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NOTEBOOKS
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
fg
THE ADMINISTRATOR
Message from the Administrator
Since EPA's founding over 25 years ago, our nation has made tremendous progress in protecting
public health and our environment while promoting economic prosperity. Businesses as large as
iron and steel plants and those as small as the dry cleaner on the corner have worked with EPA to
find ways to operate cleaner, cheaper and smarter. As a result, we no longer have rivers catching
fire. Our skies are clearer. American environmental technology and expertise are in demand
around the world.
The Clinton Administration recognizes that to continue this progress, we must move beyond the
pollutant-by-pollutant approaches of the past to comprehensive, facility-wide approaches for the
future. Industry by industry and community by community, we must build a new generation of
environmental protection.
The Environmental Protection Agency has undertaken its Sector Notebook Project to compile,
for major industries, information about environmental problems and solutions, case studies and
tips about complying with regulations. We called on industry leaders, state regulators, and EPA
staff with many years of experience in these industries and with their unique environmental issues.
Together with an extensive series covering other industries, the notebook you hold in your hand is
the result.
These notebooks will help business managers to understand better their regulatory requirements,
and learn more about how others in their industry have achieved regulatory compliance and the
innovative methods some have found to prevent pollution in the first instance. These notebooks
will give useful information to state regulatory agencies moving toward industry-based programs.
Across EPA we will use this manual to better integrate our programs and improve our compliance
assistance efforts.
I encourage you to use this notebook to evaluate and improve the way that we together achieve
our important environmental protection goals. I am confident that these notebooks will help us to
move forward in ensuring that — in industry after industry, community after community ~
environmental protection and economic prosperity go hajriin hand.
Carol M. Browner
R»cycl»cm«cyc]«M» « Printed with Vegetable OB Based Inks on 100% Recycled Paper (40% Postconsutner)
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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
EPA/310-R-97-004
EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project:
Profile of the Metal Casting Industry
September 1997
Office of Compliance
Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M St., SW (MC 2221-A)
Washington, DC 20460
For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office
Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
ISBN 0-16-049396-X
-------
Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
This report is one in a series of volumes published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to provide information of general interest regarding environmental issues associated with
specific industrial sectors. The documents were developed under contract by Abt Associates
(Cambridge, MA), Science Applications International Corporation (McLean, VA), and Booz-
Allen & Hamilton, Inc. (McLean, VA). This publication may be purchased from the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. A listing of available Sector
Notebooks and document numbers is included at the end of this document.
AH telephone orders should be directed to:
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC 20402
(202)512-1800
FAX (202) 512-2250
8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., EST, M-F
Using the form provided at the end of this document, all mail orders should be directed to:
U.S. Government Printing Office
P.O. Box 371954
Pittsburgh, PA 152*50-7954
Complimentary volumes are available to certain groups or subscribers, such as public and
academic libraries, Federal, State, and local governments, and the media from EPA's National
Center for Environmental Publications and Information at (800) 490-9198. For further
information, and for answers to questions pertaining to these documents, please refer to the
contact names and numbers provided within this volume.
Electronic versions of all Sector Notebooks are available via Internet on the Enviro$en$e World
Wide Web. Downloading procedures are described in Appendix A of this document.
Cover photograph courtesy of American Foundrymen's Society, Inc., Des Plaines, Illinois.
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
Sector Notebook Contacts
The Sector Notebooks were developed by the EPA's Office of Compliance. Questions relating to
the Sector Notebook Project can be directed to:
Seth Heminway, Coordinator, Sector Notebook Project
US EPA Office of Compliance
401MSt, SW(2223-A)
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 564-7017
Questions and comments regarding the individual documents can be directed to the appropriate
specialists listed below.
Document Number
EPA/310
EPA/310
EPA/310
EPA/310
EPA/310
EPA/310
EPA/310
EPA/310
EPA/310.
EPA/310
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
i-R-95-001.
i-R-95-002.
'-R-95-003.
-R-95-004.
-R-95-005.
-R-95-006.
-R-95-007.
-R-95-008.
-R-95-009.
-R-95-010.
-R-95-011.
-R-95-012.
-R-95-013.
-R-95-014.
-R-95-015.
-R-95-016.
-R-95-017.
-R-95-018.
-R-97-001.
•R-97-002.
•R-97-003.
•R-97-004.
•R-97-005.
•R-97-006.
•R-97-007.
R-97-008.
R-97-009.
R-97-010.
Industry
Dry Cleaning Industry
Electronics and Computer Industry
Wood Furniture and Fixtures Industry
Inorganic Chemical Industry
Iron and Steel Industry
Lumber and Wood Products Industry
Fabricated Metal Products Industry
Metal Mining Industry
Motor Vehicle Assembly Industry
Nonferrous Metals Industry
Non-Fuel, Non-Metal Mining Industry
Organic Chemical Industry
Petroleum Refining Industry
Printing Industry
Pulp and Paper Industry
Rubber and Plastic Industry
Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Industry
Transportation Equipment Cleaning Ind.
Air Transportation Industry
Ground Transportation Industry
Water Transportation Industry
Metal Casting Industry
Pharmaceuticals Industry
Plastic Resin and Manmade Fiber Ind.
Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Ind.
Shipbuilding and Repair Industry
Textile Industry
Sector Notebook Data Refresh, 1997
Contact
Joyce Chandler
Steve Hoover
Bob Marshall
Walter DeRieux
Maria Malave
Seth Heminway
Scott Throwe
Jane Engert
Anthony Raia
Jane Engert
Robert Lischinsky
Walter DeRieux
Tom Ripp
Ginger Gotliffe
Maria Eisemann
Maria Malave
Scott Throwe
Virginia Lathrop
Virginia Lathrop
Virginia Lathrop
Virginia Lathrop
Jane Engert
Emily Chow
Sally Sasnett
Rafael Sanchez
Anthony Raia
Belinda Breidenbach
Seth Heminway
Phone (202)
564-7073
564-7007
564-7021
564-7067
564-7027
564-7017
564-7013
564-5021
564-6045
564-5021
564-2628
564-7067
564-7003
564-7072
564-7016
564-7027
564-7013
564-7057
564-7057
564-7057
564-7057
564-5021
564-7071
564-7074
564-7028
564-6045
564-7022
564-7017
Sector Notebook Project
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September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF ACRONYMS viii
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT 1
A. Summary of the Sector Notebook Project 1
B. Additional Information 2
II. INTRODUCTION TO THE METAL CASTING INDUSTRY 3
A. Introduction, Background, and Scope of the Notebook 3
B. Characterization of the Metal Casting Industry 3
1. Product Characterization 4
2. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution 7
3. Economic Trends IQ
III. INDUSTRIAL PROCESS DESCRIPTION 13
A. Industrial Processes in the Metal Casting Industry 13
1. Pattern Making 14
2. Mold and Core Preparation and Pouring 15
3. Furnace Charge Preparation and Metal Melting 29
4. Shakeout, Cooling and Sand Handling 33
5. Quenching, Finishing, Cleaning and Coating . . . 34
6. Die Casting 35
B. Raw Materials Inputs and Pollution Outputs 39
1. Foundries 39
2. Die Casters 43
C. Management of Chemicals in Wastestream 47
IV. CHEMICAL RELEASE AND TRANSFER PROFILE 51
A. EPA Toxic Release Inventory for the Metal Casting Industry 55
1. Toxic Release Inventory for Ferrous and Nonferrous Foundries 55
2. Toxic Release Inventory for Die Casting Facilities 61
B. Summary of Selected Chemicals Released 66
C. Other Data Sources 72
D. Comparison of Toxic Release Inventory Between Selected Industries 74
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V. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES 77
A. Waste Sand and Chemical Binder Reduction and Reuse 77
1. Casting Techniques Reducing Waste Foundry Sand Generation 78
2. Reclamation and Reuse of Waste Foundry Sand and Metal 79
B. Metal Melting Furnaces 84
C. Furnace Dust Management 87
D. Slag and Dross Management 89
E. Wastewater 91
F. Die Casting Lubrication 92
G. Miscellaneous Residual Wastes 92
VI. SUMMARY OF FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS 95
A. General Description of Major Statutes 95
B. Industry Specific Requirements 1°7
C. Pending and Proposed Regulatory Requirements HI
VII. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT HISTORY 113
A. Metal Casting Industry Compliance History 117
B. Comparison of Enforcement Activity Between Selected Industries 119
C. Review of Major Legal Actions 124
1. Review of Major Cases 124
2. Supplementary Environmental Projects (SEPs) 126
Vffl. COMPLIANCE ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES 127
A. Sector-related Environmental Programs and Activities 127
1. Federal Activities 127
2. State Activities 129
B. EPA Voluntary Programs 131
C. Trade Association/Industry Sponsored Activity 138
1. Industry Research Programs 138
2. Trade Associations 140
IX. CONTACTS/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS/RESOURCE MATERIALS 143
Appendix A: Instructions for downloading this notebook A-l
Sector Notebook Project
VI
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Uses of Cast Metal Products 4
Figure 2: Types of Metals Cast 5
Figure 3: Geographic Distribution of Metal Casting Establishments 9
Figure 4: Sand Mold and Core Cross Section 17
Figure 5: Process Flow and Potential Pollutant Outputs for Typical Green Sand Foundry 19
Figure 6: Investment Flask and Shell Casting 26
Figure 7: Lost Foam Casting Cross Sections 28
Figure 8: Sectional Views of Melting Furnaces 32
Figure 9: Cold (a), and Hot Chamber (b), Die Casting Machines 36
Figure 10: Summary of TRI Releases and Transfers by Industry 75
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Facility Size Distribution for the Metal Casting Industry 8
Table 2: Top U.S. Metal Casting Companies '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.\0
Table 3: Comparison of Several Casting Methods 15
Table 4: Summary of Material Inputs and Potential Pollutant Outputs for the Metal Casting
Industry ; 45
Table 5: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for Foundries 48
Table 6: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for Die Casting Facilities 49
Table?: 1995 TRI Releases for Foundries, by Number of Facilities Reporting 57
Table 8: 1995 TRI Transfers for Foundries, by Number and Facilities Reporting . 59
Table 9: 1995 TRI Releases for Die Casting Facilities, by Number of Facilities Reporting 62
Table 10: 1995 TRI Transfers for Die Casting Facilities, by Number and Facilities Reporting . 63
Table 11: Top 10 TRI Releasing Metal Casting Facilities 64
Table 12: Top 10 TRI Releasing Facilities Reporting Metal Casting SIC Codes 65
Table 13: Air Pollutant Releases by Industry Sector (tons/year) ' ' 73
Table 14: Toxics Release Inventory Data for Selected Industries 76
Table 15: Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for the Metal Casting Industry .117
Table 16: Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for Selected Industries 120
Table 17: One-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for Selected Industries 121
Table 18: Five-Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by Statute for Selected Industries 122
Table 19: One-Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by Statute for Selected Industries 123
Table 20: Metal Casting Industry Participation in the 33/50 Program 132
Sector Notebook Project
VII
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
LIST OF ACRONYMS
APS - AIRS Facility Subsystem (CAA database)
AFS- American Foundrymen's Society
AIRS - Aerometric Information Retrieval System (CAA database)
BIFs - Boilers and Industrial Furnaces (RCRA)
BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CAA - Clean Air Act
CAAA - Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
CERCLIS - CERCLA Information System
CFCs - ChJorofluorocarbons
CO - Carbon Monoxide
COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand
CSI - Common Sense Initiative
CWA - Clean Water Act
D&B - Dun and Bradstreet Marketing Index
ELP - Environmental Leadership Program
EPA - United States Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA - Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
FIFRA - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FINDS - Facility Indexing System
HAPs - Hazardous Air Pollutants (CAA)
HSDB - Hazardous Substances Data Bank
IDEA - Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis
LDR - Land Disposal Restrictions (RCRA)
LEPCs - Local Emergency Planning Committees
MACT - Maximum Achievable Control Technology (CAA)
MCLGs - Maximum Contaminant Level Goals
MCLs - Maximum Contaminant Levels
MEK - Methyl Ethyl Ketone
MSDSs - Material Safety Data Sheets
NAAQS - National Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAA)
NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement
NCDB - National Compliance Database (for TSCA, FIFRA, EPCRA)
NCP - National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
NEIC - National Enforcement Investigation Center
NESHAP - National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NO2 - Nitrogen Dioxide
NOV - Notice of Violation
NOX - Nitrogen Oxide
NPDES - National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (CWA)
NPL - National Priorities List
NRC - National Response Center
NSPS - New Source Performance Standards (CAA)
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
OAR - Office of Air and Radiation
OECA - Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
OPA - Oil Pollution Act
OPPTS - Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OSW - Office of Solid Waste
OSWER - Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OW - Office of Water
P2 - Pollution Prevention
PCS - Permit Compliance System (CWA Database)
POTW - Publicly Owned Treatments Works
RCRA - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RCRIS - RCRA Information System
SARA - Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SDWA - Safe Drinking Water Act
SEPs - Supplementary Environmental Projects
SERCs - State Emergency Response Commissions
SIC - Standard Industrial Classification
SO2 - Sulfur Dioxide
SOX - Sulfur Oxides
TOC - Total Organic Carbon
TRI - Toxic Release Inventory
TRIS - Toxic Release Inventory System
TCRIS - Toxic Chemical Release Inventory System
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act
TSS - Total Suspended Solids
UIC - Underground Injection Control (SDWA)
UST - Underground Storage Tanks (RCRA)
VOCs - Volatile Organic Compounds
Sector Notebook Project
IX
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
METAL CASTING INDUSTRY
(SIC 332 AND 336)
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT
LA. Summary of the Sector Notebook Project
Integrated environmental policies based upon comprehensive analysis of air,
water and land pollution are a logical supplement to traditional single-media
approaches to environmental protection. Environmental regulatory agencies
are beginning to embrace comprehensive, multi-statute solutions to facility
permitting, enforcement and compliance assurance, education/ outreach,
research, and regulatory development issues. The central concepts driving the
new policy direction are that pollutant releases to each environmental medium
(air, water and land) affect each other, and that environmental strategies must
actively identify and address these inter-relationships by designing policies for
the "whole" facility. One way to achieve a whole facility focus is to design
environmental policies for similar industrial facilities. By doing so,
environmental concerns that are common to the manufacturing of similar
products can be addressed in a comprehensive manner. Recognition of the
need to develop the industrial "sector-based" approach within the EPA Office
of Compliance led to the creation of this document.
The Sector Notebook Project was originally initiated by the Office of
Compliance within the Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
(OECA) to provide its staff and managers with summary information for
eighteen specific industrial sectors. As other EPA offices, states, the regulated
community, environmental groups, and the public became interested in this
project, the scope of the original project was expanded to its current form.
The ability to design comprehensive, common sense environmental protection
measures for specific industries is dependent on knowledge of several inter-
related topics. For the purposes of this project, the key elements chosen for
inclusion are: general industry information (economic and geographic); a
description of industrial processes; pollution outputs; pollution prevention
opportunities; Federal statutory and regulatory framework; compliance
history; and a description of partnerships that have been formed between
regulatory agencies, the regulated community and the public.
For any given industry, each topic listed above could alone be the subject of
a lengthy volume. However, in order to produce a manageable document, this
project focuses on providing summary information for each topic. This
format provides the reader with a synopsis of each issue, and references where
more in-depth information is available. Text within each profile was
researched from a variety of sources, and was usually condensed from more
detailed sources pertaining to specific topics. This approach allows for a wide
coverage of activities that can be further explored based upon the citations
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
and references listed at the end of this profile. As a check on the information
included, each notebook went through an external review process. The Office
of Compliance appreciates the efforts of all those that participated in this
process and enabled us to develop more complete, accurate and up-to-date
summaries. Many of those who reviewed this notebook are listed as contacts
in Section IX and may be sources of additional information. The individuals
and groups on this list do not necessarily concur with all statements within this
notebook.
I.E. Additional Information
Providing Comments
OECA's Office of Compliance plans to periodically review and update the
notebooks and will make these updates available both in hard copy and
electronically. If you have any comments on the existing notebook, or if you
would like to provide additional information, please send a hard copy and
computer disk to the EPA Office of Compliance, Sector Notebook Project,
401 M St., SW (2223-A), Washington, DC 20460. Comments can also be
uploaded to the Enviro$en$e World Wide Web for general access to all users
of the system. Follow instructions in Appendix A for accessing this system.
Once you have logged in, procedures for uploading text are available from the
on-line Enviro$en$e Help System.
Adapting Notebooks to Particular Needs
The scope of the industry sector described in this notebook approximates the
national occurrence of facility types within the sector. In many instances,
industries within specific geographic regions or states may have unique
characteristics that are not fully captured in these profiles. The Office of
Compliance encourages state and local environmental agencies and other
groups to supplement or re-package the information included in this notebook
to include more specific industrial and regulatory information that may be
available. Additionally, interested states may want to supplement the
"Summary of Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations" section with state
and local requirements. Compliance or technical assistance providers may
also want to develop the "Pollution Prevention" section in more detail. Please
contact the appropriate specialist listed on the opening page of this notebook
if your office is interested in assisting us in the further development of the
information or policies addressed within this volume. If you are interested in
assisting in the development of new notebooks for sectors not already
covered, please contact the Office of Compliance at 202-564-2395.
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
H. INTRODUCTION TO THE METAL CASTING INDUSTRY
This section provides background information on the size, geographic
distribution, employment, production, sales, and economic condition of the
metal casting industry. Facilities described within this document are
described in terms of their Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes.
EL. A. Introduction, Background, and Scope of the Notebook
The metal casting industry makes parts from molten metal according to an
end-user's specifications. Facilities are typically categorized as casting either
ferrous or nonferrous products. The metal casting industry described in this
notebook is categorized by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
under Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes 332 Iron and Steel
Foundries and 336 Nonferrous Foundries (Castings). The die casting industry
is contained within the SIC 336 category since die casting establishments
primarily cast nonferrous metals. OMB is in the process of changing the SIC
code system to a system based on similar production processes called the
North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS). (In the NAIC
system, iron and steel foundries, nonferrous foundries, and die casters are all
classified as NAIC 3315.)
Although both foundries and die casters are included in this notebook, there
are significant differences in the industrial processes, products, facility size and
environmental impacts between die casters and foundries. Die casting
operations, therefore, are often considered separately throughout this
notebook.
In addition to metal casting, some foundries and die casters carry out further
operations on their cast parts that are not the primary focus of this notebook.
Examples include heat treating (e.g. annealing), case hardening, quenching,
descaling, cleaning, painting, masking, and plating. Such operations can
contribute significantly to a facility's total waste generation. Typical wastes
generated during such operations include spent cyanide baths, salt baths,
quenchents, abrasive media, solvents and plating wastes. For more
information on these processes, refer to the Fabricated Metal Products
Industry Sector Notebook.
H.B. Characterization of the Metal Casting Industry
Foundries and die casters that produce ferrous and nonferrous castings
generally operate on a job or order basis, manufacturing castings for sale to
others companies. Some foundries, termed captive foundries, produce castings
as a subdivision of a corporation that uses the castings to produce larger
products such as machinery, motor vehicles, appliances or plumbing fixtures.
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September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
In addition, many facilities do further work on castings such as machining,
assembling, and coating.
n.B.l. Product Characterization
About 13 million tons of castings are produced every year in the U.S. (U.S.
DOE, 1996). Most of these castings are produced from recycled metals.
There are thousands of cast metal products, many of which are incorporated
into other products. Almost 90 percent of all manufactured products contain
one or more metal castings (LaRue, 1989). It is estimated that on average,
every home contains over a ton of castings in the form of pipe fittings,
plumbing fixtures, hardware, and furnace and air conditioner parts.
Automobiles and other transportation equipment use 50 to 60 percent of all
castings produced - in engine blocks, crankshafts, camshafts, cylinder heads,
brake drums or calipers, transmission housings, differential casings, U-joints,
suspension parts, flywheels, engine mount brackets, front-wheel steering
knuckles, hubs, ship propellers, hydraulic valves, locomotive undercarriages,
and railroad car wheels. The defense industry also uses a large portion of the
castings produced in the U.S. Typical cast parts used by the military include
tank tracks and turrets and the tail structure of the F-16 fighter (Walden,
1995). Some of other common castings include: pipes and pipe fittings,
valves, pumps, pressure tanks, manhole covers, and cooking utensils. Figure
1 shows the proportion of various types of castings produced in the U.S.
Figure 1: Uses of Cast Metal Products
Rail Road
4%
Other Transportation
2%
Industrial Machines
14%
Motor Vehicles
31%
Farm Equipment
7%
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, 1996.
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
Iron and Steel (Ferrous) Castings
Depending on the desired properties of the product, castings can be formed
from many types of metals and metal alloys. Iron and steel (ferrous) castings
are categorized by four-digit SIC code by the Bureau of Census according to
the type of iron or steel as follows:
SIC 3321 - Gray and Ductile Iron Foundries
SIC 3322 - Malleable Iron Foundries
SIC 3324 - Steel Investment Foundries
SIC 3325 - Steel Foundries, Not Elsewhere Classified
Gray and Ductile Iron make up almost 75 percent of all castings (ferrous and
nonferrous) by weight (see Figure 2). Gray iron contains a higher percentage
of carbon in the form of flake graphite and has a lower ductility than other
types of iron. It is used extensively in the agricultural, heavy equipment,
engine, pump, and power transmission industries. Ductile iron has magnesium
or cerium added to change the form of the graphite from flake to nodular.
This results in increased ductility, stiflhess, and tensile strength (Loper, 1985).
Figure 2; Types of Metals Cast
Other Nonferrous
3%
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, 1996.
Malleable iron foundries produce only about two percent of all castings
(ferrous and nonferrous). Malleable iron contains small amounts of carbon,
silicon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and metal alloys to increase strength
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
and endurance. Malleable iron has excellent machinability and a high
resistance to atmospheric corrosion. It is often used in the electrical power,
conveyor and handling equipment, and railroad industries.
Compared to steel, gray, ductile, and malleable iron are all relatively
inexpensive to produce, easy to machine, and are widely used where the
superior mechanical properties of steel are not required (Loper, 1985).
Steel castings make up about 10 percent of all castings (ferrous and
nonferrous). In general, steel castings have better strength, ductility, heat
resistance, durability and weldability than iron castings. There are a number
of different classes of steel castings based on the carbon or alloy content, with
different mechanical properties. A large number of different alloying metals
can be added to steel to increase its strength, heat resistance, or corrosion
resistance (Loper, 1985). The steel investment casting method produces high-
precision castings, usually smaller castings. Examples of steel investment
castings range from machine tools and dies to golf club heads.
Nonferrous Castings
Nonferrous castings are categorized by four-digit SIC code by the Bureau of
Census according to the type of metal as follows:
SIC 3363 - Aluminum Die-Castings
SIC 3364 - Nonferrous Die-Castings, Except Aluminum
SIC 3365 - Aluminum Foundries
SIC 3366 - Copper Foundries
SIC 3369 - Nonferrous Foundries, Except Aluminum and Copper
Nonferrous foundries often use the same basic molding and casting techniques
as ferrous foundries. Many foundries cast both ferrous and nonferrous metals.
Aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, tin, nickel, magnesium and titanium are the
nonferrous metals of primary commercial importance. Usually, these metals
are cast in combinations with each other or with some of about 40 other
elements to make many different nonferrous alloys. A few of the more
common nonferrous alloys are: brass, bronze, nickel-copper alloys (Monel),
nickel-chromium-iron alloys, aluminum-copper alloys, aluminum-silicon
alloys, aluminum-magnesium alloys, and titanium alloys.
Nonferrous metals are used in castings that require specific mechanical
properties, machinability, and/or corrosion resistance (Kunsman, 1985).
Aluminum and aluminum alloy castings are produced in the largest volumes;
11 percent of all castings (ferrous and nonferrous) by weight are aluminum.
Copper and copper alloy castings make up about two percent of all castings
by weight (DOE, 1996). Figure 2 shows the proportions of raw material types
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
used in castings in the U.S.
About 9 percent by weight of all cast metal products are produced using die
casting techniques (DOE, 1996). Die casting is cost effective for producing
large numbers of a casting and can achieve a wide variety of sizes and shapes
with a high degree of accuracy. Holes, threads, and gears can be cast,
reducing the amount of metal to be machined from the casting. Most die
castings are aluminum; however, lead, tin, zinc, copper, nickel, magnesium,
titanium, and beryllium alloys are also die cast. Die casts are usually limited
to nonferrous metals and are often under ten pounds. A wide variety of
products are produced using the die casting process, ranging from tiny wrist
watch parts to one-piece automobile engine blocks (Street, 1977). Other
typical die castings include: aluminum transmission cases, bearings, bushings,
valves, aircraft parts, tableware, jewelry and household appliance parts.
H.B.2. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution
According to the 1992 Census of Manufacturers data, there are
approximately 2,813 metal casting facilities under SIC codes 332 and 336.
The-payroll for 1992 totaled $5.7 billion for a workforce of 158,000
employees, and value of shipments totaled $18.8 billion. The industry's own
estimates of the number of facilities and employment are somewhat higher at
3,100 facilities employing 250,000 in 1994 (Cast Metals Coalition, 1995).
Based on the Census of Manufacturers data, the industry is labor intensive.
The value of shipments per employee, a measure of labor intensity, is
$119,000 that is less than half of the steel manufacturing industry value
($245,000 per employee) and less than seven percent of the petroleum refining
industry value ($1.8 million per employee).
Most metal casting facilities in the U.S. are small. About seventy percent of
the facilities employ fewer than 50 people (see Table 1). Most metal casting
facilities manufacture castings for sale to other companies (U.S. Census of
Manufacturers, 1992). An important exception are the relatively few (but
large) "captive" foundries operated by large original equipment manufacturers
(OEM's) including General Motors, Ford, Chrysler, John Deere, and
Caterpillar. OEM's account for a large portion of the castings produced and
employ a significant number of the industry's workforce.
Although die casting establishments account for only about 9 percent of cast
products by weight, they make up about 20 percent of metal casting
establishments and value of sales (U.S. Census of Manufacturers, 1992). In
proportion to the industry size, there is very little difference between the size
distribution of foundries and die casters.
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
Table 1: Facility Size Distribution for the Metal Casting Industry
Employees
per Facility
1-9
10-49
50-249
250-499
500-2499
2500 or more
Total
Ferrous and Nonferrous Foundries
(SIC 332, 3365, 3366, and 3369)
Number of
Facilities
742
843
494
90
43
4
2216
Percentage of
Facilities
33%
38%
22%
4%
2%
0%
100%
Die Casting Establishments
(SIC 3363 and 3364)
Number of
Facilities
167
214
186
25
4
0
596
Percentage of
Facilities
28%
36%
31%
4%
1%
0%
100%
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census of Manufacturers, 1992.
Geographic Distribution
The geographic distribution of the metal casting industry resembles that of the
iron and steel industry. The highest geographic concentration of facilities is
in the Great Lakes, midwest, southeast regions and California, The top states
by number of facilities in order are: California, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana. Figure 3 shows the U.S. distribution of
facilities based on 1992 data from the U.S. Census of Manufacturers.
Historically, locations for metal casting establishments were selected for their
proximity to raw materials (iron, steel, and other metals), coal, and water for
cooling, processing, and transportation. Traditional metal casting regions
included the Monongahela River valley near Pittsburgh and along the
Mahoning River near Youngstown, Ohio. The geographic concentration of
the industry is changing as facilities are built where scrap metal and electricity
are available at a reasonable cost and there is a local market for the cast
products.
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
Figure 3: Geographic Distribution of Metal Casting Establishments
Source: U.S. Census of Manufacturers, 1992.
Dun & Bradstreet's Million Dollar Directory, compiles financial data on U.S.
companies including those operating within the metal casting industry. Dun
& Bradstreet ranks U.S. companies, whether they are a parent company,
subsidiary or division, by sales volume within their assigned 4-digit SIC code.
Readers should note that: (1) companies are assigned a 4-digit SIC that
resembles their principal industry most closely; and (2) sales figures include
total .company sales, including subsidiaries and operations (possibly not related
to metal casting). Additional sources of company specific financial
information include Standard & Poor's Stock Report Services, Ward's
Business Directory of U.S. Private and Public Companies, Moody's
Manuals, and annual reports.
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
Table 2: Top U.S. Metal Casting Companies
Rank'
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Company1"
Howmet Corporation - Greenwich, CT
Nswell Operating Co. - Freeport, IL
CMI International Inc. - Southfield, MI
Precision Castparts Corporation - Portland, OR
Grede Foundries - Milwaukee, WI
United States Pipe and Foundry - Birmingham, AL
George Koch Sons, Inc.
Varlen Corporation - Naperville, IL
Allied Signal, Inc.
North American Royalties, Inc.
1995 Sales
(millions of dollars)
900
796
561
557
460
412
390
387
260
254
Note: "Not all sales can be attributed to the companies' metal casting operations.
b Companies shown listed SIC 332, 3363, 3364, 3365, 3369. Many large companies operating captive
metal casting facilities produce other goods and are not shown here.
Source: Dunn & Bradstreet 's Million Dollar Directory - 1996.
H.B.3. Economic Trends
The U.S. metal casting industry experienced an unprecedented drop in
production during the 1970's and 1980's. Production of cast metal products
declined from 19.6 million tons in 1972 to 11.3 million tons in 1990. During
this period over 1,000 metal casting facilities closed (DOE, 1996). A number
of reasons have been given for this decline including: decreased U.S. demand
for cast metal resulting from decreases in automobile production and smaller,
lighter weight vehicles for increased fuel efficiency; increased foreign
competition; increased use of substitute materials such as plastics, ceramics,
and composites; and increased costs to comply with new environmental and
health and safety regulations.
The metal casting industry began to recover in the early 1990's; however, it
still produces less than in the early 1970's. The recovery has been attributed
to increases in domestic demand in part due to increases in automobile
production. In addition, exports of castings have increased and imports have
decreased. Between 1993 and 1994 alone the U.S. increased its share of
world metal casting production from 18 percent to 20 percent. The increases
in production came primarily from increases in capacity utilization at existing
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Metal Casting Industry
Introduction
facilities rather than an increase in facilities. In fact, the American
Foundrymen's Society estimates that the number of metal casting facilities
decreased by over 200 between 1990 and 1994 (DOE, 1996).
In 1972, only five percent of all castings were aluminum. Today aluminum
accounts for over 11 percent of the market (DOE, 1996). Aluminum castings
are steadily comprising a larger share of the castings market as their use in
motor vehicle and engine applications continues to grow. To produce lighter
weight, more fuel efficient vehicles, the automobile industry is in the process
redesigning the engine blocks, heads and other parts of passenger cars and
light trucks for aluminum. Cast aluminum is expected to increase from 140
pounds per vehicle in 1995 to 180 pounds per vehicle in 2004. This is
primarily at the expense of gray iron which will decrease from 358 pounds per
vehicle in 1995 to 215 pounds in 2004 (Modern Casting, September, 1995).
The U.S. metal casting industry that emerged from the two decades of decline
in the 1970's and 1980's is stronger and more competitive. The industry is
developing new markets and recapturing old markets. Research and
development has resulted in technological advances that have improved
product quality, overall productivity and energy efficiency. Important recent
technological advances have included Computer Aided Design (CAD) of
molds and castings, the use of sensors and computers to regulate critical
parameters within the processes, and the use of programmable robots to
perform dangerous, time consuming or repetitive tasks.
To stay competative, the industry has identified the following priority areas
for research and development to improve its processes and products:
improving casting technologies
developing new casting materials (alloys) and die materials
developing higher strength and lower weight castings
improving process controls
improving dimensional control
improving the quality of casting material
reducing casting defects (DOE, March 1996)
developing environmentally improved materials to meet today's
regulations (AFS, 1997)
Research into new casting methods and improvements in the current methods
are resulting in improved casting quality, process efficiency, and
environmental benefits.
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Descrintion
. INDUSTRIAL PROCESS DESCRIPTION
This section describes the major industrial processes within the metal casting
industry, including the materials and equipment used and the processes
employed. The section is designed for those interested in gaining a general
understanding of the industry, and for those interested in the inter-relationship
between the industrial process and the topics described in subsequent sections
of this profile — pollutant outputs, pollution prevention opportunities, and
Federal regulations. This section does not attempt to replicate published
engineering information that is available for this industry. Refer to Section IX
for a list of resource materials and contacts that are available.
