United States j
Environmental Protection
Agency ; I
Enforcement And
Compliance Assurance
(2223A)
EPA310-R-97-009
September 1997
Prof lie Of The Textile Industry
wtsstss:.
ERA Officfe Of Compliance Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industr
Notebook Project
numbers is included at the end of this document.
All telephone orders should be directed to:
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC 20402
(202)512-1800
FAX (202) 5 12-2250
8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., EST, M-F
Using the form provided at the end of this document, a,l mai. orders Sho«.d be directed «
U.S. Government Printing Office
P.O. Box 371954
Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954
libraries. Federal, State, and local
provided within this volume.
EPA
Cover photograph courtesy of American Textile Manufacturers Institute.
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Sector Notebook Project
Sector Notebook Contacts
The Sector Notebooks were developed by the EPA's Office of Compliance. Questions relating to
the Sector Notebook Project can be directed to:
Seth Heminway, Coordinator, Sector Notebook Project
US EPA Office of Compliance
401 M St., SW (2223-A)
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 564-7017
Questions and comments regarding the individual documents can be directed to the appropriate
specialists listed below.
Document Number
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
EPA/310-
R-95-001.
R-95-002.
R-95-003.
R-95-004.
R-95-005.
R-95-006.
R-95-007.
R-95-008.
R-95-009.
R-95-010.
R-95-011.
R-95-012.
R-95-013.
R-95-014.
R-95-015.
R-95-016.
R-95-017.
R-95-018.
R-97-001.
R-97-002.
R-97-003.
.R-97-004.
R-97-005.
R-97-006.
R-97-007.
R-97-008.
R-97-009.
R-97-010.
Industry
Dry Cleaning Industry
Electronics and Computer Industry
Wood Furniture and Fixtures Industry
Inorganic Chemical Industry
Iron and Steel Industry
Lumber and Wood Products Industry
Fabricated Metal Products Industry
Metal Mining Industry
Motor Vehicle Assembly Industry
Nonferrous Metals Industry
Non-Fuel, Non-Metal Mining Industry
Organic Chemical Industry
Petroleum Refining Industry
Printing Industry
Pulp and Paper Industry
Rubber and Plastic Industry
Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Industry
Transportation Equipment Cleaning Ind.
Air Transportation Industry
Ground Transportation Industry
Water Transportation Industry
Metal Casting Industry
Pharmaceuticals Industry
Plastic Resin and Manmade Fiber Ind.
Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Ind.
Shipbuilding and Repair industry
Textile Industry
Sector Notebook Data Refresh, 1997
Contact
Joyce Chandler
Steve Hoover
Bob Marshall
Walter DeRieux
Maria Malave
Seth Heminway
Scott Throwe
Jane Engert
Anthony Raia
Jane Engert
Robert Lischinsky
Walter DeRieux
Tom Ripp
Ginger Gotliffe
Maria Eisemann
Maria Malave
Scott Throwe
Virginia Lathrop
Virginia Lathrop
Virginia Lathrop
Virginia Lathrop
Jane Engert
Emily Chow
Sally Sasnett
Rafael Sanchez
Anthony Raia
Belinda Breidenbach
Seth Heminway
Phone (202)
564-7073
564-7007
564-7021
564-7067
564-7027
564-7017
564-7013
564-5021
564-6045
564-5021
564-2628
564-7067
564-7003
564-7072
564-7016
564-7027
564-7013
564-7057
564-7057
564-7057
564-7057
564-5021
564-7071
564-7074
564-7028
564-6045
564-7022
564-7017
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Textile Industry
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TEXTILE INDUSTRY
(SIC 22)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF ACRONYMS ix
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT 1
A. Summary of the Sector Notebook Project 1
B. Additional Information 2
II. INTRODUCTION TO THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY 3
A. History of the Textile Industry 3
B. Introduction, Background, and Scope of the Notebook 4
C. Characterization of the Textile Industry 5
1. Product Characterization 5
2. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution 6
3. Economic Trends 10
III. INDUSTRIAL PROCESS DESCRIPTION 13
A. Industrial Processes in the Textile Industry 13
1. Yarn Formation 15
2. Fabric Formation 19
3. Wet Processing 26
4. Fabrication 39
B. Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs in the Production Line 40
C. Management of Chemicals in the Production Process 51
IV. CHEMICAL RELEASE AND TRANSFER PROFILE 53
A. EPA Toxic Release Inventory for the Textile Industry 56
B. Summary of Selected Chemicals Released 66
C. Other Data Sources 69
D. Comparison of Toxic Release Inventory Between Selected Industries 71
V. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES 75
A. Quality Control for Raw Materials 76
B. Chemical Substitution 78
C. Process Modification 79
D. Process Water Reuse and Recycle 82
E. Equipment Modification 84
F. Good Operating Practices 86
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Textile Industry
Sector Notebook Project
VI. SUMMARY OF APPLICABLE FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS 89
A. General Description of Major Statutes 89
B. Industry Specific Requirements 101
C. Pending and Proposed Regulatory Requirements 105
VII. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT PROFILE 107
A. Textile Industry Compliance History Ill
B. Comparison of Enforcement Activity Between Selected Industries 113
C. Review of Major Legal Actions 118
1. Review of Major Cases 118
2. Supplementary Environmental Projects (SEPs) 118
VIII. COMPLIANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES 119
A. EPA Voluntary Programs 119
B. Trade Association/Industry Sponsored Activity 126
1 Environmental Programs 126
2. Summary of Trade Associations 129
IX. CONTACTS AND REFERENCES 133
Appendix A: Instructions for downloading this notebook A-l
Sector Notebook Project
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September 1997
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Textile Industry
Sector Notebook Project
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Distribution of Textile Establishments in the U.S . 9
Figure 2: Typical Textile Processing Flow Chart 14
Figure 3: Yarn Formation Processes 15
Figure 4: Comparison of Open-End and Ring Spinning Methods 18
Figure 5: General Fabric Formation Processes Used for Producing Flat Fabrics 20
Figure 6: Examples of Satin Weaving Patterns 21
Figure 7: Typical Shuttle Loom 23
Figure 8: Typical Air Jet Loom 24
Figure 9: Comparison Between Warp and Weft Knitting Methods 25
Figure 10: Typical Wet Processing Steps for Fabrics 26
Figure 11: Common Dyeing Methods 33
Figure 12: Materials Flow for a Cotton Knit Golf Shirt 47
Figure 13: Summary of TRI Releases and Transfers by Industry 72
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Textile Industry
Sector Notebook Project
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Standard Industrial Classifications within the Textile Industry 5
Table 2: Summary Statistics for the Textile Industry 6
Table 3: Summary of Establishment Sizes within the Textile Industry . . . 7
Table 4: Top U.S. Companies in the Textile Industry 8
Table 5: Geographic Distribution of Textile Mills in the United States 9
Table 6: Typical Characteristics of Dyes Used in Textile Dyeing Operations 35
Table 7: Typical BOD Loads from Preparation Processes 41
Table 8: Summary of Potential Releases Emitted During Textiles Manufacturing 43
Table 9: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for the Textile Industry 52
Table 10: 1995 TRI Releases for Textiles Manufacturing Facilities 58
Table 11: 1995 TRI Transfers for Textiles Manufacturing Facilities 61
Table 12: Top 10 TRI Releasing Textile Manufacturing Facilities Reporting Only SIC 22 .... 64
Table 13: Top 10 TRI Releasing Facilities Reporting Only Textile Manufacturing SIC Codes . 65
Table 14: 1995 Criteria Air Pollutant Releases (tons/year) 70
Table 15: Toxics Release Inventory Data for Selected Industries 73
Table 16: Typical Water Savings Using Countercurrent Washing 81
Table 17: Example Costs and Savings for Dyebath Reuse 83
Table 18: Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for the Textile Industry 112
Table 19: Five-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for Selected Industries 114
Table 20: One-Year Enforcement and Compliance Summary for Selected Industries 115
Table 21: Five-Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by Statute for Selected Industries 116
Table 22: One-Year Inspection and Enforcement Summary by Statute for Selected Industries 117
Table 23: Textile Industry Participation in the 33/50 Program 121
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Sector Notebook Project
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AFS - AIRS Facility Subsystem (CAA database)
AIRS - Aerometric Information Retrieval System (CAA database)
BIFs - Boilers and Industrial Furnaces (RCRA)
BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CAA - Clean Air Act
CAAA - Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
CERCLIS - CERCLA Information System
CFCs - Chlorofluorocarbons
CO - Carbon Monoxide
COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand
CSI - Common Sense Initiative
CWA - Clean Water Act
D&B - Dun and Bradstreet Marketing Index
ELP - Environmental Leadership Program
EPA - United States Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA - Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
FIFRA - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
FINDS - Facility Indexing System
HAPs - Hazardous Air Pollutants (CAA)
HSDB - Hazardous Substances Data Bank
IDEA - Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis
LDR - Land Disposal Restrictions (RCRA)
LEPCs - Local Emergency Planning Committees
MACT - Maximum Achievable Control Technology (CAA)
MCLGs - Maximum Contaminant Level Goals
MCLs - Maximum Contaminant Levels
MEK - Methyl Ethyl Ketone
MSDSs - Material Safety Data Sheets
NAAQS - National Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAA)
NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement
NCDB - National Compliance Database (for TSCA, FIFRA, EPCRA)
NCP - National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
NEIC - National Enforcement Investigation Center
NESHAP - National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NO2 - Nitrogen Dioxide
NOV- Notice of Violation
NOX - Nitrogen Oxides
NPDES - National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (CWA)
NPL - National Priorities List
NRC - National Response Center
NSPS - New Source Performance Standards (CAA)
OAR - Office of Air and Radiation
OECA - Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Sector Notebook Project
OPA - Oil Pollution Act
OPPTS - Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OSW - Office of Solid Waste
OSWER - Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OW - Office of Water
P2 - Pollution Prevention
PCS - Permit Compliance System (CWA Database)
POTW - Publicly Owned Treatments Works
RCRA - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RCRIS - RCRA Information System
SARA - Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SDWA - Safe Drinking Water Act
SEPs - Supplementary Environmental Projects
SERCs - State Emergency Response Commissions
SIC - Standard Industrial Classification
SO2 - Sulfur Dioxide
SOS - Sulfur Oxides
TOC - Total Organic Carbon
TRI - Toxic Release Inventory
TRIS - Toxic Release Inventory System
TCRIS - Toxic Chemical Release Inventory System
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act
TSS - Total Suspended Solids
UIC - Underground Injection Control (SDWA)
UST - Underground Storage Tanks (RCRA)
VOCs - Volatile Organic Compounds
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Introduction
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SECTOR NOTEBOOK PROJECT
I.A. Summary of the Sector Notebook Project
Integrated environmental policies based upon comprehensive analysis of air,
water and land pollution are a logical supplement to traditional single-media
approaches to environmental protection. Environmental regulatory agencies
are beginning to embrace comprehensive, multi-statute solutions to facility
permitting, enforcement and compliance assurance, education/ outreach,
research, and regulatory development issues. The central concepts driving the
new policy direction are that pollutant releases to each environmental medium
(air, water and land) affect each other, and that environmental strategies must
actively identify and address these inter-relationships by designing policies for
the "whole" facility. One way to achieve a whole facility focus is to design
environmental policies for similar industrial facilities. By doing so,
environmental concerns that are common to the manufacturing of similar
products can be addressed in a comprehensive manner. Recognition of the
need to develop the industrial "sector-based" approach within the EPA Office
of Compliance led to the creation of this document.
The Sector Notebook Project was originally initiated by the Office of
Compliance within the Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
(OECA) to provide its staff and managers with summary information for
eighteen specific industrial sectors. As other EPA offices, states, the regulated
community, environmental groups, and the public became interested in this
project, the scope of the original project was expanded to its current form.
The ability to design comprehensive, common sense environmental protection
measures for specific industries is dependent on knowledge of several inter-
related topics. For the purposes of this project, the key elements chosen for
inclusion are: general industry information (economic and geographic); a
description of industrial processes; pollution outputs; pollution prevention
opportunities; Federal statutory and regulatory framework; compliance
history; and a description of partnerships that have been formed between
regulatory agencies, the regulated community and the public.
For any given industry, each topic listed above could alone be the subject of
a lengthy volume. However, in order to produce a manageable document, this
project focuses on providing summary information for each topic. This
format provides the reader with a synopsis of each issue, and references where
more in-depth information is available. Text within each profile was
researched from a variety of sources, and was usually condensed from more
detailed sources pertaining to specific topics. This approach allows for a wide
coverage of activities that can be further explored based upon the citations
and references listed at the end of this profile. As a check on the information
included, each notebook went through an external review process. The Office
of Compliance appreciates the efforts of all those that participated in this
Sector Notebook Project
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September 1997
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Textile Industry
Introduction
process and enabled us to develop more complete, accurate and up-to-date
summaries. Many of those who reviewed this notebook are listed as contacts
in Section IX and may be sources of additional information. The individuals
and groups on this list do not necessarily concur with all statements within this
notebook.
I.B. Additional Information
Providing Comments
OECA's Office of Compliance plans to periodically review and update the
notebooks and will make these updates available both in hard copy and
electronically. If you have any comments on the existing notebook, or if you
would like to provide additional information, please send a hard copy and
computer disk to the EPA Office of Compliance, Sector Notebook Project,
401 M St., SW (2223-A), Washington, DC 20460. Comments can also be
uploaded to the Environ$en$e World Wide Web for general access to all users
of the system. Follow instructions in Appendix A for accessing this system.
Once you have logged in, procedures for uploading text are available from the
on-line Enviro$en$e Help System.
Adapting Notebooks to Particular Needs
The scope of the industry sector described in this notebook approximates the
national occurrence of facility types within the sector. In many instances,
industries within specific geographic regions or states may have unique
characteristics that are not fully captured in these profiles. The Office of
Compliance encourages state and local environmental agencies and other
groups to supplement or re-package the information included in this notebook
to include more specific industrial and regulatory information that may be
available. Additionally, interested states may want to supplement the
"Summary of Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations" section with state
and local requirements. Compliance or technical assistance providers may
also want to develop the "Pollution Prevention" section in more detail. Please
contact the appropriate specialist listed on the opening page of this notebook
if your office is interested in assisting us in the further development of the
information or policies addressed within this volume. If you are interested in
assisting in the development of new notebooks for sectors not already
covered, please contact the Office of Compliance at 202-564-2395.
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Introduction
II. INTRODUCTION TO THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
This section provides background information on the history, size, geographic
distribution, employment, production, sales, and economic condition of the
textile industry. The facilities described within the document are described in
terms of their Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes.
EL. A. History of the Textile Industry
The textile industry is one of the oldest in the world. The oldest known
textiles, which date back to about 5000 B.C., are scraps of linen cloth found
in Egyptian caves. The industry was primarily a family and domestic one until
the early part of the 1500s when the first factory system was established. It
wasn't until the Industrial Revolution in England, in the 18th century, that
power machines for spinning and weaving were invented. In 1769 when
Richard Arkwright's spinning frame with variable speed rollers was patented,
water power replaced manual power (Neefus, 1982).
In the early 17th century of colonial America, textiles were primarily
manufactured in New England homes. Flax and wool were the major fibers
used, however, cotton, grown primarily on southern plantations, became
increasingly important (Wilson, 1979). In 1782 Samuel Slater, who had
worked as an apprentice to Arkwright's partner, emigrated to America. In
Blackstone River, Rhode Island, he started building Arkwright machines and
opened the first English-type cotton mill in America (ATMI, 1997a). In the
early nineteenth century, in Lowell, Massachusetts, the first mill in America
to use power looms began operations. It was the first time that all textile
manufacturing operations had been done under the same roof (Wilson, 1979
and ATMI, 1997a).
The twentieth century has seen the development of the first manmade fibers
(rayon was first produced in 1910). Although natural fibers (wool, cotton,
silk, and linen) are still used extensively today, they are more expensive and
are often mixed with manmade fibers such as polyester, the most widely used
synthetic fiber. In addition, segments of the textile industry have become
highly automated and computerized (ATMI, 1997a).
The textile industry is characterized by product specialization. Most mills
only engage in one process or raw material. For example, a mill may be
engaged in either broadloom weaving of cotton or broadloom weaving of
wool. Similarly, many mills specialize in either spinning or weaving
operations, although larger integrated mills may combine the two operations.
These large mills normally do not conduct their own dyeing and finishing
operations. Weaving, spinning, and knitting mills usually send out their
fabrics to one of the approximately 500 dyeing and finishing plants in the
United States (EPA, 1996).
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September 1997
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Textile Industry
Introduction
II.B. Introduction, Background, and Scope of the Notebook
Broadly defined, the textile industry consists of establishments engaged in
spinning natural and manmade fibers into yarns and threads. These are then
converted (by weaving and knitting) into fabrics. Finally, the fabrics and in
some cases the yarns and threads used to make them, are dyed and finished.
The manufacturing of textiles is categorized by the Office of Management and
Budget (OMB) under Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code 22. The
Standard Industrial Classification system was established by OMB to track the
flow of goods and services in the economy, by assigning a numeric code to
these good and services. SIC 22 is categorized into nine three-digit SIC
codes. Due to the large number of processes used in the textile industry and
the limited scope of this notebook, the production of nonwoven synthetic
materials and carpets is not discussed in detail. The primary focus of this
notebook is on weaving and knitting operations, with a brief mention of
processes used to make carpets.
OMB is in the process of changing the SIC code system to a system based on
similar production processes called the North American Industrial
Classification System (NAICS). In the NAIC system, textile mills (including
fiber, yarn and thread mills, fabric mills, and textile and fabric finishing and
coating mills) be classified as NAIC 313. Textile product mills (including
furnishings, carpets, rugs, curtains, linens, bags, canvas, rope, twine, tire cord
and tire fabric) will be classified as NAIC 314.
This notebook covers the textiles industry as defined by SIC 22. Less focus
is given to SIC 229, Miscellaneous Textile Goods in the Industrial Process
Descriptions Section because the processes used and products manufactured
vary substantially within SIC 229. Products categorized under SIC 229
include coated fabrics, not rubberized, tire cord and fabrics, cordage and
twine, and textile goods not elsewhere classified. It is important to note,
however, that the Miscellaneous Textile Goods category is covered in Section
II, Introduction to the Textile Industry; Section IV, Chemical Release and
Transfer Profile; Section VHI, Compliance Activities and Initiatives; and other
sections of this document. Industry sectors related to the textiles industry, but
not categorized under SIC 22 (and thus, not in the scope of this notebook)
include the manufacturing of clothing and apparel (SIC 23) and the
manufacturing of rubber coated textile goods (SIC 3069).
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Introduction
n.C. Characterization of the Textile Industry
n.C.l. Product Characterization
Within the nine broad categories in the textile industry are 22 four-digit SIC
codes which more narrowly define the different types of products made by
textile manufacturers. The various SIC codes and their associated products
are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Standard Industrial Classifications within the Textile Industry (SIC 22)
3-digit SIC code
SIC 221- Broadwoven Fabric Mills, Cotton
SIC 222- Broadwoven Fabric Mills,
Manmade Fiber and Silk
SIC 223- Broadwoven Fabric Mills, Wool
(Including dyeing and finishing)
SIC 224- Narrow Fabric Mills: Cotton, Wool,
Silk, and Manmade Fiber
SIC 225- Knitting Mills
SIC 226- Dyeing and Finishing Textiles,
except wool fabrics and knit goods
SIC 227 - Carpets and Rugs
SIC 228- Yarn and Thread Mills
SIC 229- Miscellaneous Textile Goods
4-digit SIC Code
SIC 221 1 - Broadwoven Fabric Mills, Cotton
SIC 2221 - Broadwoven Fabric Mills, Manmade Fiber and Silk
SIC 223 1 - Broadwoven Fabric Mills, Wool (including dyeing and
finishing)
SIC 2241 - Narrow Fabric Mills: Cotton, Wool, Silk, and
Manmade Fiber
SIC 225 1 - Women's Full-Length and Knee-Length Hosiery,
except socks
SIC 2252 - Hosiery, not elsewhere classified
SIC 2253 - Knit Outwear Mills
SIC 2254 - Knit Underwear and Nightwear Mills
SIC 2257 - Weft Knit Fabric Mills
SIC 2258 - Lace and Warp Knit Fabric Mills
SIC 2259 - Knitting Mills, not elsewhere classified
SIC 2261 - Finishers of Broadwoven Fabrics of Cotton
SIC 2262 - Finishers of Broadwoven Fabrics of Manmade Fiber
and Silk
SIC 2269 - Finishers of Textiles, not elsewhere classified
SIC 2273 - Carpets and Rugs
SIC 2281 - Yarn Spinning Mills
SIC 2282 - Yarn Texturizing, Throwing, Twisting, and Winding
Mills
SIC 2284 -Thread Mills
SIC 2295 - Coated Fabrics, not rubberized
SIC 2296 - Tire Cord and Fabrics
SIC 2298 - Cordage and Twine
SIC 2299 - Textile Goods, not elsewhere classified
Source: Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1987, Office of Management and Budget, Washington, DC.
Manufacturing establishments within the textile industry are primarily involved
in 1) fiber preparation and manufacture of yarn, thread, braids, twine, and
cords; 2) manufacture of knit fabrics, broad and narrow woven fabrics, as well
as carpets and rugs from yarn (Broad woven fabrics are generally greater than
12 inches in width, whereas narrow woven fabrics are less than 12 inches in
Sector Notebook Project
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Introduction
width.); 3) dyeing and finishing fibers, yarns, fabrics, and knitted goods; 4)
coating, waterproofing and treating fabrics; 5) integrated manufacture of knit
apparel and other products from yarn; and 6) manufacture of felt, lace,
nonwoven, and other miscellaneous textile products. More detailed
information on the industrial processes used to produce the various textile
products is provided in Section III.
1I.C.2. Industry Size and Geographic Distribution
According to the 1992 Census of Manufacturers for SIC 22 (the most recent
census data available), there were a total of 5,584 establishments in the textile
manufacturing industry. A large proportion of these were knitting mills (SIC
225) and yarn and thread mills (SIC 228), as shown in the shaded rows in
Table 2. Together these categories accounted for almost 50 percent of the
total number of establishments in the industry. They also accounted for the
largest portion of the employment and value of shipments in the textile
industry. The knitting and yarn and thread mills categories accounted for 46
percent of the 614,000 people employed in the industry, and 40 percent of the
$70.5 million in value of shipments, in 1992. A summary of these statistics is
shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Summary Statistics for the Textile Industry (SIC 22)
Industry
SIC Code
SIC 221
SIC 222
SIC 223
SIC 224
SIC 225
SIC 226
SIC 227
SIC 22S
SIC 229
Totals
Establishments
(No.)1
323
422
99
258
2,096 ' :
481
447
59$ ,
1,160
5,584
Companies (No.)2
281
321
87
224
l&l\
440
383
* 372
1,071
5,090
Employment (OOO's)
55.9
87.4
13.7
16.8
193,3
50.8
49.4
92.2
54.5
614
Value of Shipments
(millions of dollars)3
5,814
8,793
1,612
1,314
M,968
7,077
9,831
11,277 ;
7,829
70,518
Source: adapted from various 1992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series, for SICs 221 1 - 2299, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1 995.
Note: The shaded rows highlight the SIC codes which contain the largest number of establishments, employment, and value of
shipments,
'An establishment is a physical location where manufacturing takes place. Manufacturing is defined as the mechanical or chemical
transformation of substances or materials into new products.
'Defined as a business organization consisting of one establishment or more under common ownership or control.
'Value of all products and services sold bv establishments in the industry sector.
Most textile mills are small, specialized facilities. A large percentage of
establishments in the industry have fewer than 20 employees, as shown in the
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September 1997
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Textile Industry
Introduction
shaded column. The exceptions include yarn and thread mills (SIC 228) and
manmade fiber and silk broadwoven fabric mills (SIC 222), which have 100
employees or more per establishment. Some of the larger 'integrated' mills
may employ anywhere from hundreds to thousands of people. A summary of
these statistics is shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Summary of Establishment Sizes within the Textile Industry (SIC 22)
Industry
SIC Code
SIC 221
SIC 222
SIC 223
SIC 224
SIC 225
SIC 226
SIC 227
SIC 228
SIC 229
Percentage of
Establishments1 with
0-19 Employees
&4
40 %;
45
4$
44
32.
33
24
58
Percentage of
Establishments with
20-49 Employees
4
8
22
14
21
22
12
11
18
Percentage of
Establishments with
50-99 Employees
4
6
9
14
14
15
9
13
11
Percentage of
Establishments with
100 or More Employees
28
46
23
22
21
31
26
52
12
Source: adapted from various 1 992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series, for SICs 22 1 1 - 2299, U.S. Department of
Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1 995.
Note: The shaded column highlights the large percentage of facilities that have fewer than 20 employees.
'An establishment is a physical location where manufacturing takes place. Manufacturing is defined as the mechanical or chemical
transformation of substances or materials into new products.
The ten largest textile companies (in terms of sales) in the U.S. are listed in
Table 4. The data shown is taken from the Fair child's Textile & Apparel
Financial Directory, 1996, which compiles financial data on U.S. textile
companies. Fairchild's ranks each U.S. company by sales volume. Readers
should note that (1) each company was assigned a 3- or 4-digit SIC code that
most closely resembles the firm's principal industry using Ward's Business
Directory of U.S. Private and Public Companies; and (2) sales figures include
those of subsidiaries and operations (even those not related to textiles
industry). Additional sources of company-specific financial information
include Standard and Poor's Stock Report Services, Dun and Bradstreet's
Million Dollar Directory, Moody's Manuals, and the companies' annual
reports. In compiling Table 4, the top companies for the 3-digit SIC code
categories in the textile industry were identified.
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Textile Industry
Introduction
Table 4: Top U.S. Companies in the Textile Industry (SIC 22) and Corresponding Sector
Rank*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Company
Springs Industries, Fort Mill, SC
Burlington Industries, Greensboro, NC
WestPoint Stevens, West Point, GA
Unifi, Greensboro, NC
Dominion Textile, New York, NY
Collins & Aikman Corp., Farmville, NC
Triarc,NewYork,NY
Fieldcrest Cannon, New York, NY
Cone Mills, Greensboro, NC
Guilford Mills, Greensboro, NC
1995 Sales
(millions of dollars)
$2,233
$2,209
$1,650
$1,555
$1,429
$1,291
$1,128
$1,095
$910
$783
source: This chart has been adapted from data in Fairchild's Textile & Apparel Financial
Otrectorv, 1 996, with assistance from ATMI.
3-digit SIC code
221
223
221
228
221
221
221
221
221
225
The geographic distribution of the textile industry in the U.S. is largely
governed by its history in this country. The industry began in New England
and moved to the South as cotton became the primary source of fibers. The
five major states for employment in the textile industry are North Carolina,
Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, and Virginia. Though the majority of
mills are located in the South, northern states such as Maine, Massachusetts,
New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania are still important to
the textile industry. Many finishing and dyeing (SIC 226) operations are
located in New Jersey. Narrow fabrics and manmade fiber mills (SIC 224) are
more concentrated in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. Knitting mills (SIC
225) and miscellaneous textile mills (SIC 229) are scattered through several
southern and northern states. The leading states in terms of employment for
the textile industry are shown by SIC code in Table 5.
A map showing the number of textile establishments (based on census data)
in each state follows the table (Figure 1).
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Introduction
Table 5: Geographic Distribution of Textile Mills in the United States
3-digit SIC code
SIC 221
SIC 222
SIC 223
SIC 224
SIC 225
SIC 226
SIC 227
SIC 228
SIC 229
Major states (based on employment)
NC, SC, GA, AL
SC, NC, GA, VA
VA, GA, ME, NC
NC, PA, RI, SC
NC, KY, LA, NY, GA, PA, TX, NJ
NC, SC.GA.NJ
GA
NC, GA, SC
NC, SC, GA, AL, TN, MA, OH, NY
approximate % of employment in 3-digit
SIC code category, attributable to major
states
87
79
69
52
40
63
64
70
40
Spurce: adapted from various 1 992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series, for SICs 221 1 - 2299, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1995.
