United States Solid Wasla and E P A/91 C.'B-92/(K) 1A
Environmental Protection Emerge-icy Response June 1992
Agency (O5-420)Wt
SEPA Health and Safety Training
for Underground Storage
Tank Inspectors
Instructor's Guide
Printed an Rscycled Paper
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GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
Course length:
This course is designed to be flexible in length, and may be anywhere from 24-40 hours in
length. Limiting the course to a simple discussion of the material here, will result in a 24 hour
course, or perhaps longer, depending on the amount of discussion, review and testing that is
incorporated. Although the written material in the manual is kept to a minimum, it covers a great deal
of ground, A slower pace, with lots of discussion is likely to prove more valuable than a "whirlwind"
tour of the material.
To increase the length to a 32 hour course, add one day of hands-on training in use of the
equipment described in the text: oxygen meter, photoionization detector, flame ionization detector,
Drager tubes, combustible gas indicator etc., and conduct a respirator fit test. IF THE COURSE IS
BEING GIVEN TO REGULATORS OR OTHER INSPECTORS, IT IS STRONGLY RECOMMENDED
THAT THE COURSE INCLUDE THESE THINGS, AS "HEAD KNOWLEDGE" ALONE IS NOT
SUFFICIENT. In addition, inspectors and site workers need to meet OSHA training requirements.
Twenty four hours of training is required for inspectors and 40 hours for cleanup workers. For those
supervising but not actually conducting work on-site, or merely wanting to learn basic safety hazards,
24 hours is probably sufficient.
To increase the course length to 40 hours, add a day of field visits to actual sites to provide
additional practice using instruments, and to observe and analyze site conditions. This will provide
some very valuable experience and help students to gain confidence in their own abilities. What is
accomplished in these days will depend in large measure on your own creativity and the type of sites
you select. State field offices of the UST agency may be able to help you select sites at the proper
stages of development to make site visits productive or interesting, and indicate sites where a visit
would not cause antagonism from the owner or other parties.
Some potential field activities for days 4 and 5 include:
Visit sites where removals, cleanups and installations are underway; have students
observe and analyze the site and workers, identifying safe and unsafe
practices/conditions.
Visit a site and have students develop draft safety plan outlines based on the site
conditions and activities they have observed. Follow this up with a group discussion of
what they would include.
Practice using the monitoring instruments and properly recording data in the field
setting.
Textbook Format
Split page: This manual is designed with a split page format to provide space for the
students to take notes alongside the text, rather than on separate sheets of paper. Encourage them
to do this, as it keeps all relevant material together.
For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office
Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop; SSQP, Washington, DC 20-102-932S
ISBN 0-16-041623-X
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Boxes: All of the word slides (-160) thai accompany the course are reproduced in boxes at
the top of the appropriate page of text, so that students do not need to feverishly take notes, and can
concentrate on the lecture without missing any material. Point this out at the beginning of the course
and encourage them to follow along in the book, where possible.
Lists of objectives; Objectives that a student should be able to accomplish after completing
the course are listed at the beginning of each section. These will help to focus students' attention on
the most important portions of the chapter. Note that these objectives are worded in such a way that
the student should be able to know when he has met an objective. They use words such as "list",
"describe", and "define", as opposed to words such as "know", "understand", "believe" that leave the
students unsure whether or not they have mastered the material. It is difficult to be sure when
material is "known" or "understood", but easy to determine when a list has been learned to compiled.
The objectives can be used as self-quizzes by the student, or can be used as quick
understanding-checks or homework by the instructor. In the course introduction, draw students'
attention to the objectives, to help them to focus on what they should look for as they go through the
chapter, and explain how you will use them.
Accident descriptions: Accidents, by definition, are not planned. But when students are
aware of potential accidents, they are more likely to be prevention-oriented. Accident possibilities at
sites using a variety of heavy equipment, with a variety of ongoing activities, are almost endless.
Where appropriate, a list of relevant real-life accidents has been compiled and placed at the end of
each section, to help provide some insight into both the common and the more bizarre things which
have occurred on tank sites. Be sure to draw student's attention to these descriptions. Discuss the
variety - and similarities - among them, and encourage students to share examples from their own
experience as well. Discuss how some of the accidents could have been prevented.
Appendices: The text has been deliberately kept relatively simple. More detailed material on
respiratory protection and monitoring equipment is available in the appendices, for those who wish
additional information.
Slides: In addition to the word slides, a number of picture slides accompany the course. The
instructor notes accompanying each chapter indicate the graphic slides most appropriate for use with
that chapter, and provide a small narrative to accompany each slide.
General Comments
Involve your students: Every class is likely to have some experienced people in it. Take
advantage of these people and draw them out; get them to share real-world "horror stories" from their
own experience, and the course will be more interesting, more lively, and more relevant for everyone.
Bring "real life" into the classroom: Several good videos exist that provide safety
information and bring a "field presence" into the classroom. These can be obtained from any Regional
EPA office. They include:
What do We Have Here? An inspector's guide to site assessment at closure (30 minutes).
This also includes an additional 14 minute section on field testing instruments and a 7 minute
segment on soil and water sampling. (Produced by the New England Interstate Water Pollution
Commission).
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Doing it Right: proper UST installation (40 minutes), and
A Question of When: An Overview Of Underground Tank Installation For Inspectors (36
minutes), (Produced by the national Fire Protection Association)
For the 32 and 40 hour courses, you will need to have various pieces of monitoring equipment and
examples of personal protective equipment available for students to use.
Tailor the subject matter to the class need: This manual is a starting point, but is not
intended to be the "perfect course". It provides the basics, but most instructors will want to add their
own personal touches. This will also be helpful to the students, if you can slant the class toward your
audience. Several different groups of people will be attracted to a health and safety course: workers
and inspectors needing to fulfill OSHA safety requirements, managers and supervisors who want a
better idea what to expect on a site; contractors who have already had basis training and need CEUs
or refresher training for state contractor certification programs. Determine at the beginning who the
audience is, what level of detail and hand-on training they need, and what they expect from the class.
Provide proof of course attendance: Many students will need to have proof that they have
completed a certain number of hours of training. Consider issuing continuing education units (CEUs)
or certificates to those who pass the course.
Testing: Consider including some review and testing, either through mini quizzes or at the
end of the course. Given the short length of the course and the volume of material covered, an open-
book test may be appropriate. Students tend to take something more seriously if they know they will
be tested on it. Always review answers to the quizzes, to reinforce the correct answers.
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Guidance for the Instructor: Introductory Section
Suggested Activities:
Ask students to briefly identify themselves, state their reasons for taking the course, and tell
and what they hope/expect to get out of it. This will help you know what to focus more heavily
on, so you can best meet their needs.
Discuss the manual format, and stress that all word slides are reproduced in the text boxes,
eliminating the need for extensive note-taking.
Describe activities the course will and will not accomplish. (Will it include a respirator fit-test?
Will students need additional training prior to using respirators or conducting confined-space
entries)?
Pass around a sign-in sheet to insure the names and addresses of all students are correct.
Many students will want to obtain CEUs and/or proof they have completed the course. You
will want to issue certificates, continuing education credits, or letters to those who complete the
course.
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable
to this chapter:
Slides
-- (Drill rig): Heavy equipment hazards and accidents will be discussed
- (Various confined spaces): the course will cover confined spaces, but you will need
additional training before you are actually qualified to make confined space entries
- (Large excavation with dragline): excavations have special safety problems
- (Man smoking during installation): Properties and characteristics of petroleum, particularly
flammability of gasoline, and proper activities on UST sites (smoking is not one of them) will
be discussed.
- (Man pouring gasoline from drum to small container): Dos and don'ts of petroleum handling
will be discussed
- (Monitoring equipment): You will learn the types of monitoring equipment used on UST sites,
and advantages and disadvantages of each type.
- (Man sampling): toxicity of petroleum products and exposure potential during various
activities such as sampling, will be discussed
- (Person in protective gear): You will learn the various levels of protection, the proper
equipment to use and when to wear it
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Other Comments:
OSHA regulations can be obtained from the Government Printing Office (GPO) at a
reasonable cost. Contact them for costs and ordering information. You may wish to aiso pass on this
information to the students.
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Guidance for the Instructor: Petroleum Types and Characteristics
Additional Suggested Activities:
Differences in properties of the various petroleum classes will impact their fale and transport,
as well as dictating what methods are effective for leak detection, and the degree of exposure
workers may expect. Ask students lo predict, based on the properties, which classes will be
most likely to produce vapors; to migrate most quickly below ground; to have a benzene
exposure hazard; to produce explosions; to be best/least likely observed in groundwater wells
or vapor monitors, etc.
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable
to this chapter;
Slides
- (Oil floating on water in bailer): low specific gravity of petroleum makes it float; this
enhances detection and recovery in groundwater monitoring wells.
-- (Excavation): Because of the high vapor density gasoline vapors tend to accumulate in low
and enclosed areas, such as excavation tanks, and trenches. Always check these areas for
vapors.
Other Comments:
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Guidance for the Instructor: Fires and Explosions
Additional Suggested Activities:
Watch the video "A question of When" (36 minutes, NFPA)
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
-- (Flammable ranges): Vapor mixtures too rich or too lean will not burn. The range where
combustion can occur is the flammable range, bounded by the LEL (too rich above this) and
the LEL (too lean below this),
-- (Fire Triangle): Fuel, ignition source and oxygen are all needed to support combustion.
Removing any one of these will prevent it.
-- (Petroleum fire): Occurs when vapors in the flammable range are coupled with oxygen and
an ignition source.
-- (Man cutting tank with torch): Vapors, not liquid product, are the most dangerous petroleum
state. Never cut into a tank until all vapors are removed; torches are a good ignition source
for completing the fire triangle!
-- {Man smoking): another potential ignition source.
- (Backhoe striking tank): equipment striking the metal tank may produce sparks, causing
ignition of vapors.
-- Grounded equipment): grounding equipment will divert static electricity into the earth,
eliminating its buildup.
Other Comments:
For additional material, and if students are interested, you may want to expand on the Open
Cup and Closed Cup methods for measuring flash point.
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Aviation fuels vary widely in fire hazard:
Jet A; JP-4
F.P. = 100-150 degrees F F.P.= 20 degrees F (variable)
LFL = .7% (significant variability) LFL = 1.3% (variable)
UFL = 5% (Significant variability) UFL = 8% (variable)
Accidents involving petroleum transfer are shown in Table 2-1. Stress that petroleum vapor,
not the product, is the most dangerous, and that the majority of accident seem to occur during closure
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Guidance for the Instructor: Oxygen Depletion
Additional Suggested Activities;
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
-- (Tank): Possible area of oxygen deficiency.
- (Excavation): Possible area of oxygen deficiency.
-- (Sewer): area for possible accumulation of toxic gasses and/or oxygen deficiency.
-- (Oxygen depletion chart): Normal air is 21% oxygen. Below 19.5%, air supplying respirators
must be used.
Other Comments:
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Guidance for the Instructor: Confined Spaces
Additional Suggested Activities:
~ Discuss the topics a confined space entry plan might be expected to contain and identify other
reasons (besides safety) that it would be important to have such a plan.
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are
applicable:
Slides
- (photo of various confined spaces): examples of confined space areas
-- (Monitoring tank prior to entry): Be sure you understand conditions of confined spaces on
the site. Explosive gasses or oxygen deficiency may be present
-- (Inspecting a large tank prior to entry): Know conditions before entry
- (Isolation tag and pipes that have been blind-flanged or "blanked"): Isolate confined spaces
from other systems prior to entry
-- (Disable and tag-out equipment):
- (Electricat lockout): Each person has a separate key...
- (Improper tank entry): In case of emergence here, worker wearing APR cannot be pulied
out
- (Proper tank Entry): Note tripod and harness, SCBA. These assist if worker removal is
necessary
-- (Buddy system); using the buddy system is a must when working in confined space
conditions.
-- (Tombstone): avoid the ultimate "confined space" by understanding and avoiding confined
space hazards
Other Comments:
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Guidance for the Instructor: Heavy Equipment
Additional Suggested Activities:
Show slides with poor safety practices and have students identify what is being done
incorrectly or unsafely in each situation. This is a good way to help teach critical evaluation
and get class participation. It is also easy to obtain additional slides, because more often than
not, everywhere you look, something is being done wrong!
When showing slides of equipment, have students identify the major hazards associated with
each type.
Review the accidents at the end of the chapter and discuss how they could have been
avoided
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
-- (Man attaching chain to backhoe bucket): Is he visible to the bucket operator?
-- (Man preparing to attach chain to backhoe bucket):
-- (Man standing close to chain as tank comes out): If the chain should snap, he's standing
right in the way
- (Backhoe): Stand well back to avoid swinging buckets and unstable loads
-- (Backhoe pulling tank): Spark generation and chain snapping are possible hazards here
-- (Dragline sitting on edge of excavation): Heavy equipment too close to the edge of
excavations may cause cave-ins. Heavy loads may also pull it into the excavation, injuring the
operator and anyone located in the hole
-- (Trackhoe undercutting the ledge it Is sitting on): Keep equipment well back from the
excavation edge
- (Drill rig): Avoid rotating parts that may sever limbs. Restrain long hair and avoid loose
clothing around all moving equipment
-- (Dragline-type crane): an older type of crane, it is track-mounted and very heavy (and very
stable). It can rotate 360 degrees.
- (Tank being lowered by boom on cherry picker): newer type cranes, these are often found
at UST sites because they are truck-mounted and very mobile. They are equipped with
outriggers that must be set before the lifting arm is used, and must remain in place until the lift
arm is retracted. The further extended the arm, the less weight the crane can lift.
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-- (Frayed cable); Minor fraying may not significantly affect performance, but more severe
fraying is dangerous; load limits of frayed cable are not known, and cable may snap.
Frayed cable may also hang and snarl.
-- (Workers standing under suspended tanks); Workers should use cables or rods to position
suspended tanks. They should not stand under tanks and use their bodies or hands to adjust
tank position.
-- (Overhead electrical line); A major hazard to cranes; it can be easily snagged, causing
electrocution hazards
-- (Trackhoe operating near overhead line); If contact with a live overhead line occurs,
equipment operators should remain in the cab of the equipment, sit still, and avoid touching
the cab controls and all metal surfaces.
Other Comments:
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Guidance for the Instructor: Excavations
Additional Suggested Activities;
Review the accidents listed at the end of the chapter, and discuss how they could have been
avoided.
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
- (Trench shield or trench box):
-- (Trench supports or shoring):
-- (Sloping):
- (Dangerous excavation): shows poor shoring, spoil too close to edge, and heavy equipment
straddling the trench
-- (Spoil piled too close to excavation):
-- (Water accumulating in excavation):
- (Ribbon barricades): placing barricades around the work area will prevent people and
equipment from getting too close to the excavation edge,
-- (Sawhorse barricade with light): lighted barricades reduce nighttime hazards by alerting
pedestrians
- (Car in excavation): Roping off or barricading the excavation might have prevented this.