This section specifically contains a description of commonly used production
processes, associated raw materials, the by-products produced or released,
and the materials either recycled or transferred off-site. This discussion,
coupled with schematic drawings of the identified processes, provide a
concise description of where wastes may be produced in the process. This
section also describes the potential fate (via air, water, and soil pathways) of
these waste products.
HI.A. Industrial Processes in the Metal Casting Industry
Many different metal casting techniques are in use today. They all have in
common the construction of a mold with a cavity in the external shape of the
desired cast part followed by the introduction of molten metal into the mold.
For the purposes of this profile, the metal casting process has been divided
into the following five major operations:
• Pattern Making
• Mold and Core Preparation and Pouring
• Furnace Charge Preparation and Metal Melting
• Shakeout, Cooling and Sand Handling
• Quenching, Finishing, Cleaning and Coating
All five operations may not apply to each casting method. Since the major
variations between processes occur in the different types of molds used,
Section III.A.2 - Mold and Core Preparation is divided into subsections
describing the major casting processes. In addition to the casting techniques
described below, there are numerous special processes and variations of those
processes that cannot be discussed here. Nevertheless, such processes may
play an important role in a facility's efforts to comply with environmental
requirements. Refer to Section IX for a list of references providing more
detail on casting processes.
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
Note that die casting operations have been presented separately in Section
ffl.A.6. The different processes, equipment, and environmental impacts of die
casting do not fit easily into operations outlined above.
HI.A.1. Pattern Making
Pattern making, or foundry tooling, requires a high level of skill to achieve the
close tolerances required of the patterns and coreboxes. This step is critical
in the casting process since the castings produced can be no better than the
patterns used to make them. In some pattern making shops, computer-aided
drafting (CAD) is used in the design of patterns. Cutter tool paths are
designed with computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Numerical output from
these computers is conveyed to computer-numerical-controlled (CNC)
machine tools, which then cut the production patterns to shape. Such
computer-aided systems have better dimensional accuracy and consistency
than hand methods (LaRue, 1989).
Patterns and corebox materials are typically metal, plastic, wood or plaster.
Wax and polystyrene are used in the investment and lost foam casting
processes, respectively. Pattern makers have a wide range of tools available
including wood working and metal machining tools. Mechanical connectors
and glues are used to join pattern pieces. Wax, plastic or polyester putty are
used as "fillet" to fill or round the inside of square corners (LaRue, 1989).
Wastes Generated
Very little waste is generated during pattern making compared to other
foundry operations. Typical pattern shop wastes include scrap pattern
materials (wood, plastics, metals, waxes, adhesives, etc.) and paniculate
emissions from cutting, grinding and sanding operations. Waste solvents and
cleaners may be generated from equipment cleaning.
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
Table 3: Comparison of Several Casting Methods
(approximate and depending upon the metal)
Relative cost in quantity
Relative cost for small
number
Permissible weight of
casting
Thinnest section
castable, inches
Typical dimensional
tolerance, inches (not
including parting lines)
Relative surface finish
Relative mechanical
properties
Relative ease of casting
complex design
Relative ease of
changing design in
production
Range of alloys that can
t>e cast
Source: American Foundrymt
Green
Sand
Casting
low
lowest
up to about
Iton
1/10
.012
fair to
good
good
fair to
good
best
unlimited
Permanent
Mold Cast
low
high
100 Ibs.
1/8
0.03
good
good
fair
poor
copper base
and lower
melting point
metals
preferable
Die
Casting
lowest
highest
60 Ibs.
1/32
0.01
best
very good
good
poorest
aluminum
base and
lower
melting
preferable
Sand-Shell
C02-Core
medium high
medium high
Shell:
ozs. - 250 Ibs.
CO2:
1/2 Ibs. - tons
1/10
.010
Shell: good
CO2: fair
good
good
fair
unlimited
Investment
highest
medium
Ozs. - 100 Ibs.
1/16
0.01
very good
fair
best
fair
limited
m 's Society, 1981.
HI.A.2. Mold and Core Preparation and Pouring
The various processes used to cast metals are largely defined by the
procedures and materials used to make the molds and cores. Table 3
summarizes the major casting methods and their applications. A mold and
cores (if required) are usually made for each casting. These molds and cores
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
are destroyed and separated from the casting during shakeout (see Section
III.A.4 - Shakeout, Cooling and Sand Handling). (Exceptions include the
permanent mold process and die casting process in which the molds are used
over and over again.) Most sand is reused over and over in other molds;
however, a portion of sand becomes spent after a number of uses and must be
removed as waste. Mold and core making are, therefore, a large source of
foundry wastes.
Sand Molds and Cores
For most sand casting techniques, the following summary of the process
applies (see Figure 4). First, engineers design the casting and specify the
metal or alloy to be cast. Next, a pattern (replica of the finished piece) is
constructed from either plastic, wood, metal, plaster or wax. Usually, the
pattern is comprised of two halves. The molding sand is shaped around the
pattern halves in a metal box (flask) and then removed, leaving the two mold
halves. The top half of the mold (the cope) is assembled with the bottom half
(the drag) which sits on a molding board. The interface between the two mold
halves is called a parting line. Weights may be places on the cope to help
secure the two halves together. The molten metal is poured or injected into
a hole in the cope called a sprue or sprue basin which is connected to the mold
cavity by runners. The runners, sprue, gates, and risers comprise the mold's
gating system, which is designed to carry molten metal smoothly to all parts
of the mold. The metal is then allowed to solidify within the space defined by
the mold.
Since the molds themselves only replicate the external shape of the pattern,
cores are placed inside the mold to form any internal cavities. Cores are
produced in a core box, which is essentially a permanent mold that is
developed in conjunction with the pattern. So that molten metal can flow
around all sides of the cores, they are supported on core prints (specific
locations shaved into the mold) or on by metal supports called chaplets.
Foundry molds and cores are most commonly constructed of sand grains
bonded together to form the desired shape of the casting. Sand is used
because it is inexpensive, is capable of holding detail, and resists deformation
when heated. Sand casting affords a great variety of casting sizes and
complexities. Sand also offers the advantage of reuse of a large portion of the
sand in future molds. Depending on the quantity of castings, however, the
process can be slower and require more man-hours than processes not
requiring a separate mold for each casting. In addition, castings from sand
molds are dimensionally less accurate than those produced from some other
techniques and often require a certain amount of machining (USITC, 1984).
The pattern making, melting, cleaning, and finishing operations are essentially
the same whether or not sand molds are used. Sand molds and cores will,
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
however, require the additional operational steps involved with handling
quantities of used mold and core sand (see Section III. A. 5 - Sand Handling).
In general, the various binding systems can be classified as either clay bonded
sand (green sand) or chemically bonded sand. The type of binding system
used depends on a number of production variables, including the temperature
of the molten metal, the casting size, the types of sand used, and the alloys to
be cast. The differences in binding systems can have an impact on the
amounts and toxicity of wastes generated and potential releases to the
environment.
Figure 4: Sand Mold and Core Cross Section
Weight-
Chill
Core print
Parting
line
Chaplets
Risers
Sprue
Cope
flask
\
Molding board—1
Runner
Gate
•Drag flask
Sand
Source: American Foundrymen 's Society, 1981.
Some sand molding techniques utilize chemical binders which then require
that the mold halves be heat treated or baked in order to activate the binders.
In order to pour molten metal into the mold when the cope and drag are
latched together, runners are cut or molded into each half. Runners are
connected to the mold cavity with a gate which is usually cut into the cope.
A sprue is cut or molded through the cope to the runners such that when
molten metal is poured into the hole through the cope, it travels through the
runners and gate into the mold. Often risers are also cut into the mold halves.
After pouring, risers provide a reservoir of molten metal to areas of the
casting that solidify last. If metal is not supplied to these areas, the casting
will have shrinkage defects.
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
Cores require different physical characteristics than molds; therefore, the
binding systems used to make cores may be different from those used for
molds. Cores must be able to withstand the strong forces of molten metal
filling the mold, and often must be removed from small passages in the
solidified casting. This means that the binding system used must produce
strong, hard cores that will collapse for removal after the casting has
hardened. Therefore, cores are typically formed from silica sand (and
occasionally olivine or zircon sand), and strong chemical binders (U.S. EPA,
1992). The sand and binder mix is placed in a core box where it hardens into
the desired shape and is removed. Hardening, or curing, is accomplished with
heat,,a chemical reaction, or a catalytic reaction. The major binding systems
in use for molds and cores are discussed below.
Green Sand
Green sand is the most common molding process, making about 90% of
castings produced in the U.S. Green sand is not used to form cores. Cores are
formed using one of the chemical binding systems. Green sand is the only
process that uses a moist sand mix. The mixture is made up of about 85 to 95
percent silica (or olivine or zircon) sand, 4 to 10 percent bentonite clay, 2 to
10 percent carbonaceous materials such as powdered (sea) coal, petroleum
products, corn starch or wood flour, and 2 to 5 percent water (AFS, 1996).
The clay and water act as the binder, holding the sand grains together. The
carbonaceous materials burn off when the molten metal is poured into the
mold, creating a reducing atmosphere which prevents the metal from oxidizing
while it solidifies (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Advantages and Disadvantages
Green sand, as exemplified by its widespread use, has a number of advantages
over other casting methods. The process can be used for both ferrous and
non-ferrous metal casting and it can handle a more diverse range of products
than any other casting method. For example, green sand is used to produce
both small precision castings and large castings of up to a ton. If uniform
sand .compaction and accurate control of sand properties are maintained, very
close tolerances can be obtained. The process also has the advantage of
requiring a relatively short time to produce a mold compared to many other
processes. In addition, the relative simplicity of the process makes it ideally
suited to a mechanized process (AFS, 1989).
Wastes Generated
Sand cores that are used in molds break down and become part of the mold
sand! Foundries using green sand molds generate waste sand that becomes
spent after it has been reused in the process a number of times, as a portion
must be disposed of to prevent the build up of grains that are too fine. Waste
chemically bonded core sands are also generated. Typically, damaged cores
are not reusable and must be disposed as waste.
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Descrintion
Figure 5; Process Flow and Potential Pollutant Outputs for Typical Green Sand Foundry
Make-up Sand
v Particulates \
"""^
, Mold
/' P**** \ Makin9
V °HAPs, VOCs ' t L
" - .. - "I "
Sand
s^ ~X. Preparation & -
/wetscrubber^ Treatment
1 wastewaterwith . im.M.|n.irf ^
\h,ghpH/ .screenlng
— -^ -Metal Removal
^ -Thermal Treatment
: -Wet Scrubbing
: Other
t
vste sand, fines and ^
lumps, metals ^
Raw Materials Inputs
• Binders
*•"
I Particulates )
V S
Sand & Binder
Mixing
1
Core Fo nn ing
i
*
Mold & Core
^ Assembly
*
Mold Pouring,
i
Sand
Casting
Shakeout
1
Riser Cutoff &
Gate Removal
Raw Materials Input:
•Metal Scrap or Ingot
•Alloys
•Fluxing Agents
~~T" \
' Particulates \
^'""'
^ VOCs, HAPs " )
f Particulates, metal oxide N
' fumes, carbon monoxide,
K ^ VOCs, HAPs '
^ ^ ,'
A"' _
.
^
v Particulates
^T~~"'
Particulates
L
^^
/
l Particulates. VOC
1 "-»-
^ Cleaning, Finishing
& Coating
' i
j, •
|
Inspection &
Shipping
<
-
Scrap & Charge
Preparation "'
\
r
Metal Melting
•Cupola Furnace
•Electric-Arc Furnace
•Induction Furnace
•Reverbcratoiy Furnace
•Crucible Furnace
\
f Hydrocarbons, ^
^"\ carbon monoxide, )
\ smoke '
.^- " "* \
/ Particulates, \
1 nitrogen oxides, \
1 carbon monoxides, v
, metal oxide jumes, (
\ suljur dioxide (
\ 1
\ /
^^tuSspent rejractory^^
^s^ material ^^^
r
rapping, Treatment,
Slag & Dross '
Removal '
? '• -»
,, "" ~~ ^
f Particulates, \
( nitrogen oxides, \
carbon monoxides, *
metal oxide fames, '
v sulfur dioxide 'f
^ '
\, s
<5Iag, dross, spent ^s^
efractory material ^^
\
/
<<-ap metal, spent tools, ^SNS.
abrasives ^^
s )
f Waste cleaning water WJ/H\
solvents, oil & grease, )
Sfr suspended solids jS
<^
x
?ent solvents, abrasives, ^X
coatings, -wastewater ^r
treatment sludge ^r
\
Off-spec castings, ^\.
ackaging materials ^?
^ fS
Source: Adapted from Kotzin, Air Pollution Engineering Manual: Steel Foundries, 1992.
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
Particulate emissions are generated during mixing, molding and core making
operations. In addition, gaseous and metal fume emissions develop when
molten metal is poured into the molds and a portion of the metal volatilizes
and condenses. When green sand additives and core sand binders come into
contact with the molten metal, they produce gaseous emissions such as carbon
monoxide, organic compounds, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous
oxide, benzene, phenols, and other hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) (Twarog,
1993). Wastewater containing metals and suspended solids may be generated
if the mold is cooled with water.
Chemical Binding Systems
Chemical binding systems are primarily used for core making. Green sand is
not used for cores because, chemically bound sand is stronger, harder, and can
be more easily removed from the cavity after the metal has solidified. Almost
every foundry using sand molds uses one or more of the chemical binding
systems described below in constructing sand cores. Although some foundries
also use chemical binding systems to construct molds, the much more simple,
quick and inexpensive green sand molds described previously dominate the
industry in terms of tons of castings produced. When chemical binding
systems are used for mold making, the "shell-mold" system is most often used.
Chemical bonding systems work through either thermal setting, chemical or
catalytic reactions. The major thermal setting systems include: oil-bake, shell
core/mold, hot box, and warm box. The major catalytic systems are the no-
bake and cold box systems (U.S. EPA, 1993).
Oil-Bake
The traditional method used to produce cores is the oil-bake, or core-oil
system. The oil-bake system uses oil and cereal binders mixed with sand. The
core is shaped in a core box and then baked in an oven to harden it. Oils used
can be natural, such as linseed oil, or synthetic resins, such as phenolic resins.
The oil-bake system was used almost exclusively before 1950, but has now
been largely replaced by other chemical binding systems (U.S. EPA, 1981).
Shell Core
The shell core system uses sand mixed with synthetic resins and a catalyst.
The resins are typically phenolic or furan resins, or mixtures of the two. Often
the shell core sand is purchased as dry coated sand. The catalyst is a weak
aqueous acid such as ammonium chloride. The sand mixture is shaped in a
heated metal core box. Starting from the outside edge of the core box and
moving through the sand towards the center of the core box, the heat begins
to cure the sand mix into a hard mass. When the outside 1/8 to 3/16 inches
of sand has been cured, the core box is inverted. The uncured sand pours out
of the core box leaving a hard sand core shell behind. The shell core is then
removed from the core box, allowed to cure for an addition few minutes and
is then ready for placement in the mold (LaRue, 1989). The system has the
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
advantage of using less sand and binders than other systems; however, shell
sand may be more expensive than sand used in other sand processes.
Shell Mold
The shell mold system is similar to the shell core system, but is used to
construct molds instead of cores. In this process, metal pattern halves are
preheated, coated with a silicone emulsion release agent, and then covered by
the resin-coated sand mixture. The heat from the patterns cures the sand mix
and the mold is removed after the desired thickness of sand is obtained. The
silicone emulsion acts as a mold release allowing the shell mold to be removed
from the pattern after curing (LaRue, 1989).
Hot Box Core
The hot box process uses a phenolic or furan resin and a weak acid catalyst
that are mixed with sand to coat the surface of the grains. The major
difference between this system and the shell core system is that the core box
is heated to about 450 to 550 °F until the entire core has become solidified
(Twarog, 1993). The system has the advantage of very fast curing times and
a sand mix consistency allowing the core boxes to be filled and packed
quickly. Therefore, the system is ideal for automation and the mass
production of cores. The disadvantage is that more sand and binder is used
in this system than in the shell core system.
Warm Box Core
The warm box system is essentially the same as the hot box system, but uses
a different catalyst. The catalysts used allow the resin binders to cure at a
lower temperature (300 to 400 °F). As with the hot box, the resins used are
phenolic and furan resins. Either copper salts or sulfonic acids are used as a
catalyst. The advantage over hot box is reduced energy costs for heating
(Twarog, 1993).
Cold Box
The cold box process is relatively new to the foundry industry. The system
uses a catalytic gas to cure the binders at room temperature. A number of
different systems are available including phenolic urethane binder with carbon
dioxide gas as the catalyst. Other systems involve different binders (e.g.,
sodium silicate) and gases, such as sulfur dioxide and dimethylethylamine
(DMEA), many of which are flammable or irritants. Compared to other
chemical systems, the cold box systems have a short curing time (lower than
ten seconds) and therefore are well suited to mass production techniques
(AFS, 1981). In addition, the absence of costly oven heating can result in
substantial energy savings.
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No-Bake
The no-bake or air set binder systems allow curing at room temperature
without the use of reactive gases. The no-bake system uses either acid
catalysts or esters to cure the binder. The acid catalysts are typically benzene,
toluene, sulfonic or phosphoric acids. Binders are either phenolic resins, furan
resins, sodium silicate solution or alkyd urethane. The system has the
advantage of substantial savings in energy costs (Twarog, 1993).
Advantages and Disadvantages
Cores are necessarily constructed using chemical binders. Molds, however,
may be constructed with chemical binders or green sand. The advantages to
using chemically bonded molds over green sand molds may include: a longer
storage life for the molds, a potentially lower metal pouring temperature, and
molds having better dimensional stability and surface finish. Disadvantages
include the added costs of chemical binders, the energy costs for curing the
binders, added difficulties to reclaim used sand, and environmental and worker
safety concerns for air emissions associated with binder chemicals during
curing and metal pouring.
Wastes Generated
Solid wastes generated include broken cores and sand that has set up
prematurely or inadequately. Waste resins and binders can be generated from
spills, residuals in containers, and outdated materials. In addition to fugitive
dust from the handling of sand, mold and core making using chemical binding
systems may generate gaseous emissions such as carbon monoxide, VOCs and
a number of gasses listed as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) under the Clean
Air Act. Emissions occur primarily during heating or curing of the molds and
cores, removal of the cores from core boxes, cooling, and pouring of metal
into molds (Twarog, 1993). The specific pollutants generated depends on the
type of binding system being used. Section III.B Table 4 lists typical air
emissions that may be expected from each major type of chemical binding
system. Wastewater containing metals, suspended solids, and phenols may be
generated if molds are cooled with water.
Permanent Mold Casting
In permanent mold casting, metal molds are used repeatedly. Although the
molds deteriorate over time, they can be used to make thousands of castings
before being replaced. The process is similar to die casting (see Section
IE. A.6 on Die Casting) with the exception being that gravity is used to fill the
mold rather than external pressure. Permanent molds are designed to be
opened, usually on a hinge, so that the castings can be removed. Permanent
molds can be used for casting both ferrous and nonferrous metals as long as
the mold metal has a higher melting point than the casting metal. Cores from
permanent molds can be sand, plaster, collapsible metal or, soluble salts.
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Industrial Process Description
When cores are not reusable, the process
semipermanent mold casting (AFS, 1981).
is often referred to as
Since the process is relatively simple after the mold has been fabricated, and
since large numbers of castings are usually produced, permanent mold casting
is typically an automated process. The sequence of operations includes an
initial cleaning of the mold followed by preheating and the spraying or
brushing on of a mold coating. The coating serves the purpose of insulating
the molten metal from the relatively cool, heat conducting mold metal. This
allows the mold to be filled completely before the metal begins to solidify.
The coatings also help produce good surface finish, act as a lubricant to
facilitate casting removal, and allow any air in the mold to escape via space
between the mold and coating. After coating, cores are then inserted and the
mold is closed. The metal is poured and allowed to solidify before opening
and ejecting the casting (LaRue, 1989).
Materials
Mold metals are typically made of cast iron. The molds can be very simple or
can have a number of sophisticated features, such as ejector pins to remove
castings, water cooling channels and sliding core pins. Coatings are typically
mixtures of sodium silicate and either vermiculite, talc clay or bentonite
(AFS, 1981).
Advantages and Disadvantages
Permanent molds have the obvious advantage of not requiring the making of
a new mold (and the associated time and expenses) for every casting. The
elimination of the mold making process results in a more simple overall
casting process, a cleaner work environment, and far less waste generation.
Because molten metal cools and solidifies much faster in a permanent mold
than in-a sand mold, a more dense casting with better mechanical properties
is obtained. The process can also produce castings with a high level of
dimensional accuracy and good surface finish (AFS, 1981). One disadvantage
is the high cost of tooling, which includes the initial cost of casting and
machining the permanent mold. In addition, the shapes and sizes of castings
are limited due to the impossibility of removing certain shapes from the molds
(USITC, 1984).
Wastes Generated
Compared to sand casting operations, relatively little waste is generated in the
permanent mold process. Some foundries force cool the hot permanent molds
with water sprayed or flushed over the mold. The waste cooling water may
pick up contaminants from the mold such as metals and mold coatings.
Fugitive dust and waste sand or plaster are generated if cores are fabricated
of sand or plaster, respectively. Waste coating material may also be generated
during cleaning of the mold.
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Industrial Process Description
Plaster Mold Casting
The conventional plaster molding process is similar to the sand molding
processes. In cope and drag flasks, a plaster slurry mix is poured over the
pattern halves. When the plaster has set, the patterns are removed and the
mold halves are baked to remove any water (USITC, 1984). Since even small
amounts of water will, when quickly heated during pouring, expand to steam
and adversely affect the casting, drying is a critical step in plaster mold
casting. Oven temperatures may be as high as 800°F for as long as 16 to 36
hours. As in the sand mold processes, the cores are inserted, and the dried
mold halves are attached prior to pouring the molten metal. The plaster molds
are destroyed during the shakeout process. Plaster or sand cores may be used
in the process.
The conventional plaster molding process described here is the most common
of a number of plaster mold casting processes in use. Other processes include
the foamed plaster casting process, the Antioch casting process and the match
plate pattern casting process (AFS, 1981).
Materials
The plasters used in plaster mold casting are very strong, hard gypsum
(calcium sulfate) cements mixed with either fibrous talcs, finely ground silica,
pumice stone, clay or graphite. Plaster mixtures may also be comprised of up
to 50 percent sand (AFS, 1981).
Advantages and Disadvantages
The plaster mold process can produce castings with excellent surface detail,
complex and intricate configurations, and high dimensional accuracy. Plaster
mold castings are also light, typically under 20 pounds (USITC, 1994). The
process is limited to nonferrous metals because ferrous metals will react with
the sulfur in the gypsum, creating defects on the casting surface (AFS, 1981).
Plaster mold casting is more expensive than sand casting, and has a longer
process time from mold construction to metal pouring. The process is only
used, therefore, when the desired results cannot be obtained through sand
casting or when the finer detail and surface finish will result in substantial
savings in machining costs.
Wastes Generated
Waste mold plaster and fugitive dust can be generated using this process.
Waste sand can also be generated, depending on the type of cores used.
Investment/Lost Wax Casting
Investment casting processes use a pattern or replica that is consumed, or lost,
from the mold material when heated. The mold-making process results in a
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Industrial Process Description
one-piece destroyable mold. The most common type of investment casting,
the lost wax process, uses patterns fabricated from wax. Plastic patterns,
however, are also fairly common in investment casting.
The process begins with the production of a wax or plastic replica of the part.
Replicas are usually mass produced by injecting the wax or plastic into a die
(metal mold) in a liquid or semi-liquid state. Replicas are attached to a gating
system (sprue and runners) constructed of the same material to form a tree
assembly (see Figure 6). The assembly is coated with a specially formulated
heat resistant refractory slurry mixture which is allowed to harden around the
wax or plastic assembly forming the mold (USITC, 1984).
In the investment./Zas'A: casting method, the assembly is placed in a flask and
then covered with a refractory slurry which is allowed to harden (see Figure
6). In the more common investment shell casting method, the assembly is
dipped in a refractory slurry and sand is sifted onto the coated pattern
assembly and allowed to harden. This process is repeated until the desired
shell thickness is reached (LaRue, 1989). In both methods, the assembly is
then melted out of the mold. Some investment casting foundries are able to
recover the melted wax and reuse a portion in the pattern making process.
The resulting mold assemblies are then heated to remove any residual pattern
material and to further cure the binder system. The mold is then ready for the
pouring of molten metal into the central sprue which will travel through the
individual sprues and runners filling the mold.
Although normally not necessary, cores can be used in investment casting for
complex interior shapes. The cores are inserted during the pattern making
step. The cores are placed in the pattern die and pattern wax or plastic is
injected around the core. After the pattern is removed from the die, the cores
are removed. Cores used in investment casting are typically collapsible metal
assemblies or soluble salt materials which can be leached out with water or a
dilute hydrochloric acid solution.
In addition to the investment flask and shell mold casting methods described
above, a number of methods have been developed which use reusable master
patterns. These processes were developed to eliminate production of
expendable patterns, one of the most costly and time-consuming steps in the
casting process. One process, called the Shaw Process, uses a refractory
slurry containing ethyl silicate. The slurry cures initially to a flexible gel which
can be removed from the pattern in two halves. The flexible mold halves can
then be further cured at high temperatures until a hard mold is formed ready
for assembly and pouring (AFS, 1981).
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Figure 6: Investment Flask and Shell Casting
A METAL FtASK IS
UO AIQUND.THE
FUSK IS FILLED WITH IN-
VESTMENT MOLD SLUM*
••«• t=s •;•!
INVESTMENT FLASK CASTING
© J
AFTER MOLD MATERIAL
©HAS SET AND DRIED.
PATTERNS ARE MEITEO
OUT OF MOID
VACUUM
S?,THMMETiL*".E»F|i!.T?. (?) a^"'*^
ITy PRESSURE VACUUM. ^~^^ CASTINGS
on'CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
TO
* SHIPPING »
.NVESTMENT SHELL CAST.NG
'•*•
PATICKN CLUSTERS ARE
BtPPtO IN CERAMIC
REFRACTORV GRAIN IS
® SIFTED ONTO COATED
PATTERNS, STEPS 3
AND « ARE REPEATED
SEVERAL TIMES TO OB.
TAIN DESIRED SHELL
THICKNESS
AFTER MOLD MATERIAL
©HAS SET AND DRIED
PATTERNS ARE MELTED
OUT OF MOLD
UUM C« CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE
Source: American Foundrymen 's Society, 1981.
Materials
The refractory slurries used in both investment flask and shell casting are
comprised of binders and refractory materials. Refractory materials include
silica, aluminum silicates, zircon, and alumina. Binders include silica sols
(very small silica particles suspended in water), hydrolyzed ethyl silicate,
sodium and potassium silicate, and gypsum type plasters. Ethyl silicate is
typically hydrolyzed at the foundry by adding alcohol, water, and hydrochloric
acid to the ethyl silicate as a catalyst (AFS, 1981).
can
Pattern materials are most commonly wax or polystyrene. Wax materials ^a^
be synthetic, natural, or a combination. Many different formulations are
available with varying strengths, hardness, melting points, setting times, and
compatibilities, depending on the specific casting requirements.
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Advantages and Disadvantages
The investment casting process produces castings with a higher degree of
dimensional accuracy than any other casting process. The process can also
produce castings with a high level of detail and complexity and excellent
surface finish. Investment casting is used to create both ferrous and
nonferrous precision pieces such as dental crowns, fillings and dentures,
jewelry, and scientific instruments. The costs of investment casting are
generally higher than for other casting processes due in part to the high initial
costs of pattern die-making (USITC, 1984). In addition, the relatively large
number of steps in the process is less amenable to automation than many other
casting methods.
Wastes Generated
Waste refractory material, waxes, and plastic are the largest volume wastes
generated. Air emissions are primarily particulates. Wastewater with
suspended and dissolved solids and low pH may also be generated if soluble
salt cores are used.
Lost Foam Casting
The lost foam casting process, also known as Expanded Polystyrene (EPS)
casting, and cavityless casting, is a relatively new process that is gaining
increased use. The process is similar to investment casting in that an
expendable polystyrene pattern is used to make a one-piece expendable mold.
As in investment casting, gating systems are attached to the patterns, and the
assembly is coated with a specially formulated gas permeable refractory slurry.
When the refractory slurry has hardened, the assembly is positioned in a flask,
and unbonded sand is poured around the mold and compacted into any
internal cavities. Molten metal is then poured into the polystyrene pattern
which vaporizes and is replaced by the metal (see Figure 7). When the metal
has solidified, the flask is emptied onto a steel grate for shakeout. The loose
sand falls through the grate and can be reused without treatment. The
refractory material is broken away from the casting in the usual manner (AFS,
1981).
Materials
Refractory slurries for lost foam casting must produce a coating strong
enough to prevent the loose sand around the coated assembly from collapsing
into the cavity as the pattern vaporizes. Coatings must also be permeable to
allow the polystyrene vapors to escape from the mold cavity, through the
coating, into the sand and out of the flask. Flasks for this process have side
vents which allow the vapors to escape (AFS, 1981).
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Figure 7: Lost Foam Casting Cross Sections
Foamed
Polystyrene
Pattern
Pattern imbedded in sand
(one piece)
Metal entering
mold displaces
(vaporizes) pattern
(Note—no core)
Casting without metal
fins or flash /JfpTl
(No parting line Jf| H\s
grinding required) JiliiM
Source: American Foundrymen 's Society, 1981.
Polystyrene patterns can be fabricated from polystyrene boards or by molding
polystyrene beads. Patterns from boards are fabricated using normal pattern
forming tools (see Section HI. A. 1). The boards are available in various sizes
and thicknesses, and can be glued together to increase thickness if needed.
Molded polystyrene patterns begin as small beads of expandable polystyrene
product. The beads are pre-expanded to the required density using a vacuum,
steam, or hot air processes. In general, the aim is to reduce the bead density
as much as possible in order to minimize the volume of vapors to be vented
during casting. If vapors are generated faster than can be vented, casting
defects will result. The expanded polystyrene beads are blown into a cast
aluminum mold. Steam is used to heat the beads causing them to expand
further, fill void areas, and bond together. The mold and pattern are allowed
to cool, and the pattern is ejected (AFS, 1981).
Advantages and Disadvantages
The lost foam process can be used for precision castings of ferrous and
nonferrous metals of any size. In addition to being capable of producing
highly accurate, complex castings with thin walls, good surface finish, and no
parting lines, there are numerous practical advantages to the process. For
example, there are far fewer steps involved in lost foam casting compared to
sand casting. Core making and setting is not necessary, nor is the mixing of
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Industrial Process Description
large amounts of sand and binders. Shakeout and sand handling is a matter
of pouring out the sand which is mostly reusable without any treatment since
binders are not used. Some portion of sand may need to be removed to avoid
the buildup of styrene in the sand. The flasks used are less expensive and
easier to use since there are no cope and drag halves to be fastened together.
The reduced labor and material costs make lost foam casting an economical
alternative to many traditional casting methods. Although the potential exists
for other metals to be cast, currently only aluminum and gray and ductile iron
are cast using this method (AFS, 1981). In addition there are some limitations
in using the technique to cast low carbon alloys (SFSA, 1997).
Wastes Generated
The large quantities of polystyrene vapors produced during lost foam casting
can be flammable and may contain hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Other
possible air emissions are particulates related to the use of sand. Waste sand
and refractory materials containing styrene may also be generated.
HLA.3. Furnace Charge Preparation and Metal Melting
Foundries typically use recycled scrap metals as their primary source of metal,
and use metal ingot as a secondary source when scrap is not available. The
first step in metal melting is preparation of the scrap materials. Preparation,
which also may be done by the foundry's metal supplier, consists of cutting
the materials to the proper size for the furnace and cleaning and degreasing
the materials. Cleaning and degreasing can be accomplished with solvents or
by a precombustion step to burn off any organic contaminants (Kotzin, 1992).
