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               Profile Of The
               Metal Casting Industry
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NOTEBOOKS

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                 UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                               WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
                                          fg
                                                                        THE ADMINISTRATOR

Message from the Administrator

Since EPA's founding over 25 years ago, our nation has made tremendous progress in protecting
public health and our environment while promoting economic prosperity. Businesses as large as
iron and steel plants and those as small as the dry cleaner on the corner have worked with EPA to
find ways to operate cleaner, cheaper and smarter.  As a result, we no longer have rivers catching
fire. Our skies are clearer. American environmental technology and expertise are in demand
around the world.

The Clinton Administration recognizes that to continue this progress, we must move beyond the
pollutant-by-pollutant approaches of the past to comprehensive, facility-wide approaches for the
future. Industry by industry and community by community, we must build a new generation of
environmental protection.

The Environmental Protection Agency has undertaken its Sector Notebook Project to compile,
for major industries, information about environmental problems and solutions, case studies and
tips about complying with regulations.  We called on industry leaders, state regulators, and EPA
staff with many years of experience in these industries and with their unique environmental issues.
Together with an extensive series covering other industries, the notebook you hold in your hand is
the result.

These notebooks will help business managers to understand better their regulatory requirements,
and learn more about how others in their industry have achieved regulatory compliance and the
innovative methods some have found to prevent pollution in the first instance.  These notebooks
will give useful information to state regulatory agencies moving toward industry-based programs.
Across EPA we will use this manual to better integrate our programs and improve our compliance
assistance efforts.

I encourage you to  use this notebook to evaluate and improve the way that we together achieve
 our important environmental protection goals. I am confident that these notebooks will help us to
 move forward in ensuring that — in industry after industry, community after community ~
 environmental protection and economic prosperity go hajriin hand.
                                                Carol M. Browner
             R»cycl»cm«cyc]«M» « Printed with Vegetable OB Based Inks on 100% Recycled Paper (40% Postconsutner)

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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
                                                               EPA/310-R-97-004
         EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project:

               Profile of the Metal Casting Industry
                                September 1997
                              Office of Compliance
                  Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
                      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                          401 M St., SW (MC 2221-A)
                             Washington, DC 20460
                           For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office
                    Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
                               ISBN 0-16-049396-X

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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
This report is one in a series of volumes published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to provide information of general interest regarding environmental issues associated with
specific industrial sectors.  The documents were developed under contract by Abt Associates
(Cambridge, MA), Science Applications International Corporation (McLean, VA), and Booz-
Allen  & Hamilton, Inc. (McLean, VA). This publication may be purchased from the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. A listing of available Sector
Notebooks and document numbers is included at the end of this document.

AH telephone orders should be directed to:

       Superintendent of Documents
       U.S. Government Printing Office
       Washington, DC 20402
       (202)512-1800
       FAX (202) 512-2250
       8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., EST, M-F
 Using the form provided at the end of this document, all mail orders should be directed to:

       U.S. Government Printing Office
       P.O. Box 371954
       Pittsburgh, PA 152*50-7954
 Complimentary volumes are available to certain groups or subscribers, such as public and
 academic libraries, Federal, State, and local governments, and the media from EPA's National
 Center for Environmental Publications and Information at (800) 490-9198.  For further
 information, and for answers to questions pertaining to these documents, please refer to the
 contact names and numbers provided within this volume.
 Electronic versions of all Sector Notebooks are available via Internet on the Enviro$en$e World
 Wide Web.  Downloading procedures are described in Appendix A of this document.
 Cover photograph courtesy of American Foundrymen's Society, Inc., Des Plaines, Illinois.
 Sector Notebook Project
          September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
                                                           Sector Notebook Project
                                 Sector Notebook Contacts
 The Sector Notebooks were developed by the EPA's Office of Compliance. Questions relating to
 the Sector Notebook Project can be directed to:

 Seth Heminway, Coordinator, Sector Notebook Project
 US EPA Office of Compliance
 401MSt, SW(2223-A)
 Washington, DC 20460
 (202) 564-7017

 Questions and comments regarding the individual documents can be directed to the appropriate
 specialists listed below.
 Document Number
 EPA/310
 EPA/310
 EPA/310
 EPA/310
 EPA/310
 EPA/310
 EPA/310
 EPA/310
 EPA/310.
 EPA/310
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-

 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
 EPA/310-
EPA/310-
i-R-95-001.
i-R-95-002.
'-R-95-003.
-R-95-004.
-R-95-005.
-R-95-006.
-R-95-007.
-R-95-008.
-R-95-009.
-R-95-010.
-R-95-011.
-R-95-012.
-R-95-013.
-R-95-014.
-R-95-015.
-R-95-016.
-R-95-017.
-R-95-018.

-R-97-001.
•R-97-002.
•R-97-003.
•R-97-004.
•R-97-005.
•R-97-006.
•R-97-007.
R-97-008.
R-97-009.
R-97-010.
            Industry

Dry Cleaning Industry
Electronics and Computer Industry
Wood Furniture and Fixtures Industry
Inorganic Chemical Industry
Iron and Steel Industry
Lumber and Wood Products Industry
Fabricated Metal Products Industry
Metal Mining Industry
Motor Vehicle Assembly Industry
Nonferrous Metals Industry
Non-Fuel, Non-Metal Mining Industry
Organic Chemical Industry
Petroleum Refining Industry
Printing Industry
Pulp and Paper Industry
Rubber and Plastic Industry
Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Industry
Transportation Equipment Cleaning Ind.

Air Transportation Industry
Ground Transportation Industry
Water Transportation Industry
Metal Casting Industry
Pharmaceuticals Industry
Plastic Resin and Manmade Fiber Ind.
Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Ind.
Shipbuilding and Repair Industry
Textile Industry
Sector Notebook Data Refresh, 1997
   Contact

 Joyce Chandler
 Steve Hoover
 Bob Marshall
 Walter DeRieux
 Maria Malave
 Seth Heminway
 Scott Throwe
 Jane Engert
 Anthony Raia
 Jane Engert
 Robert Lischinsky
 Walter DeRieux
 Tom Ripp
 Ginger Gotliffe
 Maria Eisemann
 Maria Malave
 Scott Throwe
 Virginia Lathrop

 Virginia Lathrop
 Virginia Lathrop
 Virginia Lathrop
 Jane Engert
 Emily Chow
 Sally Sasnett
 Rafael Sanchez
Anthony Raia
Belinda Breidenbach
 Seth Heminway
Phone (202)

  564-7073
  564-7007
  564-7021
  564-7067
  564-7027
  564-7017
  564-7013
  564-5021
  564-6045
  564-5021
  564-2628
  564-7067
  564-7003
  564-7072
  564-7016
  564-7027
  564-7013
  564-7057

  564-7057
  564-7057
  564-7057
  564-5021
  564-7071
  564-7074
  564-7028
  564-6045
  564-7022
  564-7017
Sector Notebook Project
                                    m
                                                     September 1997

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Page iv intentionally left blank.

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 Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
                            TABLE OF CONTENTS
 LIST OF FIGURES	vii

 LIST OF TABLES 	vii

 LIST OF ACRONYMS	 viii

 I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT  	1
       A.  Summary of the Sector Notebook Project	1
       B. Additional Information	          2

 II.  INTRODUCTION TO THE METAL CASTING INDUSTRY  	3
       A. Introduction, Background, and Scope of the Notebook  	3
       B.  Characterization of the Metal Casting Industry	3
             1.  Product Characterization	4
             2.  Industry Size and Geographic Distribution	7
             3.  Economic Trends	        IQ

 III. INDUSTRIAL PROCESS DESCRIPTION  	13
       A.  Industrial Processes in the Metal Casting Industry  	13
             1.  Pattern Making	14
             2.  Mold and Core Preparation and Pouring 	15
             3.  Furnace Charge Preparation and Metal Melting	      29
             4.  Shakeout, Cooling and Sand Handling	33
             5.  Quenching, Finishing, Cleaning and Coating  . . .	34
             6.  Die Casting	  35
       B.  Raw Materials Inputs and Pollution Outputs	39
             1.  Foundries  	     39
             2.  Die Casters  	     43
       C.  Management of Chemicals in Wastestream	47

IV. CHEMICAL  RELEASE AND TRANSFER PROFILE  	51
       A.  EPA Toxic Release Inventory for the Metal Casting Industry	55
             1.  Toxic Release Inventory for Ferrous and Nonferrous Foundries	55
             2.  Toxic Release Inventory for Die Casting Facilities	61
       B.  Summary of Selected Chemicals Released	66
       C.  Other Data Sources  	     72
       D.  Comparison of Toxic Release Inventory Between Selected Industries	74
Sector Notebook Project
       September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
                  Sector Notebook Project
V. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES  	77
      A. Waste Sand and Chemical Binder Reduction and Reuse	77
             1. Casting Techniques Reducing Waste Foundry Sand Generation	78
             2. Reclamation and Reuse of Waste Foundry Sand and Metal  	79
      B. Metal Melting Furnaces 	84
      C. Furnace Dust Management	87
      D. Slag and Dross Management 	89
      E. Wastewater  	91
      F. Die Casting Lubrication 	92
      G. Miscellaneous Residual Wastes	92

VI. SUMMARY OF FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS	95
      A. General Description of Major Statutes  	95
      B. Industry Specific Requirements	1°7
      C. Pending and Proposed Regulatory Requirements 	HI

VII. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT HISTORY 	113
      A. Metal Casting Industry Compliance History	117
      B. Comparison of Enforcement Activity Between Selected Industries	119
      C. Review of Major Legal Actions  	124
             1. Review of Major Cases	124
             2. Supplementary Environmental Projects (SEPs)	126

Vffl.  COMPLIANCE ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES 	127
      A. Sector-related Environmental Programs and Activities	127
             1. Federal Activities	127
             2. State Activities  	129
      B. EPA Voluntary Programs	131
      C. Trade Association/Industry Sponsored Activity 	138
             1. Industry Research Programs 	138
             2. Trade Associations  	140

IX. CONTACTS/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS/RESOURCE MATERIALS	143

Appendix A: Instructions for downloading this notebook	A-l
 Sector Notebook Project
VI
September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
                      Sector Notebook Project
                                 LIST OF FIGURES

 Figure 1: Uses of Cast Metal Products	     4
 Figure 2: Types of Metals Cast  	   5
 Figure 3: Geographic Distribution of Metal Casting Establishments	9
 Figure 4: Sand Mold and Core Cross Section	17
 Figure 5: Process Flow and Potential Pollutant Outputs for Typical Green Sand Foundry	19
 Figure 6: Investment Flask and Shell Casting	                     26
 Figure 7: Lost Foam Casting Cross Sections  	28
 Figure 8: Sectional Views of Melting Furnaces 	  32
 Figure 9: Cold (a), and Hot Chamber (b), Die Casting Machines	 36
 Figure 10: Summary of TRI Releases and Transfers by Industry	75


                                 LIST OF TABLES

 Table 1: Facility Size Distribution for the Metal Casting Industry	    8
 Table 2: Top U.S. Metal Casting Companies	'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.\0
 Table 3: Comparison of Several Casting Methods 	           15
 Table 4: Summary of Material Inputs and Potential Pollutant Outputs for the Metal Casting
        Industry	;	                        45
 Table 5: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for Foundries	                48
 Table 6: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for Die Casting Facilities  	49
 Table?: 1995 TRI Releases for Foundries,  by Number of Facilities Reporting	57
 Table 8: 1995 TRI Transfers for Foundries, by Number and Facilities Reporting	 . 59
 Table 9: 1995 TRI Releases for Die Casting Facilities, by Number of Facilities Reporting 	62
 Table 10: 1995 TRI Transfers for Die Casting Facilities, by Number and Facilities Reporting .  63
 Table 11: Top 10 TRI Releasing Metal Casting Facilities	64
 Table 12: Top 10 TRI Releasing Facilities Reporting Metal Casting SIC Codes	65
 Table 13: Air Pollutant Releases by Industry Sector (tons/year)	' ' 73
 Table 14: Toxics Release Inventory Data for Selected Industries	76
 Table 15: Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for the Metal Casting Industry .117
 Table 16: Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for Selected Industries	120
 Table 17: One-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for Selected Industries 	121
 Table 18: Five-Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by Statute for Selected Industries  122
 Table 19: One-Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by Statute for Selected Industries  123
 Table 20: Metal Casting Industry Participation in the 33/50 Program	132
Sector Notebook Project
VII
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
                   Sector Notebook Project
                            LIST OF ACRONYMS

APS -       AIRS Facility Subsystem (CAA database)
AFS-        American Foundrymen's Society
AIRS -      Aerometric Information Retrieval System (CAA database)
BIFs -       Boilers and Industrial Furnaces (RCRA)
BOD -      Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CAA -      Clean Air Act
CAAA -     Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
CERCLA -   Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
CERCLIS -  CERCLA Information System
CFCs -      ChJorofluorocarbons
CO -        Carbon Monoxide
COD -      Chemical Oxygen Demand
CSI -        Common Sense Initiative
CWA -      Clean Water Act
D&B -      Dun and Bradstreet Marketing Index
ELP -       Environmental Leadership Program
EPA -       United States Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA -    Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
FIFRA -    Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FINDS -    Facility Indexing System
HAPs -      Hazardous Air  Pollutants (CAA)
HSDB -     Hazardous Substances Data Bank
IDEA -      Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis
LDR -      Land Disposal Restrictions  (RCRA)
LEPCs -    Local Emergency Planning  Committees
MACT -    Maximum Achievable Control Technology (CAA)
MCLGs -   Maximum Contaminant Level Goals
MCLs -     Maximum Contaminant Levels
MEK -      Methyl Ethyl Ketone
MSDSs -    Material Safety Data Sheets
NAAQS -   National Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAA)
NAFTA -    North  American Free Trade Agreement
NCDB -     National Compliance Database (for TSCA, FIFRA, EPCRA)
NCP -       National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
NEIC -       National Enforcement Investigation Center
NESHAP -   National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NO2 -       Nitrogen Dioxide
NOV -       Notice of Violation
NOX -       Nitrogen Oxide
NPDES -    National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (CWA)
NPL -       National Priorities List
NRC -       National Response Center
NSPS -      New Source Performance Standards (CAA)
 Sector Notebook Project
vm
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
                    Sector Notebook Project
 OAR -       Office of Air and Radiation
 OECA -      Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
 OPA -       Oil Pollution Act
 OPPTS -     Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
 OSHA -      Occupational Safety and Health Administration
 OSW -       Office of Solid Waste
 OSWER -    Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
 OW -        Office of Water
 P2 -         Pollution Prevention
 PCS -        Permit Compliance System (CWA Database)
 POTW -      Publicly Owned Treatments Works
 RCRA -      Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
 RCRIS -      RCRA Information System
 SARA -      Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
 SDWA -      Safe Drinking Water Act
 SEPs -       Supplementary Environmental Projects
 SERCs -      State Emergency Response Commissions
 SIC -        Standard Industrial Classification
 SO2 -        Sulfur Dioxide
 SOX -        Sulfur Oxides
 TOC -       Total Organic Carbon
 TRI -        Toxic Release Inventory
 TRIS -       Toxic Release Inventory System
 TCRIS -      Toxic Chemical Release Inventory System
 TSCA -      Toxic Substances Control Act
 TSS  -        Total Suspended Solids
 UIC  -        Underground Injection Control  (SDWA)
 UST -        Underground Storage Tanks (RCRA)
 VOCs -      Volatile Organic Compounds
Sector Notebook Project
IX
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
                             METAL CASTING INDUSTRY
                                   (SIC 332 AND 336)

I.  INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT

LA.  Summary of the Sector Notebook Project

                     Integrated environmental policies based upon comprehensive analysis of air,
                     water and land pollution are a logical supplement to traditional single-media
                     approaches to environmental protection.  Environmental regulatory agencies
                     are beginning to embrace comprehensive, multi-statute solutions to facility
                     permitting,  enforcement and  compliance assurance, education/ outreach,
                     research, and regulatory development issues. The central concepts driving the
                     new policy direction are that pollutant releases to each environmental medium
                     (air, water and land) affect each other, and that environmental strategies must
                     actively identify and address these inter-relationships by designing policies for
                     the "whole" facility.  One way to achieve a whole facility focus is to design
                     environmental policies for  similar industrial facilities.   By  doing so,
                     environmental concerns that  are common to the manufacturing of similar
                     products can be addressed  in a comprehensive manner. Recognition of the
                     need to develop the industrial "sector-based" approach within the EPA Office
                     of Compliance led to the creation of this document.

                     The Sector Notebook Project was originally initiated by the Office of
                     Compliance within the Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
                     (OECA) to provide  its staff and managers with summary information for
                     eighteen specific industrial sectors. As other EPA offices, states, the regulated
                     community, environmental groups, and the public became interested in this
                     project, the scope of the original project was expanded to its current form.
                     The ability to design comprehensive, common sense environmental protection
                     measures for specific industries is dependent on knowledge of several inter-
                     related topics. For the purposes of this project, the key elements chosen for
                     inclusion are: general industry information (economic and geographic); a
                     description  of industrial processes; pollution outputs; pollution  prevention
                     opportunities; Federal statutory  and regulatory  framework;  compliance
                     history; and a description of partnerships that have been formed between
                     regulatory agencies, the regulated community and the public.

                     For any given industry, each topic listed above could alone be the subject of
                     a lengthy volume.  However, in order to produce a manageable document, this
                     project focuses on providing  summary information for each topic.   This
                     format provides the reader with a synopsis of each issue, and references where
                     more in-depth information is available.  Text within each profile  was
                     researched from a variety of sources, and was usually condensed from more
                     detailed sources pertaining to specific topics. This approach allows for a wide
                     coverage of activities that can be further explored based upon the citations
Sector Notebook Project
         September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
Sector Notebook Project
                     and references listed at the end of this profile. As a check on the information
                     included, each notebook went through an external review process.  The Office
                     of Compliance appreciates the efforts of all those that participated in this
                     process and enabled us to develop more complete, accurate and up-to-date
                     summaries. Many of those who reviewed this notebook are listed as contacts
                     in Section IX and may be sources of additional information.  The individuals
                     and groups on this list do not necessarily concur with all statements within this
                     notebook.

I.E. Additional Information
Providing Comments
                     OECA's Office of Compliance plans to periodically review and update the
                     notebooks and will make these updates available  both  in hard copy and
                     electronically. If you have any comments on the existing notebook, or if you
                     would like to provide additional information, please send a hard copy and
                     computer disk to the EPA Office of Compliance, Sector Notebook Project,
                     401 M St., SW (2223-A), Washington, DC 20460.  Comments can also be
                     uploaded to the Enviro$en$e World Wide Web for general access to all users
                     of the system. Follow instructions in Appendix A for accessing this system.
                     Once you have logged in, procedures for uploading text are available from the
                     on-line Enviro$en$e Help System.
Adapting Notebooks to Particular Needs
                     The scope of the industry sector described in this notebook approximates the
                     national occurrence of facility types within the sector.  In many instances,
                     industries within specific geographic regions or states may have  unique
                     characteristics that are not fully captured in these profiles.  The Office of
                     Compliance encourages  state and local environmental  agencies and other
                     groups to supplement or re-package the information included in this notebook
                     to include more specific  industrial and regulatory information that may be
                     available.  Additionally, interested states  may  want  to supplement  the
                     "Summary of Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations" section with state
                     and local requirements.   Compliance or technical assistance providers may
                     also want to develop the "Pollution Prevention" section in more detail.  Please
                     contact the appropriate specialist listed on the opening page of this notebook
                     if your office is interested in assisting us in the further development of the
                     information or policies addressed within this volume. If you are interested in
                     assisting in the development of new  notebooks for sectors not already
                     covered, please contact the Office of Compliance at 202-564-2395.
Sector Notebook Project
         September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
   Introduction
 H. INTRODUCTION TO THE METAL CASTING INDUSTRY

                     This  section provides background information on the  size,  geographic
                     distribution, employment, production, sales, and economic condition of the
                     metal  casting industry.   Facilities described within this  document are
                     described in terms of their Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes.

 EL. A. Introduction, Background, and Scope of the Notebook

                     The metal  casting industry makes parts from molten metal according to an
                     end-user's specifications. Facilities are typically categorized as casting either
                     ferrous or nonferrous products. The metal casting industry described in this
                     notebook is categorized by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
                     under  Standard  Industrial Classification (SIC) codes  332 Iron and Steel
                     Foundries and 336 Nonferrous Foundries (Castings). The die casting industry
                     is contained within the SIC  336 category since die casting  establishments
                     primarily cast nonferrous metals. OMB is in the process of changing the SIC
                     code system to a system based on similar production  processes called the
                     North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS).  (In the NAIC
                     system, iron and steel  foundries, nonferrous foundries, and die casters are all
                     classified as NAIC 3315.)

                     Although both foundries and  die casters are included in this notebook, there
                     are significant differences in the industrial processes, products, facility size and
                     environmental impacts between  die casters and foundries.   Die casting
                     operations,  therefore,  are  often considered separately  throughout this
                     notebook.

                     In addition to metal casting, some foundries and die casters carry out further
                     operations on their cast parts that are not the primary focus of this notebook.
                     Examples include heat treating (e.g. annealing), case hardening, quenching,
                     descaling, cleaning, painting, masking, and plating. Such operations can
                     contribute significantly to a facility's total waste generation. Typical wastes
                     generated during  such  operations include spent cyanide baths, salt baths,
                     quenchents, abrasive media, solvents and  plating wastes.   For  more
                     information on  these processes, refer to the Fabricated Metal Products
                     Industry Sector Notebook.

H.B.  Characterization of the Metal Casting Industry

                     Foundries and die casters that  produce ferrous and nonferrous castings
                     generally operate on a job or order basis, manufacturing castings for sale to
                     others companies. Some  foundries,  termed captive foundries, produce castings
                     as a subdivision of a corporation that uses the castings to produce larger
                     products such as machinery, motor vehicles, appliances or plumbing fixtures.
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
            Introduction
                     In addition, many facilities do further work on castings such as machining,
                     assembling, and coating.
       n.B.l. Product Characterization
                     About 13 million tons of castings are produced every year in the U.S. (U.S.
                     DOE, 1996). Most of these castings are produced from recycled metals.
                     There are thousands of cast metal products, many of which are incorporated
                     into other products. Almost 90 percent of all manufactured products contain
                     one or more metal castings (LaRue, 1989). It is estimated that on average,
                     every home contains over a ton of castings in the  form of pipe fittings,
                     plumbing  fixtures,  hardware,  and  furnace and air conditioner parts.
                     Automobiles and other transportation equipment use 50 to 60 percent of all
                     castings produced - in engine blocks, crankshafts, camshafts, cylinder heads,
                     brake drums or calipers, transmission housings, differential casings, U-joints,
                     suspension parts, flywheels, engine  mount brackets, front-wheel  steering
                     knuckles, hubs, ship propellers, hydraulic valves, locomotive  undercarriages,
                     and railroad car wheels. The defense industry also uses a large portion of the
                     castings produced in the U.S. Typical cast parts used by the  military include
                     tank tracks and turrets and the tail structure of the F-16 fighter (Walden,
                     1995).   Some of other common castings include: pipes and pipe fittings,
                     valves, pumps, pressure tanks, manhole covers, and cooking  utensils. Figure
                     1 shows the proportion of various types of castings produced in the U.S.

                                     Figure 1: Uses of Cast Metal Products	
                                          Rail Road
                                            4%
                                  Other Transportation
                                       2%
                               Industrial Machines
                                   14%
Motor Vehicles
  31%
                                Farm Equipment
                                   7%
                            Source: U.S. Department of Energy, 1996.
Sector Notebook Project
          September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
   Introduction
       Iron and Steel (Ferrous) Castings
                     Depending on the desired properties of the product, castings can be formed
                     from many types of metals and metal alloys.  Iron and steel (ferrous) castings
                     are categorized by four-digit SIC code by the Bureau of Census according to
                     the type of iron or steel as follows:

                     SIC 3321  - Gray and Ductile Iron Foundries
                     SIC 3322  - Malleable Iron Foundries
                     SIC 3324  - Steel Investment Foundries
                     SIC 3325  - Steel Foundries, Not Elsewhere Classified

                     Gray and Ductile Iron make up almost 75 percent of all castings (ferrous and
                     nonferrous) by weight (see Figure 2). Gray iron contains a higher percentage
                     of carbon  in the form of flake graphite and has a lower ductility than other
                     types of iron.  It is used extensively in the agricultural, heavy  equipment,
                     engine, pump, and power transmission industries.  Ductile iron has magnesium
                     or cerium added to change the form of the graphite from flake to nodular.
                     This results in increased ductility, stiflhess, and tensile strength (Loper,  1985).

                                	Figure 2; Types of Metals Cast
                                                                           Other Nonferrous
                                                                              3%
                               Source: U.S. Department of Energy, 1996.


                    Malleable  iron foundries produce only about two percent of all castings
                    (ferrous and nonferrous). Malleable iron contains small amounts of carbon,
                    silicon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and metal alloys to increase strength
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
  Introduction
                     and endurance. Malleable iron has  excellent  machinability and  a high
                     resistance to atmospheric corrosion. It is often used in the electrical power,
                     conveyor and handling equipment, and railroad industries.

                     Compared to  steel, gray, ductile, and malleable iron are all  relatively
                     inexpensive to produce, easy to machine, and are widely used where the
                     superior mechanical properties of steel are not required (Loper,  1985).

                     Steel  castings make up  about 10 percent of all  castings (ferrous  and
                     nonferrous).  In general, steel castings have better strength,  ductility, heat
                     resistance, durability and weldability than iron castings. There are  a number
                     of different classes of steel castings based on the carbon or alloy content, with
                     different mechanical properties. A large number of different alloying metals
                     can be added to steel to increase its strength, heat resistance, or  corrosion
                     resistance (Loper, 1985). The steel investment casting method produces high-
                     precision castings,  usually smaller castings.  Examples of steel investment
                     castings range from machine tools and dies to golf club heads.

       Nonferrous Castings

                     Nonferrous castings are categorized by four-digit SIC code by the Bureau of
                     Census according to the type of metal as follows:

                     SIC 3363 - Aluminum Die-Castings
                     SIC 3364 - Nonferrous Die-Castings, Except Aluminum
                     SIC 3365 - Aluminum Foundries
                     SIC 3366 - Copper Foundries
                     SIC 3369 - Nonferrous Foundries, Except Aluminum and Copper

                     Nonferrous foundries often use the same basic molding and casting techniques
                     as ferrous foundries. Many foundries cast both ferrous and nonferrous metals.
                     Aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, tin, nickel, magnesium and titanium are the
                     nonferrous metals of primary commercial importance. Usually, these metals
                     are cast in combinations with each other or with some of about 40 other
                     elements to make  many different  nonferrous alloys.  A  few of  the more
                     common nonferrous alloys are: brass, bronze, nickel-copper alloys (Monel),
                     nickel-chromium-iron  alloys, aluminum-copper alloys,  aluminum-silicon
                     alloys, aluminum-magnesium alloys, and titanium alloys.

                     Nonferrous metals are used in castings that require specific mechanical
                     properties, machinability, and/or corrosion resistance (Kunsman, 1985).
                     Aluminum and aluminum alloy castings are produced in the largest volumes;
                     11 percent of all castings (ferrous and nonferrous) by weight  are aluminum.
                     Copper and copper alloy castings make up about two percent of all castings
                     by weight (DOE, 1996). Figure 2 shows the proportions of raw material types
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 Metal Casting Industry
   Introduction
                     used in castings in the U.S.

                     About 9 percent by weight of all cast metal products are produced using die
                     casting techniques (DOE, 1996).  Die casting is cost effective for producing
                     large numbers of a casting and can achieve a wide variety of sizes and shapes
                     with  a high degree of accuracy.  Holes, threads, and gears can be cast,
                     reducing the amount of metal to be machined from the casting.  Most die
                     castings are aluminum; however, lead, tin, zinc, copper, nickel, magnesium,
                     titanium, and beryllium alloys are also die cast. Die casts are usually limited
                     to nonferrous metals and are often under ten pounds.  A wide variety of
                     products are produced using the die casting process, ranging from tiny wrist
                     watch parts to one-piece automobile engine blocks (Street, 1977).  Other
                     typical die castings include: aluminum transmission cases, bearings, bushings,
                     valves, aircraft parts, tableware, jewelry and household appliance parts.

       H.B.2.  Industry Size and Geographic Distribution

                     According  to  the   1992  Census  of  Manufacturers  data,  there  are
                     approximately 2,813 metal casting facilities under SIC codes 332  and 336.
                     The-payroll for  1992 totaled $5.7  billion for a workforce  of 158,000
                     employees, and value of shipments totaled $18.8 billion. The industry's own
                     estimates of the number of facilities and employment are somewhat  higher at
                     3,100 facilities employing 250,000 in 1994  (Cast Metals Coalition,  1995).
                     Based on the Census of Manufacturers data, the industry is labor intensive.
                     The value  of  shipments per employee, a  measure  of labor intensity, is
                     $119,000 that is  less than half of the steel manufacturing industry value
                     ($245,000 per employee) and less than seven percent of the petroleum refining
                     industry value ($1.8 million per employee).

                     Most metal casting facilities in the U.S. are small. About seventy percent of
                     the facilities employ fewer than 50 people (see Table 1). Most metal casting
                     facilities manufacture castings for sale to other companies (U.S. Census of
                     Manufacturers, 1992).  An important exception are the relatively  few (but
                     large) "captive" foundries operated by large original equipment manufacturers
                     (OEM's) including  General Motors, Ford, Chrysler, John Deere,  and
                     Caterpillar. OEM's account for a large portion of the castings produced and
                     employ a significant number of the industry's workforce.

                     Although die casting establishments account for only about 9 percent of cast
                     products by weight, they make up  about 20  percent of metal casting
                     establishments and value  of sales (U.S. Census of Manufacturers, 1992).  In
                     proportion to the industry size, there is very little difference between the size
                     distribution of foundries and die casters.
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Metal Casting Industry
  Introduction
Table 1: Facility Size Distribution for the Metal Casting Industry
Employees
per Facility
1-9
10-49
50-249
250-499
500-2499
2500 or more
Total
Ferrous and Nonferrous Foundries
(SIC 332, 3365, 3366, and 3369)
Number of
Facilities
742
843
494
90
43
4
2216
Percentage of
Facilities
33%
38%
22%
4%
2%
0%
100%
Die Casting Establishments
(SIC 3363 and 3364)
Number of
Facilities
167
214
186
25
4
0
596
Percentage of
Facilities
28%
36%
31%
4%
1%
0%
100%
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census of Manufacturers, 1992.
       Geographic Distribution
                     The geographic distribution of the metal casting industry resembles that of the
                     iron and steel industry.  The highest geographic concentration of facilities is
                     in the Great Lakes, midwest, southeast regions and California,  The top states
                     by number of facilities in order are: California, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
                     Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana.   Figure 3 shows the U.S. distribution of
                     facilities based  on 1992 data from the U.S. Census of Manufacturers.
                     Historically, locations for metal casting establishments were selected for their
                     proximity to raw materials (iron, steel, and other metals), coal, and water for
                     cooling, processing, and  transportation.  Traditional metal casting regions
                     included  the Monongahela River valley near  Pittsburgh  and along the
                     Mahoning River near Youngstown, Ohio. The geographic concentration of
                     the industry is changing as facilities are built where scrap metal and electricity
                     are available at a reasonable  cost and there is a local market for the cast
                     products.
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 Metal Casting Industry
   Introduction
       Figure 3: Geographic Distribution of Metal Casting Establishments
 Source: U.S. Census of Manufacturers, 1992.
                    Dun & Bradstreet's Million Dollar Directory, compiles financial data on U.S.
                    companies including those operating within the metal casting industry. Dun
                    & Bradstreet ranks U.S. companies,  whether they are a parent company,
                    subsidiary or division, by sales volume within their assigned 4-digit SIC code.
                    Readers should note that:  (1) companies are assigned a 4-digit SIC that
                    resembles their principal industry most closely; and (2) sales figures include
                    total .company sales, including subsidiaries and operations (possibly not related
                    to  metal casting).   Additional sources of company specific financial
                    information include Standard  & Poor's  Stock Report Services, Ward's
                    Business Directory of U.S.  Private and Public  Companies,  Moody's
                    Manuals, and annual reports.
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                                            Introduction
Table 2: Top U.S. Metal Casting Companies
Rank'
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Company1"
Howmet Corporation - Greenwich, CT
Nswell Operating Co. - Freeport, IL
CMI International Inc. - Southfield, MI
Precision Castparts Corporation - Portland, OR
Grede Foundries - Milwaukee, WI
United States Pipe and Foundry - Birmingham, AL
George Koch Sons, Inc.
Varlen Corporation - Naperville, IL
Allied Signal, Inc.
North American Royalties, Inc.
1995 Sales
(millions of dollars)
900
796
561
557
460
412
390
387
260
254
Note: "Not all sales can be attributed to the companies' metal casting operations.
b Companies shown listed SIC 332, 3363, 3364, 3365, 3369. Many large companies operating captive
metal casting facilities produce other goods and are not shown here.
Source: Dunn & Bradstreet 's Million Dollar Directory - 1996.
       H.B.3.  Economic Trends
                     The U.S. metal casting industry experienced an unprecedented  drop in
                     production during the 1970's and 1980's.  Production of cast metal products
                     declined from 19.6 million tons in 1972 to 11.3 million tons in 1990.  During
                     this period over 1,000 metal casting facilities closed (DOE, 1996).  A number
                     of reasons have been given for this decline including: decreased U.S.  demand
                     for cast metal resulting from decreases in automobile production and  smaller,
                     lighter weight vehicles  for increased fuel  efficiency; increased  foreign
                     competition; increased use of substitute materials such as plastics, ceramics,
                     and composites; and increased costs to comply with new environmental and
                     health and safety regulations.

                     The metal casting industry began to recover in the early 1990's; however, it
                     still produces less than in the early 1970's. The recovery has been attributed
                     to increases  in domestic demand  in part due to increases in automobile
                     production. In addition, exports of castings have increased and imports have
                     decreased.  Between  1993 and 1994 alone the U.S. increased its  share of
                     world metal casting production from 18 percent to 20 percent. The increases
                     in production came primarily from increases in capacity utilization at existing
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 Metal Casting Industry
                                 Introduction
                     facilities  rather than  an increase  in  facilities.   In fact,  the  American
                     Foundrymen's Society estimates that the number of metal casting facilities
                     decreased by over 200 between 1990 and 1994 (DOE, 1996).

                     In 1972,  only five percent of all castings were aluminum. Today aluminum
                     accounts for over 11 percent of the market (DOE, 1996). Aluminum castings
                     are steadily comprising a larger share of the castings market as their use in
                     motor vehicle and engine applications continues to grow. To produce lighter
                     weight, more fuel efficient vehicles, the automobile industry is in the process
                     redesigning the engine blocks, heads and other parts of passenger cars and
                     light trucks for aluminum. Cast aluminum is expected to increase from 140
                     pounds per vehicle in 1995 to 180 pounds  per  vehicle in 2004.  This is
                     primarily at the expense of gray iron which will decrease from 358 pounds per
                     vehicle in  1995 to 215 pounds in 2004 (Modern Casting, September, 1995).

                     The U.S. metal casting industry that emerged from the two decades of decline
                     in the 1970's and 1980's is stronger  and more competitive.  The industry is
                     developing  new markets and  recapturing  old  markets.   Research and
                     development has resulted in technological advances that have  improved
                     product quality, overall productivity and energy efficiency.  Important recent
                     technological  advances have included Computer  Aided Design (CAD) of
                     molds and castings, the use of sensors and computers to regulate critical
                     parameters within  the processes, and  the use of programmable  robots to
                     perform dangerous, time consuming  or repetitive tasks.

