existing sources based on "maximum achievable control technology"
(MACT). The MACT is defined as the control technology achieving the
maximum degree of reduction in the emission of the HAPs, taking
into account cost and other factors.
Title II of the CAA pertains to mobile sources, such as cars, trucks,
buses, and planes. Reformulated gasoline, automobile pollution
control devices, and vapor recovery nozzles on gas pumps are a few of
the mechanisms EPA uses to regulate mobile air emission sources.
Title IV establishes a sulfur dioxide emissions program designed to
reduce the formation of acid rain. Reduction of sulfur dioxide releases
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will be obtained by granting to certain sources limited emissions
allowances, which, beginning in 1995, will be set below previous levels
of sulfur dioxide releases.
Title V of the CAAA of 1990 created a permit program for all "major
sources" (and certain other sources) regulated under the CAA. One
purpose of the operating permit is to include in a single document all
air emissions requirements that apply to a given facility. States are
developing the permit programs in accordance with guidance and
regulations from EPA. Once a State program is approved by EPA,
permits will be issued and monitored by that State.
Title VI is intended to protect stratospheric ozone by phasing out the
manufacture of ozone-depleting chemicals and restrict their use and
distribution. Production of Class I substances, including 15 kinds of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), will be phased out entirely by the year
2000, while certain hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) will be phased
out by 2030.
EPA's Control Technology Center, at (919) 541-0800, provides general
assistance and information on CAA standards. The Stratospheric
Ozone Information Hotline, at (800) 296-1996, provides general
information about regulations promulgated under Title VI of the CAA,
and EPA's EPCRA Hotline, at (800) 535-0202, answers questions about
accidental release prevention under CAA §112(r). In addition, the
Technology Transfer Network Bulletin Board System (modem access
(919) 541-5742)) includes recent CAA rules, EPA guidance documents,
and updates of EPA activities.
X.B. Industry-Specific Requirements
Water Act (CWA)
The Clean Water Act regulates the amount of chemicals /toxins
released by industries via direct and indirect wastewater/ effluent
discharges. Regulations developed to implement this Act establish
effluent guidelines and standards for different industries. These
standards usually set concentration-based limits on the discharge of a
given chemical by any one facility. If a facility is discharging directly
into a body of water, it must obtain a National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit. If a facility is discharging to a
publicly owned treatment works (POTW), it must adhere to specified
pretreatment standards. The following regulations are applicable to the
nonferrous metals industry.
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The Metal Molding and Casting Point Source Category (40 CFR Part
464) is applicable to wastewater from these operations:
Aluminum Casting
Copper Casting
Zinc Casting.
The Aluminum Forming Point Source Category (40 CFR Part 467) is
applicable to wastewater from these operations:
Rolling with Neat Oils
Rolling with Emulsions
Extrusion
Forging
Drawing with Neat Oils
Drawing with Emulsions.
The Copper Forming Point Source Category (40 CFR Part 468) is
applicable to wastewater from these operations:
Copper Forming
Beryllium Copper Forming.
The Nonferrous Metals Forming and Metal Powders Point Source
Category (40 CFR Part 471) is applicable to wastewater from these
operations:
Lead-Tin-Bismuth Forming
Magnesium Forming
Nickel-Cobalt Forming
Precious Metals Forming
Refractory Metals Forming
Titanium Forming
Uranium Copper Forming
Zinc Forming
Zirconium-Hafnium Forming
Metals Powders.
Clean Air Act
The primary regulatory mechanism used to implement source
emission requirements under the CAA is State Implementation Plans
(SIPs). SIPs provide the States with the authority and discretion to
establish a strategy to attain primary NAAQS levels. These
requirements can be uniform for all sources or specifically tailored for
individual sources. States are not allowed to adopt less stringent
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standards than NAAQS. Of particular concern to primary and
secondary smelters is the fact that SEPs must include steps to reduce SOz
source emission levels in nonattainment areas. SIPs must
demonstrate that nonattainment areas, designated prior to the 1990
CAA Amendments, will achieve compliance with NAAQS as soon as
possible and no later than November 1995. For nonattainment areas
designated after the 1990 Amendments, compliance is also required
five years after the nonattainment designation. Sections 172(c)(5) or
191 and 192 require the imposition of a construction moratorium on
new or modified sources of SOz in nonattainment areas without a fully
approved SEP until the SB? includes appropriate permit requirements.
NAAQS for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and hydrocarbons
that frequently affect the smelting process are found in 40 CFR
Part 50.
Also important to primary and secondary smelters is the list of 189
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) established in the CAA, as amended
in 1990. Under the CAA Amendments, Congress required EPA to
identify major and area source categories associated with the emission
of one or more listed HAPs. To date, EPA has identified 174 categories
of sources. Congress also required EPA to promulgate emission
standards for listed source categories within 10 years of the enactment
of the CAA Amendments (by November 15, 2000). These standards are
known as National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(NESHAPs).
In addition to general CAA requirements, specific standards apply to
primary and secondary lead smelters, primary copper smelters, primary
zinc smelters, and primary aluminum reduction plants.
The Standards of Performance for Secondary Lead Smelters (40 CFR
Part 60, Subpart L) are applicable to pot furnaces of more than 250 kg
charging capacity, blast furnaces, and reverberatory furnaces that
commence construction after June 11,1973.
These standards require secondary lead smelters to control discharge to
the point that:
Particulate matter emissions do not exceed 50 mg/dscm, and
Visible emissions do not exhibit 20 percent opacity or greater.
In addition, these standards require that no owner or operator
discharge any gases exhibiting 10 percent opacity or greater from any
pot furnace on and after the date of performance testing.
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The Standards of Performance for Primary Copper Smelters (40 CFR
Part 60, Subpart P) are applicable to dryers, roasters, smelting furnaces,
and copper converters that commence construction or modification
after October 16,1974.
These standards require that dryers control discharge to the point that
particulate matter emissions do not exceed 50 mg/dscm. With respect
to roasters, smelting furnaces, and copper converters, no gases
containing sulfur dioxide in excess of 0.065 percent by volume are to be
emitted. An exception is made in the case of reverberatory smelting
furnaces, which are exempt during periods when the total smelter
charge at the primary copper smelter contains a high volume of
volatile impurities (more than 0.2 weight percent arsenic, 0.1 weight
percent antimony, 4.5 weight percent lead, or 5.5 weight percent zinc,
on a dry basis).
In addition, these standards require the owner or operator of a dryer of
an affected facility using a sulfuric acid plant to control discharges to
the point that visible emissions do not exhibit greater than 20 percent
opacity on and after the date of performance testing.
The Standards of Performance for Primary Zinc Smelters (40 CFR Part
60, Subpart Q) are applicable to roaster and sintering machine facilities
in primary zinc smelters that commence construction or modification
after October 16,1974.
These standards require sintering machines to control discharges to the
point that on and after the date of performance testing:
No gases containing particulate matter in excess of 50 mg/dscm
are emitted, and
Emissions do not exhibit an opacity of greater than 20 percent.
In addition, no roaster may emit gases containing sulfur dioxide in
excess of 0.065 percent by volume. The provision also stipulates that
any sintering machine that eliminates more than 10 percent of the
sulfur initially contained in the zinc sulfide ore concentrates will be
considered a roaster. For affected primary zinc smelting facilities that
use a sulfuric acid plant, no emissions greater than 20 percent opacity
are allowed on and after the date of performance testing. In addition,
No gases containing more than 50 mg/dscm may be emitted, and
Visible emissions may not exhibit greater than 20 percent
opacity.
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In addition, sintering machines, electric smelting furnaces, and
converters must control discharges to the point that no gases
containing greater than 0.065 percent sulfur dioxide are emitted on and
after the date of performance testing.
For affected primary lead smelting facilities that use a sulfuric acid
plant, no visible emissions greater than 20 percent opacity are allowed
on and after the date of performance testing.
The Standards of Performance for Primary Aluminum Reduction
Plants (40 CFR Part 60, Subpart S) are applicable to potroom groups and
anode bake plants that commence construction after October 23,1974.
The standards require that on and after the date of performance testing
affected facilities control discharges to the point that no gases
containing total fluorides are emitted on and after the date of
performance testing in excess of:
1.0 kg/Mg of aluminum produced for potroom groups at
Soderberg plants
0.95 kg/Mg of aluminum produced for potroom groups at
prebake plants
0.05 kg/Mg of aluminum equivalent for anode bake plants.
Emissions slightly above these levels from Soderberg and prebake
plants may be considered to be in compliance if the owner/operator
demonstrates that exemplary operation and maintenance procedures
are used.
In addition, on and after the date of performance testing, facilities must
control discharges to the point that no emissions are discharged
exhibiting greater than:
10 percent opacity from any potlines
20 percent opacity from any anode bake plant.
All of the above standards (Subparts L, P, Q, R, S) require monitoring and
testing methods and procedures specific to the affected facilities.
The National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants from
Secondary Lead Smelting (40 CFR Part 63, Subpart X) are applicable to
secondary lead smelters that use blast, reverberatory, rotary, or electric
smelting furnaces to recover lead metal from scrap lead, primarily used lead-
acid automotive batteries. These standards limit HAP emissions (lead
compounds and total hydrocarbons from secondary lead smelting furnaces,
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refining kettles, agglomerating furnaces, dryers and fugitive dust sources, but
do not affect emissions from lead smelters, lead refiners, or lead remelters.