Prepared scrap metal is weighed and additional metal, alloys, and flux may be
added prior to adding the metal to the furnace. Adding metal to a furnace is
called "charging." (Alloys may also be added at various stages of the melt or
as the ladle is filled.)
Flux is a material added to the furnace charge or to the molten metal to
remdve impurities. Flux unites with impurities to form dross or slag, which
rises to the surface of the molten metal where it is removed before pouring
(LaRue, 1989). The slag material on the molten metal surface helps to
prevent oxidation of the metal. Flux is often chloride or fluoride salts that
have an affinity to bind with certain contaminants. The use of salt fluxes may
result in emissions of acid gasses.
Five types of furnaces are commonly used to melt metal in foundries: cupola,
electric arc, reverberatory, induction and crucible (see Figure 8). Some
foundries operate more than one type of furnace and may even transfer molten
metal between furnace types in order to make best use of the best features of
each.
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Cupola Furnaces
The cupola furnace is primarily used to melt gray, malleable, or ductile iron.
The furnace is a hollow vertical cylinder on legs and lined with refractory
material. Hinged doors at the bottom allow the furnace to be emptied when
not in use. When charging the furnace, the doors are closed and a bed of sand
is placed at the bottom of the furnace, covering the doors. Alternating layers
of coke for fuel and scrap metal, alloys and flux are placed over the sand.
Although air, or oxygen enriched air, is forced through the layers with a
blower, cupolas require a reducing atmosphere to maintain the coke bed.
Heat from the burning coke melts the scrap metal and flux, which drip to the
bottom sand layer. In addition, the burning of coke under reducing conditions
raises the carbon content of the metal charge to the casting specifications. A
hole level with the top of the sand allows molten metal to be drained off, or
"tapped." A higher hole allows slag to be drawn off. Additional charges can
be added to the furnace as needed (LaRue, 1989).
Electric Arc Furnaces
Electric arc furnaces are used for melting cast iron or steel. The furnace
consists of a saucer-shaped hearth of refractory material for collecting the
molten metal with refractory material lining the sides and top of the furnace.
Two or three carbon electrodes penetrate the furnace from the top or sides.
The scrap metal charge is placed on the hearth and melted by the heat from
an electric arc formed between the electrodes. When the electric arc comes
into contact with the metal, it is a direct-arc furnace and when the electric arc
does not actually touch the metal it is an indirect-arc furnace. Molten metal
is typically drawn offthrough a spout by tipping the furnace. Alloying metal
can be added, and slag can be removed, through doors in the walls of the
furnace (LaRue, 1989). Electric arc furnaces have the advantage of not
requiring incoming scrap to be clean. One disadvantage is that they do not
allow precise metallurgical adjustments to the molten metal.
Reverberatory Furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces are primarily used to melt large quantities of
nonferrous metals. Metal is placed on a saucer-shaped hearth lined with
refractory material on all sides. Hot air and combustion gasses from oil or gas
burners are blown over the metal and exhausted out of the furnace. The heat
melts the metal and more charge is added until the level of molten metal is
high enough to run out of a spout in the hearth and into a well from which it
can be ladled out (LaRue, 1989).
Induction Furnaces
Induction furnaces are used to melt both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
There are several types of induction furnaces, but all create a strong magnetic
field by passing an electric current through a coil wrapped around the furnace.
The magnetic field in turn creates a voltage across and subsequently an
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electric current through the metal to be melted. The electrical resistance of
the metal produces heat which melts the metal. Induction furnaces are very
efficient and are made in a wide range of sizes (LaRue, 1989). Induction
furnaces require cleaner scrap than electric arc furnaces, however, they do
allow precise metallurgical adjustments.
Crucible Furnaces
Crucible furnaces are primarily used to melt smaller amounts of nonferrous
metals than other furnace types. The crucible or refractory container is heated
in a furnace fired with natural gas or liquid propane. The metal in the crucible
melts, and can be ladled from the crucible or poured directly by tipping the
crucible (LaRue, 1989).
Wastes Generated
Cupola, reverberatory and electric arc furnaces may emit particulate matter,
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, small
quantities of chloride and fluoride compounds, and metallic fumes from the
condensation of volatilized metal and metal oxides. Induction furnaces and
crucible furnaces emit relatively small amounts of particulates, hydrocarbons,
and carbon monoxide emissions. The highest concentration of furnace
emissions occur when furnaces are opened for charging, alloying, slag
removal, and tapping (Kotzin, 1992). Particulate emissions can be especially
high during alloying and the introduction of additives. For example, if
magnesium is added to molten metal to produce ductile iron, a strong reaction
ensues, with the potential to release magnesium oxides and metallic fumes
(NADCA, 1996).
Furnace emissions are often controlled with wet scrubbers. Wet scrubber
wastewater can be generated in large quantities (up to 3,000 gallons per
minute) in facilities using large cupola furnaces. This water may contain
metals and phenols, and is typically highly alkaline or acidic and is neutralized
before being discharged to the POTW (AFS Air Quality Committee, 1992).
Non-contact cooling water with little or no contamination may also be
generated.
Scrap preparation using thermal treatment will emit smoke, organic
compounds and carbon monoxide. Other wastes may include waste solvents
if solvents are used to prepare metal for charging. Slag is also generated
during metal melting operations. Hazardous slag can be generated if the
charge materials contain enough toxic metals such as lead and chromium or
if calcium carbide is used in the metal to remove sulfur compounds (see
Section III.B.l) (U.S. EPA, 1992).
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Figure 8: Sectional Views of Melting Furnaces
Etect'rodes
Electric Indirect-Arc
"apping
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
BDL.A.4. Shakeout, Cooling and Sand Handling
For those foundries using sand molding and core making techniques, castings
need to be cooled and separated from the sand mold. After molten metal has
been ladled into the mold and begins to solidify, it is transported to a cooling
area where the casting solidifies before being separated from the mold.
Larger, more mechanized foundries use automatic conveyor systems to
transfer the casting and mold through a cooling tunnel on the way to the
shakeout area. Less mechanized foundries allow the castings to cool on the
shop floor. In the shakeout area, molds are typically placed on vibrating grids
or conveyors to shake the sand loose from the casting. In some foundries, the
mold may be separated from the casting manually (EPA, 1986).
Sand casting techniques can generate substantial volumes of waste sand.
Many foundries reuse a large portion of this sand and only remove a small
portion as waste. Waste sand removed from the foundry is primarily made
up of fine grains that build up as the sand is reused over and over. Most
foundries, therefore, have a large multi-step sand handling operation for
capturing and conditioning the reusable sand. Larger foundries often have
conveyorized sand-handling systems working continuously. Smaller, less
mechanized foundries often use heavy equipment (e.g., front-end loaders) in
a batch process (U.S. EPA, 1992). Increasingly, foundry waste sand is being
sent off-site for use as a construction material (see Section V).
Sand handling operations receive sand directly from the shakeout step or from
an intermediate sand storage area. A typical first step in sand handling is lump
knockout. Sand lumps occur when the binders used in sand cores only
partially degrade after exposure to the heat of molten metal. The lumps, or
core butts, may be crushed and recycled into molding sand during this step.
They can also be disposed as waste material. A magnetic separation operation
is often used in ferrous foundries to remove pieces of metal from the sand.
Other steps involve screening to remove fines that build up over time, and
cooling by aeration. In addition, some foundries treat mold and core sand
thermally to remove binders and organic impurities (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Wastes Generated
Shakeout, cooling, and sand handling operations generate waste sand and
fines possibly containing metals. In addition, particulate emissions are
generated during these operations. If thermal treatment units are used to
reclaim chemically bonded sands, emissions such as carbon monoxide, organic
compounds, and other gasses can be expected.
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ffl.A.5. Quenching, Finishing, Cleaning and Coating
Rapid cooling of hot castings by quenching in a water bath is practiced by
some foundries and die casters to cool and solidify the casting rapidly (to
speed the process) and to achieve certain metallurgical properties. The water
bath may be plain water or may contain chemical additives to prevent
oxidation.
Some amount of finishing and cleaning is required for all castings; however,
the degree and specific types of operations will depend largely on the casting
specifications and the casting process used. Finishing and cleaning operations
can be a significant portion of the overall cost to produce a casting.
Foundries, therefore, often search for casting techniques and mold designs
that will reduce the finishing needed.
Finishing operations begin once the casting is shaken out and cooled.
Hammers, band saws, abrasive cutting wheels, flame cut-off devices, and air-
carbon arc devices may be used to remove the risers, runners, and sprues of
the gating system. Metal fins at the parting lines (lines on a casting
corresponding to the interface between the cope and drag of a mold) are
removed with chipping hammers and grinders. Residual refractory material
and oxides are typically removed by sand blasting or steel shot blasting, which
can also be used to give the casting a uniform and more attractive surface
appearance (U.S. EPA, 1992).
The cleaning of castings precedes any coating operations to ensure that the
coating will adhere to the metal. Chemical cleaning and coating operations
are often contracted out to off-site firms, but are sometimes carried out at the
foundries. Scale, rust, oxides, oil, grease, and dirt can be chemically removed
from the surface using organic solvents (typically chlorinated solvents,
although naphtha, methanol, and toluene are also used), emulsifiers,
pressurized water, abrasives, alkaline agents (caustic soda, soda ash, alkaline
silicates, and phosphates), or acid pickling. The pickling process involves the
cleaning of the metal surface with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid,
sulfuric acid, or nitric acid. Castings generally pass from the pickling bath
through a series of rinses. Molten salt baths are also used to clean complex
interior passages in castings (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Castings are often given a coating to inhibit oxidation, resist deterioration, or
improve appearance. Common coating operations include: painting,
electroplating, electroless nickel plating, hard facing, hot dipping, thermal
spraying, diffusion, conversion, porcelain enameling, and organic or fused dry-
resin coating (U.S. EPA, 1992).
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Wastes Generated
Casting quench water may contain phenols, oil and grease, suspended solids,
and metals (e.g., copper, lead, zinc). Metal-bearing sludges may be generated
when quench baths are cleaned out (EPA, 1995).
Finishing operations may generate paniculate air emissions. Wastewater may
contain cutting oils, ethylene glycol, and metals. Solid wastes include metal
chips and spent cutting oils (EPA, 1995).
Cleaning and coating may generate air emissions of VOCs from painting,
coating and solvent cleaning; acid mists and metal ion mists from anodizing,
plating, polishing, hot dip coating, etching, and chemical conversion coating.
Wastewater may contain solvents, metals, metal salts, cyanides, and high or
low pH. Solid wastes include cyanide and metal-bearing sludges, spent
solvents and paints, and spent plating baths (EPA, 1995).
m.A.6. Die Casting
The term "die casting" usually implies "pressure die casting." The process
utilizes a permanent die (metal mold) in which molten metal is forced under
high pressure. Dies are usually made from two blocks of steel, each
containing part of the cavity, which are locked together while the casting is
being made. Retractable and removable cores are used to form internal
surfaces. The metal is held under pressure until it cools and solidifies. The
die halves are then opened and the casting is removed, usually by means of an
automatic ejection system. Dies are preheated and lubricated before being
used, and are either air- or water-cooled to maintain the desired operating
temperature (Loper, 1985). Metal is typically melted on site from prealloyed
ingot, or by blending the alloying constituents (or occasionally metal scrap).
Some aluminum die casters, however, purchase molten aluminum arid store
it on site in a holding furnace (NADCA, 1996). Two basic types of die
casting machines are used: hot chamber and cold-chamber (see Figure 9).
Die casting machines
Hot-chamber die casting machines are comprised of a molten metal reservoir,
the die, and a metal-transferring device which automatically withdraws molten
metal from the reservoir and forces it under pressure into the die. A steel
piston and cylinder system is often used to create the necessary pressure
within the die. Pressures can range from a few hundred to over 5,000 psi.
Certain metals, such as aluminum alloys, zinc alloys, and pure zinc cannot be
used in hot-chamber die casting because they rapidly attack the iron in the
piston and cylinder. These metals, therefore, require a different type of
casting machine, called a gooseneck. A gooseneck machine utilizes a cast-
iron channel to transfer the molten metal from the reservoir to the die (see
Figure 9(b)). After the gooseneck is brought into contact with the die,
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compressed air is applied to the molten metal. Pressures are typically in the
range of 350 to 500 psi (Loper, 1985).
Cold chamber machines have molten metal reservoirs separate from the
casting machine. Just enough metal for one casting is ladled by hand or
mechanically into a small chamber, from which it is forced into the die under
high pressure (see Figure 9(a)). Pressure is produced through a hydraulic
system connected to a piston, and is typically in the range of a few thousand
psi to 10,000 psi. In cold chamber machines, the metal is just above the
melting point and is in a slush-like state. Since the metal is in contact with the
piston and cylinder for only a short period of time, the process is applicable
to aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, zinc alloys, and even high melting-
point alloys such as brasses and bronzes (Loper, 1985).
Figure 9: Cold (a), and Hot Chamber (b), Die Casting Machines
Pouring slot
-Die
Pressure
cylinder
Metal-holding^JSj^;
pot
Gooseneck-*
(b)
Source: American Foundrymen 's Society, 1981.
Die Lubrication
Proper lubrication of dies and plungers is essential for successful die casting.
Die lubrication affects the casting quality, density, and surface finish, the ease
of cavity fill, and the ease of casting ejection. Proper lubrication can also
speed the casting rate, reduce maintenance, and reduce build up of material
on the die face (Street, 1977).
Die lubrication can be manual or automatic. In manual systems, the die
casting machine operator uses a hand held spray gun to apply lubricant to the
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die surface just before the die is closed. Automatic systems use either fixed
or reciprocating spray systems to apply lubricant (Allsop, 1983).
There are many types and formulations of lubricants on the market. No one
lubricant meets the requirements for all die casters. The specific lubricant
formulation used depends on a number of factors, .including: the metal being
cast, the temperatures of casting, the lubricant application method, the surface
finish requirements, the complexity of the casting, and the type of ejection
system. Although specific formulations are proprietary, in general, lubricants
are a mixture of a lubricant and a carrier material. Formulations may also
include additives to inhibit corrosion, increase stability during storage, and
resist bacterial degradation (Kaye, 1982).
Lubricants are mostly carrier material which evaporates upon contact with the
hot die surface, depositing a thin uniform coating of die lubricant on the die
face. Typical ratios of carrier to lubricant are about 40 to 1 (Kaye, 1982).
Both water-based lubricants and solvent-based lubricants are in use today.
Solvents, however, are largely being phased out due to health and fire
concerns associated with the large amounts of solvent vapors released.
Water-based lubricants are now used almost exclusively in the U.S.
Lubricating materials are typically mineral oils and waxes in water emulsions.
Silicone oils and synthetic waxes are finding increased use. In addition,
research is under way to develop a permanent release coating for die surfaces
which will eliminate the need for repeated lubricant application (Kaye, 1982).
Advantages and Disadvantages
Die casting is not applicable to steel and high melting point alloys. Pressure
dies are very expensive to design and produce, and the die casting machines
themselves are major capital investments (LaRue, 1989). Therefore, to
compete with other casting methods, it must be more economical to produce
a component by virtue of higher production rates, or the finished components
must be superior to those produced using other methods - often, it is a
combination of both factors (USITC, 1984).
Once the reusable die has been prepared, the die casting process can sustain
very high production rates. Castings can be made at rates of more than 400
per hour. There is a limit, however, to the number of castings produced in a
single die depending on the die design, the alloys being casted, and the
dimensional tolerances required. The useable life span of a die can range from
under 1,000 to over 5,000,000 castings or "shots." (Allsop, 1983) Therefore,
the design of the die itself is critical not only for producing high quality
castings but also in ensuring the economic viability of the production process.
Die design is a very complex exercise. In addition to the design of the
component geometry and constituent materials, numerous factors related to
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the die itself must be considered, including: the type of alloys, the temperature
gradients within the die, the pressure and velocity of the molten metal when
it enters the die, the technique for ejecting the casting from the die, and the
lubrication system used (Street, 1977). Computer-aided design and modeling
of die designs is now commonplace and has played an important role in
advancing the technology.
One major advantage of die casting over other casting methods is that the
produced castings can have very complex shapes. The ability to cast complex
shapes often makes it possible to manufacture a product from a single casting
instead of from an assembly of cast components. This can greatly reduce
casting costs as well as costs associated with fabrication and machining.
Furthermore, die casting produces castings having a high degree of
dimensional accuracy and surface definition compared to other casting
methods, which may also reduce or eliminate costly machining steps. Finally,
castings with relatively thin wall sections can be produced using the die
casting method. This can result in substantial savings in material costs and
reductions in component weight (Allsop, 1983).
Wastes Generated
Wastes generated during metal melting will be similar to those of metal
melting in foundries, depending on the particular furnace used. Relatively
little waste is generated in the actual die casting process compared to other
metal casting processes. However, some gaseous and fume emissions occur
during metal injection. Metal oxide fumes are released as some of the metal
vaporizes and condenses. Gaseous emissions can originate from: the molten
metal itself; the evolution of chemicals from the lubricant as it is sprayed onto
the hot metal die; and as the molten metal contacts the lubricant (NADCA,
1996).
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m.B. Raw Materials Inputs and Pollution Outputs
Raw material inputs and pollutant outputs differ for foundries and die casters.
The major difference lies in the use of permanent molds by die casting
facilities which eliminates any need for large mold making operations and the
handling, treatment and disposal of sand and other refractory materials. For
this reason, the material inputs and pollutant outputs of permanent mold
casting foundries will likely be more similar to those of die casting facilities.
Table 4 summarizes the material inputs and pollution outputs discussed in this
section.
IELB.1. Foundries
The main raw material inputs for foundries are sand and other core and mold
refractory materials (depending of the particular processes used), metals in the
form of scrap and ingot, alloys, and fuel for metal melting. Other raw material
inputs include binders, fluxing agents, and pattern making materials.
Air Emissions
Air emissions at foundries primarily arise from metal melting, mold and core
making, shakeout and sand handling, and the cleaning and finishing of cast
parts (Kotzin, 1992).
Furnaces and Metal Melting
Furnace air emissions consist of the products of combustion from the fuel and
paniculate matter in the form of dusts, metallics, and metal oxide fumes.
Carbon monoxide and organic vapors may also arise if oily scrap is charged
to the furnace or preheat system (AP-42, 1993). Particulates will vary
according to the type of furnace, fuel (if used), metal melted, melting
temperature, and a number of operating practices. Air emissions from
furnaces and molten metal can often be reduced by applying a number of good
operating practices (see Section V.A). Particulates can include fly ash,
carbon, metallic dusts, and fiimes from the volatilization and condensation of
molten metal oxides. In steel foundries, these particulates may contain
varying amounts of zinc, lead, nickel, cadmium, and chromium (Kotzin,
1992). Carbon-steel dust can be high in zinc as a result of the use of
galvanized scrap, while stainless steel dust is high in nickel and chromium.
Painted scrap can result in particulates high in lead. Particulates associated
with nonferrous metal production may contain copper, aluminum, lead, tin,
and zinc. The particulate sizes of the oxide fumes are often very small
(submicron) and, therefore, require high efficiency control devises (Licht
1992). ^
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Furnace air emissions are typically captured in ventilation systems comprised
of hoods and duct work. Hoods and ducts are usually placed over and/or near
the tapping spouts, and metal charging, slag removal, and pouring areas.
Hoods can be permanently fixed at pouring stations or attached to the pouring
ladle or crane through flexible duct work. Depending on the type of furnace
and metals melted, these ventilation systems may be ducted to coolers to cool
the hot combustion gases, followed by baghouses, electrostatic precipitators
and/or wet scrubbers to collect particulates. Afterburners may also be used
to control carbon monoxide and oil vapors (Licht, 1992).
Mold and Core Making
The major air pollutants generated during mold and core making are
particulates from the handling of sand and other refractory materials, and
VOCs from the core and mold curing and drying operations. VOCs,
particulates, carbon monoxide, and other organic compounds are also emitted
when the mold and core come into contact with the molten metal and while
the filled molds are cooled (AP-42, 1993).
The use of organic chemical binding systems (e.g., cold box, hot box, no bake,
etc.) may generate sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
cyanide, nitrogen oxides and large number of different organic compounds.
Emissions occur primarily during heating and curing, removal of the cores
from core boxes, cooling, and pouring the metal into molds and may include
a number of gases listed as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) under the Clean
Air Act. Potential HAPs emitted when using chemical binding systems
include: formaldehyde, methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), phenol,
triethylamine, methanol, benzene, toluene, cresol/cresylic acid, napthalene,
polycyclic-organics, and cyanide compounds (Twarog, 1993).
Some core-rmaking processes use strongly acidic or basic substances for
scrubbing the off gasses from the core making process. In the free radical
cure process, acrylic-epoxy binders are cured using an organic hydroperoxide
and SO2 gas. Gasses are typically scrubbed to remove sulfur dioxide before
release through the stack to the atmosphere. A wet scrubbing unit absorbs the
SO2 gas. A 5 to 10 percent solution of sodium hydroxide at a pH of 8 to 14
neutralizes the SO2 and prevents the by-product (sodium sulfite) from
precipitating out of solution (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Amine scrubbers may be used for sulfur dioxide control by foundries. In
amine scrubbing the gas containing sulfur dioxide is first passed through a
catalyst bed, where the sulfur compounds are converted to hydrogen sulfide.
The gas stream then enters a packed or trayed tower (scrubber) where it is
contacted with a solution of water and an organic amine. The amine solution
is alkaline and the weakly acidic hydrogen sulfide in the gas stream dissolves
in it. The amine solution with hydrogen sulfide is then sent to a stripping
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tower, where it is boiled and the acid gases stripped out. The amine solution
is cooled and returned to the scrubbing tower for reuse. Acid gases are
cooled and treated through neutralization. A number of amines are used
including diethanolamine (DBA), monoethanolamine (MEA), and
methyldiethanolamine (MDEA). Air emissions from the amine scrubbers may
include some H2S and other sulfur compounds. (Scott, 1992).
Shakeout. Finishing, and Sand Handling
Shakeout and sand handling operations generate dust and metallic
particulates. Finishing and cleaning operations will generate metallic
particulates from deburring, grinding, sanding and brushing, and volatile
organic compounds from the application of rust inhibitors or organic coatings
such as paint. Control systems involve hoods and ducts at key dust generating
points followed by baghouses, electrostatic precipitators, or wet scrubbers
(AFS Air Quality Committee, 1992).
Wastewater
Wastewater mainly consists of noncontact cooling water and wet scrubber
effluent (Leidel, 1995). Noncontact cooling water can typically be discharged
to the POTW or to surface waters under an NPDES permit. Wet scrubber
wastewater in facilities using large cupola furnaces can be generated in large
quantities (up to 3,000 gallons per minute). This water is typically highly
alkaline or acidic and is neutralized before being discharged to the POTW
(AFS Air Quality Committee, 1992). If amine scrubbers are used, amine
scrubbing solution can be released to the plant effluent system through leaks
and spills. Some foundries using cupola furnaces also generate wastewater
containing metals from cooling slag with water. Wastewater may also be
generated in certain finishing operations such as quenching and deburring.
Such wastewater can be high in oil and suspended solids (NADCA, 1996).
Residual Wastes
Residual wastes originate from many different points within foundries. Waste
sand is by far the largest volume waste for the industry. Other residual wastes
may include dust from dust collection systems, slag, spent investment casting
refractory material, off-spec products, resins, spent solvents and cleaners,
paints, and other miscellaneous wastes.
Furnaces and Metal Melting
The percentage of metal from each charge that is converted to dust or fumes
and collected by baghouses, electrostatic precipitators, or wet scrubbers can
vary significantly from facility to facility depending on the type of furnace
used and the type of metal cast. In steel foundries, this dust contains varying
amounts of zinc, lead, nickel, cadmium, and chromium. Carbon-steel dust
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tends to be high in zinc as a result of the use of galvanized scrap, while
stainless steel dust is high in nickel and chromium. Dust high in lead may
result from the use of scrap painted with leaded paint. Dust associated with
nonferrous metal production may contain copper, aluminum, lead, tin, and
zinc. Steel dust may be encapsulated and disposed of in a permitted landfill,
while nonferrous dust is often sent to a recycler for metal recovery.
Slag is a glassy mass with a complex chemical structure. It can constitute
about 25 percent of a foundry's solid waste stream (Kotzin, 1995). Slag is
composed of metal oxides from the melting process, melted refractories, sand,
coke ash (if coke is used), and other materials. Large quantities of slag are
generated in particular from iron foundries that melt in cupola furnaces.
Fluxes are used to facilitate removal of contaminants from the molten metal
into the slag so that it can be removed from the molten metal surface.
Hazardous slag may be produced in melting operations if the charge materials
contain toxic metals such as lead, cadmium, or chromium. To produce ductile
iron by reducing the sulfur content of iron, some foundries use calcium
carbide desulfurization and the slag generated by this process may be
classified as a reactive waste (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Mold and Core Making
Those core-making processes that use strongly acidic or basic substances for
scrubbing the off gasses from the core making process may generate sludges
or liquors. These sludges or liquors are typically pH controlled prior to
discharge to the sewer system as nonhazardous waste. If not properly treated,
the waste may be classified as hazardous corrosive waste and thus subjected
to numerous federal, state and local mandates (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Shakeout and Sand Handling
Foundries using sand molds and cores generate large volumes of waste sands.
Waste foundry sand can account for 65 to 90 percent of the total waste
generated by foundries. In many foundries, casting sands are recycled
internally until they can no longer be used. Some foundries reclaim waste
sands so that they can be recycled to the process or recycled off-site for
another use (see Section V. A. 1). Sand that can no longer be used by iron or
steel foundries, is often landfilled as nonhazardous waste. Casting sands used
in the production of brass or bronze castings may exhibit toxicity
characteristic for lead or cadmium. The hazardous sand may be reclaimed in
a thermal treatment unit which may be subject to RCRA requirements for
hazardous waste incinerators (see Section VLB) (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Approximately two percent of all foundry spent sand is hazardous (Kotzin,
1995).
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Investment casting shells can be used only once and are disposed in landfills
as a nonhazardous waste unless condensates from heavy metal alloy
constituents are present in the shells.
Most foundries generate miscellaneous residual waste that varies greatly in
composition, but makes up only a small percentage of the total waste. This
waste includes welding materials, waste oil from heavy equipment and
hydraulics, empty binder drums, and scrubber lime (U.S. EPA, 1992).
IH.B.2. Die Casters
The main raw material inputs for die casters include: metal in the form of
ingot, molten metal, metal scrap, alloys, and fuel for metal melting. Other raw
material inputs include: fluxing agents, die lubricants, refractory materials,
hydraulic fluid, and finishing and cleaning materials.
Air Emissions
Furnace air emissions consist of the products of combustion from the fuel and
particulate matter in the form of dusts, metallics, and metal oxide fumes.
Carbon monoxide and oil vapors may also arise if oily scrap is charged to the
furnace or preheat system. Metallic particulates arise mainly from the
volatilization and condensation of molten metal oxides. These will vary
according to the type of furnace, fuel, metal, melting temperature, and a
number of operating practices. The particulate sizes of the oxide fumes are
often very small (submicron) and may contain copper, aluminum, lead, tin, and
zinc (Licht, 1992).
Fluxing and dross removal operations to remove impurities from the molten
metal can also be the source of air emissions. Die casters can use a number
of different fluxing agents to remove different impurities, including: sulfur
hexafluoride, solvent fluxes, aluminum fluoride, or chlorine. Metallic
particulates, the fluxing agents themselves, and products of chemical reactions
with impurities can be emitted from the molten metal surface or from the
subsequently removed dross as it cools. For example, if chlorine is used, it
may react with aluminum and water in the atmosphere to form aluminum
oxide fumes and hydrochloric acid. Although not always necessary,
particulate emissions control equipment, such as fabric bag filters, are
sometimes used to control furnace emissions at die casting facilities (NADCA,
1996).
Die lubrication and plunger tip lubrication can also be a significant source of
air releases from die casting facilities. Both oil- and water-based die
lubricants are used. Oil-based lubricants typically contain naphtha and result
in much higher emissions of volatile organic compounds than water-based
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lubricants. The air emissions will depend on the specific formulation of the
lubricant product and may contain hazardous air pollutants (NADCA, 1996).
Other air emissions arise from finishing and cleaning operations which
generate metallic particulates from deburring, grinding, sanding and brushing,
and volatile organic compounds from the application of rust inhibitors or
paint. Casting quench tanks for the cooling of zinc castings can contain
volatile organic compounds and water treatment chemicals resulting in
potential emissions of volatile organic compounds and hazardous air
pollutants (NADCA, 1996).
Wastewater
Both process wastewater and waste noncontact cooling water may be
generated at die casting facilities. Noncontact cooling water will likey have
elevated temperature and very little or no chemical contamination. Process
wastewater from die casting facilities can be contaminated with spent die
lubricants, hydraulic fluid and coolants. Contaminants in such wastewater are
typically oil and phenols. As with foundries, die casters may also generate
wastewater in certain finishing operations such as in-process cleaning,
quenching and deburring. Such wastewater can be high in oil and suspended
solids. Typical wastewater treatment at die casting facilities consists of
oil/water separation and/or filtration before discharge to a POTW. Facilities
generating large volumes of wastewater may also utilize biological treatment
(NADCA, 1996).
Residual Wastes
Residual waste streams from die casting facilities are relatively small
compared to most sand casting foundries. Typical residual wastes include:
slag or dross generated from molten metal surfaces; refractory materials from
furnaces and ladles; metallic fines, spent shot (plunger) tips, tools, heating
coils, hydraulic fluid, floor absorbent, abrasive cutting belts and wheels,
quench sludge, and steel shot. Most residual wastes from die casting facilities
are sent off-site for disposal as a non-hazardous waste. Waste dross is usually
sent to secondary smelters for metal recovery. Waste oils, lubricants and
hydraulic fluids may be sent off-site for recycling or energy recovery
(NADCA, 1996).
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Table 4: Summary of Material Inputs and Potential Pollutant Outputs
for the Metal Casting Industry
Industrial
Process
Pattern Making
Material
Inputs
Wood, plastic,
metal, wax,
polystyrene
Air Emissions
VOCs from glues,
epoxies, and paints.
Wastewater
Little or no
wastewater generated
Residual
Wastes
Scrap pattern
materials
Mold and Core Preparation and Pouring
Green Sand
Chemical Binding
Systems
Permanent Mold
Plaster Mold
Investment/Lost Wax
Lost Foam
Green sand
and
chemically-
bonded sand
cores
Sand and
chemical
binders
Steel mold,
permanent,
sand, plaster,
or salt cores
Plaster mold
material
Refractory
slurry, and wax
or plastic
Refractory
slurry,
jolystyrene
Particulates, metal oxide
fumes, carbon
monoxide, organic
compounds, hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur dioxide,
and nitrous oxide. Also,
benzene, phenols, and
other hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs) if
chemically bonded cores
are used.