                     To stay competative, the industry has identified the following priority  areas
                     for research and development to improve its processes and products:
                           improving casting technologies
                           developing new casting materials (alloys) and die materials
                           developing higher strength and lower weight castings
                           improving process controls
                           improving dimensional control
                           improving the quality of casting material
                           reducing casting defects (DOE, March 1996)
                           developing environmentally improved materials to  meet today's
                           regulations (AFS,  1997)
                    Research into new casting methods and improvements in the current methods
                    are  resulting  in  improved  casting  quality,  process efficiency,  and
                    environmental benefits.
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 Metal Casting Industry
                 Industrial Process Descrintion
   . INDUSTRIAL PROCESS DESCRIPTION
                      This section describes the major industrial processes within the metal casting
                      industry, including the materials and equipment used  and the processes
                      employed.  The section is designed for those interested in gaining a general
                      understanding of the industry, and for those interested in the inter-relationship
                      between the industrial process and the topics described in subsequent sections
                      of this  profile — pollutant outputs,  pollution prevention opportunities, and
                      Federal regulations.  This section does not attempt to replicate published
                      engineering information that is available for this industry. Refer to Section IX
                      for a list of resource materials and contacts that are available.

                      This section  specifically contains a description of commonly used production
                      processes, associated raw materials, the by-products produced or released,
                      and the materials either recycled or transferred off-site.  This discussion,
                      coupled with schematic drawings of the identified  processes, provide a
                      concise description of where wastes may be produced in the process. This
                      section also describes the potential fate (via air,  water, and soil pathways) of
                      these waste  products.
 HI.A. Industrial Processes in the Metal Casting Industry
                     Many different metal casting techniques are in use today.  They all have in
                     common the construction of a mold with a cavity in the external shape of the
                     desired cast part followed by the introduction of molten metal into the mold.

                     For the purposes of this profile, the metal casting process has been divided
                     into the following five major operations:

                     •      Pattern Making
                     •      Mold and Core Preparation and Pouring
                     •      Furnace Charge Preparation and Metal Melting
                     •      Shakeout, Cooling and Sand Handling
                     •      Quenching, Finishing, Cleaning and Coating

                     All five operations may not apply to each casting method.  Since the major
                     variations between processes occur in the  different types of molds used,
                     Section III.A.2 - Mold and  Core Preparation is divided into subsections
                     describing the major casting processes.  In addition to the casting techniques
                     described below, there are numerous special processes and variations of those
                     processes that cannot be discussed here.  Nevertheless, such processes may
                     play an important role in a facility's efforts to comply with environmental
                     requirements. Refer to Section IX for a list of references providing more
                     detail on casting processes.
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Metal Casting Industry
               Industrial Process Description
                    Note that die casting operations have been presented separately in Section
                    ffl.A.6. The different processes, equipment, and environmental impacts of die
                    casting do not fit easily into operations outlined above.

       HI.A.1. Pattern Making

                    Pattern making, or foundry tooling, requires a high level of skill to achieve the
                    close tolerances required of the patterns and coreboxes. This step is critical
                    in the casting process since the castings produced can be no better than the
                    patterns used to make them. In some pattern making shops, computer-aided
                    drafting (CAD) is  used in the design of patterns.  Cutter tool paths are
                    designed with computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Numerical output from
                    these computers is  conveyed to  computer-numerical-controlled (CNC)
                    machine  tools,  which then cut the production  patterns to shape.   Such
                    computer-aided systems have better dimensional accuracy and consistency
                    than hand methods (LaRue, 1989).

                    Patterns and corebox materials are typically metal, plastic, wood or plaster.
                    Wax and polystyrene are used in the investment  and lost foam casting
                    processes, respectively. Pattern makers have a wide range of tools available
                    including wood working and metal machining tools. Mechanical connectors
                     and glues are used to join pattern pieces. Wax, plastic or polyester putty are
                    used as "fillet" to fill or round the inside of square corners (LaRue, 1989).

                    Wastes Generated
                     Very little  waste is generated during pattern making compared  to other
                     foundry  operations.   Typical pattern shop wastes  include scrap pattern
                     materials (wood, plastics, metals,  waxes,  adhesives, etc.) and paniculate
                     emissions from cutting, grinding and sanding operations. Waste solvents and
                     cleaners may be generated from equipment cleaning.
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 Metal Casting Industry
                 Industrial Process Description
Table 3: Comparison of Several Casting Methods
(approximate and depending upon the metal)

Relative cost in quantity
Relative cost for small
number
Permissible weight of
casting
Thinnest section
castable, inches
Typical dimensional
tolerance, inches (not
including parting lines)
Relative surface finish
Relative mechanical
properties
Relative ease of casting
complex design
Relative ease of
changing design in
production
Range of alloys that can
t>e cast
Source: American Foundrymt
Green
Sand
Casting
low
lowest
up to about
Iton
1/10
.012
fair to
good
good
fair to
good
best
unlimited
Permanent
Mold Cast
low
high
100 Ibs.
1/8
0.03
good
good
fair
poor
copper base
and lower
melting point
metals
preferable
Die
Casting
lowest
highest
60 Ibs.
1/32
0.01
best
very good
good
poorest
aluminum
base and
lower
melting
preferable
Sand-Shell
C02-Core
medium high
medium high
Shell:
ozs. - 250 Ibs.
CO2:
1/2 Ibs. - tons
1/10
.010
Shell: good
CO2: fair
good
good
fair
unlimited
Investment
highest
medium
Ozs. - 100 Ibs.
1/16
0.01
very good
fair
best
fair
limited
m 's Society, 1981.
       HI.A.2. Mold and Core Preparation and Pouring

                    The various  processes used  to  cast metals are largely defined by the
                    procedures and  materials used to make the molds and cores.   Table 3
                    summarizes the major casting methods and their applications. A mold and
                    cores (if required) are usually made for each casting.  These molds and cores
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                            Industrial Process Description
                     are destroyed and separated from the casting during shakeout (see Section
                     III.A.4 - Shakeout, Cooling and Sand Handling). (Exceptions include the
                     permanent mold process and die casting process in which the molds are used
                     over and over again.)  Most sand is reused over and over in other molds;
                     however, a portion of sand becomes spent after a number of uses and must be
                     removed as waste. Mold and core making are, therefore, a large source of
                     foundry wastes.

       Sand Molds and Cores

                     For most sand casting techniques,  the following summary of the process
                     applies  (see Figure 4). First, engineers design the casting and specify the
                     metal or alloy to be cast.  Next, a pattern (replica of the finished piece) is
                     constructed from  either plastic, wood, metal,  plaster or wax. Usually, the
                     pattern is comprised of two halves.  The molding sand is shaped around the
                     pattern halves in a metal box (flask) and then removed, leaving the two mold
                     halves. The top half of the mold (the cope) is assembled with the bottom half
                     (the drag) which sits on a molding board. The interface between the two mold
                     halves is called a parting line.  Weights may be places on the cope to help
                     secure the two halves together. The molten metal is poured or injected into
                     a hole in the cope called a sprue or sprue basin which is connected to the mold
                     cavity by runners.  The runners, sprue, gates, and risers comprise the mold's
                     gating system, which is designed to carry molten metal smoothly to all parts
                     of the mold.  The metal is then allowed to solidify within the space defined by
                     the mold.

                     Since the molds themselves only replicate the external shape of the pattern,
                     cores are placed inside the mold to form  any  internal cavities.   Cores are
                     produced in a core box, which is essentially  a permanent mold that is
                     developed in conjunction with the pattern.  So that molten metal can flow
                     around all sides of the  cores, they are supported on core prints (specific
                     locations shaved into the mold) or on by metal supports called chaplets.

                     Foundry molds and cores are most commonly constructed of sand grains
                     bonded together to form the desired shape of the  casting. Sand is used
                     because it is inexpensive, is capable of holding detail, and resists deformation
                     when heated. Sand casting  affords a  great  variety of casting sizes and
                     complexities. Sand also offers the advantage of reuse of a large portion of the
                     sand in future molds. Depending on the quantity of castings, however, the
                     process can be slower and  require more man-hours than processes not
                     requiring a separate mold for each casting. In addition, castings from sand
                     molds are dimensionally less accurate than those produced from some other
                     techniques and often require a certain amount of machining (USITC, 1984).
                     The pattern making, melting, cleaning, and finishing operations are essentially
                     the  same whether or not sand molds are used.  Sand molds and cores will,
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 Metal Casting Industry
                   Industrial Process Description
                     however, require the additional operational steps involved with handling
                     quantities of used mold and core sand (see Section III. A. 5 - Sand Handling).

                     In general, the various binding systems can be classified as either clay bonded
                     sand (green sand) or chemically bonded sand. The type of binding system
                     used depends on a number of production variables, including the temperature
                     of the molten metal, the casting size, the types of sand used, and the alloys to
                     be cast.   The differences in binding systems can have an impact on the
                     amounts and toxicity of wastes generated and potential releases to the
                     environment.

                    Figure 4: Sand Mold and Core Cross Section
               Weight-

             Chill
          Core print
           Parting
             line
            Chaplets
Risers
Sprue
                              Cope
                              flask
                                      \
                       Molding board—1
                            Runner
                            Gate
                            •Drag flask
         Sand
 Source: American Foundrymen 's Society, 1981.
                     Some sand molding techniques utilize chemical binders which then require
                     that the mold halves be heat treated or baked in order to activate the binders.
                     In order to pour molten metal into the mold when the cope and drag are
                     latched together, runners are cut or molded into each half. Runners are
                     connected to the mold cavity with a gate which is usually cut into the cope.
                     A sprue is cut or molded through the cope to the runners such that when
                     molten metal is poured into the hole through the cope, it travels through the
                     runners and gate into the mold. Often risers are also cut into the mold halves.
                     After  pouring, risers provide a reservoir of molten metal to areas  of the
                     casting that solidify last.  If metal is not supplied to these areas, the casting
                     will have shrinkage defects.
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Metal Casting Industry
               Industrial Process Description
                    Cores require different physical characteristics than molds; therefore, the
                    binding systems used to make cores may be different from those used for
                    molds. Cores must be able to withstand the strong forces of molten metal
                    filling the mold,  and often must be removed from small passages in the
                    solidified casting.  This means that the binding system used must produce
                    strong, hard  cores  that will collapse for  removal after the casting has
                    hardened.   Therefore, cores are typically  formed from  silica sand (and
                    occasionally olivine or zircon sand), and strong chemical binders (U.S. EPA,
                     1992). The sand and binder mix is placed in a core box where it hardens into
                    the desired shape and is removed. Hardening,  or curing, is accomplished with
                    heat,,a chemical reaction, or a catalytic reaction. The major binding systems
                    in use for molds and cores are discussed below.

                    Green Sand
                    Green sand is the most common molding process, making about 90%  of
                    castings produced in the U.S. Green sand is not used to form cores. Cores are
                    formed using one of the chemical binding systems. Green sand is the only
                    process that uses a moist sand mix. The  mixture is made up of about 85 to  95
                    percent silica (or olivine or zircon) sand, 4 to 10 percent bentonite clay, 2 to
                     10 percent carbonaceous materials such as powdered (sea) coal, petroleum
                     products, corn starch or wood flour, and 2 to 5 percent water (AFS, 1996).
                     The clay and water act as the binder, holding the sand grains together. The
                     carbonaceous materials burn off when the molten metal is poured into the
                     mold, creating a reducing atmosphere which prevents the metal from oxidizing
                     while it solidifies (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     Advantages and Disadvantages
                     Green sand, as exemplified by its widespread use, has a number of advantages
                     over other casting methods.  The process can be used for both ferrous and
                     non-ferrous metal casting and it can handle a more diverse range of products
                     than any other casting method.  For example, green sand is used to produce
                     both small precision castings and large castings of up to a ton.  If uniform
                     sand .compaction and accurate control of sand properties are maintained, very
                     close tolerances can be  obtained. The process also has the advantage of
                     requiring a relatively short time to produce a mold compared to many other
                     processes. In addition, the relative simplicity of the process makes it ideally
                     suited to a mechanized process (AFS,  1989).

                     Wastes Generated
                     Sand cores that are used in molds break down and become part of the mold
                     sand! Foundries using green sand molds generate waste sand that becomes
                     spent after it has been reused in the process a number of times, as a portion
                     must be disposed of to prevent the build up of grains that are too fine. Waste
                     chemically bonded core sands are also generated.  Typically, damaged cores
                     are not reusable and must be disposed as waste.
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 Metal Casting Industry
                 Industrial Process Descrintion
  Figure 5; Process Flow and Potential Pollutant Outputs for Typical Green Sand Foundry
Make-up Sand

v Particulates \
"""^
, 	 	 Mold
/' P**** \ Makin9
V °HAPs, VOCs ' t L
" - .. 	 - "I "
Sand
s^ ~X. Preparation & -
/wetscrubber^ Treatment
1 wastewaterwith . im.M.|n.irf ^
\h,ghpH/ .screenlng
— 	 	 -^ -Metal Removal
^ -Thermal Treatment
: -Wet Scrubbing
: Other
t
vste sand, fines and ^
lumps, metals ^


Raw Materials Inputs
• Binders

*•"
I Particulates )
V S
Sand & Binder
Mixing
1
Core Fo nn ing
i


*
Mold & Core
^ Assembly
*
Mold Pouring,

i
Sand
Casting
Shakeout
1
Riser Cutoff &
Gate Removal
Raw Materials Input:
•Metal Scrap or Ingot
•Alloys
•Fluxing Agents
~~T" \
' Particulates \
^'""'
^ VOCs, HAPs " )
f Particulates, metal oxide N
' fumes, carbon monoxide,
K ^ VOCs, HAPs '
^ ^ ,'
A"' _
.
^ 	

v Particulates
^T~~"'
Particulates
L


^^
/
l Particulates. VOC
1 "-»-
^ Cleaning, Finishing
& Coating
	 	 	 	 ' i
j, 	 •

|
Inspection &
Shipping
<
-
Scrap & Charge
Preparation "'
\
r
Metal Melting
•Cupola Furnace
•Electric-Arc Furnace
•Induction Furnace
•Reverbcratoiy Furnace
•Crucible Furnace
\


f Hydrocarbons, ^
^"\ carbon monoxide, )
\ smoke '
.^- " "* \
/ Particulates, \
1 nitrogen oxides, \
1 carbon monoxides, v
, metal oxide jumes, (
\ suljur dioxide (
\ 1
\ /
^^tuSspent rejractory^^
^s^ material ^^^
r
rapping, Treatment,
Slag & Dross '
Removal '
? '• -»
,, "" ~~ ^
f Particulates, \
( nitrogen oxides, \
carbon monoxides, *
metal oxide fames, '
v sulfur dioxide 'f
^ '
\, s
<5Iag, dross, spent ^s^
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\
/


<<-ap metal, spent tools, ^SNS.
abrasives ^^
s )


f Waste cleaning water WJ/H\
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Sfr suspended solids jS
<^
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treatment sludge ^r

\
Off-spec castings, ^\.
ackaging materials ^?
^ fS



Source: Adapted from Kotzin, Air Pollution Engineering Manual: Steel Foundries, 1992.
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Metal Casting Industry
               Industrial Process Description
                    Particulate emissions are generated during mixing, molding and core making
                    operations.  In addition, gaseous and metal fume emissions develop when
                    molten metal is poured into the molds and a portion of the metal volatilizes
                    and condenses.  When green sand additives and core sand binders come into
                    contact with the molten metal, they produce gaseous emissions such as carbon
                    monoxide, organic compounds,  hydrogen sulfide,  sulfur dioxide, nitrous
                    oxide, benzene, phenols, and other hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) (Twarog,
                    1993). Wastewater containing metals and suspended solids may be generated
                    if the mold is cooled with water.

                    Chemical Binding Systems
                    Chemical binding systems are primarily used for core making.  Green sand is
                    not used for cores because, chemically bound sand is stronger, harder, and can
                    be more easily removed from the cavity after the metal has solidified. Almost
                    every foundry using sand molds uses one or more of the chemical binding
                    systems described below in constructing sand cores. Although some foundries
                    also use chemical binding systems to construct molds, the much more simple,
                    quick and inexpensive green sand molds described previously dominate the
                    industry in terms  of tons of castings produced.  When chemical binding
                    systems are used for mold making, the "shell-mold" system is most often used.
                    Chemical bonding systems work through either thermal setting, chemical or
                    catalytic reactions.  The major thermal setting systems include:  oil-bake, shell
                    core/mold, hot box, and warm box. The major catalytic systems are the no-
                    bake and cold box systems (U.S. EPA, 1993).

                    Oil-Bake
                    The traditional method used to produce cores is the oil-bake, or core-oil
                    system.  The oil-bake system uses oil and cereal binders mixed with sand. The
                    core is shaped in a core box and then baked in an oven to harden it.  Oils used
                    can be natural, such as linseed oil, or synthetic resins, such as phenolic resins.
                    The oil-bake system was used almost exclusively before 1950, but has now
                    been largely replaced by other chemical binding systems (U.S. EPA, 1981).

                    Shell Core
                    The shell core  system uses sand mixed with synthetic resins and a catalyst.
                    The resins are typically phenolic or furan resins, or mixtures of the two. Often
                    the shell core sand is purchased as dry coated sand.  The catalyst is a weak
                    aqueous acid such as ammonium chloride.  The  sand mixture is shaped in a
                    heated metal core box.  Starting from the outside edge of the core box and
                    moving through the sand towards the center of the core box, the heat begins
                    to  cure the sand mix into a hard mass. When the outside 1/8  to 3/16 inches
                    of sand has been cured, the core box is inverted. The uncured sand pours out
                    of the core box leaving a hard sand core shell behind.  The shell core is then
                    removed from the core box, allowed to cure for an addition few minutes and
                    is then ready for placement in the mold (LaRue, 1989).  The system has the
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 Metal Casting Industry
                  Industrial Process Description
                      advantage of using less sand and binders than other systems; however, shell
                      sand may be more expensive than sand used in other sand processes.

                      Shell Mold
                      The shell mold system is similar to the shell core system, but is used to
                      construct molds instead of cores.  In this process, metal pattern halves are
                      preheated, coated with a silicone emulsion release agent, and then covered by
                      the resin-coated sand mixture. The heat from the  patterns cures the sand mix
                      and the mold is removed after the desired thickness of sand is obtained. The
                      silicone emulsion acts as a mold release allowing the shell mold to be removed
                      from the pattern after curing (LaRue, 1989).

                      Hot Box Core
                      The hot box process uses a phenolic or furan resin and a weak acid catalyst
                      that are  mixed with sand to  coat the surface  of the grains.  The  major
                      difference between this system  and the shell core system is that the core box
                      is heated to about 450 to 550 °F until the entire core has become solidified
                      (Twarog, 1993). The system has the advantage of very fast curing times and
                      a sand mix consistency allowing the core boxes  to be  filled and packed
                      quickly.   Therefore, the  system is ideal for  automation and the mass
                      production of cores.  The disadvantage is that more sand and binder is used
                      in this  system than in the shell core system.

                      Warm  Box Core
                      The warm box system is essentially the same as the hot box system, but uses
                      a different catalyst. The catalysts used allow the resin binders to cure at a
                      lower temperature (300 to 400  °F). As with the hot box, the resins used are
                     phenolic and furan resins.  Either copper salts or sulfonic acids are used as a
                     catalyst.  The advantage over hot box is reduced energy costs for heating
                     (Twarog, 1993).

                     Cold Box
                     The cold box process is relatively new to the foundry industry. The system
                     uses a catalytic gas to cure the binders at room temperature.  A number of
                     different systems are available including phenolic urethane binder with carbon
                     dioxide gas as the catalyst.  Other systems involve different binders  (e.g.,
                     sodium silicate) and gases, such as sulfur dioxide and  dimethylethylamine
                     (DMEA), many of which are flammable or irritants.  Compared to  other
                     chemical systems, the cold box systems have a short curing time (lower than
                     ten seconds) and therefore are well suited to  mass production techniques
                     (AFS,  1981).  In addition, the  absence of costly  oven heating can result in
                     substantial energy savings.
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                            Industrial Process Description
                     No-Bake
                     The no-bake or air set binder systems allow curing at room temperature
                     without the use of reactive gases.  The no-bake system uses either acid
                     catalysts or esters to cure the binder.  The acid catalysts are typically benzene,
                     toluene, sulfonic or phosphoric acids. Binders are either phenolic resins, furan
                     resins, sodium silicate solution  or alkyd urethane.  The system has the
                     advantage of substantial savings in energy costs (Twarog, 1993).

                     Advantages and Disadvantages
                     Cores are necessarily constructed using chemical binders. Molds, however,
                     may be constructed with chemical binders or green sand. The advantages to
                     using chemically bonded molds over green sand molds may include: a longer
                     storage life for the molds, a potentially lower metal pouring temperature, and
                     molds having better dimensional  stability and surface finish.  Disadvantages
                     include the added costs of chemical binders, the energy costs for curing the
                     binders, added difficulties to reclaim used sand, and environmental and worker
                     safety  concerns for air emissions associated with binder  chemicals during
                     curing and metal pouring.

                     Wastes Generated
                     Solid wastes generated include broken cores and sand that has set up
                     prematurely or inadequately. Waste  resins and binders can be generated from
                     spills, residuals in  containers, and outdated materials. In addition to fugitive
                     dust from the handling of sand, mold and core making using chemical binding
                     systems may generate gaseous emissions such as carbon monoxide, VOCs and
                     a number of gasses listed as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) under the Clean
                     Air Act.  Emissions occur primarily during heating or curing of the molds and
                     cores,  removal of the cores from core boxes,  cooling, and pouring of metal
                     into molds (Twarog, 1993).  The specific pollutants generated depends on the
                     type of binding system being used.  Section III.B Table 4 lists typical air
                     emissions that may be expected from each major type of chemical binding
                     system. Wastewater containing metals, suspended solids, and phenols may be
                     generated if molds are  cooled with water.

        Permanent Mold Casting

                     In permanent mold casting, metal molds are used repeatedly.  Although the
                     molds deteriorate over time, they can be used to make thousands of castings
                     before being replaced.  The process is similar to die casting (see Section
                     IE. A.6 on Die Casting)  with the exception being that gravity is used to fill the
                     mold rather than external  pressure.  Permanent molds are designed to be
                     opened, usually on a hinge, so that the castings can be removed. Permanent
                     molds can be used for casting both ferrous and nonferrous metals as long as
                     the mold metal has a higher melting point than the casting metal. Cores from
                     permanent molds can be sand,  plaster, collapsible metal or, soluble  salts.
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 Metal Casting Industry
                  Industrial Process Description
                      When  cores are  not reusable,  the process
                      semipermanent mold casting (AFS, 1981).
                        is  often  referred  to  as
                      Since the process is relatively simple after the mold has been fabricated, and
                      since large numbers of castings are usually produced, permanent mold casting
                      is typically an automated process.  The sequence of operations includes an
                      initial  cleaning of the mold followed by preheating and the spraying or
                      brushing on of a mold coating. The coating serves the purpose of insulating
                      the molten metal from the relatively cool, heat conducting mold metal. This
                      allows the mold to be filled completely before the metal begins to solidify.
                      The coatings also help produce good surface finish, act as a lubricant to
                      facilitate casting removal, and allow any air in the mold to escape via space
                      between the mold and coating. After coating, cores are then inserted and the
                      mold is closed.  The metal is poured and allowed to solidify before opening
                      and ejecting the casting (LaRue,  1989).

                      Materials
                      Mold metals are typically made of cast iron.  The molds can be very simple or
                      can have a number of sophisticated features, such as ejector pins to remove
                      castings, water cooling channels and sliding core pins. Coatings are typically
                      mixtures of sodium  silicate and either vermiculite, talc clay or bentonite
                      (AFS,  1981).

                      Advantages and Disadvantages
                     Permanent molds have the obvious advantage of not requiring the making of
                      a new mold (and the associated time and expenses) for every casting.  The
                     elimination of the mold making process results  in a more simple overall
                     casting process, a cleaner work environment, and far less waste generation.
                     Because molten metal cools and solidifies much faster in a permanent mold
                     than in-a sand mold, a more dense casting with better mechanical properties
                     is obtained.  The process can also produce castings with  a high level of
                     dimensional accuracy and good surface finish (AFS,  1981). One disadvantage
                     is the high cost of tooling,  which  includes the initial cost of casting and
                     machining the permanent mold.  In addition, the shapes and sizes of castings
                     are limited due to the impossibility of removing certain shapes from the molds
                     (USITC, 1984).

                     Wastes Generated
                     Compared to sand casting operations, relatively little waste is generated in the
                     permanent mold process.  Some foundries force cool the hot permanent molds
                     with water sprayed or flushed over the mold.  The waste cooling water may
                     pick up contaminants from  the mold  such as metals and  mold coatings.
                     Fugitive dust and waste sand or plaster are generated if cores are fabricated
                     of sand or plaster, respectively. Waste coating material may also be generated
                     during cleaning of the mold.
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Metal Casting Industry
                Industrial Process Description
       Plaster Mold Casting
                     The conventional plaster molding process is similar to the sand molding
                     processes.  In cope and drag flasks, a plaster slurry mix is poured over the
                     pattern halves.  When the plaster has set, the patterns are removed and the
                     mold halves are baked to remove any water (USITC, 1984). Since even small
                     amounts of water will, when quickly heated during pouring, expand to steam
                     and adversely affect the casting,  drying is a critical step in plaster mold
                     casting.  Oven temperatures may be as high as 800°F for as long as 16 to 36
                     hours. As in the sand mold processes, the cores are inserted, and the dried
                     mold halves are attached prior to pouring the molten metal. The plaster molds
                     are destroyed during the shakeout process.  Plaster or sand cores may be used
                     in the process.

                     The conventional plaster molding process described here is the most common
                     of a number of plaster mold casting processes in use. Other processes include
                     the foamed plaster casting process, the Antioch casting process and the match
                     plate pattern casting process (AFS, 1981).

                     Materials
                     The plasters used in plaster mold casting are very strong, hard gypsum
                     (calcium sulfate) cements mixed with either fibrous talcs, finely ground silica,
                     pumice stone, clay or graphite. Plaster mixtures may also be comprised of up
                     to 50 percent sand (AFS, 1981).

                     Advantages and Disadvantages
                     The plaster mold process can produce castings with excellent surface detail,
                     complex and intricate configurations, and high dimensional accuracy. Plaster
                     mold castings are also light, typically under 20 pounds (USITC, 1994).  The
                     process is limited to nonferrous metals because ferrous metals will react with
                     the sulfur in the gypsum, creating defects on the casting surface (AFS, 1981).
                     Plaster mold casting is more expensive than sand casting, and has a longer
                     process time from mold construction to metal pouring. The process is only
                     used, therefore, when the desired results cannot be obtained through  sand
                     casting or when the finer detail and surface finish will result in substantial
                     savings in machining costs.

                     Wastes Generated
                     Waste mold plaster and fugitive  dust can be generated using this process.
                     Waste sand can also be generated, depending on the type of cores used.
       Investment/Lost Wax Casting
                      Investment casting processes use a pattern or replica that is consumed, or lost,
                      from the mold material when heated.  The mold-making process results in a
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 Metal Casting Industry
                 Industrial Process Description
                     one-piece destroyable mold. The most common type of investment casting,
                     the lost wax process, uses patterns fabricated from wax. Plastic patterns,
                     however, are also fairly common in investment casting.

                     The process begins with the production of a wax or plastic replica of the part.
                     Replicas are usually mass produced by injecting the wax or plastic into a die
                     (metal mold) in a liquid or semi-liquid state. Replicas are attached to a gating
                     system (sprue and runners) constructed of the same material to form a tree
                     assembly (see Figure 6). The assembly is coated with a specially formulated
                     heat resistant refractory slurry mixture which is allowed to harden around the
                     wax or plastic assembly forming the mold (USITC, 1984).

                     In the investment./Zas'A: casting method, the assembly is placed in a flask and
                     then covered with a refractory slurry which is allowed to harden (see Figure
                     6). In the more common investment shell casting method, the assembly is
                     dipped in  a refractory slurry and sand is sifted  onto the  coated pattern
                     assembly and allowed to  harden. This process is repeated until the desired
                     shell thickness is reached (LaRue, 1989).  In both methods, the assembly is
                     then melted out of the mold. Some investment casting foundries are able to
                     recover the melted wax and reuse a portion in the pattern making process.
                     The resulting mold assemblies are then heated to remove any residual pattern
                     material and to further cure the binder system.  The mold is then ready for the
                     pouring of molten metal into the central sprue which will travel through the
                     individual sprues and runners filling the mold.

                     Although normally not necessary, cores can be used in investment casting for
                     complex  interior shapes.  The cores are inserted during the pattern making
                     step.  The  cores are placed in the pattern die and pattern wax or plastic is
                     injected around the core. After the pattern is removed from the die, the cores
                     are removed. Cores used in investment casting are typically collapsible metal
                     assemblies or soluble salt materials which can be leached out with water or a
                     dilute hydrochloric acid solution.

                     In addition to the investment flask and shell mold casting methods described
                     above, a number of methods have been developed which use reusable master
                     patterns.    These processes were developed to eliminate  production of
                     expendable patterns, one of the most costly and time-consuming steps in the
                     casting process.  One process, called the Shaw Process,  uses  a refractory
                     slurry containing ethyl silicate. The slurry cures initially to a flexible gel which
                     can be removed from the pattern in two halves.  The flexible mold halves  can
                     then be further cured at high temperatures until a hard mold is formed ready
                     for assembly and pouring (AFS, 1981).
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Metal Casting Industry
                                          Industrial Process Description
                     Figure 6: Investment Flask and Shell Casting
A METAL FtASK IS
  UO AIQUND.THE
                            FUSK IS FILLED WITH IN-
                            VESTMENT MOLD SLUM*
                                                                              ••«• t=s •;•!
                             INVESTMENT FLASK CASTING
 © J
                       AFTER MOLD MATERIAL
                       ©HAS SET AND DRIED.
                       PATTERNS ARE MEITEO
                       OUT OF MOID
       VACUUM

S?,THMMETiL*".E»F|i!.T?.  (?) a^"'*^
ITy PRESSURE VACUUM.  ^~^^ CASTINGS
on'CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
                                                                                          TO
                                                                                      * SHIPPING »
                                      .NVESTMENT SHELL CAST.NG
                                                           '•*•
              PATICKN CLUSTERS ARE
              BtPPtO IN CERAMIC
        REFRACTORV GRAIN IS
®        SIFTED ONTO COATED
        PATTERNS, STEPS 3
        AND « ARE REPEATED
        SEVERAL TIMES TO OB.
        TAIN DESIRED SHELL
        THICKNESS
                                     AFTER MOLD MATERIAL
                                     ©HAS SET AND DRIED
                                     PATTERNS ARE MELTED
                                     OUT OF MOLD
                                                    UUM C« CENTRIFUGAL
                                                    FORCE
Source: American Foundrymen 's Society,  1981.
                       Materials
                       The refractory slurries used in both investment flask and shell casting are
                       comprised of binders and refractory materials.  Refractory materials include
                       silica, aluminum silicates, zircon, and alumina. Binders include silica sols
                       (very small silica particles suspended in water),  hydrolyzed ethyl  silicate,
                       sodium and potassium silicate, and gypsum type  plasters.  Ethyl silicate is
                       typically hydrolyzed at the foundry by adding alcohol, water, and hydrochloric
                       acid to the ethyl silicate as a catalyst (AFS,  1981).
                                                                                                can
Pattern materials are most commonly wax or polystyrene. Wax materials ^a^

be  synthetic, natural,  or a combination.   Many  different formulations are
available with varying strengths, hardness, melting points, setting times, and
compatibilities, depending on the specific casting requirements.
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Metal Casting Industry
                 Industrial Process Description
                     Advantages and Disadvantages
                     The investment casting process produces castings with a higher degree of
                     dimensional accuracy than any other casting process.  The process can also
                     produce castings with  a high level of detail and complexity and excellent
                     surface finish.   Investment casting  is used to create  both ferrous and
                     nonferrous precision pieces such as dental crowns, fillings  and dentures,
                     jewelry,  and  scientific  instruments.   The costs of investment casting are
                     generally higher than for other casting processes due in part to the high initial
                     costs of pattern die-making (USITC, 1984).  In addition, the relatively large
                     number of steps in the process is less amenable to automation than many other
                     casting methods.

                     Wastes Generated
                     Waste refractory material, waxes, and plastic are the largest volume wastes
                     generated.   Air emissions are primarily particulates.   Wastewater  with
                     suspended and dissolved solids and low pH may also be generated if soluble
                     salt cores are used.

              Lost Foam Casting

                     The lost foam casting process, also known as Expanded Polystyrene (EPS)
                     casting,  and  cavityless casting,  is a relatively new process that is gaining
                     increased use.   The process is similar to  investment  casting  in that  an
                     expendable polystyrene pattern is used to make a one-piece expendable mold.
                     As in investment casting, gating systems are attached to the patterns, and the
                     assembly is coated with a specially formulated gas permeable refractory slurry.
                     When the refractory slurry has hardened, the assembly is positioned in a flask,
                     and  unbonded  sand is  poured around the mold and compacted into any
                     internal cavities. Molten metal is then poured into the polystyrene pattern
                     which vaporizes and is replaced by the metal (see Figure 7). When the metal
                     has solidified, the flask is emptied onto a steel grate for shakeout.  The loose
                     sand falls through the  grate and  can be reused without treatment.  The
                     refractory material is broken away from the casting in the usual manner (AFS,
                     1981).

                     Materials
                     Refractory  slurries for  lost foam casting must  produce a coating strong
                     enough to prevent the loose sand around the coated assembly from collapsing
                     into the cavity as the pattern vaporizes. Coatings must also be permeable to
                     allow the polystyrene vapors to escape from the mold cavity, through the
                     coating, into the sand and out of the flask. Flasks for this process have side
                     vents which allow the vapors to escape (AFS, 1981).
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Metal Casting Industry
                Industrial Process Description
                            Figure 7: Lost Foam Casting Cross Sections
                                               Foamed
                                              Polystyrene
                                               Pattern
                                  Pattern imbedded in sand
                                       (one piece)
                                      Metal entering
                                      mold displaces
                                     (vaporizes) pattern
                                      (Note—no core)
                                            Casting without metal
                                               fins or flash      /JfpTl
                                              (No parting line    Jf|  H\s
                                             grinding required)  JiliiM
                  Source: American Foundrymen 's Society, 1981.
                     Polystyrene patterns can be fabricated from polystyrene boards or by molding
                     polystyrene beads.  Patterns from boards are fabricated using normal pattern
                     forming tools (see Section HI. A. 1).  The boards are available in various sizes
                     and thicknesses, and can be glued together to increase thickness if needed.
                     Molded polystyrene patterns begin as small beads of expandable polystyrene
                     product.  The beads are pre-expanded to the required density using a vacuum,
                     steam, or hot air processes.  In general, the aim is to reduce the bead density
                     as much as possible in order to minimize the volume of vapors to be vented
                     during casting.  If vapors are generated faster than can be vented, casting
                     defects will result.  The expanded polystyrene beads are blown into a cast
                     aluminum mold. Steam is used to heat the beads causing them to expand
                     further, fill void areas, and bond together.  The mold and pattern are allowed
                     to cool, and the pattern is ejected (AFS, 1981).

                     Advantages and  Disadvantages
                     The  lost foam process  can be used for  precision castings of ferrous and
                     nonferrous metals of any size.  In addition to being capable of producing
                     highly accurate, complex castings with thin walls, good surface finish, and no
                     parting lines, there are numerous practical advantages to the process.  For
                     example, there are far fewer steps involved in lost foam casting compared to
                     sand casting. Core making and setting is not necessary, nor is the mixing of
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 Metal Casting Industry
                  Industrial Process Description
                      large amounts of sand and binders.  Shakeout and sand handling is a matter
                      of pouring out the sand which is mostly reusable without any treatment since
                      binders are not used.  Some portion of sand may need to be removed to avoid
                      the buildup of styrene in the sand.  The flasks used are less expensive and
                      easier to use since there are no cope and drag halves to be fastened together.
                      The reduced labor and material costs make lost foam casting an economical
                      alternative to many traditional casting methods. Although the potential exists
                      for other metals to be cast, currently only aluminum and gray and ductile iron
                      are cast using this method (AFS,  1981). In addition there are some limitations
                      in using the technique to cast low carbon alloys (SFSA, 1997).