Other Comments:
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Guidance for the Instructor: Toxicity
Additional Suggested Activities:
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Stides
- (Exposure routes); The tour main exposure routes are the eyes, skin, respiratory tract and
digestive system
-- (Skin and lungs): The most likely routes of entry for petroleum are absorption through the
skin and by inhalation
Other Comments:
This topic is very complicated, and the student may gel "buried". Exposure routes and types,
and main symptoms of exposure are important. However, it probably is not necessary for students to
know all of the differences in toxic effects between the various petroleum types. You may wish to skip
some of the detail in this chapter, using Table 2-3, as a convenient summary.
Gasoline is so commonly used and is so familiar to most people that many do not take
exposure seriously. They have cleaned paint brushes, killed weeds, de-greased car parts, and filled
their lawn mowers. Stress that they need to be aware that this familiarity can lead to overexposure if
care is not taken: the skin is the main exposure route.
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Guidance for the Instructor: Sampling
Additional Suggested Activities;
During the field portion of the course, practicing correct methods for taking samples from
monitoring wells and areas of contaminated soil.
Visuals;
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
-- (Soil sampling from drill); take samples from core or backhoe bucket; avoid entry into the
excavation.
-- (Man mouth-piping sample from drum to jar): A good way to ingest petroleum
- (Bailer): Obtain samples indirectly from bailers or through other means. Avoid direct contact
with contaminated soil and water as much as possible.
Other Comments;
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Guidance for the Instructor: Site Safety Plans
Additional Suggested Activities:
Describe (or actually visit) a site, and have students outline a draft safety plan or discuss as a
group, what elements would be needed. Discuss the merits of generic and site-specific safety
plans.
Visuals:
In addition lo the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
Other Comments:
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Guidance for the Instructor: Personal Protective Equipment
Additional Suggested Activities:
~ Obtain samples of the various materials (tyvek, viton, etc.) and allow students to examine them
to get a better feel for their differences. Point out positive and negative factors associated with
the different materials.
Obtain several different styles of goggles and point out the good and poor features of each.
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
- (Various goggle types): Cushion-filled goggles and face shields are recommended for
inspectors.
-- (Various boot types): Class 75 steel toe/shank safety shoes are recommended for inspectors
- (Various glove types): When choosing gloves, strength and permeability are factors to
consider. Neoprene, nitrite and viton are all good protection against petroleum
-- (Level D protection); Used only when no respiratory or skin protection is required
- (Level C protection): Adds an air purifying respirator to level D
- (Level B protection): Adds an air supplying respirator: wear when the highest level of
respiratory protection is needed
- (Level A protection): Provides the highest level of both skin and respiratory protection
-- (Spider): Be alert for unexpected biological hazards
-- (Rattlesnake): Biological hazard
-- (Man with bee stings): swarming insects may pose a hazard
-- (Man with shotgun): If you encounter this type of hazard, don't argue: leave and return with
the U.S. Marshal
Other Comments:
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Guidance for the Instructor: Respiratory Protection
Additional Suggested Activities;
It is strongly suggested that the course include a respirator fit test. UST inspectors should
have respiratory training, and will need to get it elsewhere, if it is not offered here. In addition,
the additional day will help them to meet OSHA requirements.
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
-- (Scott half-face respirator):
-- (MSA full-face respirator):
-- (Assorted MSA gas masks and a full face respirator):
-- (Scott full-face respirator):
- (Air purifying respirator): These remove contaminants but do not add oxygen. Change the
cartridges frequently. They should not be used if oxygen levels fall below 19.5%
- (Air supplying respirator): These supply clean contained air.
- (Inspecting face-piece for defects):
- (Checking for proper fit): Respirator should fit tightly with a seal. Beards impede the seal's
effectiveness
- (Fit test agents: banana oil, saccharine, and stannic chloride): These agents are harmless
but easily smelled or noticed if the respirator does not fit properly.
- (Banana oil fit test): If the respirator fits correctly, the wearer will not be able to smell the oil.
- (Stannic chloride smoke tube): Used for fit-testing, this produces an irritating smoke
-- (Stannic chloride fit test): If the fit is good, the wearer should not be able to detect the
smoke.
Other Comments:
OSHA regulations require all respirator wearers be fit-tested and have adequate respirator
training before using respirators. It is highly recommended that this course include a fit test for
students. If it does not, be sure that students are aware they must undergo such a test before using
respirators.
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Guidance for the Instructor: Monitoring Instrumentation
Additional Suggested Activities:
Hands-on work with equipment is invaluable. Obtain an OVA, oxygen meter, HNu, CGI and
other pieces of equipment, divide studenls into teams, and allow them to practice using
equipment on some spiked samples of air and soil. You will probably want to allow one half
day for this.
Visuals;
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable;
Slides
-- (Oxygen meter): Used to measure oxygen levels. Readings are most useful when paired
with CGI readings
-- (Hydrogen sulfide meter): Detects hydrogen sulfide, a concern mainly in sewers
- (Combuslible gas indicator): Used to determine the concentration of flammable gasses
- (MSA explosimeter and explosimeter/oxygen meter combination): a combination of two
functions sometimes makes transport easier
- (Industrial Safely Explosion/Oxygen meter):
-- (AIM 3000 Explosion/oxygen/Organic Vapor/Carbon monoxide detector): Having a number of
functions in one piece of equipment minimizes the number of things to carry around.
-- (Man checking tank with CGI):
-- (Drager pump and tube): Can be used as a screening method, bul il is not very accurate
-- (Pumping): a hand held pump draws air through the tube
-- (Drager tube):
-- (Colorimetric tube):
-- (Foxboro OVA): Detects concentration of volatile organics
-- (Schematic of OVA):
-- (Strip chart recorder for OVA):Used to provide a permanent record of concentrations, for the
file
-- (Probe extension for OVA);
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- (HNu photoionizalion detector): Detects organic compounds
-- (Schematic of HNu):
-- (Instrument plate): a permanent plate affixed to the monitoring instrument indicates the
instrument has an approved rating for use
Other Comments:
Inspectors should be thoroughly trained in and familiar with use and interpretation of all the
direct reading instruments
A summary of costs for various equipment types may be of interest to certain audiences.
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Guidance for the Instructor: Permissible Exposure Levels
Additional Suggested Activities:
Pass out copies (or photocopies) of the various exposure guides, such as the NIQSH Pocket
Guide To Chemical Hazards, and practice interpreting some of the data within them. Give some
concentration and/or exposure levels, and have students determine if the levels are safe.
Visuals:
In addition to the word slides shown in this chapter, the following graphic slides are applicable:
Slides
- (DOT flammable liquid placard): The DOT labelling system is required by law. (NFPA and
UN systems are voluntary).
- (Explanatory graphic for DOT labels): The system provides a graphic and written hazard
description plus a four digit identification number
-- (DOT labels): Examples
-- (Full color NFPA label): Provides information on relative hazard levels for flammability, health
and reactivity
- (Health diamond): Rankings range from 0 (lowest hazard) to 4 (highest hazard)
-- (Flammability diamond): Rankings range from 0 (lowest hazard) to 4 (highest hazard)
-- (Reactivity diamond): Rankings range from 0 (lowest hazard) to 4 (highest hazard)
-- (Other info diamond)
Other Comments:
You may want to discuss the 0-4 ranking criteria in greater detail if need/interest exists.
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United States Solid Waste and EPA/910/B-92/001 ft
Environmental Protection Emergency Response June 1992
Agency (OS-420)WF
\>EPA Health and Safety Training
for Underground Storage
Tank Inspectors
Student's Guide
Printed on Recycled Paper
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Acknowledgment
Earlier versions of this document were funded in part by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office Of Underground Storage Tanks, through a contract with ICF Inc. It has been subject to peer
review by a number of diverse individuals, including review during its initial run as a Pilot project in
Region 10 in 1990.
The Project Manager was Joan Cabreza (EPA Region 10). We wish to acknowledge the participation
and assistance of a number of individuals, particularly those in the initial workgroup who spent so
much time during the early phases: Maureen Doughty and Terry Bahrych (EPA Region 8); Walter Huff
(Mississippi); Gerry Phillips (EPA Region 5); Dede Montgomery (EPA Region 10); Jon Walker (Region
1); Dorene Fier-Tucker (Minnesota); Jacqueline Hardee (Texas); Dave Haldeman (Nebraska); Jacques
Gilbert (Connecticut); and a number of other pilot project participants, regulators, toxicologists,
hygienists, and consultants too numerous to mention, who provided insightful comments.
c u js / - f yj \j f
Far sale by the U ,S. Government Printing Office
Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
ISBN o-16-041624-8
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CONTENTS
Chapter Page
Section 1: Introduction 2
Course Objectives 3
Course Organization . 4
Hazards Addressed 6
Course Limitations 8
Regulatory Framework 9
Section 2: Recognizing Health and Safety Hazards 11
Petroleum Types and Characteristics 12
Objectives 13
Petroleum Product Classes 14
Important Physical Characteristics 17
Fires and Explosions 19
Objectives 20
The Fire Triangle 22
Factors Important in Combustion 24
Relationship of Flash Point and Flammability 27
Flammable Characteristics of Gasoline 29
Flammable Characteristics of Middle Distillates 31
Flammable Characteristics of Residual Fuels 33
Flammable Characteristics of Used Oils 34
Explosions 35
Working Near Explosive Vapors or Ignitable Liquids 37
Purging 38
Inerting 40
Ignition Sources 41
Spark Generation 42
Static Electricity Sources 43
Reducing Static Electricity and Sparking 44
Fire and Explosion Potential 45
Oxygen Depletion 51
Objectives 52
Causes of Oxygen Depletion 53
Hazard Areas for Oxygen Depletion 54
Physiological Effects of Oxygen Depletion 55
Confined Spaces 59
Objectives 60
Course Limitations 61
Confined Space Characteristics 62
Confined Space Hazards 65
Confined Space Entry Precautions 66
Confined Space Entry Plan 68
iii
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CONTENTS
Chapter Page
Confined Spaces (con.)
Prior to Entering Confined Spaces 69
Buddy System 70
Continuous Monitoring 72
Proper Tools for Confined Space Entry 73
Rescue Procedures 74
Emergency Procedures 76
Heavy Equipment 79
Objectives 80
Commonly Used Heavy Equipment 81
Safety Precautions Around Heavy Equipment 82
Backhoe/Front-end Loader Hazards 85
Drill Rigs 86
Cranes 87
Other General Safety Hazards 91
Excavations 97
Objectives 98
Excavation Cave-ins 99
Methods To Prevent Cave-ins 102
Additional Excavation Hazards 106
Excavation Hazard Prevention 107
Toxicity 111
Objectives 112
Exposure Routes 113
Types of Exposure 115
General Symptoms of Toxic Exposure . 116
Activities Having Potential Toxic Exposure 117
Toxicity of Gasoline Constituents 118
Toxicity of Aromatics 120
Toxicity of Gasoline Additives 123
Gasoline Additives: Acute Exposure 125
Gasoline Additives: Chronic Exposure 126
Toxicity of Middle Distillates 127
Middle Distillate Fuels: Symptoms of Acute Exposure 129
Middle Distillate Fuels; Impacts of Chronic Exposure 131
Toxicity of Residual Fuel Oils 132
Toxicity of Used Oils 133
Sampling 139
Objectives 140
Types of Sample Collection 141
Soil Sampling: Hazards 143
Soil Sampling: Minimum PPE 145
Water Sampling 146
Free Product and In-Tank Sampling 148
iv
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CONTENTS
Chapter Page
Section 3: Hazard Recognition, Evaluation and Control .151
Site Safely Plans 153
Objectives . . ,, 154
Safety Plan Preparation 155
Safety Plan Purpose 156
Safety Plan Contents 157
Safety Plan Hazard Assessment 158
Handling Emergencies 160
Respiratory Protection 161
Objectives 162
Respirators 163
Air Purifying Respirators 165
Use of Air Purifying Respirators 167
Air Supplying Respirators 169
Physiological and Psychological Limitations 171
Personal Protective Equipment 173
Objectives 174
Sources for Site Hazard Data 176
Types of Protective Equipment 177
Protective Clothing Limitations 178
Head Protection 180
Eye and Face Protection 181
Foot Protection 183
Hand Protection 185
Body Protection 186
Levels of Protection 187
Protection Against Biological Hazards 194
Decontamination Procedures 195
Monitoring instrumentation 197
Objectives 198
Chemical Hazards Requiring Monitoring 199
Monitoring Instruments 200
Instrument Certification 202
Direct Reading Instruments 205
Oxygen Meter 206
Hydrogen Sulfide Meter 208
Combustible Gas Indicator 209
Detector Tubes 213
Flame Ionization Detectors 215
Photoionization Detectors 218
v
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CONTENTS
Chapter Page
Permissible Exposure Levels 221
Objectives 222
OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits 223
NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limits 224
ACGIH Threshold Limit Values 225
Establishing Exposure Limits 227
DOT Labeling System . 229
NFPA Labeling System 230
Selected References
Appendix A; Additional information on Respiratory Protection
Appendix B: Additional Information on Monitoring Instruments
Appendix C: Sample Safety Plan
vi
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TABLES
Table Page
1-1 OSHA Regulations Applicable to UST Activities 10
2-1 Fire Hazard Properties of Petroleum Products 26
2-2 Trench Shoring 105
2-3 Summary of Toxicological Effects 135
3-1 Chemical Resistance of Some Protective Materials 179
EXHIBITS
Exhibit Page
2-1 Accidents Involving Handling and Transfer of Petroleum 48
2-2 Accidents During Confined Space Entry 78
2-3 Heavy Equipment Accidents 92
2-4 General Site Accidents 93
2-5 Excavation Accidents 100
FIGURES
Figure Page
2-1 Summary of the Effects of Oxygen Depletion 57
2-2 Trench Sloping: Approximate Angle of Repose 104
vii
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viii
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's y y P ^ p y y=: ;N[jj|||£Esiir
HEALTH AND SAFETY TRAINING
^| p:; i; ii;:||i;S:;:;:;:;;| !;|;:;;;:;;;;;!
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK
INSPECTORS
1
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SECTION 1
IlllllllllillllllESlllllli
INTRODUCTION
2
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COURSE OBJECTIVES
NOTES
This course is intended to provide appropriate
information to sensitize inspectors to potential
health and safety hazards and to teach
inspectors how to recognize, evaluate, and
control these hazards. While this course was
developed primarily for federal, state, and local
UST inspectors, the principles obviously apply
to anyone working around underground
storage tanks.
At the end of this course, you will have an
understanding of the specific hazards
associated with UST inspections and you will
know how to protect yourself from those
hazards.
-------
COURSE ORGANIZATION
: Section 1:
Course introduction
Section 2:
Specific hazards
*
Section 3:
Hazard recognition, evaluation, and control
TRAINING COURSE ORGANIZATION NOTES
Section 1: Provides an introduction to both the
objectives and content of the health and safety
training course.
Section 2: Presents UST health and safety
fundamentals organized into eight topic areas:
1) types and characteristics of petroleum;
2) fires and explosions; 3) oxygen depletion;
4) confined space entry; 5) heavy equipment;
6) excavation; 7) toxicity; and 8) sampling.
This section identifies potential health and
safety hazards in these eight areas and relates
the hazards to UST inspection activities.
Particular attention is given to flammable
characteristics of petroleum; entry into confined
spaces; excavation cave-ins; dangers of
backhoe, crane, and drill rig operation; and the
effects of acute and chronic exposure to
petroleum products.