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes, carbon
monoxide, ammonia,
hydrogen sulfide,
hydrogen cyanide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
and other HAPs
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes,
polystyrene vapors and
HAPs
Wastewater
containing metals,
elevated temperature,
phenols and other
organics from wet
dust collection
systems and mold
cooling water
Scrubber wastewater
with amines or high
or low pH; and
wastewater containing
metals, elevated
temperature, phenols
and other organics
from wet dust
collection systems and
mold cooling water
Waste cooling water
with elevated
temperature and
wastewater with low
pH and high in
dissolved salts if
soluble salt cores are
used
Little or no
wastewater generated
Wastewater with low
pHand high in
dissolved salts if
soluble salt cores are
used
^ittle or no
wastewater generated
Waste green sand
and core sand
potentially
containing metals
Waste mold and
core sand
potentially
containing metals
and residual
chemical binders
Waste core sand
or plaster
potentially
containing metals
Spent plaster
Waste refractory
material, waxes
and plastics
Waste sand and
refractory material
)otentially
containing metals
and styrene
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Industrial
Material
Inputs
Air Emissions
Wastewater
Furnace Charge Preparation and Metal Melting
Charging and Melting
Flaxing and Slag and
Dross Removal
Pouring
Metal scrap,
ingot and
returned
castings
Fluxing agents
Ladles and
other refractory
materials
Products of combustion,
oil vapors, particulates,
metallic oxide fumes
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes, solvents,
hydrochloric acid
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes
Scrubber wastewater
with high pH, slag
cooling water with
metals, and non-
contact cooling water
Wastewater
containing metals if
slag quench is utilized
Little or no
wastewater generated
Quenching, Finishing, Cleaning and Coating
Painting and rust
inhibitor application
Cleaning , quenching,
grinding, cutting
Shakeout,
Cooling and
Sand Handling
Die Casting1
Paint and rust
inhibitor
Unfinished
castings, water,
steel shot,
solvents
Water and
caustic for wet
scrubbers
Metal, fuel,
lubricants,
fluxing agents,
hydraulic fluid
VOCs
VOCs, dust and metallic
particulates
Dust and metallic
particulates; VOC and
organic compounds
from thermal sand
treatment systems
VOCs from die and
plunger tip lubrication
Little or no
wastewater generated
Waste cleaning and
cooling water with
elevated temperature,
solvents, oil and
grease, and suspended
solids
Wet scrubber
wastewater with high
or low pH or amines,
permanent mold
contact cooling water
with elevated
temperature, metals
and mold coating
Waste cooling water
with elevated
temperature and
wastewater
contaminated with oil,
and phenols
Residual
Wastes
Spent refractory
material
potentially
containing metals
and alloys
Dross and slag
potentially
containing metals
Spent ladles and
refractory
materials
potentially
containing metals
Spent containers
and applicators
Spent solvents,
steel shot, metallic
particulates,
cutting wheels,
metallic filings,
dust from
collection systems,
and wastewater
treatment sludge
Waste foundry
sand and dust from
collection systems,
metal
Waste hydraulic
fluid, lubricants,
floor absorbent,
and plunger tips
1 Furnaces metal melting finishing cleaning and coating operations also apply to die casting.
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DI.C. Management of Chemicals in Wastestream
Foundries
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (PPA) requires facilities to report
information about the management of Toxic Release Inventory (TRI)
chemicals in waste and efforts made to eliminate or reduce those quantities.
These data have been collected annually in Section 8 of the TRI reporting
Form R beginning with the 1991 reporting year. The data summarized below
cover the years 1993-1996 and are meant to provide a basic understanding of
the quantities of waste handled by the industry, the methods typically used to
manage this waste, and recent trends in these methods. TRI waste
management data can be used to assess trends in source reduction within
individual industries and facilities, and for specific TRI chemicals. This
information could then be used as a tool in identifying opportunities for
pollution prevention compliance assistance activities.
While the quantities reported for 1994 and 1995 are estimates of quantities
already managed, the quantities listed by facilities for 1996 and 1997 are
projections only. The PPA requires these projections to encourage facilities
to consider future source reduction, not to establish any mandatory limits.
Future-year estimates are not commitments that facilities reporting under TRI
are required to meet.
Table 5 shows that the TRI reporting foundries managed about 272 million
pounds of production related wastes (total quantity of TRI chemicals in the
waste from routine production operations in column B) in 1995. From the
yearly data presented in column B, the total quantity of production related
TRI wastes increased between 1994 and 1995. This is likely in part because
the number of chemicals on the TRI list nearly doubled between those years.
Production related wastes were projected to decrease in 1996 and 1997. The
effects of production increases and decreases on the amount of wastes
generated are not evaluated here.
Values in Column C are intended to reveal the percent of production-related
waste (about 40 percent) either transferred off-site or released to the
environment. Column C is calculated by dividing the total TRI transfers and
releases by the total quantity of production-related waste. Column C shows
a decrease in the amount of wastes either transferred off-site or released to the
environment from 43 percent in 1994 to 40 percent in 1995. In other words,
about 60 percent of the industry's TRI wastes were managed on-site through
recycling, energy recovery, or treatment as shown in columns D, E, and F,
respectively. Most of these on-site managed wastes were recycled on-site,
typically in a metals recovery process. The majority of waste that is released
or transferred off-site can be divided into portions that are recycled off-site,
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recovered for energy off-site, or treated off-site as shown in columns G, H,
and I, respectively. The remaining portion of the production related wastes
(32 percent in 1994 and 1995), shown in column J, is either released to the
environment through direct discharges to air, land, water, and underground
injection, or is transferred off-site for disposal.
Table 5: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for
Foundries (SIC 332, 3365, 3366, and 3369) as Reported within TRI
A
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
B
Quantity of
Production-
Related
Waste
(lO'lbs.)1
232
272
264
261
C
% Released
and
Transferred1"
43%
40%
—
—
On-Site
D
%
Recycled
58%
58%
54%
53%
£
% Energy
Recovery
0%
0%
0%
0%
F
% Treated
1%
2%
2%
2%
Off-Site
G
%
Recycled
18%
16%
20%
21%
H
% Energy
Recovery
0%
0%
0%
0%
I
% Treated
0%
1%
1%
1%
J
% Released
and
Disposed0
Off-site
32%
32%
24%
24%
Source: 1995 Toxics Release Inventory Database.
" Within this industry sector, non-production related waste < 1% of production related wastes for 1995.
b Total TRI transfers and releases as reported in Section 5 and 6 of Form R as a percentage of production related wastes.
c Percentage of production related waste released to the environment and transferred off-site for disposal.
Die Casters
Table 6 shows that the TRI reporting foundries managed about 63 million
pounds of production related wastes (total quantity of TRI chemicals in the
waste from routine production operations) in 1995 (column B). Column C
reveals that of this production-related waste, about 21 percent was either
transferred off-site or released to the environment. Column C is calculated by
dividing the total TRI transfers and releases by the total quantity of
production-related waste. In other words, about 79% of the industry's TRI
wastes were managed on-site through recycling, energy recovery, or treatment
as shown in columns D, E, and F, respectively. Most of these on-site
managed wastes were recycled on-site, typically in a metals recovery process.
The majority of waste that is released or transferred off-site can be divided
into portions that are recycled off-site, recovered for energy off-site, or
treated off-site as shown in columns G, H, and I, respectively. The remaining
portion of the production related wastes (2 percent in 1994), shown in column
J, is either released to the environment through direct discharges to air, land,
water, and underground injection, or it is disposed off-site.
Sector Notebook Project
48
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Industrial Process Description
Table 6: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for
Die Casting Facilities (SIC 3363 and 3364) as Reported within TRI
A
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
B
Quantity of
Production-
Related
Waste
(10slbs.)'
60
63
64
64
C
% Released
and
Transferred1"
23%
21%
—
—
On-Site
D
%
Recycled
69%
75%
75%
76%
E
% Energy
Recovery
0%
0%
0%
0%
F
% Treated
3%
3%
3%
2%
Off-Site
G
%
Recycled
27%
21%
21%
21%
H
% Energy
0%
0%
0%
0%
I
0%
0%
0%
0%
J
% Released
and
Disposed0
Off-site
2%
2%
1%
" Within this industry sector, non-production related waste < 1% of production related wastes for 1995.
Total TRI transfers and releases as reported in Section 5 and 6 of Form R as a percentage of production related wastes.
Percentage of production related waste released to the environment and transferred off-site for disposal.
Sector Notebook Project
49
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV. CHEMICAL RELEASE AND TRANSFER PROFILE
This section is designed to provide background information on the pollutant
releases that are reported by this industry. The best source of comparative
pollutant release information is the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI). Pursuant
to the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, TRI includes
self-reported facility release and transfer data for over 600 toxic chemicals.
Facilities within SIC Codes 20 through 39 (manufacturing industries) that
have more than 10 employees, and that are above weight-based reporting
thresholds are required to report TRI on-site releases and off-site transfers.
The information presented within the sector notebooks is derived from the
most recently available (1995) TRI reporting year (which includes over 600
chemicals), and focuses primarily on the on-site releases reported by each
sector. Because TRI requires consistent reporting regardless of sector, it is
an excellent tool for drawing comparisons across industries. TRI data provide
the type, amount and media receptor of each chemical released or transferred.
Although this sector notebook does not present historical information
regarding TRI chemical releases over time, please note that in general, toxic
chemical releases have been declining. In fact, according to the 1995 Toxic
Release Inventory Public Data Release, reported onsite releases of toxic
chemicals to the environment decreased by 5 percent (85.4 million pounds)
between 1994 and 1995 (not including chemicals added and removed from the
TRI chemical list during this period). Reported releases dropped by 46
percent between 1988 and 1995. Reported transfers of TRI chemicals to off-
site locations increased by 0.4 percent (11.6 million pounds) between 1994
and 1995. More detailed information can be obtained from EPA's annual
Toxics Release Inventory Public Data Release book (which is available
through the EPCRA Hotline at 800-535-0202), or directly from the Toxic
Release Inventory System database (for user support call 202-260-1531).
Wherever possible, the sector notebooks present TRI data as the primary
indicator of chemical release within each industrial category. TRI data
provide the type, amount and media receptor of each chemical released or
transferred. When other sources of pollutant release data have been obtained,
these data have been included to augment the TRI information.
TRI Data Limitations
Certain limitations exist regarding TRI data. Release and transfer reporting
are limited to the approximately 600 chemicals on the TRI list. Therefore, a
large portion of the emissions from industrial facilities are not captured by
TRI. Within some sectors, (e.g. dry cleaning, printing and transportation
equipment cleaning) the majority of facilities are not subject to TRI reporting
because they are not considered manufacturing industries, or because they are
Sector Notebook Project
51
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
below TRI reporting thresholds. For these sectors, release information from
other sources has been included. In addition, many facilities report more than
one SIC code reflecting the multiple operations carried out onsite. Therefore,
reported releases and transfers may or may not all be associated with the
industrial operations described in this notebook.
The reader should also be aware that TRI "pounds released" data presented
within the notebooks is not equivalent to a "risk" ranking for each industry.
Weighting each pound of release equally does not factor in the relative
toxicity of each chemical that is released. The Agency is in the process of
developing an approach to assign lexicological weightings to each chemical
released so that one can differentiate between pollutants with significant
differences in toxicity. As a preliminary indicator of the environmental impact
of the industry's most commonly released chemicals, the notebook briefly
summarizes the toxicological properties of the top five chemicals (by weight)
reported by each industry.
Definitions Associated With Section IV Data Tables
General Definitions
SIC Code -- the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) is a statistical
classification standard used for all establishment-based Federal economic
statistics. The SIC codes facilitate comparisons between facility and industry
data.
TRI Facilities ~ are manufacturing facilities that have 10 or more full-time
employees and are above established chemical throughput thresholds.
Manufacturing facilities are defined as facilities in Standard Industrial
Classification primary codes 20-39. Facilities must submit estimates for all
chemicals that are on the EPA's defined list and are above throughput
thresholds.
Data Table Column Heading Definitions
The following definitions are based upon standard definitions developed by
EPA's Toxic Release Inventory Program. The categories below represent the
possible pollutant destinations that can be reported.
RELEASES — are an on-site discharge of a toxic chemical to the
environment. This includes emissions to the air, discharges to bodies of
water, releases at the facility to land, as well as contained disposal into
underground injection wells.
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
Releases to Air (Point and Fugitive Air Emissions) ~ Include all air
emissions from industry activity. Point emissions occur through confined air
streams as found in stacks, vents, ducts, or pipes. Fugitive emissions include
equipment leaks, evaporative losses from surface impoundments and spills,
and releases from building ventilation systems.
Releases to Water (Surface Water Discharges) -- encompass any releases
going directly to streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, or other bodies of water.
Releases due to runoff, including storm water runoff, are also reportable to
TRI.
Releases to Land « occur within the boundaries of the reporting facility.
Releases to land include disposal of toxic chemicals in landfills, land
treatment/application farming, surface impoundments, and other land disposal
methods (such as spills, leaks, or waste piles).
Underground Injection ~ is a contained release of a fluid into a subsurface
well for the purpose of waste disposal. Wastes containing TRI chemicals are
injected into either Class I wells or Class V wells. Class I wells are used to
inject liquid hazardous wastes or dispose of industrial and municipal
wastewater beneath the lowermost underground source of drinking water.
Class V wells are generally used to inject non-hazardous fluid into or above
an underground source of drinking water. TRI reporting does not currently
distinguish between these two types of wells, although there are important
differences in environmental impact between these two methods of injection.
TRANSFERS- is a transfer of toxic chemicals in wastes to a facility that is
geographically or physically separate from the facility reporting under TRI.
Chemicals reported to TRI as transferred are sent to off-site facilities for the
purpose of recycling, energy recovery, treatment, or disposal. The quantities
reported represent a movement of the chemical away from the reporting
facility. Except for off-site transfers for disposal, the reported quantities do
not necessarily represent entry of the chemical into the environment.
Transfers to POTWs - are wastewater transferred through pipes or sewers
to a publicly owned treatments works (POTW). Treatment or removal of a
chemical from the wastewater depend on the nature of the chemical, as well
as the treatment methods present at the POTW. Not all TRI chemicals can
be treated or removed by a POTW. Some chemicals, such as metals, may be
removed, but are not destroyed and may be disposed of in landfills or
discharged to receiving waters.
Transfers to Recycling ~ are sent off-site for the purposes of regenerating
or recovery by a variety of recycling methods, including solvent recovery,
metals recovery, and acid regeneration. Once these chemicals have been
Sector Notebook Project
53
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
recycled, they may be returned to the originating facility or sold commercially.
Transfers to Energy Recovery — are wastes combusted off-site in industrial
furnaces for energy recovery. Treatment of a chemical by incineration is not
considered to be energy recovery.
Transfers to Treatment -- are wastes moved off-site to be treated through
a variety of methods, including neutralization, incineration, biological
destruction, or physical separation. In some cases, the chemicals are not
destroyed but prepared for further waste management.
Transfers to Disposal -- are wastes taken to another facility for disposal
generally as a release to land or as an injection underground.
Sector Notebook Project
54
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV.A. EPA Toxic Release Inventory for the Metal Casting Industry
This section summarizes TRI data of ferrous and nonferrous foundries
reporting SIC codes 332, 3365, 3366, and 3369, and ferrous and nonferrous
die casting facilities reporting SIC codes 3363 and 3364 as the primary SIC
code for the facility. Of the 2,813 metal casting establishments reported by
the 1992 Census of Manufacturers, 654 reported to TRI in 1995.
Ferrous and nonferrous foundries made up 85 percent (554 facilities) of metal
casting facilities reporting to TRI and accounted for about 89 percent of the
total metal casting TRI releases and transfers for metal casting facilities in
1995. Die casters made up 15 percent (100 facilities) of metal casting
facilities and reported the remaining 11 percent of the total releases and
transfers. Because the TRI information differs for foundries and die casters,
the releases and transfers for these two industry segments are presented
separately below.
IV.A.1. Toxic Release Inventory for Ferrous and Nonferrous Foundries
According to the 1995 TRI data, the reporting ferrous and nonferrous
foundries released and transferred a total of approximately 109 million pounds
of pollutants during calendar year 1995. These releases and transfers are
dominated by large volumes of metallic wastes. Evidence of the diversity of
processes at foundries reporting to TRI is found in the fact that the most
frequently reported chemical (copper) is reported by only 45 percent of the
facilities and over half of the TRI chemicals were reported by fewer than ten
facilities. The variability in facilities' pollutant profiles may be attributable to
the large number of different types of foundry processes and products. For
example, foundries casting only ferrous parts will have different pollutant
profiles than those foundries casting both ferrous and nonferrous products.
Releases
Releases to the air, water, and land accounted for 33 percent (36 million
pounds) of foundries' total reportable chemicals. Of these releases, 70
percent go to onsite land disposal, and about 75 percent are fugitive or point
source, air emissions (See Table 7). Metallic wastes accounted for over 95
percent of the industry's releases. Manganese, zinc, chromium, and lead
account for over 95 percent of the on-site land disposal. The industry's air
releases are associated with volatilization, fume or aerosol formation in the
furnaces and byproduct processing. Lighter weight organics, such as
methanol, acids and metal contaminants found in scrap metal are the principal
types of TRI chemicals released to the air. In addition to air releases of
chemicals reported to TRI, foundries are often a source of particulates, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur compounds due to sand handling
Sector Notebook Project
55
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
operations, curing of chemical binders, and combustion of fossil fuels.
Methanol, trichloroethylene and other solvent releases account for most of the
fugitive releases (approximately 61 percent).
Tratjsfers
Off-site transfers of TRI chemicals account for 69 percent of foundries' total
TRI-reportable chemicals (74 million pounds). Almost 57 percent of the
industry's total TRI wastes (42 million pounds) are metallic wastes that were
transferred off-site for recycling, typically for recovery of the metal content.
Metallic wastes account for approximately 95 percent of the industry's
transfers. About 61 percent of off-site transfers reported by foundries are sent
off-site for recycling. Copper, manganese, zinc, chromium, nickel, and lead
are the six metals transferred in the greatest amounts and number of facilities
(See Table 8). TRI chemicals sent off-site for disposal (primarily manganese,
zinc, chromium, and copper) account for 31 percent of transfers. Less than
three percent of the remaining transfers from foundries go to treatment off-
site, discharge to POTWs, and energy recovery.
After metals, the next largest volume of chemicals transferred are acids
including: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and hydrochloric acid.
Spent acids can be generated in wet scrubber systems. In addition, acids are
often used to clean and finish the surfaces of the metal castings before plating
or coating. The spent acids are often sent off-site for recycling or for
treatment. Solvents and other light weight organic compounds are frequently
reported but account for a relatively small amount of total transfers. Solvents
are used frequently for cleaning equipment and cast parts. The primary
solvents and light weight organics include: phenol, xylene, 1,2,4-
trimethylbenzene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, methanol, and
toluene. Transferred solvents are mostly sent off-site for disposal or recycling.
Phenols and phenoisocyanates are frequently reported but amount to less than
one percent of the total TRI pounds transferred. Phenols are often found in
chemical binding systems and may be present in waste sand containing
chemical binders (AFS and CISA, 1992).
Sector Notebook Project
56
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
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Sector Notebook Project
59
September 1997
-------
Chemical Releases and Transfers
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Sector Notebook Project
60
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV.A.2. Toxic Release Inventory for Die Casting Facilities
According to the 1995 TRI data, the reporting die casting facilities released
and transferred a total of approximately 13 million pounds of TRI chemicals
during calendar year 1995. As with foundries, the releases and transfers for
die casters are dominated by large volumes of metallic wastes. Evidence of
the diversity of processes at die casting facilities reporting to TRI is found in
the fact that all but three of the TRI reported chemicals (copper, nickel, and
aluminum) are reported by fewer than ten percent of the facilities. The
variability in facilities' pollutant profiles may be attributed primarily to the
different types of metals cast.
Releases
Transfers
Releases make up only four percent of die casters' total TRI-reportable
chemicals (518,000 pounds). Almost all of these releases (99 percent) are
released to the air through point source and fugitive emissions (see Table 9).
Metallic wastes (primarily aluminum, zinc, and copper) account for over 67
percent of the releases. The remainder of the industry's releases are primarily
solvents and other volatile organic compounds including, trichloroethylene,
tetrachloroethylene, glycol ethers, hexochloroethane, and toluene, which
account for 32 percent of the releases. In addition to air releases of chemicals
reported to TRI, die casting facilities can be a source of particulates, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur compounds due to the combustion of
fossil fuels for metal melting, from the molten metal itself, and from die
cleaning and lubricating operations.
Off-site transfers of TRI chemicals account for 96 percent of die casters' total
TRI-reportable chemicals (13 million pounds). Almost all off-site transfers
(97 percent) reported by die casting facilities are sent off-site for recycling.
Copper, aluminum, zinc, and nickel make up 98 percent of all transfers and
are reported by the largest number of facilities (see Table 10). Chemicals
sent off-site for disposal (primarily aluminum and copper) account for less
than three percent of transfers. After metals, the next class of chemicals
transferred are solvents. These chemicals account for only about one percent
of total transfers.
Sector Notebook Project
61
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
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Sector Notebook Project
63
September 1997
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
The TRI database contains a detailed compilation of self-reported, facility-
specific chemical releases. The top reporting facilities for the metal casting
industry are listed below in Tables 11 and 12. Facilities that have reported
only the primary SIC codes covered under this notebook appear on Table 11.
Table 12 contains additional facilities that have reported the SIC codes
covered within this notebook, or SIC codes covered within this notebook
report and one or more SIC codes that are not within the scope of this
notebook. Therefore, the second list may include facilities that conduct
multiple operations -- some that are under the scope of this notebook, and
some that are not. Currently, the facility-level data do not allow pollutant
releases to be broken apart by industrial process.
TJI hip 1 1 : Top 10 TRI Releasing Metal Casting Facilities1
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Foundries (SIC 332, 3365, 3366, 3369)
Facility
GM Powertrain Defiance - Defiance,
OH
GMC Powertrain - Saginaw, MI
American Steel Foundries - Granite
City, EL
Griffin Wheel Co. - Keokuk, IA
Griffin Wheel Co. - Groveport, OH
Griffin Wheel Co. - Bessemer, AL
U.S. Pipe & Foundry Co. -
Birmingham, AL
American Steel Foundries - East
Chicago, IN
Griffin Wheel Co. - Kansas City, KS
CMI - Cast Parts, Inc. - Cadillac, MI
Total TRI
Releases in
Pounds
14,730,020
2,709,764
1,245,343
1,065,104
1,042,040
742,135
738,200
625,191
607,266
604,100
Die Casters (SIC 3363, 3364)
Facility
Water Gremlin Co. - White Bear
Lake,MN
BTR Precision Die Casting -
Russelville, KY
QX Inc. - Hamel, MN
AAP St. Marys Corp. - Saint Marys,
OH
Impact Industries Inc. - Sandwich, IL
Tool-Die Eng. Co. - Solon, OH
Chrysler Corp. - Kokomo, IN
Metalloy Corp. - Freemont, IN
Tool Products. Inc. - New Hope,
MN
Travis Pattern & Foundry, Inc. -
Spokane, WA
Total TRI
Releases
in Pounds
97,111
93,903
67,772
55,582
45,175
29,005
20,652
13,350
12,194
11,614
•Source: US Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1995.
Being included on this list does not mean that the release is associated with non-compliance with environmental laws.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
Table 12: Top 10 TRI Releasing Facilities Reporting Metal Casting SIC Codes2
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Foundries (SIC 332, 3365, 3366, 3369)
Facility
GM Powertrain Defiance -
Defiance, OH
GMC Powertrain - Saginaw,
MI
Heatcraft Inc. - Grenada,
MS
American Steel Foundries -
Granite City, IL
Griffin Wheel Co. - Keokuk,
IA
Griffin Wheel Co. -
Groveport, OH
Geneva Steel - Vineyard,
UT
Griffin Wheel Co. -
Bessemer, AL
U.S. Pipe & Foundry Co. -
Birmingham, AL
American Steel Foundries -
East Chicago, IN
SIC Codes
Reported in
TRI
3321
3321,3365
3585, 3351,
3366
3325
3325
3325
3312,3317,
3325
3325
3321
3325
Total TRI
Releases in
Pounds
14,730,020
2,709,764
1,369,306
1,245,343
1,065,104
1,042,040
901,778
742,135
738,200
625,191
Die Casters (SIC 3363, 3364)
Facility
Water Gremlin Co. - White
Bear Lake, MN
BTR Precision Die Casting
- Russelville, KY
Honeywell Inc. Home &
Building - Golden
Valley, MN
QX Inc. - Hamel, MN
AAP St. Marys Corp. -
Saint Marys, OH
Impact Industries Inc. -
Sandwich, IL
Tool-Die Eng. Co. -
Solon, OH
TAC Manufacturing -
Jackson, MI
Superior Ind. Intl., Inc. -
Johnson City, TN
General Electric Co. -
SIC Codes
Reported in
TRI
3364, 3949
3363
3822, 3363,
3900
3363
3363
3363
3363
3086, 3363,
3714
3714,3363,
3398
3646, 3363
Total TRI
Releases in
•p •
97,111
93,903
87,937
67,772
55,582
45,175
29,005
25,684
25,250
20,780
Source: US Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1995.
Being included on this list does not mean that the release is associated with non-compliance with environmental laws.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV.B. Summary of Selected Chemicals Released
The following is a synopsis of current scientific toxicity and fate information
for the top chemicals (by weight) that facilities within this sector self-reported
as released to the environment based upon 1995 TRI data. Because this
section is based upon self-reported release data, it does not attempt to provide
information on management practices employed by the sector to reduce the
release of these chemicals. Information regarding pollutant release reduction
overtime may be available from EPA's TRI and 33/50 programs, or directly
from the industrial trade associations that are listed in Section IX of this
document. Since these descriptions are cursory, please consult these sources
for a more detailed description of both the chemicals described in this section,
and the chemicals that appear on the full list of TRI chemicals appearing in
Section IV. A.
The brief descriptions provided below were taken from the Hazardous
Substances Data Bank (HSDB) and the Integrated Risk Information System
(IRIS). The discussions of toxicity describe the range of possible adverse
health effects that have been found to be associated with exposure to these
chemicals. These adverse effects may or may not occur at the levels released
to the environment. Individuals interested in a more detailed picture of the
chemical concentrations associated with these adverse effects should consult
a toxicologist or the toxicity literature for the chemical to obtain more
information. The effects listed below must be taken in context of these
exposure assumptions that are explained more fully within the full chemical
profiles in HSDB. For more information on TOXNET3 , contact the
TOXNET help line at 1-800-231-3766.
Manganese and Manganese Compounds (CAS: 7439-96-5; 20-12-2)
Sources. Manganese is found in iron charge materials and is used as an
addition agent for alloy steel to obtain desired properties in the final product.
In carbon steel, manganese is used to combine with sulfur to improve the
ductility of the steel. An alloy steel with manganese is used for applications
3 TOXNET is a computer system run by the National Library of Medicine that includes a number of toxicological
databases managed by EPA, National Cancer Institute, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
For more information on TOXNET, contact the TOXNET help line at 800-231 -3766. Databases included in TOXNET
arc: CCRIS (Chemical Carcinogenesis Research Information System), DART (Developmental and Reproductive
Toxicity Database), DBIR (Directory of Biotechnology Information Resources), EMtCBACK (Environmental Mutagen
Information Center Backfile), GENE-TOX (Genetic Toxicology), HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank), IRIS
(Integrated Risk Information System), RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances), and TRI (Toxic
Chemical Release Inventory). HSDB contains chemical-specific information on manufacturing and use, chemical and
physical properties, safety and handling, toxicity and biomedical effects, pharmacology, environmental fate and exposure
potential, exposure standards and regulations, monitoring and analysis methods, and additional references.
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Chemical Releases and Transfers
involving small sections which are subject to severe service conditions, or in
larger sections where the weight saving derived from the higher strength of
the alloy steels is needed (U.S. EPA, 1995).
Toxicity. There is currently no evidence that human exposure to manganese
at levels commonly observed in ambient atmosphere results in adverse health
effects.
Chronic manganese poisoning, however, bears some similarity to chronic lead
poisoning. Occurring via inhalation of manganese dust or fumes, it primarily
involves the central nervous system. Early symptoms include languor, speech
disturbances, sleepiness, and cramping and weakness in legs. A stolid mask-
like appearance efface, emotional disturbances such as absolute detachment
broken by uncontrollable laughter, euphoria, and a spastic gait with a
tendency to fall while walking are seen in more advanced cases. Chronic
manganese poisoning is reversible if treated early and exposure stopped.
Populations at greatest risk of manganese toxicity are the very young and
those with iron deficiencies.
Ecologically, although manganese is an essential nutrient for both plants and
animals, in excessive concentrations manganese inhibits plant growth.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that manganese
is carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Manganese is an essential nutrient for plants and
animals. As such, manganese accumulates in the top layers of soil or surface
water sediments and cycles between the soil and living organisms. It occurs
mainly as a solid under environmental conditions, though may also be
transported in the atmosphere as a vapor or dust.
Zinc and Zinc Compounds (CAS: 7440-66-6; 20-19-9)
Sources. To protect metal from oxidizing, it is often coated with a material
that will protect it from moisture and air. In the galvanizing process, steel is
coated with zinc. Galvanized iron and steel is often found in furnace charge
materials (USITC, 1984).
Toxicity. Zinc is a trace element; toxicity from ingestion is low. Severe
exposure to zinc might give rise to gastritis with vomiting due to
swallowing of zinc dusts. Short-term exposure to very high levels of zinc
is linked to lethargy, dizziness, nausea, fever, diarrhea, and reversible
pancreatic and neurological damage. Long-term zinc poisoning causes
irritability, muscular stiffness and pain, loss of appetite, and nausea.
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Chemical Releases and Transfers
Zinc chloride fumes cause injury to mucous membranes and to the skin.
Ingestion of soluble zinc salts may cause nausea, vomiting, and purging.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that zinc is
carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Significant zinc contamination of soil is only seen
in the vicinity of industrial point sources. Zinc is a stable soft metal,
though it burns in air. Zinc bioconcentrates in aquatic organisms.
Methanol (CAS: 67-56-1)
Sources. Methanol is used as a cleaning solvent and can be emitted during
the production of cores using the hot box and no-bake systems.
Toxicity. Methanol is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and the
respiratory tract, and is toxic to humans in moderate to high doses. In the
body, methanol is converted into formaldehyde and formic acid. Methanol is
excreted as formic acid. Observed toxic effects at high dose levels generally
include central nervous system damage and blindness. Long-term exposure
to high levels of methanol via inhalation cause liver and blood damage in
animals.
Ecologically, methanol is expected to have low toxicity to aquatic organisms.
Concentrations lethal to half the organisms of a test population are expected
to exceed one mg methanol per liter water. Methanol is not likely to persist
in water or to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that methanol is
carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Methanol is highly volatile and flammable. Liquid
methanol is likely to evaporate when left exposed. Methanol reacts in air to
produce formaldehyde which contributes to the formation of air pollutants.
In the atmosphere it can react with other atmospheric chemicals or be washed
out by rain. Methanol is readily degraded by microorganisms in soils and
surface waters.
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Chemical Releases and Transfers
Trichloroethvlene (CAS:79-01-6)
Sources, Trichloroethylene is used extensively as a cleaning solvent.
Toxicity. Trichloroethylene was once used as an anesthetic, though its use
caused several fatalities due to liver failure. Short term inhalation exposure
to high levels of trichloroethylene may cause rapid coma followed by eventual
death from liver, kidney, or heart failure. Short-term exposure to lower
concentrations of trichloroethylene causes eye, skin, and respiratory tract
irritation. Ingestion causes a burning sensation in the mouth, nausea, vomiting
and abdominal pain. Delayed effects from short-term trichloroethylene
poisoning include liver and kidney lesions, reversible nerve degeneration, and
psychic disturbances. Long-term exposure can produce headache, dizziness,
weight loss, nerve damage, heart damage, nausea, fatigue, insomnia, visual
impairment, mood perturbation, sexual problems, dermatitis, and rarely
jaundice. Degradation products of trichloroethylene (particularly phosgene)
may cause rapid death due to respiratory collapse.
Carcinogenicity. Trichloroethylene is considered by EPA to be a probable
human carcinogen via both oral and inhalation exposure, based on limited
human evidence and sufficient animal evidence.
Environmental Fate. Trichloroethylene breaks down slowly in water in the
presence of sunlight and bioconcentrates moderately in aquatic organisms.
The main removal of trichloroethylene from water is via rapid evaporation.
Trichloroethylene does not photodegrade in the atmosphere, though it breaks
down quickly under smog conditions, forming other pollutants such as
phosgene, dichloroacetyl chloride, and formyl chloride. In addition,
trichloroethylene vapors may be decomposed to toxic levels of phosgene in
the presence of an intense heat source such as an open arc welder. When
spilled on land, trichloroethylene rapidly volatilizes from surface soils. Some
of the remaining chemical may leach through the soil to groundwater.
Xvlenes (MixedIsomers] (CAS- 1330-20-7)
Sources. Xylenes are used extensively as cleaning solvents and paint solvents
and may be formed as a decomposition product of binders.