                      Wastes Generated
                      The large quantities of polystyrene vapors produced during lost foam casting
                      can be flammable and may contain hazardous air pollutants (HAPs).  Other
                      possible air emissions are particulates related to the use of sand. Waste sand
                      and refractory materials containing styrene may also be generated.

        HLA.3. Furnace Charge Preparation and Metal Melting

                      Foundries typically use recycled scrap metals as their primary source of metal,
                      and use metal ingot as a secondary source when scrap is not available. The
                      first step in metal melting is preparation of the scrap materials. Preparation,
                      which also may be done by the foundry's metal supplier, consists of cutting
                      the materials to the proper size for the furnace and cleaning and degreasing
                      the materials.  Cleaning and degreasing can be accomplished with solvents or
                     by a precombustion step to burn off any organic contaminants (Kotzin, 1992).
                     Prepared scrap metal is weighed and additional metal, alloys, and flux may be
                     added prior to adding the metal to the furnace. Adding metal to a furnace is
                     called "charging." (Alloys may also be added at various stages of the melt or
                     as the ladle is filled.)

                     Flux is a material added to  the furnace  charge or to the molten metal  to
                     remdve impurities. Flux unites with impurities to form dross or slag, which
                     rises to the surface of the molten metal where it is removed before pouring
                     (LaRue, 1989).  The slag material on the molten metal surface helps  to
                     prevent oxidation of the metal.  Flux is often chloride or fluoride salts that
                     have an affinity to bind with certain contaminants. The use of salt fluxes may
                     result in emissions of acid gasses.

                     Five types of furnaces are commonly used to melt metal in foundries: cupola,
                     electric arc,  reverberatory, induction  and  crucible (see Figure  8). Some
                     foundries operate more than one type of furnace and may even transfer molten
                     metal between furnace types in order to make best use  of the best features  of
                     each.
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Metal Casting Industry
               Industrial Process Description
                     Cupola Furnaces
                     The cupola furnace is primarily used to melt gray, malleable, or ductile iron.
                     The furnace is a hollow vertical cylinder on legs and lined with refractory
                     material. Hinged doors at the bottom allow the furnace to be emptied when
                     not in use.  When charging the furnace, the doors are closed and a bed of sand
                     is placed at the bottom of the furnace, covering the doors. Alternating layers
                     of coke for fuel and scrap metal, alloys and flux are placed over the sand.
                     Although  air, or oxygen enriched air, is forced through the layers with a
                     blower, cupolas require a reducing  atmosphere to maintain the coke bed.
                     Heat from the burning coke melts the scrap metal and flux, which drip to the
                     bottom sand layer. In addition,  the burning of coke under reducing conditions
                     raises the carbon content of the metal charge to the casting specifications.  A
                     hole level with the top of the sand allows molten metal to be drained off, or
                     "tapped."  A higher hole allows slag to be drawn off.  Additional charges can
                     be added to the furnace as needed  (LaRue, 1989).

                     Electric Arc Furnaces
                     Electric arc furnaces are used for melting cast iron or steel.  The furnace
                     consists of a saucer-shaped hearth of refractory material for collecting the
                     molten metal with refractory material lining the sides and top of the furnace.
                     Two or three carbon electrodes penetrate the furnace from the top or sides.
                     The scrap metal charge is placed on the hearth and melted by the heat from
                     an electric arc formed between the electrodes. When the electric arc comes
                     into contact with the metal, it is a direct-arc furnace and when the electric arc
                     does not actually touch the metal it is an indirect-arc furnace.  Molten metal
                     is typically drawn offthrough a spout by tipping the furnace. Alloying metal
                     can be added,  and  slag can be removed, through doors in the walls of the
                     furnace (LaRue,  1989).  Electric arc furnaces have the advantage of not
                     requiring  incoming scrap to be clean. One disadvantage is that they do not
                     allow precise metallurgical adjustments to the molten metal.

                     Reverberatory Furnaces
                     Reverberatory  furnaces  are  primarily used to  melt large  quantities  of
                     nonferrous metals.   Metal is placed on a saucer-shaped hearth lined with
                     refractory material on all sides.  Hot air and combustion gasses from oil or gas
                     burners are blown over the metal and exhausted out of the furnace.  The heat
                     melts the metal and more charge is  added until the  level of molten metal is
                     high enough to  run out of a spout in the hearth and into a well from which it
                     can be ladled out (LaRue, 1989).

                     Induction Furnaces
                     Induction furnaces are used  to melt both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
                     There are several types of induction furnaces, but all create a strong magnetic
                     field by passing an electric current through a coil wrapped around the furnace.
                     The magnetic  field in turn creates a voltage  across and subsequently an
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 Metal Casting Industry
                 Industrial Process Description
                      electric current through the metal to be melted.  The electrical resistance of
                      the metal produces heat which melts the metal. Induction furnaces are very
                      efficient and are made in a wide range of sizes (LaRue, 1989).  Induction
                      furnaces require cleaner scrap than electric arc furnaces, however, they do
                      allow precise metallurgical  adjustments.

                      Crucible Furnaces
                      Crucible furnaces are primarily used to melt smaller amounts of nonferrous
                      metals than other furnace types. The crucible or refractory container is heated
                      in a furnace fired with natural gas or liquid propane.  The metal in the crucible
                      melts, and can be ladled from the crucible or poured directly by tipping the
                      crucible (LaRue, 1989).

                      Wastes Generated
                      Cupola, reverberatory and electric arc furnaces may emit particulate matter,
                      carbon monoxide,  hydrocarbons,  sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, small
                      quantities of chloride and fluoride compounds, and metallic fumes from the
                      condensation of volatilized  metal and metal oxides. Induction furnaces and
                      crucible furnaces emit relatively small amounts of particulates, hydrocarbons,
                      and  carbon monoxide emissions.   The highest  concentration of furnace
                      emissions occur when furnaces are opened for charging, alloying, slag
                      removal, and tapping (Kotzin, 1992). Particulate emissions can be especially
                      high during  alloying  and the introduction of additives.  For  example, if
                      magnesium is added to molten metal to produce ductile iron, a strong reaction
                      ensues, with  the potential to release magnesium oxides and  metallic fumes
                      (NADCA, 1996).

                     Furnace emissions are often controlled with wet scrubbers.  Wet scrubber
                     wastewater can be  generated in large quantities  (up to 3,000  gallons per
                     minute) in facilities  using large cupola furnaces.   This  water may contain
                     metals and phenols, and is typically highly alkaline or acidic and is neutralized
                     before being discharged to the POTW (AFS Air Quality Committee, 1992).
                     Non-contact  cooling water with  little or no contamination may also be
                     generated.

                     Scrap  preparation  using thermal  treatment will emit  smoke,  organic
                     compounds and carbon monoxide. Other wastes may include waste solvents
                     if solvents are used to prepare metal for charging. Slag is also generated
                     during  metal melting operations. Hazardous slag can be generated if the
                     charge materials contain enough toxic metals such as lead and chromium or
                     if calcium carbide is used in the metal to remove sulfur compounds (see
                     Section III.B.l) (U.S. EPA,  1992).
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                Industrial Process Description
                  Figure 8: Sectional Views of Melting Furnaces
                                                                      Etect'rodes
                                                        Electric Indirect-Arc
                                "apping 
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 Metal Casting Industry
                 Industrial Process Description
        BDL.A.4.  Shakeout, Cooling and Sand Handling

                     For those foundries using sand molding and core making techniques, castings
                     need to be cooled and separated from the sand mold. After molten metal has
                     been ladled into the mold and begins to solidify, it is transported to a cooling
                     area where the casting solidifies before being separated from the mold.
                     Larger,  more mechanized foundries use automatic conveyor systems to
                     transfer the casting and mold through a cooling tunnel on the way to the
                     shakeout area.  Less mechanized foundries allow the castings to cool on the
                     shop floor. In the shakeout area, molds are typically placed on vibrating grids
                     or conveyors to shake the sand loose from the casting. In some foundries, the
                     mold may be separated from the casting manually (EPA, 1986).

                     Sand casting techniques can generate substantial volumes of waste sand.
                     Many foundries reuse a large portion of this  sand and only remove a small
                     portion  as waste. Waste sand removed from the foundry is primarily made
                     up of fine grains that build up as the sand is reused over and over. Most
                     foundries, therefore, have a large  multi-step sand handling operation for
                     capturing and conditioning the reusable sand. Larger foundries often have
                     conveyorized sand-handling systems working continuously.  Smaller, less
                     mechanized foundries often use heavy equipment (e.g., front-end loaders) in
                     a batch process (U.S. EPA, 1992). Increasingly, foundry waste sand is being
                     sent off-site for use as a construction material (see Section V).

                     Sand handling operations receive sand directly from the shakeout step or from
                     an intermediate sand storage area. A typical first step  in sand handling is lump
                     knockout.  Sand lumps occur when the binders used  in sand cores only
                     partially degrade after exposure to the heat of molten metal. The lumps, or
                     core butts, may be crushed and recycled into molding sand during this step.
                     They can also be disposed as waste material. A  magnetic separation operation
                     is often used in ferrous foundries to remove pieces of metal from the sand.
                     Other steps involve screening to remove fines that build up over time, and
                     cooling by aeration.  In addition, some foundries treat mold and core sand
                     thermally to remove binders and organic impurities (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     Wastes Generated
                     Shakeout, cooling, and sand handling operations generate waste sand and
                     fines possibly containing metals.   In addition, particulate emissions are
                     generated during these operations.   If thermal treatment units are used to
                     reclaim chemically bonded sands, emissions such as carbon monoxide, organic
                     compounds, and other gasses can be expected.
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       ffl.A.5.  Quenching, Finishing, Cleaning and Coating

                     Rapid cooling of hot castings by quenching in a water bath is practiced by
                     some foundries and die casters to cool and solidify the casting rapidly (to
                     speed the process) and to achieve certain metallurgical properties. The water
                     bath  may be plain  water  or may contain  chemical  additives to prevent
                     oxidation.

                     Some amount of finishing and cleaning is required for all castings; however,
                     the degree and specific types of operations will depend largely on the casting
                     specifications and the casting process used. Finishing and cleaning operations
                     can be a  significant portion of the overall  cost to produce a casting.
                     Foundries, therefore, often search for casting techniques and mold designs
                     that will reduce the finishing needed.

                     Finishing operations begin once the  casting is shaken  out and  cooled.
                     Hammers, band saws, abrasive cutting wheels, flame cut-off devices, and air-
                     carbon arc devices may be used to remove the risers, runners, and sprues of
                     the gating  system.   Metal fins  at the parting  lines (lines  on  a casting
                     corresponding to the interface between the cope and drag of a mold) are
                     removed with chipping hammers  and grinders. Residual refractory material
                     and oxides are typically removed by sand blasting or steel shot blasting, which
                     can also be used to give the casting a uniform and more  attractive surface
                     appearance (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     The cleaning of castings precedes any coating operations to ensure that the
                     coating will adhere to the metal.  Chemical cleaning and coating operations
                     are often contracted out to off-site firms, but are sometimes carried  out at the
                     foundries.  Scale, rust, oxides, oil, grease, and dirt can be chemically removed
                     from  the surface using organic  solvents (typically  chlorinated  solvents,
                     although naphtha,  methanol, and toluene are  also used),  emulsifiers,
                     pressurized water, abrasives, alkaline agents (caustic soda,  soda ash, alkaline
                     silicates, and phosphates), or acid  pickling. The pickling process involves the
                     cleaning of the metal surface with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid,
                     sulfuric acid, or nitric acid.  Castings generally pass from the pickling bath
                     through a series of rinses.  Molten salt baths are also used to  clean complex
                     interior passages in  castings (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     Castings are often given a coating to inhibit oxidation, resist deterioration, or
                     improve  appearance.  Common  coating  operations include:   painting,
                      electroplating, electroless nickel plating, hard facing, hot dipping, thermal
                      spraying, diffusion, conversion, porcelain enameling, and organic or fused dry-
                     resin coating (U.S. EPA, 1992).
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                      Wastes Generated
                      Casting quench water may contain phenols, oil and grease, suspended solids,
                      and metals (e.g., copper, lead, zinc). Metal-bearing sludges may be generated
                      when quench baths are cleaned out (EPA,  1995).

                      Finishing operations may generate paniculate air emissions. Wastewater may
                      contain cutting oils, ethylene glycol, and metals. Solid wastes include metal
                      chips and spent cutting oils (EPA, 1995).

                      Cleaning  and coating may generate air emissions of VOCs from painting,
                      coating and solvent cleaning; acid mists and metal ion mists from anodizing,
                      plating, polishing, hot dip coating, etching, and chemical conversion coating.
                      Wastewater may contain solvents, metals, metal salts, cyanides, and high or
                      low pH.  Solid wastes include  cyanide and metal-bearing sludges, spent
                      solvents and paints, and spent plating baths (EPA, 1995).

        m.A.6. Die Casting

                      The term  "die casting" usually implies "pressure die casting." The process
                      utilizes a permanent die (metal mold) in which molten metal is forced under
                      high pressure.  Dies are usually made  from two blocks of steel, each
                      containing part of the cavity, which are locked together while the casting is
                      being made.   Retractable and removable  cores are used to form internal
                      surfaces.  The metal is held under pressure until it cools and solidifies.  The
                      die halves are then opened and the casting is removed, usually by means of an
                     automatic ejection system. Dies  are preheated and lubricated before being
                     used, and are either air- or water-cooled to maintain the desired operating
                     temperature (Loper, 1985). Metal is typically melted on site from prealloyed
                     ingot, or by blending the alloying constituents (or occasionally metal scrap).
                     Some aluminum die casters, however, purchase molten aluminum arid store
                     it on site  in a holding furnace (NADCA,  1996).  Two basic types of die
                     casting machines are used: hot chamber and cold-chamber (see Figure 9).

                     Die casting machines
                     Hot-chamber die casting machines are comprised of a molten metal reservoir,
                     the die, and a metal-transferring device which automatically withdraws molten
                     metal from the reservoir and forces it under pressure into the die. A steel
                     piston  and cylinder system is often used to create the necessary pressure
                     within the die. Pressures can range from a few hundred to over 5,000  psi.
                     Certain metals, such as aluminum alloys, zinc alloys, and pure zinc cannot be
                     used in hot-chamber die casting because they rapidly attack the iron in the
                     piston and cylinder.  These metals, therefore, require a different type of
                     casting machine, called a gooseneck.  A gooseneck machine utilizes a cast-
                     iron channel to transfer the molten metal from the reservoir to the die (see
                     Figure  9(b)).   After the gooseneck is brought into contact with the die,
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                     compressed air is applied to the molten metal. Pressures are typically in the
                     range of 350 to 500 psi (Loper, 1985).

                     Cold chamber machines have molten metal reservoirs separate from the
                     casting machine.  Just enough metal for one casting is ladled by hand or
                     mechanically into a small chamber, from which it is forced into the die under
                     high pressure (see Figure 9(a)).  Pressure is produced through a hydraulic
                     system connected to a piston, and is typically in the range of a few thousand
                     psi to 10,000 psi.  In cold chamber machines,  the metal is just above the
                     melting point and is in a slush-like state.  Since the metal is in contact with the
                     piston and cylinder for only a short period of time, the process is applicable
                     to aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, zinc alloys, and even high melting-
                     point alloys such as brasses and bronzes (Loper, 1985).

          Figure 9: Cold (a), and Hot Chamber (b), Die Casting Machines
                Pouring slot

                 -Die
                                                                   Pressure
                                                                   cylinder
                                         Metal-holding^JSj^;
                                            pot	
                                                         Gooseneck-*
                                                             (b)
    Source: American Foundrymen 's Society, 1981.
                     Die Lubrication
                     Proper lubrication of dies and plungers is essential for successful die casting.
                     Die lubrication affects the casting quality,  density, and surface finish, the ease
                     of cavity fill, and the ease of casting ejection. Proper lubrication can also
                     speed the casting rate, reduce maintenance, and reduce build up of material
                     on the die face (Street, 1977).

                     Die lubrication can be manual or automatic.  In manual systems, the  die
                     casting machine operator uses a hand held spray gun to apply lubricant to  the
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                  Industrial Process Description
                      die surface just before the die is closed.  Automatic systems use either fixed
                      or reciprocating spray systems to apply lubricant (Allsop, 1983).

                      There are many types and formulations of lubricants on the market. No one
                      lubricant meets the requirements for all die casters.  The specific lubricant
                      formulation used depends on a number of factors, .including: the metal being
                      cast, the temperatures of casting, the lubricant application method, the surface
                      finish requirements, the complexity of the casting, and the type of ejection
                      system.  Although specific formulations are proprietary, in general, lubricants
                      are a mixture of a lubricant and a carrier material. Formulations may also
                      include additives to inhibit  corrosion,  increase stability during storage,  and
                      resist bacterial degradation  (Kaye, 1982).

                      Lubricants are mostly carrier material which evaporates upon contact with the
                      hot die surface, depositing a thin uniform coating of die lubricant on the die
                      face.  Typical ratios of carrier to lubricant are about 40 to 1 (Kaye, 1982).

                      Both water-based lubricants and solvent-based lubricants are in use today.
                      Solvents, however, are largely being phased out due to health and  fire
                      concerns associated with the large amounts  of solvent vapors released.
                      Water-based  lubricants  are  now used  almost exclusively  in the  U.S.
                      Lubricating materials are typically mineral oils and waxes in water emulsions.
                      Silicone  oils and  synthetic  waxes are finding  increased  use.  In addition,
                      research is under way to develop a permanent release coating for die surfaces
                      which will eliminate the need  for repeated lubricant application (Kaye, 1982).

                      Advantages and Disadvantages
                      Die casting is not applicable to steel and high melting point alloys. Pressure
                      dies are very expensive to design and produce, and the die casting machines
                      themselves are major capital investments (LaRue, 1989).  Therefore, to
                      compete with other casting methods, it must be more economical to produce
                      a component by virtue of higher production rates, or the finished components
                      must be superior to those produced using  other methods - often, it is a
                      combination of both factors  (USITC, 1984).

                      Once the reusable die has been prepared, the die casting process can sustain
                     very high production rates. Castings can be made at rates of more than 400
                     per hour.  There is a limit, however, to the number of castings produced in a
                     single die depending on the die design, the alloys being casted,  and the
                     dimensional tolerances required. The useable life span of a die can range from
                     under 1,000 to over 5,000,000 castings or "shots." (Allsop, 1983)  Therefore,
                     the design of the die itself is  critical not  only  for producing high quality
                     castings but also in ensuring the economic viability of the production process.
                     Die design is  a very complex exercise.  In addition  to the design of the
                     component geometry and constituent materials, numerous factors related to
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                     the die itself must be considered, including: the type of alloys, the temperature
                     gradients within the die, the pressure and velocity of the molten metal when
                     it enters the die, the technique for ejecting the casting from the die, and the
                     lubrication system used (Street, 1977). Computer-aided design and modeling
                     of die designs is now commonplace and has played an important role in
                     advancing the technology.

                     One major advantage of die casting over other casting methods is that the
                     produced castings can have very complex shapes. The ability to cast complex
                     shapes often makes it possible to manufacture a product from a single casting
                     instead of from an assembly of cast components.  This can greatly reduce
                     casting  costs as well as costs associated with fabrication and machining.
                     Furthermore,  die  casting  produces castings  having  a high degree  of
                     dimensional  accuracy and surface  definition compared to  other casting
                     methods, which may also reduce or eliminate costly machining steps. Finally,
                     castings with relatively thin wall sections can be produced using the die
                     casting  method. This can result in substantial savings in material costs and
                     reductions in component weight (Allsop, 1983).

                     Wastes Generated
                     Wastes generated during  metal melting will be  similar to those of metal
                     melting in foundries, depending on the particular furnace used.  Relatively
                     little waste is generated in the actual die casting process compared to other
                     metal casting processes. However, some gaseous and fume emissions occur
                     during metal injection.  Metal oxide fumes are released as some of the metal
                     vaporizes and condenses. Gaseous emissions can originate from: the molten
                     metal itself; the evolution of chemicals from the lubricant as it is sprayed onto
                     the hot metal die; and as the molten metal contacts the lubricant (NADCA,
                      1996).
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 m.B.  Raw Materials Inputs and Pollution Outputs
                      Raw material inputs and pollutant outputs differ for foundries and die casters.
                      The major difference lies in the use of permanent molds by die casting
                      facilities which eliminates any need for large mold making operations and the
                      handling, treatment and disposal of sand and other refractory materials. For
                      this reason, the material inputs and pollutant outputs of permanent mold
                      casting foundries will likely be more similar to those of die casting facilities.
                      Table 4 summarizes the material inputs and pollution outputs discussed in this
                      section.
        IELB.1. Foundries
                      The main raw material inputs for foundries are sand and other core and mold
                      refractory materials (depending of the particular processes used), metals in the
                      form of scrap and ingot, alloys, and fuel for metal melting. Other raw material
                      inputs include binders, fluxing agents, and pattern making materials.
       Air Emissions
                      Air emissions at foundries primarily arise from metal melting, mold and core
                     making, shakeout and sand handling, and the cleaning and finishing of cast
                     parts (Kotzin, 1992).

                     Furnaces and Metal Melting
                     Furnace air emissions consist of the products of combustion from the fuel and
                     paniculate matter in the form of dusts, metallics, and metal oxide fumes.
                     Carbon monoxide and organic vapors may also arise if oily scrap is charged
                     to the furnace or preheat system  (AP-42, 1993).  Particulates will vary
                     according to the type of furnace,  fuel (if used), metal  melted, melting
                     temperature, and a number of operating practices.   Air emissions  from
                     furnaces and molten metal can often be reduced by applying a number of good
                     operating practices (see Section V.A). Particulates can  include fly ash,
                     carbon, metallic dusts, and fiimes from the volatilization and condensation of
                     molten  metal oxides.  In  steel foundries, these  particulates may contain
                     varying amounts  of zinc, lead, nickel, cadmium, and chromium (Kotzin,
                     1992).  Carbon-steel dust can be  high in zinc as a result of the use  of
                     galvanized scrap, while stainless steel dust is high in nickel and chromium.
                     Painted scrap can result in particulates  high in lead. Particulates associated
                     with nonferrous metal production may contain copper, aluminum, lead, tin,
                     and zinc. The particulate sizes of the oxide fumes are often very small
                     (submicron) and,  therefore, require  high efficiency control devises (Licht
                     1992).                                                         ^
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                    Furnace air emissions are typically captured in ventilation systems comprised
                    of hoods and duct work.  Hoods and ducts are usually placed over and/or near
                    the tapping spouts,  and metal charging, slag removal,  and pouring areas.
                    Hoods can be permanently fixed at pouring stations or attached to the pouring
                    ladle or crane through flexible duct work. Depending on the type of furnace
                    and metals melted, these ventilation systems may be ducted to coolers to cool
                    the hot combustion gases, followed by baghouses, electrostatic precipitators
                    and/or wet scrubbers to collect particulates.  Afterburners may also be used
                    to control carbon monoxide and oil vapors (Licht, 1992).

                    Mold and Core Making
                    The major air  pollutants  generated during mold  and core making are
                    particulates from the handling of sand and other refractory materials, and
                    VOCs  from the core  and mold  curing  and  drying  operations. VOCs,
                    particulates, carbon monoxide, and other organic compounds are also emitted
                    when the mold and core come into contact with the molten metal and while
                    the filled molds are cooled (AP-42, 1993).

                    The use of organic chemical binding systems (e.g.,  cold box, hot box, no bake,
                    etc.) may generate sulfur  dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
                     cyanide, nitrogen oxides and large number of different organic compounds.
                    Emissions occur primarily during heating and curing, removal of the cores
                    from core boxes, cooling, and pouring the metal  into  molds and may include
                     a number of gases listed as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) under the Clean
                     Air Act.  Potential HAPs emitted when using chemical binding systems
                     include:  formaldehyde, methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), phenol,
                     triethylamine, methanol, benzene, toluene, cresol/cresylic acid, napthalene,
                     polycyclic-organics, and cyanide compounds (Twarog, 1993).

                     Some core-rmaking processes use strongly  acidic or basic substances for
                     scrubbing the off gasses from the core making  process. In the free radical
                     cure process, acrylic-epoxy binders are cured using an organic hydroperoxide
                     and SO2 gas.  Gasses are typically scrubbed to remove sulfur dioxide before
                     release through the stack to the atmosphere. A wet scrubbing unit absorbs the
                     SO2 gas. A 5 to 10 percent solution of sodium hydroxide at a pH of 8 to 14
                     neutralizes the SO2 and prevents the by-product  (sodium  sulfite) from
                     precipitating out of solution (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     Amine scrubbers may be used for sulfur dioxide  control by foundries. In
                     amine scrubbing the gas containing  sulfur dioxide is first passed through a
                     catalyst bed, where the sulfur compounds are converted  to hydrogen sulfide.
                     The gas stream then enters a packed or trayed tower (scrubber) where it is
                     contacted with a solution of water and an organic amine.  The amine solution
                     is alkaline and the weakly acidic hydrogen sulfide in the gas stream dissolves
                     in it.  The amine solution with hydrogen sulfide is then sent to a stripping
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                     tower, where it is boiled and the acid gases stripped out.  The amine solution
                     is cooled and returned to the scrubbing tower for reuse.  Acid gases are
                     cooled and treated through neutralization.  A number  of amines are used
                     including  diethanolamine  (DBA),  monoethanolamine   (MEA),   and
                     methyldiethanolamine (MDEA). Air emissions from the amine scrubbers may
                     include some H2S and other sulfur compounds. (Scott, 1992).

                     Shakeout. Finishing, and Sand Handling
                     Shakeout  and sand  handling  operations  generate   dust  and  metallic
                     particulates.   Finishing  and cleaning operations  will generate  metallic
                     particulates from deburring, grinding, sanding and  brushing, and volatile
                     organic compounds from the application of rust inhibitors  or organic coatings
                     such as paint. Control systems involve hoods and ducts at key dust generating
                     points followed by baghouses, electrostatic precipitators, or wet scrubbers
                     (AFS Air Quality Committee, 1992).
        Wastewater
                     Wastewater mainly consists of noncontact cooling water and wet scrubber
                     effluent (Leidel, 1995). Noncontact cooling water can typically be discharged
                     to the POTW or to surface waters under an NPDES permit. Wet scrubber
                     wastewater in facilities using large cupola furnaces can be generated in large
                     quantities (up to 3,000 gallons per minute).  This water  is typically highly
                     alkaline or acidic and is neutralized before being discharged to the POTW
                     (AFS Air Quality Committee,  1992).  If amine scrubbers are used, amine
                     scrubbing solution can be released to the plant effluent system through leaks
                     and spills. Some foundries using cupola furnaces also generate wastewater
                     containing metals from cooling slag with water.  Wastewater may also be
                     generated in certain finishing operations such as quenching and deburring.
                     Such wastewater can be high in oil and suspended solids (NADCA, 1996).
       Residual Wastes
                     Residual wastes originate from many different points within foundries.  Waste
                     sand is by far the largest volume waste for the industry.  Other residual wastes
                     may include dust from dust collection systems, slag, spent investment casting
                     refractory material, off-spec products, resins,  spent solvents and cleaners,
                     paints, and other miscellaneous wastes.

                     Furnaces and Metal Melting
                     The percentage of metal  from each charge that is converted to dust or fumes
                     and collected by baghouses, electrostatic precipitators, or wet scrubbers can
                     vary significantly from facility to facility  depending on the type of furnace
                     used and the type of metal cast. In steel foundries, this dust contains varying
                     amounts of zinc, lead, nickel, cadmium, and chromium.  Carbon-steel dust
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                    tends to be high in zinc as a result of the use of galvanized scrap, while
                    stainless steel dust is high in nickel and chromium. Dust high in lead may
                    result from the use of scrap painted with leaded paint.  Dust associated with
                    nonferrous metal production may contain copper, aluminum, lead, tin, and
                    zinc.  Steel dust may be encapsulated and disposed of in a permitted landfill,
                    while nonferrous dust is often sent to a recycler for metal recovery.

                    Slag is a glassy mass with a complex chemical structure.  It can constitute
                    about 25 percent of a foundry's solid waste stream (Kotzin, 1995).  Slag is
                    composed of metal oxides from the melting process, melted refractories, sand,
                    coke ash (if coke is used), and other materials. Large quantities of slag are
                    generated in particular  from iron foundries that melt in cupola furnaces.
                    Fluxes are used to facilitate removal of contaminants from the molten metal
                    into the slag so that it can be  removed  from the molten metal  surface.
                    Hazardous slag may be produced in melting operations if the charge materials
                    contain toxic metals such as lead, cadmium, or chromium.  To produce ductile
                    iron by reducing  the sulfur content of iron, some foundries use calcium
                    carbide desulfurization and the  slag generated by this process  may  be
                    classified as a reactive waste (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                    Mold and Core Making
                    Those core-making processes that use strongly acidic or basic substances for
                    scrubbing the off gasses from the  core making process may generate sludges
                    or liquors.  These sludges  or liquors are typically pH controlled prior to
                    discharge to the sewer system as nonhazardous waste. If not properly treated,
                    the waste may be classified  as hazardous corrosive waste and thus subjected
                    to numerous federal, state and local mandates (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                    Shakeout and Sand Handling
                    Foundries using sand molds and cores generate large volumes of waste sands.
                    Waste foundry  sand can account for 65 to 90 percent of the total waste
                    generated  by foundries.  In many foundries, casting sands are recycled
                    internally until they can no longer be used.  Some foundries reclaim waste
                    sands so that they can  be  recycled to the process or recycled off-site for
                    another use (see Section V. A. 1).  Sand that can no longer be used by iron or
                    steel foundries, is often landfilled as nonhazardous waste. Casting sands used
                    in the production  of brass or bronze  castings  may  exhibit  toxicity
                    characteristic for lead or cadmium. The hazardous sand may be reclaimed in
                    a thermal treatment unit which may be subject to RCRA requirements for
                    hazardous  waste incinerators  (see  Section  VLB)  (U.S.  EPA,  1992).
                    Approximately two percent of all foundry spent sand is hazardous (Kotzin,
                     1995).
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                     Investment casting shells can be used only once and are disposed in landfills
                     as  a nonhazardous waste unless  condensates  from heavy metal alloy
                     constituents are present in the shells.

                     Most foundries generate miscellaneous residual waste that varies greatly in
                     composition, but makes up only a small percentage of the total waste.  This
                     waste includes welding materials, waste  oil from heavy  equipment and
                     hydraulics, empty binder drums, and scrubber lime (U.S. EPA, 1992).

        IH.B.2.  Die Casters

                     The main raw material inputs for die casters include: metal in the form of
                     ingot, molten metal, metal scrap, alloys, and fuel for metal melting.  Other raw
                     material inputs include: fluxing agents, die lubricants, refractory materials,
                     hydraulic fluid, and finishing and cleaning materials.
       Air Emissions
                     Furnace air emissions consist of the products of combustion from the fuel and
                     particulate matter in  the form of dusts, metallics, and metal oxide fumes.
                     Carbon monoxide and oil vapors may also arise if oily scrap is charged to the
                     furnace or preheat system.   Metallic particulates arise mainly from the
                     volatilization  and  condensation  of molten metal  oxides.  These will vary
                     according to the type of furnace, fuel, metal, melting temperature, and a
                     number of operating practices. The particulate sizes of the oxide fumes are
                     often very small (submicron) and may contain copper, aluminum, lead, tin, and
                     zinc (Licht, 1992).

                     Fluxing and dross removal operations to remove impurities from the molten
                     metal can also be the  source of air emissions.  Die casters can use a number
                     of different fluxing agents to remove different impurities, including: sulfur
                     hexafluoride,  solvent fluxes, aluminum  fluoride,  or  chlorine.  Metallic
                     particulates, the fluxing agents themselves, and products of chemical reactions
                     with impurities can be emitted from the molten metal surface or from the
                     subsequently removed dross as it cools. For example, if chlorine is used, it
                     may react with  aluminum and water in the atmosphere to form aluminum
                     oxide fumes  and hydrochloric  acid.   Although not always necessary,
                     particulate emissions control equipment, such as fabric bag filters, are
                     sometimes used to control furnace emissions at die casting facilities (NADCA,
                     1996).

                     Die lubrication and plunger tip lubrication can also be a significant source of
                     air releases from  die casting facilities.   Both oil- and water-based die
                     lubricants are used. Oil-based lubricants typically contain naphtha and result
                     in much higher emissions of volatile organic compounds than water-based
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Metal Casting Industry
               Industrial Process Description
                     lubricants.  The air emissions will depend on the specific formulation of the
                     lubricant product and may contain hazardous air pollutants (NADCA, 1996).