Figure 1: Distribution of Textile Establishments in the U.S.
Source: 1992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series, for SICs 2211 - 2299, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of
the Census, 1995.
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Introduction
II.C.3. Economic Trends
Throughout the 1990s, the textile industry indicators have shown
improvements. The year 1994 was a peak year for all indicators including
exports, capital expenditures, employment, and mill fiber consumption. In
1994, mill fiber consumption set a record with a 6 percent increase to 16.1
billion pounds. In 1995, fiber consumption decreased by 1.7 percent only to
increase by 1 percent in 1996 (ATMI, 1997b). Both 1994 and 1996 were
record years for fiber consumption and were a substantial improvement over
the recession years in the early part of the decade. The industry has also
experienced a shift towards increasing international trade with countries such
as Canada and Mexico (ATMI, 1996).
Domestic Economy
"The textile industry spends four to six percent of sales on capital expansion
and modernization, down from eight to ten percent during the expansionary
phase of the 1960s and 1970s. Most recent capital expenditure has paid for
mill modernization and factory automation" (EPA, 1996). According to the
American Textile Manufacturers Institute (ATMI), the largest trade
association for the industry, capital expenditures by domestic textile
companies have increased in recent years reaching $2.9 billion in 1995
(ATMI, 1997b). The increase in capital expenditures has led to an increase
in productivity. Between 1975 and 1995, loom productivity, measured in
square yards of fabric per loom, increased by 267 percent and was up 10.5
percent in 1996 (ATMI, 1997b). In the same period, productivity of
broadwoven fabric mills, measured by an index of output per production
employee hour, increased by 105 percent, and productivity of yarn spinning
mills increased by 88 percent (ATMI, 1996). Industry also reports spending
more than $25 million each year on pollution and safety controls.
"Economies of scale in textile manufacturing are significant and limit entry
into the market. The cost of a new fiber plant, for example, is approximately
$100 million. Costs of raw materials are frequently volatile and typically
account for 50 to 60 percent of the cost of the finished product. To hedge
against supply shocks and to secure supply, many producers are vertically
integrated backward into chemical intermediates (and in the case of companies
such as Phillips and Amoco, all the way to crude oil). Forward integration
into apparel and product manufacture (e.g. carpeting) also is not uncommon."
(US EPA, 1996).
International Trade
Over the past five years, the textile industry has been increasingly influenced
by international trade. In particular, with the signing of the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, trade with Canada and Mexico has
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Introduction
increased significantly. In 1996, 42 percent of U.S. textile exports were to
Canada and Mexico alone. Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean Basin
Initiative (CBI) countries accounted for 50 percent of the total textile exports
in 1996.
In 1996, U.S. exports increased by 8.6 percent over the previous year to $7.8
billion. The major export markets for the U.S. textile industry were, in order
of decreasing export volumes, Canada, Mexico, United Kingdom, Japan,
Hong Kong, Dominican Republic, Germany, Belgium, Saudi Arabia, and
South Korea. Between 1995 and 1996, exports to all of these markets grew.
Exports to Canada increased by 10 percent to $2.1 billion, to the European
Union by 2 percent to $1.1 billion, to the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI)
countries by 13 percent to $622 million, and to Japan by 8 percent to $299
million. Exports to Mexico increased by 28 percent to $1.2 billion (ATMI,
1997b).
Yarn, fabric, and made-ups (excluding apparel) imports into the United States
also have been steadily increasing since 1978. In 1995, the major sources of
imports into the U.S. were Canada, China, Pakistan, India, Mexico, Taiwan,
South Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, and Japan. Although both exports and
imports have risen, the textile trade deficit has widened. In 1996, the U.S.
textile trade deficit fell to $2.4 billion (ATMI, 1997b).
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
HI. INDUSTRIAL PROCESS DESCRIPTION
This section describes the major industrial processes in the textile industry,
including the materials and equipment used and the processes employed. The
section is designed for those interested in gaining a general understanding of
the industry, and for those interested in the interrelationship between the
industrial process and the topics described in subsequent sections of this
profile -- pollutant outputs, pollution prevention opportunities, and Federal
regulations. This section does not attempt to replicate published engineering
information that is available for this industry. Refer to Section IX for a list of
reference documents that are available. Note also that Section V, Pollution
Prevention Opportunities, provides additional information on trade-offs
associated with the industrial processes discussed in this section.
This section describes commonly used production processes, associated raw
materials, the byproducts produced or released, and the materials either
recycled or transferred off-site. This discussion identifies where in each
process wastes may be produced. This section concludes with a description
of the potential fate (via air, water, and soil pathways) of process-specific
waste products.
ULA. Industrial Processes in the Textile Industry
Much of the following section is based upon "Best Management Practices for
Pollution Prevention in the Textile Industry, " published by the U.S. EPA
Office of Research and Development. Additional references are cited in the
text.
The textile industry is comprised of a diverse, fragmented group of
establishments that produce and/or process textile-related products (fiber,
yarn, fabric) for further processing into apparel, home furnishings, and
industrial goods. Textile establishments receive and prepare fibers; transform
fibers into yarn, thread, or webbing; convert the yarn into fabric or related
products; and dye and finish these materials at various stages of production.
The process of converting raw fibers into finished apparel and nonapparel
textile products is complex; thus, most textile mills specialize. Little overlap
occurs between knitting and weaving, or among production of manmade,
cotton, and wool fabrics. The primary focus of this section is on weaving and
knitting operations, with a brief mention of processes used to make carpets.
In its broadest sense, the textile industry includes the production of yarn,
fabric, and finished goods. This section focuses on the following four
production stages, with a brief discussion of the fabrication of non-apparel
goods:
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Industrial Process Description
1) yam formation
2) fabric formation
3) wet processing
4) fabrication
These stages are highlighted in the process flow chart shown in Figure 2 and
are discussed in more detail in the following sections.
Figure 2: Typical Textile Processing Flow Chart
Manmade
filament fibers
Manmade
staple fibers
Raw wool, cotton
YARN
FORMATION
_ FABRIC
FORMATION
- WET
PROCESSING
- FABRICATION
Finished goods
Source: ATM, Comments on draft of this document, 1997b.
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Industrial Process Description
ULA.l. Yarn Formation
Textile fibers are converted into yarn by grouping and twisting operations
used to bind them together. Although most textile fibers are processed using
spinning operations, the processes leading to spinning vary depending on
whether the fibers are natural or manmade. Figure 3 shows the different steps
used to form yarn. Note that some of these steps may be optional depending
on the type of yarn and spinning equipment used. Natural fibers, known as
staple when harvested, include animal and plant fibers, such as cotton and
wool. These fibers must go through a series of preparation steps before they
can be spun into yarn, including opening, blending, carding, combing, and
drafting.
Figure 3: Yarn Formation Processes
Source: ATMI, 1997.
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Industrial Process Description
Manmade fibers may be processed into filament yarn or staple-length fibers
(similar in length to natural fibers) so that they can be spun. Filament yarn
may be used directly or following further shaping and texturizing. The main
steps used for processing natural and manmade fibers into yarn are below.
Natural Fibers
Yarn formation can be performed once textile fibers are uniform and have
cohesive surfaces. To achieve this, natural fibers are first cleaned to remove
impurities and are then subjected to a series of brushing and drawing steps
designed to soften and align the fibers. The following describes the main steps
used for processing wool and cotton. Although equipment used for cotton is
designed somewhat differently from that used for wool, the machinery
operates in essentially the same fashion.
Opening/Blending. Opening of bales sometimes occurs in conjunction
with the blending of fibers. Suppliers deliver natural fibers to the spinning
mill in compressed bales. The fibers must be sorted based on grade,
cleaned to remove particles of dirt, twigs, and leaves, and blended with
fibers from different bales to improve the consistency of the fiber mix.
Sorting and cleaning is performed in machines known as openers. The
opener consists of a rotating cylinder equipped with spiked teeth or a set
of toothed bars. These teeth pull the unbaled fibers apart, fluffing them
while loosening impurities. Because the feed for the opener comes from
multiple bales, the opener blends the fibers as it cleans and opens them.
Carding.'Tufts of fiber are conveyed by air stream to a carding machine,
which transports the fibers over a belt equipped with wire needles. A
series of rotating brushes rests on top of the belt. The different rotation
speeds of the belt and the brushes cause the fibers to tease out and align
into thin, parallel sheets. Many shorter fibers, which would weaken the
yarn, are separated out and removed. A further objective of carding is to
better align the fibers to prepare them for spinning. The sheet of carded
fibers is removed through a funnel into a loose ropelike strand called a
sliver. Opening, blending, and carding are sometimes performed in
integrated carders that accept raw fiber and output carded sliver.
Combing. Combing is similar to carding except that the brushes and
needles are finer and more closely spaced. Several card slivers are fed to
the combing machine and removed as a finer, cleaner, and more aligned
comb sliver. In the wool system, combed sliver is used to make worsted
yam, whereas carded sliver is used for woolen yarn. In the cotton system,
the term combed cotton applies to the yarn made from combed sliver.
Worsted wool and combed cotton yarns are finer (smaller) than yarn that
has not been combed because of the higher degree of fiber alignment and
further removal of short fibers.
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Industrial Process Description
Drawing. Several slivers are combined into a continuous, ropelike strand
and fed to a machine known as a drawing frame (Wingate, 1979). The
drawing frame contains several sets of rollers that rotate at successively
faster speeds. As the slivers pass through, they are further drawn out and
lengthened, to the point where they may be five to six times as long as
they were originally. During drawing, slivers from different types of fibers
(e.g., cotton and polyester) may be combined to form blends. Once a
sliver has been drawn, it is termed a roving.
Drafting. Drafting is a process that uses a frame to stretch the yarn
further. This process imparts a slight twist as it removes the yarn and
winds it onto a rotating spindle. The yarn, now termed a roving in ring
spinning operations, is made up of a loose assemblage of fibers drawn into
a single strand and is about eight times the length and one-eighth the
diameter of the sliver, or approximately as wide as a pencil (Wingate,
1979). Following drafting, the rovings may be blended with other fibers
before being processed into woven, knitted, or nonwoven textiles.
Spinning. The fibers are now spun together into either spun yarns or
filament yarns. Filament yarns are made from continuous fine strands of
manmade fiber (e.g. not staple length fibers). Spun yarns are composed
of overlapping staple length fibers that are bound together by twist.
Methods used to produce spun yarns, rather than filament yarns, are
discussed in this section. The rovings produced in the drafting step are
mounted onto the spinning frame, where they are set for spinning. The
yarn is first fed through another set of drawing or delivery rollers, which
lengthen and stretch it still further. It is then fed onto a high-speed spindle
by a yarn guide that travels up and down the spindle. The difference in
speed of travel between the guide and the spindle determines the amount
of twist imparted to the yarn. The yarn is collected on a bobbin.
In ring spinning, the sliver is fed from delivery rollers through a traveler,
or wire loop, located on a ring. The rotation of the spindle around the
ring adds twist to the yarn. This is illustrated in Figure 4(1). Another
method, shown in Figure 4(2), is open-end spinning, which accounts for
more than 50 percent of spinning equipment used (ATMI, 1997b). In this
method, sliver passes through rollers into a rotating funnel-shaped rotor.
The sliver hits the inside of the rotor and rebounds to the left side of the
rotor, causing the sliver to twist. Open-end spinning does not use rotating
spindles since the yarn is twisted during passage through the rotor.
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Industrial Process Description
Figure 4: Comparison of Open-End and Ring Spinning Methods
Delivery
Rollers
Sliver
Spindle
Drive
Rollers
Source: B,P. Corbman, Textiles: Fiber to Fabric, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1975.
Yarn spinning is basically an extension of the preparation steps described
above for natural fibers. Additional twisting of the yarn may occur, or
multiple yarns may be twisted together to form plied yarns. Plying takes place
on a machine similar to a spinning frame. Two or more yarns pass through a
pair of rollers and onto a rotating spindle. The yarn guide positions the yarn
onto the spindle and assists in applying twist. Plied yarns may be plied again
to form thicker cords, ropes, and cables.
Mantnade Fibers
Although not classified under SIC 22, manmade fiber production is briefly
discussed in the following paragraphs to describe the upstream processing of
textiles. Manmade fibers include 1) cellulosic fibers, such as rayon and
acetate, which are created by reacting chemicals with wood pulp; and 2)
synthetic fibers, such as polyester and nylon, which are synthesized from
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Industrial Process Description
organic chemicals. Since manmade fibers are synthesized from organic
chemicals, yarn formation of manmade fibers does not involve the extensive
cleaning and combing procedures associated with natural fibers. Manmade
fibers, both synthetic and cellulosic, are manufactured using spinning
processes that simulate or resemble the manufacture of silk. Spinning, in
terms of manmade fiber production, is the process of forming fibers by forcing
a liquid through a small opening beyond which the extruded liquid solidifies
to form a continuous filament. Following spinning, the manmade fibers are
drawn, or stretched, to align the polymer molecules and strengthen the
filament. Manmade filaments may then be texturized or otherwise treated to
simulate physical characteristics of spun natural fibers. Texturizing is often
used to curl or crimp straight rod-like filament fibers to simulate the
appearance, structure, and feel of natural fibers. (For more information on the
synthesis of manmade fibers, refer to the EPA Industrial Sector Notebook on
Plastic Resins and Manmade Fibers.)
Spun yarns are created using manmade fibers that have been cut into staple-
length fibers. Staple-length fibers are then used to process fibers on wool or
cotton-system machinery. Methods for making spun yarn from manmade
fibers are similar to those used for natural fibers. Some fibers are processed
as tow, or bundles of staple fibers.
Fibers can also be produced as filament yarn, which consists of filament
strands twisted together slightly. In mills, filament fibers are wound onto
bobbins and placed on a twisting machine to make yarn. Filament yarns may
be used directly to make fabric or further twisted to the desired consistency.
Manmade filaments often require additional drawing and are processed in an
integrated drawing/twisting machine. Manmade filaments are typically
texturized using mechanical or chemical treatments to impart characteristics
similar to those of yarns made from natural fibers.
HLA.2. Fabric Formation
The major methods for fabric manufacture are weaving and knitting. Figure
5 shows fabric formation processes for flat fabrics, such as sheets and apparel.
Weaving, or interlacing yarns, is the most common process used to create
fabrics. Weaving mills classified as broadwoven mills consume the largest
portion of textile fiber and produce the raw textile material from which most
textile products are made. Narrow wovens, nonwovens, and rope are also
produced primarily for use in industrial applications. Narrow wovens include
fabrics less than 12 inches in width, and nonwovens include fabrics bonded by
mechanical, chemical, or other means. Knitting is the second most frequently
used method of fabric construction. The popularity of knitting has increased
in use due to the increased versatility of techniques, the adaptability of
manmade fibers, and the growth in consumer demand for wrinkle-resistant,
stretchable, snug-fitting fabrics. Manufacturers of knit fabrics also consume
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Industrial Process Description
a sizable amount of textile fibers. Knit fabrics are generally classified as either
weft knit (circular-knit goods) or warp knit (flat-knit goods). Tufting is a
process used to make most carpets.
Figure 5: General Fabric Formation Processes Used for Producing Flat Fabrics
Spun yarn, filament yarn
Warping
Slashing
Knitting
(weft or warp)
W eaving
Fabric
Weaving
Source: ATMI, 1997.
Weaving is performed on modern looms, which contain similar parts and
perform similar operations to simple hand-operated looms. Fabrics are formed
from weaving by interlacing one set of yarns with another set oriented
crosswise. Figure 6 shows an example of satin weave patterns. Satin, plain,
and twill weaves are the most commonly used weave patterns. In the weaving
operation, the length-wise yarns that form the basic structure of the fabric are
called the warp and the crosswise yarns are called the filling, also referred to
as the weft. While the filling yarns undergo little strain in the weaving
process, warp yarns undergo much strain during weaving and must be
processed to prepare them to withstand the strain (Corbman, 1975).
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Industrial Process Description
Figure 6: Examples of Satin Weaving Patterns
Source: B.P. Corbman, Textiles: Fiber to Fabric, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1975.
Before weaving, warp yarns are first wound on large spools, or cones, which
are placed on a rack called a creel. The warp yarns are then unwound and
passed through a size solution (sizing/slashing) before being wound onto a
warp beam in a process known as beaming. The size solution forms a coating
that protects the yarn against snagging or abrasion during weaving. Slashing,
or applying size to the warp yarn, uses pad/dry techniques in a large range
called a slasher. The slasher is made up of the following: a yam creel with
very precise tension controls; a yarn guidance system; and a sizing delivery
system, which usually involves tank storage and piping to the size vessels.
The yarn sheet is dipped one or more times in size solution and dried on hot
cans or in an oven. A devise called a "lease" is then used to separate yarns
from a solid sheet back into individual ends for weaving (EPA, 1996).
Starch, the most common primary size component, accounts for roughly two-
thirds of all size chemicals used in the U.S. (130 million pounds per year).
Starch is used primarily on natural fibers and in a blend with synthetic sizes for
coating natural and synthetic yarns. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), the leading
synthetic size, accounts for much of the remaining size consumed in the U.S.
(70 million pounds per year). PVA is increasing in use since it can be
recycled, unlike starch. PVA is used with polyester/cotton yarns and pure
cotton yarns either in a pure form or in blends with natural and other synthetic
sizes. Other synthetic sizes contain acrylic and acrylic copolymer components.
Semisynthetic sizes, such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and modified
starches, are also used. Oils, waxes, and other additives are often used in
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Industrial Process Description
conjunction with sizing agents to increase the softness and pliability of the
yarns. About 10 to 15 percent of the weight of goods is added as size to
cotton warp yarns, compared to about 3 to 5 percent for filament synthetics.
Once size is applied, the wound beam is mounted in a loom. Shuttle looms
are rapidly being replaced by shuttleless looms, which have the ability to
weave at higher speeds and with less noise. Shuttleless looms are discussed
in the next section. The operation of a traditional shuttle loom is discussed in
this section to illustrate the weaving process.
The major components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses,
shuttle, reed, and takeup roll (see Figure 7). In the loom, yarn processing
includes shedding, picking, battening, and taking up operations. These steps
are discussed below.
Shedding. Shedding is the raising of the warp yarns to form a shed
through which the filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. The
shed is the vertical space between the raised and unraised warp yarns. On
the modern loom, simple and intricate shedding operations are performed
automatically by the heddle frame, also known as a harness. This is a
rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called heddles, are attached.
The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the heddles, which hang
vertically from the harnesses.
The weave pattern determines which harness controls which warp yarns,
and the number of harnesses used depends on the complexity of the weave
(Corbman, 1975).
Picking. As the harnesses raise the heddles, which raise the warp yarns,
the shed is created. The filling yarn in inserted through the shed by a
small carrier device called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at
each end to allow passage through the shed. In a traditional shuttle loom,
the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in turn is mounted in the
shuttle. The filling yam emerges through a hole in the shuttle as it moves
across the loom. A single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the
loom to the other is known as a pick. As the shuttle moves back and forth
across the shed, it weaves an edge, or selvage, on each side of the fabric
to prevent the fabric from raveling.
Battening. As the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn,
it also passes through openings in another frame called a reed (which
resembles a comb). With each picking operation, the reed presses or
battens each filling yarn against the portion of the fabric that has already
been formed. Conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about
150 to 160 picks per minute.
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Industrial Process Description
Taking up and letting off. With each weaving operation, the newly
constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam. This process is called
taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released
from the warp beams (Corbman, 1975).
Figure 7: Typical Shuttle Loom
CLOTH
WARP BEAM
SHUTTLE
FILLING YARN
CLOTH ROLL
Source: IB. Wingate, Fairchild's Dictionary of Textiles, Fairchild Publications, Inc., 1979.
Shuttleless Looms
Because the shuttle can cause yarns to splinter and catch, several types of
shuttleless looms have been developed. These operate at higher speeds and
reduced noise levels. By the end of 1989, shuttleless looms represented 54
percent of all looms installed, up from 15 percent in 1980. Shuttleless looms
use different techniques to transport cut pieces of fill yarn across the shed, as
opposed to the continuous yarn used in shuttle looms.
Some of the common shuttleless looms include water-jet looms, air-jet looms,
rapier looms, and projectile looms. Water-jet looms transport the fill yarn in
a high-speed jet of water and can achieve speeds of 400 to 600 picks per
minute. Water jets can handle a wide variety of fiber and yarn types and are
widely used for apparel fabrics. Air-jet looms use a blast of air to move the
fill yarn and can operate at speeds of 800 to 1000 picks per minute. Rapier
looms use two thin wire rods to carry the fill yarn and can operate at a speed
of 510 picks per minute. Rapiers are used mostly for spun yarns to make
cotton and woolen/worsted fabrics. In a double rapier loom, two rods move
from each side and meet in the middle. The fill yarn is carried from the rod on
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Industrial Process Description
the fill side and handed off to the rod on the finish side of the loom. Projectile
looms use a projectile to carry the fill yarn across the weave.
Shuttleless looms have been replacing the traditional fly-shuttle loom in recent
years. Air looms, although limited in the types of filling yarns they can handle,
are increasing in commercial use. The operation of an air jet loom is shown
in Figure 8. As shown in the figure, yarn is drawn from the yarn package (1)
by the measuring wheel and drive roller arrangement (2). Between the yarn
package and the measuring wheel is a tube through which an air current flows
in opposite direction to the yarn. This maintains a straight even feed of yarn.
The yam then forms a loop (3) which shortens as the pick penetrates further
into the shed. The main jet (4) is the major projecting force for the yarn,
although supplementary jets (5) are activated to prevent the pick from
buckling.
Figure 8: Typical Air Jet Loom
Knitting
Source: A. Ormerod, Modern Preparation and Weaving Machinery, Butterworths, 1983.
Knitted fabrics may be constructed by using hooked needles to interlock one
or more sets of yarns through a set of loops. The loops may be either loosely
or closely constructed, depending on the purpose of the fabric. Knitted
fabrics can be used for hosiery, underwear, sweaters, slacks, suits, coats, rugs,
and other home furnishings. Knitting is performed using either weft or warp
processes, depicted in Figure 9. In weft (or filling) knitting, one yarn is
carried back and forth and under needles to form a fabric. Yarns run
horizontally in the fabric, and connections between loops are horizontal. In
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Industrial Process Description
warp knitting, a warp beam is set into the knitting machine. Yarns are
interlocked to form the fabric, and the yarns run vertically while the connec-
tions are on the diagonal. Several different types of machinery are used in
both weft and warp knitting.
Figure 9: Comparison Between Warp and Weft Knitting Methods
(a) Weft (b) Warp
Source: D.J. Spencer, Knitting Technology, Pergamon Press, 1989.
Weft knitting. Weft knitting uses one continuous yarn to form courses, or
rows of loops, across a fabric. There are three fundamental stitches in
weft knitting: plain-knit, purl, and rib. On a machine, the individual yarn
is fed to one or more needles at a time. Weft knitting machines can
produce both flat and circular fabric. Circular machines produce mainly
yardage but may also produce sweater bodies, pantyhose, and socks.
Flatbed machines knit full garments and operate at much slower speeds.
The simplest, most common filling knit fabric is single jersey. Double
knits are made on machines with two sets of needles. All hosiery is
produced as a filling knit process.
Warp Knitting. Warp knitting represents the fastest method of producing
fabric from yarns. Warp knitting differs from weft knitting in that each
needle loops its own thread. The needles produce parallel rows of loops
simultaneously that are interlocked in a zigzag pattern. Fabric is produced
in sheet or flat form using one or more sets of warp yarns. The yarns are
fed from warp beams to a row of needles extending across the width of
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Industrial Process Description
the machine (Figure 9b). Two common types of warp knitting machines
are the Tricot and Raschel machines. Raschel machines are useful because
they can process all yarn types in all forms (filament, staple, combed,
carded, etc.). Warp knitting can also be used to make pile fabrics often
used for upholstery.
Tufting
Tufting is a process used to create carpets, blankets, and upholstery. Tufting
is done by inserting additional yarns into a ground fabric of desired weight and
yarn content to create a pile fabric. The substrate fabric can range from a thin
backing to heavy burlap-type material and may be woven, knitted, or web. In
modem tufting machines, a set of hollow needles carries the yarn from a series
of spools held in a creel and inserts the yarn through the substrate cloth. As
each needle penetrates the cloth, a hook on the underside forms a loop by
catching and holding the yarn. The needle is withdrawn and moves forward,
much like a sewing machine needle. Patterns may be formed by varying the
height of the tuft loops. To make cut-loop pile, a knife is attached to the
hook and the loops are cut as the needles are retracted. Well over 90 percent
of broadloom carpeting is made by tufting, and modern machines can stitch
at rates of over 800 stitches per minute, producing some 650 square yards of
broadloom per hour.
m.A.3. Wet Processing
Woven and knit fabrics cannot be processed into apparel and other finished
goods until the fabrics have passed through several water-intensive wet
processing stages. Wet processing enhances the appearance, durability, and
serviceability of fabrics by converting undyed and unfinished goods, known
as gray or greige (pronounced gra[zh]) goods, into finished consumers'
goods. Also collectively known as finishing, wet processing has been broken
down into four stages in this section for simplification: fabric preparation,
dyeing, printing, and finishing. These stages, shown in Figure 10, involve
treating gray goods with chemical baths and often require additional washing,
rinsing, and drying steps. Note that some of these steps may be optional
depending on the style of fabric being manufactured.
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Figure 10: Typical Wet Processing Steps for Fabrics
Unfinished fabric or "greige goods"
100% Synthetics
t
Cotton + Cotton Blends
Desizing
Scouring
T
Bulking
Printing
Singeing
T
Desizing
Scouring
I
Bleaching
Mercerizing
(optional)
Dyeing
Heat set
'Synthetics and blends only)
(optional)
I
Mechanical finishing
i
Chemical finishing
Finished fabric
PREPARATION
DYEING AND/OR
PRINTING
FINISHING
Source: ATMI, 1997.
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In terms of waste generation and environmental impacts, wet processing is the
most significant textile operation. Methods used vary greatly depending on
end-products and applications, site-specific manufacturing practices, and fiber
type. Natural fibers typically require more processing steps than manmade
fibers. For most wool products and some manmade and cotton products, the
yarn is dyed before weaving; thus, the pattern is woven into the fabric.
Processing methods may also differ based on the final properties desired, such
as tensile strength, flexibility, uniformity, and luster (Snowden-Swan, 1995).
Most manufactured textiles are shipped from textile mills to commission
dyeing and finishing shops for wet processing, although some firms have
integrated wet processing into their operations. A wide range of equipment
is used for textile dyeing and finishing (EPA, 1996). Much of the waste
generated from the industry is produced during the wet processing stages.
Relatively large volumes of wastewater are generated, containing a wide range
of contaminants that must be treated prior to disposal. Significant quantities
of energy are spent heating and cooling chemical baths and drying fabrics and
yarns (Snowden-Swan, 1995).
Fabric Preparation
Most fabric that is dyed, printed, or finished must first be prepared, with the
exception of denim and certain knit styles. Preparation, also known as
pretreatment, consists of a series of various treatment and rinsing steps critical
to obtaining good results in subsequent textile finishing processes. In
preparation, the mill removes natural impurities or processing chemicals that
interfere with dyeing, printing, and finishing. Typical preparation treatments
include desizing, scouring, and bleaching. Preparation steps can also include
processes, such as singeing and mercerizing, designed to chemically or
physically alter the fabric. For instance, the mercerizing stage chemically
treats the fabric to increase fiber strength and dye affinity, or ability to pick up
dyes. This, in turn, increases the longevity of fabric finishes applied during
finishing. Many of the pollutants from preparation result from the removal of
previously applied processing chemicals and agricultural residues. These
chemical residues can be passed on to subsequent stages with improper
preparation.
Most mills can use the same preparation equipment for the entire range of
products they produce. In most cases, facilities favor continuous rather than
batch preparation processes for economic and pollution control reasons. A
number of mills, however, prepare goods, particularly knits, batchwise on dye-
ing machines to simplify scheduling and handling. Sometimes, facilities
operate batchwise to reduce high capital costs required for high productivity
and the complexity of storing and tracking goods through continuous wet
processing operations.