These standards require secondary lead smelters to control:
Process Emission sources by limiting lead compounds (metal
HAP) and total hydrocarbons (organic HAP) to certain levels
depending upon furnace type;
Process Fugitive Emission Sources by requiring the use of
enclosure-type hoods or containment buildings which are
ventilated to control devices; and
Fugitive Dust Sources by requiring the development of facility
specific standard operating procedures.
In addition to these standards certain compliance testing, monitoring,
and recordkeeping requirements also apply to these facilities. New or
reconstructed sources (construction commenced after June 9, 1994)
must meet these standards by June 23, 1995 or upon start up of
operations. Existing secondary lead smelters have until June 23,1997 to
meet them.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
RCRA was passed in 1976, as an amendment to the Solid Waste
Disposal Act, to ensure that solid wastes are managed in an
environmentally sound manner. A material is classified under RCRA
as a hazardous waste if the material meets the definition of solid waste
(40 CFR 261.2), and that solid waste material exhibits one of the
characteristics of a hazardous waste (40 CFR 261.20-24) or is specifically
listed as a hazardous waste (40 CFR 261.31-33). A material defined as a
hazardous waste may then be subject to Subtitle C generator (40 CFR
262), transporter (40 CFR 263), and treatment, storage, and disposal
facility (40 CFR 254 and 265) requirements. The nonferrous metals
industry must be concerned with the regulations addressing all these.
The greatest quantities of RCRA listed waste and characteristically
hazardous waste that are generated by nonferrous metal industries are
identified in Exhibit 24. For more information on identifying RCRA
hazardous waste, refer to 40 CFR Part 261.
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Exhibit 24
Hazardous Wastes Relevant to the Nonf errous Metal Industry
EPA Hazardous
Waste No.
Hazardous Waste
D004 (arsenic)
D005 (barium)
D006 (cadmium)
D007 (chromium)
D008 (lead)
D009 (mercury)
D010 (selenium)
D011 (silver)
D035 (methyl
ethyl ketone)
D039 (tetra-
chloroethylene)
D040 (trichloro-
sthylene)
Wastes which are hazardous due to the characteristic of toxicity for each of
the constituents.
Halogenated solvents used in degreasing: tetrachloroethylene, methylene
chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, and chlorinated
fluorocarbons; all spent solvent mixtures/blends used in degreasing containing,
before use, a total of 10 percent or more (by volume) of one or more of the above
halogenated solvents or those solvents listed in F002, F004, and F005; and still
bottoms from the recovery of these spent solvents and spent solvent mixtures.
*-» . 1. _1_ t 3 1 _.L~.. J.Al~M.n Wl-k1n-**j-hj-ff4f«rllV*1l* TV»a4-llT71lor»O /"»Tl I l"Vl"i H A .
F001
F002
Spent halogenated solvents; tetrachloroethylene, methylene chloride,
trichlorethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane chlorobenzene, l,l,2-trichloro-l,2,2-
trifluoroethane, ortho-dichlorobenzene, trichlorofluoromethane, and 1,1,2-
trichloroethane; all spent solvent mixtures/blends containing, before use, one
or more of the above halogenated solvents or those listed in F001, F004, F005;
and still bottoms from the recovery of these spent solvents and spent solvent
mixtures
F003
Spent non-halogenated solvents: xylene, acetone, ethyl acetate, ethyl benzene,
ethyl ether, methyl isobutyl ketone, n-butyl alcohol, cyclohexanone, and
methanol; all spent solvent mixtures/blends containing, before use, only the
above spent non-halogenated solvents; and all spent solvent mixtures/blends
containing, before use, one or more of the above non-halogenated solvents, and,
a total of 10% or more (by volume) of one of those solvents listed in F001, F002,
F004, F005; and still bottoms from the recovery of these spent solvents and
spent solvent mixtures.
F004
Spent non-halogenated solvents: cresols and cresylic acid, and nitrobenzene;
all spent solvent mixtures/blends containing, before use, a total of 10% or more
(by volume) of one or more of the above non-halogenated solvents or those
solvents listed in F001, F002, and F005; and still bottoms from the recovery of
these spent solvents and spent solvent mixtures.
F005
Spent non-halogenated solvents: toluene, methy ethyl ketone, carbon
disulfide, isobutanol, pyridine, benzene, 2-ethoxyethanol, and 2-nitropropane
all spent solvent mixtures/blends containing, before use, a total of 10% or more
(by volume) of one or more of the above non-halogenated solvents or those
solvents listed in F001, F002, or F004; and still bottoms from the recovery of
these spent solvents and spent solvents mixtures.
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Nonferrous Metals
Exhibit 24
Hazardous Wastes Relevant to the Nonferrous Metal Industry
EPA Hazardous
Waste No.
K064
K065
K066
K088
K069
K100
Hazardous Waste
Acid plant blowdown slurry /sludge resulting from the thickening of blowdown
slurry from primary copper production.
Surface impoundment solids contained in and dredged from surface
impoundments at primary lead smelting facilities.
Sludge from treatment of process wastewater and/or acid plant blowdown from
primary zinc production.
Spent potliners from primary aluminum reduction.
Emission control dust/ sludge from secondary lead smelting. (Note: this listing
is stayed administratively for sludge generated from secondary acid scrubber
systems. The stay will remain in effect until further administrative action is
taken. If EPA takes further action effecting this stay, EPA will publish a
notice of the action in the Federal Register.)
Waste leaching solution from acid leaching of emission control dust/sludge
from secondary lead smelting.
One set of RCRA standards that is of particular relevance to nonferrous
metals industries that recycle metals and metal-containing materials is
40 CFR Part 266, Subpart H which lays out the requirements for boilers
or industrial furnaces that burn hazardous waste for energy recovery or
destruction, or processing for materials recovery or as an ingredient in
general.
X.C. Pending and Proposed Regulatory Requirements
Clean Air Act fCAA)
In addition to the CAA requirements discussed above, EPA is currently
working on several regulations that will directly affect the nonferrous
metals industry. Many proposed standards will limit the air emissions
from various industries by proposing Maximum Achievable Control
Technology (MACT) based performance standards that will set limits
on emissions based upon concentrations in the waste stream. Various
potential standards are described below.
Primary Lead Smelting
Primary lead smelters are a major source of hazardous air pollutants
(HAPs). Potential emissions include compounds of lead and other
metallic HAPs as well as organic HAPs.
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The proposed regulation will be a MACT-based performance standard
that will set limits on certain emissions based upon concentrations in
the waste stream . The legal deadline is November 15,1997.
When promulgated, these standards will regulate an industry
comprised of two companies which operate three facilities in two
states.
Primary Copper Smelting
Primary copper smelters are known to emit a number of HAPs listed in
Section 112 of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA). While
most smelters have extensive control systems for oxides of sulfur and
HAPs, fugitive emissions may cause smelters to exceed major source
standards.
EPA is required to promulgate 50 percent of the source categories listed
in Section 112(e) CAAA by November 15, 1997. EPA plans to
promulgate emissions standards for several HAPs effecting the primary
copper industry by August 30,1995
Primary Aluminum
Primary aluminum processors may be a major source of one or more
HAPs. As a consequence, a MACT-based regulatory program is being
developed by EPA.
The MACT based performance standards are expected to be proposed in
October 1995 and to be promulgated by November 15,1997.
Secondary Aluminum
EPA has determined that the secondary aluminum industry may
reasonably be anticipated to emit several of the 189 HAPs listed in
Section 112(b) of the CAA. As a result, the industry is included on the
initial list of HAP emitting categories and will be on the list of
categories schedule for the development of a regulatory program.
The standards will be MACT-based performance standards and are
expected to be proposed in April 1996. The legal deadline for the
promulgation of final standards is November 15, 1997.
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Resource Conservation and Recovery Act CRCRA1
As part of EPA's groundwater protection strategy, RCRA prohibits the
land disposal of most hazardous wastes until they meet a waste-specific
treatment standard. While most hazardous wastes have already been
assigned treatment standards, EPA must still promulgate two
additional rule makings to address newly listed wastes and to make
changes to the land disposal restrictions (LDR) program.
When finalized, the Phase III LDR rulemaking will establish treatment
standards for some newly listed wastes and will mandate RCRA
equivalent treatment be performed upon certain characteristically
hazardous wastes that are injected into UIC wells under the Safe
Drinking Water Act (SDWA) or managed in Subtitle D surface
impoundments prior to discharge pursuant to the Clean Water Act
(CWA). By consent decree, EPA must promulgate the final rule for
Phase IE by January 1996.
Of particular significance to the nonferrous metals industries, Phase in
will restrict the land disposal of spent aluminum potliners, K088. Once
the prohibition for these wastes becomes effective, the spent potliners
would need to meet numeric treatment levels for at least 27 particular
hazardous constituents commonly found in K088.