                     Other  air emissions arise from finishing  and cleaning operations  which
                     generate metallic particulates from deburring, grinding, sanding and brushing,
                     and volatile organic compounds from the application of rust inhibitors or
                     paint. Casting quench tanks for the cooling  of zinc castings can contain
                     volatile organic compounds  and water treatment chemicals resulting in
                     potential   emissions of volatile  organic  compounds and hazardous air
                     pollutants (NADCA, 1996).
       Wastewater
                     Both process wastewater  and waste noncontact cooling water may be
                     generated at die casting facilities.  Noncontact cooling water will likey have
                     elevated temperature and very little or no chemical contamination. Process
                     wastewater from die casting facilities can be contaminated with spent die
                     lubricants, hydraulic fluid and coolants. Contaminants in such wastewater are
                     typically oil and phenols. As with foundries, die casters may also generate
                     wastewater in certain finishing  operations such  as  in-process cleaning,
                     quenching and deburring.  Such wastewater can be high in oil and suspended
                     solids.  Typical wastewater  treatment at die  casting facilities consists of
                     oil/water separation and/or filtration before discharge to a POTW. Facilities
                     generating large volumes of wastewater may also utilize biological treatment
                     (NADCA, 1996).
       Residual Wastes
                     Residual  waste streams  from die casting facilities are relatively small
                     compared to most sand casting foundries.  Typical residual wastes include:
                     slag or dross generated from molten metal surfaces; refractory materials from
                     furnaces and ladles; metallic fines, spent shot (plunger) tips, tools, heating
                     coils, hydraulic fluid, floor absorbent, abrasive cutting belts  and wheels,
                     quench sludge, and steel shot.  Most residual wastes from die casting facilities
                     are sent off-site for disposal as a non-hazardous waste.  Waste dross is usually
                     sent to secondary smelters for metal recovery.  Waste oils, lubricants and
                     hydraulic fluids may be sent off-site  for recycling or  energy recovery
                     (NADCA, 1996).
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 Metal Casting Industry
                 Industrial Process Description
Table 4: Summary of Material Inputs and Potential Pollutant Outputs
for the Metal Casting Industry
Industrial
Process
Pattern Making
Material
Inputs
Wood, plastic,
metal, wax,
polystyrene
Air Emissions
VOCs from glues,
epoxies, and paints.
Wastewater
Little or no
wastewater generated
Residual
Wastes
Scrap pattern
materials
Mold and Core Preparation and Pouring
Green Sand
Chemical Binding
Systems
Permanent Mold
Plaster Mold
Investment/Lost Wax
Lost Foam
Green sand
and
chemically-
bonded sand
cores
Sand and
chemical
binders
Steel mold,
permanent,
sand, plaster,
or salt cores
Plaster mold
material
Refractory
slurry, and wax
or plastic
Refractory
slurry,
jolystyrene
Particulates, metal oxide
fumes, carbon
monoxide, organic
compounds, hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur dioxide,
and nitrous oxide. Also,
benzene, phenols, and
other hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs) if
chemically bonded cores
are used.
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes, carbon
monoxide, ammonia,
hydrogen sulfide,
hydrogen cyanide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
and other HAPs
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes,
polystyrene vapors and
HAPs
Wastewater
containing metals,
elevated temperature,
phenols and other
organics from wet
dust collection
systems and mold
cooling water
Scrubber wastewater
with amines or high
or low pH; and
wastewater containing
metals, elevated
temperature, phenols
and other organics
from wet dust
collection systems and
mold cooling water
Waste cooling water
with elevated
temperature and
wastewater with low
pH and high in
dissolved salts if
soluble salt cores are
used
Little or no
wastewater generated
Wastewater with low
pHand high in
dissolved salts if
soluble salt cores are
used
^ittle or no
wastewater generated
Waste green sand
and core sand
potentially
containing metals
Waste mold and
core sand
potentially
containing metals
and residual
chemical binders
Waste core sand
or plaster
potentially
containing metals
Spent plaster
Waste refractory
material, waxes
and plastics
Waste sand and
refractory material
)otentially
containing metals
and styrene
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Metal Casting Industry
              Industrial Process Description
Industrial
Material
Inputs
Air Emissions
Wastewater
Furnace Charge Preparation and Metal Melting
Charging and Melting
Flaxing and Slag and
Dross Removal
Pouring
Metal scrap,
ingot and
returned
castings
Fluxing agents
Ladles and
other refractory
materials
Products of combustion,
oil vapors, particulates,
metallic oxide fumes
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes, solvents,
hydrochloric acid
Particulates, metallic
oxide fumes
Scrubber wastewater
with high pH, slag
cooling water with
metals, and non-
contact cooling water
Wastewater
containing metals if
slag quench is utilized
Little or no
wastewater generated
Quenching, Finishing, Cleaning and Coating
Painting and rust
inhibitor application
Cleaning , quenching,
grinding, cutting
Shakeout,
Cooling and
Sand Handling
Die Casting1
Paint and rust
inhibitor
Unfinished
castings, water,
steel shot,
solvents
Water and
caustic for wet
scrubbers
Metal, fuel,
lubricants,
fluxing agents,
hydraulic fluid
VOCs
VOCs, dust and metallic
particulates
Dust and metallic
particulates; VOC and
organic compounds
from thermal sand
treatment systems
VOCs from die and
plunger tip lubrication
Little or no
wastewater generated
Waste cleaning and
cooling water with
elevated temperature,
solvents, oil and
grease, and suspended
solids
Wet scrubber
wastewater with high
or low pH or amines,
permanent mold
contact cooling water
with elevated
temperature, metals
and mold coating
Waste cooling water
with elevated
temperature and
wastewater
contaminated with oil,
and phenols
Residual
Wastes

Spent refractory
material
potentially
containing metals
and alloys
Dross and slag
potentially
containing metals
Spent ladles and
refractory
materials
potentially
containing metals

Spent containers
and applicators
Spent solvents,
steel shot, metallic
particulates,
cutting wheels,
metallic filings,
dust from
collection systems,
and wastewater
treatment sludge
Waste foundry
sand and dust from
collection systems,
metal
Waste hydraulic
fluid, lubricants,
floor absorbent,
and plunger tips
1 Furnaces metal melting finishing cleaning and coating operations also apply to die casting.
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 Metal Casting Industry
                  Industrial Process Description
 DI.C.  Management of Chemicals in Wastestream
       Foundries
                      The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (PPA) requires facilities to report
                      information about  the management  of Toxic Release  Inventory (TRI)
                      chemicals in waste and efforts made to eliminate or reduce those quantities.
                      These data have been collected annually in Section 8 of the TRI reporting
                      Form R beginning with the 1991 reporting year. The data summarized below
                      cover the years 1993-1996 and are meant to provide a basic understanding of
                      the quantities of waste handled by the industry, the methods typically used to
                      manage  this waste, and recent  trends in these  methods.   TRI waste
                      management data can be used to assess trends in source reduction within
                      individual industries and facilities, and for specific TRI chemicals.  This
                      information could then be used as a tool in identifying opportunities for
                      pollution prevention compliance assistance activities.

                      While the quantities reported for 1994 and 1995 are estimates of quantities
                      already managed, the quantities listed by facilities  for 1996 and 1997 are
                      projections only.  The PPA requires these projections to encourage facilities
                      to consider future source reduction, not to establish any mandatory limits.
                      Future-year estimates are not commitments that facilities reporting under TRI
                      are required to meet.
                     Table 5 shows that the TRI reporting foundries managed about 272 million
                     pounds of production related wastes (total quantity of TRI chemicals in the
                     waste from routine production operations in column B) in 1995. From the
                     yearly data presented in column B, the total quantity of production related
                     TRI wastes increased between 1994 and 1995.  This is likely in part because
                     the number of chemicals on the TRI list nearly doubled between those years.
                     Production related wastes were projected to decrease in 1996 and 1997. The
                     effects of production increases and  decreases on the  amount of wastes
                     generated are not evaluated here.

                     Values in Column C are intended to reveal the percent of production-related
                     waste  (about  40 percent) either transferred  off-site  or released to the
                     environment. Column C is calculated by dividing the total TRI transfers and
                     releases by the total quantity of production-related waste.  Column C shows
                     a decrease in the amount of wastes either transferred off-site or released to the
                     environment from 43 percent in 1994 to 40 percent in 1995. In other words,
                     about 60 percent of the industry's TRI wastes were managed on-site through
                     recycling, energy recovery, or treatment as shown in  columns D, E, and F,
                     respectively. Most of these on-site managed wastes were recycled on-site,
                     typically in a metals recovery process. The majority of waste that is released
                     or transferred off-site can be divided into  portions that are recycled off-site,
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Metal Casting Industry
                Industrial Process Description
                      recovered for energy off-site, or treated off-site as shown in columns G, H,
                      and I, respectively. The remaining portion of the production related wastes
                      (32 percent in 1994 and 1995), shown in column J, is either released to the
                      environment through direct discharges to air, land, water, and underground
                      injection, or is transferred off-site for disposal.
Table 5: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for
Foundries (SIC 332, 3365, 3366, and 3369) as Reported within TRI
A
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
B
Quantity of
Production-
Related
Waste
(lO'lbs.)1
232
272
264
261
C
% Released
and
Transferred1"
43%
40%
—
—
On-Site
D
%
Recycled
58%
58%
54%
53%
£
% Energy
Recovery
0%
0%
0%
0%
F
% Treated
1%
2%
2%
2%
Off-Site
G
%
Recycled
18%
16%
20%
21%
H
% Energy
Recovery
0%
0%
0%
0%
I
% Treated
0%
1%
1%
1%

J
% Released
and
Disposed0
Off-site
32%
32%
24%
24%
Source: 1995 Toxics Release Inventory Database.
" Within this industry sector, non-production related waste < 1% of production related wastes for 1995.
b Total TRI transfers and releases as reported in Section 5 and 6 of Form R as a percentage of production related wastes.
c Percentage of production related waste released to the environment and transferred off-site for disposal.
        Die Casters
                      Table 6 shows that the TRI reporting foundries managed about 63 million
                      pounds of production related wastes (total quantity of TRI chemicals in the
                      waste from routine production operations) in 1995 (column B). Column C
                      reveals that of this production-related waste, about 21 percent was either
                      transferred off-site or released to the environment. Column C is calculated by
                      dividing the  total TRI  transfers and  releases by the total quantity of
                      production-related waste. In other words, about 79% of the industry's TRI
                      wastes were managed on-site through recycling, energy recovery, or treatment
                      as  shown in columns D, E, and F, respectively. Most  of these on-site
                      managed wastes were recycled on-site, typically in a metals recovery process.
                      The majority of waste that is released or transferred off-site can be divided
                      into portions that are  recycled  off-site, recovered for energy off-site, or
                      treated off-site as shown in columns G, H, and I, respectively. The remaining
                      portion of the production related wastes (2 percent in 1994), shown in column
                      J, is either released to the  environment through direct discharges to air, land,
                      water, and underground injection, or it is disposed off-site.
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 Metal Casting Industry
                     Industrial Process Description
Table 6: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for
Die Casting Facilities (SIC 3363 and 3364) as Reported within TRI
A
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
B
Quantity of
Production-
Related
Waste
(10slbs.)'
60
63
64
64
C
% Released
and
Transferred1"
23%
21%
—
—
On-Site
D
%
Recycled
69%
75%
75%
76%
E
% Energy
Recovery
0%
0%
0%
0%
F
% Treated
3%
3%
3%
2%
Off-Site
G
%
Recycled
27%
21%
21%
21%
H
% Energy
0%
0%
0%
0%
I

0%
0%
0%
0%
J
% Released
and
Disposed0
Off-site
2%
2%
1%

 " Within this industry sector, non-production related waste < 1% of production related wastes for 1995.
  Total TRI transfers and releases as reported in Section 5 and 6 of Form R as a percentage of production related wastes.
  Percentage of production related waste released to the environment and transferred off-site for disposal.
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 Metal Casting Industry
              Chemical Releases and Transfers
 IV.  CHEMICAL RELEASE AND TRANSFER PROFILE
                     This section is designed to provide background information on the pollutant
                     releases that are reported by this industry. The best source of comparative
                     pollutant release information is the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI). Pursuant
                     to the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, TRI includes
                     self-reported facility release and transfer data for over 600 toxic chemicals.
                     Facilities within SIC Codes 20 through 39 (manufacturing industries) that
                     have more than 10 employees, and that are above weight-based reporting
                     thresholds are required to report TRI on-site releases and off-site transfers.
                     The information presented within the sector notebooks is derived from the
                     most recently available (1995) TRI reporting year (which includes over 600
                     chemicals), and focuses primarily on the on-site  releases reported by each
                     sector.  Because TRI requires consistent reporting regardless of sector, it is
                     an excellent tool for drawing comparisons across industries. TRI data provide
                     the type, amount and media receptor of each chemical released or transferred.

                     Although this   sector  notebook does  not present  historical  information
                     regarding TRI chemical releases over time, please note that in general, toxic
                     chemical releases have been declining.  In fact, according to the 1995 Toxic
                     Release Inventory Public Data Release,  reported onsite releases of toxic
                     chemicals to the environment decreased by 5 percent (85.4 million pounds)
                     between 1994 and 1995 (not including chemicals added and removed from the
                     TRI chemical list  during this period).  Reported releases  dropped by 46
                     percent between 1988 and 1995.  Reported transfers of TRI chemicals to off-
                     site locations increased by 0.4 percent (11.6 million pounds) between 1994
                     and 1995. More detailed information can be obtained from EPA's annual
                     Toxics  Release Inventory Public Data Release  book (which  is available
                     through the EPCRA Hotline at 800-535-0202), or directly from the Toxic
                     Release Inventory System database (for user support call 202-260-1531).

                     Wherever possible, the sector  notebooks present TRI data as the primary
                     indicator of chemical  release  within each industrial  category.  TRI  data
                     provide the type, amount and media receptor of each chemical released or
                     transferred. When other sources of pollutant release data have been obtained,
                     these data have been included to augment the TRI information.
TRI Data Limitations
                    Certain limitations exist regarding TRI data. Release and transfer reporting
                    are limited to the approximately 600 chemicals on the TRI list. Therefore, a
                    large portion of the emissions from industrial facilities are not captured by
                    TRI.  Within some sectors, (e.g. dry cleaning, printing and transportation
                    equipment cleaning) the majority of facilities are not subject to TRI reporting
                    because they are not considered manufacturing industries, or because they are
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Metal Casting Industry
             Chemical Releases and Transfers
                    below TRI reporting thresholds. For these sectors, release information from
                    other sources has been included. In addition, many facilities report more than
                    one SIC code reflecting the multiple operations carried out onsite. Therefore,
                    reported releases and transfers may or may not  all be associated with the
                    industrial operations described in this notebook.

                    The reader should also be aware that TRI "pounds released" data presented
                    within the notebooks is not equivalent to a "risk" ranking for each industry.
                    Weighting each pound of release equally does  not factor in the relative
                    toxicity of each chemical that is released.  The Agency is in the process of
                    developing an approach to assign lexicological weightings to each chemical
                    released so that one can differentiate between pollutants  with significant
                    differences in toxicity. As a preliminary indicator of the environmental impact
                    of the industry's most commonly released chemicals, the notebook briefly
                    summarizes the toxicological properties of the top  five chemicals (by weight)
                    reported by each industry.

Definitions Associated With Section IV Data Tables

       General Definitions

                    SIC  Code  -- the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) is a statistical
                    classification standard used for all establishment-based  Federal economic
                    statistics.  The SIC codes facilitate comparisons between facility and industry
                    data.

                    TRI Facilities ~ are manufacturing facilities that have 10 or more full-time
                    employees  and are above established chemical  throughput thresholds.
                    Manufacturing facilities are defined as facilities in Standard Industrial
                    Classification primary codes 20-39.  Facilities must submit estimates for all
                    chemicals that are  on the EPA's defined  list and  are  above throughput
                    thresholds.

       Data Table Column Heading Definitions

                    The following definitions are based upon standard definitions developed by
                    EPA's Toxic Release Inventory Program.  The categories below represent the
                    possible pollutant destinations that can be reported.

                    RELEASES —  are  an on-site  discharge  of  a toxic chemical  to the
                    environment. This  includes emissions to the air, discharges to bodies of
                    water, releases at the facility to land,  as well as contained disposal into
                    underground injection wells.
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 Metal Casting Industry
               Chemical Releases and Transfers
                     Releases to Air (Point and Fugitive Air Emissions) ~  Include all air
                     emissions from industry activity.  Point emissions occur through confined air
                     streams as found in stacks, vents, ducts, or pipes. Fugitive emissions include
                     equipment leaks, evaporative losses from surface impoundments and spills,
                     and releases from building ventilation systems.

                     Releases to Water (Surface Water Discharges) -- encompass any releases
                     going directly to  streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, or other bodies of water.
                     Releases due to runoff, including storm water runoff, are also reportable to
                     TRI.

                     Releases to Land « occur within the boundaries of the reporting facility.
                     Releases  to land  include disposal of toxic chemicals in  landfills,  land
                     treatment/application farming, surface impoundments, and other land disposal
                     methods (such as spills, leaks, or waste piles).

                     Underground Injection ~ is a contained release of a fluid into a subsurface
                     well for the purpose of waste disposal. Wastes containing TRI chemicals are
                     injected into either Class I wells or Class V wells.  Class I wells are used to
                     inject liquid hazardous wastes  or dispose of industrial  and  municipal
                     wastewater beneath the lowermost underground source of drinking water.
                     Class V wells are generally used to inject non-hazardous fluid into or above
                     an underground source of drinking water.  TRI reporting does not currently
                     distinguish between these two types of wells, although there are important
                     differences in environmental impact between these two methods of injection.

                     TRANSFERS- is a transfer of toxic chemicals in wastes to a facility that is
                     geographically or physically separate from the facility reporting under TRI.
                     Chemicals reported to TRI as transferred are sent to off-site facilities for the
                     purpose of recycling, energy recovery, treatment, or disposal.  The quantities
                     reported represent a movement of the chemical away from the reporting
                     facility.  Except for off-site transfers for disposal, the reported quantities do
                     not necessarily represent entry of the chemical into the environment.

                     Transfers to POTWs - are wastewater transferred through pipes or sewers
                     to a publicly owned treatments works (POTW). Treatment or removal  of a
                     chemical from the wastewater depend on the nature of the chemical, as well
                     as the treatment methods present at the POTW. Not all TRI chemicals can
                     be treated or removed by a POTW. Some chemicals, such as metals,  may be
                     removed, but are not destroyed and may be  disposed of in landfills or
                     discharged to receiving waters.

                     Transfers to Recycling ~ are sent off-site for the purposes of regenerating
                     or recovery by a variety of recycling methods, including solvent recovery,
                     metals recovery, and acid regeneration.  Once  these chemicals have been
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Metal Casting Industry
             Chemical Releases and Transfers
                     recycled, they may be returned to the originating facility or sold commercially.

                     Transfers to Energy Recovery — are wastes combusted off-site in industrial
                     furnaces for energy recovery.  Treatment of a chemical by incineration is not
                     considered to be energy recovery.

                     Transfers to Treatment -- are wastes moved off-site to be treated through
                     a variety of methods,  including  neutralization,  incineration, biological
                     destruction, or physical separation.  In some cases, the chemicals are not
                     destroyed but prepared for further waste management.

                     Transfers  to Disposal --  are wastes taken to another facility for disposal
                     generally as a release to land or as an injection underground.
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 Metal Casting Industry
               Chemical Releases and Transfers
 IV.A.  EPA Toxic Release Inventory for the Metal Casting Industry

                      This section summarizes TRI data of ferrous  and nonferrous  foundries
                      reporting SIC codes 332, 3365, 3366, and 3369, and ferrous and nonferrous
                      die casting facilities reporting SIC codes 3363 and 3364 as the primary SIC
                      code for the facility. Of the 2,813 metal casting establishments reported by
                      the 1992 Census of Manufacturers, 654 reported to TRI in 1995.

                      Ferrous and nonferrous foundries made up 85 percent (554 facilities) of metal
                      casting facilities reporting to TRI and accounted for about 89 percent of the
                      total metal  casting TRI releases and transfers for metal casting facilities in
                      1995.  Die casters made up 15 percent (100 facilities) of metal casting
                      facilities and reported the remaining 11 percent of the total releases and
                      transfers. Because the TRI information differs for foundries and die casters,
                      the releases and transfers for these two industry segments are presented
                      separately below.

        IV.A.1.  Toxic Release Inventory for Ferrous and Nonferrous Foundries

                     According  to the  1995 TRI data,  the reporting ferrous and  nonferrous
                     foundries released and transferred a total of approximately 109 million pounds
                     of pollutants during calendar year 1995.  These releases  and transfers are
                     dominated by large volumes of metallic wastes. Evidence of the  diversity of
                     processes at foundries reporting to  TRI is found in the fact that  the most
                     frequently reported chemical (copper) is reported by only 45 percent of the
                     facilities and over half of the TRI chemicals were reported by fewer than ten
                     facilities. The variability in facilities' pollutant profiles may be attributable to
                     the large number of different types of foundry processes and products. For
                     example, foundries casting only ferrous parts will have different  pollutant
                     profiles than those foundries casting both ferrous and nonferrous products.
       Releases
                     Releases to the air, water, and land accounted for 33 percent (36 million
                     pounds)  of foundries' total  reportable chemicals.  Of these releases, 70
                     percent go to onsite land disposal, and about 75 percent are fugitive or point
                     source, air emissions (See Table 7). Metallic wastes accounted for over 95
                     percent of  the industry's releases.  Manganese, zinc,  chromium, and  lead
                     account for over 95 percent of the on-site land disposal. The industry's air
                     releases are associated with volatilization, fume or aerosol formation in the
                     furnaces  and byproduct  processing.  Lighter weight organics,  such as
                     methanol, acids and metal contaminants found in scrap metal are the principal
                     types of TRI chemicals released to the air.  In addition to air releases of
                     chemicals reported to TRI, foundries are often a source of particulates, carbon
                     monoxide,  nitrogen oxides and sulfur compounds due to sand handling
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Metal Casting Industry
             Chemical Releases and Transfers
                     operations,  curing of chemical binders, and combustion of fossil fuels.
                     Methanol, trichloroethylene and other solvent releases account for most of the
                     fugitive releases (approximately 61 percent).
       Tratjsfers
                     Off-site transfers of TRI chemicals account for 69 percent of foundries' total
                     TRI-reportable chemicals (74 million pounds).  Almost 57 percent of the
                     industry's total TRI wastes (42 million pounds) are metallic wastes that were
                     transferred off-site for recycling, typically for recovery of the metal content.
                     Metallic wastes  account for approximately 95 percent of the industry's
                     transfers. About 61 percent of off-site transfers reported by foundries are sent
                     off-site for recycling.  Copper,  manganese, zinc, chromium, nickel, and lead
                     are the six metals transferred in the greatest amounts and number of facilities
                     (See Table 8). TRI chemicals sent off-site for disposal (primarily manganese,
                     zinc, chromium,  and copper) account for 31 percent of transfers. Less than
                     three percent of the remaining transfers from foundries go to treatment off-
                     site, discharge to POTWs, and energy recovery.

                     After metals,  the next largest volume of chemicals transferred are  acids
                     including: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and hydrochloric acid.
                     Spent acids can be generated in wet scrubber systems. In addition, acids are
                     often used to clean and finish the surfaces of the metal castings before plating
                     or coating.   The spent  acids are often sent off-site for  recycling or for
                     treatment. Solvents and other light weight organic compounds are frequently
                     reported but account for a relatively small amount of total transfers.  Solvents
                     are used  frequently for  cleaning equipment and cast parts.  The  primary
                     solvents  and  light  weight  organics  include:  phenol,  xylene,  1,2,4-
                     trimethylbenzene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, methanol, and
                     toluene. Transferred solvents are mostly sent off-site for disposal or recycling.
                     Phenols and phenoisocyanates are frequently reported but amount to less than
                     one percent of the total TRI pounds transferred. Phenols are often found in
                     chemical  binding systems and may be present in waste sand containing
                     chemical binders (AFS and CISA, 1992).
 Sector Notebook Project
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 Metal Casting Industry
                                                           Chemical Releases and Transfers
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Sector Notebook Project
                                          59
                                                                                 September 1997

-------
                                                    Chemical Releases and Transfers






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Sector Notebook Project
60
September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
               Chemical Releases and Transfers
        IV.A.2.  Toxic Release Inventory for Die Casting Facilities

                      According to the 1995 TRI data, the reporting die casting facilities released
                      and transferred a total of approximately 13 million pounds of TRI chemicals
                      during calendar year 1995.  As with foundries, the releases and transfers for
                      die casters are dominated by large volumes of metallic wastes. Evidence of
                      the diversity of processes at die casting facilities reporting to TRI is found in
                      the fact that all but three of the TRI reported chemicals (copper, nickel, and
                      aluminum) are reported by fewer  than ten percent of the  facilities.  The
                      variability in facilities' pollutant profiles may be attributed primarily to the
                      different types of metals cast.
        Releases
        Transfers
                      Releases make up only four percent of die casters' total TRI-reportable
                      chemicals (518,000 pounds). Almost all of these releases (99 percent) are
                      released to the air through point source and fugitive emissions (see Table 9).
                      Metallic wastes (primarily aluminum, zinc, and copper) account for over 67
                      percent of the releases.  The remainder of the industry's releases are primarily
                      solvents and other volatile organic compounds including, trichloroethylene,
                      tetrachloroethylene, glycol ethers,  hexochloroethane, and toluene, which
                      account for 32 percent of the releases. In addition to air releases of chemicals
                      reported to TRI, die casting facilities can  be a source of particulates, carbon
                      monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur compounds due to the combustion of
                      fossil fuels for metal melting, from the  molten metal itself,  and from die
                      cleaning and lubricating operations.
                     Off-site transfers of TRI chemicals account for 96 percent of die casters' total
                     TRI-reportable chemicals (13 million pounds).  Almost all off-site transfers
                     (97 percent) reported by die casting facilities are sent off-site for recycling.
                     Copper, aluminum, zinc, and nickel make up 98 percent of all transfers and
                     are reported by the largest number of facilities  (see Table 10).  Chemicals
                     sent off-site for disposal (primarily aluminum and copper) account for less
                     than three percent of transfers.  After metals, the next class of chemicals
                     transferred are solvents. These chemicals account for only about one percent
                     of total transfers.
Sector Notebook Project
61
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
                                                       Chemical Releases and Transfers
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-------
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                                           Chemical Releases and Transfers
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Sector Notebook Project
                             63
                                                         September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
             Chemical Releases and Transfers
                     The TRI database contains a detailed compilation of self-reported, facility-
                     specific chemical releases.  The top reporting facilities for the metal casting
                     industry are listed below in Tables 11 and 12. Facilities that have reported
                     only the primary SIC codes covered under this notebook appear on Table 11.
                     Table 12 contains additional facilities  that have reported  the  SIC codes
                     covered within this notebook, or SIC codes covered within this notebook
                     report and  one or more SIC codes that are  not within the scope of this
                     notebook.   Therefore,  the second list  may include facilities that conduct
                     multiple operations -- some that are under the scope of this notebook, and
                     some that are not. Currently, the facility-level data do not  allow pollutant
                     releases to be broken apart by industrial process.
TJI hip 1 1 : Top 10 TRI Releasing Metal Casting Facilities1

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Foundries (SIC 332, 3365, 3366, 3369)
Facility
GM Powertrain Defiance - Defiance,
OH
GMC Powertrain - Saginaw, MI
American Steel Foundries - Granite
City, EL
Griffin Wheel Co. - Keokuk, IA
Griffin Wheel Co. - Groveport, OH
Griffin Wheel Co. - Bessemer, AL
U.S. Pipe & Foundry Co. -
Birmingham, AL
American Steel Foundries - East
Chicago, IN
Griffin Wheel Co. - Kansas City, KS
CMI - Cast Parts, Inc. - Cadillac, MI
Total TRI
Releases in
Pounds
14,730,020
2,709,764
1,245,343
1,065,104
1,042,040
742,135
738,200
625,191
607,266
604,100
Die Casters (SIC 3363, 3364)
Facility
Water Gremlin Co. - White Bear
Lake,MN
BTR Precision Die Casting -
Russelville, KY
QX Inc. - Hamel, MN
AAP St. Marys Corp. - Saint Marys,
OH
Impact Industries Inc. - Sandwich, IL
Tool-Die Eng. Co. - Solon, OH
Chrysler Corp. - Kokomo, IN
Metalloy Corp. - Freemont, IN
Tool Products. Inc. - New Hope,
MN
Travis Pattern & Foundry, Inc. -
Spokane, WA
Total TRI
Releases
in Pounds
97,111
93,903
67,772
55,582
45,175
29,005
20,652
13,350
12,194
11,614
 •Source: US Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1995.
   Being included on this list does not mean that the release is associated with non-compliance with environmental laws.
 Sector Notebook Project
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 Metal Casting Industry
               Chemical Releases and Transfers
Table 12: Top 10 TRI Releasing Facilities Reporting Metal Casting SIC Codes2
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Foundries (SIC 332, 3365, 3366, 3369)
Facility
GM Powertrain Defiance -
Defiance, OH
GMC Powertrain - Saginaw,
MI
Heatcraft Inc. - Grenada,
MS
American Steel Foundries -
Granite City, IL
Griffin Wheel Co. - Keokuk,
IA
Griffin Wheel Co. -
Groveport, OH
Geneva Steel - Vineyard,
UT
Griffin Wheel Co. -
Bessemer, AL
U.S. Pipe & Foundry Co. -
Birmingham, AL
American Steel Foundries -
East Chicago, IN
SIC Codes
Reported in
TRI
3321
3321,3365
3585, 3351,
3366
3325
3325
3325
3312,3317,
3325
3325
3321
3325
Total TRI
Releases in
Pounds
14,730,020
2,709,764
1,369,306
1,245,343
1,065,104
1,042,040
901,778
742,135
738,200
625,191
Die Casters (SIC 3363, 3364)
Facility
Water Gremlin Co. - White
Bear Lake, MN
BTR Precision Die Casting
- Russelville, KY
Honeywell Inc. Home &
Building - Golden
Valley, MN
QX Inc. - Hamel, MN
AAP St. Marys Corp. -
Saint Marys, OH
Impact Industries Inc. -
Sandwich, IL
Tool-Die Eng. Co. -
Solon, OH
TAC Manufacturing -
Jackson, MI
Superior Ind. Intl., Inc. -
Johnson City, TN
General Electric Co. -
SIC Codes
Reported in
TRI
3364, 3949
3363
3822, 3363,
3900
3363
3363
3363
3363
3086, 3363,
3714
3714,3363,
3398
3646, 3363
Total TRI
Releases in
•p •
97,111
93,903
87,937
67,772
55,582
45,175
29,005
25,684
25,250
20,780
Source: US Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1995.
  Being included on this list does not mean that the release is associated with non-compliance with environmental laws.
Sector Notebook Project
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September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
             Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV.B.  Summary of Selected Chemicals Released
                     The following is a synopsis of current scientific toxicity and fate information
                     for the top chemicals (by weight) that facilities within this sector self-reported
                     as  released to the environment based upon 1995 TRI data.  Because this
                     section is based upon self-reported release data, it does not attempt to provide
                     information on management practices employed by the sector to reduce the
                     release of these chemicals. Information regarding pollutant release reduction
                     overtime may be available from EPA's TRI and 33/50 programs, or directly
                     from the industrial trade associations that are listed in Section IX of this
                     document. Since these descriptions are cursory, please consult these sources
                     for a more detailed description of both the chemicals described in this section,
                     and the chemicals that appear on the full list of TRI chemicals appearing in
                     Section IV. A.

                     The brief descriptions provided below were taken from the Hazardous
                     Substances Data Bank (HSDB) and the Integrated Risk Information System
                     (IRIS).  The discussions of toxicity describe the range of possible adverse
                     health effects that have been found to be associated with exposure to these
                     chemicals. These adverse effects may or may not occur at the levels released
                     to  the environment.  Individuals interested in a more detailed picture of the
                     chemical concentrations associated with these adverse effects should consult
                     a toxicologist or the toxicity literature for the chemical to obtain more
                     information.  The effects listed below must be  taken in  context of these
                     exposure assumptions that are explained more fully within the full chemical
                     profiles in HSDB.  For more information on  TOXNET3 , contact the
                     TOXNET help line at 1-800-231-3766.
                      Manganese and Manganese Compounds (CAS: 7439-96-5; 20-12-2)

                      Sources. Manganese is found in  iron charge materials and is used as an
                      addition agent for alloy steel to obtain desired properties in the final product.
                      In carbon steel, manganese is used to combine with sulfur to improve the
                      ductility of the steel.  An alloy steel with manganese is used for applications
3 TOXNET is a computer system run by the National Library of Medicine that includes a number of toxicological
databases managed by EPA, National Cancer Institute, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
For more information on TOXNET, contact the TOXNET help line at 800-231 -3766. Databases included in TOXNET
arc: CCRIS (Chemical Carcinogenesis Research Information System), DART (Developmental and Reproductive
Toxicity Database), DBIR (Directory of Biotechnology Information Resources), EMtCBACK (Environmental Mutagen
Information Center Backfile), GENE-TOX (Genetic Toxicology), HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank), IRIS
(Integrated Risk Information System), RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances), and TRI (Toxic
Chemical Release Inventory). HSDB contains chemical-specific information on manufacturing and use, chemical and
physical properties, safety and handling, toxicity and biomedical effects, pharmacology, environmental fate and exposure
potential, exposure standards and regulations, monitoring and analysis methods, and additional references.
 Sector Notebook Project
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 Metal Casting Industry
               Chemical Releases and Transfers
                     involving small sections which are subject to severe service conditions, or in
                     larger sections where the weight saving derived from the higher strength of
                     the alloy steels is needed (U.S. EPA,  1995).

                     Toxicity.  There is currently no evidence that human exposure to manganese
                     at levels commonly observed in ambient atmosphere results in adverse health
                     effects.

                     Chronic manganese poisoning, however, bears some similarity to chronic lead
                     poisoning. Occurring via inhalation of manganese dust or fumes, it primarily
                     involves the central nervous system. Early symptoms include languor, speech
                     disturbances, sleepiness, and cramping and weakness in legs. A stolid mask-
                     like appearance efface, emotional disturbances such as absolute detachment
                     broken  by uncontrollable laughter,  euphoria,  and  a  spastic gait  with a
                     tendency to fall  while walking are seen in more advanced cases. Chronic
                     manganese poisoning is reversible if treated early and exposure stopped.
                     Populations at greatest risk of manganese  toxicity are the very young and
                     those with iron deficiencies.

                     Ecologically, although manganese is an essential nutrient for both plants and
                     animals, in excessive concentrations manganese inhibits plant growth.

                     Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that manganese
                     is carcinogenic.

                     Environmental  Fate.  Manganese is an essential nutrient for plants and
                     animals.  As such, manganese accumulates in the top layers of soil or surface
                     water sediments and cycles between the soil and living organisms. It occurs
                     mainly as a solid  under environmental  conditions, though  may also  be
                     transported in the atmosphere as a vapor or dust.
                     Zinc and Zinc Compounds (CAS: 7440-66-6; 20-19-9)

                     Sources. To protect metal from oxidizing, it is often coated with a material
                     that will protect it from moisture and air. In the galvanizing process, steel is
                     coated with zinc. Galvanized iron and steel is often found in furnace charge
                     materials (USITC, 1984).

                     Toxicity. Zinc is a trace element; toxicity from ingestion is low. Severe
                     exposure  to zinc  might  give rise to  gastritis with  vomiting due to
                     swallowing of zinc dusts.  Short-term exposure to very high levels of zinc
                     is linked to lethargy, dizziness,  nausea, fever, diarrhea,  and reversible
                     pancreatic and neurological damage.  Long-term zinc poisoning causes
                     irritability, muscular stiffness and pain, loss of appetite, and nausea.
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Metal Casting Industry
            Chemical Releases and Transfers
                    Zinc chloride fumes cause injury to mucous membranes and to the skin.
                    Ingestion of soluble zinc salts may cause nausea, vomiting, and purging.

                    Carcinogenicity.  There is currently no evidence to suggest that zinc is
                    carcinogenic.

                    Environmental Fate. Significant zinc contamination of soil is only seen
                    in the vicinity of industrial point sources.  Zinc is a stable soft  metal,
                    though it burns in air. Zinc bioconcentrates in aquatic organisms.
                    Methanol (CAS: 67-56-1)

                    Sources. Methanol is used as a cleaning solvent and can be emitted during
                    the production of cores using the hot box and no-bake systems.

                    Toxicity. Methanol is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and the
                    respiratory tract, and is toxic to humans in moderate to high doses. In the
                    body, methanol is converted into formaldehyde and formic acid.  Methanol is
                    excreted as formic acid. Observed toxic effects at high dose levels generally
                    include central nervous system damage and blindness. Long-term exposure
                    to high levels of methanol via inhalation cause liver and blood damage in
                    animals.

                    Ecologically, methanol is expected to have low toxicity to aquatic organisms.
                    Concentrations lethal to half the organisms of a test population are expected
                    to exceed one mg methanol per liter water. Methanol is not likely to persist
                    in water or to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms.

                    Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that methanol is
                    carcinogenic.

                    Environmental Fate. Methanol is highly volatile and flammable. Liquid
                    methanol is likely to evaporate when left exposed. Methanol reacts in air to
                    produce formaldehyde which contributes to the formation of air pollutants.
                    In the atmosphere it can react with other atmospheric chemicals or be washed
                     out by rain. Methanol is readily degraded by microorganisms in soils and
                     surface waters.
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 Metal Casting Industry
               Chemical Releases and Transfers
                      Trichloroethvlene (CAS:79-01-6)

                      Sources, Trichloroethylene is used extensively as a cleaning solvent.

                      Toxicity.  Trichloroethylene was once used as an anesthetic, though its use
                      caused several fatalities due to liver failure.  Short term inhalation exposure
                      to high levels of trichloroethylene may cause rapid coma followed by eventual
                      death from liver, kidney, or heart failure.   Short-term  exposure to lower
                      concentrations of trichloroethylene causes eye, skin, and respiratory tract
                      irritation. Ingestion causes a burning sensation in the mouth, nausea, vomiting
                      and abdominal pain.  Delayed effects from short-term trichloroethylene
                      poisoning include liver and kidney lesions, reversible nerve degeneration, and
                      psychic disturbances. Long-term exposure can produce headache, dizziness,
                      weight loss, nerve damage, heart damage, nausea, fatigue, insomnia, visual
                      impairment,  mood perturbation, sexual problems, dermatitis, and rarely
                      jaundice. Degradation products of trichloroethylene (particularly phosgene)
                      may cause rapid death due to respiratory collapse.

                      Carcinogenicity.  Trichloroethylene is considered by EPA to be a probable
                      human carcinogen via both oral and inhalation  exposure, based on limited
                      human evidence and sufficient animal evidence.