Toxicity. Xylenes are rapidly absorbed into the body after inhalation,
ingestion, or skin contact. Short-term exposure of humans to high levels of
xylene can cause irritation of the skin, eyes, nose, and throat, difficulty in
breathing, impaired lung function, impaired memory, and possible changes in
the liver and kidneys. Both short- and long-term exposure to high
concentrations can cause effects such as headaches, dizziness, confusion, and
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
lack of muscle coordination. Reactions of xylenes (see environmental fate) in
the atmosphere contribute to the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere.
Ozone can affect the respiratory system, especially in sensitive individuals
such as asthma or allergy sufferers.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that xylenes are
carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. A portion of releases to land and water will quickly
evaporate, although some degradation by microorganisms will occur. Xylenes
are moderately mobile in soils and may leach into groundwater, where they
may persist for several years. Xylenes are volatile organic chemicals. As
such, xylene in the lower atmosphere will react with other atmospheric
components, contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone and other
air pollutants.
Chromium and Chromium Compounds (CAS: 7440-47-3; 20-06-4)
Sources. Chromium is used as a plating element for metal to prevent
corrosion and is sometimes found on charge materials. Chromium is also a
constituent of stainless steel.
Toxicity. Although the naturally-occurring form of chromium metal has very
low toxicity, chromium from industrial emissions is highly toxic due to strong
oxidation characteristics and cell membrane permeability. The majority of the
effects detailed below are based on Chromium VI (an isomer that is more
toxic than Cr ID). Exposure to chromium metal and insoluble chromium salts
affects the respiratory system. Inhalation exposure to chromium and
chromium salts may cause severe irritation of the upper respiratory tract and
scarring of lung tissue. Dermal exposure to chromium and chromium salts
can also cause sensitive dermatitis and skin ulcers.
Ecologically, although chromium is present in small quantities in all soils and
plants, it is toxic to plants at higher soil concentrations (i.e., 0.2 to 0.4 percent
in soil).
Carcinogenicity. Different sources disagree on the carcinogenicity of
chromium. Although an increased incidence in lung cancer among workers
in the chromate-producing industry has been reported, data are inadequate to
confirm that chromium is a human carcinogen. Other sources consider
chromium VI to be a known human carcinogen based on inhalation exposure.
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
Environmental Fate. Chromium is a non-volatile metal with very low
solubility in water. If applied to land, most chromium remains in the upper
five centimeters of soil. Most chromium in surface waters is present in
particulate form as sediment. Airborne chromium particles are relatively
unreactive and are removed from the air through wet and dry deposition. The
precipitated chromium from the air enters surface water or soil. Chromium
bioaccumulates in plants and animals, with an observed bioaccumulation
factor of 1,000,000 in snails.
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
rV.C. Other Data Sources
The toxic chemical release data obtained from TRI captures only about one
quarter of the facilities in the metal casting industry. However, it allows for
a comparison across years and industry sectors. Reported chemicals are
limited to the approximately 600 TRI chemicals. A large portion of the
emissions from metal casting facilities, therefore, are not captured by TRI.
The EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards has compiled air
pollutant emission factors for determining the total air emissions of priority
pollutants (e.g., total hydrocarbons, SOx, NOx, CO, particulates, etc.) from
many metal casting sources.
The Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) contains a wide range
of information related to stationary sources of air pollution, including the
emissions of a number of air pollutants which may be of concern within a
particular industry. With the exception of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), there is little overlap with the TRI chemicals reported above. Table
13 summarizes annual releases (from the industries for which a Sector
Notebook Profile was prepared) of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide
(NOj), paniculate matter of 10 microns or less (PM10), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
Table 13: Air Pollutant Releases by Industry Sector (tons/year)
Industry Sector
Metal Mining
Nonmetal Mining
Lumber and Wood
Production
Furniture and Fixtures
Pulp and Paper
Printing
Inorganic Chemicals
Organic Chemicals
Petroleum Refining
Rubber and Misc. Plastics
Stone, Clay and Concrete
Iron and Steel
Nonferrous Metals
Fabricated Metals
Electronics and Computers
Motor Vehicles, Bodies,
Parts and Accessories
Dry Cleaning
Crround Transportation
Metal Casting
Pharmaceuticals
Plastic Resins and
Manmade Fibers
Textiles
Power Generation
Shipbuilding and Repair
CO
4,670
25,922
122,061
2,754
566,883
8,755
153,294
112,410
734,630
2,200
105,059
1,386,461
214,243
4,925
356
15,109
102
128,625
116,538
6,586
16,388
8,177
366,208
105
NO2
39,849
22,881
38,042
1,872
358,675
3,542
106,522
187,400
355,852
9,955
340,639
153,607
31,136
11,104
1,501
27,355
184
550,551
11,911
19,088
41,771
34,523
5,986,757
862
PM10
63,541
. 40,199
20,456
2,502
35,030
405
6,703
14,596
27,497
2,618
192,962
83,938
10,403
1,019
224
1,048
3
2,569
10,995
1,576
2,218
2,028
140,760
638
PT
173,566
128,661
64,650
4,827
111,210
1,198
34,664
16,053
36,141
5,182
662,233
87,939
24,654
2,790
385
3,699
27
5,489
20,973
4,425
7,546
9,479
464,542
943
SO2
17,690
18,000
9,401
1,538
493,313
1,684
194,153
176,115
619,775
21,720
308,534
232,347
253,538
3,169
741
20,378
155
8,417
6,513
21,311
67,546
43,050
13,827,511
3 051
voc
915
4,002
55,983
67,604
127,809
103,018
65,427
180,350
313,982
132,945
34,337
83,882
11,058
86,472
4,866
96,338
7,441
104,824
19,031
37,214
74,138
27,768
57,384
3 967
Source: U.S. EPA Office of Air and Radiation, AIRS Database, 1 997.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV.D. Comparison of Toxic Release Inventory Between Selected Industries
The following information is presented as a comparison of pollutant release
and transfer data across industrial categories. It is provided to give a general
sense as to the relative scale of TRI releases and transfers within each sector
profiled under this project. Please note that the following figure and table do
not contain releases and transfers for industrial categories that are not
included in this project, and thus cannot be used to draw conclusions
regarding the total release and transfer amounts that are reported to TRI.
Similar information is available within the annual TRI Public Data Release
Book.
Figure 10 is a graphical representation of a summary of the 1995 TRI data for
the metal casting industry and the other sectors profiled in separate
notebooks. The bar graph presents the total TRI releases and total transfers
on the vertical axis. The graph is based on the data shown in Table 14 and is
meant to facilitate comparisons between the relative amounts of releases,
transfers, and releases per facility both within and between these sectors. The
reader should note, however, that differences in the proportion of facilities
captured by TRI exist between industry sectors. This can be a factor of poor
SIC matching and relative differences in the number of facilities reporting to
TRI from the various sectors. In the case of the metal casting industry, the
1995 TRI data presented here covers 654 facilities. These facilities listed SIC
332 (Iron and Steel Foundries) and 336 (Nonferrous Foundries) as primary
SIC codes.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
Figure 10: Summary of TRI Releases and Transfers by Industry
500-
•y 40°"
,o .
1
M 300-
3
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1 200-
100-
0
P.
n-.n.n.. ln.HI .rl
CMCMCMCOOOT-CMCOCO
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• Total Transfers
Source: US EPA 1995 Toxics Release Inventory Database.
11
24
25
2611-2631
2711-2789
2812-2819
2821,2823,
2824
Industry Sector
Textiles
Lumber and Wood
Products
Furniture and Fixtures
Pulp and Paper
Printing
Inorganic Chemical
Manufacturing
Plastic Resins and
Manmade Fibers
SIC Range
2833, 2834
2861-2869
2911
30
32
331
332, 336
Industry Sector
Pharmaceuticals
Organic Chem. Mfg.
Petroleum Refining
Rubber and Misc. Plastics
Stone, Clay, and Concrete
Iron and Steel
Metal Casting
SIC Range
333, 334
34
36
371
3731
Nonferrous Metals
Fabricated Metals
Electronic Equip, and Comp.
Motor Vehicles, Bodies,
Parts, and Accessories
Shipbuilding
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
•a
^
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Lumber and Wood
0
o
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t-
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0
o
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ON
CS
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O
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NO
t—
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NO
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Furniture and Fixtu
o
o
o
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CS
o
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o
VI
oo
VI
NO'
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NO
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NO
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CS
V)
o
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CO
NO
NO
cs
Pulp and Paper
CD
O
ON
NO
CO
^
g
O
O
CD
O
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CD
ON
CS
ON
CO
CO
CS
NO
CS
ON
OO
r-
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I
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ON
NO
00
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o
0
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CS
0
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NO
••a-
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00
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Inorganic Chem. Iv
o
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CN
O
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§8
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Pharmaceuticals
CD
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— "
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NO
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00
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§
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NO
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Shipbuilding
ON
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1
f^
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ev
Doxies j
ource: US EPA 1
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Pollution Prevention Opportunities
V. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES
The best way to reduce pollution is to prevent it in the first place. Some
companies have creatively implemented pollution prevention techniques that
improve efficiency and increase profits while at the same time minimizing
environmental impacts. This can be done in many ways such as reducing
material inputs, re-engineering processes to reuse by-products, improving
management practices, and employing substitution of toxic chemicals. Some
smaller facilities are able to actually get below regulatory thresholds just by
reducing pollutant releases through aggressive pollution prevention policies.
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 established a national policy of
managing waste through source reduction, which means preventing the
generation of waste. The Pollution Prevention Act also established as national
policy a hierarchy of waste management options for situations in which source
reduction cannot be implemented feasibly. In the waste management
hierarchy, if source reduction is not feasible the next alternative is recycling
of wastes, followed by energy recovery, and waste treatment as a last
alternative.
In order to encourage these approaches, this section provides both general
and company-specific descriptions of some pollution prevention advances that
have been implemented within the metal casting industry. While the list is not
exhaustive, it does provide core information that can be used as the starting
point for facilities interested in beginning their own pollution prevention
projects. This section provides summary information from activities that may
be, or are being implemented by this sector. When possible, information is
provided that gives the context in which the technique can be used effectively.
Please note that the activities described in this section do not necessarily apply
to all facilities that fall within this sector. Facility-specific conditions must be
carefully considered when pollution prevention options are evaluated, and the
full impacts of the change must examine how each option affects air, land and
water pollutant releases.
Most of the pollution prevention activities in the metal casting industry have
concentrated on reducing waste sand, waste electric arc furnace (EAF) dust
and desulfurization slag, and increasing the overall energy efficiency of the
processes. This section describes some of the pollution prevention
opportunities for foundries within each of these areas.
V.A. Waste Sand and Chemical Binder Reduction and Reuse
Disppsal of waste foundry sand in off-site landfills has become less appealing
to foundry operators in recent years. Landfill disposal fees have increased
considerably, especially in areas that suffer from shortages of landfill capacity.
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Metal Casting Industry
Pollution Prevention Opportunities
Landfill disposal can be a long-term CERCLA liability as well (see Section
VT.A. for a discussion of CERCLA). Currently, about 2 percent of foundry
waste sands generated is considered hazardous waste under RCRA requiring
expensive special treatment, handling and disposal in hazardous waste
landfills. Therefore, there are strong financial incentives for applying pollution
prevention techniques that reduce waste foundry sand generation. In fact, for
years many foundries have been implementing programs to reduce the
amounts of waste sand they generate. Also, the industry is conducting a
significant amount of research in this area (AFS, 1996).
V.A.I. Casting Techniques Reducing Waste Foundry Sand Generation
The preferable approach to reducing disposal of waste sands is through source
reduction rather than waste management and pollution control or treatment
techniques. Foundry operators aiming to reduce waste sand may want to
examine the feasibility and economic incentives of new casting methods for
all or part of their production. A number of the casting techniques described
in Section IH.A such as investment casting, permanent mold casting, die
casting, and lost foam casting generate less sand waste than other techniques.
Adopting different casting methods, however, may not always be feasible
depending on the physical characteristics of the parts to be cast (e.g., type of
metal, casting size and configuration, tolerances and surface finish required,
etc.), the capabilities of the alternative methods, and the economic feasibility.
When considering the economic feasibility of implementing these alternative
methods, the savings in waste sand handling and disposal and raw material
costs should be examined.
In addition to the more common methods listed above and described in
Section ffl.A, there are a number of lesser known and/or new casting methods
that also have the potential to reduce the volume of foundry waste sand
generated. One promising method, vacuum molding, is described below. For
additional information on new, alternative casting techniques, see the
references in Section IX.
Vacuum Molding
Vacuum molding, or the V-Process, uses a strong vacuum applied to free-
flowing, dry, unbonded sand around patterns in air tight flasks. The vacuum
inside the mold results in a net pressure outside pushing in, holding the sand
rigidly in the shape of the pattern even after the pattern is removed. The
process uses a specially designed plastic film to seal the open ends of the sand
mold and the mold cavity. After the pattern is removed, the mold halves are
placed together and the metal is poured. The plastic film inside the mold
cavity melts and diffuses into the sand as it contacts the molten metal. When
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the metal has cooled, the vacuum is removed, allowing the sand to fall away
from the casting. Shakeout equipment is not needed and virtually no waste
sand is generated. The V-Process can be used on almost all metal types, for
all sizes and shapes. Although the process has not gained widespread use, it
can be economical, uses very little energy and can produce castings with high
dimensional accuracy and consistency (La Rue, 1989).
V.A.2. Reclamation and Reuse of Waste Foundry Sand and Metal
Although less preferable than source reduction, the more immediate shift in
industry practices is towards waste reclamation and reuse. A number of
techniques are being used to reclaim waste sand and return it to the mold and
core making processes. In addition, markets for off-site reuse of waste
foundry sand have also been found. (Unless otherwise noted, this section is
based on the 1992 EPA Office of Research and Development report, Guides
to Pollution Prevention, The Metal Casting and Heat Treating Industry.)
Waste Segregation
A substantial amount of sand contamination comes from mixing the various
foundry waste streams with waste sand. The overall amount of sand being
discarded can be reduced by implementing the following waste segregation
steps:
Replumbing the dust collector ducting on the casting metal gate cutoff
saws to collect metal chips for easier recycling
Installing a new baghouse on the sand system to separate the sand
system dust from the furnace dust
Installing a new screening system or magnetic separator on the main
molding sand system surge hopper to continuously clean metal from
the sand system
Separate nonferrous foundry shot blast dust (often a hazardous waste
stream) from other nonhazardous foundry and sand waste streams.
Installing a magnetic separation system on the shotblast system to
allow the metal dust to be recycled
Changing the core sand knockout procedure to keep this sand from
being mixed in with system sand prior to disposal
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Screen and Separate Metal from Sand
Most foundries screen used sand before reusing it. Some employ several
different screen types and vibrating mechanisms to break down large masses
of sand mixed with metal chips. Coarse screens are used to remove large
chunks of metal and core butts. The larger metal pieces collected in the
screen are usually remelted in the furnace or sold to a secondary smelter.
Increasingly fine screens remove additional metal particles and help classify
the sand by size before it is molded. Some foundries remelt these smaller
metal particles; other foundries sell this portion to metal reclaimers. The
metal recovered during the screening process is often mixed with coarser sand
components or has sand adhering to it. Therefore, remelting these pieces in
the furnace generates large amounts of slag, especially when the smaller
particles are remelted.
Reclaim Sand by Dry Scrubbing/Attrition
Reclaiming sand by dry scrubbing is widely used, and a large variety of
equipment is available with capacities adaptable to most binder systems and
foundry operations. Dry scrubbing may be divided into pneumatic or
mechanical systems.
In pneumatic scrubbing, grains of sand are agitated in streams of air normally
confined in vertical steel tubes called cells. The grains of sand are propelled
upward; they impact each other and/or are thrust against a steel target to
remove some of the binder. In some systems, grains are impacted against a
steel target. Banks of tubes may be used depending on the capacity and
degree of cleanliness desired. Retention time can be regulated, and fines are
removed through dust collectors. In mechanical scmbbihg, a variety of
available equipment offers foundries a number of options. An impeller may
be used to accelerate the sand grains at a controlled velocity in a horizontal
or vertical plane against a metal plate. The sand grains impact each other and
metal targets, thereby removing some of the binder. The speed of rotation has
some control over impact energy. The binder and fines are removed by
exhaust systems, and screen analysis is controlled by air gates or air wash
separators. Additional equipment options include:
A variety of drum types with internal baffles, impactors, and
disintegrators that reduce lumps to grains and remove binder
• Vibrating screens with a series of decks for reducing lumps to grains,
with recirculating features and removal of dust and fines
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Shot-blast cleaning equipment that may be incorporated into other
specially designed units to form a complete casting cleaning/sand
reclamation unit
Vibro-energy systems that use synchronous and diametric vibration,
where frictional and compressive forces separate binder from sand
grains.
Southern Aluminum is a high-production automotive foundry in Bay Minette, Alabama. The
company recently installed a rotating drum attrition/scrubber sand reclaimer unit to remove
lumps and tramp aluminum from its spent green sand and core butts so that it could be used
by an asphalt company. Spent sand is fed into one end of the rotating drum where the lumps
are reduced and binder is scrubbed off the grains. The sand then enters a screening and
classifying section, binder and fines are removed by a dust collector, and clean tramp metal is
removed. The company is removing far more aluminum from the sand than expected (about
6,000 pounds per day) resulting in substantial cost savings. The equipment paid for itself
before it finished treating three-months worth of spent sand stockpiled at the facility (Philbin
1996).
Reclaim Sand with Thermal Systems
Most foundries recycle core and mold sands; however, these materials
eventually lose their basic characteristics, and the portions no longer suitable
for use are disposed of in a landfill. In the reclamation of chemically bonded
sands, the system employed must be able to break the bond between the resin
and sand and remove the fines that are generated. The systems employed
most commonly are scrubbing/attrition and thermal (rotary reclamation)
systems for resin-bonded sands.
Reclamation of green sand for reuse in a green sand system is practiced on a
limited basis in the United States. However, reclamation of core sand and
chemically bonded molding sand is widespread. Wet reclamation systems
employed in the 1950s for handling green sands are no longer used. Specific
thermal reclamation case studies are summarized in AFS (1989) and Modern
Casting August (1996). A typical system to reclaim chemically bonded sand
for reuse in core room and molding operations consists of a lump reduction
and metal removal system, a particle classifier, a sand cooler, a dust collection
system, and a thermal scrubber (two-bed reactor). A number of thermal sand
reclamation techniques are described below. Note that EPA may classify
some types of thermal sand reclamation as incineration. As of June 1996,
EPA was taking comments on the regulatory status of thermal recovery units'
Contact Mary Cunningham at (703) 308-8453.
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Thermal Calcining/Thermal Dry Scrubbing. These systems are useful for
reclamation of organic and clay-bonded systems. Sand grain surfaces are not
smooth; they have numerous crevices and indentations. The application of
heat with sufficient oxygen calcines the binders or burns off organic binders.
Separate mechanical attrition units may be required to remove calcined
inorganic binders. Heat offers a simple method of reducing the encrusted
grains of molding sand to pure grains. Both horizontal and vertical rotary kiln
and fluidized bed systems are available. Foundries should examine the
regulatory requirements of using thermal systems to treat waste sand. The use
of these systems may need to be permitted as waste incineration.
Carondelet Foundry Company in Pevely, Missouri installed a fluidized bed thermal sand
reclamation unit and a mechanical reclaimer in 1994 to treat its phenolic urethane no-bake and
phenolic urethane Isocure sand. The steel jobbing shop was sending on average 150 tons per
day of waste sand off-site for landfill disposal at a cost of about $29 per cubic yard. In
addition, new sand was costing approximately $22 per ton. The thermal system processes
125 tons per day and the mechanical system processes the remaining 25 tons. Only 5 percent
of the foundry's sand is not reclaimed. The reclamations system is estimated to save the
foundry over $1 million per year and payed for itself in under a year. In addition, the foundry
feels that the reclaimed sand is better than new sand and results in better castings (Philbin,
1996).
Rotary Drum. This system has been used since the 1950s for reclaiming shell
and chemically bonded sands. The direct-fired rotary drum is a refractory-
lined steel drum that is mounted on casters. The feed end is elevated to allow
the sand to flow freely through the unit. The burners can be at either end of
the unit with direct flame impingement on the cascading sand; flow can be
either with the flow of solids or counter to it.
In indirect-fired units, the drum is mounted on casters in the horizontal
position and is surrounded by refractory insulation. Burners line the side of
the drum, with the flames in direct contact with the metal drum. The feed end
is elevated to allow the sand to flow freely through the unit, and in some cases
flights (paddles connected by chains) are welded to the inside to assist
material flow.
Multiple-Hearth Vertical Shaft Furnace. This furnace consists of circular
refractory hearths placed one above the other and enclosed in a refractory-
lined steel shell. A vertical rotating shaft through the center of the furnace is
equipped with air-cooled alloy arms containing rabble blades (plows) that stir
the sand and move it in a spiral path across each hearth.
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Sand is repeatedly moved outward from the center of a given hearth to the
periphery, where it drops through holes to the next hearth. This action gives
excellent contact between sand grains and the heated gases. Material is fed
into the top of the furnace. It makes its way to the bottom in a zigzag fashion,
while the hot gases rise counter-currently, burning the organic material and
calcining clay, if one or both are present. Discharge of reclaimed sand can be
directly from the bottom hearth into a tube cooler, or other cooling methods
may be used. The units are best suited to large tonnages (five tons or more).
New approaches and equipment designed for sand reclamation units are
continuing to evolve, and foundries must evaluate each system carefully with
regard to the suitability for a particular foundry operation.
In 1988, R.H. Sheppard Company, Inc. in Hanover, Pennsylvania installed a thermal sand
reclamation system to recover its 2,200 tons per year of waste green sand. Between the sand
purchase price and disposal costs, the foundry was spending over $180,000 per year. Even
considering the $428,500 capital investment and regular operation and maintenance costs,
over the 20 year useful life of the equipment, the company estimates it will save about $2'
million. This does not include the intangible savings of reduced liability of waste sand
disposal (Pennsylvania DEP, 1996).
Use Sand as a Construction Material
Depending on its physical and chemical characteristics, non-hazardous waste
foundry sand can be used as construction material assuming a market can be
found and federal, state, and local regulations relating to handling, storage,
and disposal allow it. Many foundries currently recycle foundry waste sand
for construction purposes. Industry research, however, indicates that only a
small portion of the potential market for waste sand is being utilized. Some
potential construction uses for waste sand include: feed stock for portland
cement production; fine aggregate for concrete; fine construction aggregate
for fill; and bituminous concrete (asphalt) fine aggregate.
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Since late 1993, Viking Pump, Inc., of Cedar Falls, Iowa has been shipping spent sand to a
Portland cement manufacturer for use as a raw material. This reuse reduces the costs for the
cement company because the need for mining virgin sand is reduced. Landfill costs for the
foundry have been reduced creating a win-win situation for both companies. When Viking
began testing foundry sand for use in cement manufacturing, the sand was loaded with an
endloader into grain trucks for hauling to the cement plant. Completing a loading took almost
an hour. Once the cement company decided that the waste sand was compatible with its
process, Viking invested in a sand silo for storage. The sand is now conveyed to the silo and
gravity fed into trucks for transportation, significantly reducing handling time to six minutes.
Viking expects to send at least half of the spent foundry sand to the portland cement
manufacturer and is continuing to look for alternative uses to achieve its pollution prevention
goals (U.S. EPA Enviro$en$e Website, 1996).
Not all foundry sand will be ideal for all construction uses. For example,
although many foundry sands actually increase compression strengths of
concrete when used as a fine aggregate, green molding sands have been
shown to decrease compression strengths. In addition, foundries will probably
not be able to find markets for their waste sand in its "as-generated"
condition. Some processing is typically required in order to match the
customers' product specifications. Waste sand may first need to be dried,
crushed, screened and separated.from metals.
Waste sand streams from certain foundry processes could render a foundry's
entire waste sand stream worthless if mixed together. A material flow diagram
detailing the flow of sand and its characteristics (particle size distribution,
mineralogical composition, moisture content, and chemical and contaminant
concentration) through the production processes will help foundry operators
identify those spent sand generation points that must be separated out for
either processing and sale to a customer or for disposal in a landfill.
V.B. Metal Melting Furnaces
The metal casting industry is highly energy intensive and therefore has
opportunities to prevent pollution through increasing energy efficiency. The
majority of the energy is consumed by the furnaces used to melt metal;
however, energy used in heat curing of sand molds can also be significant
depending on the process used (DOE, 1996). Increases in energy efficiency
in metal casting operations may have the dual pollution prevention effect of
reducing fossil fuel consumption (and the associated environmental impacts)
and reducing the amounts of wastes generated from furnaces and curing ovens
(e.g., hazardous desulfurization slag, dust, VOCs, etc.). Since energy costs
can be a large portion of a metal caster's overall operating costs, increases in
energy efficiency can also result in significant cost savings.
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Improve Furnace Efficiency
Currently, many foundry furnaces are less than 35 percent energy efficient.
Facilities using reverberatory or crucible furnaces may have opportunities to
improve their furnace efficiency and stack emissions by upgrading their
combustion system (DOE, 1996). New oxygen burners and computerized gas
flow metering systems have helped a number of facilities to comply with Clean
Air Act regulations for NOX and CO emissions while reducing energy costs.
Some foundries are utilizing regenerative ceramic burner systems. The
systems are comprised of two burners which function alternately as a burner
and an exhaust port. When one burner fires, the other collects the exhaust
gases, recouping the heat from the waste gases. In the next cycle, this burner
then fires, recombusting the gases. The recombustion of the waste gases
ensures complete combustion and has been shown to reduce NOX formation.
One firm implementing this system reported a 33 percent reduction in energy
use and a better melting rate, improving production capacity (Binczewski
1993). '
Install Induction Furnaces
Induction furnaces may offer advantages over electric arc or cupola furnaces
for some applications. Induction furnaces are about 75 to 80 percent energy
efficient and emit about 75 percent less dust and fumes because of the. absence
of combustion gases or excessive metal temperatures. When clean scrap
material is used, the need for emission control equipment may be minimized.
Of course, production operations and process economics must be considered
carefully when planning new or retrofit melting equipment (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Minimize Metal Melting
Depending on the casting, between reject castings and gating systems, over
half of the metal poured into molds may not become a useful part of the
casting. This metal needs to be separated from the castings and remelted,
usually at a significant cost. Any increases in yield (reductions in the amount
of scrap) will result in energy cost savings from eliminating the need for
melting the excess metal. In addition, costs of separating scrap from the
castings and waste sand, and the time and expense in machining of .gating
systems may be reduced. Gating system design that increases yield and
reduces the need for machining can reduce a foundry's costs. Optimally
designed systems will not use any more metal than is necessary while ensuring
that the metal flows into the mold cavity properly to minimize casting defects.
A number of computer software products are available to optimize casting
design. These products simulate mold filling and casting solidification for
various designs and can reduce costs by improving quality and reducing scrap.
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A number of casting methods use a central sprue gated to a number of
individual casting patterns. Such assemblies termed "trees" or pattern
clusters, can generate less excess metal than single pattern mold designs. This
technique is most commonly used in the investment and lost foam casting
methods. A variation of the investment casting method termed, hollow sprue
casting, or counter gravity casting, employs a vacuum to fill the mold with
molten metal. A mold or mold cluster assembly fabricated using the
investment casting technique is placed in a closed mold chamber with only the
open end protruding from the bottom. The mold and mold chamber are
lowered to the surface of a ladle or crucible of molten metal until the mold
opening is below the surface. A vacuum is then applied to the mold chamber
and mold, forcing the molten metal to rise and fill the mold and gating system.
The vacuum is maintained until the casting and gates have solidified and is
released before the sprue has solidified. The sprue metal then drains back into
the molten metal for reuse. If the gating system is designed properly, over 90
percent of the metal becomes part of the useful casting.
Use Alternative Fuels for Melting
Some melt furnaces can utilize natural gas or fuel-oil as a fuel source.
Particulate emissions from fuel oils tend to be much greater than emissions
from natural gas combustion. If fuel oil must be used, particulate emissions
can be reduced by using a lower grade of fuel oil. Petroleum distillates
(Numbers 1 and 2 fuel oil) will result in lower particulate emissions than
heavier grade fuels (Nos. 4,5,6). Sulfur dioxide emissions can be reduced by
choosing a fuel with a low sulfur content. Emissions of nitrogen oxides result
from the oxidation of nitrogen bound in the fuel. Selection of a low nitrogen
fuel oil will reduce NOx emissions (NADCA, 1996).
Air emissions from the operation of furnaces can be further reduced by using
natural gas as a fuel source. Natural gas is considered a clean fuel which,
when combusted, emits relatively small amounts of SOx and particulate
matter. The primary emission resulting from the combustion of natural gas is
nitrogen oxides. NOx emissions can be reduced by applying alternative firing
techniques, including the recirculation of flue-gas, staged combustion, and the
installation of low NOx burners (NADCA, 1996).
Proper maintenance of furnaces will also help to reduce air emissions.
Inefficient fuel/air mixing may generate excess particulate emissions.
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V.C. Furnace Dust Management
Dust generation, especially in the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), and its
disposal, has been recognized as a serious problem, but one with potential for
pollution prevention through material recovery and source reduction. EAF
dust can have high concentrations of lead and cadmium. Some EAF dust can
be shipped off-site for zinc reclamation. Most of the EAF dust recovery
options are only economically viable for dust with a zinc content of at least 15
- 20 percent (U.S. EPA, 1995).
In-process recycling of EAF dust may involve pelletizing and then reusing the
pellets in the furnace, however, recycling of EAF dust on-site has not proven
to be technically or economically competitive for all foundries. Improvements
in technologies have made off-site recovery a cost effective alternative to
thermal treatment or secure landfill disposal.
Maintain Optimal Operating Parameters
Dust emissions from furnaces can often be minimized through a number of
good operating practices. Such practices include: avoiding excessive
superheating of the metal; maintaining a sufficient flux or slag cover over the
metal to keep the molten metal separated from the atmosphere; preheating the
metal charged; avoiding the addition of metals at maximum furnace
temperatures; and avoiding the heating of the metal too fast.
Recycle EAF Dust to the Original Process
EAFs generate 1 to 2 percent of their charge into dust or fumes. If the zinc
and lead levels of the metal dust are low, return of the dust to the furnace for
recovery of base metals (iron, chromium, or nickel) may be feasible. This
method may be employed with dusts generated by the production of stainless
or alloy steels. However, this method is usually impractical for handling dust
associated with carbon steel production because galvanized metal scrap is
often used and the recovered dust tends to be high in zinc (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Many methods have been proposed for flue-dust recycling, including direct
zinc recovery. Zinc content can be increased to the required 15 to 20 percent
by returning the dust to the furnace from which it is generated. If the dust is
injected into the furnace after the charge of scrap metal is melted,
temperatures are high enough for most of the heavy metals to fume off. This
technique results in an increased zinc concentration in the dust collected by
the scrubbers, electrostatic precipitation systems, or baghouses ("U S EPA.
1992). v • • ~,
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Recycle Dust Outside the Original Process
Silica-based baghouse dust from sand systems and cupola furnaces may be
used as a raw material by cement companies. The dust is preblended with
other components and transferred to a kiln operation. It is envisioned that
baghouse dusts may constitute 5 to 10 percent of the raw material used by
cement manufacturers in the future. The use of higher levels may be limited
by adverse effects of the baghouse dust on the setting characteristics of the
cement (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Waste EAF dust can be reused outside the original process by reclaiming the
zinc, lead, and cadmium concentrated in emission control residuals. The
feasibility of such reclamation depends on the cost of dust treatment and
disposal, the concentration of metals within the residual, the cost of
recovering the metals, and the market price for the metals. While this
approach is useful in the nonferrous foundry industry (i.e., brass foundries),
its application within gray iron foundries is extremely limited. Some foundries
market furnace dust as input to brick manufacturing and other consumer
product applications, but product liability limits this option. Recovery
methods include: pyrometallurgical, rotary kiln, electrothermic shaft furnace,
and zinc oxide enrichment (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Pyrometallurgical methods for metals recovery are based on the reduction and
volatilization of zinc, lead, cadmium, and other components of EAF dust.