Phase IV will similarly restrict other newly listed or identified wastes
from land disposal and create influent treatment standards to mitigate
the impact of sludges, leaks, and air emissions from surface
impoundments that have managed decharacterized wastes. Among
those wastes that will become subject to prohibitions are
characteristically hazardous mining wastes that were once excluded
from regulation by the Bevill exemptions of §261.4(b)(10). In addition,
Phase IV will also change the treatment standards applicable to those
wastes that are prohibited from land disposal because they exhibit the
characteristic of toxicity for a metal constituent.
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XI. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT PROFILE
Background
To date, EPA has focused much of its attention on measuring
compliance with specific environmental statutes. This approach
allows the Agency to track compliance with the Clean Air Act, the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, the Clean Water Act, and
other environmental statutes. Within the last several years, the
Agency has begun to supplement single-media compliance indicators
with facility-specific, multimedia indicators of compliance. In doing so,
EPA is in a better position to track compliance with all statutes at the
facility level, and within specific industrial sectors.
A major step in building the capacity to compile multimedia data for
industrial sectors was the creation of EPA's Integrated Data for
Enforcement Analysis (IDEA) system. IDEA has the capacity to "read
into" the Agency's single-media databases, extract compliance records,
and match the records to individual facilities. The IDEA system can
match Air, Water, Waste, Toxics/Pesticides/EPCRA, TRI, and
Enforcement Docket records for a given facility, and generate a list of
historical permit, inspection, and enforcement activity. IDEA also has
the capability to analyze data by geographic area and corporate holder.
As the capacity to generate multimedia compliance data improves, EPA
will make available more in-depth compliance and enforcement
information. Additionally, sector-specific measures of success for
compliance assistance efforts are under development.
Compliance and Enforcement Profile Description
Using inspection, violation, and enforcement data from the IDEA
system, this section provides information regarding the historical
compliance and enforcement activity of this sector. In order to mirror
the facility universe reported in the Toxic Chemical Profile, the data
reported within this section consists of records only from the TRI
reporting universe. With this decision, the selection criteria are
consistent across sectors with certain exceptions. For the sectors that do
not normally report to the TRI program, data have been provided from
EPA's Facility Indexing System (FINDS) which tracks facilities in all
media databases. Please note, in this section, EPA does not attempt to
define the actual number of facilities that fall within each sector.
Instead, the section portrays the records of a subset of facilities within
the sector that are well defined within EPA databases.
As a check on the relative size of the full sector universe, most
notebooks contain an estimated number of facilities within the sector
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Nbnferrous Metals
according to the Bureau of Census (See Section II). With sectors
dominated by small businesses, such as metal finishers and printers,
the reporting universe within the EPA databases may be small in
comparison to Census data. However, the group selected for inclusion
in this data analysis section should be consistent with this sector's
general make-up.
Following this introduction is a list defining each data column
presented within this section. These values represent a retrospective
summary of inspections and enforcement actions, and solely reflect
EPA, State, and local compliance assurance activities that have been
entered into EPA databases. To identify any changes in trends, the EPA
ran two data queries, one for the past five calendar years (August 10,
1990 to August 9, 1995) and the other for the most recent twelve-month
period (August 10,1994 to August 9,1995). The five-year analysis gives
an average level of activity for that period for comparison to the more
recent activity.
Because most inspections focus on single-media requirements, the data
queries presented in this section are taken from single media, databases.
These databases do not provide data on whether inspections are
State/local or EPA-led. However, the table breaking down the universe
of violations does give the reader a crude measurement of the EPA's
and States' efforts within each media program. The presented data
illustrate the variations across regions for certain sectors.2 This
variation may be attributable to State/local data entry variations,
specific geographic concentrations, proximity to population centers,
sensitive ecosystems, highly toxic chemicals used in production, or
historical noncompliance. Hence, the exhibited data do not rank
regional performance or necessarily reflect which regions may have the
most compliance problems. '
Compliance and Enforcement Data Definitions
General Definitions
Facility Indexing System (FINDS) - this system assigns a common
facility number to EPA single-media permit records. The FINDS
identification number allows EPA to compile and review all permit,
Regions include the following States: I (CT, MA, ME, RI, NH, VT); II (NJ, NY, PR, VI); m
' KB' ^ ^&WV); (AL' **" GA> KY' MS> NC> SC> TN);V OU IN, MI MN, OH, WT); VT
(AR LA, NM, OK, TX); VH (DC KS, MO, NE); VIE (CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY); IX (AZ, CA, HI NV
Pacific Trust Territories); 10 (AK, ID, OR, WA).
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compliance, enforcement, and pollutant release data for any given
regulated facility.
Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis (IDEA) - is a data integration
system that can retrieve information from the major EPA program
office databases. IDEA uses the FINDS identification number to "glue
together" separate data records from EPA's databases. This is done to
create a "master list" of data records for any given facility. Some of the
data systems accessible through IDEA are: AIRS (Air Facility Indexing
and Retrieval System, Office of Air and Radiation), PCS (Permit
Compliance System, Office of Water), RCRIS (Resource Conservation
and Recovery Information System, Office of Solid Waste), NCDB
(National Compliance Data Base, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and
Toxic Substances), CERCLIS (Comprehensive Environmental and
Liability Information System, Superfund), and TRIS (Toxic Release
Inventory System). IDEA also contains information from outside
sources such as Dun and Bradstreet and the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA). Most data queries displayed in
notebook Sections TV and VII were conducted using IDEA.
Data Table Column Heading Definitions
Facilities in Search - are based on the universe of TRI reporters within
the listed SIC code range. For industries not covered under TRI
reporting requirements, the notebook uses the FINDS universe for
executing data queries. The SIC code range selected for each search is
defined by each notebook's selected SIC code coverage described in
Section n.
Facilities Inspected indicates the level of EPA and State agency
facility inspections for the facilities in this data search. These values
show what percentage of the facility universe is inspected in a 12 or 60
month period. This column does not count non-inspectional
compliance activities such as the review of facility-reported discharge
reports.
Number of Inspections - measures the total number of inspections
conducted in this sector. An inspection event is counted each time it is
entered into a single media database.
Average Time Between Inspections - provides an average length of
time, expressed in months, that a compliance inspection occurs at a
facility within the defined universe.
Facilities with One or More Enforcement Actions - expresses the
number of facilities that were party to at least one enforcement action
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within the defined time period. This category is broken down further
into Federal and State actions. Data are obtained for administrative,
civil/judicial, and criminal enforcement actions. Administrative
actions include Notices of Violation (NOVs). A facility with multiple
enforcement actions is only counted once in this column (facility with
3 enforcement actions counts as 1). All percentages that appear are
referenced to the number of facilities inspected.
Total Enforcement Actions -- describes the total number of
enforcement actions identified for an industrial sector across all
environmental statutes. A facility with multiple enforcement actions
is counted multiple times (a facility with 3 enforcement actions counts
as 3).
State Lead Actions -- shows what percentage of the total enforcement
actions are taken by State and local environmental agencies. Varying
levels of use by States of EPA data systems may limit the volume of
actions accorded State enforcement activity. Some States extensively
report enforcement activities into EPA data systems, while other States
may use their own data systems.
Federal Lead Actions - shows what percentage of the total enforcement
actions are taken by the U.S. EPA. This value includes referrals from
State agencies. Many of these actions result from coordinated or joint
State/Federal efforts.
Enforcement to Inspection Rate ~ expresses how often enforcement
actions result from inspections. This value is a ratio of enforcement
actions to inspections, and is presented for comparative purposes only.
This measure is a rough indicator of the relationship between
inspections and enforcement. This measure simply indicates
historically how many enforcement actions can be attributed to
inspection activity. Related inspections and enforcement actions under
the Clean Water Act (PCS), the Clean Air Act (AFS) and the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) are included in this ratio.
Inspections and actions from the TSCA/FIFRA/EPCRA database are
not factored into this ratio because most of the actions taken under
these programs are not the result of facility inspections. This ratio does
not account for enforcement actions arising from non-inspection
compliance monitoring activities (e.g., self-reported water discharges)
that can result in enforcement action within the CAA, CWA and
RCRA.
Facilities with One or More Violations Identified - indicates the
number and percentage of inspected facilities having a violation
identified in one of the following data categories: In Violation or
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Significant Violation Status (CAA); -Reportable Noncompliance,
Current Year Noncompliance, Significant Noncompliance (CWA);
Noncompliance and Significant Noncompliance (FIFRA, TSCA, and
EPCRA); Unresolved Violation and Unresolved High Priority
Violation (RCRA). The values presented for this column reflect the
extent of noncompliance within the measured time frame, but do not
distinguish between the severity of the noncompliance. Percentages
within this column can exceed 100 percent because facilities can be in
violation status without being inspected. Violation status may be a
precursor to an enforcement action, but does not necessarily indicate
that an enforcement action will occur.
Media Breakdown of Enforcement Actions and Inspections - four
columns identify the proportion of total inspections and enforcement
actions within EPA Air, Water, Waste, and TSCA/FIFRA/EPCRA
databases. Each column is a percentage of either the "Total
Inspections/' or the "Total Actions" column.