Section 3: Discusses how to recognize,
evaluate, and control the hazards described in
Section 2. This section identifies key elements
to the successful preparation of a Site Plan,
emphasizes the need to wear personal
protective equipment (PPE), describes the
importance of using monitoring instruments to
detect potential hazards, and examines the
regulations and guidelines for worker exposure
to hazardous substances.
All word slide materials are reproduced in this
manual so you will not need to copy them. In
addition, space is provided in the right column
for any notes you want to take.
4
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COURSE ORGANIZATION (con.)
A list of objectives is provided at the beginning
of each subsection. These are designed as a
type of self test. At the end of each subsection
you may wish to review these objectives to
make sure you can reach them. If you can't,
re-read or re-study the subsection.
5
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HAZARDS ADDRESSED
» Fires arid explosions
Confined spaces
Excavations
Oxygen Depletion
. . Heavy equipment hazards
Petroleum product toxicity
HAZARDS ADDRESSED NOTES
During the performance of their activities, UST
inspectors are faced with a variety of potential
hazards ranging from exposure to toxic
chemicals, asphyxiation, fires, and explosions,
to hazards associated with excavations and
general construction.
UST inspectors must understand the causes of
these hazards in order to recognize, evaluate,
and take the necessary steps to control them.
This section presents an overview of the
potential hazards that an UST inspector is
likely to encounter. In Section 3 you will learn
to evaluate and control these hazards.
6
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INSPECTION ACTIVITIES COVERED IN THIS COURSE
~
Tank and pipe installation
4*
Tank and pipe repair and testing
~
Monitoring weU installation
*
Irc-place lank closure
Tank ancj pipe removal and disposal
¦ ~
Investigation and sampling
NOTES
7
-------
COURSE LIMITATIONS
Covers petroleum products only
Introductory coverage only for monitoring equipment, personal protective equipment, and
confined space entry
Depending on amount of field work, up to 16 hours additional training may be needed to
complete OSHA requirements
COURSE LIMITATIONS NOTES
This course does not cover chemicals, wastes,
or mixtures. It only addresses petroleum
products and petroleum contaminated media
(soil, water, and air).
Although over 90 percent of USTs contain
petroleum hydrocarbons, it is critical to
remember that a large volume and number of
chemical wastes and mixtures are also stored
in USTs. For example, the California UST
notification data reveal that the following 10
hazardous substances are found frequently in
USTs: 1) sodium hydroxide; 2) sulfuric acid;
3) toluene; 4) acetone; 5) methyiethyl ketone;
6) chromium; 7) potassium hydroxide;
8) nickel; 9) xylene; and 10) methyl alcohol.
These chemicals pose hazards which are
significantly different from petroleum products.
The sections on monitoring equipment,
personal protective equipment, and confined
space entry provide only an introduction to the
hazards and the methods of control. Additional
formal training is needed for a working
proficiency in these areas. The course covers
24 hours. Those persons needing 40 hours of
training will need additional exercises or
courses to meet the OSHA requirements.
8
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REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
~ OSHA specifies health and safety regulations
EPA UST inspectors follow OSHA provisions. .
~ Inspectors receive 16 lo 24 hours minimum training!.
~ Cleanup workers recetve40 hours fining.
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK NOTES
UST inspectors are strongly encouraged to be
aware of and abide by applicable OSHA health
and safety provisions when conducting field
inspections.
The key provisions in the federal OSHA
regulations applicable to UST activities are
listed briefly below. Table 1-1 lists these key
provisions and other applicable OSHA
regulations.
29 CFR Part 1910.106 specifies fire
prevention guidelines for tank storage,
design, and construction.
29 CFR 1910 Subpart I delineates personal
protective equipment requirements,
including:
1910.133 Eye and face protection
1910.134 Respiratory protection
1910.135 Occupational head protection
1910.136 Occupational foot protection
1910.137 Electrical protective devices
29 CFR Part 1910.1000 outlines chemical
specific Permissible Exposure Levels.
29 CFR Part 1910.1200 contains the
Hazard Communication Standard,
Including requirements for Material Safety
Data Sheets.
29 CFR Part 1926 includes specifications
for construction and general industry
standards.
9
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TABLE 1-1
Occupational Health and Safety Regulations Applicable
to UST Activities
CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS (CFR)
Citations
29 CFR 1910
29 CFR 1910.21
29 CFR 1910.106
29 CFR 1910.106 (b)
29 CFR 1910.106 (c)
29 CFR 1910.120
29 CFR 1910.132
29 CFR 1910.133
29 CFR 1910.134
29 CFR 1910.135
29 CFR 1910.136
29 CFR 1910.137
29 CFR 1910.155
29 CFR 1910.176
29 CFR 1910.1000
29 CFR 1910.1200
29 CFR 1926
29 CFR 1926 Subpart C
29 CFR 1960
29 CFR 1960.10
29 CFR 1960.16-19 (b)
General Industry Standards
Walking Working Surfaces
Flammable and Combustible Liquids/Fire
Prevention Guidelines
Tank Storage
Piping, Valves, Fittings
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency
Response
Personal Protective Equipment
Eye and Face Protection
Respiratory Protection
Occupational Head Protection
Occupational Foot Protection
Electrical Protective Devices
Fire Protection
Materials Handling and Storage
Air Contaminants and Permissible Exposure Levels
Hazardous Communications Standards, MSDS
Reporting
Construction Standards
(interim final rule December 19,1986, 51 FR 455554
and correction on May 4,1987, 52 FR 16241)
Basic Program Elements for Federal Employees
EPA Employee Compliance
EPA as Employer Compliance
10
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SECTION 2
RECOGNIZING HEALTH & SAFETY HAZARDS
11
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PETROLEUM
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
12
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PETROLEUM TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Objectives
Participants wrll be able to:
« list the lour major petroleum product classes and describe how they differ
.. describe petroleum products'four physical characteristics oi concern
doscribo how petroleum products' physical characteristics vary by product type
PETROLEUM TYPES AND
CHARACTERISTICS NOTES
Petroleum products vary widely in composition.
In order to understand the hazards associated
with petroleum, it is important to learn about
the basic types of petroleum products you may
encounter. The physical and chemical
characteristics of each product affect its
behavior in the environment and determine the
degree of hazard it will present to UST
inspectors,
13
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PETROLEUM PRODUCT CLASSES
Gasoltne
Middle distillate fuels
Residual fuel nils
Used oils
PETROLEUM PRODUCT CLASSES NOTES
General definition of a fuel oil: Any liquid
petroleum product burned in a furnace for the
generation of heat, or used in an engine for the
generation of power, except oils having a flash
point of 100°F, and oils burned in cotton or
wool-wick burners,
A variety of factors are used to classify fuel
products, including flash point, pour point,
percent water and sediment, distillation
temperatures, carbon residue, ash, and
viscosity. These are determined by the
American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM).
Gasoline is the petroleum product most
commonly found in U3Ts, Gasoline is a non-
uniform blend of organic liquids composed of
numerous constituents from four major
chemical groups including alkanes, alkenes,
napthalenes, and aroma tics.
Aliphatics are organic compounds of
hydrogen and carbon characterized by straight
chains of carbon atoms. Alkanes are aliphatic
hydrocarbons containing only single carbon-to-
carbon bonds. They are also known as
paraffins. Alkenes are aliphatic hydrocarbons
containing at least one carbon-to-carbon
double bond. They are also known as olefins.
Aromatics are compounds which contain at
least one benzene ring. Napthalenes are
chemicals comprised of two benzoid rings
fused together. Automotive gasoline is
composed of several hundred hydrocarbons in
the C4 to C11 range. General composition as
percent weight by category is 40 to 62 percent
aliphatics, 1 to 11 percent olefins, 20 to 49
14
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CLASSIFICATION OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS (con.)
NOTES
percent benzene and alkylbenzenes
(aromatics), and up to 1 percent napthalenes.
In addition to the natural constituents, other
chemical compounds or additives are used to
modify the chemical/physical characteristics of
the pure products. Additives exist in
concentrations ranging from a few parts per
million to as much as 10 percent of the
product.
Additives are used to boost the performance of
gasoline, or to give it a "higher octane." The
higher the octane rating, the slower the fuel
burns, resulting in more power and better fuel
economy. (More fuel is burned as the octane
rate is reduced.)
Octane was one of the first compounds
discovered to slow the burning rate of hexane,
which would explode violently in test engines,
causing "knocking." Today, the octane ratings
do not reflect actual octane content, but the
burning rate of the fuel compared to a hexane-
octane standard.
Many compounds have been used to slow the
burning rate of gasoline, notably tri-ortho-
cresyl-phosphate (TOCP) and organic lead
compounds. Because of their high toxicity,
these compounds have been largely replaced
by methyl-tert-butyl-ether (MTBE) and ethanol.
Refining processes also increase octane rating,
typically by increasing the amounts of cyclic
and aromatic compounds.
Middle distillates include kerosene, aviation
fuels, diesel fuels, and Fuel Oils Nos. 1 and 2,
Fuel Oil No. 1 is used for domestic heating;
Fuel Oil No. 2 is used as a general purpose
domestic or commercial fuel in atomizing type
burners. Diesel is often referred to as Fuel Oil
No. 2. These fuels are less volatile than
gasoline because of the distillation process.
Kerosene is not considered a fuel oil, although
it is very similar to Fuel Oil No. 1.
15
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CLASSIFICATION OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS (con.)
NOTES
Fuel Oil No. 2 is essentially the same as diesel
fuel. Diesel fuel derives its name from the
engine developed by Rudolph Diesel in 1897,
It was supposed to run on gasoline, but did
much better on Fuel Oil No. 2.
Fuel Oil No. 3 is not widely used. It is often
recycled as feedstock for other fuels.
Residual fuel oils (Fuel Oils Nos. 4, 5, and 6)
are specifically formulated for certain uses.
Generally, they are defined as the product
remaining after the removal of appreciable
quantities of the more volatile components of
crude oil. Fuel Oil No. 4 is used in commercial
or industrial burners not equipped with
preheating facilities; Nos. 5 and 6 are used in
furnaces and boilers of utility power plants,
ships, locomotives, metallurgical operations
and industrial power plants. These fuels are
the least volatile of the petroleum products.
Used oils are petroleum-derived oils which,
through use, storage or handling, have become
contaminated by physical and chemical
impurities and are unsuitable for their original
purpose. They include both automotive and
industrial oils. In some cases (high ignitability
or lead content), used oils may be considered
hazardous waste. Used oils mixed with waste
solvent are automatically classified as
hazardous waste under the "Mixture Rule" in
the hazardous waste regulations.
16
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IMPORTANT PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: Most petroleum product? float on waier
VAPOR PRESSURE: High vapor pressure = more vapors
VAPOR DENSITY: Vapors are slightly heavier than air
VISCOSITY: More viscous - slower flow
IMPORTANT PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS NOTES
Four of the most important physical
characteristics that determine how petroleum
acts in relation to water and air are specific
gravity, vapor pressure, vapor density, and
viscosity.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of
petroleum with respect to the density of water.
The specific gravity of water equals 1.0 while
the specific gravity of most petroleum products
is less than 1.0 (between 0.6 and 0.9). As
such, most petroleum products will float on
water, although some fractions will dissolve in
water. The low specific gravity simplifies
identification of leaks and recovery of product
from the water table.
The products with the lower specific gravities
(lighter products), such as benzene, xylene,
and toluene are the most soluble. These are
typically the contaminants posing the greatest
threat to groundwater. They also have a
greater tendency to travel.
Vapor pressure defines the ability of a product
to volatilize or to create vapors. Products
having a high vapor pressure, such as gasoline
and JP-4, have a potential for creating vapor
problems in subsurface structures near leaking
USTs.
Compounds with a high vapor pressure will
evaporate readily and will typically have a low
flash point, and are discussed later in more
detail.
17
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IMPORTANT PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS (con.)
NOTES
Vapor density is the weight of a vapor in
relation to the weight of air (1.0) and
determines how that vapor will "settle out"
relative to other vapors. Gasoline vapors are
3-4 times as heavy as air, and tend to occupy
the lowest levels in excavations, tanks, or other
confined spaces. They will displace oxygen in
excavations or tanks.
A rule of thumb regarding vapor density: If the
material is a liquid at room temperature, it will
generate vapors heavier than air.
Viscosity is the measure of a product's
resistance to gravity flow. The lower the
viscosity a petroleum product has, the faster it
will flow or leak and the farther the
contamination is likely to spread. In order for a
product to free flow, the viscosity must be less
than 30 cST (centistoke). Kinematic viscosity
values can range from 1 cST for gasoline to
638 cST for No. 4 GT gas turbine fuel oil.
There are various viscosity tests, ranging from
one similar to dropping a marble into a bottle of
Prell shampoo, to ones requiring specialized
equipment. One important point about all
petroleum products, is that they will increase in
viscosity (thicken) as the temperature drops.
For this reason, trucks will sometimes burn
Fuel Oil No. 1, rather than the heavier fuel oil
No. 2, in cold weather, and the military and
commercial jets will use Jet-B (JP-4), a lighter
blend of jet fuel, similar to gasoline in extreme
cold.
Flammability, ignition, temperature, and
flash point are also important characteristics
that determine the degree of petroleum hazard.
These characteristics are discussed next under
Fires and Explosions.
18
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FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS
19
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FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS
Objectives
Participants will be able to.
~ name the three parts of ttie fire triangle
* list three factors important in combustion
define flash point and flammabilitv; and discuss their significance
contrast relative flammabilrty of the four petroleum product classes
describe what causes an explosion, define UEl and I FL explosivity iimits
NOTES
20
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NOTES
21
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THE FIRE TRIANGLE
* v« liVnrrrm -ivii mrm
For a fire to bum, three primary elements must
exist in appropriate ranges or concentrations
Oxygen
Fuel Ignrtiorv Source
THE FIRE TRIANGLE NOTES
Fire is a rapid and persistent chemical reaction
accompanied by the emission of heat and light.
Three primary elements, represented by the
fire triangle, must be present for a fire to burn:
oxygen, fuel, and a source of Ignition.
Each side of the fire triangle represents one of
the necessary elements of fire. The center of
the triangle represents the optimal fuel-to-
oxygen ratio with enough heat to ignite the
mixture. If any of the elements are removed,
however, there can be no fire (this is
represented by the corners of the triangle).
For example, if the wood on a campfire is
consumed or removed, the fuel supply is no
longer sufficient to sustain combustion.
A more modern fire triangle would have these
three elements: oxidizer, fuel, and energy
source. Energy can be produced by chemical
reaction, mechanical action or electrical
discharge. All these factors may come into
play at UST sites.
It is important to understand that it is not the
liquid which burns. Vapors are produced,
which are heated and broken into simpler
compounds (such as methane) which will
readily oxidize. The flame above a solid
material is also the result of the burning of
heated gases. Surface burning may occur
after all the volatile materials are driven off, as
in the case of burning charcoal. Surface
burning also occurs when metals bum.
22
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THE FIRE TRIANGLE (con.)
NOTES
Once started, a fire will continue until the fuel
or oxygen concentration falls below a minimum
value. A fire commonly results from the
combination of some combustible material with
oxygen, but the oxidizer does not have to be
02. The oxygen may be part of a chemical
compound such as nitric acid or ammonium
percholorate. Combustion may also occur, in
some cases, without oxygen being involved; for
example, break fluid can be ignited by chlorine.