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Because preparation is relatively uniform across most of a mill's production,
preparation is usually the highest-volume process in a mill and hence an
important area for pollution prevention. If fabrics contained no contamination
upon arrival for wet processing, preparation processes would be unnecessary,
eliminating about half the pollution outputs from wet processing and a
significant amount of wastewater. The primary pollutants from preparation
is wastewater containing alkalinity, BOD, COD, and relatively small amounts
of other contaminants such as metals and surfactants. There are many
preparation techniques, some of which are described below.
Singeing. If a fabric is to have a smooth finish, singeing is essential.
Singeing is a dry process used on woven goods that removes fibers
protruding from yarns or fabrics. These are burned off by passing the
fibers over a flame or heated copper plates. Singeing improves the surface
appearance of woven goods and reduces pilling. It is especially useful for
fabrics that are to be printed or where a smooth finish is desired..
Pollutant outputs associated with singeing include relatively small amounts
of exhaust gases from the burners.
Desizing. Desizing is an important preparation step used to remove size
materials applied prior to weaving. Manmade fibers are generally sized
with water-soluble sizes that are easily removed by a hot-water wash or
in the scouring process. Natural fibers such as cotton are most often sized
with water-insoluble starches or mixtures of starch and other materials.
Enzymes are used to break these starches into water-soluble sugars, which
are then removed by washing before the cloth is scoured. Removing
starches before scouring is necessary because they can react and cause
color changes when exposed to sodium hydroxide in scouring.
Scouring. Scouring is a cleaning process that removes impurities from
fibers, yarns, or cloth through washing. Alkaline solutions are typically
used for scouring; however, in some cases solvent solutions may also be
used. Scouring uses alkali, typically sodium hydroxide, to break down
natural oils and surfactants and to emulsify and suspend remaining
impurities in the scouring bath. The specific scouring procedures,
chemicals, temperature, and time vary with the type of fiber, yarn, and
cloth construction. Impurities may include lubricants, dirt and other
natural materials, water-soluble sizes, antistatic agents, and residual tints
used for yarn identification. Typically, scouring wastes contribute a large
portion of biological oxygen demand (BOD) loads from preparation
processes (NC DEHNR, 1986). Desizing and scouring operations are
often combined (ATMI, 1997).
Bleaching. Bleaching is a chemical process that eliminates unwanted
colored matter from fibers, yarns, or cloth. Bleaching decolorizes colored
impurities that are not removed by scouring and prepares the cloth for
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further finishing processes such as dyeing or printing. Several different
types of chemicals are used as bleaching agents, and selection depends on
the type of fiber present in the yarn, cloth, or finished product and the
subsequent finishing that the product will receive. The most common
bleaching agents include hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, sodium
chlorite, and sulfur dioxide gas. Hydrogen peroxide is by far the most
commonly used bleaching agent for cotton and cotton blends, accounting
for over 90 percent of the bleach used in textile operations, and is typically
used with caustic solutions. Bleaching contributes less than 5 percent of
the total textile mill BOD load (NC DEHNR, 1986).
The bleaching process involves several steps: l)The cloth is saturated with
the bleaching agent, activator, stabilizer, and other necessary chemicals;
2) the temperature is raised to the recommended level for that particular
fiber or blend and held for the amount of time needed to complete the
bleaching action; and 3) the cloth is thoroughly washed and dried.
Peroxide bleaching can be responsible for wastewater with high pH levels.
Because peroxide bleaching typically produces wastewater with few
contaminants, water conservation and chemical handling issues are the
primary pollution concerns.
Mercerizing. Mercerization is a continuous chemical process used for
cotton and cotton/polyester goods to increase dyeability, luster, and
appearance. This process, which is carried out at room temperature,
causes the flat, twisted ribbon-like cotton fiber to swell into a round shape
and to contract in length. This causes the fiber to become more lustrous
than the original fiber, increase in strength by as much as 20 percent, and
increase its affinity for dyes. Mercerizing typically follows singeing and
may either precede or follow bleaching (Corbman, 1975).
During mercerizing, the fabric is passed through a cold 15 to 20 percent
solution of caustic soda and then stretched out on a tenter frame where
hot-water sprays remove most of the caustic solution (Corbman, 1975).
After treatment, the caustic is removed by several washes under tension.
Remaining caustic may be neutralized with a cold acid treatment followed
by several more rinses to remove the acid. Wastewater from mercerizing
can contain substantial amounts of high pH alkali, accounting for about 20
percent of the weight of goods.
Dyeing
Dyeing operations are used at various stages of production to add color and
intricacy to textiles and increase product value. Most dyeing is performed
either by the finishing division of vertically integrated textile companies, or by
specialty dyehouses. Specialty dyehouses operate either on a commission
basis or purchase greige goods and finish them before selling them to apparel
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and other product manufacturers. Textiles are dyed using a wide range of
dyestuffs, techniques, and equipment. Dyes used by the textile industry are
largely synthetic, typically derived from coal tar and petroleum-based
intermediates. Dyes are sold as powders, granules, pastes, and liquid dis-
persions, with concentrations of active ingredients ranging typically from 20
to 80 percent.
Methods of Dyeing
Dyeing can be performed using continuous or batch processes. In batch
dyeing, a certain amount of textile substrate, usually 100 to 1,000 kilograms,
is loaded into a dyeing machine and brought to equilibrium, or near
equilibrium, with a solution containing the dye. Because the dyes have an
affinity for the fibers, the dye molecules leave the dye solution and enter the
fibers over a period of minutes to hours, depending on the type of dye and
fabric used. Auxiliary chemicals and controlled dyebath conditions (mainly
temperature) accelerate and optimize the action. The dye is fixed in the fiber
using heat and/or chemicals, and the tinted textile substrate is washed to
remove unfixed dyes and chemicals. Common methods of batch, or exhaust,
dyeing include beam, beck, jet, and jig processing. Pad dyeing can be
performed by either batch or continuous processes.
In continuous dyeing processes, textiles are fed continuously into a dye range
at speeds usually between 50 and 250 meters per minute. Continuous dyeing
accounts for about 60 percent of total yardage of product dyed in the industry
(Snowden-Swan, 1995). To be economical, this may require the dyer to
process 10,000 meters of textiles or more per color, although specialty ranges
are now being designed to run as little _ as 2,000 meters economically.
Continuous dyeing processes typically consist of dye application, dye fixation
with chemicals or heat, and washing. Dye fixation is a measure of the amount
of the percentage of dye in a bath that will fix to the fibers of the textile
material. Dye fixation on the fiber occurs much more rapidly in continuous
dying than in batch dyeing.
Each dyeing process requires different amounts of dye per unit of fabric to be
dyed. This is significant since color and salts in wastewater from spent dyes
are often a pollution concern for textile facilities. In addition, less dye used
results in energy conservation and chemical savings. The amounts of dye used
depends on the dye is exhausted from the dyebaths which determines the
required dyebath ratio. The dyebath ratio is the ratio of the units of dye
required per unit of fabric and typically ranges from 5 to 50 depending on the
type of dye, dyeing system, and affinity of the dyes for the fibers.
Dyeing processes may take place at any of several stages of the manufacturing
process (fibers, yarn, piece-dyeing). Stock dyeing is used to dye fibers. Top
dyeing is used to dye combed wool sliver. Yarn dyeing and piece dyeing,
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done after the yarn has been constructed into fabric, are discussed in more
detail below.
Yarn Dyeing. Yarn dyeing is used to create interesting checks, stripes, and
plaids with different-colored yarns in the weaving process. In yarn dyeing,
dyestuff penetrates the fibers in the core of the yarn.
Some methods of yarn dyeing are stock, package, and skein dyeing.
Stock dyeing dyes fiber using perforated tubes. In package dyeing (Figure
11), spools of yarn are stacked on perforated rods in a rack and immersed
in a tank where dye is then forced outward from the rods under pressure.
The dye is then pressured back through the packages toward the center
to fully penetrate the entire yarn. Most carded and combed cotton used
for knitted outerwear is package-dyed. In skein dyeing, yarn is loosely
coiled on a reel and then dyed. The coils, or skeins, are hung over a rung
and immersed in a dyebath (Corbman, 1975). Skein-dyed yarn is used for
bulky acrylic and wool yarns. Typical capacity for package dyeing
equipment is 1,210 pounds (550 kg) and for skein dyeing equipment is
220 pounds (100 kg).
Piece Dyeing. Most dyed fabric is piece-dyed since this method gives the
manufacturer maximum inventory flexibility to meet color demands as
fashion changes. In terms of overall volume, the largest amount of dyeing
is performed using beck and jig equipment (Figure 11). Beck dyeing is a
versatile, continuous process used to dye long yards of fabric. About
1,980 pounds (900 kg) of fabric can be dyed on beck equipment at a time.
The fabric is passed in rope form through the dyebath. The rope moves
over a rail onto a reel which immerses it into the dye and then draws the
fabric up and forward to the front of the machine. This process is
repeated as long as necessary to dye the material uniformly to the desired
color intensity. Jig dyeing uses the same procedure of beck dyeing,
however, the fabric is held on rollers at full width rather than in rope form
as it is passed through the dyebath (Corbman, 1975). This reduces fabric
tendency to crack or crease. Jig dyeing equipment can handle 550 pounds
(250 kg) of fabric.
Other piece dyeing methods include jet dyeing and pad dyeing. Fabric can
be jet-dyed (at up to 1,100 pounds (500 kg)) by placing it in a heated tube
or column where jets of dye solution are forced through it at high
pressures. The dye is continually recirculated as the fabric is moved along
the tube. Pad dyeing, like jig dyeing, dyes the fabric at full width. The
fabric is passed through a trough containing dye and then between two
heavy rollers which force the dye into the cloth and squeeze out the excess
(Corbman, 1975). Figure 11 illustrates the beck, jig, and jet methods for
dyeing.
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Figure 11: Common Dyeing Methods
Yam
package
Package Dyeing
Jig Dyeing (end view)
Let-off Roll
Take-up Roll
Jet Dyeing
Dye liquor is pumped,
thus transporting fabric
through the dying
venturi tube
Beck Dyeing (end view)
Idler
Baffle
Source: Best Management Practices for Pollution Prevention in the Textile Industry, EPA, Office of Research and
Development, 1995.
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Types of Dyes
Dyes may be classified in several ways (e.g., according to chemical
constitution, application class, end-use). The primary classification of dyes is
based on the fibers to which they can be applied and the chemical nature of
each dye. Table 6 lists the major dye classes, fixation rates, and the types of
fibers for which they have an affinity. Factors that companies consider when
selecting a dye include the type of fibers being dyed, desired shade, dyeing
uniformity, and fastness (desired stability or resistance of stock or colorants
to influences such as light, alkali, etc) (FFTA, 1991).
Most commonly in use today are the reactive and direct types for cotton
dyeing, and disperse types for polyester dyeing. Reactive dyes react with fiber
molecules to form chemical bonds. Direct dyes can color fabric directly with
one operation and without the aid of an affixing agent. Direct dyes are the
simplest dyes to apply and the cheapest in their initial and application costs
although there are tradeoffs in the dyes' shade range and wetfastness
(Corbman, 1975). Direct and reactive dyes have a fixation rate of 90 to 95
percent and 60 to 90 percent, respectively. A variety of auxiliary chemicals
may be used during dyeing to assist in dye absorption and fixation into the
fibers. Disperse dyes, with fixation rates of 80 to 90 percent, require
additional factors, such as dye carriers, pressure, and heat, to penetrate
synthetic fibers (Snowden-Swan, 1995; ATMI, 1997). Disperse dyes are
dispersed in water where the dyes are dissolved into fibers. Vat dyes, such as
indigo, are also commonly used for cotton and other cellulosic fibers.
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Industrial Process Description
Printing
Fabrics are often printed with color and patterns using a variety of techniques
and machine types. Of the numerous printing techniques, the most common
is rotary screen. However, other methods, such as direct, discharge, resist,
flat screen (semicontinuous), and roller printing are often used commercially.
Pigments are used for about 75 to 85 percent of all printing operations, do not
require washing steps, and generate little waste (Snowden-Swan, 1995).
Compared to dyes, pigments are typically insoluble and have no affinity for the
fibers. Resin binders are typically used to attach pigments to substrates.
Solvents are used as vehicles for transporting the pigment and resin mixture
to the substrate. The solvents then evaporate leaving a hard opaque coating.
The major types of printing are described below.
Rotary screen printing. Rotary screen printing uses seamless cylindrical
screens made of metal foil. The machine uses a rotary screen for each
color. As the fabric is fed under uniform tension into the printer section
of the machine, its back is usually coated with an adhesive which causes
it to adhere to a conveyor printing blanket. Some machines use other
methods for gripping the fabric. The fabric passes under the rotating
screen through which the printing paste is automatically pumped from
pressure tanks. A squeegee in each rotary screen forces the paste through
the screen onto the fabric as it moves along (Corbman, 1975). The fabric
then passes to a drying oven.
Direct printing. In direct printing, a large cylindrical roller picks up the
fabric, and smaller rollers containing the color are brought into contact
with the cloth. The smaller rollers are etched with the design, and the
number of rollers reflects the number of colors. Each smaller roller is
supplied with color by a furnisher roller, which rotates in the color trough,
picks up color, and deposits it on the applicator roller. Doctor blades
scrape excess color off the applicator roller so that only the engraved
portions carry the color to the cloth. The cloth is backed with a rub-
berized blanket during printing, which provides a solid surface to print
against, and a layer of gray cloth is used between the cloth and the rubber
blanket to absorb excess ink.
Discharge printing. Discharge printing is performed on piece-dyed
fabrics. The patterns are created through removal, rather than addition,
of color, hence most discharge printing is done on dark backgrounds. The
dyed fabric is printed using discharge pastes, which remove background
color from the substrate when exposed to steam. Colors may be added to
the discharge paste to create different colored discharge areas (EPA,
1996).
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Resist printing. Resist printing encompasses several hand and low-volume
methods in which the pattern is applied by preventing color from
penetrating certain areas during piece-dyeing. Examples of resist printing
methods include batik, tie-dyeing, screen printing, and stencil printing.
Ink-Jet printing. Ink-jet printing is a noncontact printing method in which
droplets of colorant solution are propelled toward a substrate and directed
to a desired spot. InkJet is an emerging technology in the textile industry
and has not yet been adopted for widespread commercial use. The dye
types most amenable to ink-jet printing of textiles are fiber reactive, vat,
sulfur, and naphthol dyes.
Heat-transfer printing. In heat-transfer printing, the pattern is first printed
onto a special paper substrate. The paper is then positioned against the
fabric and subjected to heat and pressure. The dyes are transferred to the
fabric via sublimation.
Finishing
Finishing encompasses chemical or mechanical treatments performed on fiber,
yam, or fabric to improve appearance, texture, or performance. Mechanical
finishes can involve brushing, ironing or other physical treatments used to
increase the luster and feel of textiles. Application of chemical finishes to
textiles can impart a variety of properties ranging from decreasing static cling
to increasing flame resistance. The most common chemical finishes are those
that ease fabric care, such as the permanent-press, soil-release, and stain-
resistant finishes. Chemical finishes are usually followed by drying, curing, and
cooling steps. Application of chemical finishes are often done in conjunction
with mechanical finishing steps (Snowden-Swan, 1995). Selected mechanical
and chemical finishing techniques are described below.
Mechanical Treatments
Heatsetting. Heatsetting is a dry process used to stabilize and impart
textural properties to synthetic fabrics and fabrics containing high
concentrations of synthetics. When manmade fibers are heatset, the cloth
maintains its shape and size in subsequent finishing operations and is -
stabilized in the form in which it is held during heatsetting (e.g., smooth,
creased, uneven). Textural properties may include interesting and durable
surface effects such as pleating, creasing, puckering, and embossing.
Heatsetting can also give cloth resistance to wrinkling during wear and
ease-of-care properties attributed to improvements in resiliency and in
elasticity. Pollution outputs may include volatile components of spin
finishes if heatsetting is performed before scouring and bleaching
processes. These components are introduced to the fabrics during the
manufacture of synthetic fibers, when proprietary spin finishes are applied
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to provide lubrication and impart special properties, such as antistatic, to
the fiber.
Brushing and napping. Brushing and napping decrease the luster of
fabrics by roughening or raising the fiber surface and change the feel or
texture of the fabric (ATMI, 1997b). These processes involve the use of
wires or brushes that pull individual fibers.
Softening. Calendering, or ironing, can be used to reduce surface friction
between individual fibers, thereby softening the fabric structure and
increasing its sheen. In calendering, the fabric passes through two or
more rolls. Typically, one roll is made of chilled steel, while the other is
made of a softer material like cotton fibers. The steel roll may also be
heated using gas or steam. Once goods pass through the machine they
are wound up at the back of the machine.
Optical finishing. Luster can be added to yarns by flattening or smoothing
the surfaces under pressure. This can be achieved by beating the fabric
surface or passing the fabric between calendering rolls. The luster can be
further increased if the rolls are scribed with closely spaced lines.
Shearing.Shearing is a process that removes surface fibers by passing the
fabric over a cutting blade.
Compacting. Compacting, which includes the Sanforizing process,
compresses the fabric structure to reduce stresses in the fabric. The
Sanforizing process reduces residual shrinkage of fabrics after repeated
laundering (Wingate, 1979). The fabric and backing blanket are fed
between a roller and a curved braking shoe, with the blanket under
tension. The tension on the blanket is released after the fabric and blanket
pass the braking shoe. Compacting reduces the potential for excessive
shrinkage during laundering.
Chemical Treatments
Optical finishes. Optical finishes added to either brighten or deluster the
textile.
Absorbent and soil release finishes. These finishes that alter surface
tension and other properties to increase water absorbency or improve soil
release.
Softeners and abrasion-resistant finishes. Softeners and abrasion-resistant
finishes are added to improve feel or to increase the ability of the textile
to resist abrasion and tearing.
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Physical stabilization and crease-resistant finishes. These finishes, which
may include formaldehyde-based resin finishes, stabilize cellulosic fibers
to laundering and shrinkage, imparting permanent press properties to
fabrics (ATMI, 1997b).
HLA.4. Fabrication
Finished cloth is fabricated into a variety of apparel and household and
industrial products. The simpler of these products, such as bags, sheets,
towels, blankets, and draperies, often are produced by the textile mills
themselves. Apparel and more complex housewares are usually fabricated by
the cutting trades. Before cutting, fabrics must be carefully laid out. Accuracy
in cutting the lay fabric is important since any defects created at this point may
be carried through other operations and end up in the final product. For
simple household and industrial products, sewing is relatively straightforward.
The product may then be pressed to flatten the fabric and create crisp edges.
Sector Notebook Project
39
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
III.B. Raw Material Inputs and Pollution Outputs in the Production Line
Much of the following section is based upon "Best Management Practices for
Pollution Prevention in the Textile Industry, " by the U.S. EPA Office of
Research and Development. Additional references are cited in the text.
Wastewater
Wastewater is, by far, the largest wastestream for the textile industry. Large
volume wastes include washwater from preparation and continuous dyeing,
alkaline waste from preparation, and batch dye waste containing large
amounts of salt, acid, or alkali. Primary sources of biological oxygen demand
(BOD) include waste chemicals or batch dumps, starch sizing agents, knitting
oils, and degradable surfactants. Wet processing operations, including
preparation, dyeing, and finishing, generate the majority of textile wastewater.
Types of wastewater include cleaning water, process water, noncontact
cooling water, and stormwater. The amount of water used varies widely in
the industry, depending on the specific processes operated at the mill, the
equipment used, and the prevailing management philosophy regarding water
use. Because of the wide variety of process steps, textile wastewater typically
contains a complex mixture of chemicals.
Desizing, or the process of removing size chemicals from textiles, is one of the
industry's largest sources of wastewater pollutants. In this process, large
quantities of size used in weaving processes are typically discarded. More
than 90 percent of the size used by the U.S. textile industry, or 90,000 tons,
is disposed of in the effluent stream. The remaining 10 percent is recycled
(EPA, 1996). Desizing processes often contribute up to 50 percent of the
BOD load in wastewater from wet processing (Snowden-Swan, 1995). Table
7 shows typical BOD loads from preparation processes.
Dyeing operations generate a large portion of the industry's total wastewater.
The primary source of wastewater in dyeing operations is spent dyebath and
washwater. Such wastewater typically contains by-products, residual dye, and
auxiliary chemicals. Additional pollutants include cleaning solvents, such as
oxalic acid.
Of the 700,000 tons of dyes produced annually worldwide, about 10 to 15
percent of the dye is disposed of in effluent from dyeing operations
(Snowden-Swan, 1995). However, dyes in wastewater may be chemically
bound to fabric fibers (ATMI, 1997b). The average wastewater generation
from a dyeing facility is estimated at between one and two million gallons per
day. Dyeing and rinsing processes for disperse dyeing generate about 12 to
17 gallons of wastewater per pound of product. Similar processes for reactive
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
and direct dyeing generate even more wastewater, about 15 to 20 gallons per
pound of product (Snowden-Swan, 1995).
Table 7: Typical BOD Loads from Preparation Processes
Process
Pounds of BOD per
1,000 Pounds of Production
Singeing
Desizing
starch
starch, mixed size
PVA or CMC
Scouring
Bleaching
peroxide
hypochlorite
Mercerizing
Heatsetting
0
67
20
0
40-50
3-4
8
15
0
Source: Best Management Practices for Pollution Prevention in the Textile
Industry, EPA, Office of Research and Development, 1995.
PVA = polyvinyl alcohol; CMC carboxymethyl cellulose
Finishing processes typically generate wastewater containing natural and
synthetic polymers and a range of other potentially toxic substances
(Snowden-Swan, 1995). Pollution from peroxide bleaching normally is not
a major concern. In most cases, scouring has removed impurities in the
goods, so the only by-product of the peroxide reaction is water. The major
pollution issues in the bleaching process are chemical handling, water
conservation, and high pH.
Hazardous waste generated by textile manufacturers results primarily from the
use of solvents in cleaning knit goods (ATMI, 1997b). Solvents may be used
in some scouring or equipment cleaning operations, however, more often
scouring processes are aqueous-based and cleaning materials involve mineral
spirits or other chemicals (ATMI, 1997b). Spent solvents may include
tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene (NC DEHNR, P2 Pays, 1985). A
few of the more common textile industry water pollutants and their sources'
are discussed below. In addition, Table 8 summarizes the typical pollutant
releases associated with various textile manufacturing processes.
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
Color
Salts
Dyes and pigments from printing and dyeing operations are the principal
sources of color in textile effluent (EPA, 1996). Dyes and pigments are highly
colored materials used in relatively small quantities (a few percent or less of
the weight of the substrate) to impart color to textile materials for aesthetic
or functional purposes. In typical dyeing and printing processes, 50 to 100
percent of the color is fixed on the fiber, as shown in Table 6. The remainder
is discarded in the form of spent dyebaths or in wastewater from subsequent
textile-washing operations (EPA, 1996).
Several authors have identified salts in textile-dyeing wastewater as a potential
problem area (US EPA, 1996). Many types of salt are either used as raw
materials or produced as by-products of neutralization or other reactions in
textile wet processes. Salt is used mostly to assist the exhaustion of ionic
dyes, particularly anionic dyes, such as direct and fiber reactive dyes on
cotton. Typical cotton batch dyeing operations use quantities of salt that
range from 20 percent to 80 percent of the weight of goods dyed, and the
usual salt concentration in such wastewater is 2,000 ppm to 3,000 ppm.
According to one study, a moderate-sized mill that dyed about 400,000
pounds per week of cotton knit fabrics produced well over 50,000 pounds of
salts and a pH of over 10 (US EPA, 1996). The wastewater from this facility
contained neutralization salts from six acids and alkalis of 60 ppm. Common
salt (sodium chloride) and Glaubers salt (sodium sulfate) constitute the
majority of total salt use. Other salts used as raw materials or formed in
textile processes include Epsom salt (magnesium chloride), potassium
chloride, and others in low concentrations.
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
Table 8: Summary of Potential Releases Emitted During Textiles Manufacturing
Process
Fiber preparation
Yarn spinning
Slashing/sizing
Weaving
Knitting
Tufting
Desizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Singeing
Mercerizing
Heatsetting
Air Emissions
little or no air emissions
generated
little or no air emissions
generated
VOCs
little or no air emissions
generated
little or no air emissions
generated
little or no air emissions
generated
VOCs from glycol ethers
VOCs from glycol ethers
and scouring solvents
little or no air emissions
generated
small amounts of exhaust
gases from the burners
little or no air emissions
generated
volatilization of spin finish.
agents applied during
synthetic fiber
manufacture
Wastewater
little or no wastewater
generated
little or no wastewater
generated
BOD; COD; metals;
cleaning waste, size
little or no wastewater
generated
little or no wastewater
generated
little or no wastewater
generated
BOD from water-soluble
sizes; synthetic size;
lubricants; biocides; anti-
static compounds
disinfectants and
insecticide residues;
NaOH; detergents, fats;
oils; pectin; wax; knitting
lubricants; spin finishes;
spent solvents
hydrogen peroxide,
sodium silicate or organic
stabilizer; high pH
little or no wastewater
generated
high pH; NaOH
little or no wastewater
generated
Residual Wastes
fiber waste; packaging
Waste and hard Waste
packaging wastes; sized
yarn; fiber waste;
cleaning and processing
waste
fiber lint; yani waste;
packaging waste; unused
starch-based sizes;
packaging waste; yarn
and fabric scraps; off-
spec fabric; used oil
paekagingwaste; yarn
and fabric scraps; off-
spec fabric
packaging waste; yard
and fabric scraps; off-
spee fabric
packaging waste; fiber
lint; yarn waste; cleaning
materials, such as wipes,
rags, and filters; cleaning
and maintenance wastes
containing solvents
little or no residual waste
generated
little or »o residual waste
generated
little or no residual waste
generated
little or no residual waste
generated
little or no residual waste
generated
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
Table 8: Summary of Potential Releases Emitted During Textiles Manufacturing
Process
Dyeing
(see Table 6 for
pollutants associated
with particular dye
classes)
Printing
Finishing
Product Fabrication
Air Emissions
VOCs
solvents, acetic acid from
drying and curing oven
emissions; combustion
gases; particulate matter
VOCs; contaminants in
purchased chemicals;
formaldehyde vapors;
combustion gases;
particulate matter
little or no air emissions
generated
Wastewater
metals; salt; surfactants;
toxics; organic processing
assistants; cationic
materials; color; BOD;
COD; sulfide; acidity/
alkalinity; spent solvents
suspended solids; urea;
solvents; color; metals;
heat; BOD; foam
BOD; COD; suspended
solids; toxics; spent
solvents
little or no wastewater
generated
Residual Wastes
little or no residual waste
generated
little or no residual waste
generated
fabric scraps and
trimmings; packaging
waste
fabric scraps
Source: Best Management Practices for Pollution Prevention in the Textile Industry, EPA, Office of Research
and Development, 1 995; ATMl, Comments on draft document, 1997b.
Regulatory limits imposed on textile facilities and on publicly owned treatment
facilities (POTWs) that receive textile wastewater start at 250 ppm. Although
the mammalian and aquatic toxicities of these salts are very low, their massive
use in certain textile-dyeing processes can produce wastewater with salt levels
well above the regulatory limits.
Metals
Many textile mills have few or no metals in their effluent, but whenever metals
are present, they may include metals such as copper, cadmium, chromium,
nickel, and zinc. Sources of metals found in textile mill effluents may include
fiber, incoming water, dyes, plumbing, and chemical impurities. Dyes may
contain metals such as zinc, nickel, chromium, and cobalt (ATMI, 1997b). In
some dyes, these metals are functional (i.e., they form an integral part of the
dye molecule); however, in most dyes, metals are simply impurities generated
during dye manufacture. For example, mercury or other metals may be used
as catalysts in the manufacture of certain dyes and may be present as by-
products. Metals may be difficult to remove from wastewater (EPA, 1996).