XI.A. Nonferrous Metals Industry Compliance History
Exhibit 25 presents enforcement and compliance information specific
to SIC 33, the nonferrous metals industry (information was not
available beyond the two-digit SIC level). As indicated in this exhibit,
Region 4 conducted the largest number of inspections in this industry,
and nearly all of Regions 4's enforcement actions are also state-lead.
The numbers in this exhibit do not necessarily represent the geographic
location of the industry's primary and secondary processors. This is
because the number facilities and inspections represents all SIC 33
facilities and not just SIC 333 and 334 facilities.
SIC Codes 333-334
102
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
JVonfenxjus Metals
I
I
!
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
XI.B. Comparison of Enforcement Activity Between Selected Industries
Exhibits 26-29 provide enforcement and compliance information for
selected industries. The nonferrous metals industry (all of SIC 33)
compromises the 4th largest number of facilities tracked by EPA across
the selected industries, and the 5th largest number of facilities
inspected. However it has the 3rd largest number of inspections and
2nd largest number of enforcement actions. For this industry, RCRA
inspections comprise over 39 percent of all inspections conducted,
while CWA inspections account for 23 percent and CAA inspections
account for 34 percent. The fairly high CWA inspection rate and low
CAA inspection rate seem to be in conflict with the importance of air
emissions in the primary and secondary nonferrous metals processing
industry; however this may be due to the fact that numbers represent
the entire SIC 33 and not the more specific three-digit SIC 333 and 334
level.
SIC Codes 333-334
104
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
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September 1995
105
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
SIC Codes 333-334
106
September 1995
-------
Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
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September 1995
107
SIC Codes 333-334
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
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SIC Codes 333-334
108
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonfemras Metals
XI.C. Review of Major Enforcement Actions
XI.C.l. Review of Major Cases
This section provides summary information about major cases that
have affected this sector. As indicated in EPA's Enforcement
Accomplishments Report, FY 1991 - FY 1993 publications, 12 significant
enforcement cases were resolved between 1991 and 1993 involving the
nonferrous metals industry. Five of the cases were comprised of RCRA
violations, five of CERCLA violations, and two involved violations of
the Clean Water Act (CWA). One case, U.S. v. ILCO (Interstate Lead
Company}. et. al.. settled in 1992 and 1993, involved violations of all
three statutes.
Six of the 12 cases resulted in the assessment of a penalty. Civil
penalties ranged from $453,750 to $3.5 million. The average penalty
was approximately $1.9 million. In U.S. v. Cerro Copper (1991), a
consent decree was entered requiring Cerro to recycle its waste waters
in order to meet pre-treatment limits for copper and other nonferrous
metals at one of its plants. In addition, the company was required to
pay a civil penalty of $1.4 million for its CWA violation.
Some of the settlements required defendants to pay only the past or
future cleanup costs of the remedial action. In U.S. et. al. v. Alcan
Aluminum Corp. et. al. (1991), the District Court granted the
government's motion of summary judgment against Alcan
Aluminum, a PRP at the Pollution Abatements Services Superfund
site. The penalty was $4 million in past costs from this case and $9.1
million in past costs from an unsettled 1987 case. Violations included
illegal dumping of PCBs, and about 4.6 million gallons of waste
emulsion contaminated with small quantities of metals including lead,
cadmium, and chromium.
111 U.S. v. Sanders Lead Cr>. (1993), a consent decree was entered
requiring $2 million in civil penalties and the treatment of waste water
as a hazardous waste. This consent decree resolved alleged violations
involving illegal disposal of lead-bearing hazardous wastes and
violations of land disposal restrictions. This was the first civil case that
the U.S. filed to enforce land disposal restrictions, and settles a RCRA
enforcement action concerning violations at a Troy, Alabama
secondary lead smelter.
In the 1993 RCRA case of U.S. v. ILCO et. al.. the Court of Appeals held
that lead components from spent automobile batteries were discarded
and hence could be regulated as "solid waste" under RCRA. The
Appeals Court affirmed the district court's award of $3.5 million in
September 1995 109 ! SIC Codes 333-334
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
civil penalties and $845,033 in CERCLA response costs for violations of
RCRA, the CWA, and corresponding Alabama statutes. The action
arose from ILCO's operations at its secondary smelter which
reprocessed spent-lead acid batteries.
5Q.C.2. Supplemental Environmental Projects
Supplementary Environmental Projects (SEPs) are compliance
agreements that reduce a facility's stipulated penalty in return for an
environmental project that exceeds the value of the reduction. Often,
these projects fund pollution prevention activities that can
significantly reduce the future pollutant loadings of a facility.
In December, 1993, the Regions were asked by EPA's Office of
Enforcement and Compliance Assurance to provide information on
the number and type of SEPs entered into by the Regions. The
following chart contains a representative sample of the Regional
responses addressing the primary and secondary nonferrous metals
industry. The information contained in Exhibit 30 is not
comprehensive and provides only a sample of the types of SEPs
developed for the primary and secondary nonferrous metals industry.
SIC Codes 333-334
110
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
30
nmental Projects
tal (SIC 33)
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Assess the feasibility of a
process to recover pure nickel
from plant wastestreams.
Construct a pilot plant to
perform the recovery to reduce
the quantity of heavy metals
entering environment.
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Donate equipment to the Local
Emergency Planning Committee
(LEPC) to assist local officials in
emergency responses to chemical
emergencies. Develop and
submit article on CERCLA
compliance to a national trade
journal to assist other facilities
in reporting duties.
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Remove PCB items including
PCB transf orers and PCB
capapcitors, and retrofilling
PCB-contaminated transformers
to reduce the amount of PCBs
which may be released to the
environment.
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September 1995 111 SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
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Benefits
*tf ^
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-------
Sector Notebook Project
JVonferrous Metals
XII. COMPLIANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES
This section highlights the activities undertaken by this industry sector
and public agencies to voluntarily improve the sector's environmental
performance. These activities include those independently initiated by
industrial trade associations. In this section, the notebook also contains
a listing and description of national and regional trade associations.
XII.A.
Sector Related Environmental Programs and Activities
Voluntary Aluminum Industrial Partnership
The EPA's Voluntary Aluminum Industrial Partnership (VAIP) is an
innovative environmental stewardship and pollution prevention
program developed jointly by the EPA and the U.S. primary aluminum
industry to promote cost-effective reduction in perflurocarbon.
Companies joining the VAIP commit to reductions in perfluorocarbon
(PFC) emission released during the production of aluminum and to
provide data to EPA that tracks their progress toward reduction targets.
In turn, EPA provides VAIP Partners with recognition for their
pollution prevention initiative, and for their accomplishments in
achieving PFC reductions.
The Partnership has been designed with important and unique
characteristics that reflect both the diversity within the primary
aluminum industry and the differences between this and other
industries. These unique characteristics include: flexibility; a joint
commitment to finding answers to critical technical questions; and a
clear course for achieving substantial pollution prevention goals by the
year 2000. EPA estimates that the VAIP will achieve reductions in PFC
emissions of 30-60 percent across the U.S. primary aluminum industry
or 1.8 mmt of carbon equivalent by the year 2000.
XII.B. EPA Voluntary Programs
33/50 Program
The "33/50 Program" is EPA's voluntary program to reduce toxic
chemical releases and transfers of 17 chemicals from manufacturing
facilities. Participating companies pledge to reduce their toxic chemical
releases and transfers by 33 percent as of 1992 and by 50 percent as of
1995 from the 1988 baseline year. Certificates of Appreciation have
been given to participants who met their 1992 goals. The list of
September 1995
113
SIC Codes 333-334
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
chemicals includes 17 high-use chemicals reported in the Toxics
Release Inventory.
Ninety-three companies listed under SIC 333-334 (primary and
secondary metals industry) are currently participating in the 33/50
program. They account for 72 percent of the 129 companies under SIC
333-334, which is higher than the average for all industries of 14
percent participation. (Contact: Mike Burns 202-260-6394 or the 33/50
Program 202-260-6907)
Exhibit 31 lists those companies participating in the 33/50 program that
reported under SIC code 333-334 to TRI. Many of the participating
companies listed multiple SIC codes (in no particular order), and are
therefore likely to conduct operations in addition to primary metals
production. The table shows the number of facilities within each
company that are participating in the 33/50 program; each company's
total 1993 releases and transfers of 33/50 chemicals; and the percent
reduction in these chemicals since 1988.
SIC Codes 333-334
114
September 1995
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SectoT Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
Exhibit 31
Nonferrous Metals Producers Participating in the 33/50 Program
Parent Facility Name
3M Minnesota Mining & Mfg Co
Aluminum Company Of America
American Telephone & Telg. Co.
Ampco Metal Mfg., Inc.
Asarco Incorporated
Avondale Industries. Inc.
Baker Hughes. Incorporated
Ball Corporation
Bethlehem Steel Corporation
Bice USA Inc.
Brooklyn Park Oil Co., Inc.
Cabot Corporation
Chrysler Corporation
Cooper Industries, Inc.
Corning, Inc.
Degussa Corporation
Dexter Corporation
Doe Run Company
Engelhard Corporation
Farley Inc.
Federal-Mogul Corporation
Funk Finecast, Inc.
General Electric Company
General Motors Corporation
Halstead Industries, Inc.