Lead is removed preferentially through roasting in an oxidizing environment,
while zinc, cadmium and other metals are removed through roasting under
reducing conditions. The rotary (or Waelz) kiln method can simultaneously
reduce ferrous iron oxide to solid iron and lead and zinc oxide to their metallic
forms, using a reducing atmosphere such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
However, rotary kilns must be fairly large and must process large volumes of
dust to be economically and thermally efficient. The electrothermic shaft
furnace can extract metallic zinc from a feed containing at least 40 percent of
the metal. Typically, agglomerated EAF dust is mixed with other feed to
attain this percentage. To recycle dust by direct reduction of oxides, iron
oxide is reduced to iron and water using pure hydrogen at a temperature range
of 1000 to 1100°C. The reduction of zinc oxide produces zinc vapors and
steam at 1000 to 1100°C that are removed from the furnace and subjected to
an oxidation step. The zinc reacts with water to produce zinc oxide, and
hydrogen is removed and recycled. The zinc oxide produced is separated in
a baghouse. The hydrogen containing the steam is further treated for steam
condensation, and then the hydrogen is ready for recycling into the furnace
(U.S. EPA, 1992).
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Alter Raw Materials
The predominant source of lead, zinc, and cadmium in ferrous foundry
baghouse dust or scrubber sludge is galvanized scrap metal used as a charge
material. To reduce the level of these contaminants, their source must be
identified and charge material containing lower concentrations of the
contaminants must be acquired. A charge modification program at a large
foundry can successfully reduce the lead and cadmium levels in dust collector
waste to below EP-toxicity values. Foundries need to work closely with steel
scrap suppliers to develop reliable sources of high-grade scrap.
V.D. Slag and Dross Management
Minimize Hazardous Desulfurizing Slag
In the production of ductile iron, it is often necessary to add a desulfurizing
agent in the melt to produce the desired casting microstructure. One
desulfurization agent used commonly is solid calcium carbide (CaC2).
Calcium carbide is thought to decompose to calcium and graphite. The
calcium carbide desulfurization slag is generally removed from the molten iron
in the ladle and placed into a hopper. For adequate sulfur removal, CaC2 must
be added in slight excess. Since an excess of CaC2 is employed to ensure
removal of the sulfur, the resulting slag contains both CaS and CaC2 and must
be handled as a reactive waste. The slag might also be hazardous due to high
concentrations of heavy metals (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Treatment of this material consists normally of converting the carbide to
acetylene and calcium hydroxide by reacting with water. Problems with this
method include handling a potentially explosive waste material; generating a
waste stream that contains sulfides (due to calcium sulfide in the slag) and
many other toxic compounds; and liberating arsine, phosphine, and other toxic
materials in the off gas (U.S. EPA, 1992).
One way to reduce the need for calcium carbide is to reduce the amount of
high sulfur scrap used as furnace charge materials. While this method is
effective, the ability to obtain a steady supply of high-grade scrap varies
considerably and may be uneconomical (U.S. EPA, 1992).
To eliminate entirely the use of calcium carbide, several major foundries have
investigated the use of alternative desulfurization agents. One proprietary
process employs calcium oxide, calcium fluoride, and two other materials.
The process can be more economical than carbide desulfurization and results
in a satisfactory iron quality (U.S. EPA, 1992).
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Often, the amount of sulfur removal for a product is based not on the
requirements of that product but on what is achievable in practice. When total
sulfur removal is required, it is not uncommon that 20 to 30 percent excess
carbide is employed resulting in the generation of larger amounts of slag. If
the iron were desulfurized only to the extent actually needed, much of this
waste could be reduced or eliminated (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Recycle Hazardous Desulfitrizing Slag
Because calcium carbide slag is often removed from the metal by skimming,
it is not uncommon to find large amounts of iron mixed in with the slag.
Depending on the means of removal, this metal will either be in the form of
large blocks or small granules. To reduce metal losses, some foundries crush
the slag and remove pieces of metal by hand or with a magnet for remelting.
Other foundries have investigated recharging the entire mass to the remelting
furnace. Inside the furnace, calcium hydroxide forms in the slag as the
recycled calcium carbide either removes additional sulfur or is oxidized
directly. While this method has been successful, more research is necessary.
For example, it is not known to what extent the calcium sulfide stays with the
slag or how much sulfur is carried in the flue gas and the scrubber system.
Initial tests indicate that the sulfur does not concentrate in the metal, so that
product quality is not affected (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Slag from stainless steel melting operations (where Ni, Mo, and Cr metals are
used as alloy additions) is hazardous as a result of high chromium
concentrations. Such slag can be recycled as a feed to cupola furnaces (gray
iron production line). The cupola furnace slag scavenges trace metals from
the induction furnace slag. The resulting cupola slag may be rendered a
nonhazardous waste (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Minimize Air Emissions During Dross and Slag Removal
Emissions resulting from the removal of dross and slag can be reduced by
decreasing the time in which the dross is exposed to the air. This is true for
dross and slag removal processes throughout the facility (e.g., melting,
laundering, die casting). Dross and slag pots should be covered as soon as
possible to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere. Alternative dross and slag
handling techniques can also be practical to reduce emissions. Dross and slag
pots can be positioned under or near exhaust hoods in order to divert the
emissions to a filter or other emission control device (NADCA, 1996).
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V.E. Wastewater
Reduce Phenols in Die Casting Wastewater Streams
The major pollutants in the wastewater streams from die casting operations
are oils and phenols, with the phenols being the regulated pollutant in most
wastewater discharge situations. Common sources of phenols in die casting
are the various oils used in the process, such as phosphate ester-based
hydraulic oil, die lube, way lube, die cast coolant, etc. Cast salts, degreasers,
and heat transfer oils may also contain phenols as an impurity (NADCA,
1996).
An effective method for source control of phenols would be to check each
individual raw material used in die casting for phenols, and use or substitute
with materials which have little or no phenols. For example, petroleum oils
which often contain phenols as contaminants may be substituted with synthetic
oils or water-based materials that contain no phenols. Although the
alternative materials can be more costly than petroleum-based oils, the annual
incremental cost increase may not be significant depending on the volume of
material used. In addition, anticipated reductions in environmental control
costs may outweigh potential raw material cost increases (NADCA, 1996).
Another effective method of reducing or eliminating phenols in wastewater
consists of segregating the various waste streams at the point of generation
by collecting the materials in catch pans and handling them separately. For
example, die lube overspray can be collected in a metal pan installed below the
die, screened to remove debris, filtered (if necessary) to remove fine
particulate matter, treated (if necessary) for bacteria contamination, and
recycled for reuse in the plant. Plunger lubricants and other drippings may
also be collected in pans and recycled off-site as used oil (NADCA, 1996).
Reduce Wastewater and Sludge Generation
Water used to cool parts can be reduced by implementing cooling water
recycling systems. Further wastewater reductions may be accomplished by
optimizing deburring operations to minimize the total suspended solids in
wastewater. This, in turn, will reduce the sludge generation from subsequent
treatment. Sludge dewatering can also be optimized through the use of pH
controls and filter aids (such as diatomaceous earth) to produce a drier filter
cake prior to land disposal.
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R.H. Sheppard Company, Inc. in Hanover, Pennsylvania used large quantities of fresh water
for cooling metal parts as they were ground to fine tolerances. The company installed a
16,000 gallon closed loop cooling system with temperature and bacteria controls which
improved the grinding process and saves 3.4 million gallons of water per year. From its
reduced coolant disposal costs and savings in water costs, R.H. Sheppard Company expects a
two- to three-year payback period on its $540,000 investment (Pennsylvania DEP, 1996).
Reduce VOC Emissions from Cooling and Quench Water
The primary cause of air emissions from non-contact cooling water cooling
towers and quench baths is the use of additives, such as biocides, which
contain volatile organic compounds that are eventually emitted to the
atmosphere. The best method for reducing air emissions from cooling towers
and quench baths is to use fewer additives or to use additives containing no
VOCs or Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) (NADCA, 1996).
V.F. Die Casting Lubrication
The majority of emissions generated during the die casting process come from
the application of die lubes. These emissions consist of VOC, paniculate
matter, and HAPs. VOC emissions from die lube application can be reduced
by the use of water-based die lubricants or solid lubricants. Eliminating the
volatile components of petroleum-based lubricants will also reduce VOC
emissions when wet milling finishing techniques are used. However, it is
important to note that lubricants which reduce VOC emissions may not
necessarily reduce HAP emissions and, in some cases, HAP emissions may be
greater from water-based die lubes. Apparently, some of the solvent
replacement additives in water-based lubricants may result in increased HAP
emissions. It is important to thoroughly evaluate the potential implications for
air emissions before alternative lubricant products are used (NADCA, 1996).
In the same manner as VOC emissions, alternative lubricants can be used to
reduce particulate emissions from the application of die lubes. However,
lubricant-specific evaluations should be performed to determine the particulate
emission reduction potential of individual lubricant changes (NADCA, 1996).
V.G. Miscellaneous Residual Wastes
The generation of solid wastes from shipping and receiving processes can be
minimized through the use of reusable packaging materials. Metal casters can
seek suppliers that use these materials, and work with customers to initiate
their use of reusable shipping materials. Many of the common packaging
materials in use today, including shrink wrap, strapping materials, cardboard,
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totes, and drums, can be recycled off-site using commercial recycling services.
(NADCA, 1996)
Dross from melting operations is commonly sold to secondary smelters for
recovery of the valuable metals. Die casting shot-tip turnings can be re-sized
on-site and re-used in the original process (NADCA, 1996).
Leaking hydraulic fluid from die cast machines can be segregated from other
die cast fluids using drip pans and/or containment curbing. Leaking and spent
hydraulic fluids may be collected and recycled as used oil. Used oil recycling
options include re-refining and burning the material for energy recovery in
space heaters, boilers, or industrial furnaces (NADCA, 1996).
Refractory, coils, and servicing tools must be periodically replaced in the
melting and conveyance operations due to wear. Although the generation of
these materials cannot be eliminated, their generation rates can be minimized
by raising the pollution prevention awareness of maintenance personnel and
optimizing maintenance and servicing schedules (NADCA, 1996).
The generation of floor absorbent solid waste at die cast machines can be
minimized through the use of drip pans and containment berming. Hydraulic
fluids, die release agents, way lubricants, and other leaking fluids can be
collected in this manner. If floor absorbents are to be used, launderable
absorbents should be considered. These absorbents are becoming available
increasingly from industrial suppliers and laundry services, and can be reused
over and over. The use of launderable absorbents results in reduced landfill
disposal for both the absorbents and the recovered fluids (NADCA, 1996).
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VL SUMMARY OF FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS
This section discusses the Federal regulations that may apply to this sector.
The purpose of this section is to highlight and briefly describe the applicable
Federal requirements, and to provide citations for more detailed information.
The three following sections are included:
• Section VIA. contains a general overview of major statutes
• Section VLB. contains a list of regulations specific to this industry
• Section VI.C. contains a list of pending and proposed regulations
The descriptions within Section VI are intended solely for general
information. Depending upon the nature or scope of the activities at a
particular facility, these summaries may or may not necessarily describe all
applicable environmental requirements. Moreover, they do not constitute
formal interpretations or clarifications of the statutes and regulations. For
further information, readers should consult the Code of Federal Regulations
and other state or local regulatory agencies. EPA Hotline contacts are also
provided for each major statute.
VI.A. General Description of Major Statutes
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
The Resource Conservation And Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 which
amended the Solid Waste Disposal Act, addresses solid (Subtitle D) and
hazardous (Subtitle C) waste management activities. The Hazardous and
Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) of 1984 strengthened RCRA's waste
management provisions and added Subtitle I, which governs underground
storage tanks (USTs).
Regulations promulgated pursuant to Subtitle C of RCRA (40 CFR Parts
260-299) establish a "cradle-to-grave" system governing hazardous waste
from the point of generation to disposal. RCRA hazardous wastes include the
specific materials listed in the regulations (commercial chemical products,
designated with the code "P" or "U"; hazardous wastes from specific
industries/sources, designated with the code "K"; or hazardous wastes from
non-specific sources, designated with the code "F") or materials which exhibit
a hazardous waste characteristic (ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity
and designated with the code "D").
Regulated entities that generate hazardous waste are subject to waste
accumulation, manifesting, and record keeping standards. Facilities must
obtain a permit either from EPA or from a State agency which EPA has
authorized to implement the permitting program if they store hazardous
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wastes for more than 90 days before treatment or disposal. Facilities may
treat hazardous wastes stored in less-than-ninety-day tanks or containers
without a permit. Subtitle C permits contain general facility standards such
as contingency plans, emergency procedures, record keeping and reporting
requirements, financial assurance mechanisms, and unit-specific standards.
RCRA also contains provisions (40 CFRPart 264 Subpart S and §264.10) for
conducting corrective actions which govern the cleanup of releases'"of
hazardous waste or constituents from solid waste management units at
RCRA-regulated facilities.
Although RCRA is a Federal statute, many States implement the RCRA
program. Currently, EPA has delegated its authority to implement various
provisions of RCRA to 47 of the 50 States and two U.S. territories.
Delegation has not been given to Alaska, Hawaii, or Iowa.
Most RCRA requirements are not industry specific but apply to any company
that generates, transports, treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste.
Here are some important RCRA regulatory requirements:
Identification of Solid and Hazardous Wastes (40 CFR Part 261)
lays out the procedure every generator must follow to determine
whether the material in question is considered a hazardous waste,
solid waste, or is exempted from regulation.
Standards for Generators of Hazardous Waste (40 CFR Part 262)
establishes the responsibilities of hazardous waste generators including
obtaining an EPA ID number, preparing a manifest, ensuring proper
packaging and labeling, meeting standards for waste accumulation
units, and recordkeeping and reporting requirements. Generators can
accumulate hazardous waste for up to 90 days (or 180 days depending
on the amount of waste generated) without obtaining a permit.
Land Disposal Restrictions (LDRs) (40 CFR Part 268) are
regulations prohibiting the disposal of hazardous waste on land
without prior treatment. Under the LDRs program, materials must
meet LDR treatment standards prior to placement in a RCRA land
disposal unit (landfill, land treatment unit, waste pile, or surface
impoundment). Generators of waste subject to the LDRs must provide
notification of such to the designated TSD facility to ensure proper
treatment prior to disposal.
• Used Oil Management Standards (40 CFR Part 279) impose
management requirements affecting the storage, transportation,
burning, processing, and re-refining of the used oil. For parties that
merely generate used oil, regulations establish storage standards. For
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a party considered a used oil processor, re-refiner, burner, or marketer
(one who generates and sells off-specification used oil), additional
tracking and paperwork requirements must be satisfied.
• RCRA contains unit-specific standards for all units used to store,
treat, or dispose of hazardous waste, including Tanks and
Containers. Tanks and containers used to store hazardous waste
with a high volatile organic concentration must meet emission
standards under RCRA. Regulations (40 CFR Part 264-265, Subpart
CC) require generators to test the waste to determine the
concentration of the waste, to satisfy tank and container emissions
standards, and to inspect and monitor regulated units. These
regulations apply to all facilities that store such waste, including large
quantity generators accumulating waste prior to shipment off-site.
• Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) containing petroleum and
hazardous substances are regulated under Subtitle I of RCRA.
Subtitle I regulations (40 CFR Part 280) contain tank design and
release detection requirements, as well as financial responsibility and
corrective action standards for USTs. The UST program also
includes upgrade requirements for existing tanks that must be met by
December 22, 1998.
• Boilers and Industrial Furnaces (BIFs) that use or burn fuel
containing hazardous waste must comply with design and operating
standards. BIF regulations (40 CFR Part 266, Subpart H) address
unit design, provide performance standards, require emissions
monitoring, and restrict the type of waste that may be burned.
EPA'sRCRA, SuperfundandEPCRA Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, responds
to questions and distributes guidance regarding all RCRA regulations. The
RCRA Hotline operates weekdays from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., ET, excluding
Federal holidays.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA), a 1980 law known commonly as Superfund, authorizes EPA
to respond to releases, or threatened releases, of hazardous substances that
may endanger public health, welfare, or the environment. CERCLA also
enables EPA to force parties responsible for environmental contamination to
clean it up or to reimburse the Superfund for response costs incurred by EPA.
The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986
revised various sections of CERCLA, extended the taxing authority for the
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Superfund, and created a free-standing law, SARA Title IE, also known as the
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA).
The CERCLA hazardous substance release reporting regulations (40 CFR
Part 302) direct the person in charge of a facility to report to the National
Response Center (NRC) any environmental release of a hazardous substance
which equals or exceeds a reportable quantity. Reportable quantities are listed
in 40 CFR §302.4. A release report may trigger a response by EPA, or by one
or more Federal or State emergency response authorities.
EPA implements hazardous substance responses according to procedures
outlined in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency
Plan (NCP) (40 CFR Part 300). The NCP includes provisions for permanent
cleanups, known as remedial actions, and other cleanups referred to as
removals. EPA generally takes remedial actions only at sites on the National
Priorities List (NPL), which currently includes approximately 1300 sites.
Both EPA and states can act at sites; however, EPA provides responsible
parties the opportunity to conduct removal and remedial actions and
encourages community involvement throughout the Superfund response
process.
EPA'sRCRA, Superfund and EPCRA Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, answers
questions and references guidance pertaining to the Superfund program.
The CERCLA Hotline operates weekdays from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., ET,
excluding Federal holidays.
Emergency Planning And Community Right-To-Know Act
The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986
created the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
(EPCRA, also known as SARA Title III), a statute designed to improve
community access to information about chemical hazards and to facilitate the
development of chemical emergency response plans by State and local
governments. EPCRA required the establishment of State emergency
response commissions (SERCs), responsible for coordinating certain
emergency response activities and for appointing local emergency planning
committees (LEPCs).
EPCRA and the EPCRA regulations (40 CFR Parts 350-372) establish four
types of reporting obligations for facilities which store or manage specified
chemicals:
• EPCRA §302 requires facilities to notify the SERC and LEPC of the
presence of any extremely hazardous substance (the list of such
substances is in 40 CFR Part 355, Appendices A and B) if it has such
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substance in excess of the substance's threshold planning quantity, and
directs the facility to appoint an emergency response coordinator.
EPCRA §304 requires the facility to notify the SERC and the LEPC
in the event of a release equaling or exceeding the reportable quantity
of a CERCLA hazardous substance or an EPCRA extremely
hazardous substance.
• EPCRA §311 and §312 require a facility at which a hazardous
chemical, as defined by the Occupational Safety and Health Act, is
present in an amount exceeding a specified threshold to submit to the
SERC, LEPC and local fire department material safety data sheets
(MSDSs) or lists of MSDS's and hazardous chemical inventory forms
(also known as Tier I and H forms). This information helps the local
government respond in the event of a spill or release of the chemical.
• EPCRA §313 requires manufacturing facilities included in SIC codes
20 through 39, which have ten or more employees, and which
manufacture, process, or use specified chemicals in amounts greater
than threshold quantities, to submit an annual toxic chemical release
report. This report, known commonly as the Form R, covers releases
and transfers of toxic chemicals to various facilities and environmental
media, and allows EPA to compile the national Toxic Release
Inventory (TRI) database.
All information submitted pursuant to EPCRA regulations is publicly
accessible, unless protected by a trade secret claim.
EPA'sRCRA, Superfund and EPCRA Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, answers
questions and distributes guidance regarding the emergency planning and
community right-to-know regulations. The EPCRA Hotline operates
weekdays from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., ET, excluding Federal holidays.
Clean Water Act
The primary objective of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, commonly
referred to as the Clean Water Act (CWA), is to restore and maintain the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's surface waters.
Pollutants regulated under the CWA include "priority" pollutants, including
various toxic pollutants; "conventional" pollutants, such as biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), fecal coliform, oil and
grease, and pH; and "non-conventional" pollutants, including any pollutant not
identified as either conventional or priority.
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The CWA regulates both direct and indirect discharges. The National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program (CWA §502)
controls direct discharges into navigable waters. Direct discharges or "point
source" discharges are from sources such as pipes and sewers. NPDES
permits, issued by either EPA or an authorized State (EPA has authorized 42
States to administer the NPDES program), contain industry-specific,
technology-based and/or water quality-based limits, and establish pollutant
monitoring requirements. A facility that intends to discharge into the nation's
waters must obtain a permit prior to initiating its discharge. A permit
applicant must provide quantitative analytical data identifying the types of
pollutants present in the facility's effluent. The permit will then set the
conditions and effluent limitations on the facility discharges.
A NPDES permit may also include discharge limits based on Federal or State
water quality criteria or standards, that were designed to protect designated
uses of surface waters, such as supporting aquatic life or recreation. These
standards, unlike the technological standards, generally do not take into
account technological feasibility or costs. Water quality criteria and standards
vary from State to State, and site to site, depending on the use classification
of the receiving body of water. Most States follow EPA guidelines which
propose aquatic life and human health criteria for many of the 126 priority
pollutants.
Storm Water Discharges
In 1987 the CWA was amended to require EPA to establish a program to
address storm water discharges. In response, EPA promulgated the NPDES
storm water permit application regulations. These regulations require that
facilities with the following storm water discharges apply for an NPDES
permit: (1) a discharge associated with industrial activity; (2) a discharge
from a large or medium municipal storm sewer system; or (3) a discharge
which EPA or the State determines to contribute to a violation of a water
quality standard or is a significant contributor of pollutants to waters of the
United States.
The term "storm water discharge associated with industrial activity" means a
storm water discharge from one of 11 categories of industrial activity defined
at 40 CFR 122.26. Six of the categories are defined by SIC codes while the
other five are identified through narrative descriptions of the regulated
industrial activity. If the primary SIC code of the facility is one of those
identified in the regulations, the facility is subject to the storm water permit
application requirements. If any activity at a facility is covered by one of the
five narrative categories, storm water discharges from those areas where the
activities occur are subject to storm water discharge permit application
requirements.
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Those facilities/activities that are subject to storm water discharge permit
application requirements are identified below. To determine whether a
particular facility falls within one of these categories, consult the regulation.
Category i: Facilities subject to storm water effluent guidelines, new source
performance standards, or toxic pollutant effluent standards.
Category ii: Facilities classified as SIC 24-lumber and wood products
(except wood kitchen cabinets); SIC 26-paper and allied products (except
paperboard containers and products); SIC 28-chemicals and allied products
(except drugs and paints); SIC 291-petroleum refining; and SIC 311-leather
tanning and finishing, 32 (except 323)-stone, clay, glass, and concrete, 33-
primary metals, 3441-fabricated structural metal, and 373-ship and boat
building and repairing.
Category iii: Facilities classified as SIC 10-metal mining; SIC 12-coal
mining; SIC 13-oil and gas extraction; and SIC 14-nonmetallic mineral
mining.
Category iv: Hazardous waste treatment, storage, or disposal facilities.
Category v: Landfills, land application sites, and open dumps that receive or
have received industrial wastes.
Category vi: Facilities classified as SIC 5015-used motor vehicle parts; and
SIC 5093-automotive scrap and waste material recycling facilities.
Category vii: Steam electric power generating facilities.
Category viii: Facilities classified as SIC 40-railroad transportation; SIC 41-
local passenger transportation; SIC 42-trucking and warehousing (except
public warehousing and storage); SIC 43-U.S. Postal Service; SIC 44-water
transportation; SIC 45-transportation by air; and SIC 5171-petroleum bulk
storage stations and terminals.
Category ix: Sewage treatment works.
Category x: Construction activities except operations that result in the
disturbance of less than five acres of total land area.
Category xi: Facilities classified as SIC 20-food and kindred products; SIC
21-tobacco products; SIC 22-textile mill products; SIC 23-apparel related
products; SIC 2434-wood kitchen cabinets manufacturing; SIC 25-furniture
and fixtures; SIC 265-paperboard containers and boxes; SIC 267-converted
paper and paperboard products; SIC 27-printing, publishing, and allied
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industries; SIC 283-drugs; SIC 285-paints, varnishes, lacquer, enamels, and
allied products; SIC 30-rubber and plastics; SIC 31-leather and leather
products (except leather and tanning and finishing); SIC 323-glass products;
SIC 34-fabricated metal products (except fabricated structural metal); SIC
35-industrial and commercial machinery and computer equipment; SIC 36-
electronic and other electrical equipment and components; SIC 37-
transportation equipment (except ship and boat building and repairing); SIC
38-measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments; SIC 39-miscellaneous
manufacturing industries; and SIC 4221-4225-public warehousing and
storage.
Pretreatment Program
Another type of discharge that is regulated by the CWA is one that goes to
a publicly-owned treatment works (POTWs). The national pretreatment
program (CWA §307(b)) controls the indirect discharge of pollutants to
POTWs by "industrial users." Facilities regulated under §307(b) must meet
certain pretreatment standards. The goal of the pretreatment program is to
protect municipal wastewater treatment plants from damage that may occur
when hazardous, toxic, or other wastes are discharged into a sewer system
and to protect the quality of sludge generated by these plants. Discharges to
aPOTW are regulated primarily by the POTW itself, rather than the State or
EPA.
EPA has developed technology-based standards for industrial users of
POTWs. Different standards apply to existing and new sources within each
category. "Categorical" pretreatment standards applicable to an industry on
a nationwide basis are developed by EPA. In addition, another kind of
pretreatment standard, "local limits," are developed by the POTW in order to
assist the POTW in achieving the effluent limitations in its NPDES permit.
Regardless of whether a State is authorized to implement either the NPDES
or the pretreatment program, if it develops its own program, it may enforce
requirements more stringent than Federal standards.
Spill Prevention. Control and Countermeasure Plans
The 1990 Oil Pollution Act requires that facilities that could reasonably be
expected to discharge oil in harmful quantities prepare and implement more
rigorous Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) Plan required
under the CWA (40 CFR §112.7). There are also criminal and civil penalties
for deliberate or negligent spills of oil. Regulations covering response to oil
discharges and contingency plans (40 CFR Part 300), and Facility Response
Plans to oil discharges (40 CFR §112.20) and for PCB transformers and PCB-
containing items were revised and finalized in 1995.
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EPA's Office of Water, at (202) 260-5700, will direct callers with questions
about the CWA to the appropriate EPA office. EPA also maintains a
bibliographic database of Office of Water publications which can be
accessed through the Ground Water and Drinking Water resource center at
(202) 260-7786.
Safe Drinking Water Act
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) mandates that EPA establish
regulations to protect human health from contaminants in drinking water.
The law authorizes EPA to develop national drinking water standards and to
create a joint Federal-State system to ensure compliance with these standards.
The SDWA also directs EPA to protect underground sources of drinking
water through the control of underground injection of liquid wastes.
EPA has developed primary and secondary drinking water standards under its
SDWA authority. EPA and authorized States enforce the primary drinking
water standards, which are, contaminant-specific concentration limits that
apply to certain public drinking water supplies. Primary drinking water
standards consist of maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs), which are
non-enforceable health-based goals, and maximum contaminant levels
(MCLs), which are enforceable limits set as close to MCLGs as possible,
considering cost and feasibility of attainment.
The SDWA Underground Injection Control (UIC) program (40 CFR Parts
144-148) is a permit program which protects underground sources of drinking
water by regulating five classes of injection wells. UIC permits include
design, operating, inspection, and monitoring requirements. Wells used to
inject hazardous wastes must also comply with RCRA corrective action
standards in order to be granted a RCRA permit, and must meet applicable
RCRA land disposal restrictions standards. The UIC permit program is
primarily State-enforced, since EPA has authorized all but a few States to
administer the program.
The SDWA also provides for a Federally-implemented Sole Source Aquifer
program, which prohibits Federal funds from being expended on projects that
may contaminate the sole or principal source of drinking water for a given
area, and for a State-implemented Wellhead Protection program, designed to
protect drinking water wells and drinking water recharge areas.
EPA 's Safe Drinking Water Hotline, at (800) 426-4791, answers questions
and distributes guidance pertaining to SDWA standards. The Hotline
operates from 9:00 a.m. through 5:30 p.m., ET, excluding Federal holidays.
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Toxic Substances Control Act
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) granted EPA authority to create
a regulatory framework to collect data on chemicals in order to evaluate,
assess, mitigate, and control risks which may be posed by their manufacture,
processing, and use. TSCA provides a variety of control methods to prevent
chemicals from posing unreasonable risk.
TSCA standards may apply at any point during a chemical's life cycle. Under
TSCA §5, EPA has established an inventory of chemical substances. If a
chemical is not already on the inventory, and has not been excluded by TSCA,
a premanufacture notice (PMN) must be submitted to EPA prior to
manufacture or import. The PMN must identify the chemical and provide
available information on health and environmental effects. If available data
are not sufficient to evaluate the chemicals effects, EPA can impose
restrictions pending the development of information on its health and
environmental effects. EPA can also restrict significant new uses of chemicals
based upon factors such as the projected volume and use of the chemical.
Under TSCA §6, EPA can ban the manufacture or distribution in commerce,
limit the use, require labeling, or place other restrictions on chemicals that
pose unreasonable risks. Among the chemicals EPA regulates under §6
authority are asbestos, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
EPA's TSCA Assistance Information Service, at (202) 554-1404, answers
questions and distributes guidance pertaining to Toxic Substances Control
Act standards. The Service operates from 8:30 a.m. through 4:30 p.m., ET,
excluding Federal holidays.
Clean Air Act
The Clean Air Act (CAA) and its amendments, including the Clean Air Act
Amendments (CAAA) of 1990, are designed to "protect and enhance the
nation's air resources so as to promote the public health and welfare and the
productive capacity of the population." The CAA consists of six sections,
known as Titles, which direct EPA to establish national standards for ambient
air quality and for EPA and the States to implement, maintain, and enforce
these standards through a variety of mechanisms. Under the CAAA, many
facilities will be required to obtain permits for the first time. State and local
governments oversee, manage, and enforce many of the requirements of the
CAAA. CAA regulations appear at 40 CFR Parts 50-99.
Pursuant to Title I of the CAA, EPA has established national ambient air
quality standards (NAAQSs) to limit levels of "criteria pollutants," including
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carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, paniculate matter, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), ozone, and sulfur dioxide. Geographic areas that meet
NAAQSs for a given pollutant are classified as attainment areas; those that do
not meet NAAQSs are classified as non-attainment areas. Under section 110
of the CAA, each State must develop a State Implementation Plan (SIP) to
identify sources of air pollution and to determine what reductions are required
to meet Federal air quality standards. Revised NAAQSs for particulates and
ozone were proposed in 1996 and may go into effect as early as late 1997.
Title I also authorizes EPA to establish New Source Performance Standards
(NSPSs), which are nationally uniform emission standards for new stationary
sources falling within particular industrial categories. NSPSs are based on the
pollution control technology available to that category of industrial source.
Under Title I, EPA establishes and enforces National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), nationally uniform standards oriented
towards controlling particular hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Title I,
section 112(c) of the CAA further directed EPA to develop a list of sources
that emit any of 189 HAPs, and to develop regulations for these categories of
sources. To date EPA has listed 174 categories and developed a schedule for
the establishment of emission standards. The emission standards will be
developed for both new and existing sources based on "maximum achievable
control technology" (MACT). The MACT is defined as the control
technology achieving the maximum degree of reduction in the emission of the
HAPs, taking into account cost and other factors.
Title II of the CAA pertains to mobile sources, such as cars, trucks, buses,
and planes. Reformulated gasoline, automobile pollution control devices, and
vapor recovery nozzles on gas pumps are a few of the mechanisms EPA uses
to regulate mobile air emission sources.
Title IV of the CAA establishes a sulfur dioxide nitrous oxide emissions
program designed to reduce the formation of acid rain. Reduction of sulfur
dioxide releases will be obtained by granting to certain sources limited
emissions allowances, which, beginning in 1995, will be set below previous
levels of sulfur dioxide releases.
Title V of the CAA of 1990 created a permit program for all "major sources"
(and certain other sources) regulated under the CAA. One purpose of the
operating permit is to include in a single document all air emissions
requirements that apply to a given facility. States are developing the permit
programs in accordance with guidance and regulations from EPA. Once a
State program is approved by EPA, permits will be issued and monitored by
that State.
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Federal Statutes and Regulations
Title VI of the CAA is intended to protect stratospheric ozone by phasing out
the manufacture of ozone-depleting chemicals and restrict their use and
distribution. Production of Class I substances, including 15 kinds of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and chloroform, were phased out (except for
essential uses) in 1996.