Oxidation can occur with any chemical material
that can easily yield oxygen, or a similar
element. Similar compounds include fluorine,
chlorine, and bromine. However, simply
because a compound contains these elements
does not make it a strong oxidizer. Carbon
dioxide has two oxygens, but is not an oxidizer.
23
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FACTORS IMPORTANT IN COMBUSTION
Flammability tvuiye
Ignition temperature
Flash point
FACTORS IMPORTANT IN COMBUSTION NOTES
Combustion is the burning of any substance,
whether gaseous, liquid, or solid.
Flammability is the ability of a material to
generate a sufficient concentration of
combustible vapors to be ignited. The
flammable range is the range of vapor-air
mixtures which will support combustion. It is
bounded by the upper flammable limit (UFL)
or the highest concentration of a product that is
flammable and the lower flammable limit
(LFL) or lowest concentration of a product that
is flammable. Concentrations outside this
range that are too vapor-rich or too vapor-poor,
will not ignite.
Combustion and flammability have technical
and regulatory definitions. It is important to
understand this difference. (The technical, or
scientific, definition is given here). The
Department of Transportation has its own
definitions for flammable and combustible. Any
liquid with a flash point of 10CPF or less is
considered flammable. Any liquid with a flash
point greater than 100°F is considered
combustible. This is strictly a regulatory
definition. What's the difference between
material with a flash point of 99°F and one with
a flash point of 102°F?
Ignition temperature is the minimum
temperature to which a substance in air must
be heated in order to initiate, or cause, self-
sustained combustion independent of the
heating element.
Ignition temperature is also referred to as
"auto-ignition temperature." Ignition
temperature is important in many applications,
but not so much for determining fire hazard,
24
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FACTORS IMPORTANT IN COMBUSTION (con.)
NOTES
strangely enough. For instance, gasoline is
much more of a fire hazard than diesei, yet the
auto-ignition temp of diesei is at least 100°F
less than gasoline!
Flash point is the minimum temperature at
which a substance produces sufficient
flammable vapors to support a flame when an
ignition source is present.
The availability of vapor, not the ignition
temperature, is the key indicator of hazard.
Table 2-1 delineates fire hazard properties of
various flammable liquids, gases, and volatile
solids.
25
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TABLE 2-1
FIRE HAZARD PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
Chemical
Flash
point
°F (°C)
Lower
Ignition
temperature
°F (°C)
Upper
Flammable
limits
% by vol.
Specific
gravity
(Water=1)
Vapor
density
(Air=1)
Boiling
point
°F (°C)
Benzene
12
928
1,3
7.9
0.9
2.8
176
(-11)
(493)
(80)
Fuel oil,
150-270
765
1.0
No. 6
(66-132)
(407)
Gasoline,'
-45
536
1.4
7.6
0.8
3-4
100-400
CxH12 to
(43)
(280)
(38-204)
ch2o
Gasoline,1
-50
824
1.3
7.1
aviation
(-46)
(471)
Toluene
40
896
1,2
7.1
0.9
3.1
231
(4)
(480)
(111)
m-xytene
81
982
1.1
7,0
0,9
3.7
282
(27)
(527)
(139)
Chemical
Water solubility
Extinguishing
method
Hazard Identification
Health
Flammability
Benzene
Fuel oil, No, 6
Gasoline,1 CH,j to C,HjO
Gasoline,1 aviation
Toluene
m-xytene
No2
No2
No2
No2
No2
No2
Fire hazard properties of sows flammable liquids, gases and volatile solids (abstracted from NFPA 325M-1984, p. 9-95, 1984).
* Values may vary for different gasoline grades,
2 Water solubilities are very tow.
26
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RELATIONSHIP OF FLASH POINT AND
FLAMMABILITY
The relative flammability of a substance is
based on its flash point.
Flash point is defined as the minimum
temperature at which a substance produces
sufficient flammable vapors to ignite when an
ignition source is present. An ignition source
could be the spark from static electricity, an
electrical tool, or a wayward cigarette butt.
Note: In the case of liquids, it is not the liquid
itself that burns, but the vapor above it.
Flash point is the single most important factor
to look at in determining fire hazards. Flash
points are determined by the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA). If the
temperature of a liquid has reached the flash
point, or higher it will be ignited by a spark, if
the fuel/air mixture is right. There is a value
called the "Fire Point." The "Fire Point" is the
temperature the liquid must reach to generate
enough vapors to sustain a flame. For
practical purposes, however, we are only
concerned with the flash point. If the liquid is
at the flash point, and an ignition source is
present, there will be a fire.
There are two methods of measuring flash
point: open cup (o.c.) and closed cup (c.c.).
The open cup method does not attempt to
contain the vapors as they are generated,
while the closed cup method does. The closed
cup flash point is always lower than the open
cup, since the concentration of vapors are not
lowered by dispersion. This is important to
UST inspectors, who deal with closed
containers and confined areas frequently.
-------
FLASH POINT/FLAMMABILITY RELATION (con.)
NOTES
Flash points do not apply to solids or gases.
Finally, flash points are variable. Gasolines
are different, and lab tests differ. It is not
uncommon to see flash points differ 10° from
one reference to the next; therefore, it is
recommended that one allow a generous
margin of safety.
28
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FLAMMABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF
GASOLINE NOTES
Gasoline is one of the most dangerous
petroleum products because it readily
generates flammable vapors at atmospheric
temperatures (down to -45CF) and generates
these vapors within an UST. It is this vapor,
not liquid gasoline itself, that burns or explodes
when mixed with air and an ignition source, In
addition, gasoline has a very low flash point
that means even the smallest source of ignition
can cause an explosion.
The concentration of vapors in USTs storing
gasoline is normally too rich to burn, that is,
above the upper flammability limit (UFL).
However, if the temperature of the liquid
gasoline is in the -10°F to -50°F range, the
concentration of vapors will be within the
flammable range.
The National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) developed Standard 704M, a five step
ranking system from 0 (lowest) to 4 (highest),
to identify relative hazard levels. The NFPA
standard addresses three categories:
flammability, health, and reactivity. Gasoline is
rated 3 in the NFPA category for flammability.
An NFPA value of three indicates that gasoline
is a liquid that readily ignites under typical
ambient conditions,
29
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FLAMMABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF GASOLINE (con.)
NFPA Flammabiiity
Rating
0
Will not burn in air when exposed to 1500° for
five minutes.
1 Material must be preheated before it
will burn,
2 Materials that must be moderately heated before
ignition can occur. "Liquids with flash points
between 100°-200°F."
3 Materials can be ignited under most ambient
conditions,
4 Materials that rapidly disperse in air and
burn readily.
Example
Asbestos
Diesel
Gasoline
Flammable gases
30
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FLAMMABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF
MIDDLE DISTILLATES NOTES
Much of the nomenclature in the petroleum
industry is rather vague. For instance, fuel oils
can be classed as middle, heavy, or residual
distillates. Jet fuel may range from kerosene-
like blends, with middle distillate properties, to
blends more like gasoline, a light distillate.
Don't get hung up on the light-middle-heavy-
residual distillate terminology. It is general.
Look at the properties of the fuel or oil of
concern.
Middle distillates are the fractions of crude oil
which possess a moderate boiling point.
These fractions include kerosene, aviation
fuels, diesel fuels and Fuel Oil Nos. 1 and 2,
and have a wide range of flammabilities.
The diesel fuels and fuel oils are relatively
non-flammable. They require limited heating at
ambient temperatures to ignite. Flammability is
expressed in units (percent) by volume of the
material in air. The lower flammability limit
(LFL) for diesel fuel is 1.3 percent. The upper
flammability limit (UFL) is 6 percent.
While diesel is not typically a flash hazard, if
the fuel is spilled on hot concrete or metal, or
stored in direct sunlight, the heat may be
sufficient to make diesel a serious hazard.
Aviation fuels are divided into the kerosene
grades (Jet A, A-1, JP-5, 7 and 8) and the
"wide cut" blends of gasoline and kerosene
(JP-4 and Jet B). Wide cuts are lighter blends
31
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FLAMMABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF MIDDLE DISTILLATE FUELS {con.)
NOTES
and more closely resemble gasoline. The
kerosene grades are relatively non-flammable,
but the wide cul blends represent a
significantly higher fire hazard.
The vapor space in a tank storing a tow vapor
pressure liquid, such as kerosene, contains a
mixture too lean to burn, that is, below the LFL.
The vapor space of UST storing materials such
as JP-4 and Jet B fand other liquids of similar
vapor pressure between 2 and 4 psi) presents
a fire hazard because the vapors are normally
in the flammable range.
32
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FLAMMABLE CHARACTERISTICS
Residual Fuels {Fuel Oil Nos. 4,5,6)
Relativity non-flammable
NFPA = 2
Flash points
Nos 4, 5
No. 6
13CTF to 335CF
15Q'T to 270eF
LFL
No$. 4, 5, 6
1.0 percent
UFL
* Nos. 4, 5, 6
5-0 percent
FLAMMABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESIDUAL FUELS NOTES
Residual fuels (Fuei Oils Nos. 4, 5, and 6) are
defined as the product remaining after the
removal of appreciable quantities of the more
volatile components of crude oil. They have a
high flash point; ignition will not occur until the
liquid reaches a temperature of 130 or higher.
They are not as dangerous as gasoline,
however, they do pose a threat.
33
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FLAMMABLE CHARACTERISTICS
Used Oils
Significant variability exists
* Solvent additions may reduce flash point
* 30 percent of 1,000 samples tested ~ flash pomt <140 h
FLAMMABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF USED
OILS NOTES
Used oils in general are relatively non-
flammable, yet they pose special dangers. The
characteristics of used oils are not uniform
because the oils take on additional
characteristics and components during use.
Thus, used oils may contain toxins or other
dangerous products of which an inspector may
not be aware.
For instance, the "other products" (often
solvents) found in used oils can greatly reduce
their flash point, making them much more
flammable. Virgin lubricating oil has a flash
point of 350°F. By comparison, when 1,000
samples of waste oils were tested, 30 percent
of them had a flash point under 140°F.
The components of some used oils, particularly
chlorinated solvents, pose a special
toxicological hazard in a fire because of their
ability to release toxic fumes.
All associated hazards are affected by ambient
conditions. For instance, a used oil may be
difficult to ignite, but if a nearby fire heats the
oil it may ignite and burn fiercely.
34
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EXPLOSIONS NOTES
Explosions are rapid chemical reactions that
produce large quantities of gas and heat, a
shock wave, and noise, Explosivity is
expressed as a percentage of a given material
in a volume of air. The lower explosivity limit
(LEU is the lowest concentration of a product
that is explosive. The upper explosrvity limit
lUELi is the highest concentration of a product
that is explosive.
UEL and LEL, for all intents and purposes, are
the same as UFL and LFL.
Generally, explosions can do serious harm
much more rapidly than toxic exposure.
Explosions and fires are the most immediate
hazard during tank removal or closure
activities, and when release investigation
techniques are performed in a confined space.
Bear in mind that the difference between a fire
and explosion is not a large one. It can simply
be the speed of the reaction. Any material that
can burn, if placed under sufficient heat, and
confined as in a tank, can explode with
tremendous force.
Explosions are not necessarily the result of
combustion. In a closed container (such as an
UST), flammable liquids expand when heated.
Gasoline, for example, expands about 0.06
percent in volume for every 10°F increase in
temperature. When the pressure inside the
UST exceeds the designed pressure
resistance, a "pressure release explosion" can
occur.
35
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EXPLOSIONS (con.)
NOTES
Although not directly related to standard
petroleum products, Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs) are
important due to lheir tremendous destructive
force. BLEVEs occur when compressed
gases, such as LPG, are stored as liquids at
temperatures above their normal boiling points,
if the vessel is exposed to a fire, the rapid
buildup of pressure coupled with heat-induced
weakening of the tank sides, results in a
sudden and violent rupture, with the
superheated liquid vaporizing and creating a
fireball.
36
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WORKING NEAR EXPLOSIVE VAPORS OR tGNITABLE LIQUIDS
Use only explosion-proof cameras
Remove flash camera batteries, or do not use
Do smoke or use matches or lighters
immediately change oif-saturated clothing
WORKING NEAR EXPLOSIVE VAPORS OR
IGNITABLE LIQUIDS NOTES
If an inspector discovers that vapors or liquids
are present in a confined structure and a rapid
assessment indicates the potential for an
explosion or fire, the inspector should take
general safety measures at once.
All persons should be kept away from the
danger area, except those properly trained
and equipped.
The local fire department should be alerted.
A trained operator of a combustible gas
indicator should determine the
concentration of vapors present. Oxygen
levels must also be monitored.
Persons in the area should not smoke, start
or use vehicles or equipment with internal
combustion engines, or touch electrical
switches or extension cords.
Instruments used at UST sites must not
contribute to the potential for an explosion
or fire. Insurance and safety organizations
have developed codes for testing electrical
devices used in hazardous situations, and
an electrical instrument certified for use in
hazardous locations will indicate this. If an
instrument does not have an approved
rating, it should not be used in a hazardous
or potentially hazardous situation.
37
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PURGING
*
Controls "foiel" point of fire triangle -
m
Replaces flammable vapors with atr
¦m
Reduces flammable vapors (
-------
PURGING (con.)
NOTES
concentration to 20 percent of the accepted
LEL value of the mixture. The tank should be
constantly monitored to ensure that LEL value
does not exceed 20 percent.
Use a Combustible Gas Indicator (CGI) to
measure the reduction in the concentration of
flammable vapors during purging. Periodically
test the percentage LEL inside the tank, in the
excavation, and any other below grade areas.
CAUTION: In air purging, with plenty of
oxygen present, the concentration of vapors in
the tank begin in the flammable range, or may
go from too rich through the flammable range
before a safe concentration is achieved. It is
especially important to ensure all ignition
sources have been removed from the area
before beginning this process.
39
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INERTING
Controls "oxy-g^V point of fsre triangle
» Displaces oxygen with inert gas
Reduces: oxygen below the combustion level
. Common inerting materials: drv ice (CO?) and compressed nitrogen
Assure procedure's effectiveness with ox*qen meter
INERTING NOTES
Inerting controls the oxygen element of the fire
triangle, Inerting reduces the concentration of
oxygen needed to support combustion (below
12 to 14 percent oxygen by volume) by
replacing the oxygen with an inert gas.
Common inerting materials include dry ice
(COz) and compressed nitrogen. During the
inerting process, gases should be introduced
under low pressure in order to avoid producing
static electricity. COz is best applied in solid,
dry ice form, rather than as a compressed gas.
It is important to recognize that the inert gas
does not "neutralize" the flammable vapors In
the lank; it simply displaces the oxygen. To
measure the effectiveness of the inerting
procedure, test the air inside the tank with an
oxygen indicator. Eight percent or less oxygen
by volume is a safe and acceptable level.
40
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IGNITION SOURCES
Open flame
Static, electricity
Electrical appliances
~ Smoking cigarettes
Lightning
Sparks
IGNITION SOURCES
NOTES
The Ignition Source is the easiest point of the
fire triangle to control.