Handy & Harman
Hm Anglo-American, Ltd.
Honeywell, Inc.
Hydro Aluminum USA Inc.
INCO United States Inc.
Indal, Ltd.
Ingersoll-Rand Company
Parent City
St. Paul
Pittsburgh
New York
Milwaukee
New York
Avondale
Houston
Muncie
Bethlehem
Chicago
Minneapolis
Boston
Highland Park
Houston
Corning
Ridgefield Park
Windsor Locks
Saint Louis
Iselin
Chicago
Southfield
Columbus
Fairfield
Detroit
Greensboro
New York
New York
Minneapolis
Rockledge
New York
ST
MN
PA
NY
WI
NY
LA
IX
IN
PA
IL
MN
MA
MI
IX
NY
NJ
CT
MO
NJ
IL
Ml
OH
CT
Ml
NC
NY
NY
MN
FL
NY
Weston, Ontario, Can
WoodcliffLake |NJ
SIC Codes
3643, 3699
2851, 3644
2821, 3357
3357
3357, 366
3362, 335
333
3325, 3339
3341
3357
3341, 3356
3471
3312, 3321
3366
3357
3364, 3471
3339, 2819
3363
3357
3357
3499, 3369
3341
3339
3351, 2819
3366, 3743
3365, 3366,
3471
3324, 3365,
3366
2819, 3356,
3499, 3724
3365, 3363
3351
3341
3646, 3363,
3469, 3471
3822, 3820,
3363, 3900
3354
3356
3354
3369, 3471
# of
Participating
Facilities
1
11
4
3
7
1
1
1
2
7
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
4
1
1
1
5
2
1
1993
Releases
and
Transfers
(Ibs.)
16,481,09
2,403,017
512,618
3,395
7,582,905
25,279
193,116
721,859
792,550
152,253
12,606
2,407,581
3,623,717
1,048,465
1,521,528
676,418
122,127
2,270,400
236,302
58,844
255,996
491
5,010,856
16,751,198
239,910
477,150
1,265,741
386,054
54,700
346,594
303,909
96,553
%
Reduction
1988 to
1993
70
51
50
*
2
54
20
86
50
15
13
50
80
75
14
***
51
49
50
2
50
*
50
*
50
50
2
50
100
26
*
60
September 1995
115
SIC Codes 333-334
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
Exhibit 31 (cont'd)
Nonferrous Metals Producers Participating in the 33/50 Program
Parent Facility Name
Jefferson City Mfg. Co., Inc.
Kanthal Furnace Prods.
Katy Industries, Inc.
Kcywcll Corp.
Undcrmc Tube Co.
Litton Industries, Inc.
Lorin, Ind.
Louisiana-Pacific Corporation
Marmon Group, Inc.
Mascotcch
Morgan Stanley Leveraged Fund
National Metals, Inc.
National Tube Holding Company
Newell Co
NGK Metals Corp.
Norandal USA
North American Philips Corp.
Northern Precision Casting Co.
Olin Corporation
>ac Foundries
Pace Industries, Inc.
Parker Hannifin Corporation
Pcchiney Corporation
Jcco Manufacturing Co. ,Inc.
Peerless Of America, Inc.
Progress Casting Group, Inc.
Raytheon Company
Rcnco Group, Inc.
Rcxcorp U S, Inc. (Del)
Reynolds Metals Company
RJR Nabisco Holdings Corp.
Rome Group Inc.
RSR Holding Corp.
RTZmerica, Inc.
Parent City
efferson City
Bethel
Englewood
Jaltimore
aiclid
Jeverly Hills
Vluskegon
'ortland
Chicago
Taylor
slew York
.eeds
Jirmingham
'reeport
Temple
Jrentwood
"few York
Lake Geneva
Stamford
?ort Hueneme
SFew York
Cleveland
3reenwich
Portland
Chicago
Minneapolis
Lexington
New York
Sandwich
Richmond
New York
Rome
Dallas
Garden City
Vancouver
T
MO
CT
CO
MU
OH
CA
VII
OR
1L
Mi
<1Y
AL
AL
L
'A
[N
vIY
WI
CT
CA
MY
OH
CT
OR
IL
MN
MA
NY
IL
VA
NY
NY
TX
NY
WA
1C Codes
3363, 3451,
3469
3315, 3316,
3357
3316, 3351,
3353, 3356
3341, 5093
3351
3356
3354, 3471
3354
3351
3364, 3544,
3471
3357
3341
3351
3341
3366
3365, 3714
3357
3324, 3365,
3366
3351
3324, 3365
3363
3360
334
3089, 3363
3382
3354
336
336
333
3363, 336
333
2754, 333
335
334
333
3674, 333
Participating
Facilities
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
7
1
12
1
1
1
2
5
1
1
5
1
3
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
1
1
3
1
1
Releases
and
Transfers
(Ibs.)
4,850
21,581
82,256
58,997
34,960
332,264
25,500
294,823
1,092,218
3,163,830
2,166,420
510
78',282
324,283
56,600
627,740
1,281,928
90
574,673
4,976
14,530
244,966
216,177
16,409
60,46
15,04
706,04
204,62
49
2,055,29
1,149,07
8,87
2,499,33
3,576,65
53,14
(eduction
1988 to
1993
41
52
50
50
1
35
13
75
23
99
6
50
99
70
75
50
100
69
95
50
7
38
12
32
100
SIC Codes 333-334
116
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nbnferrous Metals
Exhibit 31 (cont'd)
Nonferrous Metals Producers Participating in the 33/50 Program
Parent Facility Name
Spectrulite Consortium, Inc.
Spectrum ,Ltd.
T&NInc.
Tecumseh Products Company
Fenneco Inc.
Texas Instruments Incorporated
U T I Corporation
United Technologies Corp.
USX Corporation
Vanalco, Inc.
Watts Industries, Inc.
SVestinghouse Electric Corp.
Wolverine Tube, Inc.
Parent City
Madison
Carrollton
Ann Arbor
Tecumseh
Houston
Dallas
Collegeville
Hartford
Pittsburgh
Vancouver
North Andover
Pittsburgh
Decatur
ST
1L
GA
Ml
MI
'IX
TX
PA
Ci'
PA
WA
MA
PA
AL
SIC Codes
3341, 3354
3355, 3356
3357
3321, 3365
3714
3361
3353, 3081
3822, 2812,
3356, 3471,
3714, 3341
3569, 3357
3354
3356, 3369
3334
3366
3356
3351, 3499
# of
Participating
Facilities
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
2
* = not quantifiable against 1988 data. ' ' ""
** = use reduction goal only.
*** = no numerical goal.
1993
Releases
and
Transfers
(Ibs.)
255
355,325
670,624
29,510
1,272,423
344,225
473,872
2,393,252
1,510,772
12,250
128,842
1,137,198
337,685
%
Reduction
1988 to
1993
50
3
**
28
8
25
50
50
25
**
8
28
***
Environmental Leadership Program
The Environmental Leadership Program (ELP) is a national initiative
piloted by EPA and State agencies in which facilities have volunteered
to demonstrate innovative approaches to environmental management
and compliance. EPA has selected 12 pilot projects at industrial
facilities and Federal installations which will demonstrate the
principles of the ELP program. These principles include:
environmental management systems, multimedia compliance
assurance, third-party verification of compliance, public measures of
accountability, community involvement, and mentoring programs. In
return for participating, pilot participants receive public recognition
and are given a period of time to correct any violations discovered
during these experimental projects. (Contact: Tai-ming Chang, ELP
Director, 202-564-5081 or Robert Fentress, 202-564-7023)
Project XL
Project XL was initiated in March 1995 as a part of President Clinton's
Reinventing Environmental Regulation initiative. The projects seek
to achieve cost effective environmental benefits by allowing
participants to replace or modify existing regulatory requirements on
September 1995
117
SIC Codes 333-334
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
the condition that they produce greater environmental benefits. EPA
and program participants will negotiate and sign a Final Project
Agreement, detailing specific objectives that the regulated entity shall
satisfy. In exchange, EPA will allow the participant a certain degree of
regulatory flexibility and may seek changes in underlying regulations
or statutes. Participants are encouraged to seek stakeholder support
from local governments, businesses, and environmental groups. EPA
hopes to implement fifty pilot projects in four categories including
facilities, sectors, communities, and government agencies regulated by
EPA. Applications will be accepted on a rolling basis and projects will
move to implementation within six months of their selection. For
additional information regarding XL Projects, including application
procedures and criteria, see the May 23,1995 Federal Register Notice, or
contact Jon Kessler at EPA's Office of Policy Analysis (202) 260-4034.
Green Lights Program
EPA's Green Lights program was initiated in 1991 and has the goal of
preventing pollution by encouraging U.S. institutions to use energy-
efficient lighting technologies. The program has over 1,500 participants
which include major corporations; small and medium sized
businesses; Federal, State and local governments; non-profit groups;
schools; universities; and health care facilities. Each participant is
required to survey their facilities and upgrade lighting wherever it is
profitable. EPA provides technical assistance to the participants
through a decision support software package, workshops and manuals,
and a financing registry. EPA's Office of Air and Radiation is
responsible for operating the Green Lights Program. (Contact: Susan
Bullard at 202-233-9065 or the Green Light/Energy Star Hotline at 202-
775-6650)
WasteWi$e Program
SIC Codes 333-334
The WasteWi$e Program was started in 1994 by EPA's Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response. The program is aimed at reducing
municipal solid wastes by promoting waste minimization, recycling
collection, and the manufacturing and purchase of recycled products.