                      Environmental Fate.  Trichloroethylene breaks down slowly in water in the
                      presence of sunlight and bioconcentrates moderately in aquatic organisms.
                      The main removal of trichloroethylene from water is via rapid evaporation.
                      Trichloroethylene does not photodegrade in the atmosphere, though it breaks
                      down  quickly  under  smog conditions, forming other pollutants such as
                      phosgene,  dichloroacetyl chloride,  and formyl  chloride.   In  addition,
                      trichloroethylene vapors may  be decomposed to toxic levels of phosgene in
                      the presence of an intense heat source such as an open arc welder.  When
                      spilled on land, trichloroethylene rapidly volatilizes from surface soils.  Some
                      of the remaining chemical may leach through the soil to groundwater.
                     Xvlenes (MixedIsomers] (CAS- 1330-20-7)

                     Sources. Xylenes are used extensively as cleaning solvents and paint solvents
                     and may be formed as a decomposition product of binders.

                     Toxicity.   Xylenes are rapidly  absorbed into the body after inhalation,
                     ingestion, or skin contact.  Short-term exposure of humans to high levels of
                     xylene can cause irritation of the skin, eyes, nose, and throat, difficulty in
                     breathing, impaired lung function, impaired memory, and possible changes in
                     the  liver and  kidneys.   Both short-  and  long-term  exposure to  high
                     concentrations can cause effects such as headaches, dizziness, confusion, and
Sector Notebook Project
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September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
            Chemical Releases and Transfers
                     lack of muscle coordination. Reactions of xylenes (see environmental fate) in
                     the atmosphere contribute to the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere.
                     Ozone can affect the respiratory system, especially in sensitive individuals
                     such as asthma or allergy sufferers.

                     Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that xylenes are
                     carcinogenic.

                     Environmental Fate. A portion of releases to land and water will quickly
                     evaporate, although some degradation by microorganisms will occur. Xylenes
                     are moderately mobile in soils and may leach into groundwater, where they
                     may persist for several years. Xylenes are volatile organic chemicals.  As
                     such,  xylene in the lower atmosphere will  react with other atmospheric
                     components, contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone and other
                     air pollutants.
                     Chromium and Chromium Compounds (CAS: 7440-47-3; 20-06-4)

                     Sources.  Chromium is  used  as a plating element for metal to prevent
                     corrosion and is sometimes found on charge materials.  Chromium is also a
                     constituent of stainless steel.

                     Toxicity. Although the naturally-occurring form of chromium metal has very
                     low toxicity,  chromium from industrial emissions is highly toxic due to strong
                     oxidation characteristics and cell membrane permeability.  The majority of the
                     effects detailed below are based on Chromium VI (an  isomer that is more
                     toxic than Cr ID). Exposure to chromium metal and insoluble chromium salts
                     affects the respiratory system.  Inhalation exposure to chromium  and
                     chromium salts may cause severe irritation of the upper respiratory tract and
                     scarring of lung tissue.  Dermal exposure to chromium and chromium salts
                     can also cause sensitive dermatitis and skin ulcers.

                     Ecologically, although chromium is present in small quantities in all soils and
                     plants, it is toxic to plants at higher soil concentrations (i.e., 0.2 to 0.4 percent
                     in soil).

                     Carcinogenicity.   Different sources  disagree on the carcinogenicity of
                     chromium. Although an increased incidence in lung cancer among workers
                     in the chromate-producing industry has been reported, data are inadequate to
                     confirm that chromium is a human carcinogen.   Other sources consider
                     chromium VI to be a known human carcinogen based on  inhalation exposure.
 Sector Notebook Project
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 Metal Casting Industry
              Chemical Releases and Transfers
                     Environmental Fate.  Chromium is a non-volatile metal with very low
                     solubility in water.  If applied to land, most chromium remains in the upper
                     five centimeters of soil.  Most chromium in surface waters is present in
                     particulate form as  sediment. Airborne chromium particles are relatively
                     unreactive and are removed from the air through wet and dry deposition.  The
                     precipitated chromium from the air enters surface water or soil.  Chromium
                     bioaccumulates in plants and  animals,  with  an observed bioaccumulation
                     factor of 1,000,000 in snails.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
            Chemical Releases and Transfers
rV.C. Other Data Sources
                    The toxic chemical release data obtained from TRI captures only about one
                    quarter of the facilities in the metal casting industry. However, it allows for
                    a comparison across years and industry sectors.  Reported chemicals are
                    limited to the approximately 600  TRI chemicals.  A large portion of the
                    emissions from metal casting facilities, therefore, are not captured by TRI.
                    The EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards has compiled air
                    pollutant emission factors for determining the total air emissions of priority
                    pollutants (e.g., total hydrocarbons, SOx, NOx, CO, particulates, etc.) from
                    many metal casting sources.

                    The Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) contains a wide range
                    of information related to stationary sources of air pollution, including the
                    emissions of a number of air pollutants which may be of concern within a
                    particular industry.  With the  exception of volatile organic compounds
                    (VOCs), there is little overlap with the TRI chemicals reported above.  Table
                     13 summarizes annual releases (from the industries for  which a Sector
                    Notebook Profile was prepared) of carbon monoxide (CO),  nitrogen dioxide
                    (NOj), paniculate matter of 10 microns or less (PM10), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
                    and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
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 Metal Casting Industry
             Chemical Releases and Transfers
Table 13: Air Pollutant Releases by Industry Sector (tons/year)
Industry Sector
Metal Mining
Nonmetal Mining
Lumber and Wood
Production
Furniture and Fixtures
Pulp and Paper
Printing
Inorganic Chemicals
Organic Chemicals
Petroleum Refining
Rubber and Misc. Plastics
Stone, Clay and Concrete
Iron and Steel
Nonferrous Metals
Fabricated Metals
Electronics and Computers
Motor Vehicles, Bodies,
Parts and Accessories
Dry Cleaning
Crround Transportation
Metal Casting
Pharmaceuticals
Plastic Resins and
Manmade Fibers
Textiles
Power Generation
Shipbuilding and Repair
CO
4,670
25,922
122,061
2,754
566,883
8,755
153,294
112,410
734,630
2,200
105,059
1,386,461
214,243
4,925
356
15,109
102
128,625
116,538
6,586
16,388
8,177
366,208
105
NO2
39,849
22,881
38,042
1,872
358,675
3,542
106,522
187,400
355,852
9,955
340,639
153,607
31,136
11,104
1,501
27,355
184
550,551
11,911
19,088
41,771
34,523
5,986,757
862
PM10
63,541
. 40,199
20,456
2,502
35,030
405
6,703
14,596
27,497
2,618
192,962
83,938
10,403
1,019
224
1,048
3
2,569
10,995
1,576
2,218
2,028
140,760
638
PT
173,566
128,661
64,650
4,827
111,210
1,198
34,664
16,053
36,141
5,182
662,233
87,939
24,654
2,790
385
3,699
27
5,489
20,973
4,425
7,546
9,479
464,542
943
SO2
17,690
18,000
9,401
1,538
493,313
1,684
194,153
176,115
619,775
21,720
308,534
232,347
253,538
3,169
741
20,378
155
8,417
6,513
21,311
67,546
43,050
13,827,511
3 051
voc
915
4,002
55,983
67,604
127,809
103,018
65,427
180,350
313,982
132,945
34,337
83,882
11,058
86,472
4,866
96,338
7,441
104,824
19,031
37,214
74,138
27,768
57,384
3 967
Source: U.S. EPA Office of Air and Radiation, AIRS Database, 1 997.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
             Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV.D.  Comparison of Toxic Release Inventory Between Selected Industries

                     The following information is presented as a comparison of pollutant release
                     and transfer data across industrial categories. It is provided to give a general
                     sense as to the relative scale of TRI releases and transfers within each sector
                     profiled under this project. Please note that the following figure and table do
                     not contain releases and transfers  for  industrial categories that are not
                     included in this project, and thus  cannot be used to draw conclusions
                     regarding the total release and transfer amounts  that are reported to  TRI.
                     Similar information is available within the annual TRI Public Data Release
                     Book.

                     Figure 10 is a graphical representation of a summary of the 1995 TRI data for
                     the metal  casting industry and  the  other sectors  profiled in  separate
                     notebooks. The bar graph presents the total TRI releases and total transfers
                     on the vertical axis. The graph is based on the data shown in Table 14 and is
                     meant to facilitate comparisons between the relative amounts of releases,
                     transfers, and releases per facility both within and between these sectors. The
                     reader should note, however, that differences in the proportion of facilities
                     captured by TRI exist between industry sectors.  This can be a factor of poor
                     SIC matching and relative differences in the number of facilities reporting to
                     TRI from the various sectors.  In the case of the metal casting industry, the
                     1995 TRI data presented here covers 654 facilities. These facilities listed SIC
                     332 (Iron and Steel Foundries) and 336  (Nonferrous Foundries) as primary
                     SIC codes.
 Sector Notebook Project
74
September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
             Chemical Releases and Transfers
        Figure 10: Summary of TRI Releases and Transfers by Industry
500-
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Source: US EPA 1995 Toxics Release Inventory Database.

11
24
25
2611-2631
2711-2789
2812-2819
2821,2823,
2824
Industry Sector
Textiles
Lumber and Wood
Products
Furniture and Fixtures
Pulp and Paper
Printing
Inorganic Chemical
Manufacturing
Plastic Resins and
Manmade Fibers
SIC Range
2833, 2834
2861-2869
2911
30
32
331
332, 336
Industry Sector
Pharmaceuticals
Organic Chem. Mfg.
Petroleum Refining
Rubber and Misc. Plastics
Stone, Clay, and Concrete
Iron and Steel
Metal Casting
SIC Range
333, 334
34
36
371
3731

Nonferrous Metals
Fabricated Metals
Electronic Equip, and Comp.
Motor Vehicles, Bodies,
Parts, and Accessories
Shipbuilding

Sector Notebook Project
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September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
            Chemical Releases and Transfers








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Doxies j
ource: US EPA 1

Sector Notebook Project
76
September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
             Pollution Prevention Opportunities
 V.  POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES

                      The best way to reduce pollution is to prevent it in the first place.  Some
                      companies have creatively implemented pollution prevention techniques that
                      improve efficiency and increase profits while at the same time minimizing
                      environmental impacts.  This can be done in many ways such as reducing
                      material inputs,  re-engineering  processes to reuse by-products, improving
                      management practices, and employing substitution of toxic chemicals.  Some
                      smaller facilities are able to actually get below regulatory thresholds just by
                      reducing pollutant releases through aggressive pollution prevention policies.

                      The Pollution Prevention Act  of  1990  established a national policy of
                      managing  waste through  source reduction, which means preventing the
                      generation of waste.  The Pollution Prevention Act also established as national
                      policy a hierarchy of waste management options for situations in which source
                      reduction  cannot be  implemented  feasibly.   In  the waste management
                      hierarchy, if source reduction is not  feasible the next alternative is recycling
                      of wastes,  followed by energy recovery, and waste treatment as a last
                      alternative.

                      In order to encourage these approaches, this section provides both general
                      and company-specific descriptions of some pollution prevention advances that
                      have been implemented within the metal casting industry. While the list is not
                      exhaustive, it does provide core information that can be used as the starting
                      point for facilities interested in beginning their own pollution prevention
                      projects. This section provides summary information from activities that may
                      be, or are being implemented by this sector. When possible,  information is
                      provided that gives the context in which the technique can be used effectively.
                      Please note that the activities described in this section do not necessarily apply
                      to all facilities that fall within this sector. Facility-specific conditions must be
                      carefully considered when pollution prevention options are evaluated, and the
                      full impacts of the change must examine how each option affects air, land and
                      water pollutant releases.

                     Most of the pollution prevention  activities in the metal casting industry have
                     concentrated on reducing waste sand, waste electric arc furnace (EAF) dust
                     and  desulfurization slag,  and increasing the overall energy efficiency of the
                     processes.   This  section describes   some of the pollution  prevention
                     opportunities for foundries within each of these areas.

V.A. Waste Sand and Chemical Binder Reduction and Reuse

                     Disppsal of waste foundry sand in off-site landfills has become less appealing
                     to foundry operators in recent years.  Landfill  disposal fees have increased
                     considerably, especially in areas that suffer from shortages of landfill capacity.
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                      Pollution Prevention Opportunities
                    Landfill disposal can be a long-term CERCLA liability as well (see Section
                    VT.A. for a discussion of CERCLA).  Currently, about 2 percent of foundry
                    waste sands generated is considered hazardous waste under RCRA requiring
                    expensive special treatment, handling and disposal in hazardous waste
                    landfills.  Therefore, there are strong financial incentives for applying pollution
                    prevention techniques that reduce waste foundry sand generation. In fact, for
                    years  many  foundries have been implementing programs to  reduce  the
                    amounts of waste sand they generate.  Also, the industry is conducting a
                    significant amount of research in this area (AFS,  1996).

       V.A.I. Casting Techniques Reducing Waste Foundry Sand Generation

                    The preferable approach to reducing disposal of waste sands is through source
                    reduction rather than waste management and pollution control or treatment
                    techniques. Foundry operators aiming to reduce waste sand may want to
                    examine the feasibility and  economic incentives of new casting methods for
                    all or part of their production. A number of the casting techniques described
                    in Section IH.A such  as investment casting, permanent mold casting, die
                    casting, and lost foam casting generate less sand waste than other techniques.

                    Adopting different casting methods, however, may  not always be feasible
                     depending on the physical characteristics of the parts to be cast (e.g., type of
                     metal, casting size and configuration, tolerances and  surface finish required,
                     etc.), the capabilities of the alternative methods, and the economic feasibility.
                     When considering the economic feasibility of implementing these alternative
                     methods, the savings in waste sand handling and disposal and raw material
                     costs should be examined.

                     In addition to the more common methods listed above and  described in
                     Section ffl.A, there are a number of lesser known and/or new casting methods
                     that also have the potential to reduce the volume  of foundry waste sand
                     generated. One promising method, vacuum molding, is described below.  For
                     additional information on new, alternative  casting techniques, see the
                     references in Section IX.

        Vacuum Molding

                     Vacuum molding, or the V-Process, uses a strong vacuum applied to free-
                     flowing, dry, unbonded sand around patterns in air tight flasks. The vacuum
                     inside the mold results in a net pressure outside pushing in, holding the  sand
                     rigidly in the shape of the pattern even after the pattern is removed.   The
                     process uses a specially designed plastic film to seal the open ends of the  sand
                     mold and the mold cavity.  After the pattern is removed, the mold halves are
                     placed  together and the metal is poured.  The plastic film inside the mold
                     cavity melts and diffuses into the sand as it contacts the molten metal. When
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 Metal Casting Industry
             Pollution Prevention Opportunities
                     the metal has cooled, the vacuum is removed, allowing the sand to fall away
                     from the casting.  Shakeout equipment is not needed and virtually no waste
                     sand is generated.  The V-Process can be used on almost all metal types, for
                     all sizes and shapes. Although the process has not gained widespread use, it
                     can be economical, uses very little energy and can produce castings with high
                     dimensional accuracy and consistency (La Rue, 1989).

        V.A.2. Reclamation and Reuse of Waste Foundry Sand and Metal

                     Although less preferable than source reduction, the more immediate shift in
                     industry practices is towards waste reclamation and  reuse. A number of
                     techniques are being used to reclaim waste sand and return it to the mold and
                     core making processes.   In addition, markets for off-site reuse  of waste
                     foundry sand have also been found.  (Unless otherwise noted, this section is
                     based on the 1992 EPA Office of Research and Development report, Guides
                     to Pollution Prevention, The Metal Casting and Heat  Treating Industry.)

        Waste Segregation

                     A substantial amount of sand contamination comes from mixing the various
                     foundry waste streams with waste sand. The overall amount of sand being
                     discarded can be reduced by implementing the following waste segregation
                     steps:

                           Replumbing the dust collector ducting on the casting metal gate cutoff
                            saws to collect metal chips for easier recycling

                           Installing a new baghouse on the sand system to separate the sand
                           system dust from the furnace dust

                           Installing a new screening system or magnetic separator on the main
                           molding sand system surge hopper to continuously clean metal from
                           the sand system

                           Separate nonferrous foundry shot blast dust (often a hazardous waste
                           stream) from other nonhazardous foundry and sand waste streams.

                           Installing a magnetic separation  system on the shotblast system to
                           allow the metal dust to be recycled

                           Changing the core sand knockout procedure to keep this sand from
                           being mixed in with system sand prior to disposal
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Metal Casting Industry
          Pollution Prevention Opportunities
       Screen and Separate Metal from Sand
                     Most foundries screen used sand before reusing it.  Some employ several
                     different screen types and vibrating mechanisms to break down large masses
                     of sand mixed with metal chips.  Coarse screens are used to remove large
                     chunks of metal and core butts.  The larger metal pieces collected in the
                     screen are usually remelted in the furnace or sold to a secondary smelter.
                     Increasingly fine screens remove additional metal particles and help classify
                     the sand by size before it is molded.  Some foundries remelt these smaller
                     metal particles; other foundries sell this portion to metal reclaimers.  The
                     metal recovered during the screening process is often mixed with coarser sand
                     components or has  sand adhering to it. Therefore, remelting these pieces in
                     the furnace generates large amounts of slag,  especially when the smaller
                     particles are remelted.
       Reclaim Sand by Dry Scrubbing/Attrition
                     Reclaiming sand by dry scrubbing is widely used,  and a large variety of
                     equipment is available with capacities adaptable to most binder systems and
                     foundry  operations.  Dry scrubbing may  be divided  into pneumatic or
                     mechanical systems.

                     In pneumatic scrubbing, grains of sand are agitated in streams of air normally
                     confined in vertical steel tubes called cells.  The grains of sand  are propelled
                     upward;  they impact each other and/or are thrust against a steel target to
                     remove some of the binder.  In some systems, grains are impacted against a
                     steel target.  Banks of tubes may be used depending on the capacity and
                     degree of cleanliness desired. Retention time can be  regulated, and fines are
                     removed through  dust collectors.  In mechanical scmbbihg, a variety of
                     available equipment offers foundries a number of options.  An impeller may
                     be used to  accelerate the sand grains at a controlled velocity in a horizontal
                     or vertical plane against a metal plate.  The sand grains impact each other and
                     metal targets, thereby removing some of the binder. The speed of rotation has
                     some control over impact energy.  The binder  and fines are removed by
                     exhaust systems, and screen analysis is controlled by air gates or air wash
                     separators. Additional  equipment options include:

                            A variety  of drum types with internal baffles, impactors, and
                            disintegrators that reduce lumps to grains and remove binder

                     •      Vibrating screens with a series of decks for reducing lumps to grains,
                            with recirculating features and removal of dust and fines
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 Metal Casting Industry
            Pollution Prevention Opportunities
                            Shot-blast cleaning equipment that may be incorporated into other
                            specially designed units to  form a complete casting cleaning/sand
                            reclamation unit

                            Vibro-energy systems that use synchronous and diametric vibration,
                            where frictional and compressive forces separate binder from sand
                            grains.
  Southern Aluminum is a high-production automotive foundry in Bay Minette, Alabama. The
  company recently installed a rotating drum attrition/scrubber sand reclaimer unit to remove
  lumps and tramp aluminum from its spent green sand and core butts so that it could be used
  by an asphalt company. Spent sand is fed into one end of the rotating drum where the lumps
  are reduced and binder is scrubbed off the grains. The sand then enters a screening and
  classifying section, binder and fines are removed by a dust collector, and clean tramp metal is
  removed.  The company is removing far more aluminum from the sand than expected (about
  6,000 pounds per day) resulting in substantial cost savings.  The equipment paid for itself
  before it finished treating three-months worth of spent sand stockpiled at the facility (Philbin
  1996).
       Reclaim Sand with Thermal Systems
                     Most foundries recycle  core  and mold sands; however, these materials
                     eventually lose their basic characteristics, and the portions no longer suitable
                     for use are disposed of in a landfill. In the reclamation of chemically bonded
                     sands, the system employed must be able to break the bond between the resin
                     and sand and remove the fines that are generated. The systems employed
                     most  commonly  are scrubbing/attrition and thermal (rotary reclamation)
                     systems for resin-bonded sands.

                     Reclamation of green sand for reuse in a green sand system is practiced on a
                     limited basis in the United States. However, reclamation of core sand and
                     chemically bonded molding sand is widespread.  Wet reclamation systems
                     employed in the 1950s for handling green sands are no longer used.  Specific
                     thermal reclamation case studies are summarized in AFS (1989) and Modern
                     Casting August (1996).  A typical system to reclaim chemically bonded sand
                     for reuse in core room and molding operations consists of a lump reduction
                     and metal removal system,  a particle classifier, a sand cooler, a dust collection
                     system, and a thermal scrubber (two-bed reactor). A number of thermal sand
                     reclamation techniques are described below.  Note that EPA may classify
                     some types of thermal sand reclamation as incineration.  As of June  1996,
                     EPA was taking comments on the regulatory status of thermal recovery units'
                     Contact Mary Cunningham at (703) 308-8453.
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Metal Casting Industry
          Pollution Prevention Opportunities
                     Thermal Calcining/Thermal Dry Scrubbing.  These systems are useful for
                     reclamation of organic and clay-bonded systems.  Sand grain surfaces are not
                     smooth; they have numerous crevices and indentations. The application of
                     heat with sufficient oxygen calcines the binders or burns off organic binders.
                     Separate mechanical attrition units  may be  required to remove calcined
                     inorganic binders.  Heat offers a simple method of reducing the  encrusted
                     grains of molding sand to pure grains. Both horizontal and vertical rotary kiln
                     and fluidized bed  systems  are available.  Foundries should examine the
                     regulatory requirements of using thermal systems to treat waste sand. The use
                     of these systems may need to be permitted as waste incineration.
  Carondelet Foundry Company in Pevely, Missouri installed a fluidized bed thermal sand
  reclamation unit and a mechanical reclaimer in 1994 to treat its phenolic urethane no-bake and
  phenolic urethane Isocure sand. The steel jobbing shop was sending on average 150 tons per
  day of waste sand off-site for landfill disposal at a cost of about $29 per cubic yard.  In
  addition, new sand was costing approximately $22 per ton.  The thermal system processes
  125 tons per day and the mechanical system processes the remaining 25 tons.  Only 5 percent
  of the foundry's sand is not reclaimed.  The reclamations system is estimated to save the
  foundry over $1 million per year and payed for itself in under a year. In addition, the foundry
  feels that the reclaimed sand is better than new sand and results in better castings (Philbin,
  1996).
                     Rotary Drum. This system has been used since the 1950s for reclaiming shell
                     and chemically bonded sands.  The direct-fired rotary drum is a refractory-
                     lined steel drum that is mounted on casters.  The feed end is elevated to allow
                     the sand to flow freely through the unit. The burners can be at either end of
                     the unit with direct flame impingement on the cascading sand; flow can be
                     either with the flow of solids or counter to it.

                     In indirect-fired units, the drum is mounted on casters in the horizontal
                     position and is surrounded by refractory insulation. Burners line the side of
                     the drum, with the flames in direct contact with the metal drum. The feed end
                     is elevated to allow the sand to flow freely through the unit, and in some cases
                     flights (paddles connected by chains) are welded to the inside to assist
                     material flow.

                     Multiple-Hearth  Vertical Shaft Furnace.  This furnace consists of circular
                     refractory hearths placed one  above the other and enclosed in a refractory-
                     lined steel shell. A vertical rotating shaft through the center of the furnace is
                     equipped with air-cooled alloy arms containing rabble blades (plows) that stir
                     the sand and move it in a spiral path across each hearth.
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 Metal Casting Industry
             Pollution Prevention Opportunities
                      Sand is repeatedly moved outward from the center of a given hearth to the
                      periphery, where it drops through holes to the next hearth.  This action gives
                      excellent contact between sand grains and the heated gases. Material is fed
                      into the top of the furnace.  It makes its way to the bottom in a zigzag fashion,
                      while the hot gases rise counter-currently, burning the organic material and
                      calcining clay, if one or both are present.  Discharge of reclaimed sand can be
                      directly from the bottom hearth into a tube cooler, or other cooling methods
                      may be used. The units are best suited to large tonnages (five tons or more).

                      New approaches  and equipment designed  for sand reclamation units are
                      continuing to evolve, and foundries must evaluate each system carefully with
                      regard to the suitability for a particular foundry operation.
  In 1988, R.H. Sheppard Company, Inc. in Hanover, Pennsylvania installed a thermal sand
  reclamation system to recover its 2,200 tons per year of waste green sand. Between the sand
  purchase price and disposal costs, the foundry was spending over $180,000 per year.  Even
  considering the $428,500 capital investment and regular operation and maintenance costs,
  over the 20 year useful life of the equipment, the company estimates it will save about $2'
  million. This does not include the intangible savings of reduced liability of waste sand
  disposal (Pennsylvania DEP, 1996).
        Use Sand as a Construction Material
                     Depending on its physical and chemical characteristics, non-hazardous waste
                     foundry sand can be used as construction material assuming a market can be
                     found and federal, state, and local regulations relating to handling, storage,
                     and disposal allow it. Many foundries currently recycle foundry waste sand
                     for construction purposes. Industry research, however, indicates that only a
                     small portion of the potential market for waste sand is being utilized. Some
                     potential construction uses for waste  sand include: feed stock for portland
                     cement production; fine aggregate for concrete; fine construction aggregate
                     for fill; and bituminous concrete (asphalt) fine aggregate.
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Metal Casting Industry
          Pollution Prevention Opportunities
 Since late 1993, Viking Pump, Inc., of Cedar Falls, Iowa has been shipping spent sand to a
 Portland cement manufacturer for use as a raw material. This reuse reduces the costs for the
 cement company because the need for mining virgin sand is reduced. Landfill costs for the
 foundry have been reduced creating a win-win situation for both companies. When Viking
 began testing foundry sand for use in cement manufacturing,  the sand was loaded with an
 endloader into grain trucks for hauling to the cement plant. Completing a loading took almost
 an hour. Once the cement company decided that the waste sand was compatible with its
 process, Viking invested in a sand silo for storage. The sand is now conveyed to the silo and
 gravity fed into trucks for transportation, significantly reducing handling time to six minutes.
 Viking expects to send at least half of the spent foundry sand to the portland cement
 manufacturer and is continuing to look for alternative uses to achieve its pollution prevention
 goals (U.S. EPA Enviro$en$e Website, 1996).
                     Not all foundry sand will be ideal for all construction uses.  For example,
                     although many foundry sands actually  increase compression strengths of
                     concrete when used as a fine aggregate, green molding sands have been
                     shown to decrease compression strengths. In addition, foundries will probably
                     not be  able to find markets for their waste  sand  in its  "as-generated"
                     condition.  Some  processing is typically required in order to match the
                     customers' product specifications.  Waste sand may first need to be dried,
                     crushed, screened and separated.from metals.

                     Waste sand streams from certain foundry processes could render a foundry's
                     entire waste sand stream worthless if mixed together.  A material flow diagram
                     detailing the flow of sand and its  characteristics (particle size distribution,
                     mineralogical composition, moisture content, and chemical and contaminant
                     concentration) through the production processes will help foundry operators
                     identify those  spent sand generation points  that must be  separated out for
                     either processing and sale to a customer or for disposal in a landfill.
 V.B. Metal Melting Furnaces
                     The metal casting industry is highly energy intensive and therefore has
                     opportunities to prevent pollution through increasing energy efficiency. The
                     majority of the energy  is consumed by the furnaces used to melt metal;
                     however, energy used in heat curing of sand molds can also be significant
                     depending on the process used (DOE, 1996). Increases in energy efficiency
                     in metal casting operations may have the dual pollution prevention effect of
                     reducing fossil fuel consumption (and the associated environmental impacts)
                     and reducing the amounts of wastes generated from furnaces and curing ovens
                     (e.g., hazardous desulfurization slag, dust, VOCs, etc.).  Since energy costs
                     can be a large portion of a metal caster's overall operating costs, increases in
                     energy efficiency can also result in significant cost savings.
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             Pollution Prevention Opportunities
        Improve Furnace Efficiency
                      Currently, many foundry furnaces are less than 35 percent energy efficient.
                      Facilities using reverberatory or crucible furnaces may have opportunities to
                      improve their furnace efficiency and stack emissions by upgrading their
                      combustion system (DOE, 1996). New oxygen burners and computerized gas
                      flow metering systems have helped a number of facilities to comply with Clean
                      Air Act regulations for NOX and CO emissions while reducing energy costs.
                      Some foundries are utilizing regenerative  ceramic burner systems.  The
                      systems are comprised of two burners which function alternately as a burner
                      and an exhaust port.  When one burner fires, the other collects the exhaust
                      gases, recouping the heat from the waste  gases. In the next cycle, this burner
                      then fires,  recombusting the gases.  The recombustion of the waste gases
                      ensures complete combustion and has been shown to reduce NOX formation.
                      One firm implementing this system reported a 33 percent reduction in energy
                      use and a better melting rate, improving production capacity (Binczewski
                      1993).                                                              '
        Install Induction Furnaces
                     Induction furnaces may offer advantages over electric arc or cupola furnaces
                     for some applications. Induction furnaces are about 75 to 80 percent energy
                     efficient and emit about 75 percent less dust and fumes because of the. absence
                     of combustion gases or excessive metal temperatures.   When clean scrap
                     material is used, the need for emission control equipment may be minimized.
                     Of course, production operations and process economics must be considered
                     carefully when planning new or retrofit melting equipment (U.S.  EPA, 1992).
       Minimize Metal Melting
                     Depending on the casting, between reject castings and gating systems, over
                     half of the metal poured into molds may not become a useful part of the
                     casting.  This metal needs to be separated from the castings and remelted,
                     usually at a significant cost. Any increases in yield (reductions in the amount
                     of scrap) will result in energy cost savings from eliminating the need for
                     melting the excess metal. In addition, costs of separating scrap from the
                     castings  and  waste sand, and the time and expense in machining of .gating
                     systems may be reduced.  Gating system design that increases yield and
                     reduces the need for machining can reduce a foundry's costs.  Optimally
                     designed systems will not use any more metal than is necessary while ensuring
                     that the metal flows into the mold cavity properly to minimize casting defects.
                     A number of computer software products are available to optimize casting
                     design. These products simulate mold filling and casting solidification for
                     various designs and can reduce costs by improving quality and reducing scrap.
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                     A number of casting methods use a central sprue gated to a number of
                     individual casting patterns.   Such assemblies termed "trees" or pattern
                     clusters, can generate less excess metal than single pattern mold designs.  This
                     technique is most commonly used in the investment and lost foam casting
                     methods.  A variation of the investment casting method termed, hollow sprue
                     casting, or counter gravity casting, employs a vacuum to fill the mold with
                     molten metal.  A mold  or mold  cluster assembly fabricated using the
                     investment casting technique is placed in a closed mold chamber with only the
                     open end protruding from the bottom.   The mold and mold  chamber are
                     lowered to the surface of a ladle or crucible of molten metal until the mold
                     opening is below the surface. A vacuum is then applied to the mold chamber
                     and mold, forcing the molten metal to rise and fill the mold and gating system.
                     The vacuum is maintained until the casting and gates have solidified and is
                     released before the sprue has solidified. The sprue metal then drains back into
                     the molten metal for reuse. If the gating system is designed properly, over 90
                     percent of the metal becomes part of the useful casting.

        Use Alternative Fuels for Melting

                     Some melt furnaces can utilize natural gas or  fuel-oil as a fuel source.
                     Particulate emissions from fuel  oils tend to be much greater than emissions
                     from natural gas combustion.  If fuel oil must be used, particulate emissions
                     can be reduced by using a lower grade of fuel oil.   Petroleum distillates
                     (Numbers  1  and 2 fuel oil) will result  in lower  particulate emissions  than
                     heavier grade fuels (Nos. 4,5,6).  Sulfur dioxide emissions can be reduced by
                     choosing a fuel with a low sulfur content. Emissions of nitrogen oxides result
                     from the  oxidation of nitrogen bound in the fuel. Selection of a low nitrogen
                     fuel oil will reduce NOx emissions (NADCA, 1996).

                     Air emissions from the operation of furnaces can be further reduced by using
                     natural gas as a fuel source.  Natural gas is considered a clean fuel which,
                     when combusted, emits relatively small amounts of SOx and particulate
                     matter. The primary emission resulting from the combustion of natural gas is
                     nitrogen  oxides. NOx emissions can be reduced by applying alternative firing
                     techniques, including the recirculation of flue-gas, staged combustion, and the
                     installation of low NOx burners (NADCA, 1996).

                     Proper maintenance of furnaces  will  also help to  reduce air emissions.
                     Inefficient fuel/air mixing may generate excess particulate emissions.
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  V.C. Furnace Dust Management
                      Dust generation,  especially in the Electric Arc  Furnace (EAF),  and its
                      disposal, has been recognized as a serious problem, but one with potential for
                      pollution prevention through material recovery and source reduction.  EAF
                      dust can have high concentrations of lead and cadmium.  Some EAF dust can
                      be shipped off-site for zinc reclamation.  Most of the EAF dust recovery
                      options are only economically viable for dust with a zinc content of at least 15
                      - 20 percent (U.S. EPA, 1995).

                      In-process recycling of EAF dust may involve pelletizing and then reusing the
                      pellets in the furnace, however, recycling of EAF dust on-site has not proven
                      to be technically or economically competitive for all foundries. Improvements
                      in technologies have made off-site recovery a cost effective alternative to
                      thermal treatment or secure landfill disposal.
        Maintain Optimal Operating Parameters
                     Dust emissions from furnaces can often be minimized through a number of
                     good operating practices.   Such practices include:  avoiding  excessive
                     superheating of the metal; maintaining a sufficient flux or slag cover over the
                     metal to keep the molten metal separated from the atmosphere; preheating the
                     metal  charged;  avoiding  the  addition  of metals at maximum  furnace
                     temperatures; and avoiding the heating of the metal too fast.

       Recycle EAF Dust to the Original Process

                     EAFs generate 1 to 2 percent of their charge into dust or fumes.  If the zinc
                     and lead levels of the metal dust are low, return of the dust to the furnace for
                     recovery of base metals (iron, chromium, or nickel) may be feasible.  This
                     method may be employed with dusts generated by the production of stainless
                     or alloy steels. However, this method is usually impractical for handling dust
                     associated with carbon steel  production because galvanized metal scrap is
                     often used and the recovered dust tends to be high in zinc (U.S.  EPA, 1992).