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
Aquatic Toxicity
The aquatic toxicity of textile industry wastewater varies considerably among
production facilities. Data are available that show that the wastewater of
some facilities has fairly high aquatic toxicity, while others show little or no
toxicity. The sources of aquatic toxicity can include salt, surfactants, ionic
metals and their complexed metals therein, toxic organic chemicals, biocides,
and toxic anions (EPA, 1996; ATMI, 1997b). Most textile dyes have low
aquatic toxicity. On the other hand, surfactants and related compounds, such
as detergents, emulsifiers, dispersants, are used in almost every textile process
and can be an important contributor to effluent aquatic toxicity, BOD, and
foaming (EPA, 1996).
Air Emissions
Although the textile industry is a relatively minor source of air pollutants
compared with many other industries, the industry emits a wide variety of air
pollutants, making sampling, analysis, treatment, and prevention more
complex. Textile operations involve numerous sources of air emissions.
Operations that represent the greatest concern are coating, finishing, and
dyeing operations. Textile mills usually generate nitrogen and sulfur oxides
from boilers and are often classified as "major sources" under the Clean Air
Act (EPA, 1996).
Other significant sources of air emissions in textile operations include resin
finishing and drying operations, printing, dyeing, fabric preparation, and
wastewater treatment plants (ATMI, 1997b). Hydrocarbons are emitted from
drying ovens and, in particular, from mineral oil from high-temperature
(200 °C) drying/curing. These processes can emit formaldehyde, acids,
softeners, and other volatile compounds. Residues from fiber preparation
sometimes emit pollutants during heatsetting processes.
Carriers and solvents may be emitted during dyeing operations depending on
the types of dyeing processes used and from wastewater treatment plant
operations. Carriers used in batch dyeing of disperse dyes may lead to
volatilization of aqueous chemical emulsions during heatsetting, drying, or
curing stages. Acetic acid and formaldehyde are two major emissions of
concern in textiles. Other potential pollutants can include solvent vapors
containing toxic compounds such as acetaldehyde, chlorofluorocarbons, p-
dichlorobenzene, ethyl acetate, and others. Some process chemicals, such as
methyl naphthalene or chlorotoluene, may exhaust into the fibers and are later
emitted from dryers as VOCs (EPA, 1996). Formaldehyde might be emitted
from bulk resin storage tanks, finished fabric warehouses, driers, and curing
ovens located at facilities that apply formaldehyde-containing resins to cotton
and polyester/cotton blends (ATMI, 1997b). ATMI estimates that the
Sector Notebook Project
45
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
majority of resin finishing plants emit less than one ton per year of
formaldehyde from storage tanks, fabric, off-gassing.
Textile manufacturing can produce oil and acid fumes, plasticizers, arid other
volatile chemicals. Acetic acid emissions may arise from storage tanks,
especially from vents during filling. Carbonizing processes, used in wool yarn
manufacture, may emit sulfuric acid fumes and decating, a finishing process
applied to wool fabrics to set the nap and develop luster, produces formic acid
fumes. In addition, cleaning and scouring chemicals were estimated at 10,500
metric tons in 1988 (EPA, 1996).
Other Wastes
The primary residual wastes generated from the textile industry are
nonhazardous. These include fabric and yarn scrap, off-spec yarn and fabric,
and packaging waste. Cutting room waste generates a high volume of fabric
scrap that can be reduced by increasing fabric utilization efficiency in cutting
and sewing. Typical efficiency for using fabric averages from 72 to 94
percent. As a result, fabrication waste from carpets amounts to about 2
percent of an annual 900 million square yards of production (a value of $100
million). Denim cutting waste accounts for approximately 16 percent of
denim production, or 100 million pounds annually.
Although a large portion of cutting waste goes to landfill, some innovative
programs being implemented to recycle this material. Some facilities collect
cotton lint for resale. Cotton trash, leaves, and stems collected during the
yarn formation have been sold to farmers as animal feed.
A materials flow sheet is shown in Figure 12 and summarizes raw materials
input and waste output generated during the manufacture of a cotton knit golf
shirt.
Sector Notebook Project
46
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
Figure 12: Materials Flow for a Cotton Knit Golf Shirt
Reworkable Waste From
Upstream Processing Stages
Energy
Air
| .8
1 *
t s
on "5* oo
S g -S
E..2 a,
. 59. 5
>* d j; rt
1 «sl*
>,Sf -H-SiS!
So 3 .3 m M
|JJ S3J 1
1
J-
^3 *-
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1> £2 co *d
wi J2 o O L- *£
S >,Jis|i3
s ir bo o T; 5 ' o
ill'IIPli
fe iT Ti * i
Input
1
is
i
r,norgy
Air
Parallel Fibers
in Sliver Form
^ 1
l< °
i
Opened Fiber
to Cleaning
Cotton Bales
from Gin
Lubricating Oils
' Detergents
Seed Cotton
40
wj £D
4
I
3
4
i
f
o
i I
A
t
Agriculture
Reworkable \^
Sliver -- Bacl
Opening
"Swfiens" fisln
Nonlint Trash
Collected Dust -
Pelletize for Fue
Reworlrahle Wast
1 -Nonlint Trash
Collected Dust and 1 Collected Dust -
Lint -Pelletize for Fuel Pelletize for Fuel
Metal or Plastic Straps
Burlap or Polypropylene sliver back to reworkable) -
Bale Wrap Opening Pelletize for Fuel
Fiber Waste
' Nonfibrous Waste
t Foreign Matter (Rocks)
Trash (Sticks, Seeds,
Leaves)
^ 'id ^5 5
^5 _:- 42 ffl 1
'S'gg'Si^Jl^eL.gg 3
Si|lg|illi| r|
i
Agricultural Runoff
t Surface Water
Ground Water
11 t
Materials Flow
Solid Wastes
h Fertilizers/
Pesticide
i i
00
«J ^3
^ a
» S -2
bJl PH Q
§
-J 1
Output
Sector Notebook Project
47
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
Figure 12 (cont.): Materials Flow for a Cotton Knit Golf Shirt
1 S
J rs g»
-sgl
"° H J2
SJJ
|
^
I
o. S
a 2
£ fe.
'S .2
TT
i
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ss
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9
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t
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||fll|.||5
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ll
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ft 8>
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itor) Spinning
I
|I jj£iSjJ3f
IrllllHllo1!
?s°-'SE5«>T3S^«5'
III 1
[aterials Flow Output
Sector Notebook Project
48
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
Figure 12 (cont): Materials Flow for a Cotton Knit Golf Shirt
!_
4,
|
I
I
a«
« T3
CQ 3
.££ w
£ o
i i
It
J2 -i
4
L
Pack and Ship
t
L
Cut and Sew
i
L
Inspect/Pack/
Ship
i
t
Chemical
Finish
1
00
J
1
1
1
Cut Scraps
Trim Cutout Defects
Packing Materials
t Plastic
Metal
Waste Parts COff-SnecificatiorA
tx r- - - -'
Cones or Spools From Thread
Shirts (Unmerchantable)
|
(5
1 U>
o
o o
C .2
8 ^
[2 &
*£ S » SH
s ^ "3 "° * o
3, § | x w OT a
^£11 1 1
ho
Dust and Lint from Filters
in Curing Ovens | Q
Dumped Mixes
1 End-of-Run
1 Unused Portions
Washdown
g> M
S | § g 2
| .* :| -ail §
-------
Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
Figure 12 (cont.): Materials Flow for a Cotton Knit Golf Shirt
i
ill
oo W H
"B E "2
L
00
a -9 -3
1 | |.8
Cij C *» ^
.«
S c?
||
11
1
Q S *fe* (o
. till
« O S O .0 ^~
$ 1 §^
> a -3-11
1 S3
-Siri
"3-^-5 S .3
w K ^ tS O
1 1 1 1 1
-S- .s
L
d ^ r**! *
8 -o *o
J S ! 8.
" tn l
- Q -C
2 ^ -o u I i
Q (2 *-<3 -1 i
J U
.eactive Dyeing
h(OMCHN)
t |
E
H«(
i
*>< § ^
§ h ll
^ § ^8
1? g a § -S
a M * to 0)
I-i .a
II* ii1
Z 3? & -3 S « oo
1 1 1 1 1 1 i
jj
^
1 ?! J* |
?|a || If |,ll
Illllll^lllllllli
a | | 1 g3| 1 1 1 1 | | | | |I
III II
o I s ' S
S .S i J
Scour and
Bleach
i
^J '^-
!;§
^ Ok.
J
|^
j* e
? 1
1 1
1
L
s s ^ <2 I Is
§ 3 'S "S T3 o iS 'BD
^||lg| || S | |
-fill's! 'fill »ll ^
gill 1 | 1 1 1 1 1 |j_lll
1 1 III
Q. 3
o E 2
$
& ^
11
O ~
^
«
t
0? ^ ^
M 2 'a 'if
i » J -| S
"2 T-'^ "3 ^ " 8
M ** fi § S
i i T i
i i it
InP"4 i? Materials Flow Output
Source: Best Management Practices for Pollution Prevention in the Textile Industry, EPA, Office of Research
and Development, 1995
Sector Notebook Project
50
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
HLC. Management of Chemicals in the Production Process
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (PPA) requires facilities to report
information about the management of Toxics Release Inventory (TRI)
chemicals in waste and efforts made to eliminate or reduce those quantities.
These data have been collected annually in Section 8 of the TRI reporting
Form R beginning with the 1991 reporting year. The data summarized below
cover the years 1994-1997 and is meant to provide a basic understanding of
the quantities of waste handled by the industry, the methods typically used to
manage this waste, and recent trends in these methods. TRI waste
management data can be used to assess trends in source reduction within
individual industries and facilities, and for specific TRI chemicals. This
information could then be used as a tool in identifying opportunities for
pollution prevention compliance assistance activities. Background
information on TRI and its limitations is presented in Section IV.
While the quantities reported for 1994 and 1995 are estimates of quantities
already managed, the quantities reported for 1996 and 1997 are projections
only. The PPA requires these projections to encourage facilities to consider
future waste generation and source reduction of those quantities as well as
movement up the waste management hierarchy. Future-year estimates are not
commitments that facilities reporting under TRI are required to meet.
Table 9 shows that the TRI reporting textiles facilities managed about 57.6
million pounds of production related wastes (total quantity of TRI chemicals
in the waste from routine production operations in column B) in 1995. From
the yearly data in column B, it is apparent that the total quantities of
production related TRI wastes increased by less than one percent between
1994 and 1995 and are projected to decrease by five percent between 1995
and 1997. Values in column C are intended to reveal the percentage of TRI
chemicals that are either transferred off-site or released to the environment.
Column C is calculated by dividing the total TRI transfers and releases
(reported in Sections 5 and 6 of the TRI Form R) by the total quantity of
production-related waste (reported in Section 8). The textile industry is
expected to lower the percentage of TRI chemicals transferred off-site or
released to the environment by six percent between 1995 and 1997.
The data, indicate that about 57 percent of the TRI wastes were managed
onsite through recycling, energy recovery, or treatment (columns D, E, and
F, respectively) in 1995. About 11 percent of the wastes were managed off-
site. The remaining portion of TRI chemical wastes (about 33 percent),
shown in column J, were released to the environment through direct
discharges to air, land, water, and underground injection, or were disposed
off-site. The overall portion of wastes managed onsite (columns G, H, and I)
is expected to increase by five percent between 1995 and 1996 and eight
Sector Notebook Project
51
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Textile Industry
Industrial Process Description
percent between 1995 and 1997. The overall portion of wastes managed off-
site (columns D, E, and F) change very little from year to year.
Table 9: Source Reduction and Recycling Activity for the
Textile Industry (SIC 22) as Reported within TRI
A
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
B
Quantity of
Production-
Related
Waste
(10«lbs.)*
57.1
57.6
55.2
54.5
C
% Released
and
Transferred1"
7.7
43.0
N/A
N/A
On-Site
D
%
Recycled
23.6%
18.6%
21.6%
22.3%
E
% Energy
Recovery
7.2%
8.6%
9.0%
9.6%
F
% Treated
24.0%
30.0%
31.2%
30.8%
Off-Site
G
%
Recycled
1.4%
1.4%
1.8%
2.9%
H
% Energy
Recovery
3.1%
3.6%
2.6%
2.3%
I
% Treated
6.0%
6.2%
5.4%
5.4%
J
% Released
and
Disposed
Off-Site"
34.9%
33.0%
28.3%
26.9%
Source: Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1995.
a Within this industry sector, non-production related waste was < 1% of production related wastes for 1995.
Total TRI transfers and releases as reported in Section 5 and 6 of Form R as a percentage of production related wastes.
c Percentage of production related waste released to the environment and transferred off-site for disposal.
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV. CHEMICAL RELEASE AND TRANSFER PROFILE
This section is designed to provide background information on the pollutant
releases that are reported by this industry. The best source of comparative
pollutant release information is the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI). Pursuant
to the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, TRI includes
self-reported facility release and transfer data for over 600 toxic chemicals.
Facilities within SIC Codes 20 through 39 (manufacturing industries) that
have more than 10 employees, and that are above weight-based reporting
thresholds are required to report TRI on-site releases and off-site transfers.
The information presented within the sector notebooks is derived from the
most recently available (1995) TRI reporting year (which includes over 600
chemicals), and focuses primarily on the on-site releases reported by each
sector. Because TRI requires consistent reporting regardless of sector, it is
an excellent tool for drawing comparisons across industries. TRI data provide
the type, amount and media receptor of each chemical released or transferred.
Although this sector notebook does not present historical information
regarding TRI chemical releases over time, please note that in general, toxic
chemical releases have been declining. In fact, according to the 1995 Toxic
Release Inventory Public Data Release, reported onsite releases of toxic
chemicals to the environment decreased by 5 percent (85.4 million pounds)
between 1994 and 1995 (not including chemicals added and removed from the
TRI chemical list during this period). Reported releases dropped by 46
percent between 1988 and 1995. Reported transfers of TRI chemicals to off-
site locations increased by 0.4 percent (11.6 million pounds) between 1994
and 1995. More detailed information can be obtained from EPA's annual
Toxics Release Inventory Public Data Release book (which is available
through the EPCRA Hotline at 800-535-0202), or directly from the Toxic
Release Inventory System database (for user support call 202-260-1531).
Wherever possible, the sector notebooks present TRI data as the primary
indicator of chemical release within each industrial category. TRI data
provide the type, amount and media receptor of each chemical released or
transferred. When other sources of pollutant release data have been obtained,
these data have been included to augment the TRI information.
TRI Data Limitations
Certain limitations exist regarding TRI data. Release and transfer reporting are
limited to the approximately 600 chemicals on the TRI list. Therefore, a large
portion of the emissions from industrial facilities are not captured by TRI.
Within some sectors, (e.g. dry cleaning, printing and transportation equipment
cleaning) the majority of facilities are not subject to TRI reporting because
they are not considered manufacturing industries, or because they are below
TRI reporting thresholds. For these sectors, release information from other
Sector Notebook Project
53
September 1997
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Textile Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
sources has been included. In addition, many facilities report more than one
SIC code reflecting the multiple operations carried out onsite. Therefore,
reported releases and transfers may or may not all be associated with the
industrial operations described in this notebook.
The reader should also be aware that TRI "pounds released" data presented
within the notebooks is not equivalent to a "risk" ranking for each industry.
Weighting each pound of release equally does not factor in the relative
toxicity of each chemical that is released. The Agency is in the process of
developing an approach to assign toxicological weightings to each chemical
released so that one can differentiate between pollutants with significant
differences in toxicity. As a preliminary indicator of the environmental impact
of the industry's most commonly released chemicals, the notebook briefly
summarizes the toxicological properties of the top five chemicals (by weight)
reported by each industry.
Definitions Associated With Section IV Data Tables
General Definitions
SIC Code ~ the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) is a statistical
classification standard used for all establishment-based Federal economic
statistics. The SIC codes facilitate comparisons between facility and industry
data.
TRI Facilities are manufacturing facilities that have 10 or more full-time
employees and are above established chemical throughput thresholds.
Manufacturing facilities are defined as facilities in Standard Industrial
Classification primary codes 20-39. Facilities must submit estimates for all
chemicals that are on the EPA's defined list and are above throughput
thresholds.
Data Table Column Heading Definitions
The following definitions are based upon standard definitions developed by
EPA's Toxic Release Inventory Program. The categories below represent the
possible pollutant destinations that can be reported.
RELEASES are an on-site discharge of a toxic chemical to the
environment. This includes emissions to the air, discharges to bodies of
water, releases at the facility to land, as well as contained disposal into
underground injection wells.
Releases to Air (Point and Fugitive Air Emissions) Include all air
emissions from industry activity. Point emissions occur through confined air
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streams as found in stacks, vents, ducts, or pipes. Fugitive emissions include
equipment leaks, evaporative losses from surface impoundments and spills,
and releases from building ventilation systems.
Releases to Water (Surface Water Discharges) encompass any releases
going directly to streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, or other bodies of water.
Releases due to runoff, including storm water runoff, are also reportable to
TRI.
Releases to Land -- occur within the boundaries of the reporting facility.
Releases to land include disposal of toxic chemicals in landfills, land
treatment/application farming, surface impoundments, and other land disposal
methods (such as spills, leaks, or waste piles).
Underground Injection -- is a contained release of a fluid into a subsurface
well for the purpose of waste disposal. Wastes containing TRI chemicals are
injected into either Class I wells or Class V wells. Class I wells are used to
inject liquid hazardous wastes or dispose of industrial and municipal
wastewaters beneath the lowermost underground source of drinking water.
Class V wells are generally used to inject non-hazardous fluid into or above
an underground source of drinking water. TRI reporting does not currently
distinguish between these two types of wells, although there are important
differences in environmental impact between these two methods of injection.
TRANSFERS is a transfer of toxic chemicals in wastes to a facility that is
geographically or physically separate from the facility reporting under TRI.
Chemicals reported to TRI as transferred are sent to off-site facilities for the
purpose of recycling, energy recovery, treatment, or disposal. The quantities
reported represent a movement of the chemical away from the reporting
facility. Except for off-site transfers for disposal, the reported quantities do
not necessarily represent entry of the chemical into the environment.
Transfers to POTWs are wastewater transferred through pipes or sewers
to a publicly owned treatments works (POTW). Treatment or removal of a
chemical from the wastewater depend on the nature of the chemical, as well
as the treatment methods present at the POTW. Not all TRI chemicals can
be treated or removed by a POTW. Some chemicals, such as metals, may be
removed, but are not destroyed and may be disposed of in landfills or
discharged to receiving waters.
Transfers to Recycling are sent off-site for the purposes of regenerating
or recovery by a variety of recycling methods, including solvent recovery,
metals recovery, and acid regeneration. Once these chemicals have been
recycled, they may be returned to the originating facility or sold commercially.
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Transfers to Energy Recovery are wastes combusted off-site in industrial
furnaces for energy recovery. Treatment of a chemical by incineration is not
considered to be energy recovery.
Transfers to Treatment ~ are wastes moved off-site to be treated through
a variety of methods, including neutralization, incineration, biological
destruction, or physical separation. In some cases, the chemicals are not
destroyed but prepared for further waste management.
Transfers to Disposal ~ are wastes taken to another facility for disposal
generally as a release to land or as an injection underground.
IV.A. EPA Toxic Release Inventory for the Textile Industry
According to the 1995 Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) data, 339 textile
facilities reporting SIC 22, released (to the air, water, or land) and transferred
(shipped off-site or discharged to sewers) a total of 25 million pounds of toxic
chemicals during calendar year 1995. This represents approximately 0.4
percent of the 5.7 billion pounds of releases and transfers from all
manufacturers (SICs 20-39) reporting to TRI that year.
The releases and transfers are dominated by large volumes of solvents which
are used extensively in coating textile materials with plastic and other
synthetic materials. The top three chemicals released by volume are methyl
ethyl ketone (MEK), toluene, and methanol. These three account for about
64 percent (11.4 million pounds) of the industry's total releases.
Evidence of the diversity of processes at textile facilities reporting to TRI is
found in the fact that the most frequently reported chemicals, methanol and
ammonia, account for only 18 percent of the total number of chemicals
reported by all 338 textile facilities that report to TRI. Over half of the
chemicals are reported by fewer than ten facilities. The variability in facilities'
TRI chemical profiles may be attributed to the variety of processes and
products in the industry.
Releases
Table 10 presents the number and volumes of chemicals released by textile
manufacturing facilities reporting SIC 22, in 1995. The total volume of
releases was 17.8 million pounds or 72 percent of the total volume of
chemicals reported to TRI by the textile industry (i.e. releases and transfers).
The top five chemicals released by this industry, in terms of volumes, include:
MEK, toluene, methanol, ammonia, and xylenes (mixed isomers). The very
volatile nature of these chemicals is apparent in the fact that about 98 percent
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(17.5 million pounds) of the industry's releases are to the air. About 76
percent (13.6 million pounds) of all the chemicals released by the textile
industry were released to air in the form of point source emissions. Another
22 percent (3.9 million pounds) were released as fugitive emissions. The
remaining two percent (276,000 pounds) were released in the form of water
discharges or disposals to land. Because the majority of TRI releases are in
the form of air emissions, these data indicate that the large amount of
wastewater discharged from textile facilities contain dilute amounts of TRI
chemicals.
Transfers
Table 11 presents the number and volumes of chemicals transferred by textile
manufacturing facilities reporting SIC 22, in 1995. The total volume of
transfers was 7.0 million pounds or 28 percent of the total volume of
chemicals reported to TRI by the textile industry (i.e. releases and transfers).
Transfers to POTWs accounted for the largest amount, 40 percent, (2.8
million pounds). About 30 percent (2.1 million pounds) was transferred for
either disposal, recycling, or treatment and the remaining 30 percent (2.1
million pounds) was transferred for energy recovery. Three chemicals (MEK,
toluene, and ammonia) accounted for about 38 percent of the 7.0 million
pounds of total transfers for this industry.
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Chemical Releases and Transfers
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The TRI database contains a detailed compilation of self-reported, facility-
specific chemical releases. The top reporting facilities for this sector, based
on pounds released, are listed below (Table 12). Facilities that have reported
only the SIC codes covered under this notebook appear on the first list. Table
13 contains additional facilities that have reported only the SIC codes covered
within this report, p_r facilities that have reported SIC codes covered within
this notebook and one or more SIC codes that are not within the scope of this
notebook. Therefore, the second list includes facilities that conduct multiple
operations ~ some that are under the scope of this notebook, and some that
may not. Currently, the facility-level data do not allow pollutant releases to
be broken apart by industrial process.
Table 12: Top 10 TRI Releasing Textile Manufacturing Facilities Reporting Only SIC 221
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Facility
Gencorp, Columbus, MS*
Holliston Mills Inc., Church Hill, TN
Avondale Mills, Inc., Graniteville, SC
American & Efird Inc., Mount Holly, NC
Uniroyal Engineered Products, Stoughton, WT*
Textileather Corporation, Toledo, OH*
Athol Corporation, Burner, NC*
Excello Fabric Finishers Inc., Coshocton, OH
Shaw Ind. Inc., Dalton, GA
Collins & Aikman Products Company, Farmville, NC
TOTAL
Total Releases in Pounds
2,761,015
1,755,090
1,260,050
1,070,442
758,023
520,890
421,229
414,000
412,873
367,120
9,740,732
Source: US Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1995.
'Being included on this list does not mean that the releases are associated with non-compliance with environmental
laws.
This facility manufactures coated fabrics and is classified as SIC Code 2295, Miscellaneous Textiles, Coated Fabrics
Not Rubberized.
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Table 13: Top 10 TRI Releasing Facilities Reporting Only Textile Manufacturing SIC
Codes (SIC 22) or SIC 22 and Other SIC Codes1
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Facility
Gencorp, Columbus, MS*
Holliston Mills Inc., Church Hill, TN*
Du Pont, Old Hickory, TN
IPC Corinth Div. Inc., Corinth, MS
Avondale Mills, Inc., Graniteville, SC
American & Efird Inc., Mount Holly, NC
E.R. Carpenter Co. Inc., Riverside, CA
Carpenter Co., Russellville, KY
Reeves Intl., Spartanburg, SC
Carpenter Co., Richmond, VA
TOTAL
Total Releases in Pounds
2,761,015
1,755,090
1,737,853
1,479,471
1,260,050
1,070,442
896,755
877,660
855,355
799,567
13,493,258
Source: US Toxics Release Inventory Database, 1995.
'Being included on this list does not mean that the releases are associated with non-compliance with environmental
laws.
This facility manufactures coated fabrics and is classified as SIC Code 2295, Miscellaneous Textiles, Coated
Fabrics Not Rubberized.
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IV.B. Summary of Selected Chemicals Released
The following is a synopsis of current scientific toxicity and fate information
for the top chemicals (by weight) that facilities within SIC 22 self-reported as
released to the environment based upon 1994 TRI data. Because this section
is based upon self-reported release data, it does not attempt to provide
information on management practices employed by the sector to reduce the
release of these chemicals.
Information regarding pollutant release reductions over time may be available
from EPA's TRI and 33/50 programs, or directly from the industrial trade
associations that are listed in Section IX of this document. Since these
descriptions are cursory, please consult the sources referenced for a more
detailed description of both the chemicals described in this section, and the
chemicals that appear on the full list of TRI chemicals appearing in Section
IV.C.
The brief descriptions provided below were taken from the 7994 Toxics
Release Inventory Public Data Release (EPA, 1994), the Hazardous
Substances Data Bank (HSDB), and the Integrated Risk Information System
(IRIS), both accessed via TOXNET.1
Ammonia2 (CAS: 7664-41-7)
Sources. Ammonia is used in some printing, coating, preparation, and dyeing
processes (ATMI, 1997b).
Toxicity. Anhydrous ammonia is irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, throat, and
upper respiratory system.
1 TOXNET is a computer system run by the National Library of Medicine that includes a number of toxicological
databases managed by EPA, National Cancer Institute, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
For more information on TOXNET, contact the TOXNET help line at 800-231-3766. Databases included in TOXNET
arc; CCRIS (Chemical Carcinogenesis Research Information System), DART (Developmental and Reproductive
Toxicity Database), DBIR (Directory of Biotechnology Information Resources), EMICBACK (Environmental Mutagen
Information Center Backfile), GENE-TOX (Genetic Toxicology), HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank), IRIS
(Integrated Risk Information System), RTECS (Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances), and TRI (Toxic
Chemical Release Inventory). HSDB contains chemical-specific information on manufacturing and use, chemical and
physical properties, safety and handling, toxicity and biomedical effects, pharmacology, environmental fate and exposure
potential, exposure standards and regulations, monitoring and analysis methods, and additional references.
2 The reporting standards for ammonia were changed in 1995. Ammonium sulfate is deleted from the list and threshold
and release determinations for aqueous ammonia are limited to 10 percent of the total ammonia present in solution. This
change will reduce the amount of ammonia reported to TRI. Complete details of the revisions can be found in 40 CFR
Part 372.
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Ecologically, ammonia is a source of nitrogen (an essential element for aquatic
plant growth), and may therefore contribute to eutrophication of standing or
slow-moving surface water, particularly in nitrogen-limited waters such as the
Chesapeake Bay. In addition, aqueous ammonia is moderately toxic to aquatic
organisms.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that this chemical
is carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Ammonia is a corrosive and severely irritating gas with
a pungent odor. Ammonia combines with sulfate ions in the atmosphere and
is washed out by rainfall, resulting in rapid return of ammonia to the soil and
surface waters.
Ammonia is a central compound in the environmental cycling of nitrogen.
Ammonia in lakes, rivers, and streams is converted to nitrate.
Methanol (CAS: 67-56-1)
Sources. Methanol primarily arises from the use of PVA in sizing operations.
It may also be emitted from finishing operations where methanol-etherated
formaldehyde resins are used (ATMI, 1997b).