As of 1994, the program had about 300 companies as members,
including a number of major corporations. Members agree to identify
and implement actions to reduce their solid wastes and must provide
EPA with their waste reduction goals along with yearly progress
reports. EPA in turn provides technical assistance to member
companies and allows the use of the WasteWi$e logo for promotional
purposes. (Contact: Lynda Wyrm, 202-260-0700 or the WasteWi$e
Hotline at 1-800-372-9473)
118 September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nbnferrous Metals
Climate Wise Recognition Program
NICE3
The Climate Change Action Plan was initiated in response to the U.S.
commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in accordance with
the Climate Change Convention of the 1990 Earth Summit. As part of
the Climate Change Action Plan, the Climate Wise Recognition
Program is a partnership initiative run jointly by EPA and the
Department of Energy. The program is designed to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions by encouraging reductions across all sectors of the
economy, encouraging participation in the full range of Climate
Change Action Plan initiatives, and fostering innovation. Participants
in the program are required to identify and commit to actions that
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The program, in turn, gives
organizations early recognition for their reduction commitments;
provides technical assistance through consulting services, workshops,
and guides; and provides access to the program's centralized
information system. At EPA, the program is operated by the Air and
Energy Policy Division within the Office of Policy Planning and
Evaluation. (Contact: Pamela Herman, 202-260-4407)
The U.S. Department of Energy and EPA's Office of Pollution
Prevention are jointly administering a grant program called The
National Industrial Competitiveness through Energy, Environment,
and Economics (NICE3). By providing grants of up to 50 percent of the
total project cost, the program encourages industry to reduce industrial
waste at its source and become more energy-efficient and cost-
competitive through waste minimization efforts. Grants are used by
industry to design, test, demonstrate, and assess the feasibility of new
processes and/or equipment with the potential to reduce pollution and
increase energy efficiency. The program is open to all industries;
however, priority is given to proposals from participants in the pulp
and paper, chemicals, primary metals, and petroleum and coal products
sectors. (Contact: DOE's Golden Field Office, 303-275-4729)
September 1995
119
SIC Codes 333-334
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Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
XII.C. Trade Association/Industry Sponsored Activity
Various trade associations represent the interests of the nonferrous
metals industry. Some of these organizations are discussed in greater
detail below.
Aluminum
The Aluminum. Association (AA)
900 19th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20006
Phone: (202) 862-5100
Members: 86
Staff: 27
Budget: $4,300,000
Contact: David N. Parker
Founded in 1933, AA represents producers of aluminum and
manufacturers of semi-fabricated aluminum products. This
association represents members' interest in legislative activity and it
also conducts seminars and workshops. Its committees cover such
topics as legislative/regulatory affairs, environmental affairs, product
standards, technical activities and programs, and health and safety. AA
maintains a library of 3000 volumes on aluminum technology and the
aluminum industry. Its publications include: Aluminum Association
Report (10 times per year); Aluminum Standards and Data (biennially);
Aluminum Statistical Review (annually); World Aluminum Abstracts
(monthly), and a free catalog listing all of its publications, reprints, and
audiovisual material. AA also maintains the World Aluminum
Abstracts data base.
Aluminum. Recycling Association (ARA)
1000 16th St. NW, Ste. 603
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: (202)785-0951
Members: 20
Contact: Richard M.
Cooperman
Founded in 1929, ARA represents producers of aluminum specification
alloys refined from scrap aluminum. ARA has three committees:
Environmental Protection, Government Liaison, and Technical. The
association was formerly known separately as the Aluminum Research
Institute, the Aluminum Smelters Research Institute, and the
Aluminum Smelting and Recycling Institute. ARA publishes
Quarterly Reports on Industry Shipments as well as a brochure.
SIC Codes 333-334
120
September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
Copper
International Copper Association (ICA)
260 Madison Ave.
New York, NY 10016
Phone: (212)251-7240
Fax: (202)251-7245
Members: 42
Staff: 11
Budget: $9,000,000
Contact: Dr. William Drescher
Formerly known as the Copper Products Development Association,
ICA represents both copper producing and copper fabricating
companies. ICA works in concert with commercial, institutional, and
university laboratories to conduct research on, and market
development of, new and improved uses of copper. The association
along with its committees, Chemical and Environmental Advisory;
Corrosion Advisory; Electrical Advisory; Metallurgy Advisory; and
Program Review conduct seminars and maintain a 300 volume library.
ICA publishes an annual report in addition to a monograph series.
Copper and Brass Fabricators Council (CBFC)
1050 17th St. NW, Ste. 440
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: (202)833-8575
Fax: (202)331-8267
Contact: Joseph. L. Mayer
CBFC represents copper and brass fabricators in activities involving
foreign trade in copper and brass fabricated products, and Federal
regulatory matters including legislation, regulations, rules, controls,
and other matter affecting brass and copper fabricators. The association
has five committees: Critical Materials; Energy Conservation; EPA
Advisory; Foreign Trade; and Government Information. CBFC was
formerly known as Copper and Brass Fabricators Foreign Trade
Association and was founded in 1966.
Copper Development Association (CDA)
2 Greenwich Office Park
Box 1840
Greenwich, CT 06836
Phone: (212) 251-7200 or (800) CDA-DATA
Members: 100
Staff: 20
Contact: M. Payne
CDA represents domestic and foreign copper mining, smelting, and
refining companies, and domestic fabricating companies. Functioning
in committees divided along principal market areas such as
transportation and construction and electronics, CDA seeks to expand
the applications and markets of copper. CDA provides technical
services to users of copper and its alloys, and also researches market
statistics for the entire industry. Copper Update and Copper Topics,
both published quarterly, are the primary publications of CDA in
September 1995
121
SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project
Lead
Zinc
addition to handbooks, technical reports, and bulletins. CDA also
operates an Online Copper Data Center which contains literature from
around the world on copper and its alloys.
Lead Industries Association (LIA)
295 Madison Ave.
New York, NY 10017
Phone: (212)578-4750
Fax: (212) 684-7714
Members: 70
Staff: 4
Contact: Jerome F. Smith
Founded in 1928, LIA represents mining companies, smelters, refiners,
and manufacturers of products containing lead. The association
researches and gathers statistics and provides technical services and
information to lead consumers. Some of the services LIA provides are
a 2000-volume library concerning lead, and association committees
focusing on: Battery Manufacturers, Environmental Health, Fabricated
Products, Oxide and Chemical, and Solder Manufacturers. LIA
publishes a semiannual newsletter, Lead, with a circulation of 60,000
that contains articles about the application of lead in architecture,
chemicals, and other fields.
Association of Battery Recyclers (ABR)
Sanders Lead Co. Corp.
Sanders Rd.
PO Drawer 707
Troy,AL 36081
Phone: (205) 566-1563
Members: 45
Staff: 1
Contact: N. Kenneth
Campbell
ABR represents recyclers of lead, oxide manufacturers, industry
equipment suppliers, and- consulting services. The association's goals
are to provide information services relating to worker safety and
environmental controls through continuing industry-wide studies.
ABR conducts research in: engineering and administrative controls,
respiratory protection, and environmental and biological monitoring.
ABR was known as the Secondary Lead Smelters Association until
1990.
Independent Zinc Alloyers Association (IZAA)
1000 16th St. NW, Ste. 603
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: (202) 785-0558
Members: 15
Contact: Richard M.
Cooperman
SIC Codes 333-334
Founded in 1959, IZAA represents producers of zinc alloys for the die
casting industry. The association has one committee which focuses on
International Trade.
122 September 1995
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Sector Notebook Project
Nonferrous Metals
xni. RESOURCE MATERIALS/BIBLIOGRAPHY
For further information on selected topics within the nonferrous metals industry, a
list of publications is provided below:
General Profile and Pollution Prevention
An Appraisal of Minerals Availability for 34 Commodities, U.S. Department of the
Interior, Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 892, 1987.
Aluminum Facts, and other materials provided by the Aluminum Association,
Washington, DC, 1995.
Copper Technology Competitiveness, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology
Assessment, OTA-E-367, September, 1988.
Encyclopedia of Associations, 27th ed., Deborah M. Burek, ed., Gale Research Inc.,
Detroit, Michigan, 1992.
Enforcement Accomplishments Report, FY 1991, U.S. EPA, Office of Enforcement
(EPA/300-R92-008), April 1992.
Enforcement Accomplishments Report, FY 1992, U.S. EPA, Office of Enforcement
(EPA/230-R93-001), April 1993.
Enforcement Accomplishments Report, FY 1993, U.S. EPA, Office of Enforcement
(EPA/300-R94-003), April 1994.
Industry & Trade Summary - Aluminum, U.S. International Trade Commission,
USITC Publication 2706, April 1994.