                     Many methods have been proposed for flue-dust recycling, including direct
                     zinc recovery. Zinc content can be increased to the required 15 to 20 percent
                     by returning the dust to the furnace from which it is generated.  If the dust is
                     injected into  the furnace after  the  charge of  scrap metal is  melted,
                     temperatures are high enough for most of the heavy metals to fume off.  This
                     technique results in an increased zinc concentration in the dust collected by
                     the scrubbers, electrostatic precipitation systems, or baghouses ("U S EPA.
                     1992).                                                    v •  •    ~,
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       Recycle Dust Outside the Original Process
                     Silica-based baghouse dust from sand systems and cupola furnaces may be
                     used as a raw material by cement companies.  The dust is preblended with
                     other components and transferred to a kiln operation.  It is envisioned that
                     baghouse dusts may constitute 5 to 10 percent of the raw material used by
                     cement manufacturers in the future.  The use of higher levels may be limited
                     by adverse effects of the baghouse dust on the setting characteristics of the
                     cement (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     Waste EAF dust can be reused outside the original process by reclaiming the
                     zinc, lead,  and cadmium concentrated in emission control residuals.  The
                     feasibility  of such reclamation depends on the cost of dust treatment and
                     disposal, the concentration of metals within the residual,  the cost of
                     recovering the metals, and the market  price for the  metals.  While this
                     approach is useful in the nonferrous foundry industry (i.e., brass foundries),
                     its application within gray iron foundries is extremely limited.  Some foundries
                     market furnace dust as input to brick manufacturing and other consumer
                     product applications,  but  product liability  limits this option.   Recovery
                     methods include: pyrometallurgical, rotary kiln, electrothermic  shaft furnace,
                     and zinc oxide enrichment (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     Pyrometallurgical methods for metals recovery are based on the reduction and
                     volatilization of zinc, lead, cadmium, and other components  of EAF dust.
                     Lead is removed preferentially through roasting in an oxidizing environment,
                     while zinc, cadmium and other metals are removed through roasting under
                     reducing conditions.  The rotary (or Waelz)  kiln method can simultaneously
                     reduce ferrous iron oxide to solid iron and lead and zinc oxide to their metallic
                     forms, using a reducing atmosphere such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
                     However, rotary kilns must be fairly large and must process large volumes of
                     dust to be economically and thermally efficient. The electrothermic shaft
                     furnace can extract metallic zinc from a feed containing at least 40 percent of
                     the metal. Typically, agglomerated EAF dust is mixed with other feed to
                     attain this percentage.  To recycle dust by direct reduction of oxides, iron
                     oxide is reduced to iron and water using pure hydrogen at a temperature range
                     of 1000 to 1100°C. The reduction of zinc  oxide produces zinc vapors and
                     steam at 1000 to 1100°C that are removed from the furnace and subjected to
                     an oxidation step.  The zinc reacts with water to produce zinc oxide, and
                     hydrogen is removed and recycled. The zinc oxide produced is separated in
                     a baghouse.  The hydrogen containing the steam is further treated for steam
                     condensation, and then the hydrogen is ready for recycling into the furnace
                     (U.S. EPA, 1992).
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       Alter Raw Materials
                     The predominant source of lead, zinc, and cadmium in ferrous  foundry
                     baghouse dust or scrubber sludge is galvanized scrap metal used as a charge
                     material. To reduce the level of these contaminants, their source  must be
                     identified  and  charge material  containing lower concentrations  of the
                     contaminants must be acquired.  A charge modification program at a large
                     foundry can successfully reduce the lead and cadmium levels in dust collector
                     waste to below EP-toxicity values. Foundries need to work closely with steel
                     scrap suppliers to develop reliable sources of high-grade scrap.
V.D. Slag and Dross Management

       Minimize Hazardous Desulfurizing Slag
                     In the production of ductile iron, it is often necessary to add a desulfurizing
                     agent in the melt to produce  the  desired casting microstructure.   One
                     desulfurization agent used  commonly is solid  calcium  carbide  (CaC2).
                     Calcium carbide is  thought  to decompose to calcium and graphite.  The
                     calcium carbide desulfurization slag is generally removed from the molten iron
                     in the ladle and placed into a hopper. For adequate sulfur removal, CaC2 must
                     be added in slight excess.  Since an excess of CaC2 is employed to ensure
                     removal of the sulfur, the resulting slag contains both CaS and CaC2 and must
                     be handled as a reactive waste. The slag might also be hazardous due to high
                     concentrations of heavy metals (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     Treatment of this material consists  normally of converting the carbide to
                     acetylene and calcium hydroxide by reacting with water. Problems with this
                     method include handling a potentially explosive waste material; generating a
                     waste stream that contains sulfides (due to calcium sulfide in the slag) and
                     many other toxic compounds; and liberating arsine, phosphine, and other toxic
                     materials in the off gas (U.S.  EPA, 1992).

                     One  way to reduce the need for calcium carbide is to reduce the amount of
                     high  sulfur scrap used as furnace  charge materials.  While this method is
                     effective, the ability to obtain a steady supply of high-grade scrap varies
                     considerably and may be uneconomical (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     To eliminate entirely the use of calcium carbide, several major foundries have
                     investigated the use of alternative desulfurization agents.  One proprietary
                     process  employs calcium oxide, calcium fluoride, and two other materials.
                     The process can be more economical than carbide desulfurization and results
                     in a satisfactory iron quality (U.S. EPA, 1992).
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                     Often, the amount of sulfur removal for a product is based  not on the
                     requirements of that product but on what is achievable in practice.  When total
                     sulfur removal is required, it is not uncommon that 20 to 30 percent excess
                     carbide is employed resulting in the generation of larger amounts of slag. If
                     the iron were desulfurized only to the extent actually needed, much of this
                     waste could be reduced or eliminated (U.S. EPA, 1992).

       Recycle Hazardous Desulfitrizing Slag

                     Because calcium carbide slag is often removed from the metal by skimming,
                     it is not uncommon to find large amounts of iron  mixed in with the slag.
                     Depending on the means of removal, this metal will either be in the form of
                     large blocks or small granules. To reduce metal losses, some foundries crush
                     the slag and remove pieces of metal by hand or with a magnet for remelting.
                     Other foundries have investigated recharging the entire mass to the remelting
                     furnace.  Inside the furnace,  calcium hydroxide forms in the slag as the
                     recycled calcium carbide either removes  additional sulfur or is oxidized
                     directly.  While this method has been successful, more research is necessary.
                     For example, it is not known to what extent the calcium sulfide stays with the
                     slag  or how much sulfur is carried in the flue gas and the scrubber system.
                     Initial tests indicate that the sulfur does not concentrate in the metal, so that
                     product quality  is not affected (U.S. EPA, 1992).

                     Slag from stainless steel melting operations (where Ni, Mo, and Cr metals are
                     used  as alloy  additions) is  hazardous as a result of high chromium
                     concentrations.  Such slag can be recycled as a feed to cupola furnaces (gray
                     iron production line).  The cupola furnace slag scavenges trace metals from
                     the induction furnace slag.  The resulting cupola  slag may be rendered a
                     nonhazardous waste (U.S. EPA, 1992).
       Minimize Air Emissions During Dross and Slag Removal
                     Emissions resulting from the removal of dross and slag can be reduced by
                     decreasing the time in which the dross is exposed to the air. This is true for
                     dross and  slag removal processes throughout the facility (e.g., melting,
                     laundering, die casting).  Dross and slag pots should be covered as soon as
                     possible to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere.  Alternative dross and slag
                     handling techniques can also be practical to reduce emissions. Dross and slag
                     pots can be positioned under or near exhaust hoods in order to divert the
                     emissions to a filter or other emission control device (NADCA, 1996).
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 V.E. Wastewater

       Reduce Phenols in Die Casting Wastewater Streams

                     The major pollutants in the wastewater streams from die casting operations
                     are oils and phenols, with the phenols being the regulated pollutant in most
                     wastewater discharge situations. Common sources of phenols in die casting
                     are the various oils used in the  process, such as phosphate  ester-based
                     hydraulic oil, die lube, way lube, die cast coolant, etc.  Cast salts,  degreasers,
                     and heat transfer oils may also contain phenols as an impurity (NADCA,
                     1996).

                     An effective method for source control of phenols would be to  check each
                     individual raw material used in die casting for phenols, and use or substitute
                     with materials which have little or no phenols. For example, petroleum oils
                     which often contain phenols as contaminants may be substituted with synthetic
                     oils  or water-based materials  that contain no  phenols.   Although the
                     alternative materials can be more costly than petroleum-based oils, the annual
                     incremental cost increase may not be significant depending on the volume of
                     material used. In addition, anticipated reductions in environmental control
                     costs may outweigh potential raw material cost increases (NADCA, 1996).

                     Another effective method of reducing or eliminating phenols in wastewater
                     consists of segregating the various waste streams at the point of generation
                     by collecting the materials in catch pans and handling them separately. For
                     example, die lube overspray can be collected in a metal pan installed below the
                     die, screened to  remove  debris,  filtered (if necessary) to remove fine
                     particulate matter, treated (if necessary) for bacteria  contamination, and
                     recycled for reuse in the plant. Plunger lubricants and other drippings may
                     also be collected in pans and recycled off-site as used oil (NADCA, 1996).

       Reduce Wastewater and Sludge Generation

                     Water used to  cool parts can be reduced by implementing cooling water
                     recycling systems.  Further wastewater reductions may be accomplished by
                     optimizing deburring operations to minimize the total suspended  solids  in
                     wastewater. This, in turn, will  reduce the sludge generation from subsequent
                     treatment.  Sludge dewatering can  also be optimized through the use of pH
                     controls and filter aids (such as diatomaceous earth) to produce a drier filter
                     cake prior to land disposal.
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 R.H. Sheppard Company, Inc. in Hanover, Pennsylvania used large quantities of fresh water
 for cooling metal parts as they were ground to fine tolerances. The company installed a
 16,000 gallon closed loop cooling system with temperature and bacteria controls which
 improved the grinding process and saves 3.4 million gallons of water per year. From its
 reduced coolant disposal costs and savings in water  costs, R.H. Sheppard Company expects a
 two- to three-year payback period on its $540,000 investment (Pennsylvania DEP, 1996).
       Reduce VOC Emissions from Cooling and Quench Water

                    The primary cause of air emissions from non-contact cooling water cooling
                    towers and quench baths is the use of additives, such as biocides,  which
                    contain volatile  organic compounds that are eventually emitted to the
                    atmosphere. The best method for reducing air emissions from cooling towers
                    and quench baths is to use fewer additives or to use additives containing no
                    VOCs or Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) (NADCA, 1996).

V.F.  Die Casting Lubrication

                    The majority of emissions generated during the die casting process come from
                    the application of die lubes.  These emissions consist of VOC, paniculate
                    matter, and HAPs. VOC emissions from die lube application can be reduced
                    by the use of water-based die lubricants or solid lubricants.  Eliminating the
                    volatile components of petroleum-based  lubricants will also reduce VOC
                    emissions when wet milling finishing techniques are used.  However, it is
                    important  to note that lubricants which  reduce VOC emissions may not
                    necessarily reduce HAP emissions and, in some cases, HAP emissions may be
                    greater from water-based die lubes. Apparently, some of the solvent
                    replacement additives in water-based lubricants may result in increased HAP
                    emissions. It is important to thoroughly evaluate the potential implications for
                    air emissions before alternative lubricant products are used (NADCA, 1996).

                    In the same manner as VOC emissions, alternative lubricants can be used to
                    reduce particulate emissions from the application of die lubes.  However,
                    lubricant-specific evaluations should be performed to determine the particulate
                    emission reduction potential of individual lubricant changes (NADCA, 1996).

 V.G.  Miscellaneous Residual Wastes

                    The generation of solid wastes from shipping and receiving processes can be
                    minimized through the use of reusable packaging materials. Metal casters can
                     seek suppliers that use these materials, and work with customers to initiate
                    their use of reusable shipping materials.  Many of the common  packaging
                     materials in use today, including shrink wrap,  strapping materials, cardboard,
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                     totes, and drums, can be recycled off-site using commercial recycling services.
                     (NADCA,  1996)

                     Dross from melting operations is commonly sold to secondary smelters for
                     recovery of the valuable metals. Die casting shot-tip turnings can be re-sized
                     on-site and re-used in the original process (NADCA, 1996).

                     Leaking hydraulic fluid from die cast machines can be segregated from other
                     die cast fluids using drip pans and/or containment curbing.  Leaking and spent
                     hydraulic fluids may be collected and recycled as used oil.  Used oil recycling
                     options include re-refining and burning the material for energy recovery in
                     space heaters, boilers, or industrial furnaces (NADCA, 1996).

                     Refractory, coils,  and servicing  tools must be periodically replaced in the
                     melting and conveyance operations due to wear.  Although the generation of
                     these materials cannot be eliminated, their generation rates can be minimized
                     by raising the pollution prevention awareness of maintenance personnel and
                     optimizing maintenance and servicing schedules (NADCA, 1996).

                     The generation of floor absorbent solid waste at die cast machines can be
                     minimized through the use of drip pans and containment berming. Hydraulic
                     fluids, die  release agents, way lubricants, and other leaking fluids can be
                     collected in this manner.   If floor absorbents are to be used, launderable
                     absorbents should be considered. These absorbents are becoming available
                     increasingly from industrial suppliers and laundry services, and can be reused
                     over and over. The use of launderable absorbents results in reduced landfill
                     disposal for both the absorbents and the recovered fluids (NADCA, 1996).
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              Federal Statutes and Regulations
 VL SUMMARY OF FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS

                     This section discusses the Federal regulations that may apply to this sector.
                     The purpose of this section is to highlight and briefly describe the applicable
                     Federal requirements, and to provide citations for more detailed information.
                     The three following sections are included:

                     •      Section VIA. contains a general overview of major statutes
                     •      Section VLB. contains a list of regulations specific to this industry
                     •      Section VI.C. contains a list of pending and proposed regulations

                     The descriptions  within Section  VI  are intended solely for general
                     information.   Depending upon the nature or scope of the activities at a
                     particular facility, these summaries may or may not necessarily describe all
                     applicable environmental  requirements.  Moreover, they do not constitute
                     formal interpretations  or clarifications of the statutes and regulations. For
                     further information, readers should consult the Code of Federal Regulations
                     and other state or local regulatory agencies. EPA Hotline contacts are also
                     provided for each major statute.

 VI.A. General Description of Major Statutes

       Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

                     The Resource Conservation  And Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 which
                     amended the  Solid Waste Disposal Act, addresses solid (Subtitle D) and
                     hazardous (Subtitle C) waste management activities.  The Hazardous and
                     Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) of 1984  strengthened RCRA's waste
                     management provisions and added Subtitle I, which governs underground
                     storage tanks (USTs).

                     Regulations promulgated pursuant to Subtitle C of RCRA (40 CFR Parts
                     260-299) establish a "cradle-to-grave" system governing hazardous waste
                     from the point of generation to disposal. RCRA hazardous wastes include the
                     specific materials listed in the regulations (commercial chemical  products,
                     designated  with  the code "P" or "U";  hazardous  wastes from specific
                     industries/sources, designated with the code "K"; or hazardous wastes from
                     non-specific sources, designated with the code "F") or materials which exhibit
                     a hazardous waste characteristic (ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity
                     and designated with the code "D").

                     Regulated entities that generate  hazardous waste are subject  to  waste
                     accumulation, manifesting, and  record keeping standards.  Facilities must
                     obtain a permit either from EPA  or from a State agency which EPA has
                     authorized to implement the  permitting program if they store hazardous
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            Federal Statutes and Regulations
                    wastes for more than 90 days before treatment or disposal.  Facilities may
                    treat hazardous wastes stored in less-than-ninety-day tanks or containers
                    without a permit.  Subtitle C permits contain general facility standards such
                    as contingency plans, emergency procedures, record keeping and reporting
                    requirements, financial assurance mechanisms, and unit-specific standards.
                    RCRA also contains provisions (40 CFRPart 264 Subpart S and §264.10) for
                    conducting corrective actions which govern the  cleanup of releases'"of
                    hazardous waste  or constituents from  solid waste management units at
                    RCRA-regulated facilities.

                    Although RCRA is a Federal statute, many States implement the RCRA
                    program.  Currently, EPA has delegated its authority to implement various
                    provisions of RCRA to  47 of the 50 States  and two  U.S. territories.
                    Delegation has not been given to Alaska, Hawaii, or Iowa.

                    Most RCRA requirements  are not industry specific but apply to any company
                    that generates, transports, treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste.
                    Here are some important RCRA regulatory requirements:

                           Identification of Solid and Hazardous Wastes (40 CFR Part 261)
                           lays  out the procedure every generator must follow to  determine
                           whether the material in question is considered a hazardous waste,
                           solid waste,  or is exempted from regulation.

                           Standards for Generators of Hazardous Waste (40 CFR Part 262)
                           establishes the responsibilities of hazardous waste generators including
                           obtaining an EPA ID number,  preparing a manifest, ensuring proper
                           packaging and labeling, meeting standards for waste accumulation
                           units, and recordkeeping and reporting requirements. Generators can
                           accumulate hazardous waste for up to 90 days (or 180 days depending
                           on the amount of waste generated) without obtaining a permit.

                           Land Disposal  Restrictions (LDRs)   (40 CFR Part 268)  are
                           regulations  prohibiting the disposal  of hazardous waste  on land
                           without prior treatment.  Under the LDRs program, materials must
                           meet LDR treatment standards prior to  placement in a RCRA land
                           disposal unit (landfill, land treatment unit, waste pile,  or surface
                           impoundment). Generators of waste subject to the LDRs must provide
                           notification  of such to the designated TSD facility to ensure proper
                           treatment prior to disposal.

                     •     Used Oil Management Standards (40  CFR Part 279) impose
                            management requirements affecting the  storage,  transportation,
                           burning, processing, and re-refining of the used oil. For parties that
                            merely generate used oil, regulations establish storage standards. For
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              Federal Statutes and Regulations
                           a party considered a used oil processor, re-refiner, burner, or marketer
                           (one who generates and sells off-specification used oil), additional
                           tracking and paperwork requirements must be satisfied.

                     •      RCRA contains unit-specific standards for all units used to store,
                           treat,  or dispose of  hazardous waste,  including Tanks  and
                           Containers.  Tanks and containers used to store hazardous waste
                           with  a high  volatile organic concentration  must meet emission
                           standards under RCRA.  Regulations (40 CFR Part 264-265, Subpart
                           CC)  require  generators to  test  the waste  to determine  the
                           concentration of the waste, to satisfy tank and container emissions
                           standards,  and to inspect and monitor regulated units.  These
                           regulations apply to all facilities that store such waste, including large
                           quantity generators accumulating waste prior to shipment off-site.

                     •      Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) containing petroleum and
                           hazardous  substances are regulated under Subtitle  I  of RCRA.
                           Subtitle I regulations (40 CFR Part 280) contain tank  design and
                           release detection requirements, as well as financial responsibility and
                           corrective action standards  for USTs.  The UST program  also
                           includes upgrade requirements for existing tanks that must be met by
                           December 22, 1998.

                     •      Boilers  and  Industrial Furnaces (BIFs) that  use  or burn  fuel
                           containing hazardous waste must comply with design and operating
                           standards.  BIF regulations (40 CFR Part 266, Subpart  H) address
                           unit design,  provide  performance standards,  require  emissions
                           monitoring, and restrict  the type of waste that may be burned.

                    EPA'sRCRA, SuperfundandEPCRA Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, responds
                    to questions and distributes guidance regarding all RCRA regulations.  The
                    RCRA Hotline operates weekdays from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., ET, excluding
                    Federal holidays.
       Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

                    The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
                    Act (CERCLA), a 1980 law known commonly as Superfund, authorizes EPA
                    to respond to releases, or threatened releases, of hazardous substances that
                    may endanger public health, welfare, or the environment.  CERCLA also
                    enables EPA to force parties responsible for environmental contamination to
                    clean it up or to reimburse the Superfund for response costs incurred by EPA.
                    The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)  of  1986
                    revised various sections of CERCLA, extended the taxing authority for the
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                    Superfund, and created a free-standing law, SARA Title IE, also known as the
                    Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA).

                    The CERCLA hazardous substance release reporting regulations (40 CFR
                    Part 302) direct the person in charge of a facility to report to the National
                    Response Center (NRC) any environmental release of a hazardous substance
                    which equals or exceeds a reportable quantity.  Reportable quantities are listed
                    in 40 CFR §302.4. A release report may trigger a response by EPA, or by one
                    or more Federal or State emergency response authorities.

                    EPA implements hazardous substance responses according to procedures
                    outlined in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency
                    Plan (NCP) (40 CFR Part 300). The NCP includes provisions for permanent
                    cleanups, known as remedial actions,  and other cleanups referred to as
                    removals. EPA generally takes remedial actions only at sites on the National
                    Priorities List (NPL), which currently includes  approximately 1300 sites.
                    Both EPA and states can act  at sites; however,  EPA provides responsible
                    parties the opportunity  to conduct  removal and remedial  actions and
                    encourages community involvement throughout the Superfund response
                    process.

                    EPA'sRCRA, Superfund and EPCRA Hotline, at (800) 424-9346,  answers
                    questions and references guidance pertaining to the Superfund program.
                    The CERCLA Hotline operates weekdays from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., ET,
                    excluding Federal holidays.

       Emergency Planning And Community Right-To-Know Act

                    The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)  of 1986
                    created the Emergency Planning and Community  Right-to-Know Act
                    (EPCRA, also known as SARA Title III), a statute designed to  improve
                    community access to information about chemical hazards and to facilitate the
                    development of chemical emergency response plans by  State and  local
                    governments.   EPCRA required the establishment  of State emergency
                    response commissions (SERCs),  responsible  for  coordinating certain
                    emergency response activities and for appointing local emergency  planning
                    committees (LEPCs).

                    EPCRA and the EPCRA regulations (40 CFR Parts 350-372) establish four
                    types of reporting obligations for facilities which store or manage  specified
                    chemicals:

                    •      EPCRA §302 requires facilities to notify the SERC and LEPC of the
                           presence of any extremely hazardous substance (the list of such
                           substances is in 40 CFR Part 355, Appendices A and B) if it has such
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                            substance in excess of the substance's threshold planning quantity, and
                            directs the facility to appoint an emergency response coordinator.

                            EPCRA §304 requires the facility to notify the SERC and the LEPC
                            in the event of a release equaling or exceeding the reportable quantity
                            of a  CERCLA  hazardous substance or an EPCRA extremely
                            hazardous  substance.

                     •      EPCRA §311  and §312 require a facility at which a hazardous
                            chemical, as defined by the Occupational  Safety and Health Act, is
                            present in an amount exceeding  a specified threshold to submit to the
                            SERC, LEPC and local fire department material safety data sheets
                            (MSDSs) or lists of MSDS's and hazardous chemical inventory forms
                            (also known as Tier I and H forms). This information helps the local
                            government respond in the event of a spill or release of the chemical.

                     •      EPCRA §313 requires manufacturing facilities included in SIC codes
                            20 through 39, which have ten  or more employees, and  which
                            manufacture, process, or use specified chemicals in amounts greater
                            than threshold quantities, to submit an annual toxic chemical release
                            report. This report, known commonly as the Form R, covers releases
                            and transfers of toxic chemicals to various facilities and environmental
                            media, and allows EPA to compile  the national Toxic Release
                            Inventory (TRI) database.

                     All  information submitted pursuant  to  EPCRA regulations is  publicly
                     accessible, unless protected by a trade secret claim.

                     EPA'sRCRA,  Superfund and EPCRA Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, answers
                     questions and distributes guidance regarding the emergency planning and
                     community  right-to-know  regulations.   The EPCRA Hotline  operates
                     weekdays from 9:00 a.m.  to 6:00 p.m.,  ET, excluding Federal holidays.
       Clean Water Act
                    The primary objective of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, commonly
                    referred to as the Clean Water Act (CWA), is to restore and maintain the
                    chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's surface waters.
                    Pollutants regulated under the CWA include "priority" pollutants, including
                    various toxic pollutants; "conventional" pollutants,  such as biochemical
                    oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), fecal coliform, oil and
                    grease, and pH; and "non-conventional" pollutants, including any pollutant not
                    identified as either conventional or priority.
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                     The  CWA regulates both  direct and indirect discharges.  The National
                     Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program (CWA §502)
                     controls direct discharges into navigable waters. Direct discharges or "point
                     source" discharges are from sources such as pipes and sewers.  NPDES
                     permits, issued by either EPA or an authorized State (EPA has authorized 42
                     States  to administer the  NPDES program),  contain industry-specific,
                     technology-based and/or water quality-based limits, and establish pollutant
                     monitoring requirements. A facility that intends to discharge into the nation's
                     waters must obtain  a permit  prior to initiating its discharge.   A permit
                     applicant must provide quantitative analytical data identifying the types of
                     pollutants present in the facility's  effluent.  The permit will  then set the
                     conditions and effluent limitations on the facility discharges.

                     A NPDES permit may also include discharge limits based on Federal or State
                     water quality criteria or standards, that were designed to protect designated
                     uses of surface waters, such as supporting aquatic life or recreation. These
                     standards, unlike the technological standards, generally do not take into
                     account technological feasibility or costs. Water quality criteria and standards
                     vary from State to State, and site to site, depending on the use  classification
                     of the  receiving body of water.  Most States follow EPA guidelines which
                     propose aquatic life and human health criteria for many of the 126 priority
                     pollutants.

                     Storm  Water Discharges

                     In 1987 the CWA was amended to require EPA to establish a program to
                     address storm water discharges. In  response, EPA promulgated the NPDES
                     storm  water permit application regulations. These regulations require that
                     facilities with the following storm water discharges apply for an NPDES
                     permit:  (1) a discharge associated with industrial  activity; (2) a discharge
                     from a large or medium municipal storm sewer system; or (3) a discharge
                     which  EPA or the State determines to contribute to a violation of a water
                     quality standard or is a significant contributor of pollutants to  waters of the
                     United States.

                     The term "storm water discharge associated with industrial activity" means a
                     storm water discharge from one of 11 categories of industrial activity defined
                     at 40 CFR 122.26. Six of the categories are defined by SIC codes while the
                     other  five are identified through  narrative descriptions of the regulated
                     industrial activity.  If the primary SIC code  of the facility is one of those
                     identified in the regulations, the facility is subject to the storm water permit
                     application requirements.  If any activity at a facility is covered by one of the
                     five narrative categories, storm water discharges from those areas where the
                     activities occur are subject to  storm water discharge permit  application
                     requirements.
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                      Those facilities/activities that are subject to storm water discharge permit
                      application requirements are identified  below.   To  determine whether a
                      particular facility falls within one of these categories, consult the regulation.

                      Category i: Facilities subject to storm water effluent guidelines, new source
                      performance standards, or toxic pollutant effluent standards.

                      Category ii:  Facilities classified as  SIC 24-lumber and wood products
                      (except wood kitchen cabinets); SIC 26-paper and allied products (except
                      paperboard containers and products); SIC 28-chemicals and allied products
                      (except drugs and paints); SIC 291-petroleum refining; and SIC 311-leather
                      tanning and finishing, 32 (except 323)-stone, clay, glass, and concrete, 33-
                      primary  metals, 3441-fabricated structural  metal, and 373-ship and boat
                      building and repairing.

                      Category iii:  Facilities classified as SIC  10-metal  mining;  SIC 12-coal
                      mining;  SIC  13-oil and gas extraction; and SIC  14-nonmetallic mineral
                      mining.

                      Category iv:  Hazardous waste treatment, storage, or disposal facilities.

                      Category v: Landfills, land application sites, and open dumps that receive or
                      have received industrial wastes.

                      Category vi: Facilities classified as SIC 5015-used motor vehicle parts; and
                      SIC 5093-automotive scrap and waste material recycling facilities.

                      Category vii: Steam electric power generating facilities.

                      Category viii: Facilities classified as SIC 40-railroad transportation; SIC 41-
                      local passenger transportation; SIC 42-trucking and warehousing  (except
                      public warehousing and storage); SIC 43-U.S. Postal Service; SIC 44-water
                     transportation; SIC 45-transportation by air; and SIC 5171-petroleum bulk
                     storage stations and terminals.

                     Category ix:  Sewage treatment works.

                     Category x:  Construction  activities except operations that result in the
                     disturbance of less than five acres of total land area.

                     Category xi: Facilities classified as SIC 20-food and kindred products; SIC
                     21-tobacco products; SIC 22-textile mill products; SIC 23-apparel related
                     products;  SIC 2434-wood kitchen cabinets manufacturing; SIC 25-furniture
                     and fixtures; SIC 265-paperboard containers and boxes; SIC 267-converted
                     paper and  paperboard  products; SIC  27-printing,  publishing, and allied
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                    industries; SIC 283-drugs; SIC 285-paints, varnishes, lacquer, enamels, and
                    allied products;  SIC 30-rubber and plastics;  SIC 31-leather and  leather
                    products (except leather and tanning and finishing); SIC 323-glass products;
                    SIC 34-fabricated metal products (except fabricated structural metal); SIC
                    35-industrial and commercial machinery and computer equipment; SIC 36-
                    electronic  and  other  electrical equipment  and  components;  SIC 37-
                    transportation equipment (except ship and boat building and repairing); SIC
                    38-measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments; SIC 39-miscellaneous
                    manufacturing  industries; and SIC  4221-4225-public warehousing and
                    storage.

                    Pretreatment Program

                    Another type of discharge that is regulated by the CWA is one that  goes to
                    a publicly-owned treatment works  (POTWs). The national pretreatment
                    program (CWA §307(b)) controls the indirect discharge of pollutants to
                    POTWs by "industrial users." Facilities regulated under §307(b) must meet
                    certain pretreatment standards. The goal of the pretreatment program is to
                    protect municipal wastewater treatment plants from damage that may occur
                    when hazardous, toxic, or other wastes are discharged into a sewer system
                    and to protect the quality of sludge generated by these plants. Discharges to
                    aPOTW are regulated primarily by the POTW itself, rather than the  State or
                    EPA.

                    EPA has  developed technology-based standards for  industrial users of
                    POTWs.  Different standards apply to existing and new sources within each
                     category.  "Categorical" pretreatment standards applicable to an industry on
                     a nationwide basis are developed by EPA.   In addition, another  kind of
                     pretreatment standard, "local limits," are developed by the POTW in  order to
                     assist the POTW in achieving the effluent limitations in its NPDES permit.

                     Regardless of whether a State is authorized to implement either the  NPDES
                     or the pretreatment program, if it develops its own program, it may enforce
                     requirements more stringent than Federal standards.

                     Spill Prevention. Control and Countermeasure Plans

                     The 1990 Oil Pollution Act requires that facilities that could reasonably be
                     expected to discharge oil in harmful quantities prepare and implement more
                     rigorous Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) Plan  required
                     under the CWA (40 CFR §112.7). There are also criminal and civil penalties
                     for deliberate or negligent spills of oil. Regulations covering response to oil
                     discharges and contingency plans (40 CFR Part 300), and Facility Response
                     Plans to oil discharges (40 CFR §112.20) and for PCB transformers and PCB-
                     containing items were revised and finalized in 1995.
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                     EPA's Office of Water, at (202) 260-5700, will direct callers with questions
                     about the CWA to the appropriate EPA office.  EPA also maintains a
                     bibliographic  database of Office of Water publications which can  be
                     accessed through the Ground Water and Drinking Water resource center at
                     (202) 260-7786.

        Safe Drinking Water Act

                     The  Safe  Drinking  Water Act  (SDWA) mandates  that EPA establish
                     regulations to protect human health from contaminants in drinking water.
                     The law authorizes EPA to develop national drinking water standards and to
                     create a joint Federal-State system to ensure compliance with these standards.
                     The SDWA also directs EPA to  protect underground sources of drinking
                     water through the control of underground injection of liquid wastes.

                     EPA has developed primary and secondary drinking water standards under its
                     SDWA authority.  EPA and authorized States enforce the primary drinking
                     water standards, which are, contaminant-specific concentration limits that
                     apply to certain public drinking water supplies.  Primary drinking water
                     standards consist of maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs), which are
                     non-enforceable health-based goals,  and maximum  contaminant levels
                     (MCLs), which are enforceable limits set as close to MCLGs as possible,
                     considering cost and feasibility of attainment.

                     The SDWA Underground Injection Control (UIC) program (40 CFR Parts
                     144-148) is a permit program which protects underground sources of drinking
                     water by regulating  five classes of injection wells.  UIC permits  include
                     design, operating, inspection, and monitoring requirements. Wells used to
                     inject hazardous wastes must also comply with RCRA corrective action
                     standards in order to be granted a RCRA permit, and must meet applicable
                     RCRA land disposal restrictions standards.  The UIC permit program is
                     primarily State-enforced, since EPA has authorized all but a few States to
                     administer the program.

                     The SDWA also provides for a Federally-implemented Sole Source Aquifer
                     program, which prohibits Federal funds from being expended on projects that
                     may contaminate the sole or principal source of drinking water for a given
                     area, and for a State-implemented Wellhead Protection program, designed to
                     protect drinking water wells and drinking water recharge areas.

                    EPA 's Safe Drinking Water Hotline, at (800) 426-4791, answers questions
                    and distributes guidance pertaining to SDWA  standards.   The Hotline
                    operates from 9:00 a.m. through 5:30 p.m., ET, excluding Federal holidays.
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       Toxic Substances Control Act
                    The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) granted EPA authority to create
                    a regulatory framework to collect data on chemicals in order to evaluate,
                    assess, mitigate, and control risks which may be posed by their manufacture,
                    processing, and use. TSCA provides a variety of control methods to prevent
                    chemicals from posing unreasonable risk.

                    TSCA standards may apply at any point during a chemical's life cycle. Under
                    TSCA §5, EPA has established an inventory of chemical substances. If a
                    chemical is not already on the inventory, and has not been excluded by TSCA,
                    a  premanufacture notice (PMN)  must be  submitted to EPA prior  to
                    manufacture or import.  The PMN must identify the chemical and provide
                    available information on health and environmental effects. If available data
                    are not sufficient to evaluate the chemicals effects, EPA can impose
                    restrictions pending the development  of information on its health and
                    environmental effects. EPA can also restrict significant new uses of chemicals
                    based upon factors such as the projected volume and use of the chemical.

                    Under TSCA §6, EPA can ban the manufacture or distribution in commerce,
                    limit the use,  require labeling, or place other restrictions on chemicals that
                    pose unreasonable risks.  Among the chemicals EPA regulates under  §6
                    authority are  asbestos,  chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and polychlorinated
                    biphenyls (PCBs).

                    EPA's TSCA Assistance Information Service, at (202) 554-1404,  answers
                    questions and distributes guidance pertaining to Toxic Substances Control
                    Act standards.  The Service operates from 8:30 a.m.  through 4:30 p.m., ET,
                     excluding Federal holidays.
        Clean Air Act
                     The Clean Air Act (CAA) and its amendments, including the Clean Air Act
                     Amendments (CAAA) of 1990, are designed to "protect  and enhance the
                     nation's air resources so as to promote the public health and welfare and the
                     productive capacity of the population."  The CAA consists of six sections,
                     known as Titles, which direct EPA to establish national standards for ambient
                     air quality and for EPA and the States to implement, maintain, and enforce
                     these standards through a variety of mechanisms. Under the CAAA, many
                     facilities will be required to obtain permits for the first time. State and local
                     governments oversee, manage, and enforce many of the requirements of the
                     CAAA. CAA regulations appear at 40 CFR Parts 50-99.

                     Pursuant to Title I of the CAA, EPA has established national ambient air
                     quality standards (NAAQSs) to limit levels of "criteria pollutants," including
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                     carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, paniculate matter, volatile organic
                     compounds (VOCs), ozone, and sulfur dioxide.  Geographic areas that meet
                     NAAQSs for a given pollutant are classified as attainment areas; those that do
                     not meet NAAQSs are classified as non-attainment areas.  Under section 110
                     of the CAA, each State must develop a State Implementation Plan (SIP) to
                     identify sources of air pollution and to determine what reductions are required
                     to meet Federal air quality standards. Revised NAAQSs for particulates and
                     ozone were proposed in 1996 and may go into effect as early as late 1997.

                     Title I also authorizes EPA to establish New Source Performance Standards
                     (NSPSs), which are nationally uniform emission standards for new stationary
                     sources falling within particular industrial categories.  NSPSs are based on the
                     pollution control technology available to that category of industrial source.

                     Under Title I, EPA establishes and enforces National Emission Standards for
                     Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), nationally uniform standards oriented
                     towards  controlling particular hazardous air pollutants (HAPs).  Title I,
                     section 112(c) of the CAA further directed EPA to  develop a list of sources
                     that emit any of 189 HAPs, and to develop regulations for these categories of
                     sources. To date EPA has listed 174 categories and developed a schedule for
                     the  establishment of emission standards.  The emission standards will be
                     developed for both new and existing sources based on "maximum achievable
                     control technology"  (MACT).   The MACT  is  defined as the control
                     technology achieving the maximum degree of reduction in the emission of the
                     HAPs, taking into account cost and  other factors.

                     Title II of the CAA pertains to mobile sources, such as cars, trucks, buses,
                     and planes. Reformulated gasoline, automobile pollution control devices, and
                     vapor recovery nozzles on gas pumps are a few of the mechanisms EPA uses
                     to regulate mobile air emission sources.

                     Title IV of the CAA establishes a  sulfur dioxide nitrous oxide emissions
                     program designed to reduce the formation of acid rain.  Reduction of sulfur
                     dioxide releases  will be obtained by granting  to  certain  sources limited
                     emissions allowances, which, beginning in 1995, will be set below previous
                     levels of sulfur dioxide releases.