There are many possible sources of ignition
during handling and transfer of petroleum
products. These sources include static
electricity, sparks generated by tools,
monitoring equipment and engines in the area,
lit cigarettes, or even electrical appliances and
lightning. Any one of these ignition sources is
enough to complete the fire triangle.
41
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SPARK GENERATION
Sparks can be generated by:
Static electricity
Sinking tank w?th a metal instrument (Immmer, haokh<>
-------
STATIC ELECTRICITY SOURCES
The primary manifestation of static electricity is
the discharge or sparking of accumulated
charges. Under the right conditions, these
sparks can be the ignition source for a fire or
explosion. Sparks can also be self-generated
by humans or created through induction.
The static charge resulting from flowing liquids
is of primary importance during the transfer of
petroleum products. Static electricity is
generated by the separation of like and unlike
bodies. When liquid flows, charging occurs
because absorbed ions are separated from
free ions that are carried into the body of the
liquid by turbulence. For example, static
results from liquid dropping into a tank during
product deliveries, liquid flowing through a
hose when product is pumped from the tank, or
compressed gas or air being released into the
tank atmosphere.
During product transfer, static electricity can be
generated by the flow of fuel through small
holes into the tank. The movement of the fuel
against the pipe also generates a static charge.
Furthermore, static electricity can be generated
by the settling of rust or sludge particles.
Motorized equipment used during tank
installation, testing, and closure may generate
static electricity. In order to minimize such risk
personnel should ground all equipment during
operation.
-------
REDUCING STATIC ELECTRICITY AND SPARKING
Two effective methods
squaiizes static electricity ;,
creates conductive connection between two entities (&uch as UST anil tank truck)
Grounding
diverts static electricity into earth
» eliminates static buildup
REDUCING STATIC ELECTRICITY AND
SPARKING NOTES
Bonding and grounding are effective methods
to reduce the potential for electrostatic charge
generation and sparking, and the subsequent
chance of fires and explosions.
Bonding entails running a conductive line from
one metal object to another. This equalizes
static electricity by creating a conductive
connection between two objects, reducing the
likelihood of sparks jumping from metal to
metal. Cargo tanks should be electrically
bonded to the fill stem, piping, or steel loading
rack. Also, all metal parts of the fill pipe
assembly should form a continuous electrically
conductive path downstream from the point of
bond connection.
Bonding insures that individual components of
a system do not build up charges. In essence,
you slow down the charge buildup by
distributing it over a bigger area. However, the
entire bonded system will eventually build a
significant charge. Bonded systems should
also be grounded.
Grounding entails running a conductive line
from a metal object to the ground. This will
dissipate any charge on the outside surface of
the tank by having it flow into the ground.
44
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FfRE AND EXPLOSION POTENTIAL
Potential greatest when handling or .transferring product
Installation! Upgrades
Lxptosion can occur during pressure testing
Release Investigation
: Spilled product or vapors
Leak Detection Testing
Ptesence of leaking product or vapors
Installation of Monitoring
Wells/Sampling
Drilling into buried utility lines
FIRE AND EXPLOSION POTENTIAL NOTES
Assuming an UST is well-maintained, the
greatest fire and explosive hazard occurs
during the transfer of the product to or from
storage and during the cleaning and removal ot
USTs.
Although petroleum products have been
handled and transferred safely for decades,
UST inspectors should not believe that this
transfer is risk- and hazard-free.
The transfer of flammable and explosive
products (liquids and vapors) may occur during
tank testing or repair, tank upgrades, tank
closure or removal, tank re-filling or corrective
actions. UST inspectors should be aware of
the risks associated with these activities.
Due to the danger of violent rupture, use
extreme caution when performing pipe and
tank testing during tank installation. Do not
pressure-test any piping or tanks that contain
flammable or combustible liquids. Do not
exceed internal tank pressures of 5 pounds
psig during pressure testing. Install a pressure
relief valve at 6 pounds psig. Use a pressure
gauge with a range of 10 to 15 psig, and test
45
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both the inner and outer shells of double-wall
tanks. Outer wall should be filled by bleeding
off pressure from the Inner tank. Do not
pressurize directly. Avoid standing near
endcaps of an UST. The endcaps are the
most vulnerable to explosion.
Whether a tank is to be removed from the
ground, or closed in place, product trapped in
the sludge at the bottom of the tank, absorbed
in the tank walls, or trapped under the scale is
a continuous source of vapor regeneration.
Cleaning the tank will decrease the amount of
vapor regeneration.
To make It safe for handling, after the tank is
purged or inerted the sludge can be washed to
one end of the tank and pumped out while the
tank is still in the excavation. If the scale is
stubbornly caked on, the contractor may have
to enter the tank for manual cleaning. Make
sure appropriate safety procedures are
followed (see Confined Space Entry in Section
3), and a continuous stream of fresh air is
introduced into the tank. Make sure the
contractor blocks the tank to prevent any
movement. If tank sludge contains sufficient
lead or other substances to be considered a
hazardous waste, it must be handled and
disposed of consistent with the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
Subtitle C requirements.
Tanks should be removed from the site as
promptly as possible after purging or inerting
procedures have been completed, preferably
the same day. If the tank remains on-site
overnight or longer, additional vapor may be
46
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FIRE AND EXPLOSION POTENTIAL (con.)
NOTES
regenerated from any liquid, sludge, or wail
scale remaining in the tank. Regardless of
when they are removed, tanks should be
checked with an explosimeter to ensure that 20
percent of the lower explosivity limit (LEL) is
not exceeded.
If a leak has occurred, contaminated soil and
free product will also generate vapors outside
of the tank. An explosimeter should be used to
check explosive levels in the excavation as
well as in the tank itself.
Exhibit 2-1 provides examples of actual
accidents that have occurred during the
handling and transfer of petroleum products.
47
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EXHIBIT 2-1
ACCIDENTS INVOLVING HANDLING AND TRANSFER OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
Some reported accidents involving the Handling and Transfer of Petroleum Products are presented
below. Notice that a large number of accidents occur during closure.
Explosion in Tank "Deemed Safe" Kills One
Georgia, 1990 - A Snellville, Georgia man dies April 17 when a 10,000-gallon underground gasoline
storage tank explodes at Dry Storage of Georgia. The tank was deemed safe one-half hour before the
explosion occurred. The worker was a five-year employee of Westinghouse Environmental and
Geotechnical Services, a company that specializes in removing underground tanks. This is the third
death in Georgia in less than a year involving a tank closure.
Worker Dies in "Preventable" Accident
Tulsa, 1990 - An underground storage tank explosion kills a worker and blows out the windows in
nearby stores. The explosion occurs when two workers are attempting to cut a fill pipe from an UST
containing a small amount of water and some residual fuel. The metal cutting saw they are using
creates a spark that ignites the gasoline vapors. The ensuing blast blows the 5-foot end off the tank.
The flying metal disk travels 20 feet and decapitates a co-worker who is returning to the job site from a
convenience store located across the street. A Tulsa Fire Department spokesman characterizes the
incident as "a highly preventable accident,"
Worker Dies from Trauma Following Explosion
Tulsa, 1990 - An explosion in an empty gasoline storage tank kills a worker as he is dismantling it with
an acetylene torch. According to authorities, the steel tank was removed from the ground the week
prior to the explosion and a substance was placed in it to help ventilate fumes. The plumbing
company returned to begin dismantling the tank, assuming it to be free of fumes. The 2,000-gallon
steel tank explodes when the worker, employed by the plumbing contractor, applies an acetylene torch
to it. The end of the tank blows out and propels the worker backwards about 25 feet, where he hits a
building. The man dies, apparently from trauma suffered when thrown by the explosion. In addition, a
building on the property and a truck owned by the plumbing contractor are damaged.
Explosion Crushes Worker
Indianapolis, 1990 - Employees of a company which collects empty fuel tanks and cuts them up into
scrap metal are in the midst of purging vapors and cutting tanks when the accident occurs. A worker
is using an acetylene torch to cut a tank when an adjacent tank explodes, pushing it 6 feet forward
into the one he is working on. The worker is crushed between the tank he is working on and a
wrecker parked nearby. Investigators suspect that the tank that exploded either had not yet been
cleaned or had been cleaned improperly.
48
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EXHIBIT 2-1 (con.)
ACCIDENTS INVOLVING HANDLING AND TRANSFER OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
Man Killed While "Scrapping" Abandoned Underground Storage Tank
A scrapion and metal dealer is working alone and using an acetylene torch to cut a tank into scrap
when the flame from the torch ignites fumes inside the tank and touches off an explosion. The force
of the blast lifts the 10,000-gallon tank into the air, sending it about 50 feet from its initial spot. A tank
end is blown about 450 feet into a nearby field.
The tank, measuring 20 feet by 10 feet, was reportedly used for underground storage of residential
healing oil. However, individuals at the accident scene speculated the tank actually contained
gasoline or gasoline residue, and that fumes from the gasoline ignited. The victim's brolher said the
worker was experienced in cutting scrap metal and "knew better than to cut up a gas tank."
OHIO - Sandblasting Incident
A man retained to sandblast an underground storage tank dies when he turns on an electric vacuum
cleaner as he prepares to clean sand from the tank bottom. A spark from the vacuum cleaner ignites
the vapors inside the tank, causing it to explode. He dies later as a result of the burns suffered in the
blast.
Tank Abandonment Kills Three
While cutting the top off an empty tank at Kerr-McGee's Cotton Valley Refinery, a piece of equipment
apparently ignites vapors inside the tank. The blast kills three men inside the tank; a fourth man left
Ihe tank to get some tools and escaped unharmed.
Explosion Narrowly Avoided
1990 - Two employees breaking out the concrete inside a pump island in order to relocate the product
line, instead of capping Ihe exposed line, sluff a rag in it to keep the dirt and broken concrele out.
While cleaning Ihe island with shovels, a spark ignites the fumes coming through the rag. The rag
immediately catches fire and burns until the employees smother it with dirt.
Tank Worker Dies During Vapor Check
1990 - An Oregon tank worker places a lighted rag down a fill pipe to determine if the tank contains
vapors. It does, and an explosion results, killing the worker.
49
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51
-------
OXYGEN DEPLETION
Ofcjeetives
Participants will be able to:
identify situations where oxygen depletion ts most likely to octur
describe physiological effects of oxygen depletion
NOTES
52
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CAUSES OF OXYGEN DEPLETION
Gasoline vapors displace oxyg«n in confined spaces
Oxygon is consumed through oxidation (rusting).
Inert gas is pumped into tank.
Other gasses displace oxygen in sewers, manholes, and tunnels^
CAUSES OF OXYGEN DEPLETION NOTES
Oxygen content in the air may decrease due to
biological decay, oxidation (rusting),
combustion or displacement by other gases,
such as methane, hydrogen sulfide, and
carbon monoxide.
It is critical to keep in mind that even when
oxygen concentration is deficient for human
well-being, there may be enough oxygen to
oxidize a combustion or explosion. For
example, a 16 percent oxygen concentration
could be sufficient for a fire or explosion, while
being too low for humans to comfortably
breathe.
Eleven percent 02 is considered the theoretical
lower limit for a fire. However, a reaction with
a strong oxidizer could result in a flame in the
total absence of oxygen.
53
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HAZARD AREAS FOR OXYGEN DEPLETION
Excavations . ;
Basements
Any confined space
HAZARD AREAS FOR OXYGEN DEPLETION NOTES
Oxygen depletion can occur in any confined
space, especially those typically encountered
by UST inspectors. Tanks and dug-out
trenches are potentially oxygen deficient;
basements and sewers are other areas where
oxygen may be depleted. Old USTs are
particularly susceptible to oxygen depletion
through oxidation.
Inspectors should always be alert to situations
that could create oxygen depletion, and should
never enter into such situations without first
measuring the oxygen level.
EPA considers the minimum level of oxygen for
a safe entry to be 19.5 percent. Below this
entry into an oxygen-depleted area is
absolutely necessary, inspectors must enter
with an air supplying respirator. Air purifying
respirators are not permitted in atmospheres
containing less than 19.5 percent oxygen.
54
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|||l|||l||||||l|llil
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEPLETION
Typical a» is ?1 percent oxygnn
Health effects at lower oxygen levels:
16 to .21 percent
Accelerated breathing and heartbeat-, impaired attention, thinking and
coordination
10 to 14 percent
f aulty judgment; poor muscular coordination: rapid fatigue, possibly
permanent heart damage
6 to 10 percent
Nausea vomiting, loss cf lavement unconsciousness
< 6 percent
Death in minutes
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OXYGEN NOTES
DEPLETION
Oxygen depletion produces a range of
physiological effects that worsen as oxygen
content Is lowered or exposure time is
increased. Generally, there are no detrimental
effects above a 21 percent concentration
oxygen in air, which is the general
concentration of oxygen in air at sea level (it
could be more or less in other geographical
areas). Below this concentration, however,
potential life threatening situations exist.
The first signs of depletion occur when oxygen
concentration is between 16 percent and 21
percent. With this level of oxygen, a person's
respiration and heartbeat accelerate. Also,
attention and coordination begin to be
impaired. Lower concentrations of oxygen can
cause rapid fatigue, heart damage, nausea,
unconsciousness and death. See Figure 2-1
for an oxygen scale illustrating the
physiological effects of depletion.
Many times, 02 depletion occurs in a very
seductive fashion. The victim may simply
become sleepy, and suddenly see nothing
wrong with closing the eyes for a short nap,
from which he does not wake. The impairment
of judgement is drastic, but insidious. After all,
it is hard to be alert to symptoms that involve
loss of alertness. Plan ahead and use your
55
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PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEPLETION (con.)
NOTES
instrumentation.
When on-site, UST inspectors should be alert
to the symptoms outlined in the page above. If
they experience any of these symptoms in a
confined space, they should immediately leave
the area and seek medical attention if
necessary.
Asphyxiation is most likely to occur in low-lying
areas where heavier-than-air vapors
accumulate. An exception to this is methane,
or natural gas, which is slightly lighter than air,
and may rise to higher levels. Methane is a
simple asphyxiant, having no true toxic effect,
but it is extremely flammable.
56
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FIGURE 2-1
SUMMARY OF THE EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEPLETION
ji
21%
Minimum for safe entry to confined space
19,5% .
16% Impaired judgement and breathing
14% Faulty judgement and rapid fatigue
6% Difficult breathing: death in minutes
Oxygen Scale
57
-------
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NOTES
58
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59
-------
CONFINED SPACES
Objectives
Participants will be able to;
» list 2 characteristics of confined spaces
list 3 NIOSH confined space hazard classes
* l?st 4 confined space hazards
* list 5 precautions when entering confined spaces
describe confined space emergency procedures for personnel inside and outside tanks
NOTES
60
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CONFINED SPACE SAFETY: COURSE LIMITATIONS
~ Additional training is needed before conducting confined-spacs entry work.
Even with additional training, confined space entry should only bo undertaken as last
COURSE LIMITATIONS NOTES
Before working in confined spaces, UST
inspectors should have additional training in:
use of respiratory equipment;
use of monitoring instruments;
confined space entry; and
emergency rescue procedures.
Reminder: This course is not sufficient
preparation to train someone in confined space
entries; confined space training is required.