Industry & Trade Summary - Copper, U.S. International Trade Commission, USITC
Publication 2623 (MM-4), April 1993.
Information provided by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines,
1995.
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, Vol. 1, 3, 6, and 19, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1987,1992.
Report to Congress on Metal Recovery, Environmental Regulation & Hazardous
Waste, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA/530-R-93-018), February 1994.
Standard Industrial Classification Manual, Office of Management and Budget, 1987.
U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994 - Metals, U.S. Department of Commerce.
September 1995 123 SIC Codes 333-334
-------
Nonferrous Metals
Sector Notebook Project,
1987 Census of Manufacturers Industry Series 33C: Smelting and Refining -
Nonferrous Metals, U.S. Bureau of the Census, April 1990. (MC87-I-33C)
1987 Census of Manufacturers Industry Series 33D: Metal Mills and Primary Metal,
U.S. Bureau of the Census, April 1990. (MC87-I-33D)
1992 Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) Public Data Release, U.S. EPA, Office of Pollution
Prevention and Toxics, April 1994. (EPA/745-R94-001)
The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act, U.S. EPA Office of Air and Radiation,
400-K-93-001.
Environmental Law Handbook, Government Institutes, Inc., llth edition,
Rockville, MD 1991.
Process Descriptions
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Anthony J. Buonicore and Wayne T. Davis, ed.,
Air & Waste Management Association, Van Norstrand Reinhold, New York, NY,
1992.
Background Listing Document for K065, U.S. EPA.
Background Listing Document for K088, U.S. EPA.
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP 42), U.S. EPA, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards.
Information provided by the International Copper Association, Ltd.
Recycled Metals in The United States, A Sustainable Resource, U.S. Department of
the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Special Publication, October 1992.
Report to Congress on Special Wastes From Mineral Processing: Summary and
Findings, Methods and Analyses, Appendices, U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (530/SW-90-070C), 1990.
SIC Codes 333-334
124
September 1995
-------
INSTRUCTIONS FOR DOWNLOADING NOTEBOOKS
Electronic Access to the Sector Notebooks via
the Enviro$en$e World Wide Web (E$WWW) and
the Enviro$en$e Bulletin Board System (E$BBS)
The Sector Notebooks are available through two electronic systems, the Enviro$en$e
Bulletin Board System (via modem connection), and the Enviro$en$e World Wide Web (via
Internet). The Enviro$en$e Communications Network is a free, public, interagency-supported
system operated by EPA's Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance and the Office of
Research and Development. The Network allows regulators, the regulated community, technical
experts, and the general public to share information regarding: pollution prevention and innovative
technology; environmental enforcement and compliance assistance; laws, executive orders,
regulations and policies; points of contact for services and equipment; and other related topics. The
Network welcomes receipt of environmental messages, information and data from any public or
private person or organization. This document first provides summary information on E$WWW
access, then provides information on downloading protocols from within the E$BBS.
A. ACCESS THROUGH ENVIRO$EN$E WORLD WIDE WEB
To access the Sector Notebooks through the Enviro$en$e World Wide Web, set
your World Wide Web Browser to the following address:
WWW/INTERNET ADDRESS: http://es.inel.gov/
HOTLINE NUMBER FOR E$WWW ONLY: 208-526-6956
EPA E$WWW MANAGER: Myles Morse, 202-260-3161
i
From the Enviro$en$e home page, click on "Compliance and Enforcement" to
obtain instructions on how to access the Sector Notebooks and how to provide comments.
Names, e-mail addresses, and telephone numbers will also be provided should you require
assistance. The same documents listed below under the E$BBS instructions are available
on the E$WWW. Adobe Acrobat formats are also available on E$WWW.
B. ACCESS THROUGH THE ENVIRO$EN$E BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM -
Instructions for Connecting, Registering and Downloading Notebooks
E$BBS MODEM CONNECTION NUMBER: 703-908-2092
HOTLINE FOR E$BBS ONLY: 703-908-2007
MANAGER: BBS Platform: Louis Paley, 202-260-4640
The following instructions are condensed from longer documents that provide
information on the full features of the Enviro$en$e Bulletin Board. Further documentation
is available on-line in the files that are listed at the end of this Appendix.
A-l
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STEP 1. ESTABLISHING MODEM SETTINGS
Connecting to the ENVTRO$EN$E BBS is done using a modem and
communications software. The modem can be either an internal or external model
connected directly to your computer or part of a modem pool that is accessible through your
Local Area Network (LAN) system. The communications software (e.g.. CrossTalk,
ProComm, QModem, Microphone, etc.) is what allows you to access and control your
modem. Your software needs to be set to the values noted below (many of these settings
are the standard defaults used):
Telephone number - 703-908-2092 (Tip: Be sure you have entered
the appropriate dialing prefix; e.g., 9 for an outside line, 1 for long
distance...)
Baud rate - up to 14,400 BPS is supported (always select the highest
speed which YOUR modem will support).
Terminal Emulation - BBS, ANSI, VT-100, VT-102 etc. (Tips:
Do not use TTY. After you log in, if you see screen characters appear on
the lines where you need to enter information, chances are that you need to
properly set your terminal emulation. The emulation can normally be reset
before or during communication with Enviro$en$e).
Data Bits - 8 (Eight).
Stop Bits - 1 (One).
Parity - None.
Transfer Protocols - ZModem, YModem, XModem, HS/Link,
BiModem, ASCII (text files only). If your communications software
supports ZModem, this will increase upload/download efficiency. You
must select the same protocol that BOTH your communications software
and the BBS support so that they can "talk the same language" when
sending and receiving files.
Error correction/data compression protocols - v.32, v.42, and
other older, hardware-dependent ones are supported.
Refer to your communications software manual on how to set and save the
communication parameters noted above (these will generally be the default). Also check to
make sure you know where the communications software will send the files you
download. Due to document sizes it is best not to download Sector Notebooks to floppy
disks.
A-2
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STEP 2. CONNECTING AND REGISTERING
Connect to E$BBS via a modem, using communications software set to the
above settings by dialing:
(703) 908-2092
NOTE: EPA Employees can access E$ directly via LAN from the Agency Lan
Services Menu or Icon and then follow the instructions below. The end of this
document lists additional resources for accessing E$BBS through the LAN.
Once you are in the BBS, hit the ENTER/RETURN key twice (2) to accept
the default values for the screen.
on successive pages, type your first name and hit
ENTER/RETURN; type your last name and hit ENTER/RETURN;
and type your password (if you have NOT registered yet,
make one up, and remember it for subsequent logons to
E$) and hit ENTER/RETURN; and
Register (first time only) and immediately receive access to the BBS
for 120 minutes per day;
Type responses to the Registration questions, and hit
ENTER/RETURN to begin using ENVIRO$EN$E. (Tip: the last
registration question is Country? )
You may need to hit ENTER/RETURN several times to move past System
News and Alert messages.
STEP 3. DOWNLOADING SECTOR NOTEBOOKS
The files that appear on the following table can be downloaded from E$. Most files
cannot be viewed on-screen within the E$BBS. As indicated on the following table, each
document appears in several formats - WordPerfect 5.1 (PC), WordPerfect 6.1 (PC),
Microsoft Word 5. la (Mac) or WordPerfect 2.0 (Mac). Please note that the quality of
formatting and graphics is highest in the file version in which the notebook was originally
created. The high quality versions are underlined.on the following list of filenames.
Information on Macintosh/Microsoft Word Files
Available Macintosh files are not compressed. The files are easily identified by the seventh
and eighth position in the filename - which is "MA." The extension They can be directly
downloaded and read using Microsoft Word 5.la, or within other word processing
software that supports conversion of Microsoft Word 5. la documents. Conversion to
other programs may alter formatting and graphics quality.
Information on PC/WordPerfect Files
The WordPerfect files are all compressed ("zipped" files ending with the .ZIP extension)
files that need to be decompressed ("unzipped") after they are downloaded. The notebooks
that are available in WP 5.1 and WP 6.0 are zipped together (this is why the filenames on
the following table are the same). When these files are downloaded and "unzipped," you
will have a version with the extension ".WP5" and one with ".WP6".