Toxicity. Methanol is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and the
respiratory tract, and is toxic to humans in moderate to high doses. In the
body, methanol is converted into formaldehyde and formic acid. Methanol is
excreted as formic acid. Observed toxic effects at high dose levels generally
include central nervous system damage and blindness. Long-term exposure
to high levels of methanol via inhalation cause liver and blood damage in
animals.
Ecologically, methanol is expected to have low toxicity to aquatic organisms.
Concentrations lethal to half the organisms of a test population are expected
to exceed one mg methanol per liter water. Methanol is not likely to persist
in water or to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that this chemical
is carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Methanol is highly flammable and volatile. Liquid
methanol is likely to evaporate when left exposed. Methanol reacts in air to
produce formaldehyde which contributes to the formation of air pollutants.
In the atmosphere it can react with other atmospheric chemicals or be washed
out by rain. Methanol is readily degraded by microorganisms in soils and
surface waters.
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Methyl Ethyl Ketane (CAS: 78-93-3)
Sources. Methyl ethyl ketone may be used in solvent coating operations
(ATMI, 1997b).
Toxicity. Breathing moderate amounts of methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) for
short periods of time can cause adverse effects on the nervous system ranging
from headaches, dizziness, nausea, and numbness in the fingers and toes, to
unconsciousness. Its vapors are irritating to the skin, eyes, nose and throat,
and can damage the eyes. Repeated exposure to moderate to high amounts
may cause liver and kidney defects.
Carcinogenity. No agreement exists over the carcinogenity of MEK. One
source believes MEK is a possible carcinogen to humans based on limited
animal evidence. Other sources believe that there is insufficient evidence to
make any statements about possible carcinogenicity.
Environmental Fate. Methyl ethyl ketone is a flammable and volatile liquid.
Most of the MEK released to the environment will end up in the atmosphere.
MEK can contribute to the formation of air pollutants in the lower
atmosphere. It can be degraded by microorganisms living in water and soil.
Toluene (CAS: 108-88-3)
Sources. Toluene may be used in solvent coating operations (ATMI, 1997b).
Toxicity. Inhalation or ingestion of toluene can cause headaches, confusion,
weakness, and memory loss. Toluene may also affect the way the kidneys and
liver function.
Reactions of toluene (see environmental fate) in the atmosphere contribute to
the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere. Ozone can affect the
respiratory system, especially in sensitive individuals such as asthma or allergy
sufferers.
Some studies have shown that unborn animals were harmed when high levels
of toluene were inhaled by their mothers, although the same effects were not
seen when the mothers were fed large quantities of toluene. Note that these
results may reflect similar difficulties in humans.
Carcinogenicity. There is currently no evidence to suggest that toluene is
carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Toluene is a volatile organic chemical. A portion of
releases of toluene to land and water will evaporate. Toluene may also be
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Chemical Releases and Transfers
degraded by microorganisms. Once volatilized, toluene in the lower
atmosphere will react with other atmospheric components contributing to the
formation of ground-level ozone and other air pollutants.
Xylene (mixed isomers) (CAS: 1330-20-7)
Sources. Xylenes are used in printing operations.
Toxicity. Xylenes are rapidly absorbed into the body after inhalation,
ingestion, or skin contact. Short-term exposure of humans to high levels of
xylenes can cause irritation of the skin, eyes, nose, and throat, difficulty in
breathing, impaired lung function, impaired memory, and possible changes in
the liver and kidneys. Both short and long term exposure to high
concentrations can cause effects such as headaches, dizziness, confusion, and
lack of muscle coordination. Reactions of xylenes (see Environmental Fate)
in the atmosphere contribute to the formation of ozone in the lower
atmosphere. Ozone can effect the respiratory system, especially in sensitive
individuals such as asthma or allergy sufferers.
Carcinogenity.There is currently no evidence to suggest that this chemical
is carcinogenic.
Environmental Fate. Xylenes are volatile organic chemicals. As such,
xylenes in the lower atmosphere will react with other atmospheric
components, contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone and other
air pollutants. The majority of releases to land and water will quickly
evaporate, although some degradation by microorganisms will occur. Xylenes
are moderately mobile in soils and may leach into groundwater, where they
may persist for several years.
IV.C. Other Data Sources
The toxic chemical release data obtained from TRI captures only 7 percent of
facilities in the textile industry. Reported chemicals are limited to the 316
reported chemicals. It allows, however, for a comparison across years and
industry sectors. Most of the air emissions from textile facilities are not
captured by TRI. The EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards has
compiled air pollutant emission factors for determining the total air emissions
of priority pollutants (e.g., total hydrocarbons, SOX, NOX, CO, particulates,
etc.) from many manufacturing sources.
The EPA Office of Air's database contains a wide range of information related
to stationary sources of air pollution, including the emissions of a number of
air pollutants which may be of concern within a particular industry. With the
exception of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), there is little overlap with
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the TRI chemicals reported above. Table 14 summarizes annual releases of
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter of 10
microns or less (PM10), total particulates (PT), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Table 14: 1995 Criteria Air Pollutant Releases (tons/year)
Industry Sector
Metal Mining
Nonmetal Mining
Lumber and Wood
Production
Furniture and Fixtures
Pulp and Paper
Printing
Inorganic Chemicals
Organic Chemicals
Petroleum Refining
Rubber and Misc. Plastics
Stone, Clay and Concrete
Iron and Steel
Nonferrous Metals
Fabricated Metals
Electronics and Computers
Motor Vehicles, Bodies,
Parts and Accessories
Dry Cleaning
Ground Transportation
Metal Casting
Pharmaceuticals
Plastic Resins and
Manmade Fibers
Textiles
Power Generation
Ship Building and Repair
CO
4,670
25,922
122,061
2,754
566,883
8,755
153,294
112,410
734,630
2,200
105,059
1,386,461
214,243
4,925
356
15,109
102
128,625
116,538
6,586
16,388
8,177
366,208
105
NO2
39,849
22,881
38,042
1,872
358,675
3,542
106,522
187,400
355,852
9,955
340,639
153,607
31,136
11,104
1,501
27,355
184
550,551
11,911
19,088
41,771
34,523
5,986,757
862
PM10
63,541
40,199
20,456
2,502
35,030
405
6,703
14,596
27,497
2,618
192,962
83,938
10,403
1,019
224
1,048
3
2,569
10,995
1,576
2,218
2,028
140,760
638
PT
173,566
128,661
64,650
4,827
111,210
1,198
34,664
16,053
36,141
5,182
662,233
87,939
24,654
2,790
385
3,699
27
5,489
20,973
4,425
7,546
9,479
464,542
943
S02
17,690
18,000
9,401
1,538
493,313
1,684
194,153
176,115
619,775
21,720
308,534
232,347
253,538
3,169
741
20,378
155
8,417
6,513
21,311
67,546
43,050
13,827,511
3,051
voc
915
4,002
55,983
67,604
127,809
103,018
65,427
180,350
313,982
132,945
34,337
83,882
11,058
86,472
4,866
96,338
7,441
104,824
19,031
37,214
74,138
27,768
57,384
3,967
Source: U.S. EPA Office of Air and Radiation, AIRS Database, 1 997.
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
IV.D. Comparison of Toxic Release Inventory Between Selected Industries
The following information is presented as a comparison of pollutant release
and transfer data across industrial categories. It is provided to give a general
sense as to the relative scale of releases and transfers within each sector
profiled under this project. Please note that the following figure and table do
not contain releases and transfers for industrial categories that are not
included in this project, and thus cannot be used to draw conclusions
regarding the total release and transfer amounts that are reported to TRI.
Similar information is available within the annual TRI Public Data Release
Book.
Figure 13 is a graphical representation of a summary of the 1995 TRI data for
the textile industry and the other sectors profiled in separate notebooks. The
bar graph presents the total TRI releases and total transfers on the vertical
axis. The graph is based on the data in Table 15 and is meant to facilitate
comparisons between the relative amounts of releases, transfers, and releases
per facility both within and between these sectors. The reader should note,
however, that differences in the proportion of facilities captured by TRI exist
between industry sectors. This can be a factor of poor SIC matching and
relative differences in the number of facilities reporting to TRI from the
various sectors. In the case of the textile industry, the 1995 TRI data
presented here covers 416 facilities. Only those facilities listing SIC Codes
falling within SIC 22 were used.
Sector Notebook Project
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Textile Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
Figure 13; Summary of TRI Releases and Transfers by Industry
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Sector Notebook Project
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September 1997
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Textile Industry
Chemical Releases and Transfers
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Textile Industry
Pollution Prevention Opportunities
V. POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES
The best way to reduce pollution is to prevent it in the first place. Some
companies have creatively implemented pollution prevention techniques that
improve efficiency and increase profits while at the same time minimizing
environmental impacts. This can be done in many ways such as reducing
material inputs, re-engineering processes to reuse by-products, improving
management practices, and employing substitution of toxic chemicals. Some
smaller facilities are able to actually get below regulatory thresholds just by
reducing pollutant releases through aggressive pollution prevention policies.
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 established a national policy of
managing waste through source reduction, which means preventing the
generation of waste. The Pollution Prevention Act also established as national
policy a hierarchy of waste management options for situations in which source
reduction cannot be implemented feasibly. In the waste management
hierarchy, if source reduction is not feasible the next alternative is recycling
of wastes, followed by energy recovery, and waste treatment as a last
alternative.
In order to encourage these approaches, this section provides both general
and company-specific descriptions of some pollution prevention advances that
have been implemented within the metal casting industry. While the list is not
exhaustive, it does provide core information that can be used as the starting
point for facilities interested in beginning their own pollution prevention
projects. This section provides summary information from activities that may
be, or are being implemented by this sector. When possible, information is
provided that gives the context in which the technique can be used effectively.
Please note that the activities described in this section do not necessarily apply
to all facilities that fall within this sector. Facility-specific conditions must be
carefully considered when pollution prevention options are evaluated, and the
full impacts of the change must examine how each option affects air, land and
water pollutant releases.
Most of the pollution prevention activities in the textile industry have focused
on reducing chemical use, reusing process water, and reducing all solid waste
forms - pallets, cardboard, etc (ATMI, 1997b). This section describes some
of the pollution prevention opportunities for textile facilities. Much of the
following section is based upon "Best Management Practices for Pollution
Prevention in the Textile Industry, " by the U.S. EPA Office of Research and
Development. Most case studies, unless noted, were taken from this
document. Additional references are cited in the text.
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Pollution Prevention Opportunities
V.A. Quality Control for Raw Materials
Raw material quality control programs can be implemented by establishing
specific and appropriate purchasing, packaging, and inventory control policies
to prevent the ordering and use of untested materials. Textile companies can
reduce waste by working with suppliers to come up with less-polluting raw
materials and by developing purchasing codes that commit companies to using
less-polluting raw materials.
Benefits of such programs can include decreased production of ofF-quality
goods, less rework, and increased product consistency. Companies can also
control raw materials quality by prescreening and testing shipments as they are
received. Prescreening provides facilities with opportunities to determine
chemical and mechanical alternatives, proper chemical use and training, and
proper disposal and treatment methods.
Adopt environmentally responsible purchasing policies and work with
suppliers to obtain less-polluting raw materials.
Facilities can adopt purchasing policies that restrict the use of hazardous
chemicals as a way to reduce waste. Facilities can also work with vendors to
set acceptable guidelines for the purity and content of chemicals, like chemical
specialties, which are typically of unknown composition to the textile mill.
Mills in the United Kingdom adopted purchasing policies as a way to reduce
pollution. Researchers determined that 70 percent of woolen mills in the United
Kingdom emitted pentachlorophenol (PCP), a harmful agricultural residue in wool,
from their finishing plants. A study determined that it originated in the incoming
greige goods. By specifying in company purchasing policies that they would not
accept PCP-containing greige goods, the presence of PCP in wastewater decreased
by 50 percent. This was a good method of reducing this waste since there are no
acceptable PCP treatment technologies (EPA, 1996).
At its Monroe, North Carolina facility, Bloomsburg Mills scours, dyes, and
finishes about 22 million yards of fabric per year. The facility uses d)'e carrier
chemicals, such as tetrachloroethylene, biphenyl, and trichlorobenzene, to promote
level dyeing. In an effort to reduce SARA ffl, Section 313 regulatory burdens (TRI
reporting), Bloomsburg Mills discussed with vendors the elimination of these
chemicals. The company substituted a dye carrier containing methyl naphthalene
with non-photochemically reactive solvents. This dye carrier subsequently reduced
the release of hazardous air pollutants by 91 percent from 64,713 pounds in 1988
to 5,932 pounds in 1993 (NC DEHNR, 1995).
Perform tests on raw materials shortly after receipt.
Prescreening raw materials can be used to determine interactions with
processes, substrates, and other chemicals. This method can also be used to
determine environmental effects, proper handling, and emergency procedures
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Textile Industry
Pollution Prevention Opportunities
for chemicals. This can enable the early detection of mislabeled drums and
changes in the formulation of a chemical specialty, and reduce the occurrence
of costly production mistakes stemming from untested chemicals being
processed (NC DEHNR, 1986). Protocol for incoming chemical quality
control may consist of the following steps: marking the date the container was
opened; checking pH, viscosity, density, conductivity, and color; comparing
data with previous history and vendor's standard values; entering data on a
control chart for display; maintaining records; and reviewing data with the
vendor. Environmental data that should be checked include whether the
chemicals are listed as priority pollutants under the Clean Water Act,
hazardous air pollutants under the Clean Air Act, and as 33/50 chemicals, the
indoor air pollution hazard potential, and the potential for release to the
environment.
An example where raw material testing would have been useful involves a mill that
used a solvent scouring chemical specialty. The manufacturer produced the
chemical specialty, which consisted of emulsifier and xylene as a solvent. Without
notifying its customers, the manufacturer changed the solvent composition to
chlorotoluene to cut costs and minimize labeling requirements when the vendor's
insurance company began to require special labeling and handling of xylene. This
had a profound effect on the mill's air emissions, water toxicity, and other aspects
of production. If the mill had prescreened chemical specialties, it could have
detected these changes and reduced waste (NC DEHNR, 1986).
A committee at a facility in Lumberton, North Carolina prescreened raw
material (dyes and chemicals) to ensure that offensive-smelling, toxic, and
other objectionable material use were minimized in the production facility.
In the event that raw materials with undesirable properties had to be used
due to lack of alternatives, these raw materials were identified to all
workers before use. This process entailed no capital costs. Benefits, such
as the ability to dispose of waste treatment sludges since they did not
contain toxics or metals, were realized (NC DEHNR, 1986).
Purchase raw materials in returnable containers.
Facilities can work with vendors to ensure that packages can be returned
without being cleaned on site. Offsite cleaning transfers chemical wastes back
to the production facility, which may be better able to handle wastes.
Chemical specialties should be purchased in returnable, reusable containers.
Purchase of chemicals in bulk containers and intermediate bulk containers
eliminates waste packing materials, and reduces spillage, handling costs, and
worker exposure to chemicals. Bagged chemicals and drums tend to be more
susceptible to damage and spills than bulk containers (EPA, 1996).
At its Monroe, North Carolina facility, Bloomsburg Mills eliminated the disposal
of 50 drums to the landfill each week by receiving and storing process chemicals
in reusable totes and plastic drums (NC DEHNR, 1995).
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Amital began purchasing dyes and chemicals in intermediate bulk containers
(IBCs) or in bulk. Drum disposal decreased by 69 per week, or about 3,500
annually. Pallet disposal decreased by 40 per week, or 2,000 annually. By making
these changes, vendors were partners in the reduction of packaging waste.
V.B. Chemical Substitution
Since textile manufacturing is a chemically intensive process, a primary focus
for pollution prevention should be on substituting less-polluting chemicals for
textile process chemicals. Chemical substitution can eliminate chemical waste
and the need for costly pollution control equipment. Opportunities for
chemical substitution vary substantially among mills because of differences in
environmental conditions, process conditions, product, and raw materials.
Replace chemicals with less-polluting ones.
By replacing solvents, facilities can reduce waste, reduce costs associated with
treatment systems, and increase worker safety. This is one of the best
methods to prevent pollution. Some textile chemicals that can be substituted
include desizing agents, dyes, and auxiliaries. For instance, replacing enzymes
with hydrogen peroxide to desize starch can be cost-effective (ATMI, 1997b).
This method produces carbon dioxide and water as wastes instead of
hydrolyzed starch, which increases BOD load. Copper-free dyes can be used
to reduce metal loading of wastewater although this may sacrifice the range
of color shades that can be achieved. Improved fixation reactives can be used
to reduce unreacted and degraded dye in spent bath and improve the reuse
potential of washwater. High-temperature reactives can also be used in
dyeing for simultaneous application of disperse and reactive dyes. This
reduces energy use and eliminates the caustic bath required after disperse
dyeing. Finally, auxiliaries, such as phosphates, can be substituted with acetic
acid and EDTA to reduce phosphorus load in wastewater. New washing
agents can also be used to increase wash efficiency, decrease water
consumption, and improve fastness of reactives (Snowden-Swan, 1995).
Bloomsburg Mills substituted a solvent containing isopropanol and heptane as a
suitable spot-washing alternative for 1,1,1 trichloroethane, a hazardous air
pollutant. No loss of quality was noted with the substitution (NCDEHNR, 1995).
Guilford Mills' has integrated plants in both North Carolina and Pennsylvania. At
these plants, the company substituted a solvent-based chemical system used in the
heatsetting process with a water-based chemical system. An emissions survey
conducted by the company identified that heatsetting accounted for the majority of
volatile organic compound emissions. The new system uses an acrylic latex
emulsion to dissolve gum which stabilizes fabric edges and prevents curling. This
change accounted for most of the plants' reductions in VOC emissions, from 246.8
tons per year in 1993 to an estimated 93.7 tons per year in 1995 (NC DEHNR,
1995).
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Cleveland Mills Company reduced formaldehyde emission to the air by 84 percent
by switching to low-shade change resins in the production process. Formaldehyde
emissions at the mill dropped from 3,500 to 580 pounds per year (NC DEHNR,
1995).
One textile facility investigated substitutes for sodium sulfide, which is used to
convert water-insoluble dyes to the soluble form for application of sulfur dyes to
textiles. The facility found that they could replace 100 parts sodium sulfide with
65 parts alkaline solution containing 50 percent reducing sugars plus 25 parts
caustic soda. As a result, sulfide levels dropped substantially to below 2 ppm
(Snowden-Swan, 1995).
Replace chemical treatment with other treatment.
Waste can be reduced by replacing chemicals in some processes with
mechanical or other nonchemical treatment. Instead, some textile mills add
chemicals to counteract harmful side effects of other chemicals. In many
cases, offending chemicals should be adjusted, substituted, or removed from
a process, rather than adding chemicals to offset undesired side effects of
other chemicals.
JP Stevens and Company, Inc. substituted chemical biocides, used in disinfecting
air washers and cooling towers, with the use of ultraviolet light. Although this
may not be viable for all facilities, during a 6-month test period, results showed
improved worker safety, reduced discharge of biocides to the sanitary sewer,
reduced chemical inventory and handling, improved workplace air quality, and
reduced pH and foaming problems in wastewater. The facility also showed
enhanced air washer performance and more consistent control of workplace air
quality. The UV system operated with no required maintenance or repairs during
the test. Based on chemical savings, the payback is expected to be 11 to 18
months.
V.C. Process Modification
Process changes that optimize reactions and raw materials use can be used to
prevent pollution. Modifications may include improved process control
systems or changes in chemical application methods.
Use low-liquor ratio dyeing machines.
Mills have been moving towards reduced bath ratio dyeing. Bath ratio is
defined as the weight of goods (or fabric) divided by the weight of the bath.
Some chemicals, such as salt and lubricants, act on the dyebath, whereas
others, such as dyes and softeners, act on the fabric. In each case, these
chemicals are factored into either the weight of the bath or the weight of the
fabric.
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Low bath ratio dyeing can save energy and reduce chemical use, because
energy and chemical use depend on bath volume. Jet dyeing and package
dyeing are commonly used for low bath ratio dyeing. Typical bath ratios for
exhaust dyeing methods are as follows: beck (17:1), jet (12:1), jig (5:1), and
package (10:1). Pad batch methods have a 1:1 bath ratio. Ultra-low liquor
bath ratios can also reduce cycle times due to quick machine drains and fills
and rapid heating and cooling.
At its Lumberton, North Carolina facility, Alamac Knits upgraded jet dyeing
machinery to low-liquor-ratio machines with shorter cycles. This modification
resulted in a decrease of between 60 and 70 percent of consumption of dye
chemicals.
Use pad batch dyeing methods.
Use of pad batch (cold) dyeing for cotton, rayon, and blends conserves
energy, water, dyes and chemicals, labor, and floor space. Pad batch dyeing
methods do not require salt or chemical specialties, so this method can be a
good way for facilities to reduce waste and save money. While pad batch
dyeing is a cost-effective way for facilities to apply reactive dyes to cotton and
rayon, this method may not achieve the desired final fabric properties for all
cottons. Pad batch dyeing is also not appropriate for dyeing synthetic fabrics
(ATMI, 1997b). Salt consumption can be reduced from as much as 100
percent of weight of goods to zero. Water consumption for pad batch dyeing
with beam wash-off is only 10 percent of the amount used to dye fabrics using
beck methods, or two gallons per pound of dyed fabric. Energy consumption
can be reduced from about 9,000 BTUs per pound of dyed fabric for beck
methods to under 2,000 BTUs per pound for pad batch methods with beam
washing. In addition, labor costs and chemical use can be reduced up to 80
percent as compared to atmospheric beck methods (NC DEHNR, 1988).
In pad batch dyeing, prepared fabric is impregnated with liquor (water and
process chemicals) containing premixed fiber reactive dyestuff and alkali.
Excess liquid is squeezed out on a device known as a mangle. The fabric is
then batched onto rolls or into boxes and covered with plastic film to prevent
absorption of CO2 from air or evaporation of water. The fabric is then stored
for two to twelve hours. The goods can be washed with becks, beams, or
other available machines. Production of between 75 and 150 yards a minute,
depending on the construction and weight of goods involved, is typical. Pad
batch dyeing is more flexible than continuous dyeing methods. Either wovens
or knits can be dyed, and shades can be changed frequently because reactive
dyes remain water soluble. The flexibility of pad batch equipment and the use
of water soluble dyes minimizes cleaning operations.
Ti-Caro switched to a pad-batch process for bleaching which reduced water and
energy use. The bath ratio decreased on all batch processes to 10:1.
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Use countercurrent washing to reduce water use.
Counter-current washing decreases wastewater from preparation processes.
Countercurrent washing is simple, easy to implement, and relatively
inexpensive. Countercurrent washing is a technique to reuse the least
contaminated water from the final wash for the next-to-last wash and so on
until the water reaches the first wash stage. Washwater from the first stage
is discharged (NC DEHNR, 1988). Table 16 shows typical water savings
based on the number of times the water is reused. Countercurrent washing
equipment can be retrofitted to any multistage continuous washing operation,
whether it is installed for different fabrics or for dyeing, printing, or
preparation operations. Flow optimization is usually a good pollution
prevention activity to run in conjunction with countercurrent washing.
Table 16: Typical Water Savings Using
Conntercurrent Washing
Number of Washing Steps
Water Savings
(percent)
2
3
4
5
50
67
75
80
Source: Best Management Practices for Pollution Prevention in the
Textile Industry, EPA, Office of Research and Development, 1995.
Bloomsburg Mills uses countercurrent washing to conserve water during the
scouring process. The cleaner wash water enters the exit wash unit and
counterflows back toward the dirtier units. This provides a more efficient cleaner
wash and requires less water (NC DEHNR, 1995).
An international company reduced water consumption by enacting several
measures over a one-month period. Countercurrent flow was installed on all
soapers, mercerizing range, and J-boxes. J-boxes are large J-shaped containers
used to hold fabrics at high temperatures during bleaching. Washwater was reused
in upstream processes for less critical uses, such as print blanket washing.
Optimize process conditions.
Mills can reduce waste and increase production efficiency by optimizing
process conditions, such as temperature and time. Mills can also modify the
processes themselves to increase efficiency.
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Pollution Prevention Opportunities
Americal Corporation improved dyeing exhaustion by extending the length of
time fabrics were dyed by 15 minutes. Results showed about a 60 percent drop in
BOD and chemical oxygen demand (COD), a 20 percent drop in fats, oils, and
grease, and a 98 percent drop in ammonia-nitrogen. This resulted in a savings of
$35,000 annually.
%/ Combine processes.
Mills can reduce waste and increase production efficiency by combining
operations. For instance, combined scouring and bleaching can save energy
and water. Cold pad-batch methods can be used at room temperature for long
desizing, scouring, and bleaching cycles. The single-step, cold-batch method
of desizing minimizes energy and water use and maximizes productivity. Note
that these methods may not help facilities achieve the desired product result
in all cases (ATMI, 1997b).
V.D. Process Water Reuse and Recycle
Although they do not constitute pollution prevention as defined by the
Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, recovery, recycling, and reuse can be
effective tools for minimizing pollutant releases to the environment. By
recovering solvents and raw materials, textile mills can reduce raw materials
costs and can reduce pollution with little modification of existing processes.
Water is widely used in the industry for processes ranging from dyeing to
preparation and finishing. Raw materials, such as unexhausted dyestuff and
additives, can also be recycled. Reuse and recycling are excellent ways for
facilities to save money, reduce waste, and save energy.
)/ Reuse dyebaths.
Dyebath reuse is the process of analyzing, replenishing, and reusing exhausted
hot dyebaths to dye further batches of material. Although not applicable to
all processes, in some processes, dyebath reuse can reduce pollution
concentrations and effluent volume and generally requires a smaller capital
outlay than pretreatment plant construction. It also saves on the costs of
dyes, chemicals, and energy. Dyebath reuse principles can also be applied to
bleach baths. Table 17 lists example costs and savings for dyebath reuse for
a dye machine. Depending on the machine, types of fabrics, and range of
shades, after a couple of years, dyebath reuse could save companies about
$21,000 per year for each machine.
Dye bath reuse is comprised of four basic steps. The first step is to save the
exhausted dyebath. This can occur by pumping the dyebath to a holding tank,
rinsing the product in the same machine in which it was dyed, and then
removing the product and returning the dyebath to the dye machine. The
product can also be removed from the exhausted dyebath and placed in
another machine for rinsing. The dyebath can then be analyzed for residual
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Pollution Prevention Opportunities
chemicals. Unexhausted dyestuffs must be analyzed to determine the exact
quantities remaining in the dyebath to ensure the proper shade in the next
dyeing cycle. This analysis can be performed using a spectrophotometer and
guidelines based on specific production experience. Equipment for this is
available for under $10,000. After the dyebath has been analyzed, it must be
reconstituted by adding water, auxiliary chemicals, and dyestuffs. If properly
controlled, dyebaths can be reused for 15 or more cycles, with an average of
5 to 25 times.
Table 17: Example Costs and Savings for Dyebath Reuse
Description of Cost/Savings
Value
Total Costs
Lab and support equipment
Machine modifications, tanks,
pumps, pipes
Annual Operating Costs
Total Savings (Annual)
Dyes and chemicals
Water
Sewer
Energy
$9,000
$15,000-$25,000
$1,000-$2,000
$15,000
$750
$750
$4,500
Source: Best Management Practices for Pollution Prevention in the Textile
Industry, EPA, Office of Research and Development, 1995.
Adams-Millis Company implemented dyebath reuse at its High Point, North
Carolina and Franklinton, North Carolina mills. The mills reused dyebath for
dyeing nylon pantyhose in rotary drum dyeing machines. Water use decreased by
35 percent with a cost savings of $0.02 per pound of production. The mill also
reduced energy use by 57 percent.
Bigelow Carpets reused dyebaths by equipping pairs of dyeing machines with
plumbing and pumps capable of moving a processing bath back and forth from one
machine to the other. This allowed immediate reuse of dyebaths for over 20 cycles.
Scheduling of lots on the pair was coordinated to ensure efficient reuse. The cost
savings was $60,000 per year per pair of machines. Biological oxygen demand,
color, and other water pollutants were reduced.