EPA's Clean Air Technology Center, at (919) 541-0800, provides general
assistance and information on CAA standards. The Stratospheric Ozone
Information Hotline, at (800) 296-1996, provides general information about
regulations promulgated under Title VI of the CAA, and EPA's EPCRA
Hotline, at (800) 535-0202, answers questions about accidental release
prevention under CAA §112(r). In addition, the Clean Air Technology
Center's website includes recent CAA rules, EPA guidance documents, and
updates of EPA activities (www.epa.gov/ttn then select Directory and then
CATC).
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Federal Statutes and Regulations
VLB. Industry Specific Requirements
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Under the authority of RCRA, EPA created a regulatory framework that
addresses the management of hazardous waste. The regulations address the
generation, transport, storage, treatment, and disposal of hazardous waste.
The metal casting industry generates waste during molding and core making,
melting operations, casting operations, and finishing and cleaning operations.
The wastes that are produced during these processes which meet the RCRA
hazardous waste criteria must be handled accordingly.
Molding and core making operations produce large quantities of spent
foundry sand. Although most of the spent sand is non-hazardous, sand that
results from the production of brass or bronze may exhibit the toxicity
characteristic for lead or cadmium. The hazardous sand may be reclaimed in
a thermal treatment unit which may be subject to RCRA requirements for
hazardous waste incinerators. EPA is currently taking public comment on the
regulatory status of these units. Wastewaters that are produced during
molding and core making may exhibit the corrosivity characteristic but are
generally discharged to a POTW after being neutralized, in which case they
are not subject to RCRA. Sludges resulting from mold and core making may
also be corrosive hazardous wastes.
The wastes associated with metal casting melting operations include fugitive
dust and slag. Lead and chromium contamination may cause the waste slag
to be subject to RCRA as a hazardous waste. Additionally, calcium carbide
desulfurization slag generated during metal melting could be a reactive
hazardous waste. Spent solvents used in the cleaning and degreasing of scrap
metal prior to melting may also be a hazardous waste. The inorganic acids
and chlorinated solvents used in the cleaning operations could be subject to
RCRA as well, if they are spilled or disposed of prior to use.
Casting facilities that use electric arc furnaces (EAF) for metal melting
produce dust and sludge that may be characteristically hazardous. However,
the emission control dust and sludge from foundry operations that use EAFs
is not within the K061 hazardous waste listing. Also, this dust and sludge is
not considered to be a solid waste under RCRA when reclaimed.
Finishing operations produce wastes similar to those resulting from the
cleaning and degreasing of scrap metal prior to melting, including spent
solvents and alkaline cleaners. Additionally, any sludge from spent pickle
liquor recovery generated by metal casting facilities (SIC code 332) would be
a listed hazardous waste (K062).
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Federal Statutes and Regulations
Clean Air Act
The CAA New Source Review (NSR) requirements apply to new facilities,
expansions of existing facilities, or process modifications. New sources of the
NAAQS "criteria" pollutants in excess of "major" levels defined by EPA are
subject to NSR requirements (40 CFR §52.21 (b)(l)(i)(a)-(b)). NSRs are
typically conducted by the state agency under standards set by EPA and
adopted by the state as part of its state implementation plan (SIP). There are
two types of NSRs: Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) reviews for
those areas that are meeting the NAAQS; and nonattainment (NA) reviews
for areas that are violating the NAAQS. Permits are required to construct or
operate the new source for PSD and NA areas.
For NA areas, permits require the new source to meet lowest achievable
emission rate (LAER) standards and the operator of the new source must
procure reductions in emissions of the same pollutants from other sources in
the NA area in equal or greater amounts to the new source. These emission
offsets may be banked and traded through state agencies.
For PSD areas, permits require the best available control technology (B ACT),
and the operator or owner of the new source must conduct continuous on-site
air quality monitoring for one year prior to the new source addition to
determine the effects that the new emissions may have on air quality.
EPA has not established New Source Performance Standards (NSPSs) for the
metal casting industrial category.
Under Title V of the CAAA 1990 (40 CFR Parts 70-72) all of the applicable
requirements of the Amendments are integrated into one federal renewable
operating permit. Facilities defined as major sources under the Act must
apply for permits within one year from when EPA approves the state permit
programs. Since most state programs were not approved until after
November 1994, Title V permits, for the most part, began to be due in late
1995. Due dates for filing complete applications vary from state to state,
based on the status of review and approval of the state's Title V program by
EPA.
A facility is designated as a major source if it includes sources subject to the
NSPS acid rain provisions or NESHAPS, or if it releases a certain amount of
any one of the CAAA regulated pollutants (SOX, NQ,, CO, VOC, P^ ,
hazardous air pollutants, extremely hazardous substances, ozone depleting
substances, and pollutants covered by NSPSs) depending on the region's air
quality category. Title V permits may set limits on the amounts of pollutant
emissions and require emissions monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting.
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Federal Statutes and Regulations
Many large and some medium-sized foundries are likely to be major sources
and therefore must apply for a Title V permit. Selected small foundries may
also be classified as major sources, depending on their location and
operational factors.
Clean Water Act
Foundry and die casting facility wastewater released to surface waters is
regulated under the CWA (40 CFR Part 464). National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permits must be obtained to discharge
wastewater into navigable waters (40 Part 122). Effluent limitation
guidelines, new source performance standards, pretreatment standards for
new sources, and pretreatment standards for existing sources for the Metal
Molding and Casting Point Source Category apply to ferrous and non-ferrous
foundries and die casters and are listed under 40 CFR Part 464 and are
divided into subparts according to the metal cast:
Subpart A Applies to aluminum casting operations
Subpart B Applies to copper casting operations
Subpart C Applies to ferrous casting operations
Subpart D Applies to zinc casting operations
In addition to the effluent guidelines, facilities that discharge to a POTW may
be required to meet National Pretreatment Standards for some contaminants.
General pretreatment standards applying to most industries discharging to a
POTW are described in 40 CFR Part 403 (Contact Pat Bradley, EPA Office
of Water, 202-260-6963). As shown above, pretreatment standards applying
specifically to the metal casting point source category are listed in the
subparts of 40 CFR Part 464 (Contact: George Jett, EPA Office of Water
202-260-7151).
Stormwater rules require that metal casting facilities with the following storm
water discharges apply for an NPDES permit: (1) a discharge associated with
industrial activity; (2) a discharge from a large or medium municipal storm
sewer system; or (3) a discharge which EPA or the State determines to
contribute to a violation of a water quality standard or is a significant
contributor of pollutants to waters of the United States. The term "storm
water discharge associated with industrial activity" means a storm water
discharge from one of 11 categories of industrial activity defined at 40 CFR
122.26. The rules require that certain facilities with storm water discharge
from from industrial activity apply for storm water permit applications (see
Section VI. A).
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Metal Casting Industry
Federal Statutes and Regulations
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA) and the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
1986 (SARA) provide the basic legal framework for the federal "Superfund"
program to clean up abandoned hazardous waste sites (40 CFR Part 305).
The metals and metal compounds used in metal casting, are often found in
casting facilities' air emissions, water discharges, or waste shipments for off-
site disposal. These include chromium, manganese, aluminum, nickel, copper,
zinc, and lead. Metals are frequently found at CERCLA's problem sites. In
1989, when Congress ordered EPA and the Public Health Service's Agency
for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) to list the hazardous
substances found most commonly at problem sites and that pose the greatest
threat to human health, lead, nickel, and aluminum all made the list (Breen
and Campbell-Mohn, 1993). A number of sites containing foundry wastes are
on the National Priorities (Superfund) List. Compliance with the
requirements of RCRA lessens the chances that CERCLA compliance will be
an issue in the future.
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Federal Statutes and Regulations
VI.C. Pending and Proposed Regulatory Requirements
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Currently, the practice of adding iron dust or filings to spent foundry sand as
a form of stabilization is subject to case-specific interpretation by EPA
regarding whether this activity effectively treats the waste: However, EPA
has proposed to regulate this activity as impermissible dilution, which is
strictly prohibited under the land disposal restrictions program, and intends
to examine the issue further.
Thermal processing or reclamation units (TRUs) remove contaminants from
spent foundry sand primarily by combusting the organic binder materials in the
sand. These units are identified as foundry furnaces under the definition of
industrial furnace and are subject to regulation under 40 CFR Part 266,
Subpart H when they burn hazardous waste. However, EPA did not consider
whether TRUs would be appropriately controlled under these standards. EPA
has proposed two approaches to ensure controls for TRUs. The first option
is a deferral from regulation under 40 CFR Part 266, Subpart H. This would
allow development of the foundry maximum achievable control technology
under the Clean Air Act and potentially the application of these controls to
TRUs that process hazardous waste sand. The second option is to provide
a variance from the RCRA definition of solid waste. Under the variance
provisions, EPA may grant a variance from the definition of solid waste for
materials that are reclaimed and used as a feedstock within the original
production process if the reclamation process is an essential part of the
production process. Under this option, TRUs would not be subject to RCRA
regulation, but could be regulated under the Clean Air Act or state or local air
pollution laws (EPA, RCRA Hotline, 1997).
Clean Air Act
In addition to the CAA requirements discussed above, EPA is currently
working on or will be working on additional regulations that will directly
affect the metal casting industry. Under Title III, EPA is required to develop
national standards for 189 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) some of which are
emitted from foundries. NESHAP standards may limit the air emissions from
foundries through Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) based
on performance standards that will set limits based upon concentrations of
HAPs in the waste stream. NESHAP standards for ferrous foundries are
scheduled to be promulgated by EPA in November of 2000 (James Maysilles,
U.S. EPA, Office of Air, (919) 541-3265). Non-ferrous foundries and die
casting facilities will not be subject to NESHAP standards.
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Metal Casting Industry
Federal Statutes and Regmlations
EPA is also developing the Compliance Assurance Monitoring Rule. The rule
may require monitoring of certain emissions from certain facilities. Facilities
are required to pay a fee for filing for a permit and are required to pay an
annual fee based on the magnitude of the facility's potential emissions.
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Metal Casting Industry
Compliance and Enforcement History
VH. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT HISTORY
Background
Until recently, EPA has focused much of its attention on measuring
compliance with specific environmental statutes. This approach allows the
Agency to track compliance with the Clean Air Act, the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act, the Clean Water Act, and other
environmental statutes. Within the last several years, the Agency has begun
to supplement single-media compliance indicators with facility-specific,
multimedia indicators of compliance. In doing so, EPA is in a better position
to track compliance with all statutes at the facility level, and within specific
industrial sectors.
A major step in building the capacity to compile multimedia data for industrial
sectors was the creation of EPA's Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis
(IDEA) system. IDEA has the capacity to "read into" the Agency's single-
media databases, extract compliance records, and match the records to
individual facilities. The IDEA system can match Air, Water, Waste,
Toxics/Pesticides/EPCRA, TRI, and Enforcement Docket records for a given
facility, and generate a list of historical permit, inspection, and enforcement
activity. IDEA also has the capability to analyze data by geographic area and
corporate holder. As the capacity to generate multimedia compliance data
improves, EPA will make available more in-depth compliance and
enforcement information. Additionally, sector-specific measures of success
for compliance assistance efforts are under development.
Compliance and Enforcement Profile Description
Using inspection, violation and enforcement data from the IDEA system, this
section provides information regarding the historical compliance and
enforcement activity of this sector. In order to mirror the facility universe
reported in the Toxic Chemical Profile, the data reported within this section
consists of records only from the TRI reporting universe. With this decision,
the selection criteria are consistent across sectors with certain exceptions.
For the sectors that do not normally report to the TRI program, data have
been provided from EPA's Facility Indexing System (FINDS) which tracks
facilities in all media databases. Please note, in this section, EPA does not
attempt to define the actual number of facilities that fall within each sector.
Instead, the section portrays the records of a subset of facilities within the
sector that are well defined within EPA databases.
As a check on the relative size of the full sector universe, most notebooks
contain an estimated number of facilities within the sector according to the
Bureau of Census (See Section II). With sectors dominated by small
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Compliance and Enforcement History
businesses, such as metal finishers and printers, the reporting universe within
the EPA databases may be small in comparison to Census data. However, the
group selected for inclusion in this data analysis section should be consistent
with this sector's general make-up.
Following this introduction is a list defining each data column presented
within this section. These values represent a retrospective summary of
inspections and enforcement actions, and reflect solely EPA, State, and local
compliance assurance activities that have been entered into EPA databases.
To identify any changes in trends, the EPA ran two data queries, one for the
past five calendar years (April 1, 1992 to March 31, 1997) and the other for
the most recent twelve-month period (April 1, 1996 to March 31, 1997). The
five-year analysis gives an average level of activity for that period for
comparison to the more recent activity.
Because most inspections focus on single-media requirements, the data
queries presented in this section are taken from single media databases. These
databases do not provide data on whether inspections are state/local or EPA-
led. However, the table breaking down the universe of violations does give
the reader a crude measurement of the EPA's and states' efforts within each
media program. The presented data illustrate the variations across EPA
Regions for certain sectors.4 This variation may be attributable to state/local
data entry variations, specific geographic concentrations, proximity to
population centers, sensitive ecosystems, highly toxic chemicals used in
production, or historical noncompliance. Hence, the exhibited data do not
rank regional performance or necessarily reflect which regions may have the
most compliance problems.
Compliance and Enforcement Data Definitions
General Definitions
Facility Indexing System (FINDS) ~ this system assigns a common facility
number to EPA single-media permit records. The FINDS identification
number allows EPA to compile and review all permit, compliance,
enforcement and pollutant release data for any given regulated facility.
Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis (IDEA) — is a data integration
system that can retrieve information from the major EPA program office
databases. IDEA uses the FINDS identification number to link separate data
4 EPA Regions include the. following states: I (CT, MA, ME, RI, NH, VT); II (NJ, NY, PR, VI); III (DC, DE, MD, PA,
VA, WV); IV (AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN); V (IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI); VI (AR, LA, NM, OK, TX); VII
(IA, KS, MO, ME); VHI (CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY); IX (AZ, CA, HI, NV, Pacific Trust Territories); X (AK, ID, OR,
WA).
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Compliance and Enforcement History
records from EP A's databases. This allows retrieval of records from across
media or statutes for any given facility, thus creating a "master list" of
records for that facility. Some of the data systems accessible through IDEA
are: AIRS (Air Facility Indexing and Retrieval System, Office of Air and
Radiation), PCS (Permit Compliance System, Office of Water), RCRIS
(Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System, Office of Solid
Waste), NCDB (National Compliance Data Base, Office of Prevention,
Pesticides, and Toxic Substances), CERCLIS (Comprehensive Environmental
and Liability Information System, Superfund), and TRIS (Toxic Release
Inventory System). IDEA also contains information from outside sources
such as Dun and Bradstreet and the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA). Most data queries displayed in notebook sections
IV and VII were conducted using IDEA.
Data Table Column Heading Definitions
Facilities in Search ~ are based on the universe of TRI reporters within the
listed SIC code range. For industries not covered under TRI reporting
requirements (metal mining, nonmetallic mineral mining, electric power
generation, ground transportation, water transportation, and dry cleaning), or
industries in which only a very small fraction of facilities report to TRI (e.g.,
printing), the notebook uses the FINDS universe for executing data queries'
The SIC code range selected for each search is defined by each notebook's
selected SIC code coverage described in Section II.
Facilities Inspected — indicates the level of EPA and state agency
inspections for the facilities in this data search. These values show what
percentage of the facility universe is inspected in a one-year or five-year
period.
Number of Inspections ~ measures the total number of inspections
conducted in this sector. An inspection event is counted each time it is
entered into a single media database.
Average Time Between Inspections ~ provides an average length of time,
expressed in months, between compliance inspections at a facility within the
defined universe.
Facilities with One or More Enforcement Actions - expresses the number
of facilities that were the subject of at least one enforcement action within the
defined time period. This category is broken down further into federal and
state actions. Data are obtained for administrative, civil/judicial, and criminal
enforcement actions. Administrative actions include Notices of Violation
(NOVs). A facility with multiple enforcement actions is only counted once
in this column, e.g., a facility with 3 enforcement actions counts as 1 facility.
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Compliance and Enforcement History
Total Enforcement Actions ~ describes the total number of enforcement
actions identified for an industrial sector across all environmental statutes. A
facility with multiple enforcement actions is counted multiple times, e.g., a
facility with 3 enforcement actions counts as 3.
State Lead Actions - shows what percentage of the total enforcement
actions are taken by state and local environmental agencies. Varying levels
of use by states of EPA data systems may limit the volume of actions
recorded as state enforcement activity. Some states extensively report
enforcement activities into EPA data systems, while other states may use their
own data systems.
Federal Lead Actions - shows what percentage of the total enforcement
actions are taken by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
This value includes referrals from state agencies. Many of these actions result
from coordinated or joint state/federal efforts.
Enforcement to Inspection Rate ~ is a ratio of enforcement actions to
inspections, and is presented for comparative purposes only. This ratio is a
rough indicator of the relationship between inspections and enforcement. It
relates the number of enforcement actions and the number of inspections that
occurred within the one-year or five-year period. This ratio includes the
inspections and enforcement actions reported under the Clean Water Act
(CWA), the Clean Air Act (CAA) and the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA). Inspections and actions from the TSCA/FIFRA/
EPCRA database are not factored into this ratio because most of the actions
taken under these programs are not the result of facility inspections. Also,
this ratio does not account for enforcement actions arising from non-
inspection compliance monitoring activities (e.g., self-reported water
discharges) that can result in enforcement action within the CAA, CWA, and
RCRA.
Facilities with One or More Violations Identified ~ indicates the
percentage of inspected facilities having a violation identified in one of the
following data categories: In Violation or Significant Violation Status
(CAA);Reportable Noncompliance, Current Year Noncompliance, Significant
Noncompliance (CWA); Noncompliance and Significant Noncompliance
(FIFRA, TSCA, and EPCRA); Unresolved Violation and Unresolved High
Priority Violation (RCRA). The values presented for this column reflect the
extent of noncompliance within the measured time frame, but do not
distinguish between the severity of the noncompliance. Violation status may
be a precursor to an enforcement action, but does not necessarily indicate that
an enforcement action will occur.
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Compliance and Enforcement History
Media Breakdown of Enforcement Actions and Inspections ~ four
columns identify the proportion of total inspections and enforcement actions
within EPA Air, Water, Waste, and FIFRA/TSCA/EPCRA databases. Each
column is a percentage of either the "Total Inspections," or the "Total
Actions" column.
VELA. Metal Casting Industry Compliance History
Table 15 provides an overview of the reported compliance and enforcement
data for the metal casting industry over the past five years (April 1992 to
April 1997). These data are also broken out by EPA Regions thereby
permitting geographical comparisons. A few points evident from the data are
listed below.
• Almost 80 percent of metal casting facility inspections and 63 percent
of enforcement actions occurred in Regions III, IV, and V, where
most facilities (68 percent) are located.
• Region X had a high ratio of enforcement to inspections (0.40)
compared to other Regions.
• Region DC had a significantly higher average time between inspections
(70 months), which means that fewer inspections were carried out in
relation to the number of facilities in the Region (54 facilities and 40
inspections).
• Region IV had the shortest average time between inspections (9
months), but also had the lowest rate of enforcement actions to
inspections of any Region (0.05).
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Compliance and Enforcement Histot
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Metal Casting Industry
Compliance and Enforcement History
VH.B. Comparison of Enforcement Activity Between Selected Industries
Tables 16 and 17 allow the compliance history of the metal casting sector to
be compared to the other industries covered by the industry sector notebooks.
Comparisons between Tables 16 and 17 permit the identification of trends in
compliance and enforcement records of the various industries by comparing
data covering the last five years (April 1992 to April 1997) to that of the past
year (April 1996 to April 1997). Some points evident from the data are listed
below.
• Over the past year, the industry has had one of the highest proportions
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• Over the past year, the average enforcement to inspection rate for the
metal casting industry has decreased to 0.06 compared to 0.08 over
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• Of the sectors listed, facilities in the metal casting sector had one of
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Tables 18 and 19 provide a more in-depth comparison between the metal
casting industry and other sectors by breaking out the compliance and
enforcement data by environmental statute. As in the previous Tables (Tables
16 and 17), the data cover the last five years (Table 18) and the last one year
(Table 19) to facilitate the identification of recent trends. A few points
evident from the data are listed below.
• The percentage of inspections carried out under each environmental
statute has changed little over the past five years compared to the past
year. Inspections under CAA account for the majority (about 60
percent) followed by RCRA and CWA.
• The percentage of CAA enforcement actions increased from 44
percent over the past five years to 58 percent over the past year. In
addition, the percentage of enforcement actions carried under
FIFRA/TSCA/EPCRA/Other decreased from 14 percent to 0 percent
while CWA and RCRA remained about the same.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Compliance and Enforcement History
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Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Compliance and Enforcement History
VII.C. Review of Major Legal Actions
Major Cases/Supplemental Environmental Projects
This section provides summary information about major cases that have
affected this sector, and a list of Supplemental Environmental Projects
(SEPs).
VII.C.l. Review of Major Cases
As indicated in EPA's Enforcement Accomplishments Report, FY1995 and
FY1996 publications, 8 significant enforcement actions were resolved between
1995 and 1996 for the metal casting industry.
EMI Company (Pennsylvania): On May 29, 1996, EPA executed a consent
agreement and order settling an administrative action against EMI Company
for payment of $20,000 and agreement to perform a Supplemental
Environmental Project (SEP). The SEP requires respondent to install and
operate (for one (1) year) baghouse emissions control technology for four (4)
electric induction furnaces presently not subject to Best Available Control
Technology (BAT) control requirements. The total SEP capital costs and
operating expenditure costs for one year are estimated to be at least
$786,664. Those particulates include some of the regulated materials (copper
and manganese) that are the subject of this action. Region III filed the
administrative complaint against EMI Company of Erie, Pennsylvania for
EPCRA reporting violations.
Leggett and Platt (Grafion, Wisconsin): On Monday, April 1, 1996, a
consent decree was entered in the Milwaukee Federal court with Leggett &
Platt, concerning their Grafton, WI, facilities (2). A penalty of $450,000 was
stipulated in the decree based on four years of reporting failures and
exceeding the Federal Pretreatment standards for the Metal Molding and
Casting industry. Also, the company agreed in the consent decree not to
discharge process wastes to the Grafton POTW. As a result of this
stipulation the company started a water recycle system in April, 1995, with
several levels of plant water cleanliness. After several months of
experimentation the company observed that the recycle system had a two-year
payout due to the reduction of the use of plant lubricants. The yearly savings
were in excess of $50,000/year. Therefore, there was no economic benefit
available for recovery.
Cooper Cameron (Richmond, Texas): This enforcement action arose out of
the Region VT Foundry Initiative. EPA conducted an inspection of the
Cooper Industries, Inc., Oil Tool Division in Richmond, Texas on September
21-23, 1994. At that facility, the Cooper Oil Tool Division manufactured a
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Compliance and Enforcement History
variety of low and high carbon steel and stainless steel oil tool castings for
valves and other equipment. During the inspection, EPA discovered a waste
pile which contained Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) baghouse dust. This
material was sampled using the TCLP method and was found to contain
chromium (D007) above the 5.0 mg/L regulatory level. Therefore, the EAF
baghouse dust is a hazardous waste. Cooper Oil Tool Division was acquired
by Cooper Cameron Corporation which was spun offfrom Cooper Industries,
Inc. in 1995. As the corporate successor to the Oil Tool Division, Cooper
Cameron became responsible for the cited violations. Region VI
simultaneously filed the consent agreement/consent order on September 30,
1996, assessing a civil penalty of $45,000 plus injunctive relief. Additionally'
Cooper Cameron has agreed to remediate, under the Texas Natural Resource
Conservation Commision (TNRCC) Voluntary Cleanup Program,
approximately 30 acres of waste materials stored in piles on their site. It is
estimated that this action will reduce the risk of releasing more than 100 tons
of chromium contaminated soil. The agreement to remediate the waste pile
is a result of concern over environmental justice. The surrounding community
is approximately 51% minority while Texas' average is 39%.
HICA Steel Foundry and Upgrade Co. (Shreveport, Louisiana): On
November 7, 1995, EPA issued fflCA Steel Foundry and Upgrade Company
an administrative order (complaint). The order proposed a $472,000 fine and
required closure of several unauthorized hazardous waste management units.
This action required the removal and proper disposal of 2,600 gallons on
corrosive and ignitable hazardous waste and 255 tons of lead and chromium
contaminated waste from the facility.
NIBCO, Inc. (Blytheville, Arkansas): A final consent agreement/consent
order was signed by both Region VI and NIBCO on September 30, 1996.
NIBCO agreed to pay $750,000 in cash to satisfy the approximately $2.5
million in civil penalties assessed by Region VI in this Foundry Initiative
enforcement action. The enforcement action against NIBCO originated
because the facility was treating sand used in the casting of metal valves
(casting sand) with metallic iron dust, without a permit, and disposing of the
material in the Nacogdoches municipal landfill. The casting sand absorbs lead
during the casting process, making it a hazardous waste. In order to offset
the civil penalty, NEBCO agreed to work with Texas Natural Resource
Conservation Commision (TNRCC) and the City of Nacogdoches to
characterize the foundry sand waste disposed of in the Nacogdoches
municipal landfill, and ensure closure and post-closure measures are
performed in accordance with all applicable requirements and schedules
established by TNRCC.
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Metal Casting Industry
Compliance and Enforcement History
Lynchburg Foundry Company (Lynchburg, VA): On August 24, 1995, the
Region HI Administrator signed a consent order which requires Lynchburg
Foundry Company to perform tasks set out in the compliance section of the
consent agreement, and to pay $330,000 to EPA. Lynchburg, located in
Lynchburg, Virginia, operates two facilities: Radford and Archer Creek, both
of which manufacture metal automotive parts. Under the terms of the consent
agreement and order, Lynchburg must: 1) list all hazardous wastes handled
at both facilities within its hazardous waste notification filed with the Virginia
Department of Hazardous Waste; 2) amend or supplement its emergency
contingency plans for both facilities to reflect the arrangements agreed to by
local emergency services; and 3) permanently cease illegally storing or
treating D006 and D008 hazardous wastes in waste piles at either facility.
Great Lakes Casting Corporation (Ludington, Ml): On November 15, 1994,
a consent decree was entered in the U.S. District Court for the Western
District of Michigan in the U.S. v. Great Lakes Casting Corporation case
requiring Great Lakes to pay a civil penalty of $350,000 for illegal hazardous
waste disposal under RCRA.
CMI-Cast Parts, Inc. (Cadillac, MI): A consent agreement and final order
was signed on December 22,1994, which settled an administrative complaint
against CMI-Cast Parts, Inc. CMC-Cast Parts, Inc. is a Michigan corporation
which owns and operates an iron foundry in Cadillac, Michigan. CMI-Cast
Parts, Inc. failed to obtain interim status or a proper operating permit to treat,
store'or dispose of hazardous waste at its Cadillac facility. From September
1990 to January 1994, the facility failed to comply with the hazardous waste
management standards. On January 26, 1995, CMI-Cast Parts, Inc., submitted
a certified check in the amount of $454,600.00, payable to the Treasurer of
the United States of America, for final settlement of the enforcement action.
VH.C.2. Supplementary Environmental Projects (SEPs)
SEPs are compliance agreements that reduce a facility's non-compliance
penalty in return for an environmental project that exceeds the value of the
reduction. Often, these projects fund pollution prevention activities that can
reduce the future pollutant loadings of a facility. Information on SEP cases
can be accessed via the Internet at EPA's Enviro$en$e Website:
http://es.inel.gov/sep.
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
. COMPLIANCE ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES
This section highlights the activities undertaken by this industry sector and
public agencies to voluntarily improve the sector's environmental
performance. These activities include those initiated independently by
industrial trade associations. In this section, the notebook also contains a
listing and description of national and regional trade associations.
VTII.A. Sector-related Environmental Programs and Activities
Vm.A.l. Federal Activities
Metalcasting Competitiveness Research (MCR) Program
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Metalcasting Competitiveness
Research Act (Public Law 101-425) was signed in 1990 and established the
U.S. DOE, Office of Industrial Technology Metalcasting Competitiveness
Research (MCR) Program. The program provides assistance to the
metalcasting industry by fostering R&D in technology areas that were
identified as priority in nature by the industry including technology
competitiveness and energy efficiency. In this program, industry and the DOE
provide cost-share funding to metalcasting research institutions that conduct
the R&D. Projects are chosen based on a set of research priorities developed
by the Metalcasting Industrial Advisory Board (IAB). The IAB meets once
a year to revise these priorities. As of 1996, 24 projects have been funded
through the MCR Program, a number of them having direct and indirect
benefits to the environment.
Casting Emission Reduction Program
The Casting Emission Reduction Program (CERP) is primarily focused on
developing new materials, processes or equipment for metalcasting
manufacturing which will achieve a near-zero effect on the environment while
producing high quality components for the U.S. military and other users. The
program also has the objective of bridging the critical gap between laboratory
and full scale casting production. The result will be a platform for proofing
and validating the next generation of light weight weapon system components
using near net shape metal castings.
The program was initiated by the Department of Defense (DoD) in response
to the rapid reduction in domestic foundries capable of producing the critical
components of military hardware. These parts range from tank tracks and
turrets to the tail structure of the F-16 fighter. The DoD sees an immediate
threat to sand casting foundries and their ability to withstand the changes
resulting from the Titles III and V Amendments to the 1990 Clean Air Act.
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
In addition, DoD realizes that the needs of the military for post year 2000
hardware will depend on manufacturing technologies which do not exist today
or are unable to make the transition from the lab bench to the shop floor.
CERP aims to provide the country with the ability to launch lighter weight
castings more quickly and at the same time meet the more demanding
environmental regulations of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. Although
the program was initiated to address military needs, it is anticipated that it will
benefit the entire industry.
The specific activities of CERP will include obtaining a baseline of emissions
from foundries across the U.S., developing a pilot foundry at McClellan AFB
in California for the testing and prototyping of new casting processes and
materials, and developing the real-time emission instrumentation for
foundries. The five-year program receives Congressional appropriations
under the Research, Development, Test & Defense Wide category. Other
technical partners directly supporting the project include the American
Foundrymen's Society, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the
California Air Resources Board (CARB), and the U.S. Council for
Automotive Research (USCAR). Contact: Bill Walden, (916) 643-1090.
EPA Region VI Foundry Initiative
EPA's Region VT (Oklahoma, Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, New Mexico)
began a Foundry Initiative in 1993 to improve compliance rates among the
600 foundries in the region. An initial inspection of 27 foundries in the
Region indicated that a large percentage had potential RCRA violations.
Region VI formed a partnership with the States and the American
Foundrymen's Society to develop an initiative for environmental compliance
which would be beneficial to foundries. EPA, the States and foundry
representatives established a workgroup that provides an open forum for
discussion, identifies relevant environmental issues facing foundries and
develops educational assistance programs.
Through education and compliance assistance, the program aims to improve
communication between the industry and the regulatory agencies and increase
voluntary compliance with the regulations. The program provides foundries
with information to fix problems before active enforcement occurs. For
example, in Oklahoma where the initiative has recently been completed, a six
month correction period was offered. Workshops and seminars were held in
each state and individual compliance assistance and site visits are being
offered. Contact: Joel Dougherty, Ph.D., (214) 665-2281.
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
Vm.A.2. State Activities
Oklahoma
The Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) Customer
Assistance Program recently completed its Foundry Initiative with EPA
Region VI (See above). After Region 6 made plans to inspect 12 facilities in
Oklahoma, the Oklahoma (DEQ) suggested an alternate strategy. A multi-
media workshop was held in April 1995 that focused on pollution issues
facing the foundry industry. From that workshop, an entire state-wide
compliance achievement program was developed for metal casting facilities.
The Program consisted of the following trade-offs between industry and the
regulators.
1) The industry would perform an environmental self-audit and
fix any problems identified.
2) The DEQ and the EPA would allow a six month "correction
period."
3) During the correction period any regularly scheduled annual
inspections were canceled. This allowed the facility to focus
on identifying and correcting areas of non-compliance.