61
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CONFINED SPACE CHARACTERISTICS
NOTES
A confined space is defined as any space or
enclosure that has limited openings for entry
and exit, and may have limited ventilation.
Normally this is defined as any topped space 4
feet or more in depth that is not subject to
adequate ventilation. The confined space may
also contain or produce life-threatening
atmospheres due to oxygen deficiency, or the
presence of toxic, flammable, or corrosive
contaminants.
Specific confined spaces include storage tanks,
sewers and manholes, basements,
underground utility vaults, ventilation and
exhaust ducts, silos, vats, and boilers. Under
certain conditions, excavations, trenches, and
natural depressions can also act as confined
spaces, trapping vapors and restricting oxygen
flow.
The National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), in its Criteria for a
Recommended Standard for Working in
Confined Spaces (1979). defines confined
space hazards into three classes. The NIOSH
classifications roughly parallel the EPA
protective equipment levels. Each class
requires that specific steps be taken before
entry and work within the confined space. The
three classes are defined as follows:
1) Class A Confined Spaces present
immediate danger to life or health (IDLH).
Characteristics include oxygen deficient or
62
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CONFINED SPACE CHARACTERISTICS (con.)
NOTES
enriched atmospheres (< 16 percent or >25
percent), explosive or flammable
atmospheres (20 percent or greater of LFL)
and/or concentrations of toxic substances
(at IDLH levels).
2) Class B Confined Spaces have the
potential for causing injury or illness if
preventive measures are not used, BUT is
not IDLH, Characteristics include 02 = 16.1
to 19.4 percent or 21.5 to 25 percent; LFL =
10 to 19 percent, toxicity between the
permissible exposure level (PEL) and IDLH.
3) Class C Confined Spaces are such that
potential hazard would not require any
special modification of the work procedure.
Characteristics include 02 = 19.5 to 21.4
percent; LFL <10 percent; toxicity less than
PEL.
Toxicity and exposure levels are discussed
later in this section.
Most LIST work will involve working with
excavations and basements. These will
usually be class B or C confined spaces.
Class C spaces may be entered and evaluated
using normal precautions. Class B entries
should not be performed by UST inspectors
without careful planning. Class A spaces
should be avoided entirely. Class A & B
spaces both require equipment and personnel
that the inspector is not likely to have readily
available on the "average" inspection.
63
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NOTES
64
-------
CONFINED SPACE HAZARDS
Accidents are often a result of failing to rfecognizw confined spaces are potential h
-------
CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PRECAUTIONS
UST inspectors should under no circumstances
enter confined spaces unless the operation has
been fully planned ahead of time and identified
in the approved Site Safety Plan. Also, no
person should enter a confined space until an
entry plan has been completed.
Hazardous conditions must be monitored, the
hazardous atmosphere must be vented, and
suitable protective clothing, respiratory
equipment, and other safety equipment must
be worn when entering confined spaces.
Proper rescue procedures and equipment
(including the buddy system) must be followed.
Inspectors should make note of the nearest
first-aid equipment and be certain that any
exposures to health hazards are recorded.
Each of these precautions are discussed in
more detail on the following pages.
The most critical aspect of confined space
safety is planning ahead. A "generic" Site
Safety Plan should be prepared for site visits.
In addition, a tailored entry plan for confined
spaces should be prepared.
-------
CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PRECAUTIONS (con.)
NOTES
Prior to entry, a final briefing should be given
to the members of the work team. Safety
checks should be redone before each entry
into a confined space.
More details on the preparation of a plan are
provided in Section 3. The confined space
entry plan is discussed in more detail on the
following pages.
67
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CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PLAN
The entry plan should be reviewed by
personnel knowledgeable in site health and
safety. It serves as a written approval and
authorization for an entry into a specific space
for a specific task.
The plan specifies that existing and potential
hazards have been adequately Identified and
evaluated and it identifies the protective
measures necessary to ensure worker safety.
The plan should also specify pre-entry and
continuous monitoring requirements,
emergency procedures, available first aid
equipment, and required training.
No confined space work in Class A or B
spaces should be performed without a
completed and signed entry plan.
The release signature should be that of an
individual who is trained and competent to
evaluate confined space hazards and
determine appropriate control measures.
NIOSH has three classifications for confined
spaces. These classifications are based on
safety characteristics of the confined space
including oxygen content, flammability, and
toxicity. Class A is considered immediately
dangerous to life. Class B is dangerous, but
not immediately life threatening, and Class C is
considered a potential hazard.
-------
BEFORE ENTERING CONFINED SPACES
* Inspect entrance for structural integrity
» Isolate physically and electrically from other systems {when possible)
* Monitor for explosive atmospheres (oxygen, hydrogen suffices. and organic vapors)
* Use appropriate personal protective equipment
PRIOR TO ENTERING CONFINED SPACES NOTES
Before entering a confined space, inspect the
condition of the access steps. If it appears the
steps are not sturdy, or if there are no steps,
some form of ready entry and exit, such as a
ladder, must be provided.
When possible, completely isolate all confined
spaces from other systems by such means as
the physical disconnection of all lines to the
confined space.
The confined space should be monitored for
explosive and oxygen deficient atmospheres
and appropriate personal protective equipment
(PPE) must be worn before any attempts at
entry.
69
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BUDDY SYSTEM
A minimum of two workers remain outside confined space
Where space permits, involve minimum of -two workers in the task
Workers outside responsible for terminating operation if danger is apparent
THE BUDDY SYSTEM NOTES
A minimum of two workers must remain
outside the confined space when work is being
performed within. One worker should stand
directly outside the space as the designated
safety person, while the other remains in visual
or audio contact with both the safety person
and the worker within the confined area.
Where space permits more than one worker
should enter the area. If visual contact is not
possible, emergency motion detectors should
be used. Emergency motion detectors are
devices worn by the worker while in the
confined space. When the worker stops
moving for longer than several seconds, the
device begins beeping to alert the workers that
remain outside the confined space.
Clarification: OSHA regulations state that there
must be a designated safety monitor called an
"attendant" on Class A and B work. This
person maintains communications and
monitors workers inside the confined space.
However, this worker never enters the confined
space, even for rescue. Rescue and other
entry duties must be assigned to other
personnel.
A safety harness must be worn at all times
when entering, working in, and exiting most
confined spaces. If the access hole is less
than 18 inches wide, a wrist or shoulder/belt
harness must be used. A safety person should
always tend the safety line (secured to a well-
anchored object), especially when a worker is
70
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BUDDY SYSTEM (con.)
NOTES
entering or exiting the confined space. The
worker in the confined space should never be
left tied off while the safety person goes for
supplies or tools. Extra slack should not be
allowed to form in the safety line. Finally, the
safety line should be kept away from traffic and
equipment with moving parts.
In the real world, if a worker is wearing a
harness, a winch or pulley system is needed to
extract the workers. In the movies, they may
drag people up a hundred feet using hand over
mighty hand, but very few people can actually
haul an unconscious person even a few feet in
this manner.
71
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CONTINUOUS MONITORING
Monitor air before entering confined space..
Repeat monitoring periodically.
Monitor with CGI. 02 mpter and H2S detector, either FID or PID
CONTINUOUS MONITORING NOTES
Absolutely no confined space entry should be
initiated without the use of appropriate air
supplying respirators and dermal protection;
and until appropriate initial testing has been
conducted to assure a safe atmosphere. All
persons entering a confined space must be
aware that oxygen deficient atmospheres and
"immediately dangerous to life and health"
(IDLH) situations are possible and more than
likely in non-routine work situations.
Combination combustible gas indicators,
oxygen and hydrogen sulfide detectors, and
either a flame or photoionization meter must be
used to test the atmosphere for flammable
vapors and oxygen before and during the
operation. Monitoring should be conducted at
the opening and in the space that workers shall
occupy. Monitoring may also be performed in
pockets, corners, and at ground level to identify
the extent of hazard.
Perform monitoring slowly, giving instruments
adequate time to respond.
Take reading at several different heights, as
well as locations, since gases may stratify.
Always attempt to perform sampling without
actually entering the confined space, that is,
use tools such as pumps and tubing, or
attachments.
72
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PROPER TOOLS FOR CONFINED SPACE SAFETY
Make sure all tools and equipment are non-sparking and certified as "intrinsically safe"
See that tools and equipment are inspected: for compliance with:
OSHA 29 CFR 1910 Subpart S
availability of guards - -
bonding and grounding
PROPER TOOLS FOR CONFINED SPACE
ENTRY NOTES
Tools or other objects which necessitate the
use of a hand should not be carried while
entering or exiting a confined space. Extreme
caution must be exercised to avoid banging
equipment against other meta! objects, which
creates sparks. Also, never lower an electrical
tool or light to a worker in a confined space
unless it has been thoroughly checked to
ensure that it is explosion proof, double-
insulated, and grounded. Tools should always
be clean and in good working order. Tool
selection and use should meet OSHA (29 CFR
1910 Subpart S) regulations. Where vapors
are present, air-activated tools must be used.
Safety guards must be available to encase light
bulbs. All items should be bonded and
grounded where appropriate.
73
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RESCUE PROCEDURES
Notify emergency assistance teams immediately
Attempt no rescue without proper training and appropriate protection
Remember that rescues require minimum of Level B protection
Over 50 percent of deaths in confined spaces are workers attempting to rescue other
workers!
RESCUE PROCEDURES NOTES
Rescuers must be trained in rescue procedures
and follow those procedures when attempting
to rescue coworkers. Unplanned rescues,
such as when someone instinctively rushes in
to help, typically result in multiple fatalities.
Use common sense: If a person wearing the
same type of PRE as yourself collapses
suddenly, for no apparent reason, it is a safe
bet that they have been overcome by a toxic
substance that penetrated their equipment. It
wiil also breach your equipment, so do not
attempt rescue. On the other hand, if a co-
worker runs into an overhead obstruction and
knocks himself senseless, you can probably
rescue that worker safely, if you avoid the
overhead obstruction. Remember though:
Many chemicals impair judgement and
coordination, so be alert, and be careful!
Emergency situations within confined spaces
may differ according to the type of confined
space. It is difficult to develop general
procedures that will cover every situation.
However, general emergency procedures can
be formulated, and each crew and individual
must anticipate a variety of specific
emergencies and responses. All rescue
equipment should be fully inspected at the
work scene before any person enters the
confined space. If a worker is stricken inside
74
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RESCUE PROCEDURES (con.)
NOTES
confined space, first call for emergency
assistance, then go through the proper
procedures for a rescue before attempting to
enter the confined space. At a minimum,
rescue workers should wear Level B protection
(see Section 3).
75
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES: INSIDE
It you are inside a confined space when an emergency occurs:
notify safety person
attempt to assist incapacitated workers
» exit area, if possible
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES: INSIDE NOTES
If you are inside a confined space when an
emergency occurs:
Upon detection of a hazard, immediately
notify the safety person external to the
space, giving all known details of the
hazard;
If a worker is incapacitated, attempt to
assist the individual; this should be done
only if it presents no increased risk to
yourself or others;
If possible, exit the area, proceeding to the
nearest exit.
76
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES: OUTSIDE
If you are outside a confined apace when an emer^ncy occurs
Offer assistance, try to correct problem
» cton't enter without a supplied air respirator
* alert emergency network
remain oytskte to assist
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES: OUTSIDE NOTES
If you are outside the confined space when an
emergency occurs:
Upon learning of the problem offer
assistance and try to correct the problem.
Never enter a confined space without a
self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
or until all causes of the incapacitation have
been eliminated,
If professional assistance is necessary,
send a worker to notify the established
emergency network, remain available to
guide emergency units.
Remain outside of the confined space to aid
with the rescue equipment and render
assistance.
Remember that the person specified as the
attendant may not enter for any reason.
77
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EXHIBIT 2-2
ACCIDENTS DURING CONFINED SPACE ENTRY
Some accidents reported involving confined spaces are presented below. Note that most are due to
explosions or asphyxiation.
Two Killed in Jet-Fuel Explosion
Newington, NH, 1981 - Two tank cleaners are killed in a powerful explosion within an empty Air Force
jet fuel tank.
Space Shuttle Worker Killed
Cape Canaveral, FL, 1981 - An aerospace worker dies and four others are hospitalized following an
incident which occured when five workers, without respiratory equipment, entered the spaceship
Columbia's engine compartment before it had been cleared of the pure nitrogen atmosphere used
during a test.
Welder Dies Before Aid Arrives
Deer Park, TX, 1980 - Two welders and a standby worker collapse inside a vessel under repair and
the welders both die before rescuers can aid them.
Two Killed in Flash Fire
Bradford, PA, 1980 - Two workers die and two others are injured when a flash fire occurs in an oil
tank car during cleanup, three days after a derailment.
Tank liner escapes injury.
While relining an underground tank, during the sandblasting procedure, an employee in the tank hits a
four-inch rubber Expando plug that was placed in the product line from inside the tank located directly
above him. The Expando plug eventually works itself loose and falls out, causing the employee to be
soaked with fuel. Fortunately, the employee is not injured.
Three workers injured trying to save fourth.
Arkansas, 1980 - One worker is killed and three others seriously injured in a sewer trench cave-in.
The three injured workers jump into the trench to try to save the first man after the cave-in, but are
themselves caught in a second cave-in.
78
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79
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HEAVY EQUIPMENT
Objectives
Participant will be able tor
list 5 major types of heavy equipment
discuss the main hazards associated with each heavy equipment type
describe safety precautions to avoid each hazard
NOTES
80
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COMMONLY USED HEAVY EQUIPMENT
NOTES
Installing or moving USTs requires the use of a
variety of earth-moving and other heavy
equipment. Examples of such equipment
include backhoes, front end loaders, dump
trucks, cranes, and drill rigs. Any one of these
pieces of equipment can be dangerous and
can cause injury or death.
Some examples of accidents associated with
the use of heavy equipment are described in
Exhibit 2-3.
81
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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AROUND HEAVY EQUIPMENT
Use qualified equipment operators. - - -
Park vehicles away from trucks and equipment.
Avoid stacked pipes, hoisting equipment, and heavy rotating components.
Wear appropriate protective gear. ' -;'
Avoid wearing loose or torn clothing.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AROUND HEAVY
EQUIPMENT NOTES
To avoid creating unnecessary hazards,
operators of heavy equipment should be
properly trained and certified to operate
equipment they are using. Vehicles should be
parked far enough away from other vehicles
and equipment to avoid possible collisions.
Stacked pipes can pose a serious construction
hazard. Personnel should avoid standing near
stacked piping because a single dislodged pipe
may cause the entire stack to collapse.
Individuals with long hair should have it tied
back or otherwise constrained. Applicable
protective gear such as hard hats, goggles,
high visibility clothing, hearing protectors, and
heavy boots should be worn at all times.
Shirts with loose sleeves, trousers with baggy
cuffs, torn clothing, and jewelry have a
tendency to get caught in machinery and,
therefore, should not be worn.
82
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ADDITIONAL GENERAL SAFETY NOTES
PRECAUTIONS
Many heavy equipment accidents result when
workers touch the moving parts of the
machinery. Personnel must pay close attention
when operating or working near machinery.
Furthermore, personnel must be aware of the
location of "Emergency Shut Off" switches on
the machinery to avoid serious accidents.