                     Title V of the CAA of 1990 created a  permit program for all "major sources"
                     (and  certain other sources) regulated under the CAA.  One purpose of the
                     operating permit  is to include in  a single  document  all air emissions
                     requirements that apply to a given facility. States are developing the permit
                     programs in accordance with guidance and regulations from EPA.  Once a
                     State program is approved by EPA, permits will be issued and monitored by
                     that State.
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            Federal Statutes and Regulations
                    Title VI of the CAA is intended to protect stratospheric ozone by phasing out
                    the manufacture of ozone-depleting chemicals and restrict their use and
                    distribution.  Production of Class I substances, including  15 kinds  of
                    chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and chloroform, were phased out (except for
                    essential uses) in 1996.

                    EPA's Clean Air Technology Center, at (919) 541-0800, provides general
                    assistance and information on CAA standards.  The Stratospheric Ozone
                    Information Hotline, at (800) 296-1996, provides general information about
                    regulations promulgated under Title VI of the  CAA, and EPA's EPCRA
                    Hotline, at (800) 535-0202, answers questions about accidental release
                    prevention under CAA §112(r).  In addition, the Clean  Air Technology
                    Center's website includes recent CAA rules, EPA guidance documents, and
                    updates of EPA activities (www.epa.gov/ttn then select Directory and then
                    CATC).
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 VLB. Industry Specific Requirements

       Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
                     Under the authority of RCRA, EPA created a regulatory framework that
                     addresses the management of hazardous waste. The regulations address the
                     generation, transport, storage, treatment, and disposal of hazardous waste.

                     The metal casting industry generates waste during molding and core making,
                     melting operations, casting operations, and finishing and cleaning operations.
                     The wastes that are produced during these processes which meet the RCRA
                     hazardous waste criteria must be handled accordingly.

                     Molding and core making operations produce large quantities of spent
                     foundry sand. Although most of the spent sand is non-hazardous, sand that
                     results from the production of brass or bronze may exhibit the toxicity
                     characteristic for lead or cadmium.  The hazardous sand may be reclaimed in
                     a thermal treatment unit which may be subject to RCRA requirements for
                     hazardous waste incinerators. EPA is currently taking public comment on the
                     regulatory status of these units.  Wastewaters  that  are produced during
                     molding and core making may  exhibit the corrosivity characteristic but are
                     generally discharged to a POTW after being neutralized, in which case they
                     are not subject to RCRA. Sludges resulting from mold  and core making may
                     also be corrosive hazardous wastes.

                     The wastes associated with metal casting melting operations include fugitive
                     dust and slag. Lead and chromium contamination may cause the waste slag
                     to be subject to RCRA as a hazardous waste. Additionally,  calcium carbide
                     desulfurization slag generated  during metal melting could be a reactive
                     hazardous waste.  Spent solvents used in the cleaning and degreasing of scrap
                     metal prior to melting may also be  a hazardous waste.  The inorganic acids
                     and chlorinated solvents used in the cleaning operations could be subject to
                     RCRA as well, if they are spilled or disposed of prior to use.

                     Casting facilities that use electric  arc furnaces  (EAF) for metal  melting
                     produce dust and sludge that may be characteristically hazardous. However,
                     the emission control dust and sludge from foundry operations that use EAFs
                     is not within the K061 hazardous waste listing. Also, this dust and sludge is
                     not considered to be a solid waste under RCRA when reclaimed.

                     Finishing  operations produce wastes similar to  those resulting from the
                     cleaning and degreasing of scrap metal prior to melting, including spent
                     solvents and alkaline cleaners.   Additionally, any sludge from spent pickle
                     liquor recovery generated by metal casting facilities (SIC code 332) would be
                     a listed hazardous waste (K062).
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       Clean Air Act
                    The CAA New Source Review (NSR) requirements apply to new facilities,
                    expansions of existing facilities, or process modifications.  New sources of the
                    NAAQS "criteria" pollutants in excess of "major" levels defined by EPA are
                    subject to NSR requirements (40 CFR §52.21 (b)(l)(i)(a)-(b)).  NSRs are
                    typically conducted by the state agency under standards set by EPA and
                    adopted by the state as part of its state implementation plan (SIP). There are
                    two types of NSRs: Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) reviews for
                    those areas that are meeting the NAAQS; and nonattainment (NA) reviews
                    for areas that are violating the NAAQS. Permits are required to construct or
                    operate the new source for PSD and NA areas.

                    For NA areas, permits require the new source to meet  lowest achievable
                    emission rate  (LAER) standards and the operator of the new source must
                    procure reductions in emissions of the same pollutants from other sources in
                    the NA area in equal or greater amounts to the new source.  These emission
                    offsets may be banked and traded through state agencies.

                    For PSD areas, permits require the best available control technology (B ACT),
                    and the operator or owner of the new source must conduct continuous on-site
                    air quality monitoring  for one year prior to the new source addition to
                    determine the  effects that the new emissions may have on air quality.

                    EPA has not established New Source Performance Standards (NSPSs) for the
                    metal casting  industrial category.

                    Under Title V of the CAAA 1990 (40 CFR Parts 70-72) all of the applicable
                    requirements of the Amendments are integrated into one federal renewable
                    operating permit.  Facilities defined as major sources under the Act must
                    apply for permits within one year from when EPA approves the state permit
                    programs.  Since most state programs were not  approved until  after
                    November 1994, Title V permits, for the most part, began to be due in late
                     1995. Due dates for filing complete applications vary from state to state,
                    based on the status of review and approval of the state's Title V program by
                    EPA.

                     A facility is designated as a major source if it includes sources subject to the
                    NSPS acid rain provisions or NESHAPS, or if it releases a certain amount of
                     any one of the CAAA regulated pollutants (SOX, NQ,, CO, VOC, P^ ,
                     hazardous air pollutants, extremely hazardous substances, ozone depleting
                     substances, and pollutants covered by NSPSs) depending on the region's air
                     quality category. Title V permits may set limits on the amounts of pollutant
                     emissions and require emissions monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting.
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                     Many large and some medium-sized foundries are likely to be major sources
                     and therefore must apply for a Title V permit.  Selected small foundries may
                     also  be classified as major  sources, depending on  their location  and
                     operational factors.
        Clean Water Act
                     Foundry and die casting facility wastewater released to surface waters is
                     regulated under the CWA (40 CFR Part 464). National Pollutant Discharge
                     Elimination System (NPDES) permits must be  obtained  to discharge
                     wastewater into navigable waters (40  Part  122).  Effluent limitation
                     guidelines, new source performance standards, pretreatment standards for
                     new sources, and pretreatment standards for existing sources for the Metal
                     Molding and Casting Point Source Category apply to ferrous and non-ferrous
                     foundries and die casters  and are listed under 40  CFR Part 464  and are
                     divided into subparts according to the metal cast:

                     Subpart A    Applies to aluminum casting operations
                     Subpart B     Applies to copper casting operations
                     Subpart C     Applies to ferrous casting operations
                     Subpart D     Applies to zinc casting operations

                     In addition to the effluent guidelines, facilities that discharge to a POTW may
                     be required to meet National Pretreatment Standards for some contaminants.
                     General pretreatment standards applying to most industries discharging to a
                     POTW are described in 40 CFR Part 403 (Contact Pat Bradley, EPA Office
                     of Water, 202-260-6963). As shown above, pretreatment standards applying
                     specifically to the metal casting  point source category are listed in the
                     subparts of 40 CFR Part 464 (Contact: George Jett, EPA Office of Water
                     202-260-7151).

                     Stormwater rules require that metal casting facilities with the following storm
                     water discharges apply for an NPDES permit: (1) a discharge associated with
                     industrial activity; (2) a discharge from a large or medium municipal storm
                     sewer system; or (3) a discharge which EPA or the State determines to
                     contribute to a violation of a water quality standard or is  a significant
                     contributor of pollutants to waters of the United States.  The term "storm
                     water discharge associated with industrial activity"  means  a storm water
                     discharge from one of 11 categories of industrial activity defined at 40 CFR
                     122.26.  The rules require that certain facilities with storm water discharge
                     from from industrial activity apply for storm water permit applications (see
                     Section VI. A).
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
            Federal Statutes and Regulations
       Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)

                    The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
                    Act (CERCLA) and the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of
                    1986 (SARA) provide the basic legal framework for the federal "Superfund"
                    program to clean up abandoned hazardous waste sites (40 CFR Part 305).
                    The metals and metal compounds used in metal casting, are often found in
                    casting facilities' air emissions, water discharges, or waste shipments for off-
                    site disposal. These include chromium, manganese, aluminum, nickel, copper,
                    zinc, and lead. Metals are frequently found at CERCLA's problem sites. In
                    1989,  when Congress ordered EPA and the Public Health Service's Agency
                    for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) to list the hazardous
                    substances found most commonly at problem sites and that pose the greatest
                    threat to human health, lead, nickel, and aluminum all made the list (Breen
                    and Campbell-Mohn, 1993). A number of sites containing foundry wastes are
                    on  the  National  Priorities  (Superfund) List.   Compliance with  the
                    requirements of RCRA lessens the chances that CERCLA compliance will be
                    an issue in the future.
 Sector Notebook Project
110
September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
               Federal Statutes and Regulations
 VI.C. Pending and Proposed Regulatory Requirements

       Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
                     Currently, the practice of adding iron dust or filings to spent foundry sand as
                     a form of stabilization is subject to case-specific interpretation by EPA
                     regarding whether this activity effectively treats the waste: However, EPA
                     has proposed to regulate this activity as impermissible dilution, which is
                     strictly prohibited under the land disposal restrictions program, and intends
                     to examine the issue further.

                     Thermal processing or reclamation units (TRUs) remove contaminants from
                     spent foundry sand primarily by combusting the organic binder materials in the
                     sand.  These units are identified as foundry furnaces under the definition of
                     industrial furnace and are subject to regulation under 40 CFR Part 266,
                     Subpart H when they burn hazardous waste. However, EPA did not consider
                     whether TRUs would be appropriately controlled under these standards. EPA
                     has proposed two approaches to ensure controls for TRUs.  The first option
                     is a deferral from regulation under 40 CFR Part 266, Subpart H. This would
                     allow development of the foundry maximum achievable control technology
                     under the Clean  Air Act and potentially the application of these controls to
                     TRUs that process hazardous waste sand. The second option is to provide
                     a variance from  the RCRA definition  of solid waste.  Under the variance
                     provisions, EPA may grant a variance from the definition of solid waste for
                     materials that are reclaimed and used as a feedstock within the  original
                     production process if the reclamation process is an essential part of the
                     production process. Under this option, TRUs would not be subject to RCRA
                     regulation, but could be regulated under the Clean Air Act or state or local air
                     pollution laws (EPA, RCRA Hotline, 1997).
       Clean Air Act
                    In addition to the CAA requirements discussed above,  EPA is currently
                    working on or will be working on additional regulations that will directly
                    affect the metal casting industry. Under Title III, EPA is required to develop
                    national standards for 189 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) some of which are
                    emitted from foundries. NESHAP standards may limit the air emissions from
                    foundries through Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) based
                    on performance standards that will set limits based upon concentrations of
                    HAPs  in the waste stream.  NESHAP standards for ferrous foundries are
                    scheduled to be promulgated by EPA in November of 2000 (James Maysilles,
                    U.S. EPA, Office of Air, (919) 541-3265).  Non-ferrous foundries and die
                    casting facilities will not be subject to NESHAP standards.
Sector Notebook Project
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Metal Casting Industry
             Federal Statutes and Regmlations
                     EPA is also developing the Compliance Assurance Monitoring Rule. The rule
                     may require monitoring of certain emissions from certain facilities. Facilities
                     are required to pay a fee for filing for a permit and are required to pay an
                     annual fee based on the magnitude of the facility's potential emissions.
 Sector Notebook Project
112
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
         Compliance and Enforcement History
VH. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT HISTORY

       Background

                    Until recently, EPA  has focused much of its attention on  measuring
                    compliance with specific environmental statutes. This approach allows the
                    Agency  to track compliance  with  the Clean  Air Act, the Resource
                    Conservation and  Recovery Act,  the Clean  Water  Act, and other
                    environmental statutes. Within the last several years, the Agency has begun
                    to  supplement single-media  compliance indicators  with facility-specific,
                    multimedia indicators of compliance. In doing so, EPA is in a better position
                    to track compliance with all statutes at the facility level, and within specific
                    industrial sectors.

                    A major step in building the capacity to  compile multimedia data for industrial
                    sectors was the creation of EPA's Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis
                    (IDEA) system.  IDEA has the capacity to "read into" the Agency's single-
                    media databases, extract compliance records, and match the records to
                    individual  facilities.   The IDEA system can match Air, Water, Waste,
                    Toxics/Pesticides/EPCRA, TRI, and Enforcement Docket records for a given
                    facility, and generate a list of historical permit, inspection, and enforcement
                    activity. IDEA also has the capability to analyze data by geographic  area and
                    corporate holder. As  the capacity to  generate multimedia compliance data
                    improves,  EPA  will make  available   more  in-depth  compliance  and
                    enforcement information. Additionally,  sector-specific measures of success
                    for compliance assistance efforts are under development.

       Compliance and Enforcement Profile Description

                    Using inspection, violation and enforcement data from the IDEA system, this
                    section provides information regarding the historical  compliance  and
                    enforcement  activity of this sector. In order to mirror the facility universe
                    reported in the Toxic Chemical Profile, the data reported within this section
                    consists of records only from the TRI reporting universe. With this decision,
                    the selection  criteria are consistent across sectors with certain exceptions.
                    For the sectors that do not normally report to the TRI program, data have
                    been provided from EPA's Facility Indexing System (FINDS)  which tracks
                    facilities in all media databases. Please note, in this section, EPA does not
                    attempt to  define the actual number of facilities that fall within each sector.
                    Instead, the section portrays the records of a subset of facilities within the
                    sector that are well defined within EPA databases.

                    As  a check on the relative size of the full sector universe,  most notebooks
                    contain an estimated number of facilities within the sector according to the
                    Bureau of Census  (See Section II).   With sectors dominated by small
Sector Notebook Project
113
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Metal Casting Industry
         Compliance and Enforcement History
                    businesses, such as metal finishers and printers, the reporting universe within
                    the EPA databases may be small in comparison to Census data.  However, the
                    group selected for inclusion in this data analysis section should be consistent
                    with this sector's general make-up.

                    Following this  introduction is a list defining each data column presented
                    within this section.  These values represent a retrospective summary of
                    inspections and enforcement actions, and reflect solely EPA, State, and local
                    compliance assurance activities that have been entered into EPA databases.
                    To identify any changes in trends, the EPA ran two data queries, one for the
                    past five calendar years (April 1, 1992 to March 31, 1997) and the other for
                    the most recent twelve-month period (April 1, 1996 to March 31, 1997). The
                    five-year analysis  gives an average  level of activity for that period for
                    comparison to the more recent activity.

                    Because most  inspections focus on  single-media requirements, the data
                    queries presented in this section are taken from single media databases.  These
                    databases do not provide data on whether inspections are state/local or EPA-
                    led. However, the table breaking down the universe of violations does give
                    the reader a crude  measurement of the EPA's and states' efforts within each
                    media program. The presented data illustrate the variations across EPA
                    Regions for certain  sectors.4 This variation may be attributable to state/local
                    data  entry variations, specific geographic concentrations, proximity  to
                    population centers, sensitive ecosystems, highly toxic chemicals used in
                    production, or historical noncompliance. Hence, the exhibited data do not
                    rank regional performance or necessarily reflect which regions may have the
                    most compliance problems.

Compliance and Enforcement Data Definitions

       General Definitions

                    Facility Indexing System (FINDS) ~ this system assigns a common facility
                    number to EPA single-media permit records.  The FINDS identification
                    number allows EPA  to compile  and review  all permit, compliance,
                    enforcement and pollutant release data for any given regulated facility.

                    Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis (IDEA)  — is a data integration
                    system  that can retrieve information from the major EPA program office
                    databases. IDEA uses the FINDS identification number to link separate data
4 EPA Regions include the. following states: I (CT, MA, ME, RI, NH, VT); II (NJ, NY, PR, VI); III (DC, DE, MD, PA,
VA, WV); IV (AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN); V (IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI); VI (AR, LA, NM, OK, TX); VII
(IA, KS, MO, ME); VHI (CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY); IX (AZ, CA, HI, NV, Pacific Trust Territories); X (AK, ID, OR,
WA).
Sector Notebook Project
114
September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
           Compliance and Enforcement History
                      records from EP A's databases.  This allows retrieval of records from across
                      media or statutes for any given facility, thus creating a "master  list" of
                      records for that facility. Some of the data systems accessible through IDEA
                      are: AIRS (Air Facility Indexing and Retrieval System, Office of Air and
                      Radiation),  PCS (Permit Compliance System,  Office  of Water), RCRIS
                      (Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System, Office of Solid
                      Waste),  NCDB (National Compliance  Data Base, Office  of Prevention,
                      Pesticides, and Toxic Substances), CERCLIS (Comprehensive Environmental
                      and Liability Information System, Superfund),  and TRIS (Toxic Release
                      Inventory System). IDEA also contains information from outside sources
                      such as  Dun and Bradstreet  and the  Occupational  Safety and  Health
                      Administration (OSHA). Most data queries displayed in notebook sections
                      IV and VII were conducted using IDEA.

        Data Table Column Heading Definitions

                      Facilities in Search ~ are based on the universe of TRI reporters within the
                      listed SIC code range.  For industries  not covered under TRI reporting
                      requirements (metal mining, nonmetallic mineral mining, electric  power
                     generation, ground transportation, water transportation, and dry cleaning), or
                     industries in which only a very small fraction of facilities report to TRI (e.g.,
                     printing),  the notebook uses the FINDS universe for executing data queries'
                     The SIC  code range selected for each search is defined by each notebook's
                     selected SIC code coverage described in  Section II.

                     Facilities Inspected —  indicates  the  level of EPA and  state agency
                     inspections for the facilities in this data search.  These values show what
                     percentage of the facility universe is inspected in a one-year or five-year
                     period.

                     Number  of  Inspections ~ measures  the total  number of inspections
                     conducted in this sector.  An inspection event is counted each time it is
                     entered into a single media database.

                     Average Time Between Inspections ~ provides an average length of time,
                     expressed  in months, between compliance inspections at a facility within the
                     defined universe.

                     Facilities with One or More Enforcement Actions - expresses the number
                     of facilities that were the subject of at least  one enforcement action within the
                     defined time period. This category is broken down further into federal and
                     state actions. Data are obtained for administrative,  civil/judicial, and criminal
                     enforcement actions. Administrative actions include Notices of Violation
                     (NOVs).  A facility with multiple enforcement actions is only counted once
                     in this column, e.g., a facility with 3 enforcement actions counts as 1 facility.
Sector Notebook Project
115
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
       Compliance and Enforcement History
                    Total Enforcement Actions ~ describes the total number of enforcement
                    actions identified for an industrial sector across all environmental statutes. A
                    facility with multiple enforcement actions is counted multiple times, e.g., a
                    facility with 3 enforcement actions counts as 3.

                    State Lead Actions - shows what percentage of the total enforcement
                    actions are taken by state and local environmental agencies.  Varying levels
                    of use by  states of EPA data systems may limit the volume of actions
                    recorded as state enforcement activity.   Some states extensively report
                    enforcement activities into EPA data systems, while other states may use their
                    own data systems.

                    Federal Lead Actions - shows what percentage of the total enforcement
                    actions are taken by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
                    This value includes referrals from state agencies. Many of these actions result
                    from coordinated or joint state/federal efforts.

                    Enforcement to Inspection Rate ~ is a ratio of enforcement actions to
                    inspections, and is presented for comparative purposes only. This ratio is a
                    rough indicator of the relationship between inspections and enforcement. It
                    relates the number of enforcement actions and the number of inspections that
                    occurred within the one-year or five-year period.  This ratio includes the
                    inspections and enforcement actions  reported under the Clean Water Act
                    (CWA), the Clean Air Act (CAA) and  the Resource  Conservation and
                    Recovery Act (RCRA). Inspections and actions from the TSCA/FIFRA/
                    EPCRA database are not factored into this ratio because most of the actions
                    taken under these programs are not the result of facility inspections.  Also,
                    this ratio  does not account for enforcement  actions  arising from non-
                     inspection compliance monitoring activities  (e.g.,  self-reported  water
                     discharges) that can result in enforcement action within the CAA, CWA, and
                     RCRA.

                     Facilities with One  or More Violations Identified  ~ indicates the
                     percentage of inspected facilities having a violation identified in one of the
                     following data categories:  In Violation or Significant Violation  Status
                     (CAA);Reportable Noncompliance, Current Year Noncompliance, Significant
                     Noncompliance (CWA); Noncompliance and  Significant Noncompliance
                     (FIFRA, TSCA, and EPCRA); Unresolved Violation and Unresolved High
                     Priority Violation (RCRA). The values presented for this column reflect the
                     extent of noncompliance within the measured time  frame,  but do not
                     distinguish between the severity of the noncompliance. Violation status may
                     be a precursor to an enforcement action, but does not necessarily indicate that
                     an enforcement action will occur.
 Sector Notebook Project
116
September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
          Compliance and Enforcement History
                     Media  Breakdown  of Enforcement Actions and Inspections ~ four
                     columns identify the proportion of total inspections and enforcement actions
                     within EPA Air, Water, Waste, and FIFRA/TSCA/EPCRA databases. Each
                     column  is a percentage  of either the  "Total Inspections," or the "Total
                     Actions" column.

 VELA. Metal Casting Industry Compliance History

                     Table 15 provides an overview of the reported compliance and enforcement
                     data for the metal casting industry over the past five years (April 1992 to
                     April 1997).   These  data are also  broken out by EPA Regions thereby
                     permitting geographical comparisons.  A few points evident from the data are
                     listed below.

                     •      Almost 80 percent of metal casting facility inspections and 63 percent
                           of enforcement actions occurred in Regions III, IV, and V, where
                           most facilities (68 percent) are located.

                     •      Region X had a  high ratio  of enforcement to inspections (0.40)
                           compared to other Regions.

                     •      Region DC had a significantly higher average time between inspections
                           (70 months), which means that fewer inspections were carried out in
                           relation to the number of facilities in the Region (54 facilities and 40
                           inspections).

                     •      Region IV had the  shortest  average  time between inspections (9
                           months), but also had the lowest rate  of enforcement actions to
                           inspections of any Region  (0.05).
Sector Notebook Project
117
September 1997

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                                              Compliance and Enforcement Histot












































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Sector Notebook Project
118
September 1997

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 Metal Casting Industry
          Compliance and Enforcement History
 VH.B. Comparison of Enforcement Activity Between Selected Industries

                     Tables 16 and 17 allow the compliance history of the metal casting sector to
                     be compared to the other industries covered by the industry sector notebooks.
                     Comparisons between Tables 16 and 17 permit the identification of trends in
                     compliance and enforcement records of the various industries by comparing
                     data covering the last five years (April 1992 to April 1997) to that of the past
                     year (April 1996 to April 1997). Some points evident from the data are listed
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                     •      Of the sectors listed, facilities in the metal casting sector had one of
                            the  highest proportions of federal-lead enforcement actions (29
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                     Tables 18 and 19 provide  a more in-depth comparison between the metal
                     casting industry  and  other sectors by breaking out the compliance and
                     enforcement data by environmental statute.  As in the previous Tables (Tables
                     16 and 17), the data cover the last five years (Table 18) and the last one year
                     (Table 19) to facilitate the identification of recent trends.  A few  points
                     evident from the data are listed below.

                     •      The percentage of inspections carried out under each environmental
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                     •      The  percentage of CAA enforcement  actions increased from  44
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                           while CWA and RCRA remained about the same.
Sector Notebook Project
119
September 1997

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September 1997

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          Compliance and Enforcement History












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-------
Metal Casting Industry
        Compliance and Enforcement History
VII.C. Review of Major Legal Actions

       Major Cases/Supplemental Environmental Projects

                    This section  provides summary information about major cases that have
                    affected this sector, and a list of Supplemental Environmental  Projects
                    (SEPs).

       VII.C.l. Review of Major Cases

                    As indicated in EPA's Enforcement Accomplishments Report, FY1995 and
                    FY1996 publications, 8 significant enforcement actions were resolved between
                    1995 and 1996 for the metal casting industry.

                    EMI Company (Pennsylvania): On May 29,  1996, EPA executed a consent
                    agreement and order settling an administrative action against EMI Company
                    for  payment  of $20,000  and agreement  to perform  a Supplemental
                    Environmental Project (SEP).  The SEP requires respondent to install and
                    operate (for one (1) year) baghouse emissions control technology for four (4)
                    electric induction furnaces presently not subject to Best Available Control
                    Technology (BAT) control requirements.  The total SEP  capital costs and
                    operating expenditure costs for  one year are estimated to  be  at least
                    $786,664.  Those particulates include some of the regulated materials (copper
                    and manganese) that are the subject of this action.   Region III filed the
                    administrative complaint against EMI Company of Erie,  Pennsylvania for
                    EPCRA reporting violations.

                    Leggett and Platt (Grafion, Wisconsin): On Monday,  April 1,  1996,  a
                    consent decree was entered in the Milwaukee Federal court with Leggett &
                    Platt, concerning their Grafton, WI,  facilities (2). A penalty of $450,000 was
                     stipulated in the decree based on four  years  of reporting  failures  and
                     exceeding the Federal Pretreatment standards for the Metal Molding  and
                     Casting industry.  Also, the company agreed  in the consent decree not to
                     discharge process  wastes to  the  Grafton  POTW.   As  a result of this
                     stipulation the company started a water recycle system in April, 1995, with
                     several  levels  of  plant water cleanliness.   After several  months  of
                     experimentation the company observed that the recycle system had a two-year
                     payout due to the reduction of the use of plant lubricants. The yearly savings
                     were in excess of $50,000/year. Therefore, there was no economic benefit
                     available for recovery.

                     Cooper Cameron (Richmond, Texas): This enforcement action arose out of
                     the Region  VT  Foundry Initiative.  EPA conducted  an  inspection  of the
                     Cooper Industries, Inc., Oil Tool Division in Richmond, Texas on September
                     21-23, 1994. At that facility, the Cooper Oil Tool Division manufactured a
 Sector Notebook Project
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 Metal Casting Industry
          Compliance and Enforcement History
                     variety of low and high carbon steel and stainless steel oil tool castings for
                     valves and other equipment. During the inspection, EPA discovered a waste
                     pile which contained Electric  Arc Furnace (EAF) baghouse dust.  This
                     material was sampled using the TCLP method and was found to contain
                     chromium (D007) above the 5.0 mg/L regulatory level.  Therefore, the EAF
                     baghouse dust is a hazardous waste. Cooper Oil Tool Division was acquired
                     by Cooper Cameron Corporation which was spun offfrom Cooper Industries,
                     Inc. in 1995. As the corporate successor to the Oil Tool Division, Cooper
                     Cameron  became  responsible for  the   cited violations.  Region VI
                     simultaneously filed the consent agreement/consent order on September 30,
                     1996, assessing a civil penalty of $45,000 plus injunctive relief. Additionally'
                     Cooper Cameron has agreed to remediate, under the Texas Natural Resource
                     Conservation  Commision  (TNRCC)   Voluntary   Cleanup   Program,
                     approximately 30 acres  of waste materials stored in piles on their site. It is
                     estimated that this action will reduce the risk of releasing more than 100 tons
                     of chromium contaminated soil. The agreement to remediate the waste pile
                     is a result of concern over environmental justice.  The surrounding community
                     is approximately 51% minority while Texas' average is 39%.

                     HICA Steel Foundry  and Upgrade Co.  (Shreveport,  Louisiana): On
                     November 7, 1995, EPA issued fflCA Steel Foundry and Upgrade Company
                     an administrative order (complaint). The order proposed a $472,000 fine and
                     required closure of several unauthorized hazardous waste management units.
                     This action required the removal and proper disposal of 2,600 gallons on
                     corrosive and ignitable hazardous waste and 255 tons of lead and chromium
                     contaminated waste from the facility.

                     NIBCO, Inc. (Blytheville, Arkansas): A final consent agreement/consent
                     order was signed by both Region VI and NIBCO on September 30, 1996.
                     NIBCO agreed to pay $750,000 in cash to satisfy the approximately $2.5
                     million in civil penalties assessed by Region VI in this Foundry  Initiative
                     enforcement  action.  The enforcement action against NIBCO originated
                     because the facility was treating sand used in the casting of metal valves
                     (casting sand) with metallic iron dust, without a permit, and disposing of the
                     material in the Nacogdoches municipal landfill.  The casting sand absorbs lead
                     during the casting process, making it a hazardous waste. In order to offset
                     the civil  penalty, NEBCO agreed to work with Texas Natural Resource
                     Conservation Commision (TNRCC)  and the  City of Nacogdoches to
                     characterize the foundry sand  waste  disposed of in  the  Nacogdoches
                     municipal landfill, and  ensure closure  and post-closure measures  are
                     performed in accordance with all applicable requirements and schedules
                     established by TNRCC.
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Metal Casting Industry
        Compliance and Enforcement History
                    Lynchburg Foundry Company (Lynchburg,  VA): On August 24, 1995, the
                    Region HI Administrator signed a consent order which requires Lynchburg
                    Foundry Company to perform tasks set out in the compliance section of the
                    consent agreement, and to pay $330,000 to EPA. Lynchburg, located in
                    Lynchburg, Virginia, operates two facilities: Radford and Archer Creek, both
                    of which manufacture metal automotive parts.  Under the terms of the consent
                    agreement and order, Lynchburg must: 1) list all hazardous wastes handled
                    at both facilities within its hazardous waste notification filed with the Virginia
                    Department of Hazardous Waste; 2) amend or supplement its emergency
                    contingency plans for both facilities to reflect the arrangements agreed to by
                    local emergency services; and 3)  permanently cease illegally storing or
                    treating D006 and D008 hazardous wastes in waste piles at either facility.

                    Great Lakes Casting Corporation (Ludington, Ml): On November 15, 1994,
                    a consent decree was  entered in the U.S. District Court for the Western
                    District of Michigan in the U.S. v.  Great Lakes Casting Corporation case
                    requiring Great Lakes to pay a civil penalty of $350,000 for illegal hazardous
                    waste disposal under RCRA.

                     CMI-Cast Parts, Inc. (Cadillac, MI): A consent agreement and final order
                    was signed on December 22,1994, which settled an administrative complaint
                     against CMI-Cast Parts, Inc. CMC-Cast Parts, Inc. is a Michigan corporation
                    which owns and operates  an iron foundry in Cadillac, Michigan. CMI-Cast
                    Parts, Inc. failed to obtain interim status or a proper operating permit to treat,
                     store'or dispose of hazardous waste at its Cadillac facility. From September
                     1990 to January 1994, the facility failed to comply with the hazardous waste
                     management standards. On January 26, 1995, CMI-Cast Parts, Inc., submitted
                     a certified check in the amount of $454,600.00, payable to the Treasurer of
                     the United States of America, for final settlement of the enforcement action.

        VH.C.2. Supplementary Environmental Projects (SEPs)

                     SEPs are compliance agreements that  reduce a facility's non-compliance
                     penalty in return for an environmental project that exceeds the value of the
                     reduction. Often, these projects fund pollution prevention activities that can
                     reduce the future pollutant loadings of a facility. Information on SEP cases
                     can  be  accessed via the  Internet  at EPA's Enviro$en$e  Website:
                     http://es.inel.gov/sep.
 Sector Notebook Project
126
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 Metal Casting Industry
                       Activities and Initiatives
     .  COMPLIANCE ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES

                     This section highlights the activities undertaken by this industry sector and
                     public  agencies  to  voluntarily   improve  the  sector's  environmental
                     performance.  These activities  include those initiated independently  by
                     industrial trade associations.  In this section, the notebook also contains a
                     listing and description of national and regional trade associations.

 VTII.A. Sector-related Environmental Programs and Activities

        Vm.A.l.  Federal Activities

        Metalcasting Competitiveness Research (MCR) Program

                     The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Metalcasting Competitiveness
                     Research Act (Public Law 101-425) was signed in 1990 and established the
                     U.S. DOE, Office of Industrial  Technology Metalcasting Competitiveness
                     Research  (MCR) Program.  The program provides  assistance  to  the
                     metalcasting  industry by fostering R&D in technology areas  that were
                     identified as priority in nature  by the industry including technology
                     competitiveness and energy efficiency. In this program, industry and the DOE
                     provide cost-share funding to metalcasting research institutions that conduct
                     the R&D. Projects are chosen based on a set of research priorities  developed
                     by the Metalcasting Industrial Advisory Board (IAB).  The IAB meets once
                     a year to revise these priorities.  As of 1996, 24 projects have been funded
                     through the MCR Program, a number of them having direct and indirect
                     benefits to the environment.

       Casting Emission Reduction Program

                     The Casting Emission Reduction Program (CERP) is primarily focused on
                     developing new  materials,  processes  or  equipment  for  metalcasting
                     manufacturing which will achieve a near-zero effect on the environment while
                     producing high quality components for the U.S. military and other users. The
                     program also has the objective of bridging the critical gap between laboratory
                     and full scale casting production. The result will be a platform for proofing
                     and validating the next generation of light weight weapon system components
                     using near net shape metal castings.

                     The program was initiated by the Department of Defense (DoD) in response
                     to the rapid reduction in domestic  foundries capable of producing the critical
                     components of military hardware.  These parts range from tank tracks and
                     turrets to the tail structure of the F-16 fighter.  The DoD sees an immediate
                     threat to sand casting foundries and their ability to withstand the changes
                     resulting from the Titles III and V Amendments to the 1990 Clean Air Act.
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                                Activities and Initiatives
                    In addition, DoD realizes that the needs of the military for post year 2000
                    hardware will depend on manufacturing technologies which do not exist today
                    or are unable to make the transition from the lab bench to the shop floor.
                    CERP aims to provide the country with the ability to launch lighter weight
                    castings more  quickly and at the same time meet  the more demanding
                    environmental regulations of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. Although
                    the program was initiated to address military needs, it is  anticipated that it will
                    benefit the entire industry.

                    The specific activities of CERP will include obtaining a baseline of emissions
                    from foundries across the U.S., developing a pilot foundry at McClellan AFB
                    in California for the testing and prototyping  of new  casting processes and
                    materials,  and developing  the  real-time emission instrumentation for
                    foundries.   The five-year program receives  Congressional appropriations
                    under the Research, Development, Test & Defense Wide category. Other
                    technical partners  directly supporting the project include the American
                    Foundrymen's Society, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the
                    California  Air Resources Board (CARB),  and the  U.S.  Council for
                    Automotive Research (USCAR). Contact: Bill Walden, (916) 643-1090.

       EPA Region VI Foundry Initiative

                    EPA's Region VT (Oklahoma, Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, New Mexico)
                    began a Foundry Initiative in 1993 to improve compliance rates among the
                     600 foundries in the region.  An initial inspection of 27 foundries in the
                    Region indicated that a  large percentage  had potential RCRA violations.
                    Region VI formed  a  partnership  with  the States  and the  American
                     Foundrymen's Society to  develop an initiative for environmental compliance
                     which would be beneficial  to foundries.  EPA, the  States and  foundry
                     representatives established a workgroup that provides an open forum for
                     discussion, identifies relevant environmental issues facing foundries and
                     develops educational assistance programs.

                     Through education and compliance assistance, the program aims to improve
                     communication between the industry and the regulatory agencies and increase
                     voluntary compliance with the regulations.  The program provides foundries
                     with information to fix  problems before active enforcement occurs. For
                     example, in Oklahoma where the initiative has recently been completed, a six
                     month correction period was offered.  Workshops and seminars were held in
                     each  state and individual compliance assistance and  site visits are  being
                     offered. Contact: Joel Dougherty, Ph.D., (214) 665-2281.
 Sector Notebook Project
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 Metal Casting Industry
                       Activities and Initiatives
        Vm.A.2.  State Activities

        Oklahoma
                     The Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) Customer
                     Assistance Program recently completed its Foundry Initiative with EPA
                     Region VI (See above).  After Region 6 made plans to inspect 12 facilities in
                     Oklahoma, the Oklahoma (DEQ) suggested an alternate strategy.  A multi-
                     media workshop was held in April 1995 that focused on pollution issues
                     facing the  foundry  industry.  From that workshop, an entire state-wide
                     compliance achievement program was developed for metal casting facilities.