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Amital saved a large amount of money by reusing dyebaths and noncontact cooling
water. The facility reduced its water consumption from 320,000 gallons per day
to 102,000 gallons per day and simultaneously increased production from 12 to 20
batches per day. Additionally, energy consumption for heating dyebath decreased
substantially. The investment saved the company about $ 13,000 a month and paid
for itself 30 days after implementation (Snowden-Swan, 1995).
\/ Reuse rinse baths.
Wet processing consumes a large amount of water from rinsing of textiles.
Preparation and finishing water can also be reused.
A yarn finishing company drastically reduced wastewater pollution, soda
(Na2CO3), and caustic consumption by implementing recycling. The new process
involved reusing the rinse bath three times following mercerizing rather than
dumping the bath water after each use. The spent rinsewater was then processed
in an evaporator and concentrated caustic was reused in mercerizing. The facility
reduced suspended solids by 80 percent, COD by 55 percent, and neutralizing soda
in the wastewater by 70 percent. Corresponding reductions in hydrochloric acid
used to neutralize the effluent were also made. The investment in new equipment
resulted in an annual savings of $189,000, with a payback of under one year
(Snowden-Swan, 1995).
A Kings Mountain, North Carolina facility installed holding tanks for bleach bath
reuse. The bath was reconstituted to correct strength after analysis by titration.
BOD decreased over 50 percent from 842 milligrams per liter to 400 milligrams
per liter. Water use also decreased. The mill also came into compliance with
permits and realized economic benefits.
V.E. Equipment Modification
An additional method to reduce waste is to modify, retrofit, or replace
equipment. Some facilities are switching to computer-controlled dyeing
systems, which analyze the process continuously and respond more quickly
and accurately than manually controlled systems. In many cases, modifying
equipment can provide source reduction by reducing the ratio of water and
chemicals to textile goods.
I/ Install automated dosing systems and dye machine controllers.
The use of automated process control equipment has had a significant effect
on the textile industry. Chemical dosing systems can be optimized to deliver
the right amount of the right chemical at just the right time. These systems
improve the efficiency and reliability of chemical reactions in the dyebath,
ensuring more consistent and reproducible results. In addition, these systems
reduce the tendency to overuse environmentally harmful chemicals, which may
pass through treatment systems unreacted or may react to produce undesirable
by-products. Dosing systems can also reduce handling losses and equipment
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cleanup. Automated dosing systems are commercially available and are being
adopted throughout the textile industry.
In addition to automated dosing equipment, dye machine controllers are a
good way to increase control over processes. Sales of dye machine
controllers are now overtaking sales of dye machines. These devices can be
retrofitted for many of the machines in mills. They contain microprocessor
controllers that allow feedback control of properties such as pH, color, and
temperature. Note that this method only works for acrylic because cationic
dyes have high exhaust rates associated with them. This may not work for
other fibers or dye classes (ATMI, 1997b).
Amital, which produces acrylic yarn, implemented computer technology to
automate dyebath flow and temperature in a new facility. This enabled the facility
to precisely control the addition of auxiliary chemicals, such as retarders and
leveling agents. As a result, Amital produces a clean exhausted dyebath,
eliminating the need for postrinsing and reducing water and chemical consumption
(Snowden-Swan, 1995).
Bloomsburg Mills upgraded instrumentation and process controls for the dyeing
process from manual to computer control. The controlled time of the wash after
dyeing has reduced water usage by 28 percent and fuel heat consumption per yard
produced by 15.9 percent (NC DEHNR, 1995).
Cleveland Mills Company replaced coal-fired boilers with cleaner natural gas-fired
boilers and eliminated the generation of 220,000 pounds of fly ash each year (NC
DEHNR, 1995).
Use continuous horizontal washers.
Continuous horizontal washers can conserve energy and water. Horizontal
washers work for woven fabrics in a narrow weight range (ATMI, 1997b).
These washers operate by spraying clean washwater on the top (final) pass of
fabric as it makes a series of horizontal traverses upward in the machine. The
unprocessed fabric enters at the bottom traverse, and the water enters at the
top. These vertical spray washers reduce water and energy use as well as
improve quality and captured suspended solids for dry disposal. Note that
vertical, double-laced washers with serpentine counterflow may be more
versatile and achieve better results than continuous horizontal washers
(ATMI, 1997b).
Use continuous knit bleaching ranges.
Many textile companies use continuous knit bleaching ranges to reduce water
consumption. These ranges consume less water, energy, and chemicals than
batch preparation knitting equipment. Recent models have shown improved
flexibility in terms of production capacity. Lower capacity machines are
available for smaller operations. The new machines feature inherent
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countercurrent water use and improvements over old rope bleaching units,
including better fabric transport, better chemical metering systems, and better
filtering of the baths.
V.F. Good Operating Practices
Companies can improve production efficiency and maintain low operating
costs by incorporating pollution prevention codes into their management
procedures. These codes can include a written commitment by senior
management to ongoing waste reduction at each of the company's facilities
and to include pollution prevention objectives in research and new facility.
design. Establishing training and incentive programs and improving
recordkeeping are other ways that companies can prevent pollution without
changing industrial processes. These factors, along with better housekeeping
practices, can help minimize wastes from maintenance and off-spec materials.
Water use can be significantly reduced through minimizing leaks and spills,
proper maintenance of production equipment, and identification of
unnecessary washing of both fabric and equipment (NC DEHNR, 1985).
I/ Schedule dyeing operations to minimize machine cleaning.
In dyeing operations, startups, stopoffs, and color changes often result in
losses of substrate, potential off-quality work, and chemically intensive
cleanings of machines and facilities. Scheduling dyeing operations to
minimize machine cleanings can have a considerable effect on pollution
prevention. Changes required by scheduling activities generate significant
amounts of waste for the textile mill. Machine cleaning is a significant
contributor to waste load for textile facilities, particularly for changes in
polyester color sequence and oligomer build-up (ATMI, 1997b). A well-
planned dyeing schedule may reduce the number of machine cleanings
required and the pollution that results from startups, stopoffs, and color
changes. Minimizing machine cleaning may not be possible in some cases
because of the need for flexible schedules to meet changing market demands
(ATMI, 1997b).
Ultimately, the need for dye machine cleaning is contingent upon the
sequencing of colors in the dyeing process. The ideal sequence, requiring the
least amount of machine cleaning, is to run the same color repeatedly on a
particular machine. The second best way is to group colors within families
(red, yellow, blue), and then run the dyes within one color family from lighter
to darker values and from brighter to duller chromas.
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Optimize cleaning practices.
Modifying equipment cleaning practices may reduce wastewater discharges
and reduce solvent use. Substituting cleaning solvents with less toxic solvents
can reduce hazardous waste generation and can simplify treatment of
wastewater (EPA, 1996).
Optimize housekeeping practices.
Good inventory management can reduce waste by using all materials
efficiently and reducing the likelihood of accidental releases of stored material.
Although it may seem simplistic, housekeeping and work habits of chemical
mixers can account for 10 to 50 percent of a mill's total effluent load in BOD,
COD, metals, and organic solvents. Improvements in housekeeping generally
cost little or nothing and improve employee morale, workplace safety, and
product quality (NC DEHNR, 1988). Designating a materials storage area,
limiting traffic through the area, and giving one person the responsibility to
maintain and distribute materials can also reduce materials use and
contamination and dispersal of materials.
Adopt worker training programs.
Companies should establish safety procedures for receiving, storing, and
mixing chemicals, and implement worker training programs. These programs
should inform workers of the environmental impacts of chemicals and identify
those most harmful to the environment. Workers should be trained in proper
procedures for handling these chemicals. Training should also include the
correct procedures for pasting, dissolving, and emulsifying of chemicals.
These procedures should be subject to auditing and recordkeeping. In
addition, policies regarding receipt, storage, and mixing should be established.
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VL SUMMARY OF APPLICABLE FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS
This section discusses the Federal regulations that may apply to this sector.
The purpose of this section is to highlight and briefly describe the applicable
Federal requirements, and to provide citations for more detailed information.
The following sections are included:
Section VIA contains a general overview of major statutes
Section VLB contains a list of regulations specific to this industry
Section VI.C contains a list of pending and proposed regulations
The descriptions within Section VI are intended solely for general
information. Depending upon the nature or scope of the activities at a
particular facility, these summaries may or may not necessarily describe all
applicable environmental requirements. Moreover, they do not constitute
formal interpretations or clarifications of the statutes and regulations. For
further information readers should consult the Code of Federal Regulations
and other state or local regulatory agencies. EPA Hotline contacts are also
provided for each major statute.
VL A. General Description of Major Statutes
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
The Resource Conservation And Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 which
amended the Solid Waste Disposal Act, addresses solid (Subtitle D) and
hazardous (Subtitle C) waste management activities. The Hazardous and
Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) of 1984 strengthened RCRA's waste
management provisions and added Subtitle I, which governs underground
storage tanks (USTs).
Regulations promulgated pursuant to Subtitle C of RCRA (40 CFR Parts
260-299) establish a "cradle-to-grave" system governing hazardous waste
from the point of generation to disposal. RCRA hazardous wastes include the
specific materials listed in the regulations (commercial chemical products,
designated with the code "P" or "U"; hazardous wastes from specific
industries/sources, designated with the code "K"; or hazardous wastes from
non-specific sources, designated with the code "F") or materials which exhibit
a hazardous waste characteristic (ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity
and designated with the code "D").
Regulated entities that generate hazardous waste are subject to waste
accumulation, manifesting, and record keeping standards. Facilities must
obtain a permit either from EPA or from a State agency which EPA has
authorized to implement the permitting program if they store hazardous
wastes for more than 90 days before treatment or disposal. Facilities may
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treat hazardous wastes stored in less-than-ninety-day tanks or containers
without a permit. Subtitle C permits contain general facility standards such
as contingency plans, emergency procedures, record keeping and reporting
requirements, financial assurance mechanisms, and unit-specific standards.
RCRA also contains provisions (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart S and §264.10) for
conducting corrective actions which govern the cleanup of releases of
hazardous waste or constituents from solid waste management units at
RCRA-regulated facilities.
Although RCRA is a Federal statute, many States implement the RCRA
program. Currently, EPA has delegated its authority to implement various
provisions of RCRA to 47 of the 50 States and two U.S. territories.
Delegation has not been given to Alaska, Hawaii, or Iowa.
Most RCRA requirements are not industry specific but apply to any company
that generates, transports, treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste.
Here are some important RCRA regulatory requirements:
Identification of Solid and Hazardous Wastes (40 CFR Part 2,61) lays
out the procedure every generator must follow to determine whether the
material in question is considered a hazardous waste, solid waste, or is
exempted from regulation.
Standards for Generators of Hazardous Waste (40 CFR Part 262)
establishes the responsibilities of hazardous waste generators including
obtaining an EPA ID number, preparing a manifest, ensuring proper
packaging and labeling, meeting standards for waste accumulation units,
and recordkeeping and reporting requirements. Generators can
accumulate hazardous waste for up to 90 days (or 180 days depending on
the amount of waste generated) without obtaining a permit.
Land Disposal Restrictions (LDRs) (40 CFR Part 268) are regulations
prohibiting the disposal of hazardous waste on land without prior
treatment. Under the LDRs program, materials must meet LDR treatment
standards prior to placement in a RCRA land disposal unit (landfill, land
treatment unit, waste pile, or surface impoundment). Generators of waste
subject to the LDRs must provide notification of such to the designated
TSD facility to ensure proper treatment prior to disposal.
Used Oil Management Standards (40 CFR Part 279) impose
management requirements affecting the storage, transportation, burning,
processing, and re-refining of the used oil. For parties that merely
generate used oil, regulations establish storage standards. For a party
considered a used oil processor, re-refiner, burner, or marketer (one who
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generates and sells off-specification used oil), additional tracking and
paperwork requirements must be satisfied.
RCRA contains unit-specific standards for all units used to store, treat, or
dispose of hazardous waste, including Tanks and Containers. Tanks
and containers used to store hazardous waste with a high volatile organic
concentration must meet emission standards under RCRA. Regulations
(40 CFR Part 264-265, Subpart CC) require generators to test the waste
to determine the concentration of the waste, to satisfy tank and container
emissions standards, and to inspect and monitor regulated units. These
regulations apply to all facilities that store such waste, including large
quantity generators accumulating waste prior to shipment off-site.
Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) containing petroleum and
hazardous substances are regulated under Subtitle I of RCRA. Subtitle
I regulations (40 CFR Part 280) contain tank design and release detection
requirements, as well as financial responsibility and corrective action
standards for USTs. The UST program also includes upgrade
requirements for existing tanks that must be met by December 22, 1998.
Boilers and Industrial Furnaces (BIFs) that use or burn fuel containing
hazardous waste must comply with design and operating standards. BEF
regulations (40 CFR Part 266, Subpart H) address unit design, provide
performance standards, require emissions monitoring, and restrict the type
of waste that may be burned.
EPA'sRCRA, Superfund and EPCRAHotline, at (800) 424-9346, responds
to questions and distributes guidance regarding all RCRA regulations. The
RCRA Hotline operates weekdays from 9:00 am. to 6:00 p.m., ET, excluding
Federal holidays.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA), a 1980 law known commonly as Superfund, authorizes EPA
to respond to releases, or threatened releases, of hazardous substances that
may endanger public health, welfare, or the environment. CERCLA also
enables EPA to force parties responsible for environmental contamination to
clean it up or to reimburse the Superfund for response costs incurred by EPA.
The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986
revised various sections of CERCLA, extended the taxing authority for the
Superfund, and created a free-standing law, SARA Title HI, also known as the
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA).
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The CERCLA hazardous substance release reporting regulations (40 CFR
Part 302) direct the person in charge of a facility to report to the National
Response Center (NRC) any environmental release of a hazardous substance
which equals or exceeds a reportable quantity. Reportable quantities are listed
in 40 CFR §302.4. A release report may trigger a response by EPA, or by one
or more Federal or State emergency response authorities. .
EPA implements hazardous substance responses according to procedures
outlined in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency
Plan (NCP) (40 CFR Part 300). The NCP includes provisions for permanent
cleanups, known as remedial actions, and other cleanups referred to as
removals. EPA generally takes remedial actions only at sites on the National
Priorities List (NPL), which currently includes approximately 1300 sites.
Both EPA and states can act at sites; however, EPA provides responsible
parties the opportunity to conduct removal and remedial actions and
encourages community involvement throughout the Superfund response
process.
EPA'sRCRA, Superfund and EPCRA Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, answers
questions and references guidance pertaining to the Superfund program.
The CERCLA Hotline operates weekdays from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., ET,
excluding Federal holidays.
Emergency Planning And Community Right-To-Know Act
The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986
created the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
(EPCRA, also known as SARA Title III), a statute designed to improve
community access to information about chemical hazards and to facilitate the
development of chemical emergency response plans by State and local
governments. EPCRA required the establishment of State emergency
response commissions (SERCs), responsible for coordinating certain
emergency response activities and for appointing local emergency planning
committees (LEPCs).
EPCRA and the EPCRA regulations (40 CFR Parts 350-372) establish four
types of reporting obligations for facilities which store or manage specified
chemicals:
EPCRA §302 requires facilities to notify the SERC and LEPC of the
presence of any extremely hazardous substance (the list of such substances
is in 40 CFR Part 355, Appendices A and B) if it has such substance in
excess of the substance's threshold planning quantity, and directs the
facility to appoint an emergency response coordinator.
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EPCRA §304 requires the facility to notify the SERC and the LEPC in
the event of a release equaling or exceeding the reportable quantity of a
CERCLA hazardous substance or an EPCRA extremely hazardous
substance.
EPCRA §311 and §312 require a facility at which a hazardous chemical,
as defined by the Occupational Safety and Health Act, is present in an
amount exceeding a specified threshold to submit to the SERC, LEPC and
local fire department material safety data sheets (MSDSs) or lists of
MSDS's and hazardous chemical inventory forms (also known as Tier I
and II forms). This information helps the local government respond in the
event of a spill or release of the chemical.
EPCRA §313 requires manufacturing facilities included in SIC codes 20
through 39, which have ten or more employees, and which manufacture,
process, or use specified chemicals in amounts greater than threshold
quantities, to submit an annual toxic chemical release report. This report,
known commonly as the Form R, covers releases and transfers of toxic
chemicals to various facilities and environmental media, and allows EPA
to compile the national Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) database.
All information submitted pursuant to EPCRA regulations is publicly
accessible, unless protected by a trade secret claim.
EPA'sRCRA, Superfund and EPCRA Hotline, at (800) 424-9346, answers
questions and distributes guidance regarding the emergency planning and
community right-to-know regulations. The EPCRA Hotline operates
-weekdays from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00p.m., ET, excluding Federal holidays.
Clean Water Act
The primary objective of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, commonly
referred to as the Clean Water Act (CWA), is to restore and maintain the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's surface waters.
Pollutants regulated under the CWA include "priority" pollutants, including
various toxic pollutants; "conventional" pollutants, such as biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), fecal coliform, oil and
grease, and pH; and "non-conventional" pollutants, including any pollutant not
identified as either conventional or priority.
The CWA regulates both direct and indirect discharges. The National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program (CWA §502)
controls direct discharges into navigable waters. Direct discharges or "point
source" discharges are from sources such as pipes and sewers. NPDES
permits, issued by either EPA or an authorized State (EPA has authorized 42
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States to administer the NPDES program), contain industry-specific,
technology-based and/or water quality-based limits, and establish pollutant
monitoring requirements. A facility that intends to discharge into the nation's
waters must obtain a permit prior to initiating its discharge. A permit
applicant must provide quantitative analytical data identifying the types of
pollutants present in the facility's effluent. The permit will then set the
conditions and effluent limitations on the facility discharges.
A NPDES permit may also include discharge limits based on Federal or State
water quality criteria or standards, that were designed to protect designated
uses of surface waters, such as supporting aquatic life or recreation. These
standards, unlike the technological standards, generally do not take into
account technological feasibility or costs. Water quality criteria and standards
vary from State to State, and site to site, depending on the use classification
of the receiving body of water. Most States follow EPA guidelines which
propose aquatic life and human health criteria for many of the 126 priority
pollutants.
Storm Water Discharges
In 1987 the CWA was amended to require EPA to establish a program to
address storm water discharges. In response, EPA promulgated the NPDES
storm water permit application regulations. These regulations require that
facilities with the following storm water discharges apply for an NPDES
permit: (1) a discharge associated with industrial activity; (2) a discharge
from a large or medium municipal storm sewer system; or (3) a discharge
which EPA or the State determines to contribute to a violation of a water
quality standard or is a significant contributor of pollutants to waters of the
United States.
The term "storm water discharge associated with industrial activity" means a
storm water discharge from one of 11 categories of industrial activity defined
at 40 CFR 122.26. Six of the categories are defined by SIC codes while the
other five are identified through narrative descriptions of the regulated
industrial activity. If the primary SIC code of the facility is one of those
identified in the regulations, the facility is subject to the storm water permit
application requirements. If any activity at a facility is covered by one of the
five narrative categories, storm water discharges from those areas where the
activities occur are subject to storm water discharge permit application
requirements.
Those facilities/activities that are subject to storm water discharge permit
application requirements are identified below. To determine whether a
particular facility falls within one of these categories, consult the regulation.
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Category i: Facilities subject to storm water effluent guidelines, new source
performance standards, or toxic pollutant effluent standards.
Category ii: Facilities classified as SIC 24-lumber and wood products
(except wood kitchen cabinets); SIC 26-paper and allied products (except
paperboard containers and products); SIC 28-chemicals and allied products
(except drugs and paints); SIC 291-petroleum refining; and SIC 311-leather
tanning and finishing, 32 (except 323)-stone, clay, glass, and concrete, 33-
primary metals, 3441-fabricated structural metal, and 3 73-ship and boat
building and repairing.
Category iii: Facilities classified as SIC 10-metal mining; SIC 12-coal
mining; SIC 13-oil and gas extraction; and SIC 14-nonmetallic mineral
mining.
Category iv: Hazardous waste treatment, storage, or disposal facilities.
Category v: Landfills, land application sites, and open dumps that receive or
have received industrial wastes.
Category vi: Facilities classified as SIC 5015-used motor vehicle parts; and
SIC 5093-automotive scrap and waste material recycling facilities.
Category vii: Steam electric power generating facilities.
Category viii: Facilities classified as SIC 40-railroad transportation; SIC 41-
local passenger transportation; SIC 42-trucking and warehousing (except
public warehousing and storage); SIC 43-U.S. Postal Service; SIC 44-water
transportation; SIC 45-transportation by air; and SIC 5171-petroleum bulk
storage stations and terminals.
Category ix: Sewage treatment works.
Category x: Construction activities except operations that result in the
disturbance of less than five acres of total land area.
Category xi: Facilities classified as SIC 20-food and kindred products; SIC
21-tobacco products; SIC 22-textile mill products; SIC 23-apparel related
products; SIC 2434-wood kitchen cabinets manufacturing; SIC 25-furniture
and fixtures; SIC 265-paperboard containers and boxes; SIC 267-converted
paper and paperboard products; SIC 27-printing, publishing, and allied
industries; SIC 283-drugs; SIC 285-paints, varnishes, lacquer, enamels, and
allied products; SIC 30-rubber and plastics; SIC 31-leather and leather
products (except leather and tanning and finishing); SIC 3 23-glass products;
SIC 34-fabricated metal products (except fabricated structural metal); SIC
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35-industrial and commercial machinery and computer equipment; SIC 36-
electronic and other electrical equipment and components; SIC 37-
transportation equipment (except ship and boat building and repairing); SIC
38-measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments; SIC 39-miscellaneous
manufacturing industries; and SIC 4221-4225-public warehousing and
storage.
Pretreatment Program
Another type of discharge that is regulated by the CWA is one that goes to
a publicly-owned treatment works (POTWs). The national pretreatment
program (CWA §307(b)) controls the indirect discharge of pollutants to
POTWs by "industrial users." Facilities regulated under §307(b) must meet
certain pretreatment standards. The goal of the pretreatment program is to
protect municipal wastewater treatment plants from damage that may occur
when hazardous, toxic, or other wastes are discharged into a sewer system
and to protect the quality of sludge generated by these plants. Discharges to
a POTW are regulated primarily by the POTW itself, rather than the State or
EPA.
EPA has developed technology-based standards for industrial users of
POTWs. Different standards apply to existing and new sources within each
category. "Categorical" pretreatment standards applicable to an industry on
a nationwide basis are developed by EPA. In addition, another kind of
pretreatment standard, "local limits," are developed by the POTW in order to
assist the POTW in achieving the effluent limitations in its NPDES permit.
Regardless of whether a State is authorized to implement either the NPDES
or the pretreatment program, if it develops its own program, it may enforce
requirements more stringent than Federal standards.
Spill Prevention. Control and Countermeasure Plans
The 1990 Oil Pollution Act requires that facilities that could reasonably be
expected to discharge oil in harmful quantities prepare and implement more
rigorous Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) Plan required
under the CWA (40 CFR § 112.7). There are also criminal and civil penalties
for deliberate or negligent spills of oil. Regulations covering response to oil
discharges and contingency plans (40 CFR Part 300), and Facility Response
Plans to oil discharges (40 CFR §112.20) and for PCB transformers and PCB-
containing items were revised and finalized in 1995.
EPA's Office of Water, at (202) 260-5700, mil direct callers with questions
about the CWA to the appropriate EPA office. EPA also maintains a
bibliographic database of Office of Water publications which can be
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accessed through the Ground Water and Drinking Water resource center, at
(202) 260-7786.
Safe Drinking Water Act
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SOWA) mandates that EPA establish
regulations to protect human health from contaminants in drinking water.
The law authorizes EPA to develop national drinking water standards and to
create a joint Federal-State system to ensure compliance with these standards.
The SDWA also directs EPA to protect underground sources of drinking
water through the control of underground injection of liquid wastes.
EPA has developed primary and secondary drinking water standards under its
SDWA authority. EPA and authorized States enforce the primary drinking
water standards, which are, contaminant-specific concentration limits that
apply to certain public drinking water supplies. Primary drinking water
standards consist of maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs), which are
non-enforceable health-based goals, and maximum contaminant levels
(MCLs), which are enforceable limits set as close to MCLGs as possible,
considering cost and feasibility of attainment.
The SDWA Underground Injection Control (UIC) program (40 CFR Parts
144-148) is a permit program which protects underground sources of drinking
water by regulating five classes of injection wells. UIC permits include
design, operating, inspection, and monitoring requirements. Wells used to
inject hazardous wastes must also comply with RCRA corrective action
standards in order to be granted a RCRA permit, and must meet applicable
RCRA land disposal restrictions standards. The UIC permit program is
primarily State-enforced, since EPA has authorized all but a few States to
administer the program.
The SDWA also provides for a Federally-implemented Sole Source Aquifer
program, which prohibits Federal funds from being expended on projects that
may contaminate the sole or principal source of drinking water for a given
area, and for a State-implemented Wellhead Protection program, designed to
protect drinking water wells and drinking water recharge areas.
EPA 's Safe Drinking Water Hotline, at (800) 426-4791, answers questions
and distributes guidance pertaining to SDWA standards. The Hotline
operates from 9:00a.m. through 5:30 p.m., ET, excluding Federal holidays.
Toxic Substances Control Act
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) granted EPA authority to create
a regulatory framework to collect data on chemicals in order to evaluate,
assess, mitigate, and control risks which may be posed by their manufacture,
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processing, and use. TSCA provides a variety of control methods to prevent
chemicals from posing unreasonable risk.
TSCA standards may apply at any point during a chemical's life cycle. Under
TSCA §5, EPA has'established an inventory of chemical substances. If a
chemical is not already on the inventory, and has not been excluded by TSCA,
a premanufacture notice (PMN) must be submitted to EPA prior to
manufacture or import. The PMN must identify the chemical and provide
available information on health and environmental effects. If available data
are not sufficient to evaluate the chemicals effects, EPA can impose
restrictions pending the development of information on its health and
environmental effects. EPA can also restrict significant new uses of chemicals
based upon factors such as the projected volume and use of the chemical.
Under TSCA §6, EPA can ban the manufacture or distribution in commerce,
limit the use, require labeling, or place other restrictions on chemicals that
pose unreasonable risks. Among the chemicals EPA regulates under §6
authority are asbestos, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
EPA's TSCA Assistance Information Service, at (202) 554-1404, answers
questions and distributes guidance pertaining to Toxic Substances Control
Act standards. The Service operates from 8:30 a.m. through 4:30 p.m., ET,
excluding Federal holidays.
Clean Air Act
The Clean Air Act (CAA) and its amendments, including the Clean Air Act
Amendments (CAAA) of 1990, are designed to "protect and enhance the
nation's air resources so as to promote the public health and welfare and the
productive capacity of the population." The CAA consists of six sections,
known as Titles, which direct EPA to establish national standards for ambient
air quality and for EPA and the States to implement, maintain, and enforce
these standards through a variety of mechanisms. Under the CAAA, many
facilities will be required to obtain permits for the first time. State and local
governments oversee, manage, and enforce many of the requirements of the
CAAA. CAA regulations appear at 40 CFR Parts 50-99.
Pursuant to Title I of the CAA, EPA has established national ambient air
quality standards (NAAQSs) to limit levels of "criteria pollutants," including
carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), ozone, and sulfur dioxide. Geographic areas that meet
NAAQSs for a given pollutant are classified as attainment areas; those that do
not meet NAAQSs are classified as non-attainment areas. Under section 110
of the CAA, each State must develop a State Implementation Plan (SIP) to
identify sources of air pollution and to determine what reductions are required
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to meet Federal air quality standards. Revised NAAQSs for participates and
ozone were proposed in 1996 and may go into effect as early as late 1997.
Title I also authorizes EPA to establish New Source Performance Standards
(NSPSs), which are nationally uniform emission standards for new stationary
sources falling within particular industrial categories. NSPSs are based on the
pollution control technology available to that category of industrial source.