Do not smoke or use spark-producing
equipment around excavations because the
use of a backhoe or a drill rig may release
flammable gasses from the subsurface
environment.
There is also the potential of a backhoe or drill
rig coming into contact with buried gas, water,
electric, sewer, or product lines and even the
USTs themselves. This can cause sudden
explosions, electrocution, or flooding.
Therefore, all lines should be located and
clearly marked prior to initiating operations. An
additional electrocution hazard can occur
during periods of lightning, as the lightning may
be attracted to backhoes or crane booms. All
operations should be stopped during a
thunderstorm.
Many pieces of diesel equipment are not killed
by turning off the key. There is typically a fuel
shutoff knob that must be pulled, and, in some
cases, held, to kill the engine. If there is a
83
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ADDITIONAL GENERAL SAFE PRECAUTIONS (con.)
NOTES
high concentration of flammable vapor in the
air, it may be impossible to shut off a diese!
engine. (This is very rare.)
Older equipment may start while in gear. Do
not stand near the equipment when it is being
started.
84
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BACKHOES/FRONT END LOADER HAZARDS
Backhoes are used for excavation and soli iransler
Excavations can damage or break underground, utilities or. product lines, causing;
* Electrocution
* 1 Exposure to toxic substances
* Power outages
Physical hazards of backhoes include swinging buckets and unstable loads
BACKHOE/FRONT END LOADER HAZARDS NOTES
Earth moving equipment posing the greatest
danger includes backhoes and front end
loaders. These machines are generally used
for excavating trenches and soil transfer during
installation and removal actions. During
excavation and soil transfer, backhoes and
front end loaders can dig up or break utility or
product lines. This can result in death due to
electrocution, exposure to toxic chemicals, or
flooding. Additionally, operation of this
equipment creates physical hazards to those
not aware of its presence or operation.
The backhoe arm travels from side to side, as
well as lengthwise and up and down. Be sure
to stand well away from the entire radius of the
arm swing.
Backhoes are equipped with outriggers, which
help stabilize it during digging. No digging or
moving of earth using the arm should be
performed without setting the outriggers.
Backhoe/frorrt-end loader hybrids are common.
The front bucket of these hybrids is operated
without the use of outriggers.
85
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DRILL RIGS
Drill rigs are used for soil.borings and:vvel! installation.monitoring
Three types: Mud rotary, air rotary, and plain auger flight
- Hazards of drill rigs:
high pressure: air hoses can break, causing serious injury
rotating parts can sever digits and limbs
utility lines pose possibility of electrocution ¦
DRILL RIGS NOTES
Drill rigs may be of the mud rotary or the air
rotary types. Note that using an air rotary drill
will increase the likelihood of exposure via
inhalation, while a mud rotary drill will increase
the potential for dermal absorption of
chemicals.
Mud rotary rigs may also pose a disposal
problem. The muds used often contain traces
of barium and other metals which are toxic.
EPA has begun to view drilling muds with a
critical eye.
Air rotary drills have a number of high pressure
hoses that might break and cause injury. The
rotating parts of either type of drill rig can sever
a digit or limb. Furthermore, digging into the
ground always raises the possibility of
electrocution from broken utility lines.
Unless wearing the proper protective
equipment (see Section 3), avoid contact with
cuttings, drilling liquids, and groundwater
because they may be contaminated.
86
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CRANES
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Cranes are used for lifting tanks in and out of excavations
Follow load lifting specifications.
Never exceed recommended safe load for rigging.
During actual lift, stay outside range of wire sling; sling can "whip" if it snaps,
Agree on and use standard operating signals to direct operations.
Avoid swinging loads above personnel.
CRANES NOTES
Cranes are commonly used during tank
installations and removals to place or remove
the tank from the excavation. Lifting or moving
a tank should be done in accordance with the
manufacturer's specifications. The crane
should not lift loads heavier than the
recommended safe load. Weight loads in
excess of the recommended load can pull the
crane into the excavation. Also, rigging should
never be loaded in excess of its recommended
safe load.
During the actual lift, all personnel should
remain outside the range of the wire sling. If
the sling breaks during a lift, serious injury can
result from the whip action of the broken wire.
Cranes come in several configurations, from
the older, dragline types to the newer, mobile
cranes, which are also called "cherry-pickers."
Draglines are track-mounted and extremely
heavy. They can rotate 360° on their
platforms. Their extreme weight provides their
stability.
The cherry-pickers are more common at UST
sites, because they are truck-mounted and
easier to move. These units are equipped with
outriggers which must be set before the lifting
arm is deployed, and must remain in place until
the lift arm is once more retracted and cradled.
87
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CRANES (con.)
NOTES
On any crane, the lifting arm can lift the
greatest weight when upright. The further the
arm extends, the greater the mechanical
advantage of the load, and the less weight the
crane can lift.
Frayed rigging is not uncommon. While minor
fraying may not necessarily affect performance
significantly, more severe fraying is dangerous.
The load limits of frayed cabling are unknown.
Frayed cabling may also hang and snarl.
88
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CRANES (con.)
Place, hook directly over load being.lifted.
Mapr hazard: keep minimum. 6 feel between boom and overbad power lines.
When operating under power lines, safety guard installation is recommended.
NOTES
Cranes should be operated only by trained
personnel. Before daily operations start, all
equipment used for hoisting, including cables,
sheaves, pulleys, boom and hook stops, should
be inspected.
A standard set of operating signals should be
agreed upon before crane operation, and UST
inspectors should become familiar with them.
Only one individual should be permitted to give
signals to the crane operator.
Personnel should never ride along with loads
carried by the crane and crane operators
should not swing a load over the heads of
other workers around the construction site.
In order to reduce strain on the crane and to
prevent the sliding of loads, the crane hook
should be directly over the load being lifted.
Workers should use cables or rods to position
suspended tanks. They should not stand
underneath tanks and use their hands and
bodies to adjust the tank's position, or to guide
it.
89
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1
¦
NOTES
Another serious potential hazard involving
cranes is electrocution through contact with a
hanging power line. Operators should maintain
a minimum distance of 6 feet between the
crane's boom and power lines. In order to
avoid possible electrocution, ground personnel
must refrain from touching the crane if it comes
in contact with a power line.
Operators in cabbed equipment should remain
in the cab if they come in contact with a live
power line, sit still, and avoid touching the cab
controls and all metal surfaces.
Installation of a safety guard is also
recommended when working beneath power
lines. The safety guard, which can consist of
an insulated section of the upper boom or an
insulated lifting hook, will help to protect both
the crane operator and ground personnel.
It should be noted that electrocution can result
from more than just contact with power lines.
During high humidity conditions, an electrical
arc can jump several feet from a power line to
a crane.
90
I
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GENERAL SAFETY HAZARDS
* Slips, trips; and falls due to loose materials, such as soil piles and ropes
¦¦ . Cuts, punctures, and abrasions due to improper use of tools such as cutting torches and
jacfchammers
Misuse of compressed gases
OTHER GENERAL SAFETY HAZARDS NOTES
Besides the specific heavy equipment hazards,
UST operations also pose a number of general
construction hazards. The majority of general
construction accidents are small ones. While
not fatal, these accidents are responsible for
large amounts of lost work time, personal
trauma, and costly medical claims. Injuries
due to falls or trips are common, as are
puncture wounds, cuts, and abrasions caused
by careless use of tools. UST inspectors must
be aware that injuries can occur anywhere and
at any time. They need to prepare for such
eventualities and remain constantly alert while
on the job site.
Guidance for the control of general
construction hazards can be found in OSHA
regulations (29 CFR 1910), which stipulate
detailed requirements for the use, storage, and
maintenance of equipment and tools.
Some examples of general construction type
accidents are described in Exhibit 2-4.
91
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EXHIBIT 2-3
HEAVY EQUIPMENT ACCIDENTS
Some examples of reported accidents involving heavy equipment are presented below.
Coal Worker Accidently Crushes Himself
Indianapolis, IN, 1990 - A worker using a backhoe to remove four 8,000-gallon fuel tanks from the
AMAX Coal Co.'s Minehaha mine leans out a broken window of the backhoe cab to remove a chain
from the bucket, and accidentally strikes an operating lever. The bucket drops down and crushes him.
The federal Mine Safety and Health Administration cites the company for the broken window in the cab
and a broken ignition switch on the backhoe.
Worker Maimed in Installation Accident
Tulsa, OK, 1990 - A contractor and his sub-contractor are on a job site preparing to compact the
backfill material around a new tank installation. The contractor's employee motions for the track hoe
operator (the sub-contractor) to use the bucket to lower the tamper into the hole. The track hoe
operator swings the bucket over and sets it down by the employee, who is ready to load the tamper.
The employee, thinking the bucket is not moving, turns his back to the bucket to lift the tamper. The
track hoe operator as still in the process of lipping the bucket when the employee turns around and
catches his foot underneath the teeth of the bucket. The teeth of the bucket pinch off one of his toes
and break two others.
92
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EXHIBIT 2-4
GENERAL SITE ACCIDENTS
Some reported accidents caused by a violation of general safety procedures are presented below.
Notice the wide variety of forms they take.
Using an air compressor
When an employee using an air compressor shuts down the unit ihe hose is apparently kinked. The
employee grabs the hose, releasing the kink and the pressure that built up in the hose. The force
tears the employee's safely glasses off and blows the contact lenses from his eyes. Luckily, he is not
injured.
Repairing a submersible pump
Two mechanics called to a service station to repair a submersible pump disable it by turning off the
power al the breaker box. As Ihey pull the leak deleclor, someone in Ihe store turns the breaker back
on, causing gasoline to gush out on one of the technicians. He is drenched with fuel and actually
swallows some. The other technician runs into the store to turn the pump off and instructs all
employees not 1o touch the breaker panel. The fuel-covered technician loses a day of work due to
chemical exposure. The lesson learned by ihis incident is to make certain every employee in ihe store
is aware that the power is off and thai they are not to touch the breaker panel.
Working around unsecured objects
A wooden box lid left unsecured atop the box is blown off by a sirong wind and strikes an employee
working in the warehouse yard. The employee is transported to the hospital by ambulance and
undergoes x-rays and a CAT scan. Luckily, he escapes with a mild concussion and a minor cut on his
ear, and is able to return to work the following day.
Repairing a submersible pump
A veteran serviceman is dispatched to a convenience store in response to a report that ihe customer
can not dispense regular unleaded fuel. The serviceman suspects a problem with ihe submersible
pump capacitor. The store operator is present and says he will turn off Ihe power to the unit in
question. Upon opening the capacitor housing, the serviceman observes that it is filled with fuel.
Without checking the power (which was still on), the serviceman pulls a terminal off ihe capacitor.
This creates a spark which ignites the fumes in the cavity. The serviceman has Ihe presence of mind
to snuff out Ihe fire immediately. There is no physical damage or injuries caused by this incident, and
all involved are very lucky 1o have avoided a major disaster. The serviceman points out the company
procedures that he did not follow: 1) Don't rely solely upon another person to turn off power to a
device. See that you agree with what has been done; 2) "Lock-Out" the breaker or switch that has
been turned off by means of a sign or a mechanical device; 3) Check the device being turned off with
an eleclrical tester before proceeding with repairs. Haste can also be faulted in Ihis incident as it was
late Friday afternoon.
93
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EXHIBIT 2-4 (con.)
GENERAL SITE ACCIDENTS
Breaking concrete
A jackhammer operator breaking concrete is not paying attention to what he is doing and jackhammers
his foot. Unfortunately, he is wearing tennis shoes instead of the steel-toed shoes the company
requires. He lacerates his foot, breaks his toe, and loses several weeks of work.
Building a wooden box
An employee building a wooden box steps backward onto a nail which protruded from a board and
loses 10 days work as a result of the puncture wound to his foot. This is the second time in the last 2
months the company experiences incidents involving foot punctures. Both accidents involve
employees who were on the job six months or less.
Repairing a ceiling-hung reel
The reel is hung from a 2x4 covered by a suspended celling at an automobile dealership. In order to
repair the reel, the service tech walks out on the 2x4 framing. As he reaches to unbolt the reel he
loses his balance and falls through the ceiling. Fortunately, he is able to grab a 2x4 and pull himself
back up. The alternative was a 14-foot fall to the cement.
Testing pumps and dispensers
A crew bleeds the pressure off the product lines (or so they think) at a new tank installation and
begins to prepare the leak detectors for installation. They dope up the first detector and pull the two-
inch plug off the submersible. Product blows out the 2-inch opening and gasoline soaks both
employees working in the area. The workmen strip off the clothes they are wearing and wash under a
nearby water hose. No fire or explosion results. Procedures now call for pulling the submersible
pump completely to drain the product from it before installing leak detectors.
Repairing a card lock system with a defective flow switch
A mechanic called to repair a defective flow switch at a card lock system shuts off the power at the
breaker panel, removes the pump panels, and barricades the area surrounding the pump. A friend of
the operator comes to the station for product. He goes Into the pump control room, turns on the
power at the breaker, and somehow finds his way around the barricade. As he starts the pump, fuel
sprays from the flow switch opening. Fortunately, the incident does not cause a fire. Procedures now
call for locking the breaker out, locking the pump handle, and plugging the hole from which the flow
switch is removed.
94
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EXHIBIT 2-4 (con.)
GENERAL SITE ACCIDENTS
Repairing a faulty petroleum pump
A man repairing a faulty pump is working on the hydraulics and electrical components at the same
time. A spark from a shorted wire ignites the vapors in the test can, causing it to explode. He dies
later that evening as a result of burns suffered in the blast.
Ladder accident
A warehouse employee is standing on ladder while transferring 60-pound boxes from the top of a
raised forklift to a storage shelf. One of the boxes catches on a rail at the top of the shelf. While
struggling to free the box, the latter starts to tip, causing him to lose his footing. The employee falls
approximately 5 feet to the ground, landing on his left hand. He is taken to an area hospital where x-
rays revealed a fracture of his left wrist. Surgery is required to repair the damaged joint. Several pins
remain in the wrist for 8 weeks, and extensive physical therapy is necessary in order for the employee
to regain the function of his wrist and hand. The employee is off work 16 weeks.
Disconnecting equipment from a truck.
A man disconnects a portable air compressor from a truck and forgets to tower the wheel stand on the
compressor before disconnecting it from the truck bumper. As he raises the compressor and moves it
away from the truck bumper, he loses his balance. The tongue of the compressor chassis drops to
the ground and crushes his finger under the hitch. He is off work 5 weeks.
Working inside a sump
An employee is working inside a piping sump at a convenience store that has just been built. The
manhole lid and sump cover were removed, and an orange traffic cone was placed adjacent to the
hole. As a salesman drives out of the parking lot, he first drives over the traffic cone and then over
the manhole where the employee was working. The salesman stops his car only because the traffic
cone became wedged in the undercarriage of his vehicle. The mechanic is low enough in the sump to
escape injury.
New procedures call for parking a service truck in such a way as to protect the workers from traffic,
whether employees are working in an open or closed station.