                     The Program consisted of the following trade-offs between industry and the
                     regulators.

                            1)      The industry would perform an environmental self-audit and
                                   fix any problems identified.
                           2)      The DEQ and the EPA would allow a six month "correction
                                   period."
                           3)     During the correction period any regularly scheduled annual
                                  inspections were canceled. This allowed the facility to focus
                                  on identifying and correcting areas of non-compliance.
                           4)     At the end of the "correction period" there would be a return
                                  to normally scheduled inspections.

                     Of the 45 qualifying facilities in Oklahoma, 23 participated in the program.
                     Each of the 23 facilities performed a self-audit that covered air quality, water
                     quality, and waste management issues.  Each facility also completed the
                     program, which  included workshops, self-audits,  site visits,  and  "free"
                     inspections. The types of compliance issues that were corrected as a result of
                     the program were:

                           1)     state minor air permits,
                           2)     solid waste disposal approvals,
                           3)     storm water pollution prevention plans,
                           4)     SARA Title III reporting,  and
                           5)     air pollution controls.

                     An important outcome was the new relationship between the foundries and
                     the agency.  This new relationship was based on information sharing for the
                     common goal of compliance. The participating foundries were able to obtain
                     permits and disposal approvals without penalty.  Several facilities continue to
                     work with the DEQ to solve more complex compliance issues, such as on-site
                     land disposal of foundry sand. Contact: Dave Dillon, Customer Assistance
                     Program, Oklahoma DEQ, (405) 271-1400.
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                                  Activities and Initiatives
       University of Wisconsin -Milwaukee Center for By-Product Utilization

                     At  the University  of Wisconsin  -  Milwaukee Center  for By-Product
                     Utilization researchers are examining the feasibility of using spent foundry
                     sand and slag as feed for concrete manufacturing. The center is testing the
                     compression strengths of concrete mixed with 25 percent and 35 percent (by
                     weight) of different types of used foundry sand.  Tests are also being carried
                     out substituting foundry sand in asphaltic concrete.  Many of the tests have
                     shown that structural grade concrete and asphaltic concrete can be produced
                     successfully and economically using waste foundry sand.
  Sector Notebook Project
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 Metal Casting Industry
                       Activities and Initiatives
 Vm.B. EPA Voluntary Programs

       35/50 Program
                     The  33/50 Program is a groundbreaking program that has focused on
                     reducing pollution from seventeen high-priority chemicals through voluntary
                     partnerships with industry. The program's name stems from its goals:  a 33%
                     reduction in toxic releases by 1992, and a 50% reduction by 1995, against a
                     baseline of 1.5 billion pounds of releases and transfers in 1988. The results
                     have been impressive:  1,300 companies  have joined the 33/50  Program
                     (representing over 6,000 facilities) and have reached the national targets a
                     year ahead of schedule. The 33% goal was reached in 1991, and the 50%
                     goal — a reduction of 745 million pounds of toxic wastes -- was reached in
                     1994. The 33/50 Program can provide case studies on many of the corporate
                     accomplishments in reducing waste (Contact 33/50 Program Director David
                     Sarokin - 202-260-6396).

                     Table 19 lists those companies participating in the  33/50 program that
                     reported four-digit SIC codes within 332 and 336 to TRI.  Some of the
                     companies shown also listed facilities that are not producing metal castings.
                     The number of facilities within each company that are participating in the
                     33/50 program  and that report metal casting SIC codes is shown. Where
                     available and quantfiable against 1988 releases and transfers, each company's
                     33/50 goals for  1995 and the actual total releases and transfers and percent
                     reduction between 1988 and 1994 are presented.

                     Fourteen of the seventeen target chemicals were reported to TRI  by metal
                     casting facilities in 1994. Of all TRI chemicals released and transferred by the
                     metal casting industry, nickel and nickel compounds, and chromium and
                     chromium compounds (both 33/50 target chemicals), were released and
                     transferred second and third most frequently (behind copper), and were in the
                     top ten largest volume released and transferred.  Other frequently  reported
                     33/50 target chemicals were lead and lead compounds, xylenes and toluene.

                     Table 20 shows that 55 companies comprised of 129 facilities reporting SIC
                     332 and 336 are participating in the 33/50  program.  For those companies
                     shown with more than one metal casting facility, all facilities  may not be
                     participating in 33/50. The 33/50 goals shown for companies with multiple
                     metal casting facilities, however, are company-wide, potentially aggregating
                     more than one facility and facilities not carrying out metal casting operations.
                     In addition to company-wide goals, individual facilities within a company may
                     have their own 33/50 goals or may be specifically listed as not participating
                     in the 33/50 program.  Since the actual percent reductions shown in the last
                     column apply to  all of the companies' metal casting facilities and only metal
                     casting facilities, direct comparisons to those company goals incorporating
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Metal Casting Industry
                     Activities and Initiatives
                     non-metal casting facilities or excluding certain facilities may not be possible.
                     For information on specific facilities participating in 33/50, contact David
                     Sarokin (202-260-6907) at the 33/50 Program Office.
Table 20: Metal Casting Industry Participation in the 33/50 Program
Parent Company
[Headquarters Location)
A B & I Incorporated
Oakland, CA
Allied-Signal Inc
Morristown, NJ
American Cast Iron Pipe Co
Birmingham, AL
Ampco Metal Mfg. Inc.
Milwaukee, WI
Amsted Industries
Incorporated - Chicago, IL
Armco Inc - Pittsburgh, PA
Auburn Foundry Inc
Auburn, IN
Bloomfield Foundry Inc
Bloomfield, IA
Bumham Corporation
Lancaster, PA
Cast-Fab Technologies Inc
Cincinnati, OH
Caterpillar Inc - Peoria, EL
Chrysler Corporation
Auburn Hills, MI
Columbia Steel Casting Co
Portland, OR
Cooper Industries Inc
Houston, TX
Dalton Foundries Inc
Warsaw, IN
Dana Corporation
Toledo, OH
Deere & Company
Moline, IL
Duriron Company Inc
Davton, OH
Electric Steel Castings Co
Indianapolis, IN
Company-
Owned Metal
Casting Facilities
Reporting 33/50
Chemicals
1
1
3
2
9
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
4
2
1
1
1
1
Company-
Wide %
Reduction
Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
98
50
25
*
66
4
99
***
95
54
60
80
*
75
75
**
*
36
***
1988TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)2
455,570
500
761,209
2,500
1,066,730
74,810
592,150
500
99,149
24,196
24,650
37,082
0
100,873
594,000
0
161,942
49,725
0
1994TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
r\
(pounds)
345,419
0
188,769
12,552
2,174,300
16,480
465
520
700
50
265,815
18,281
16,801
224,830
106,996
8,860
8,337
0
0
Actual %
Reduction for
Metal Casting
Facilities
(1988-1994)
24
100
75
-402
-104
78
100
-4
99
100
-978
51
-
-123
82
-
95
100
-
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Metal Casting Industry

Parent Company
(Headquarters Location)
Emerson Electric Co
Saint Louis, MO
Federal-mogul Corporation
Southfield, MI
Ford Motor Company
Dearborn, MI
Funk Finecast Inc
Columbus, OH
General Electric Company
Fairfield, CT
General Motors Corporation
Detroit, MI
Hartzell Manufacturing Inc
Saint Paul, MN
Hitchiner Manufacturing Co
Milford, NH
Hubbell Incorporated
Orange, CT
Interlake Corporation
Lisle, JL
Jefferson City Mfg Co Inc
Jefferson City, MO
Naco Inc - Lisle, IL
Navistar Intl Transportation
Co - Chicago, IL
Newell Co - Freeport, IL
Ngk Metals Corp.
Temple, PA
Northern Precision Casting
Co - Lake Geneva, WI
Pac Foundries
PortHueneme, CA
Pacific Alloy Castings
South Gate, CA
Pechiney Corporation
Greenwich, CT
PHB Inc - Fairview, PA
Precision Castparts Corp
Portland, OR
Premark International Inc
Deerfield, IL
» Progress Casting Group Inc
Minneapolis, MN

	 • 	 .
Company-
Owned Metal
Casting Facilities
Reporting 33/50
Chemicals
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
4
1
1
1
7
2
16
1
1
1
1
4
1
10
1
1
•

Company-
Wide %
Reduction
Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
50
50
15
*
50
*
85
50
***
37
**
***
*
23
99
99
75
**
***
100
29
***
95


1 	
1988TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)2
0
0
94,478
14,290
0
676,800
250
91,930
23,641
8,000
29,500
250 920
40,500
1,091 853
280
18,583
16,950
1,500
266,950
22,292
584,861
0
17,412


1994TRI
Releases and
Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)2
0
3,455
96,803
596
195
387,813
0
699
0
0
0
102 532
0
149,630
2,800
96
0
2,659
24,099
0
197,377
530
0


Actual %
Reduction for
Metal Casting
Facilities ,
(1988-1994)
-
-
-2
96
-
43
100
99
100
100
100
59
100
86
-900
99
100
-77
91
100
66
-
100

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  Metal Casting Industry
                                                                       Activities and Initiatives
                                                                                          Actual %
                                                                                         Reduction  for
                                                                                         Metal Casting
                                                                                          Facilities
                                                                                         (1988-1994)
   1994TRI
 Releases and
  Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
   (pounds)
          1988TRI
        Releases and
         Transfers of
       33/50 Chemicals
          (pounds)2
  Company-
   Wide %
  Reduction
    Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
   Company-
 Owned Metal
Casting Facilities
Reporting 33/50
   Chemicals
Parent Company
(Headquarters Location)
Rexcorp U S Inc (Del)
   hvich. U
SKFUSAInc
Kins of Prussia.?/
Slyman Industries Inc
Medina. OH
Smith Everett Investment Co
 Milwaukee. WI
Spuncast Inc - Watertown,
WI
SPX Corporation
          MI
 Sure Cast Inc - Bumet, TX
 Tenncco Inc - Houston, TX
 Thyssen Holding
 Cornoration-Trov.MI
 Walter Industries Inc
 Tamna. FI
 Watts Industries Inc
 North Andover.M/
 York Mold Inc.
 Manchester. P/
 Young Corporation
 Source: U.S. EPA 33/50 Program Office, 1996.

 1     Company-Wide Reduction Goals aggregate all company-owned facilities which may include
 facilities not producing metal castings.
 2    Releases and Transfers are from metal casting facilities only.

 *    =   Reduction goal not quantifiable against 1988 TRI data.
 **  =   Use reduction goal only.
 *** =   No numeric reduction goal	==========
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 Metal Casting Industry
                        Activities and Initiatives
        Environmental Leadership Program
       Project XL
                      The Environmental  Leadership  Program (ELP) is  a national  initiative
                      developed by EPA that focuses on improving environmental performance,
                      encouraging voluntary compliance, and building working relationships with
                      stakeholders.  EPA initiated a one year pilot program in 1995 by selecting 12
                      projects  at  industrial  facilities  and  federal  installations  which  would
                      demonstrate the principles of the ELP program.  These principles include:
                      environmental management systems, multimedia compliance assurance, third-
                      party verification of compliance, public measures of accountability, pollution
                      prevention, community involvement, and mentor programs. In return for
                      participating, pilot participants received public recognition and were given a
                      period of time to correct any violations discovered during these experimental
                      projects.

                      EPA is making plans to launch its full-scale  Environmental Leadership
                      Program in 1997. The full-scale program will be facility-based with a 6-year
                      participation cycle. Facilities that meet certain requirements will be eligible
                      to participate, such as having a  community outreach/employee involvement
                      programs and an environmental management system (EMS) in place for 2
                      years.  (Contact: http://es.inel.gov/elp or Debby Thomas, ELP Deputy
                      Director, at 202-564-5041)
                     Project XL was initiated in March 1995 as a part of President Clinton's
                     Reinventing Environmental Regulation initiative.  The projects  seek to
                     achieve cost effective environmental benefits  by providing participants
                     regulatory flexibility on the condition that they produce greater environmental
                     benefits. EPA and program participants will negotiate and sign a Final Project
                     Agreement, detailing  specific environmental objectives that  the regulated
                     entity shall satisfy.  EPA will provide regulatory flexibility as an incentive for
                     the participants' superior environmental performance.   Participants  are
                     encouraged to seek stakeholder support from local governments, businesses,
                     and environmental groups.  EPA hopes to implement  fifty pilot projects in
                     four categories, including industrial facilities, communities, and government
                     facilities regulated by EPA. Applications will be accepted on a rolling basis.
                     For additional information  regarding XL projects, including application
                     procedures and criteria,  see the May 23, 1995 Federal Register Notice.
                     (Contact:     Fax-on-Demand     Hotline     202-260-8590,     Web:
                     http://www.epa.gov/ProjectXL, or Christopher Knopes at EPA's Office of
                     Policy, Planning and Evaluation 202-260-9298)
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                                Activities and Initiatives
       Climate Wise Program
                    Climate Wise is helping US industries turn energy efficiency and pollution
                    prevention into a corporate asset.  Supported by the technical assistance,
                    financing information  and public recognition that Climate Wise  offers,
                    participating  companies  are  developing  and  launching  comprehensive
                    industrial energy efficiency and pollution prevention action plans that save
                    money and protect the environment. The nearly 300 Climate Wise companies
                    expect to save more than $300 million and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
                    by 18 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by the year 2000.
                    Some of the actions companies are undertaking to achieve these results
                    include: process improvements, boiler and steam system optimization, air
                    compressor system improvements, fuel switching, and waste heat recovery
                    measures including cogeneration.  Created as part of the  President's Climate
                    Change Action Plan, Climate Wise is jointly operated by the Department of
                    Energy and EPA.  Under the Plan many other programs were also launched
                    or upgraded including Green Lights, WasteWi$e and DoE's Motor Challenge
                    Program.  Climate Wise provides an umbrella for these programs which
                    encourage company participation by providing information on the range of
                    partnership opportunities available. (Contact: Pamela Herman, EPA, 202-
                    260-4407 or Jan Vernet, DoE, 202-586-4755)
 Energy Star Buildings Program
                     EPA's ENERGY STAR Buildings Program is a voluntary, profit-based program
                     designed to improve the energy-efficiency in commercial  and industrial
                     buildings. Expanding the successful Green Lights Program, ENERGY STAR
                     Buildings was launched in 1995. This program relies on a 5-stage strategy
                     designed to maximize energy savings thereby lowering energy bills, improving
                     occupant comfort, and preventing pollution ~  all at the  same time.  If
                     implemented in every commercial and industrial building in the United States,
                     ENERGY STAR Buildings could cut the nation's energy bill by up to $25 billion
                     and prevent up to 35% of carbon dioxide emissions. (This is equivalent to
                     taking 60 million cars of the road). ENERGY STAR Buildings participants
                     include corporations; small and medium sized businesses; local, federal and
                     state governments; non-profit groups; schools; universities; and health care
                     facilities. EPA provides  technical and non-technical  support including
                     software, workshops, manuals,  communication tools, and an information
                     hotline.  EPA's Office of Air and Radiation manages the operation of the
                     ENERGY STAR Buildings Program. (Contact: Green Light/Energy Star Hotline
                     at 1-888-STAR-YES or Maria Tikoff Vargas, EPA Program Director at 202-
                     233-9178  or visit the ENERGY   STAR Buildings Program  website  at
                     http://www.epa.gov/appdstar/buildings/)
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  Metal Casting Industry
                        Activities and Initiatives
        Green Lights Program
                      EPA's Green Lights program was initiated in 1991 and has the goal  of
                      preventing pollution by encouraging U.S. institutions to use energy-efficient
                      lighting technologies.   The program saves  money  for businesses and
                      organizations and creates a cleaner environment by  reducing pollutants
                      released into the atmosphere. The program has over 2,345 participants which
                      include major corporations, small and medium sized businesses, federal, state
                      and local governments, non-profit groups, schools, universities, and health
                      care facilities.  Each participant is required to survey their facilities and
                      upgrade lighting wherever it is profitable.  As of March 1997, participants had
                      lowered their electric bills by $289 million annually. EPA provides technical
                      assistance to the participants through a decision support software package,
                      workshops and manuals, and an information hotline. EPA's Office of Air and
                      Radiation is responsible for operating the Green Lights Program. (Contact:
                      Green  Light/Energy  Star Hotline  at  1-888-STARYES  or Maria Tikoff
                      Vargar, EPA Program Director, at 202-233-9178)
        WasteWi$e Program
       NICE3
                     The WasteWi$e Program was started in 1994 by EPA's Office of Solid Waste
                     and Emergency Response. The program is aimed at reducing municipal solid
                     wastes  by promoting waste  prevention, recycling  collection and the
                     manufacturing and purchase of recycled products. As of 1997, the program
                     had about 500 companies as members, one third of whom are Fortune  1000
                     corporations. Members agree to identify and implement actions to reduce
                     their solid wastes setting waste reduction goals and providing EPA with
                     yearly progress reports.  To member companies, EPA, in turn, provides
                     technical assistance, publications, networking opportunities, and national and
                     regional recognition.  (Contact: WasteWiSe Hotline at 1-800-372-9473 or
                     Joanne Oxley, EPA Program Manager, 703-308-0199)
                     The U.S. Department of Energy is administering a grant program called The
                     National  Industrial Competitiveness through Energy, Environment, and
                     Economics (NICE3).  By providing grants of up to 45 percent of the total
                     project cost, the program encourages industry to reduce industrial waste at
                     its source and become more energy-efficient and cost-competitive through
                     waste minimization efforts.  Grants are used by industry to design, test, and
                     demonstrate new processes and/or equipment with the potential to reduce
                     pollution  and increase energy efficiency.  The  program  is open to all
                     industries; however, priority is given to proposals  from participants in the
                     forest products, chemicals, petroleum refining, steel, aluminum, metal casting
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                                Activities and Initiatives
                    and glass manufacturing sectors. (Contact: http//www.oit.doe.gov/access/
                    niceS, Chris Sifti, DOE, 303-275-4723 or Eric Hass, DOE, 303-275-4728)

       Design for the Environment (DfE)

                    DfE is  working with several industries to identify cost-effective pollution
                    prevention strategies that reduce risks to workers and the environment. DfE
                    helps businesses compare and evaluate the performance, cost, pollution
                    prevention benefits, and human health and environmental risks associated with
                    existing and alternative technologies.   The goal of these projects is to
                    encourage businesses to consider and use cleaner products, processes, and
                    technologies. For more information about the DfE Program, call (202) 260-
                     1678.  To obtain copies of DfE materials or for general information about
                    DfE, contact EP A's Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse at (202)
                    260-1023 or visit the DfE Website at http://es.inel.gov/dfe.

 VUI.C.  Trade Association/Industry Sponsored Activity

       Vffl.C.1. Industry Research Programs

       American Metalcasting Consortium (AMC)

                     The American Metalcasting  Consortium  (AMC)  is  a group  of six
                     organizations from the metalcasting industry that have joined together to ally
                     the thousands of small and medium sized metalcasters within the market in an
                     effort to re-establish American viability in the metalcasting industry. AMC
                    • aims to energize critical facets of the industry which stimulate lead time and
                     cost reductions, quality, and market share/growth.  These goals are being
                     implemented through efforts focused on projects in the areas of 1) applied
                     research and development, 2) education, training, and technology transfer, 3)
                     small business, and 4) casting applications development. Many of the projects
                     Cwill result in positive environmental impacts by improving the industry's
                     overall energy  efficiency and reducing the quantity of wastes and off-spec
                     castings. The AMC organizations are: The American Foundrymen's Society
                     (AFS); Non-Ferrous Founders' Society (NFFS); North American Die Casting
                     Association (NADCA); and the Steel Founders'  Society of America (SFSA).

         'ast Metals Coalition (CMC)

                     In 1995, Chief Executive Officers and Presidents from the foundry, diecasting,
                     and foundry supply industries developed goals  for the future of the industry
                     in Beyond 2000:  A Vision for the  American Metalcasting  Industry.
                     Representatives from the  American  Foundrymen's  Society, the  Steel
                     Founders'  Society  of America,  and  the  North American Die  Casters
                     Association formed the Cast Metals Coalition (CMC). The CMC is working
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 Metal Casting Industry
                       Activities and Initiatives
                     towards developing a technology roadmap for pursuing and achieving these
                     goals. CMC is working with industry and research institutions, including
                     universities and national laboratories to develop this roadmap.

       Pennsylvania Foundry Consortia

                     A consortia of Pennsylvania foundries, the Pennsylvania Foundrymen's
                     Association and Perm State University have been working cooperatively since
                     1985 on issues associated with solid waste disposal, sand reclamation, and
                     beneficial use of foundry residuals. This group is addressing the impediments
                     to beneficial use of foundry residuals on a comprehensive national level.  The
                     goals of the research are to maximize the beneficial reuse of environmentally
                     safe foundry residuals and to streamline the path for their acceptability by
                     other industries. Specific tasks carried out involve establishing a database of
                     technical  and environmental information to support  reuse applications,
                     developing and administering a comprehensive survey of potential aggregate
                     users, and performing physical and environmental testing to demonstrate the
                     applicability of residual wastes for reuse applications. The program receives
                     funding from a U.S. EPA grant.
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Metal Casting Industry
                     Activities and Initiatives
       Vm.C.2.  Trade Associations

              American Foundrymen's Society, Inc.
              (AFS)
              505 State Street
              Des Plaines, IL 60016-8399
              Phone: (800) 537-4237
              Fax: (847) 824-7848
        Members: 12,800
        Staff: 60
        Contact: Gary Mosher,
        Vice President, Environmental Health and
        Safety
              The American Foundrymen's Society (AFS) is the primary trade association for the
              foundry industry.  Founded  in 1896, the Society has student and local  groups
              throughout the U.S. and internationally. AFS is the technical, trade, and management
              association of foundrymen, pattern makers, technologists,  and educators. The society
              sponsors foundry training courses through the Cast Metals Institute on all subjects
              pertaining  to the casting  industry and  sponsors  numerous  regional and  local
              conferences and meetings. AFS maintains an extensive Technical Information Center,
              conducts research programs, compiles statistics, and provides marketing information,
              environmental services, and testing. The monthly trade magazine, Modern Casting,
              covers current technology practices and other factors affecting the production and
              marketing of metal castings.
              North American Die Casting Association
              (NADCA)
              9701 W. Higgins Rd., Ste. 880
              Rosemont, IL60018
              Phone: 847-292-3600
              Fax: 847-292-3620
               Members: 3,200
               Staff: 17
               Contact: Dan Twarog
              The North American Die Casting Association (NADCA) was founded in 1989 and
              is made up of producers of die castings and suppliers to industry, product and die
              designers, metallurgists, and students. There are regional and local groups across the
              U.S.  NADCA develops  product standards;  compiles trade statistics  on metal
              consumption trends; conducts promotional activities; and provides information on
              chemistry, mechanics, engineering, and other arts and sciences related to die casting.
              The association also maintains a library and provides training materials and short,
              intensive courses in die casting.  A trade magazine,  Die  Casting Engineer,  is
              published periodically and contains  information on new products  and literature,
              chapter news, and a calendar of events.
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 Metal Casting Industry
                                                   Activities and Initiatives
               Non-Ferrous Founders' Society
               455 State St., Suite 100
               DesPlaines, IL60016
               Phone: 847-299-0950
               Fax: 847-299-3598
                                                Members: 185
                                                Staff: 2
                                                Contact: Jim Mallory or Mark
                                                Remlinger, Chair of
                                                Environment Committee
              The Non-Ferrous Founders' Society (NFFS) is comprised of manufacturers of brass,
              bronze, aluminum, and other nonferrous castings. Founded in 1943, NFFS conducts
              research programs and compiles statistics related to the nonferrous castings industry.
              The Society has committees related to: export government relations; insurance; local
              management group; management conferences; planning; quality;  and technical
              research.  NFFS publishes The Crucible bimonthly.  This trade magazine contains
              articles relevant to the day-to-day management of aluminum, brass, bronze, and other
              nonferrous foundries. NFFS  also publishes a biennial Directory of Nonferrous
              Foundries listing member and nonmember foundries producing primarily aluminum,
              brass, and bronze castings.
                                                             Members: 75
                                                             Staff: 6
                                                             Contact: Raymond Monroe
Steel  Founders'   Society  of  America
(SFSA)
Cast Metals Fed. Bldg.
455 State St.
DesPlaines, EL 60016
Phone: 847-299-9160
Fax: 847-299-3105
              The Steel Founders Society of America (SFSA) is comprised of manufacturers of
              steel castings.  Founded in 1902, the Society conducts research programs and
              compiles statistics related to the steel casting industry.  SFSA periodically publishes
              CASTEEL which contains special articles on specifications and technical aspects of
              steel castings.  SFSA also publishes a biennial Directory of Steel Foundries listing
              steel foundries in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. Committees include Marketing,
              Specifications, and Technical Research.
              Investment Casting Institute
              8350 N. Central Expressway
              Suite Mil 10
              Dallas, TX 75206
              Phone: 214-368-8896
              Fax: 214-368-8852
                                               Members: 275
                                               Staff: 5
                                               Contact: Henry Bidwell
             The Investment Casting Institute is an international trade association comprised of
             manufacturers of precision castings for industrial use made by the investment (or lost
             wax) process and suppliers to such manufacturers. The Institute provides training
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Metal Casting Industry
                                                                 Activities and Initiatives
              courses and  other specialized education programs and  publishes the monthly
              newsletter Incast.
              Casting Industry Suppliers Association            Members: 66
              (CISA)                                        Staff: 1
              455 State St., Suite 104                          Contact: Darla Boudjenah
              Des Plaines, IL 60016
              Phone: 708-824-7878
              Fax: 708-824-7908

              The Casting  Industry Suppliers Association (CISA) was  founded in 1986 and
              represents  manufacturers of foundry equipment and  supplies such  as molding
              machinery, dust control equipment and systems, blast cleaning machines, tumbling
              equipment, and related products.  CISA also aims to foster better trade practices and
              serve as an industry representative before the government and the public.  The
              Association also compiles industry statistics and disseminates reports of progress in
              new processes and methods in foundry operation.
              The Ferroalloys Association (TFA)
              900 2nd St. NE, Suite 201
              Washington, DC 20002
              Phone: 202-842-0292
              Fax: 202-842-4840
                  Members: 21
                  Staff: 3
                  Contact: Edward Kinghorn Jr.
              The purpose of The Ferroalloys Association's (TFA) is to promote the general
              welfare of the producers of chromium, manganese, silicon, vanadium ferroalloys and
              related basic alloys/metals in the United States and to engage in all lawful activities
              to that end.  Founded in 1971, TFA consistently provides the ferroalloy industry a
              means to accomplish tasks through a common bond of business interests.

              The ferroalloy industry produces high strength metals created by submerged electric
              arc smelting, induction  melting, alumino/silicothermic reduction  processes, and
              vacuum reduction furnaces, as well as by electrolytic processes.  More than 50
              different alloys and metals in hundreds of compositions and sizes are produced by the
              ferroalloy industry for use in the manufacturing of stainless steel, iron, and aluminum.
              The industry also produces vital materials used in the production of chemicals, semi-
              conductors, solar cells, coatings, and catalysts.
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Metal Casting Industry
                       Contacts and References
IX.  CONTACTS/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS/RESOURCE MATERIALS
For  further information on selected topics within the metal casting industry a list of contacts and
publications are provided below.

Contacts5
Name
Jane Engert
James Maysilles
Mary Cunningham
Larry Gonzales
George Jett
Doug Kaempf
Bill Walden
Joel Dougherty
David Byro
Dave Dillon
Gary Mosher
Ted Kinghom
Megan Medley
Dan Twarog
Tricia Margel
Raymond Monroe
Bob Voigt
Organization
EPA/OECA (Office of Enforcement
and Compliance Assurance)
EPA/OAR (Office of Air and
Radiation)
EPA/OS W (Office of Solid Waste)
EPA/OSW (Office of Solid Waste)
EPA/O W (Office of Water), Office
of Science and Technology
DOE (Department of Energy)
Casting Emissions Reduction
Program (McClellan AFB, CA)
EPA/Region VI
EPA/Region III
Oklahoma Department of
Environmental Quality
American Foundrymen's Society
Vice President Environmental Health
and Safety
Non-Ferrous Founders' Society
North American Die Casting
Association
Steel Founders Society of America
Pennsylvania State University
Telephone
202-564-5021
919-541-3265
703-308-8453
703-308-8468
202-260-7151
202-586-5264
916-643-1090
214-665-8323
215-566-5563
405-271-1400
800-537-4237
202-842-0219
847-292-3600
847-299-9160
814-863-7290
Subject
Compliance assistance
Regulatory requirements
(air)
Regulatory requirements
(RCRA)
Regulatory requirements
(RCRA) and waste sand
treatment
Regulatory requirements
(water)
Energy efficiency and
technology trends
Air emissions and casting
technologies
Regulatory requirements
pollution prevention
Pollution prevention
Industrial processes and
pollution prevention
Environment and pollution
prevention
Regulatory issues
Regulatory issues and
pollution prevention
Regulatory issues
Industrial processes
5 Many of the contacts listed above have provided valuable information and comments during the development of this
document. EPA appreciates this support and acknowledges that the individuals listed do not necessarily endorse all
statements made within this notebook.
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Metal Casting Industry
                     Contacts and References
Competitive Assessment of the U.S. Foundry Industry,  U.S. International Trade Commission,
Washington, D.C., 1984. (USITC Publication 1582)

Twarog, Daniel L., and University of Alabama, Waste Management Study of Foundries Major Waste
Streams: Phase I, Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center, Champaign, IL, January 1993.
(HWRICTR-011)

McKinley, Marvin D., et al., Waste Management Study of Foundries Major Waste Streams: Phase
If, Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center, Champaign, IL, April 1994. (HWRIC TR-
016)

AP-42 Sections 7.13: Steel Foundries and 7.10: Gray Iron Foundries, U.S. EPA Office of Air and
Radiation, October  1986.
Section IV; Chemical Release and Transfer Profile	

1994 Toxics Release Inventory Public Data Release, U.S. EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and
Toxics, June 1996. (EPA 745-R-96-002)
Section V; Pollution Prevention Opportunities	

Guides to Pollution Prevention, The Metal Casting and Heat Treating Industry, U.S. EPA, Office
of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH, September 1992. (EPA/625/R-92/009)

Foundry Sand Beneficial Reuse  Manual, Special Report, ed. Thomas,  Susan P., American
Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, JJL, 1996.

Philbin, Matthew L., Sand Reclamation Equipment Users Answer the Questions, Modern Casting.
American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL, vol. 86 no. 8, August 1996. pp22-26.

Leidel,  Dieter S., Pollution Prevention and Foundries, from Industrial  Pollution Prevention
Handbook, ed. Freeman, Harry M., McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1995. pp. 667-684.

Pollution  Prevention Practices for the Die Casting Industry, North American Die Casting
Association, Rosemont, EL, 1996.

Personal Correspondence with Ms. Suzanne Simoni, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Protection, Office of Pollution Prevention and  Compliance  Assistance,  Conshohocken, PA,
November 1996.

U.S.  EPA Enviro$en$e website, http://www.portfolio/epa/environet/ncpd/auscase_  studies
/mason.html, 1996.
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Metal Casting Industry
                     Contacts and References
Twarog, Daniel L., and University of Alabama, Waste Management Study of Foundries Major Waste
Streams: Phase /, Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center, Champaign, IL, January 1993.
(HWRICTR-011)

McKinley, Marvin D., et al., Waste Management Study of Foundries Major Waste Streams: Phase
II, Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center, Champaign, IL, April 1994. (HWRIC TR-
016)

Archer, Hugh V., et al., Foundry Calculates the Value of Pollution Prevention, Water Environment
and Technology, vol. 6, no. 6, June, 1994.

Estes, John M., Energy Cutting Can Give Foundries Real Savings, Modern  Casting. American
Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL, vol. 84, no.  11, November 1994.

Binczewski, George J., Aluminum Casting and Energy Conservation, Light Metal Age, vol. 51, no.
11-12, December 1993.

Profile of the Iron and Steel Industry, U.S. EPA Office of Compliance, Washington D.C., 1995.
Section VI; Summary of Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations	

Transactions of the American Foundrymen 's Society, Proceedings of the Ninety-Ninth Annual
Meeting, April 23-26, 1995, American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL, vol.103.

Lessiter, Michael J., Foundries Prepare for Clean Air Act's Title V Showdown, Modern Casting.
American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL, November 1994. pp. 58-59.

Title V Air Operating Permits: What They Mean for Foundries, Modern Casting. American
Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, EL, vol. 85, no.  1,  February 1995. pp. 52-53.

Kwan,  Quon Y.,  and Kaempf, Douglas E., Environmental Compliance in Metalcasting, Part 1,
Foundry Management and Technology, pg. 42, October 1995.

Kwan,  Quon Y., and CEMF, Douglas E., Environmental Compliance in Metalcasting, Part 2,
Foundry Management and Technology, pg. 39, November 1995.

Breen,  Barry, and Campbell-Mohn, Celia, Sustainable Environmental Law,  Chapter 16: Metals,
Environmental Law Institute, West Publishing Co., St.  Paul, MN, 1993.
Sector Notebook Project
147
September 1997

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Metal Casting Industry
                     Contacts and References
Section VIII: Compliance Activities and Initiatives
American Metalcasting Consortium, http://www.scra.org/amc/, 1996.

U.S. EPA Enviro$en$e -website, http://www.portfolio/epa/envlronet/ncpd/auscase_studies/mason
.html, 1996.

Beyond2000: A Vision for the American Metalcasting Industry, Cast Metals Coalition, September,
1995.

Personal Correspondence with Mr. David Byro, U.S. EPA, Region III, Philadelphia, PA, June 1996.

Personal Correspondence -with Joel Dougherty, Ph.D., U.S. EPA, Region 6, Hazardous Waste
Enforcement Branch, Dallas, TX, October 1996.

Personal Correspondence with Mr. BillWalden, U.S. Department of Defense, McClellan AFB, CA,
June 1996.

Personal Correspondence-with Ms. Kathy Martin, Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality,
Oklahoma City, OK, September 1996.

Personal Correspondence -with Ms. Suzanne Simoni, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Protection,  Office of Pollution  Prevention and  Compliance Assistance,  Conshohocken, PA,
November 1996.

PersonalCorrespondencemth Mr. Douglas Kaempf, U.S. Department of Energy, Industries of the
Future, Washington, D.C., July 1996.
Sector Notebook Project
148
September 1997

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                               APPENDIX A

      INSTRUCTIONS FOR DOWNLOADING THIS NOTEBOOK


          Electronic Access to this Notebook via the World Wide Web (WWW)


This Notebook is available on the Internet through the World Wide Web.  The Enviro$en$e
Communications Network is a free, public, interagency-sUpported system operated by EPA's Office
of Enforcement and Compliance  Assurance and the Office of Research and Development. The
Network allows regulators, the regulated community, technical experts, and the general public to
share information regarding: pollution  prevention and innovative technologies; environmental
enforcement and compliance assistance; laws, executive orders, regulations, and policies; points of
contact for services and equipment; and other related topics. The Network welcomes receipt of
environmental messages, information, and data from any public or private person or organization.

ACCESS THROUGH THE ENVIRO$EN$E WORLD WIDE WEB

      To access this Notebook through the EnviroSenSe World Wide Web, set your World Wide
      Web Browser to the following address:
      http://es.epa.gov/comply/sector/index.html
      or use


      WWW.epa.gOV/OeCa -  then select the button labeled Industry and Gov't
                                   Sectors and select the appropriate sector from the
                                   menu. The Notebook will be listed.

      Direct technical questions to the Feedback function at the bottom of the web page or to
      Shhonn Taylor at (202) 564-2502
                                  Appendix A

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