Under Title I, EPA establishes and enforces National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), nationally uniform standards oriented
towards controlling particular hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Title I,
section 112(c) of the CAA further directed EPA to develop a list of sources
that emit any of 189 HAPs, and to develop regulations for these categories of
sources. To date EPA has listed 174 categories and developed a schedule for
the establishment of emission standards. The emission standards will be
developed for both new and existing sources based on "maximum achievable
control technology" (MACT). The MACT is defined as the control
technology achieving the maximum degree of reduction in the emission of the
HAPs, taking into account cost and other factors.
Title II of the CAA pertains to mobile sources, such as cars, trucks, buses,
and planes. Reformulated gasoline, automobile pollution control devices, and
vapor recovery nozzles on gas pumps are a few of the mechanisms EPA uses
to regulate mobile air emission sources.
Title IV of the CAA establishes a sulfur dioxide nitrous oxide emissions
program designed to reduce the formation of acid rain. Reduction of sulfur
dioxide releases will be obtained by granting to certain sources limited
emissions allowances, which, beginning in 1995, will be set below previous
levels of sulfur dioxide releases.
Title V of the CAA of 1990 created a permit program for all "major sources"
(and certain other sources) regulated under the CAA. One purpose of the
operating permit is to include in a single document all air emissions
requirements that apply to a given facility. States are developing the permit
programs in accordance with guidance and regulations from EPA. Once a
State program is approved by EPA, permits will be issued and monitored by
that State.
Title VI of the CAA is intended to protect stratospheric ozone by phasing out
the manufacture of ozone-depleting chemicals and restrict their use and
distribution. Production of Class I substances, including 15 kinds of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and chloroform, were phased out (except for
essential uses) in 1996.
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EPA's Clean Air Technology Center, at (919) 541-0800, provides general
assistance and information on CAA standards. The Stratospheric Ozone
Information Hotline, at (800) 296-1996, provides general information about
regulations promulgated under Title VI of the CAA, and EPA's EPCRA
Hotline, at (800) 535-0202, answers questions about accidental release
prevention under CAA §112(r). In addition, the Clean Air Technology
Center's website includes recent CAA rules, EPA guidance documents, and
updates of EPA activities (www.epa.gov/ttn then select Directory and then
CATC).
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VLB. Industry Specific Requirements
The textile industry is affected by several major federal environmental
statutes. In addition, the industry is subject to numerous laws and regulations
from state and local governments designed to protect and improve the
nation's health, safety, and environment. A summary of the major federal
regulations affecting the textile industry follows.
Clean Water Act (CWA)
Since the textiles industry is a major water user, perhaps the most important
environmental regulation affecting the textile industry is the Clean Water Act.
In 1982, EPA promulgated effluent guidelines for the textile manufacturing
point source category. The Textile Mills Point Source Category effluent
guidelines are listed under 40 CFR Part 410. Part 410 is divided into nine
subparts for each applying to a different textile manufacturing subcategory as
outlined below. Each Subpart contains effluent limitations, new source
performance standards (NSPS), and pretreatment standards.
Subpart
Applicability
Subpart A - Wool
Scouring Subcategory
Subpart B - Wool
Finishing Subcategory
Subpart C - Low Water
Use Processing
Subcategory
Subpart D - Woven
Fabric Finishing
Subcategory
Subpart E - Knit
Fabric Finishing
Subcategory
Subpart F - Carpet
Finishing Subcategory
Wool scouring, topmaking, and general cleaning
of raw wool.
Wool finishers, including carbonizing, fulling,
dyeing, bleaching, rinsing, fireproofmg, and other
similar processes.
Yarn manufacturing, yarn texturizing, unfinished
fabric manufacturing, fabric coating, fabric
laminating, tire cord and fabric dipping, carpet
tufting, and carpet backing.
Woven fabric finishers which may include
desizing, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, printing,
resin treatment, water proofing, flame proofing,
soil repellency application, and special finish
application.
Knit fabric finishers which may include
bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, printing, resin
treatment, water proofing, flame proofing, soil
repellency application, and special finish
application.
Carpet mills which may include bleaching,
scouring, carbonizing, fulling dyeing, printing,
water proofing, flame proofing, soil repellency,
looping, and backing with foamed and unfoamed
latex and jute.
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Subpart G - Stock and
Yarn Finishing
Subcategory
Subpart H - Nonwoven
Manufacturing
Subcategory
Subpart I - Felted
Fabric Processing
Subcategory
Stock or yarn dyeing or finishing which may
include cleaning, scouring, bleaching,
mercerizing, dyeing, and special finishing.
Applies to process wastewater discharges from
manufacture of nonwoven textile products of
wool, cotton, or synthetic, thermal and/or
adhesive bonding procedures.
Applies to process wastewater discharges from
manufacture of nonwoven products by employing
fulling and felting operations as a means of
achieving fiber bonds.
Effluent limitations representing the degree of effluent reduction attainable by
using either best practicable control technologies (BPT), or best available
technologies (BAT) are given for all subcategories. BPTs are used for
discharges from existing point sources to control conventional and non-
conventional pollutants as well as some priority pollutants. BATs are used
to control priority pollutants and non-conventional pollutants when directly
discharged into the nation's waters.
Best practicable control technology (BPT) limits for biological oxygen
demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids
(TSS), sulfide, phenol, total chromium, and pH are set for every category
(every Subpart), with the exception of Subpart C (Low Water Use Processing
Subcategory). Each Subpart, with the exception again of Subpart C, also has
best available technology (BAT) limits for COD, sulfide, phenols, and total
chromium.
In Subpart C (Low Water Use Processing Subcategory) effluent reduction
guidelines, attainable with best practicable control technologies (BPT) (40
CFR 410 Part 410.32), are set for BOD, COD, TSS, and pH only. In
addition, these BPT attainable limits differ depending on which type of low
water use process a facility uses. The two types of low water use processes
are general processing and water jet weaving. Water jet weaving is defined
as "the internal subdivision of the low water use processing Subcategory for
facilities primarily engaged in manufacturing woven greige goods through the
water jet weaving process"(40 CFR 410 Part 410.31). General processing is
any low water use processing, other that water jet processing, which facilities
in this category may use. Similarly, best available technology (BAT)
standards are also different depending on the process employed, but are only
set for chemical oxygen demand (COD).
New source performance standards (NSPS) for BOD, COD, TSS, sulfide,
phenols, total chromium, and pH are set for each Subcategory. However, for
the Low Water Use Processing Subcategory (Subpart C) and for the Woven
Fabric Finishing Subcategory (Subpart D), the NSPS are divided into process
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specific standards. For the Woven Fabric Finishing Subcategory (Subpart D)
these standards are different for simple manufacturing operations, complex
manufacturing operations and for desizing. In Subpart C, NSPS are for
general processing and water jet weaving and are only for BOD, COD, TSS,
and pH.
All existing and new sources discharging to POTWs in all subcategories in the
Textile Mills Point Source Category are subject to the General Pretreatment
Regulations for Existing and New Sources of Pollution set forth in 40 CFR
Part 403.
The Storm Water Rule (40 CFR §122.26(b)(14) Subparts (i, ii)) requires
facilities to apply for storm water discharge permits if they are subject to
storm .water effluent guidelines, new source performance standards, or toxic
pollutant effluent standards. In addition, facilities are subject to storm water
permit application requirements if their primary SIC code is one of those
identified in the regulations. To determine whether a particular facility falls
within one of these categories, the regulation should be consulted.
Clean Air Act (CAA)
Under Title I of the CAA, EPA has the authorization to establish New Source
Performance Standards (NSPSs), which are nationally uniform emission
standards for new stationary sources falling within particular industrial
categories. NSPSs are based on the pollution control technology available to
that category of industrial source but allow the affected industries the
flexibility to devise a cost-effective means of reducing emissions. EPA has
not established NSPSs for the textiles industrial category. Refer to the EPA
Sector Notebook on Plastic Resins and Manmade Fibers for a discussion of
the NSPS for synthetic fiber production facilities (40CFR Part 60 Subpart
HHH).
Under Title V of the CAAA 1990 (40 CFR Parts 70-72) all of the applicable
requirements of the Amendments are integrated into one federal renewable
operating permit. Facilities defined as "major sources" under the Act must
apply for permits within one year from when EPA approves the state permit
programs. Since most state programs were not approved until after
November 1994, Title V permit applications will, for the most part, began to
be due in late 1995. Due dates for filing complete applications vary
significantly from state to state, based on the status of review and approval
of the state's Title V program by EPA.
A facility is designated as a major source under Title V if it includes sources
subject to the NSPS acid rain provisions or NESHAPS, or if it releases a
certain amount of any one of the CAAA regulated pollutants (SOX, NOX, CO,
VOC, PM10, hazardous air pollutants, extremely hazardous substances, ozone
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depleting substances, and pollutants covered by NSPSs) depending on the
region's air quality category. Title V permits may set limits on the amounts
of pollutant emissions; require emissions monitoring, and record keeping and
reporting.
Depending on their location and operational factors, some of the larger
textiles manufacturing facilities may be considered major sources and
therefore would apply for a Title V permit.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) was enacted in 1976
to address problems related to hazardous and solid waste management.
RCRA gives EPA the authority to establish a list of solid and hazardous
wastes and to establish standards and regulations for the treatment, storage,
and disposal of these wastes. Regulations in Subtitle C of RCRA address the
identification, generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of
hazardous wastes. These regulations are found in 40 CFR Part 124 and CFR
Parts 260-279. Under RCRA, persons who generate waste must determine
whether the waste is defined as solid waste or hazardous waste. Solid wastes
are considered hazardous wastes if they are listed by EPA as hazardous or if
they exhibit characteristics of a hazardous waste: toxicity, ignitability,
corrosivity, or reactivity.
Products, intermediates, and off-specification products potentially generated
at textiles facilities that are considered hazardous wastes are listed in 40 CFR
Part 261.33(f). Some of the handling and treatment requirements for RCRA
hazardous waste generators are covered under 40 CFR Part 262 and include
the following: determining what constitutes a RCRA hazardous waste
(Subpart A); manifesting (Subpart B); packaging, labeling, and accumulation
time limits (Subpart C); and record keeping and reporting (Subpart D).
Some textiles facilities may store some hazardous wastes at the facility for
more than 90 days and may be considered a storage facility under RCRA.
Storage facilities are required to have a RCRA treatment, storage, and
disposal facility (TSDF) permit (40 CFR Part 262.34). In addition, some
textiles facilities considered TSDF facilities are subject to the following
regulations covered under 40 CFR Part 264: contingency plans and
emergency procedures (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart D); manifesting, record
keeping, and reporting (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart E); use and management
of containers (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart I); tank systems (40 CFR Part 264
Subpart J); surface impoundments (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart K); land
treatment (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart M); corrective action of hazardous
waste releases (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart S); air emissions standards for
process vents of processes that process or generate hazardous wastes (40
CFR Part 264 Subpart AA); emissions standards for leaks in hazardous waste
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handling equipment (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart BB); and emissions standards
for containers, tanks, and surface impoundments that contain hazardous
wastes (40 CFR Part 264 Subpart CC).
Many textiles manufacturing facilities are also subject to the underground
storage tank (UST) program (40 CFR Part 280). The UST regulations apply
to facilities that store either petroleum products or hazardous substances
(except hazardous waste) identified under the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. UST regulations address design
standards, leak detection, operating practices, response to releases, financial
responsibility for releases, and closure standards.
VI.C. Pending and Proposed Regulatory Requirements
A NESHAP for Fabric Coating, Printing and Dying is under development and
is scheduled to be proposed in November 1999 and promulgated in November
2000. (Contact Paul Almodovar, US EPA Office of Air and Radiation, at
919-541-0283.)
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Vn. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT PROFILE
Background
Until recently, EPA has focused much of its attention on measuring
compliance with specific environmental statutes. This approach allows the
Agency to track compliance with the Clean Air Act, the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act, the Clean Water Act, and other
environmental statutes. Within the last several years, the Agency has begun
to supplement single-media compliance indicators with facility-specific,
multimedia indicators of compliance. In doing so, EPA is in a better position
to track compliance with all statutes at the facility level, and within specific
industrial sectors.
A major step in building the capacity to compile multimedia data for industrial
sectors was the creation of EPA's Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis
(IDEA) system. IDEA has the capacity to "read into" the Agency's single-
media databases, extract compliance records, and match the records to
individual facilities. The IDEA system can match Air, Water, Waste,
Toxics/Pesticides/EPCRA, TRI, and Enforcement Docket records for a given
facility, and generate a list of historical permit, inspection, and enforcement
activity. IDEA also has the capability to analyze data by geographic area and
corporate holder. As the capacity to generate multimedia compliance data
improves, EPA will make available more in-depth compliance and
enforcement information. Additionally, sector-specific measures of success
for compliance assistance efforts are under development.
Compliance and Enforcement Profile Description
Using inspection, violation and enforcement data from the IDEA system, this
section provides information regarding the historical compliance and
enforcement activity of this sector. In order to mirror the facility universe
reported in the Toxic Chemical Profile, the data reported within this section
consists of records only from the TRI reporting universe. With this decision,
the selection criteria are consistent across sectors with certain exceptions.
For the sectors that do not normally report to the TRI program, data have
been provided from EPA's Facility Indexing System (FINDS) which tracks
facilities in all media databases. Please note, in this section, EPA does not
attempt to define the actual number of facilities that fall within each sector.
Instead, the section portrays the records of a subset of facilities within the
sector that are well defined within EPA databases.
As a check on the relative size of the full sector universe, most notebooks
contain an estimated number of facilities within the sector according to the
Bureau of Census (See Section II). With sectors dominated by small
businesses, such as metal finishers and printers, the reporting universe within
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the EPA databases may be small in comparison to Census data. However, the
group selected for inclusion in this data analysis section should be consistent
with this sector's general make-up.
Following this introduction is a list defining each data column presented
within this section. These values represent a retrospective summary of
inspections and enforcement actions, and reflect solely EPA, State, and local
compliance assurance activities that have been entered into EPA databases.
To identify any changes in trends, the EPA ran two data queries, one for the
past five calendar years (April 1, 1992 to March 31, 1997) and the other for
the most recent twelve-month period (April 1, 1996 to March 31, 1997). The
five-year analysis gives an average level of activity for that period for
comparison to the more recent activity.
Because most inspections focus on single-media requirements, the data
queries presented in this section are taken from single media databases. These
databases do not provide data on whether inspections are state/local or EPA-
led. However, the table breaking down the universe of violations does give
the reader a crude measurement of the EPA's and states' efforts within each
media program. The presented data illustrate the variations across EPA
Regions for certain sectors.3 This variation may be attributable to state/local
data entry variations, specific geographic concentrations, proximity to
population centers, sensitive ecosystems, highly toxic chemicals used in
production, or historical noncompliance. Hence, the exhibited data do not
rank regional performance or necessarily reflect which regions may have the
most compliance problems.
Compliance and Enforcement Data Definitions
General Definitions
Facility Indexing System (FINDS) this system assigns a common facility
number to EPA single-media permit records. The FINDS identification
number allows EPA to compile and review all permit, compliance,
enforcement and pollutant release data for any given regulated facility.
Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis (IDEA) -- is a data integration
system that can retrieve information from the major EPA program office
databases. IDEA uses the FINDS identification number to link separate data
records from EPA's databases. This allows retrieval of records from across
5 EPA Regions include the following states: I (CT, MA, ME, RI, NH, VT); II (NJ, NY, PR, VI); III (DC, DE, MD, PA,
VA, WV); IV (AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN); V (IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI); VI (AR, LA, NM, OK, TX); VII
(IA, Kg, MO, NE); VIII (CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY); IX (AZ, CA, HI, NV, Pacific Trust Territories); X (AK, ID, OR,
WA).
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media or statutes for any given facility, thus creating a "master list" of
records for that facility. Some of the data systems accessible through IDEA
are: AIRS (Air Facility Indexing and Retrieval System, Office of Air and
Radiation), PCS (Permit Compliance System, Office of Water), RCRIS
(Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System, Office of Solid
Waste), NCDB (National Compliance Data Base, Office of Prevention,
Pesticides, and Toxic Substances), CERCLIS (Comprehensive Environmental
and Liability Information System, Superfund), and TRIS (Toxic Release
Inventory System). IDEA also contains information from outside sources
such as Dun and Bradstreet and the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA). Most data queries displayed in notebook sections
IV and VII were conducted using IDEA.
Data Table Column Heading Definitions
Facilities in Search ~ are based on the universe of TRI reporters within the
listed SIC code range. For industries not covered under TRI reporting
requirements (metal mining, nonmetallic mineral mining, electric power
generation, ground transportation, water transportation, and dry cleaning), or
industries in which only a very small fraction of facilities report to TRI (e.g.,
, printing), the notebook uses the FINDS universe for executing data queries.
The SIC code range selected for each search is defined by each notebook's
selected SIC code coverage described in Section II.
Facilities Inspected indicates the level of EPA and state agency
inspections for the facilities in this data search. These values show what
percentage of the facility universe is inspected in a one-year or five-year
period.
Number of Inspections -- measures the total number of inspections
conducted in this sector. An inspection event is counted each time it is
entered into a single media database.
Average Time Between Inspections ~ provides an average length of time,
expressed in months, between compliance inspections at a facility within the
defined universe.
Facilities with One or More Enforcement Actions expresses the number
of facilities that were the subject of at least one enforcement action within the
defined time period. This category is broken down further into federal and
state actions. Data are obtained for administrative, civil/judicial, and criminal
enforcement actions. Administrative actions include Notices of Violation
(NOVs). A facility with multiple enforcement actions is only counted once
in this column, e.g., a facility with 3 enforcement actions counts as 1 facility.
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Total Enforcement Actions describes the total number of enforcement
actions identified for an industrial sector across all environmental statutes. A
facility with multiple enforcement actions is counted multiple times, e.g., a
facility with 3 enforcement actions counts as 3.
State Lead Actions shows what percentage of the total enforcement
actions are taken by state and local environmental agencies. Varying levels
of use by states of EPA data systems may limit the volume of actions
recorded as state enforcement activity. Some states extensively report
enforcement activities into EPA data systems, while other states may use their
own data systems.
Federal Lead Actions shows what percentage of the total enforcement
actions are taken by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
This value includes referrals from state agencies. Many of these actions result
from coordinated or joint state/federal efforts.
Enforcement to Inspection Rate is a ratio of enforcement actions to
inspections, and is presented for comparative purposes only. This ratio is a
rough indicator of the relationship between inspections and enforcement. It
relates the number of enforcement actions and the number of inspections that
occurred within the one-year or five-year period. This ratio includes the
inspections and enforcement actions reported under the Clean Water Act
(CWA), the Clean Air Act (CAA) and the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA). Inspections and actions from the TSCA/FIFRA/
EPCRA database are not factored into this ratio because most of the actions
taken under these programs are not the result of facility inspections. Also,
this ratio does not account for enforcement actions arising from non-
inspection compliance monitoring activities (e.g., self-reported water
discharges) that can result in enforcement action within the CAA, CWA, and
RCRA.
Facilities with One or More Violations Identified ~ indicates the
percentage of inspected facilities having a violation identified in one of the
following data categories: In Violation or Significant Violation Status
(CAA); Reportable Noncompliance, Current Year Noncompliance, Significant
Noncompliance (CWA); Noncompliance and Significant Noncompliance
(FIFRA, TSCA, and EPCRA); Unresolved Violation and Unresolved High
Priority Violation (RCRA). The values presented for this column reflect the
extent of noncompliance within the measured time frame, but do not
distinguish between the severity of the noncompliance. Violation status may
be a precursor to an enforcement action, but does not necessarily indicate that
an enforcement action will occur.
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Media Breakdown of Enforcement Actions and Inspections four
columns identify the proportion of total inspections and enforcement actions
within EPA Air, Water, Waste, and TSCA/FIFRA/EPCRA databases. Each
column is a percentage of either the "Total Inspections," or the "Total
Actions" column.
VILA. Textile Industry Compliance History
Table 18 provides an overview of the reported compliance and enforcement
data for the textiles industry over the past five years (April 1992 to April
1997). These data are broken out by EPA Region4 thereby permitting
geographical comparisons. A few points evident from the data are listed
below.
Over 60 percent of textile sector inspections and enforcement actions
were in Region IV where most of the industry's facilities (61 percent)
are located.
Region n, with only 24 facilities, carried out relatively few inspections
in relation to the number of facilities (19 months between inspections
on average) but had the highest enforcement to inspection rate (0.15).
Region III had the shortest average time between inspections (11
months) but one of the lowest enforcement to inspection rates (0.04).
4 EPA Regions include the following states: I (CT, MA, ME, RI, NH, VT); II (NJ, NY, PR, VI); III (DC, DE, MD, PA,
VA, WV); IV (AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, IN); V (IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI); VI (AR, LA, NM, OK, TX); VII
(LA, KS, MO, ME); VIII (CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY); IX (AZ, CA, HI, NV, Pacific Trust Territories); X (AK, ID, OR,
WA).
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VII.B. Comparison of Enforcement Activity Between Selected Industries
Tables 19 and 20 allow the compliance history of the textiles sector to be
compared to the other industries covered by the industry sector notebooks.
Comparisons between Tables 19 and 20 permit the identification of trends in
compliance and enforcement records of the industry by comparing data
covering the last five years (April 1992 to April 1997) to that of the past year
(April 1996 to April 1997). Some points evident from the data are listed
below.
Of the sectors listed, facilities in the textile sector had one of the
highest proportions of state lead enforcement actions (90 percent)
over the past five years. In addition, the industry had a relatively low
enforcement to inspection rate (0.06) during this period.
Over the past year, the enforcement to inspection rate for the industry
decreased further to a rate lower than many of the other sectors listed
(0.04).
The textile sector had a low percentage of facilities inspected with
violations (56 percent) and enforcement actions (6 percent) in the past
year compared to most of the sectors listed.
Tables 21 and 22 provide a more in-depth comparison between the textiles
industry and other sectors by breaking out the compliance and enforcement
data by environmental statute. As in the previous tables (Tables 19 and 20),
the data cover the last five years (Table 21) and the last one year (Table 22)
to facilitate the identification of recent trends. A few points evident from the
data are listed below.
The percentage of inspections carried out under each environmental
statute has changed slightly between the average of the past five years
and that of the past year. Inspections under CAA increased from 58
percent to 66 percent while inspections under CWA decreased from
22 percent to 17 percent.
The percentage of enforcement actions carried out under RCRA,
CWA, and FIFRA/TSCA/EPCRA/Other decreased significantly
between the average of the past five years and that of the past year,
while enforcement actions under CAA increased from 54 percent to
75 percent.
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VD.C. Review of Major Legal Actions
Major Cases/Supplemental Environmental Projects
This section provides summary information about major cases that have
affected this sector, and a list of Supplemental Environmental Projects
(SEPs).
VH.C.l. Review of Major Cases
As indicated in EPA's Enforcement Accomplishments Report, FY1995 and
FY1996 publications, one significant enforcement actions was resolved
between 1995 and 1996 for the textiles industry.
J-StreetSite (Erwin, Harnett County, NQ: On August 9, 1995, EPA issued
unilateral administrative order (UAOs) to Swift Textiles, Inc., and Burlington
Industries, Inc. The UAOs require the Respondents to conduct an
engineering evaluation/cost analysis, expanded site investigation and a
removal action for the J-Street Site, located in Erwin, Harnett County, North
Carolina. Swift Textiles, Inc. is the present owner/operator of the site and
Burlington Industries, Inc., was an owner/operator of the facility at the time
of disposal of hazardous substances. Both Burlington and Swift have been
very cooperative and are complying fully with the terms of the UAO.
Vn.C.2. Supplementary Environmental Projects (SEPs)
Supplemental environmental projects (SEPs) are environmental projects that
require the non-compliant facility to complete specific projects. Information
on SEP cases can be accessed via the Internet at EPA's Enviro$en$e website:
http://es.inel.gov/sep.
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COMPLIANCE ACTIVITIES AND INITIATIVES
This section highlights the activities undertaken by this industry sector and
public agencies to voluntarily improve the sector's environmental
performance. These activities include those independently initiated by
industrial trade associations. In this section, the notebook also contains a
listing and description of national and regional trade associations.
VELA. EPA Voluntary Programs
33/50 Program
The 33/50 Program is a groundbreaking program that has focused on
reducing pollution from seventeen high-priority chemicals through voluntary
partnerships with industry. The program's name stems from its goals: a 33%
reduction in toxic releases by 1992, and a 50% reduction by 1995, against a
baseline of 1.5 billion pounds of releases and transfers in 1988. The results
have been impressive: 1,300 companies have joined the 33/50 Program
(representing over 6,000 facilities) and have reached the national targets a
year ahead of schedule. The 33% goal was reached in 1991, and the 50%
goal a reduction of 745 million pounds of toxic wastes was reached in
1994. The 33/50 Program can provide case studies on many of the corporate
accomplishments in reducing waste (Contact 33/50 Program Director David
Sarokin - 260-6396).
Table 23 lists those companies participating in the 33/50 program that
reported four-digit SIC codes within SIC 22 to TRI. In addition, the number
of facilities within each company that are participating in the 33/50 program
and that report four-digit SIC codes within SIC 22 to TRI is shown. Finally,
where available and quantifiable against 1988 releases and transfers, each
company's 33/50 goals for 1995 and the actual total releases, transfers and
percent reduction between 1988 and 1994 are presented.
The textile manufacturing industry as a whole used, generated, or processed
twelve of the seventeen target TRI chemicals in 1994. Of the 33/50 target
chemicals, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, xylenes, and methyl isobutyl ketone
are released the most by volume (pounds). Methyl ethyl ketone is released
in the greatest quantity overall. It is released at a rate almost twice that of
toluene, the next largest chemical released. Together methyl ethyl ketone and
toluene account for about 71 percent of 33/50 chemicals released by textile
facilities and approximately 41 percent of the industry's total TRI releases in
1994.
Of the target chemicals, methyl ethyl ketone, trichloroethylene, toluene, and
xylenes (mixed isomers) are transferred the most by volume (pounds).
Methyl ethyl ketone is transferred in the greatest quantity. The volume of it
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is transferred at a rate almost two and a half times greater than
trichloroethylene, the next largest volume of chemical transferred. Together
methyl ethyl ketone and trichloroethylene account for about 61 percent of
33/50 chemicals transferred by textile facilities and approximately 17 percent
of the industry's total TRI transfers in 1994.
Table 23 shows that 47 textile companies listed under SIC 22 are participating
in the 33/50 program. Within these 47 companies, 114 facilities reporting
four-digit SIC codes within SIC 22 are participating in the 33/50 program.
This comprises 27 percent of the textile manufacturing facilities reporting to
TRI. Not every facility owned by the companies shown may be participating
in the 33/50 program. The 33/50 goals shown for companies with multiple
textile facilities are company-wide, potentially aggregating either more than
one facility or facilities not carrying out textile manufacturing operations. In
addition to company-wide goals, individual facilities may have their own
33/50 goals or may be listed specifically as not participating in the program.
The actual percent reductions shown in the last column apply only to
companies' textile facilities. Therefore, direct comparisons to those company
goals incorporating non-textile manufacturing facilities or excluding certain
facilities may not be possible. For information on specific facilities
participating in 33/50, contact David Sarokin at 202-260-6907 at the 33/50
Program Office.
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Table 23: Textile Industry Participation in the 33/50 Program
Parent Company
(Headquarters Location)
A. T R Wire & Cable Co.
Danville, KY
Albany International Corp.
Albany, NY
Allied-Signal Inc.
Vlorristown, NJ
American Home Products Corp.
Madison, NJ
Amoco Corp'.
Chicago, IL
Barnhardt Manufacturing, Co.
Charlotte, NC
3GF Industries, Inc.
Greensboro, NC
Borden Inc.
New York, NY
BP America Lie.
Cleveland, OH
Bridport-Grundy Inc.
Vloodus, CT
Burke Mills, Inc.
Valdese, NC
Coating Technologies International
nc.
Columbia, SC
Coats Viyella North America
Charlotte, NC
Collins & Aikman Holdings II,
Charlotte, NC
Continental General Tire Inc.