A-3
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Available Notebooks, Filenames and File Formats
Profile of the Industry PC WP 5.1
Dry Cleaning DRYCLNSN.ZIP
Electronics and Computer ELECMPSN.ZIP
Wood Furniture and Fixtures WDFURNSN.ZIP
Inorganic Chemical INRGCHSN.ZIP
Iron and Steel IRONSTSN.ZIP
Lumber and Wood Products LMBRWDSN.ZIP
Fabricated Metal Products FABMETSN.ZIP
Metal Mining METMINSN.ZIP
Motor Vehicle Assembly MOTVEHSN:ZIP
Nonferrous Metals NFMETLSN.ZIP
Non-Fuel, Non-Metal Mining NOMTMISN.ZIP
Organic Chemical ORGCHMSN.ZIP
Petroleum Refining PETREFSN.ZIP
Printing PRINTGSN.ZIP
Pulp and Paper PULPPASN.ZIP
Rubber and Plastic RUBPLASN.ZIP
Stone, Clay, Glass and Concrete STCLGLSN.ZIP
Transportation Equipment Cleaning TRNSEQSN.ZIP
PC WP 6.1
DRYCLNSN.ZIP
INRGCHSN.ZIP
IRONSTSN.ZIP
ORGCHMSN.ZIP
PETREFSN.ZIP
PRINTGSN.ZIP
PULPPASN.ZIP
TRNSEOSN.ZIP
Macintosh
Word 5.1a/WP2.0
DRYCLNMA.WP2
ELECMPMA.WD5
WDFURNMA.WD5-
INRGCHMA.WP2
IRONSTMA.WP2
LMBRWDMA.WD5
FABMETMA.WD5
MBTMINMA.WD5
MOTVEHMA.WD5
NFMETLMA.WD5
NOMTMIMA.WD5
ORGCHMMA.WP2
PETREFMA.WP2
PRINTGMA.WP2
PULPPAMA.WP2
RUBPLAMA.WD5
STCLGLMA.WD5
TRNSEQMA.WP2
Note: Underlined files contain the highest quality format/graphics
STEP 3 CONTINUED - PROCEDURES FOR DOWNLOADING
From the E$ Main Menu, select "D" to Download then hit ENTER/RETURN.
Type in the Sector Notebook filename from above that you would tike to select for
downloading and hit ENTER/RETURN.
The system will ask you to select a file transfer protocol. Select the file transfer
protocol that matches what you have selected within your PC communications
software (ZModem is recommended) and hit ENTER/RETURN. (Tip: ZModem
users may also be allowed to enter more than one filename to download more than
one document at a time. Simply continue to enter a new filename each time a new
filename prompt appears on the screen. This option is disabled for other users.)
At this point, you may
begin downloading by hitting ENTER/RETURN. This should begin the
download if you are using the ZModem transfer protocol. If you don't see
information on the screen showing the progress of the download, follow the
next step.
If the download does not begin after following the last step, you need to tell your
communications software to start receiving the file. To do this, look for a
"RECEIVE" icon or command on your communications software menu and activate
it This tells your software to begin the download.
A-4
-------
STEP 4
When the download is completed, a message will appear on the screen to confirm
transmission.
The downloaded file will appear in the folder or directory that you defined in your
communications software.
Repeat the above procedure to download other notebooks.
Macintosh users can logoff using the [G]oodbye command from the main menu
THE FOLLOWING STEP MUST BE TAKEN BY ALL USERS THAT
HAVE DOWNLOADED ZIPPED FILES (files with a ".ZIP" filename
extension) FROM E$. MACINTOSH USERS CAN SKIP THIS
STEP.
In order to read the zipped file(s) you have downloaded, you
must download the decompression software required to
"unzip" your files. To download the decompression software, follow
the same download instructions given above. Type in the filename
"PKZ204G.EXE" and hit ENTER/RETURN. You only need to download
this file to your hard drive once.
Logoff using the [G]oodbye command from the main menu.
To end the phone connection, the user should use the "hang up" or "terminate call"
option provided with your communications software.
DECOMPRESSING ".ZIP'D" DOWNLOADED FILES (PC Only -
Macintosh files do not need to be decompressed)
After you have downloaded a compressed (".ZIP") file to your PC, you must
decompress it to its original format and size by using the "PKUnzip" file which you
downloaded at the beginning of Step 3. The file which you downloaded;
"PKZ204G.EXE", contains PKZip.EXE and PKUnzip.EXE files. PKUNZIP will
decompress the file, returning it to its original size and format as if it had never been
compressed or transmitted over the BBS. To use the PK commands (pkunzip.exe &
pkzip.exe), you must be at the DOS prompt (third-party software interfaces exist for
Windows). For details on how to use either command, simply type the command at the
DOS prompt (without any parameters, i.e., just type "PKUNZIP") and hit
ENTER/RETURN. Since parameters are required for the PKs to work they will
automatically go into help mode and give you a brief explanation of how they work. If a
user needs more direction, there is full documentation included in the PKZ204G.EXE in
the "Hints" file.
To decompress any file, use PKUNZIP.EXE by taking the following steps:
Go to the DOS C: prompt and type PKUNZIP.EXE; then,
Type "PKUNZIP [Filename]" (e.g.. the filename and the path of the
compressed file you wish to decompress).
NOTE: after the paired files are unzipped, two files will exist, one with the
extension ".WP5" and one with the extension ".WP6.
A-5
-------
C. COMMENTING OR PROVIDING ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE
SECTOR NOTEBOOKS VIA E$BBS
Comments on the Sector Notebooks, or supplemental documents of interest can be
uploaded to the Enviro$en$e BBS. Follow upload instructions that appear on the screen,
or look at the instructions for compressing and uploading documents. The instructional
documents are listed below under Section D of this Appendix. All documents that you
upload will be publicly accessible, and should contain a short abstract (less than 50 words)
that describes the document It is recommended that this abstract contain the words "Sector
Notebook Comments," the title of the Notebook that the comments are directed toward,
and the words "SIC «Insert applicable 2-digit SIC code»".
NOTE: To help the system operator know what you've uploaded and where it
should be put within the BBS, it is helpful to send a message to the system
operator. Before logging out of E$, you will be given the option to comment to the
system operator (Sysop). Please indicate what files you have sent, and that the
comments or supplemental documents should be placed in Directory 51 - "Sector
Compliance Information and Notebooks." Messages can also be sent to the Sysop
from the main menu using the Message option.
D. ADDITIONAL RESOURCE DOCUMENTS AVAILABLE ON E$BBS
The following files can be viewed from the "Bulletins" section of E$BBS main
menu. To receive these documents electronically, the files can be downloaded (and
viewed') from Directory #160 (utilities). If you would like to download these files, follow
the same procedures that are outlined (Section C). The directions for direct dial modem
users are different than the directions for EPA LAN users. How you have accessed the
E$BBS determines which of the paired files below that you should follow.
Entered E$
via Modem
CONREGWP.TXT
FINDVIEW.TXT
CONVCOMP.TXT
DNLDTXWP.TXT
DNLDZPWP.TXT
UPLOADWP.TXT
SNHOWTO.TXT
Entered E$
EPA LAN
CNREGLAN.TXT
FNDVWLAN.TXT
CVCMPLAN.TXT
DNLTXLAN.TXT
DNZPLAN.TXT
UPLDLAN.TXT
SNHOWLAN.TXT
Description of File
How to Connect and Register on the E$BBS
via Modem
Finding and Viewing Files from E$BBS via
Modem
Converting, Compressing & Uncompressing
Files via Modem
Flagging and Downloading "Uncompressed"
Files from E$BBS
Flagging and Downloading "Compressed"
Files from E$BBS
Directions for Uploading Files via Modem
to the E$BBS
Contains this document "Appendix A -
Downloading Instructions"
A-6
US, Govtromwl Printing Otltc* 1996413-399
-------
To order other EPA Sector Notebooks
use the form below
United States Government
INFORMATION
Order Processing Code:
*3212
Charge your order.
It's easy!
Fax your orders (202) 512-2250
Phone your orders (202) 512-1800
Qty.
Stock Number
055-000-00512-5
055-000-00513-3
055-000-00518-4
055-000-00515-0
055-000-00516-8
055-000-00517-6
055-000-00519-2
055-000-00520-6
055-000-00521-4
055-000-00522-2
055-000-00523-1
055-000-00524-9
055-000-00525-7
055-000-00526-5
055-000-00527-3
055-000-00528-1
055-000-00529-0
055-000-00514-1
Title
Dry Cleaning Industry, 104 pages
Electronics and Computer Industry, 160 pages
Fabricated Metal Products Industry, 164 pages
Inorganic Chemical Industry, 136 pages
Iron and Steel Industry, 128 pages
Lumber and Wood Products Industry, 136 pages
Metal Mining Industry, 148 pages
Motor Vehicle Assembly Industry, 1 56 pages
Nonferrous Metals Industry, 140 pages
Non-Fuel, Non-Metal Mining Industry, 108 pages
Organic Chemical Industry, 152 pages
Petroleum Refining Industry, 160 paaes
Printing Industry, 124 pages
Pulp and Paper Industry, 1 56 pages
Rubber and Plastic Industry, 152 pages
Stone, Clay, Glass and Concrete Industry, 124 pages
Transportation Eauioment Cleanina Industry. 84 naoes
Wood Furniture and Fixtures Industry. 132 oaaes
Price
Each
* 6.50
$11.00
»11.00
$ 9.00
$ 8.00
$ 9.00
* 10.00
«11.00
* 9.00
$ 6.50
$11.00
$11.00
$ 7.50
$11.00
$11.00
$ 7.50
* 5.50
* R.nn
Total for Publications
Total
Price
The total cost of my order is $ . Price includes regular shipping and handling and is subject to change.
Company or personal name
(Please type or print)
Additional address/attention line
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Check method of payment:
Q Check payable to Superintendent of Documents
Q GPO Deposit Account
Q VISA a MasterCard
City, State, Zip code
j (expiration date) Thank you for your order!
Daytime phone including area code
9/95
Purchase order number (optional)
Important; Include: this completed order feftn with your remittance.
Authorizing signature
Mail to: Superintendent of Documents
P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954
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