4) At the end of the "correction period" there would be a return
to normally scheduled inspections.
Of the 45 qualifying facilities in Oklahoma, 23 participated in the program.
Each of the 23 facilities performed a self-audit that covered air quality, water
quality, and waste management issues. Each facility also completed the
program, which included workshops, self-audits, site visits, and "free"
inspections. The types of compliance issues that were corrected as a result of
the program were:
1) state minor air permits,
2) solid waste disposal approvals,
3) storm water pollution prevention plans,
4) SARA Title III reporting, and
5) air pollution controls.
An important outcome was the new relationship between the foundries and
the agency. This new relationship was based on information sharing for the
common goal of compliance. The participating foundries were able to obtain
permits and disposal approvals without penalty. Several facilities continue to
work with the DEQ to solve more complex compliance issues, such as on-site
land disposal of foundry sand. Contact: Dave Dillon, Customer Assistance
Program, Oklahoma DEQ, (405) 271-1400.
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
University of Wisconsin -Milwaukee Center for By-Product Utilization
At the University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee Center for By-Product
Utilization researchers are examining the feasibility of using spent foundry
sand and slag as feed for concrete manufacturing. The center is testing the
compression strengths of concrete mixed with 25 percent and 35 percent (by
weight) of different types of used foundry sand. Tests are also being carried
out substituting foundry sand in asphaltic concrete. Many of the tests have
shown that structural grade concrete and asphaltic concrete can be produced
successfully and economically using waste foundry sand.
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
Vm.B. EPA Voluntary Programs
35/50 Program
The 33/50 Program is a groundbreaking program that has focused on
reducing pollution from seventeen high-priority chemicals through voluntary
partnerships with industry. The program's name stems from its goals: a 33%
reduction in toxic releases by 1992, and a 50% reduction by 1995, against a
baseline of 1.5 billion pounds of releases and transfers in 1988. The results
have been impressive: 1,300 companies have joined the 33/50 Program
(representing over 6,000 facilities) and have reached the national targets a
year ahead of schedule. The 33% goal was reached in 1991, and the 50%
goal — a reduction of 745 million pounds of toxic wastes -- was reached in
1994. The 33/50 Program can provide case studies on many of the corporate
accomplishments in reducing waste (Contact 33/50 Program Director David
Sarokin - 202-260-6396).
Table 19 lists those companies participating in the 33/50 program that
reported four-digit SIC codes within 332 and 336 to TRI. Some of the
companies shown also listed facilities that are not producing metal castings.
The number of facilities within each company that are participating in the
33/50 program and that report metal casting SIC codes is shown. Where
available and quantfiable against 1988 releases and transfers, each company's
33/50 goals for 1995 and the actual total releases and transfers and percent
reduction between 1988 and 1994 are presented.
Fourteen of the seventeen target chemicals were reported to TRI by metal
casting facilities in 1994. Of all TRI chemicals released and transferred by the
metal casting industry, nickel and nickel compounds, and chromium and
chromium compounds (both 33/50 target chemicals), were released and
transferred second and third most frequently (behind copper), and were in the
top ten largest volume released and transferred. Other frequently reported
33/50 target chemicals were lead and lead compounds, xylenes and toluene.
Table 20 shows that 55 companies comprised of 129 facilities reporting SIC
332 and 336 are participating in the 33/50 program. For those companies
shown with more than one metal casting facility, all facilities may not be
participating in 33/50. The 33/50 goals shown for companies with multiple
metal casting facilities, however, are company-wide, potentially aggregating
more than one facility and facilities not carrying out metal casting operations.
In addition to company-wide goals, individual facilities within a company may
have their own 33/50 goals or may be specifically listed as not participating
in the 33/50 program. Since the actual percent reductions shown in the last
column apply to all of the companies' metal casting facilities and only metal
casting facilities, direct comparisons to those company goals incorporating
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
non-metal casting facilities or excluding certain facilities may not be possible.
For information on specific facilities participating in 33/50, contact David
Sarokin (202-260-6907) at the 33/50 Program Office.
Table 20: Metal Casting Industry Participation in the 33/50 Program
Parent Company
[Headquarters Location)
A B & I Incorporated
Oakland, CA
Allied-Signal Inc
Morristown, NJ
American Cast Iron Pipe Co
Birmingham, AL
Ampco Metal Mfg. Inc.
Milwaukee, WI
Amsted Industries
Incorporated - Chicago, IL
Armco Inc - Pittsburgh, PA
Auburn Foundry Inc
Auburn, IN
Bloomfield Foundry Inc
Bloomfield, IA
Bumham Corporation
Lancaster, PA
Cast-Fab Technologies Inc
Cincinnati, OH
Caterpillar Inc - Peoria, EL
Chrysler Corporation
Auburn Hills, MI
Columbia Steel Casting Co
Portland, OR
Cooper Industries Inc
Houston, TX
Dalton Foundries Inc
Warsaw, IN
Dana Corporation
Toledo, OH
Deere & Company
Moline, IL
Duriron Company Inc
Davton, OH
Electric Steel Castings Co
Indianapolis, IN
Company-
Owned Metal
Casting Facilities
Reporting 33/50
Chemicals
1
1
3
2
9
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
4
2
1
1
1
1
Company-
Wide %
Reduction
Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
98
50
25
*
66
4
99
***
95
54
60
80
*
75
75
**
*
36
***
1988TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)2
455,570
500
761,209
2,500
1,066,730
74,810
592,150
500
99,149
24,196
24,650
37,082
0
100,873
594,000
0
161,942
49,725
0
1994TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
r\
(pounds)
345,419
0
188,769
12,552
2,174,300
16,480
465
520
700
50
265,815
18,281
16,801
224,830
106,996
8,860
8,337
0
0
Actual %
Reduction for
Metal Casting
Facilities
(1988-1994)
24
100
75
-402
-104
78
100
-4
99
100
-978
51
-
-123
82
-
95
100
-
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Metal Casting Industry
Parent Company
(Headquarters Location)
Emerson Electric Co
Saint Louis, MO
Federal-mogul Corporation
Southfield, MI
Ford Motor Company
Dearborn, MI
Funk Finecast Inc
Columbus, OH
General Electric Company
Fairfield, CT
General Motors Corporation
Detroit, MI
Hartzell Manufacturing Inc
Saint Paul, MN
Hitchiner Manufacturing Co
Milford, NH
Hubbell Incorporated
Orange, CT
Interlake Corporation
Lisle, JL
Jefferson City Mfg Co Inc
Jefferson City, MO
Naco Inc - Lisle, IL
Navistar Intl Transportation
Co - Chicago, IL
Newell Co - Freeport, IL
Ngk Metals Corp.
Temple, PA
Northern Precision Casting
Co - Lake Geneva, WI
Pac Foundries
PortHueneme, CA
Pacific Alloy Castings
South Gate, CA
Pechiney Corporation
Greenwich, CT
PHB Inc - Fairview, PA
Precision Castparts Corp
Portland, OR
Premark International Inc
Deerfield, IL
» Progress Casting Group Inc
Minneapolis, MN
• .
Company-
Owned Metal
Casting Facilities
Reporting 33/50
Chemicals
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
4
1
1
1
7
2
16
1
1
1
1
4
1
10
1
1
•
Company-
Wide %
Reduction
Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
50
50
15
*
50
*
85
50
***
37
**
***
*
23
99
99
75
**
***
100
29
***
95
1
1988TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)2
0
0
94,478
14,290
0
676,800
250
91,930
23,641
8,000
29,500
250 920
40,500
1,091 853
280
18,583
16,950
1,500
266,950
22,292
584,861
0
17,412
1994TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)2
0
3,455
96,803
596
195
387,813
0
699
0
0
0
102 532
0
149,630
2,800
96
0
2,659
24,099
0
197,377
530
0
Actual %
Reduction for
Metal Casting
Facilities ,
(1988-1994)
-
-
-2
96
-
43
100
99
100
100
100
59
100
86
-900
99
100
-77
91
100
66
-
100
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
Actual %
Reduction for
Metal Casting
Facilities
(1988-1994)
1994TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)
1988TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)2
Company-
Wide %
Reduction
Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
Company-
Owned Metal
Casting Facilities
Reporting 33/50
Chemicals
Parent Company
(Headquarters Location)
Rexcorp U S Inc (Del)
hvich. U
SKFUSAInc
Kins of Prussia.?/
Slyman Industries Inc
Medina. OH
Smith Everett Investment Co
Milwaukee. WI
Spuncast Inc - Watertown,
WI
SPX Corporation
MI
Sure Cast Inc - Bumet, TX
Tenncco Inc - Houston, TX
Thyssen Holding
Cornoration-Trov.MI
Walter Industries Inc
Tamna. FI
Watts Industries Inc
North Andover.M/
York Mold Inc.
Manchester. P/
Young Corporation
Source: U.S. EPA 33/50 Program Office, 1996.
1 Company-Wide Reduction Goals aggregate all company-owned facilities which may include
facilities not producing metal castings.
2 Releases and Transfers are from metal casting facilities only.
* = Reduction goal not quantifiable against 1988 TRI data.
** = Use reduction goal only.
*** = No numeric reduction goal ==========
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Environmental Leadership Program
Project XL
The Environmental Leadership Program (ELP) is a national initiative
developed by EPA that focuses on improving environmental performance,
encouraging voluntary compliance, and building working relationships with
stakeholders. EPA initiated a one year pilot program in 1995 by selecting 12
projects at industrial facilities and federal installations which would
demonstrate the principles of the ELP program. These principles include:
environmental management systems, multimedia compliance assurance, third-
party verification of compliance, public measures of accountability, pollution
prevention, community involvement, and mentor programs. In return for
participating, pilot participants received public recognition and were given a
period of time to correct any violations discovered during these experimental
projects.
EPA is making plans to launch its full-scale Environmental Leadership
Program in 1997. The full-scale program will be facility-based with a 6-year
participation cycle. Facilities that meet certain requirements will be eligible
to participate, such as having a community outreach/employee involvement
programs and an environmental management system (EMS) in place for 2
years. (Contact: http://es.inel.gov/elp or Debby Thomas, ELP Deputy
Director, at 202-564-5041)
Project XL was initiated in March 1995 as a part of President Clinton's
Reinventing Environmental Regulation initiative. The projects seek to
achieve cost effective environmental benefits by providing participants
regulatory flexibility on the condition that they produce greater environmental
benefits. EPA and program participants will negotiate and sign a Final Project
Agreement, detailing specific environmental objectives that the regulated
entity shall satisfy. EPA will provide regulatory flexibility as an incentive for
the participants' superior environmental performance. Participants are
encouraged to seek stakeholder support from local governments, businesses,
and environmental groups. EPA hopes to implement fifty pilot projects in
four categories, including industrial facilities, communities, and government
facilities regulated by EPA. Applications will be accepted on a rolling basis.
For additional information regarding XL projects, including application
procedures and criteria, see the May 23, 1995 Federal Register Notice.
(Contact: Fax-on-Demand Hotline 202-260-8590, Web:
http://www.epa.gov/ProjectXL, or Christopher Knopes at EPA's Office of
Policy, Planning and Evaluation 202-260-9298)
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Climate Wise Program
Climate Wise is helping US industries turn energy efficiency and pollution
prevention into a corporate asset. Supported by the technical assistance,
financing information and public recognition that Climate Wise offers,
participating companies are developing and launching comprehensive
industrial energy efficiency and pollution prevention action plans that save
money and protect the environment. The nearly 300 Climate Wise companies
expect to save more than $300 million and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
by 18 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by the year 2000.
Some of the actions companies are undertaking to achieve these results
include: process improvements, boiler and steam system optimization, air
compressor system improvements, fuel switching, and waste heat recovery
measures including cogeneration. Created as part of the President's Climate
Change Action Plan, Climate Wise is jointly operated by the Department of
Energy and EPA. Under the Plan many other programs were also launched
or upgraded including Green Lights, WasteWi$e and DoE's Motor Challenge
Program. Climate Wise provides an umbrella for these programs which
encourage company participation by providing information on the range of
partnership opportunities available. (Contact: Pamela Herman, EPA, 202-
260-4407 or Jan Vernet, DoE, 202-586-4755)
Energy Star Buildings Program
EPA's ENERGY STAR Buildings Program is a voluntary, profit-based program
designed to improve the energy-efficiency in commercial and industrial
buildings. Expanding the successful Green Lights Program, ENERGY STAR
Buildings was launched in 1995. This program relies on a 5-stage strategy
designed to maximize energy savings thereby lowering energy bills, improving
occupant comfort, and preventing pollution ~ all at the same time. If
implemented in every commercial and industrial building in the United States,
ENERGY STAR Buildings could cut the nation's energy bill by up to $25 billion
and prevent up to 35% of carbon dioxide emissions. (This is equivalent to
taking 60 million cars of the road). ENERGY STAR Buildings participants
include corporations; small and medium sized businesses; local, federal and
state governments; non-profit groups; schools; universities; and health care
facilities. EPA provides technical and non-technical support including
software, workshops, manuals, communication tools, and an information
hotline. EPA's Office of Air and Radiation manages the operation of the
ENERGY STAR Buildings Program. (Contact: Green Light/Energy Star Hotline
at 1-888-STAR-YES or Maria Tikoff Vargas, EPA Program Director at 202-
233-9178 or visit the ENERGY STAR Buildings Program website at
http://www.epa.gov/appdstar/buildings/)
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Activities and Initiatives
Green Lights Program
EPA's Green Lights program was initiated in 1991 and has the goal of
preventing pollution by encouraging U.S. institutions to use energy-efficient
lighting technologies. The program saves money for businesses and
organizations and creates a cleaner environment by reducing pollutants
released into the atmosphere. The program has over 2,345 participants which
include major corporations, small and medium sized businesses, federal, state
and local governments, non-profit groups, schools, universities, and health
care facilities. Each participant is required to survey their facilities and
upgrade lighting wherever it is profitable. As of March 1997, participants had
lowered their electric bills by $289 million annually. EPA provides technical
assistance to the participants through a decision support software package,
workshops and manuals, and an information hotline. EPA's Office of Air and
Radiation is responsible for operating the Green Lights Program. (Contact:
Green Light/Energy Star Hotline at 1-888-STARYES or Maria Tikoff
Vargar, EPA Program Director, at 202-233-9178)
WasteWi$e Program
NICE3
The WasteWi$e Program was started in 1994 by EPA's Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response. The program is aimed at reducing municipal solid
wastes by promoting waste prevention, recycling collection and the
manufacturing and purchase of recycled products. As of 1997, the program
had about 500 companies as members, one third of whom are Fortune 1000
corporations. Members agree to identify and implement actions to reduce
their solid wastes setting waste reduction goals and providing EPA with
yearly progress reports. To member companies, EPA, in turn, provides
technical assistance, publications, networking opportunities, and national and
regional recognition. (Contact: WasteWiSe Hotline at 1-800-372-9473 or
Joanne Oxley, EPA Program Manager, 703-308-0199)
The U.S. Department of Energy is administering a grant program called The
National Industrial Competitiveness through Energy, Environment, and
Economics (NICE3). By providing grants of up to 45 percent of the total
project cost, the program encourages industry to reduce industrial waste at
its source and become more energy-efficient and cost-competitive through
waste minimization efforts. Grants are used by industry to design, test, and
demonstrate new processes and/or equipment with the potential to reduce
pollution and increase energy efficiency. The program is open to all
industries; however, priority is given to proposals from participants in the
forest products, chemicals, petroleum refining, steel, aluminum, metal casting
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and glass manufacturing sectors. (Contact: http//www.oit.doe.gov/access/
niceS, Chris Sifti, DOE, 303-275-4723 or Eric Hass, DOE, 303-275-4728)
Design for the Environment (DfE)
DfE is working with several industries to identify cost-effective pollution
prevention strategies that reduce risks to workers and the environment. DfE
helps businesses compare and evaluate the performance, cost, pollution
prevention benefits, and human health and environmental risks associated with
existing and alternative technologies. The goal of these projects is to
encourage businesses to consider and use cleaner products, processes, and
technologies. For more information about the DfE Program, call (202) 260-
1678. To obtain copies of DfE materials or for general information about
DfE, contact EP A's Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse at (202)
260-1023 or visit the DfE Website at http://es.inel.gov/dfe.
VUI.C. Trade Association/Industry Sponsored Activity
Vffl.C.1. Industry Research Programs
American Metalcasting Consortium (AMC)
The American Metalcasting Consortium (AMC) is a group of six
organizations from the metalcasting industry that have joined together to ally
the thousands of small and medium sized metalcasters within the market in an
effort to re-establish American viability in the metalcasting industry. AMC
• aims to energize critical facets of the industry which stimulate lead time and
cost reductions, quality, and market share/growth. These goals are being
implemented through efforts focused on projects in the areas of 1) applied
research and development, 2) education, training, and technology transfer, 3)
small business, and 4) casting applications development. Many of the projects
Cwill result in positive environmental impacts by improving the industry's
overall energy efficiency and reducing the quantity of wastes and off-spec
castings. The AMC organizations are: The American Foundrymen's Society
(AFS); Non-Ferrous Founders' Society (NFFS); North American Die Casting
Association (NADCA); and the Steel Founders' Society of America (SFSA).
'ast Metals Coalition (CMC)
In 1995, Chief Executive Officers and Presidents from the foundry, diecasting,
and foundry supply industries developed goals for the future of the industry
in Beyond 2000: A Vision for the American Metalcasting Industry.
Representatives from the American Foundrymen's Society, the Steel
Founders' Society of America, and the North American Die Casters
Association formed the Cast Metals Coalition (CMC). The CMC is working
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
towards developing a technology roadmap for pursuing and achieving these
goals. CMC is working with industry and research institutions, including
universities and national laboratories to develop this roadmap.
Pennsylvania Foundry Consortia
A consortia of Pennsylvania foundries, the Pennsylvania Foundrymen's
Association and Perm State University have been working cooperatively since
1985 on issues associated with solid waste disposal, sand reclamation, and
beneficial use of foundry residuals. This group is addressing the impediments
to beneficial use of foundry residuals on a comprehensive national level. The
goals of the research are to maximize the beneficial reuse of environmentally
safe foundry residuals and to streamline the path for their acceptability by
other industries. Specific tasks carried out involve establishing a database of
technical and environmental information to support reuse applications,
developing and administering a comprehensive survey of potential aggregate
users, and performing physical and environmental testing to demonstrate the
applicability of residual wastes for reuse applications. The program receives
funding from a U.S. EPA grant.
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
Vm.C.2. Trade Associations
American Foundrymen's Society, Inc.
(AFS)
505 State Street
Des Plaines, IL 60016-8399
Phone: (800) 537-4237
Fax: (847) 824-7848
Members: 12,800
Staff: 60
Contact: Gary Mosher,
Vice President, Environmental Health and
Safety
The American Foundrymen's Society (AFS) is the primary trade association for the
foundry industry. Founded in 1896, the Society has student and local groups
throughout the U.S. and internationally. AFS is the technical, trade, and management
association of foundrymen, pattern makers, technologists, and educators. The society
sponsors foundry training courses through the Cast Metals Institute on all subjects
pertaining to the casting industry and sponsors numerous regional and local
conferences and meetings. AFS maintains an extensive Technical Information Center,
conducts research programs, compiles statistics, and provides marketing information,
environmental services, and testing. The monthly trade magazine, Modern Casting,
covers current technology practices and other factors affecting the production and
marketing of metal castings.
North American Die Casting Association
(NADCA)
9701 W. Higgins Rd., Ste. 880
Rosemont, IL60018
Phone: 847-292-3600
Fax: 847-292-3620
Members: 3,200
Staff: 17
Contact: Dan Twarog
The North American Die Casting Association (NADCA) was founded in 1989 and
is made up of producers of die castings and suppliers to industry, product and die
designers, metallurgists, and students. There are regional and local groups across the
U.S. NADCA develops product standards; compiles trade statistics on metal
consumption trends; conducts promotional activities; and provides information on
chemistry, mechanics, engineering, and other arts and sciences related to die casting.
The association also maintains a library and provides training materials and short,
intensive courses in die casting. A trade magazine, Die Casting Engineer, is
published periodically and contains information on new products and literature,
chapter news, and a calendar of events.
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Activities and Initiatives
Non-Ferrous Founders' Society
455 State St., Suite 100
DesPlaines, IL60016
Phone: 847-299-0950
Fax: 847-299-3598
Members: 185
Staff: 2
Contact: Jim Mallory or Mark
Remlinger, Chair of
Environment Committee
The Non-Ferrous Founders' Society (NFFS) is comprised of manufacturers of brass,
bronze, aluminum, and other nonferrous castings. Founded in 1943, NFFS conducts
research programs and compiles statistics related to the nonferrous castings industry.
The Society has committees related to: export government relations; insurance; local
management group; management conferences; planning; quality; and technical
research. NFFS publishes The Crucible bimonthly. This trade magazine contains
articles relevant to the day-to-day management of aluminum, brass, bronze, and other
nonferrous foundries. NFFS also publishes a biennial Directory of Nonferrous
Foundries listing member and nonmember foundries producing primarily aluminum,
brass, and bronze castings.
Members: 75
Staff: 6
Contact: Raymond Monroe
Steel Founders' Society of America
(SFSA)
Cast Metals Fed. Bldg.
455 State St.
DesPlaines, EL 60016
Phone: 847-299-9160
Fax: 847-299-3105
The Steel Founders Society of America (SFSA) is comprised of manufacturers of
steel castings. Founded in 1902, the Society conducts research programs and
compiles statistics related to the steel casting industry. SFSA periodically publishes
CASTEEL which contains special articles on specifications and technical aspects of
steel castings. SFSA also publishes a biennial Directory of Steel Foundries listing
steel foundries in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. Committees include Marketing,
Specifications, and Technical Research.
Investment Casting Institute
8350 N. Central Expressway
Suite Mil 10
Dallas, TX 75206
Phone: 214-368-8896
Fax: 214-368-8852
Members: 275
Staff: 5
Contact: Henry Bidwell
The Investment Casting Institute is an international trade association comprised of
manufacturers of precision castings for industrial use made by the investment (or lost
wax) process and suppliers to such manufacturers. The Institute provides training
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Metal Casting Industry
Activities and Initiatives
courses and other specialized education programs and publishes the monthly
newsletter Incast.
Casting Industry Suppliers Association Members: 66
(CISA) Staff: 1
455 State St., Suite 104 Contact: Darla Boudjenah
Des Plaines, IL 60016
Phone: 708-824-7878
Fax: 708-824-7908
The Casting Industry Suppliers Association (CISA) was founded in 1986 and
represents manufacturers of foundry equipment and supplies such as molding
machinery, dust control equipment and systems, blast cleaning machines, tumbling
equipment, and related products. CISA also aims to foster better trade practices and
serve as an industry representative before the government and the public. The
Association also compiles industry statistics and disseminates reports of progress in
new processes and methods in foundry operation.
The Ferroalloys Association (TFA)
900 2nd St. NE, Suite 201
Washington, DC 20002
Phone: 202-842-0292
Fax: 202-842-4840
Members: 21
Staff: 3
Contact: Edward Kinghorn Jr.
The purpose of The Ferroalloys Association's (TFA) is to promote the general
welfare of the producers of chromium, manganese, silicon, vanadium ferroalloys and
related basic alloys/metals in the United States and to engage in all lawful activities
to that end. Founded in 1971, TFA consistently provides the ferroalloy industry a
means to accomplish tasks through a common bond of business interests.
The ferroalloy industry produces high strength metals created by submerged electric
arc smelting, induction melting, alumino/silicothermic reduction processes, and
vacuum reduction furnaces, as well as by electrolytic processes. More than 50
different alloys and metals in hundreds of compositions and sizes are produced by the
ferroalloy industry for use in the manufacturing of stainless steel, iron, and aluminum.
The industry also produces vital materials used in the production of chemicals, semi-
conductors, solar cells, coatings, and catalysts.
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Contacts and References
IX. CONTACTS/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS/RESOURCE MATERIALS
For further information on selected topics within the metal casting industry a list of contacts and
publications are provided below.
Contacts5
Name
Jane Engert
James Maysilles
Mary Cunningham
Larry Gonzales
George Jett
Doug Kaempf
Bill Walden
Joel Dougherty
David Byro
Dave Dillon
Gary Mosher
Ted Kinghom
Megan Medley
Dan Twarog
Tricia Margel
Raymond Monroe
Bob Voigt
Organization
EPA/OECA (Office of Enforcement
and Compliance Assurance)
EPA/OAR (Office of Air and
Radiation)
EPA/OS W (Office of Solid Waste)
EPA/OSW (Office of Solid Waste)
EPA/O W (Office of Water), Office
of Science and Technology
DOE (Department of Energy)
Casting Emissions Reduction
Program (McClellan AFB, CA)
EPA/Region VI
EPA/Region III
Oklahoma Department of
Environmental Quality
American Foundrymen's Society
Vice President Environmental Health
and Safety
Non-Ferrous Founders' Society
North American Die Casting
Association
Steel Founders Society of America
Pennsylvania State University
Telephone
202-564-5021
919-541-3265
703-308-8453
703-308-8468
202-260-7151
202-586-5264
916-643-1090
214-665-8323
215-566-5563
405-271-1400
800-537-4237
202-842-0219
847-292-3600
847-299-9160
814-863-7290
Subject
Compliance assistance
Regulatory requirements
(air)
Regulatory requirements
(RCRA)
Regulatory requirements
(RCRA) and waste sand
treatment
Regulatory requirements
(water)
Energy efficiency and
technology trends
Air emissions and casting
technologies
Regulatory requirements
pollution prevention
Pollution prevention
Industrial processes and
pollution prevention
Environment and pollution
prevention
Regulatory issues
Regulatory issues and
pollution prevention
Regulatory issues
Industrial processes
5 Many of the contacts listed above have provided valuable information and comments during the development of this
document. EPA appreciates this support and acknowledges that the individuals listed do not necessarily endorse all
statements made within this notebook.
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Contacts and References
Competitive Assessment of the U.S. Foundry Industry, U.S. International Trade Commission,
Washington, D.C., 1984. (USITC Publication 1582)
Twarog, Daniel L., and University of Alabama, Waste Management Study of Foundries Major Waste
Streams: Phase I, Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center, Champaign, IL, January 1993.
(HWRICTR-011)
McKinley, Marvin D., et al., Waste Management Study of Foundries Major Waste Streams: Phase
If, Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center, Champaign, IL, April 1994. (HWRIC TR-
016)
AP-42 Sections 7.13: Steel Foundries and 7.10: Gray Iron Foundries, U.S. EPA Office of Air and
Radiation, October 1986.
Section IV; Chemical Release and Transfer Profile
1994 Toxics Release Inventory Public Data Release, U.S. EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and
Toxics, June 1996. (EPA 745-R-96-002)
Section V; Pollution Prevention Opportunities
Guides to Pollution Prevention, The Metal Casting and Heat Treating Industry, U.S. EPA, Office
of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH, September 1992. (EPA/625/R-92/009)
Foundry Sand Beneficial Reuse Manual, Special Report, ed. Thomas, Susan P., American
Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, JJL, 1996.
Philbin, Matthew L., Sand Reclamation Equipment Users Answer the Questions, Modern Casting.
American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL, vol. 86 no. 8, August 1996. pp22-26.
Leidel, Dieter S., Pollution Prevention and Foundries, from Industrial Pollution Prevention
Handbook, ed. Freeman, Harry M., McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1995. pp. 667-684.
Pollution Prevention Practices for the Die Casting Industry, North American Die Casting
Association, Rosemont, EL, 1996.
Personal Correspondence with Ms. Suzanne Simoni, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Protection, Office of Pollution Prevention and Compliance Assistance, Conshohocken, PA,
November 1996.
U.S. EPA Enviro$en$e website, http://www.portfolio/epa/environet/ncpd/auscase_ studies
/mason.html, 1996.
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Contacts and References
Twarog, Daniel L., and University of Alabama, Waste Management Study of Foundries Major Waste
Streams: Phase /, Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center, Champaign, IL, January 1993.
(HWRICTR-011)
McKinley, Marvin D., et al., Waste Management Study of Foundries Major Waste Streams: Phase
II, Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center, Champaign, IL, April 1994. (HWRIC TR-
016)
Archer, Hugh V., et al., Foundry Calculates the Value of Pollution Prevention, Water Environment
and Technology, vol. 6, no. 6, June, 1994.
Estes, John M., Energy Cutting Can Give Foundries Real Savings, Modern Casting. American
Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL, vol. 84, no. 11, November 1994.
Binczewski, George J., Aluminum Casting and Energy Conservation, Light Metal Age, vol. 51, no.
11-12, December 1993.
Profile of the Iron and Steel Industry, U.S. EPA Office of Compliance, Washington D.C., 1995.
Section VI; Summary of Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations
Transactions of the American Foundrymen 's Society, Proceedings of the Ninety-Ninth Annual
Meeting, April 23-26, 1995, American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL, vol.103.
Lessiter, Michael J., Foundries Prepare for Clean Air Act's Title V Showdown, Modern Casting.
American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL, November 1994. pp. 58-59.
Title V Air Operating Permits: What They Mean for Foundries, Modern Casting. American
Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, EL, vol. 85, no. 1, February 1995. pp. 52-53.
Kwan, Quon Y., and Kaempf, Douglas E., Environmental Compliance in Metalcasting, Part 1,
Foundry Management and Technology, pg. 42, October 1995.
Kwan, Quon Y., and CEMF, Douglas E., Environmental Compliance in Metalcasting, Part 2,
Foundry Management and Technology, pg. 39, November 1995.
Breen, Barry, and Campbell-Mohn, Celia, Sustainable Environmental Law, Chapter 16: Metals,
Environmental Law Institute, West Publishing Co., St. Paul, MN, 1993.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
Contacts and References
Section VIII: Compliance Activities and Initiatives
American Metalcasting Consortium, http://www.scra.org/amc/, 1996.
U.S. EPA Enviro$en$e -website, http://www.portfolio/epa/envlronet/ncpd/auscase_studies/mason
.html, 1996.
Beyond2000: A Vision for the American Metalcasting Industry, Cast Metals Coalition, September,
1995.
Personal Correspondence with Mr. David Byro, U.S. EPA, Region III, Philadelphia, PA, June 1996.
Personal Correspondence -with Joel Dougherty, Ph.D., U.S. EPA, Region 6, Hazardous Waste
Enforcement Branch, Dallas, TX, October 1996.
Personal Correspondence with Mr. BillWalden, U.S. Department of Defense, McClellan AFB, CA,
June 1996.
Personal Correspondence-with Ms. Kathy Martin, Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality,
Oklahoma City, OK, September 1996.
Personal Correspondence -with Ms. Suzanne Simoni, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Protection, Office of Pollution Prevention and Compliance Assistance, Conshohocken, PA,
November 1996.
PersonalCorrespondencemth Mr. Douglas Kaempf, U.S. Department of Energy, Industries of the
Future, Washington, D.C., July 1996.
Sector Notebook Project
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APPENDIX A
INSTRUCTIONS FOR DOWNLOADING THIS NOTEBOOK
Electronic Access to this Notebook via the World Wide Web (WWW)
This Notebook is available on the Internet through the World Wide Web. The Enviro$en$e
Communications Network is a free, public, interagency-sUpported system operated by EPA's Office
of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance and the Office of Research and Development. The
Network allows regulators, the regulated community, technical experts, and the general public to
share information regarding: pollution prevention and innovative technologies; environmental
enforcement and compliance assistance; laws, executive orders, regulations, and policies; points of
contact for services and equipment; and other related topics. The Network welcomes receipt of
environmental messages, information, and data from any public or private person or organization.
ACCESS THROUGH THE ENVIRO$EN$E WORLD WIDE WEB
To access this Notebook through the EnviroSenSe World Wide Web, set your World Wide
Web Browser to the following address:
http://es.epa.gov/comply/sector/index.html
or use
WWW.epa.gOV/OeCa - then select the button labeled Industry and Gov't
Sectors and select the appropriate sector from the
menu. The Notebook will be listed.
Direct technical questions to the Feedback function at the bottom of the web page or to
Shhonn Taylor at (202) 564-2502
Appendix A
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