Akron, OH
Crystal Springs Print Works
Chickamauga, GA
Dundee Mills Inc.
Griffin, GA
Exxon Corporation
(rving, TX
Farley Inc.
Chicago, IL
Ferro Corporation
Cleveland, OH
Gencorplnc.
Akron, OH
Company-Owned
Facilities
Reporting 33/50
Chemicals
1
1
1
1
3
L
1
1
1
1
1
3
8
16
1
1
1
1
5
1
2
Company-Wide
% Reduction
Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
100
*
50
50
50
25
***
*
24
12
35
59
38
***
***
50
50
50
2
50
33
1 988 TRI Releases
and Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)
79,174
0
160,600
76,750
14,490
57,693
12,700
73,900
217,882
124,475
42,863
7,778,051
175,277
1,435,072
12,320
40,850
250
7
68,410
36,650
5,427,191
1994 TRI Releases
and Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)
0
0
0
0
259
76,090
0
0
0
76,781
0
5,169,485
101,859
17,894
0
0
0
5
3,545
0
2,957,175
Actual %
Reduction for
Facilities
(1988-1994)
100
0
100
100
98
-32
100
100
100
38
100
34
42
99
100
100
100
29
95
100
46
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'arcnt Company
Headquarters Location)
Glen Raven Mills Inc.
3urlinBton. NC
Grafil Inc.
Sacramento, CA
lood Coatings, Inc.
Georgetown, MA
loan Fabrics Corp
Fyngshoro, MA
vlagee Industrial Enterprises
Jlootnsburg, PA
banning Fabrics Inc.
'inehurst, NC
vlascotech. Taylor, MI
vlasland Industries
Carlisle, PA
Middlesex Research Mfg. Co.
ludson, MA
vlilliken and Company
Spartanburg, SC
Odyssey Partners LP
Mew York, NY
Parker Hannifin Corp.
Cleveland, OH
'aulsen Wire Rope Corp.
iunbury, PA
*enn Columbia Corp.
Hew York, NY
'recision Fabrics Group Inc.
CJreensboro, NC
^uddick Corp.
C'harlotte, NC
tlussell Corp
Alexander City, AL
Santee Print Works
^umter, SC
5ara Lee Corp.
Chicago, IL
Seapa Group Inc.
Raleigh, NC
Schneller Inc.
Kent, OH
Springs Industries Inc.
Fort Mill, SC
Company-Owned
Facilities
Reporting 33/50
Chemicals
4
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
18
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
3
1
£
Company- Wide
% Reduction
Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
50
***
76
**
*
*
35
***
100
50
***
50
80
50
100
#**
90
33
1
**
*
80
1 988 TRI Releases
and Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)
54,724
0
39,249
0
342,615
27,429
295,229
283,626
39,000
681,599
897,200
34,171
15,000
64,750
1,387
160,000
346,015
106,650
0
0
250
185,528
1994 TRI Releases
and Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)
116,042
21,192
2,994
0
0
0
0
0
0
40,805
3,912
0
0
0
1,390
315,242
137,699
68,762
86
37,800
47,870
8,987
Actual %
Reduction for
Facilities
(1988-1994)
-112
0
92
0
100
100
100
100
100
94
100
100
100
100
0
-97
60
36
0
0
-19048
95
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Parent Company
(Headquarters Location)
Textile, Rubber and Chemical Corp.
Dalton, GA
Frefilarbed Arkansas Inc.
Pine Bluff, AR
United Silk Mills, USA Ltd.
New York, NY
Zeneca Holdings Inc.
Wilmington, DE
TOTAL
Company-Owned
Facilities
Reporting 33/50
Chemicals
1
1
1
2
114
Company-Wide
% Reduction
Goal1
(1988 to 1995)
*
*
60
*
1988 TRI Releases
and Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)
0
0
77,650
0
1994 TRI Releases
and Transfers of
33/50 Chemicals
(pounds)
702
83,315
0
0
19,486,677 1 9,289,891
Actual %
Reduction for
Facilities
(1988-1994)
0
0
100
0
52
Source: US EPA 33/50 Program Office, 1996.
' Company-wide Reduction Goals aggregate all company-owned facilities which may include facilities not producing textiles.
* = Reduction goal not quantifiable against 1 988 TRI data.
** = Use reduction goal only.
*** = No numeric reduction goal.
Note: Some of the facilities listed in this table manufacture coated fabrics and are classified as SIC Code 2295, Miscellaneous
Textiles. Coated Fabrics Not Rubberized
Environmental Leadership Program
The Environmental Leadership Program (ELP) is a national initiative
developed by EPA that focuses on improving environmental performance,
encouraging voluntary compliance, and building working relationships with
stakeholders. EPA initiated a one year pilot program in 1995 by selecting 12
projects at industrial facilities and federal installations which would
demonstrate the principles of the ELP program. These principles include:
environmental management systems, multimedia compliance assurance, third-
party verification of compliance, public measures of accountability, pollution
prevention, community involvement, and mentor programs. In return for
participating, pilot participants received public recognition and were given a
period of time to correct any violations discovered during these experimental
projects.
EPA is making plans to launch its full-scale Environmental Leadership
Program in 1997. The full-scale program will be facility-based with a 6-year
participation cycle. Facilities that meet certain requirements will be eligible
to participate, such as having a community outreach/employee involvement
programs and an environmental management system (EMS) in place for 2
years. (Contact: http://es.inel.gov/elp or Debby Thomas, ELP Deputy
Director, at 202-564-5041)
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Project XL
Project XL was initiated in March 1995 as a part of President Clinton's
Reinventing Environmental Regulation initiative. The projects seek to
achieve cost effective environmental benefits by providing participants
regulatory flexibility on the condition that they produce greater environmental
benefits. EPA and program participants will negotiate and sign a Final Project
Agreement, detailing specific environmental objectives that the regulated
entity shall satisfy. EPA will provide regulatory flexibility as an incentive for
the participants' superior environmental performance. Participants are
encouraged to seek stakeholder support from local governments, businesses,
and environmental groups. EPA hopes to implement fifty pilot projects in
four categories, including industrial facilities, communities, and government
facilities regulated by EPA. Applications will be accepted on a rolling basis.
For additional information regarding XL projects, including application
procedures and criteria, see the May 23, 1995 Federal Register Notice.
(Contact: Fax-on-Demand Hotline 202-260-8590, Web: http://www.epa.gov/
ProjectXL, or Christopher Knopes at EPA's Office of Policy, Planning and
Evaluation 202-260-9298)
Climate Wise Program
Climate Wise is helping US industries turn energy efficiency and pollution
prevention into a corporate asset. Supported by the technical assistance,
financing information and public recognition that Climate Wise offers,
participating companies are developing and launching comprehensive
industrial energy efficiency and pollution prevention action plans that save
money and protect the environment. The nearly 300 Climate Wise companies
expect to save more than $300 million and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
by 18 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by the year 2000.
Some of the actions companies are undertaking to achieve these results
include: process improvements, boiler and steam system optimization, air
compressor system improvements, fuel switching, and waste heat recovery
measures including cogeneration. Created as part of the President's Climate
Change Action Plan, Climate Wise is jointly operated by the Department of
Energy and EPA. Under the Plan many other programs were also launched
or upgraded including Green Lights, WasteWi$e and DoE's Motor Challenge
Program. Climate Wise provides an umbrella for these programs which
encourage company participation by providing information on the range of
partnership opportunities available. (Contact: Pamela Herman, EPA, 202-
260-4407 or Jan Vernet, DoE, 202-586-4755)
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Energy Star Buildings Program
EPA's ENERGY STAR Buildings Program is a voluntary, profit-based program
designed to improve the energy-efficiency in commercial and industrial
buildings. Expanding the successful Green Lights Program, ENERGY STAR
Buildings was launched in 1995. This program relies on a 5-stage strategy
designed to maximize energy savings thereby lowering energy bills, improving
occupant comfort, and preventing pollution ~ all at the same time. If
implemented in every commercial and industrial building in the United States,
ENERGY STAR Buildings could cut the nation's energy bill by up to $25 billion
and prevent up to 35% of carbon dioxide emissions. (This is equivalent to
taking 60 million cars of the road). ENERGY STAR Buildings participants
include corporations; small and medium sized businesses; local, federal and
state governments; non-profit groups; schools; universities; and health care
facilities. EPA provides technical and non-technical support including
software, workshops, manuals, communication tools, and an information
hotline. EPA's Office of Air and Radiation manages the operation of the
ENERGY STAR Buildings Program. (Contact: Green Light/Energy Star Hotline
at 1-888-STAR-YES or Maria Tikoff Vargas, EPA Program Director at 202-
233-9178 or visit the ENERGY STAR Buildings Program website at
http ://www. epa.gov/appdsta^uildings/)
Green Lights Program
EPA's Green Lights program was initiated in 1991 and has the goal of
preventing pollution by encouraging U.S. institutions to use energy-efficient
lighting technologies. The program saves money for businesses and
organizations and creates a cleaner environment by reducing pollutants
released into the atmosphere. The program has over 2,345 participants which
include major corporations, small and medium sized businesses, federal, state
and local governments, non-profit groups, schools, universities, and health
care facilities. Each participant is required to survey their facilities and
upgrade lighting wherever it is profitable. As of March 1997, participants had
lowered their electric bills by $289 million annually. EPA provides technical
assistance to the participants through a decision support software package,
workshops and manuals, and an information hotline. EPA's Office of Air and
Radiation is responsible for operating the Green Lights Program. (Contact:
Green Light/Energy Star Hotline at 1-888-STARYES or Maria Tikoff
Vargar, EPA Program Director, at 202-233-9178 the )
WasteWi$e Program
The WasteWi$e Program was started in 1994 by EPA's Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response. The program is aimed at reducing municipal solid
wastes by promoting waste prevention, recycling collection and the
manufacturing and purchase of recycled products. As of 1997, the program
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had about 500 companies as members, one third of whom are Fortune 1000
corporations. Members agree to identify and implement actions to reduce
their solid wastes setting waste reduction goals and providing EPA with
yearly progress reports. To member companies, EPA, in turn, provides
technical assistance, publications, networking opportunities, and national and
regional recognition. (Contact: WasteWi$e Hotline at 1-800-372-9473 or
Joanne Oxley, EPA Program Manager, 703-308-0199)
NICE3
The U.S. Department of Energy is administering a grant program called The
National Industrial Competitiveness through Energy, Environment, and
Economics (NICE3). By providing grants of up to 45 percent of the total
project cost, the program encourages industry to reduce industrial waste at
its source and become more energy-efficient and cost-competitive through
waste minimization efforts. Grants are used by industry to design, test, and
demonstrate new processes and/or equipment with the potential to reduce
pollution and increase energy efficiency. The program is open to all
industries; however, priority is given to proposals from participants in the
forest products, chemicals, petroleum refining, steel, aluminum, metal casting
and glass manufacturing sectors. (Contact: http//www.oit.doe.gov/access/
nice3, Chris Sifri, DOE, 303-275-4723 or Eric Hass, DOE, 303-275-4728)
Design for the Environment (DfE)
DfE is working with several industries to identify cost-effective pollution
prevention strategies that reduce risks to workers and the environment. DfE
helps businesses compare and evaluate the performance, cost, pollution
prevention benefits, and human health and environmental risks associated with
existing and alternative technologies. The goal of these projects is to
encourage businesses to consider and use cleaner products, processes, and
technologies. For more information about the DfE Program, call (202) 260-
1678. To obtain copies of DfE materials or for general information about
DfE, contact EPA's Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse at (202)
260-1023 or visit the DfE Website at http://es.inel.gov/dfe.
.B. Trade Association/Industry Sponsored Activity
Vm.B.1 Environmental Programs
Encouraging Environmental Excellence (E3)
The Encouraging Environmental Excellence (E3) program is a voluntary
environmental initiative, created in 1992, by the American Textile
Manufacturers Institute (ATMI). The program aims to strengthen textile
companies' commitment to addressing environmental issues. E3 encourages
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member companies to focus their environmental efforts in the areas of
recycling and waste reduction, pollution prevention, and water and energy
conservation. Companies may join the E3 program provided they are in
compliance with all federal and state environmental laws, and follow a 10-
point set of guidelines set forth by ATMI. Some of these guidelines include:
providing ATMI with a company environmental policy; submitting a copy of
environmental audits showing that the company is in compliance with federal
and states laws; listing a set of environmental goals and target achievement
dates; and describing how the company has been able to offer assistance to
citizens, interest groups, other companies, and government agencies. In
1995, 52 textile companies were members of the E3 program. For more
information on ATMTs E3 program, please contact, ATMI at 202-862-0500.
American Textile Partnership (AMTEX)
The American Textile Partnership (AMTEX) is a collaborative research
program between the United States Integrated Textile Complex (U.S. ITC),
the United States Department of Energy (U.S. DOE), national research
laboratories, and research universities. The U.S. ITC includes manufacturers
of fibers, fabrics, apparel, sewn products, and retailers. The goal of AMTEX
is to strengthen the national and international competitiveness of the U.S. ITC
through research and development. AMTEX runs several projects, some of
which directly or indirectly address environmental issues facing the textile
industry. Projects that specifically address environmental issues are
highlighted below.
Textile Resource Conservation (TRec)
The Textile Resource Conservation (TRec) is one of many projects under the
American Textile Partnership (AMTEX). The goal of the TRec project is to
develop resource-efficient textile manufacturing processes which use less
energy and natural resources, with no net waste to the environment. The
project aims to:
Recover and reuse 100,000 tons of knit fabric waste valued at
$474 million per year.
Reduce water use by 133 billion gallons per year, including 50
billion gallons sent to waste treatment at a combined cost of
$146 million.
Recover valuable raw materials. For example, raw materials
in reactive dyes alone were valued at over $66 million/year.
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So far the program's achievements include:
Developing a method for recovering dyes and colorants.
Developing a process for recovering and reusing polyester and
cotton from scrap fabric and apparel.
Demonstrating a method by which the amount of chemical,
water, and energy needed to scour, wash, and finish fabrics is
greatly reduced.
Developing a water-based method for removing oil and grease
from fabric instead of using volatile solvents.
For more information, contact Don Alexander, Project Manager, at the
Institute of Textile Technology at 864-595-0035.
Demand Activated Manufacturing Architecture (DAMA)
The Demand Activated Manufacturing Architecture (DAMA) is a project
under AMTEX, that aims to develop a computer-based information system
by the end of the decade. This system will link all aspects of the U.S.
Integrated Textile Complex (ITC) in an electronic marketplace, thereby
streamlining the entire industry. (The ITC includes manufacturers of fibers,
fabrics, apparel, sewn products, and retailers.) Through this electronic
marketplace, companies will be able to identify, compare, buy and sell
resources, products, and services offered.
Through DAMA, all sectors of the ITC will be linked with each other through
electronic mail (E-mail), the World Wide Web, and other Internet interfaces.
DAMA hopes that this will allow companies to be more responsive to
changes and shifts in customer demands, thereby enabling the ITC to
streamline the entire textile and apparel production process. As a result,
shipment and handling costs should be reduced and overproduction curbed.
Additionally, it is projected that $25 billion per year can be saved by better
inventory management through DAMA (Textile/Clothing Technology Corp.,
1996) For more information on the DAMA project, contact James Lovejoy
at the Textile/Clothing Technology Corp. (TC2) at 919-380-2184.
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Vm.B.2. Summary of Trade Associations
American Textile Manufacturers
Institute (ATM!)
1130 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 1200
Washington, DC 20036-3954
Phone: (202) 862-0500
Fax: (202) 862-0570
http ://www. atmi. org
Members: 150 companies
Staff: 36
Budget: $2,000,000-$5,000,000
The American Textile Manufacturers Institute (ATMI) is the one of the largest trade
associations for the textile industry. Members companies of ATMI, are located in more than
30 different states and process approximately 80 percent of textile fibers consumed by plants
in the United States (ATMI, 1997). ATMI serves as the main liaison between the various
sectors of the textile industry, and government agencies and the media. It also provides its
members with information on international trade, government relations, and economic
conditions facing the industry. Additionally, ATMI also provides product, communication,
and administrative services for its members. ATMI also puts out several publications
including Textile Hi-Lights, Textile Trends and Global View.
Northern Textile Association (NT A)
230 Congress Street,
Boston, MA 02110
Phone: (617) 542-8220
Fax: (617) 542-2199
Members: 280 mills
Staff: 6-10
Budget: $250,000-$500,000
The Northern Textile Association (NTA) is the oldest trade association for the textile
industry. Its members are located in 23 states in the U.S. as well as in Canada and overseas.
However, the majority of its members are still primarily located in New England. Although
a large proportion of its members manufacture cotton and synthetic yarns, NTA also
represents manufacturers of wool, flock, felt, elastic, and luxury fiber products. NTA also
acts as a liaison between the industry and federal, state, national and international agencies.
American Association for Textile Technology
P.O. Box 99
Gastonia, NC 28053
Phone: (704) 824-3522
Fax: (704) 824-0630
Members: 400 individuals
Staff: 2
Budget: $10,000-$25,000
This association is composed of individuals involved in fiber, yarn, and fabric formation
technology. Organized in 1934 and incorporated in 1945, this group encourages the growth
and dissemination of knowledge in the field of textile technology and marketing.
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American Association of Textile Chemists
and Colorists
P.O. Box 12215
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2215
Phone:(919)549-8141
Fax: (919) 549-8933
Members: 8,000 individuals and
300 organizations
Staff: 20-25
Budget: $2,000,000-$5,000,000
This group was founded in Boston in 1921 with 270 charter members and incorporated in
Massachusetts. The American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists promotes the
increase in knowledge of the application of dyes and chemicals in the textile industry and the
use of textile wet processing machinery. Publications include theAATCC Technical Manual
(annual) and Textile Chemist & Colorist (monthly).
American Yarn Spinners Association
P.O. Box 99
Gastonia, NC 28053
Phone: (704) 824-3522
Fax: (704) 824-0630
Members: 120 companies
Staff: 7
Budget: $100,000-$250,000
This group was formed, in 1967, from the merger of the Carded Yarn Association and the
Combed Yarn Spinners. This group is affiliated with the Craft Yarn Council of America.
This group absorbed the Long Staple Yarn Association in 1974, the Yarn Dyers Association
in 1976, the Carpet Yarn Association in 1981, and the Association of Synthetic Yarn
Manufacturers in 1988.
Carpet and Rug Institute
310S. Holiday Ave.
P.O. Box 2048
Dalton, GA 30722-2048
Phone:(706)278-3176
Fax: (706) 278-8835
Members: 225 companies
Staff: 15
Budget: $1,000,000-$2,000,000
This group was formed, in 1928, from the merger of the American Carpet Institute and the
Tufted Textile Manufacturers Association. The group publishes a membership directory and
holds annual meetings in the fall.
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INDA, Association of the Nonwoven
Fabrics Industry
1001 Winstead Drive, Suite 460
Gary, NC 27513
Phone: (919) 677-0060
Fax:(919)677-0211
Members: 135 companies
Staff: 13
Budget: $1,000,000-$2,000,000
This group includes suppliers of fibers, adhesives, chemicals, fluff pulp, plastic film and
related materials, roll goods producers, machinery and equipment suppliers, finishers and
converters, and marketers of finished products. INDA publishes the INDA Journal of
Nonwoven Research (quarterly), the Nonwoven Handbook, and a variety of conference
papers.
International Society of Industrial Fabric
Manufacturers
1337 Garden Circle Drive
Newberry, SC 29108
Phone:(803)939-8513
Members: 350 individuals
Staff: 1
Budget: under $10,000
Members of this group include engineers, executives, technicians and salespersons in the
industrial fabrics and textile industry. Formerly called the International Society of Industrial
Yarn Manufacturers, this association holds two semi-annual meetings in the spring and fall.
International Textile and Apparel Association
P.O. Box 1360
Monument, CO 80132-1360
Phone: (719) 488-3716
Members: 1,000 individuals
Staff: 1
Budget: $100,000-$250,000
Formerly known as the Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing, this
association started up as an outgrowth of regional conferences of textile and clothing
professors. Active members are people engage in college or university instruction, research,
and/or administration in textiles, clothing, or a related area. Publications include The
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal (quarterly) and the ITAA Proceedings.
Knitted Textile Association
386 Park Avenue South, 9th Floor
New York, NY 10016
Phone: (212) 689-3807
Fax: (212) 889-6160
Members: 165 companies
Staff: 2-5
Budget: $250,000-$500,000
This group was first established as the Knitted Fabric Group. Members include makers of
knitted fabrics of all types and their suppliers. This trade association holds an annual meeting
in March.
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Textile Industry
Contacts/References
IX. CONTACTS AND REFERENCES
For further information on selected topics within the textile industry a list of
publications and contacts are provided below.
Contacts5
Name
Belinda
Breidenbach
Paul Almodovar
Doug Williams
Brent Smith
Jane Henriques
Karen Addis
David Trumbull
Organization
EPA, Office of
Compliance
EPA, Office of Air
Quality Planning and
Standards
EPA, Office of
Research and
Development
NC State
American Textile
Manufacturers
Institute
American Textile
Manufacturers
Institute
Northeast Textile
Association (NT A)
Telephone
202-564-7022
919-541-0283
513-569-7361
919-515-6548
202-862-0500
202-862-0500
617-542-8220
Subject
Compliance assistance and
regulatory requirements
Regulatory development
Industrial processes and
pollution prevention
Manmade fibers processes and
pollution prevention methods
Industrial processes and
pollution prevention methods
Industrial processes
Environmental initiatives and
programs and regulatory issues
CAA: Clean Air Act
CWA: Clean Water Act
OECA: Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
NEIC: National Enforcement Investigations Center
RCRA: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Many of the contacts listed above have provided valuable background information and comments during development
of this document. EPA appreciates this support and acknowledges that the individuals listed do not necessarily endorse
all statements made within this notebook.
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Contacts/References
References
Section II - Introduction, Background, and Scope
1) American Textiles Manufacturers Institute (ATMI). Textiles: America's First Industry,
Washington, DC, 1997a.
2) American Textiles Manufacturers Institute (ATMI). Comments on draft of this document, 1997b.
3) American Textiles Manufacturers Institute (ATMI). The U.S. Textile Industry, Scope and
Importance, Office of the Chief Economist, Washington, DC, 1996.
4) Benjamin, R.(Ed.) Fairchild's Textile & Apparel Financial Directory 1996, Fairchild
Publications, New York, NY, 1996.
5) Gale Research Inc. Ward's Business Directory of U.S. Private andPublic Companies, 1995.
6) Neefiis, J.D. "Textile Industrial Processes," in Industrial Hygiene Aspects of Plant Operations,
Volume I, Process Flows, Cralley, L.V. and Cralley, L.J. (eds.)., MacMillan Publishing Co.,
Inc., New York, NY, 1982.
7) Office of Management and Budget. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, Washington, DC,
1987.
8) United States Department of Commerce. 1992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series,
Weaving and Floor Covering Mills, Industries 2211, 2221, 2231, 2241, and 2273, Bureau
of the Census, Washington, DC, 1995.
9) United States Department of Commerce. 1992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series, Knitting
Mills, Industries 2251, 2252, 2253, 2254, 2257, 2258, and 2259, Bureau of the Census,
Washington, DC, 1995.
10) United States Department of Commerce. 7992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series, Dyeing
and Finishing Textiles, Except Wool Fabrics and Knit Goods, Industries 2261, 2262, and
2269, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC, 1995.
11) United States Department of Commerce. 7992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series, Yarn
and Thread Mills, Industries 2281, 2282, and 2284, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC,
1995.
12) United States Department of Commerce. 7992 Census of Manufactures, Industry Series,
Miscellaneous Textile Goods, Industries 2295, 2296, 2297, 2298, and 2299, Bureau of the
Census, Washington, DC, 1995.
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Contacts/References
13) United States Environmental Protection Agency. Best Management Practices for Pollution
Prevention in the Textile Industry, EPA, Office of Research and Development, 1996.
14) Wilson, K. A History of Textiles, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 1979.
Section PI - Industrial Process Description
1) American Textiles Manufacturers Institute (ATMI). Comments on draft of this document, 1997b.
2) Calfa, L., Holbrook, J., Keenan, C., and T. Reilly. A Guide to Pollution Prevention in Woolen
Mills. Prepared for Northern Textile Association, Boston, 1993.
3) Corbman, B.P. Textiles: Fiber to Fabric, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1975.
4) Foundation of Flexographic Technical Association (FFTA). Flexography: Principles and
Practices, 4th edition, Ronkonkoma, NY, 1991.
5) Ormerod, A. Modern Preparation and Weaving Machinery, Butterworth and Co. Ltd London
1983.
6) Oxtoby, E. Spun Yarn Technology, Butterworth and Co. Ltd, London, 1987.
7) Press, J.J. Man-made Textile Encyclopedia, Textile Book Publishers, Inc., New York, 1959.
8) Snowden-Swan, LJ. "Pollution Prevention in the Textile Industries," in Industrial Pollution
Prevention Handbook, Freeman, H.M. (Ed.), McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1995.
9) Spencer, D.J. Knitting Technology, 2nd edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1983.
10) United States Environmental Protection Agency. Best Management Practices for Pollution
Prevention in the Textile Industry, EPA, Office of Research and Development, 1996.
11) Wingate, Dr. Isabel B. Fair child's Dictionary of Textiles, 6th edition, Fairchild Publications,
New York, 1979.
Section V - Pollution Prevention Opportunities
1) Calfa, L., Holbrook, J., Keenan, C., and T. Reilly. A Guide to Pollution Prevention in Woolen
Mills. Prepared for Northern Textile Association, Boston, 1993.
2) NCDEHNR. Case Studies: A Compilation of Successful Waste Reduction Projects Implemented
by North Carolina Businesses and Industries. North Carolina Department of Environment,
Health, and Natural Resources, Office of Waste Reduction, Raleigh, North Carolina, 1995.
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Contacts/References
3)NCDEHNR. Identification and Reduction of Pollution Sources in Textile Wet Processing. North
Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Office of Waste
Reduction, Raleigh, North Carolina, 1991.
4) NCDEHNR. A Workbook for Pollution Prevention by Source Reduction in Textile Wet
Processing. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources,
Office of Waste Reduction, Raleigh, North Carolina, 1988.
5) Snowden-Swan, L.J. "Pollution Prevention in the Textile Industries," in Industrial Pollution
Prevention Handbook, Freeman, H.M. (Ed.), McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1995.
6) United States Environmental Protection Agency. Best Management Practices for Pollution
Prevention in the Textile Industry, EPA, Office of Research and Development, 1995.
Section VII - Federal Statutes and Regulations
1) Internet Site: http://cbmntl.energylan.sandia.gov/amtexwww/conservation.html
2) Textile/Clothing Technology Corp. (TC2), The Textile Revolution: DAMA The Demand Activated
Manufacturing Architecture Project, Gary, NC, 1996.
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APPENDIX A
INSTRUCTIONS FOR DOWNLOADING THIS NOTEBOOK
Electronic Access to this Notebook via the World Wide Web (WWW)
This Notebook is available on the Internet through the World Wide Web. The EnviroSenSe
Communications Network is a free, public, interagency-supported system operated by EPA's Office
of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance and the Office of Research and Development. The
Network allows regulators, the regulated community, technical experts, and the general public to
share information regarding: pollution prevention and innovative technologies; environmental
enforcement and compliance assistance; laws, executive orders, regulations, and policies; points of
contact for services and equipment; and other related topics. The Network welcomes receipt of
environmental messages, information, and data from any public or private person or organization.
ACCESS THROUGH THE ENVIROSENSE WORLD WIDE WEB
To access this Notebook through the EnviroSenSe World Wide Web, set your World Wide
Web Browser to the following address:
http://es.epa.gov/comply/sector/index.html
or use
WWW.epa.gOV/OeCa - then select the button labeled Industry and Gov't
Sectors and select the appropriate sector from the
menu. The Notebook will be listed.
Direct technical questions to the Feedback function at the bottom of the web page or to
Shhonn Taylor at (202) 564-2502
Appendix A
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