95
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-
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97
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EXCAVATIONS
Objectives
Participants will be able to:
list *he main excavation hazards
. .: : describe, the two most effective methods for preventing cave-ins
. . . discuss prevention measures for the other excavation hazards v
NOTES
98
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EXCAVATION CAVE-INS
Excavation is one of the most hazardous types of construction work
Main concern; trench or excavation cave-i ns
Ukelihoocf of cave-ms is increased by;
~ freezing
~ thawing
~ vibrations
~ surcharge loads
EXCAVATION CAVE-INS NOTES
UST activities often entail excavation. The
construction industry considers excavation and
trenching to be two of its most hazardous jobs.
Annually there are approximately 100 fatalities
and 5,000 injuries at excavation sites.
Cave-ins are the primary excavation hazard to
which employees may be exposed. While the
number of cave-ins is small compared to the
total number of accidents, cave-ins tend to be
very serious in nature, frequently resulting in
fatalities. Cave-ins occur when the soil forming
the sides of the excavation cannot support the
pressure put on it by individuals, equipment, or
gravity. Surcharge loads are created by
placing an extra load on the soil surrounding
the excavation, for example, a vehicle.
Changing environmental conditions and the
process of digging can also reduce the ability
of soil to resist cave-in forces. Examples of
excavation accidents are illustrated in Exhibit
2-5,
99
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EXHIBIT 2-5
EXCAVATION ACCIDENTS
Some examples of recorded accidents involving excavation-related activities are presented beiow.
Note that cave-ins are a primary source of excavation accidents.
Geologist Killed in Cave-in
California, 1976 - The collapse of a trench results in the death of a geologist. The trench is 3 feet
wide, 13 feet deep, and has vertical walls that were not shored. The geologist is warned that the
ground is unstable, but ignores the warnings. Once inside the trench, he is quoted as saying, "This
sure looks bad in here. It looks like it's going to cave in." Ten seconds later a cave-in occurs and
completely covers him.
Worker Crushed when Ground Gives Way
Utah, 1981 - A worker is killed when a trench in which he is laying water pipe gives way. The victim is
standing in a trench about 5 feet deep and 3 feet wide dug in sandy soil. The side of the trench caves
in, crushing the man against the other side of the trench. Although his head remains above the soil,
he dies almost instantly from massive internal injuries to the windpipe, lungs, and liver.
Worker Killed Shoring Trench
California, 1968 - A worker is helping to install shoring in a trench about 10 feet deep when the
material caves in under the existing shoring, covering his feet and lower legs. Before he can be
rescued, the whole side of the trench caves in, covering him completely.
Gasoline Explosion Seriously Injures Five
Missouri, 1980 - Employees of a water company strike and rupture a gas line while digging a trench.
During an attempt to repair the break, five employees of the gas company are seriously injured when
an explosion occurs, followed by a fire.
Three Workers Injured Trying to Save Fourth
Arkansas, 1980 - One worker is killed and three others seriously injured in a sewer trench cave-in.
The three injured workers jumped into the trench to try to save the first man after the cave-in, but were
themselves caught in a second cave-in.
100
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EXHIBIT 2-5 (con.)
EXCAVATION ACCIDENTS
Worker Drowns Unable to Escape Trench
California, 1968 - A lateral trench is dug at right angles to a main trench that is 8 feet deep. Digging
the lateral trench undermines supports of a 6-inch water main, causing the pipe to break. The trench
quickly fills with earth and water. Fellow workers can nol pull a laborer who was installing shoring
from the mud which came up to his knees. He is drowned when water fills the trench. It was
assumed that the water line was not closer to the trench than 5 feet because of the location of a fire
hydrant above ground at that distance.
Worker Dies After Cave-in Rescue Attempt
Pennsylvania, 1981 - An employee is caught in a trench cave-in, but is not killed. During the rescue,
the employee suffers deep gashes in his back when rescuers attempt to free him with the backhoe.
The employee later dies from complications resulting from these injuries.
Minor Injury in Excavation
A member of an installation crew standing on a tank that was towered into an excavation in order to
check the level of the tank asks another worker to throw a 4-foot level to him. When he attempts to
catch the level, it slips through his hands and strikes him in the eye. The employee is treated in the
emergency room. Although the eye is not damaged, six stitches are required to close the wound on
his eyelid.
101
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METHODS TO PREVENT CAVE-INS
Use sloping or shoring on alt excavations over 4 feet deep
Sloping Angle sides to prevent downhill slide of soil
Shoring Brace sides to prevent cave-ins
METHODS TO PREVENT CAVE-INS NOTES
Several different methods exist to protect
employees from cave-ins. These include
sloping or benching the sides of the
excavation, placing a shield between the sides
of the work area, and shoring up the sides with
supports.
OSHA regulations delineate approximate
angles for sloping in 29 CFR 1926.652. Exhibit
2-8 shows approximate slopes, and Exhibit 2-9
shows trench shoring requirements.
Sloping provides protection by removing the
soil that might cave-in. At a minimum, all
slopes should be excavated to the angle of
repose. The determination of the angle of
repose and design of an adequate support
system must be based on careful evaluation of
pertinent factors such as: depth of cut;
possible variation in water content of the
material while the excavation is open;
anticipated changes in materials from exposure
to air, sun, water or freezing; and vibration
from equipment and traffic movement.
Designing the proper slope or bench
configuration for a particular situation is a
complex engineering problem and should not
be attempted by inexperienced personnel.
Support systems can be constructed to add
another component of resistance to the forces
that could cause a cave-in. Shoring provides
support or shields to stop the soil from
traveling back into the trench where workers
are. Shoring and bracing materials should be
carried down when initially entering the
excavation. If this is not done, workers expose
themselves to cave-ins when entering the
excavation at full depth to install the bracing
102
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METHODS TO PREVENT CAVE-INS (con.)
NOTES
and shoring. Beware: the possibility of a
cave-in also exists during the installation or
removal of the support system.
Shoring and sloping are seldom seen at many
UST pulls. This does not mean that it is
correct to proceed without them. However,
here are a few clarifications:
These measures are only necessary when
workers enter or work in the excavation.
Workers may stand on exposed tank tops
to attach cabling or to remove, repair, or
install piping. These activities do not
typically require sloping or shoring, since
the worker is not in danger of a cave-in.
It is, in reality, impractical to install shoring
in a tank hole. However, it may be
unavoidable if working near foundations,
roadbeds, or other areas where soil may be
destabilized and sloping is not possible.
Many contractors are reluctant to use
sloping, because it is more work, They will
use every excuse not to do it. If workers
enter the excavation, they must be properly
protected. Period.
Tables 2-2 and 2-3 summarize sloping and
shoring requirements.
103
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FIGURE 2-2
APPROXIMATE ANGLE OF REPOSE
FOR SLOPING SIDES OF EXCAVATIONS
Original Ground Line
Note: Clays, sills, looms or non-homoge-
nous soils require shoring and bracing.
The presence of groundwater requires
special treatment.
1 Solid rock, shale or cemented sand and gravels (90°)
Compacted anguler gravels 1/2:1 (63° 26')
Recommended slope for average soils 1:1 (45°)
Compacted sharp sand 1 1/2:1 (33° 41')
Well rounded loose sand 2:1 (26° 34')
1926.652
104
29 CFR CH. XVII (7-1-89 Editio
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TABLE 2-2
TRENCH SHORING
plh of
snch
Kind or
condition
ot earth
Size and spacing of members
Uprights
Stringers
Cross braces1; Width of trench
Maximum spacing
Minimum
dimension
Maximum
spacing
Minimum
dimension
Maximum
spacing
Up to 3
feet
3 to 6 feet
6 to 9 feel
9 to 12
feel
12 to 15
feet
Vertical
H
5 to 10
Inches
Feet
Inches
Fsel
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches
Feet
Hard, compact
3x4or
2x6
6
2x6
4x4
4x6
6x6
6x6
4
likely to crack
3 * 4 or
2x6
3
4x6
4
2x6
4x4
4x6
6x6
6x8
4
Soft, sandy, or filled
3*4 or
2x6
Close
sheeting
4x6
4
4x4
4x6
6x6
6x8
8x8
4
Hydrostatic pressure
3x4or
2x6
Close
sheeting
6x8
4
4x4
4x6
6x6
6 x S
8x8
4
!0 to 15
Hard
3 x 4 or
2x6
4
4x6
4
4x4
4x6
6x6
6x8
8x8
4
likely to crack
3x4or
2x6
2
4x6
4
4x4
4X6
6x6
6x8
8 x B
Soft, sandy, or lied
3x4or
2x6
Close
sheeting
4x6
4
4x6
6x6
6x8
8x8
8x10
4
Hydrostatic pressure
3x6
Close
sheeting
B x 10
4
4x6
6x6
6x8
8x8
8x10
4
!5 to 20
AH kinds or
conditions
3x6
Close
sheeting
4x12
4
4x12
6x8
8x8
8x10
10x10
4
Over 20
All kinds or
conditions
3x6
Close
sheeting
6x8
4
4x12
8x8
8 x 1D
10x10
10x12
4
hjacks may be used in lieu of, or in combination vrilh crass braces.
I is not required in solid rock, hard shale, or hard slag,
desirable, steel sheet piling and bracing of equal strength may be substituted for wood.
105
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ADDITIONAL EXCAVATION HAZARDS
~
Destabili2atfon of adjacent structures
Contact-with underground utilities
~
Hazard for vehicular traffic
*
Contact with overhead power lines - ¦
Falling toads or equipment
Possible pedestrian access/accidents
¦»
Special entrance and exit precautions
ADDITIONAL EXCAVATION HAZARDS NOTES
In addition to cave-ins, several other hazards
are associated with excavations. Excavations
can destabilize adjacent structures, leading to
their collapse. Underground utilities (power,
water, sewer, gas and telephone lines) may be
encountered and damaged, exposing workers
to possible fires, explosions, electrocution,
rapid flooding, or chemical releases.
Increased vehicular traffic due to excavation
activities, falling loads during the loading and
unloading of earth, fill, and other materials, and
hazards associated with entering and exiting
excavations (such as falls and unstable
ladders) are also possible. In addition,
improper barricading of the excavation may
result in pedestrian accidents (and lawsuits). It
is important that all excavations are barricades
or roped off, to keep people and equipment
from falling in, to keep the edge clear, to help
prevent cave-ins.
Excavations are also good collection points for
heavier-than-air gasses, which may displace
oxygen, causing an unseen hazard.
106
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EXCAVATION HAZARD PREVENTION
» Place excavated materials at least 2 feet from excavation.
Station machinery far back from the edge
Prevent ground/surface water eniranco or accumulation in excavation.
EXCAVATION HAZARD PREVENTION NOTES
The additional weight of excavated material
can lead to soil destabilization; all excavated
materials should be placed a minimum of 2
feet back from the trench or excavation walls.
Boulders, concrete and other debris that might
slide into the excavation should also be
removed or secured.
Personnel should not work or stand in the
operational area of the excavating machinery,
and machinery should be placed as far back
from the edge of the excavation site as
possible in order to avoid cave-ins. Personnel
should stay out of excavation operations by
standing at the back of an excavation site, not
the sides.
Do not allow ground or surface wafer to enter
or accumulate in the trench. If any water does
enter the site, remove it using pumps which
are incapable of causing the ignition of a
mixture of flammable material.
107
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EXCAVATION HAZARD PREVENTION (con.)
~ Use intrinsically safe pumps
Provide adequate space for working fboth inside arid outside ot excavation).
» Consider presence of free product to be a hazardous condition.
NOTES
During the excavation, there should be a
minimum clearance between adjacent tanks
and between tanks and the sides of excavation
of 12 inches for steel tanks and 18 inches for
fiberglass-reinforced plastic tanks.
Free product in the excavation signifies a
hazardous condition. Immediately notify the
local fire department of the presence of free
product and make arrangements to have the
contractor remove all free product from the
excavation as quickly as possible.
108
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NOTES
Prior to beginning excavating, workers should
set up necessary barricades, walkways,
lighting, and signs around the perimeter of the
excavation in order to protect both the public
and the workers. Any excavation or trench
must have at least one ladder.
Personnel should not enter any excavation until
appropriate air monitoring has indicated that it
is safe to do so. At the time of entrance,
personnel should not ride in the backhoe
bucket to gain access to the excavation.
Employees should use ladders that extend
from the bottom of the excavation to a height
of 3 feet above the grade.
Employees should avoid entering the
excavation pits or trenches whenever possible.
Obtain soil samples from the backhoe bucket.
Employees should have emergency rescue
equipment such as fire extinguishers, breathing
apparatus, safety harness and line, and
stretcher on site and ready for instant use
during excavation.
The contractor performing the excavation work
is responsible for having this equipment on
hand.
109
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111
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TOXICITY
Objectives
Participants wtll be abfe to;
list the three mam exposure routes
define acute and chrome exposure
describe symptoms of acuteand chrot.no petroleum exposure
list situations where toxic exposure ts most likely
NOTES
112
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EXPOSURE ROUTES
Inhalation
Skirt Absorption
Ingestion
EXPOSURE ROUTES NOTES
There are a number of general symptoms
which result from toxic exposure to most of the
compounds found at petroleum UST sites.
These symptoms include irritation of the eyes,
mucous membrane and respiratory tract as
well as depression or excitation of the central
nervous system.
Petroleum products generally enter the body
through inhalation of vapors, absorption (skin
or eye contact), or ingestion. Of these three
routes, inhalation is the quickest and most
efficient route into the body. The adverse
affects of inhalation of toxins can be almost
instantaneous because the lungs quickly
transfer the toxin into the bloodstream. The
toxic effect will be proportional to the
concentration of the toxin, its toxicity, and the
individual's sensitivity to the toxin.
The symptoms of inhalation can be vague.
Headaches, nausea, dizziness, insomnia, and
tremors should not be overlooked.
Exposure via ingestion of contaminated water
is generally limited, as petroleum in water can
be detected by most people in levels as low as
1 ppm.
Visual and olfactory clues as well as site safety
screening instruments should be used to
assess exposure hazards. Visual cues include
seeing stained soils, vapors, or iridescence in
water.
Vapors from petroleum products can be
smelled when they are at levels far below
those considered toxic to humans. However,
UST inspectors should not rely solely on their
senses to detect toxic levels of vapors,
113
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EXPOSURE ROUTES (con.)
NOTES
particularly since noses become desensitized
to some odors after prolonged exposure.
Olfactory sensitivity also decreases with age.
Table 2-8 summarizes the various types of
petroleum products and their exposure
potentials, exposure target organs and acute
and chronic symptoms. Each of these areas is
discussed in detail throughout this section.
114
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TYPES OF EXPOSURE
Acute exposure
short-term, tngh-levnl exposure
effects are usually immediate
Chronic exposure
long-term, low-level exposure
*¦ effects may take years to appear
TYPES OF EXPOSURE NOTES
An inspector can face either chronic or acute
exposure at a site. Chronic is defined as
long-term, low-level exposure, while acute is
defined as short-term, high-level exposure.
Both are dangerous and have immediate and
long-term health implications. UST associated
work can also expose workers to multiple
chemicals which may have synergistic effects.
This means that the effect of two chemicals
together may be greater than the sum of their
separate effects. All exposures should be kept
as low as reasonably achievable.
Many materials stored in USTs are very
common, and many have very low acute
toxicity. However, the exposures of the UST
inspector are more frequent, of longer duration,
and higher than those of the average person.
It is this repeated, low-level exposure that is so
dangerous, as effects may not be seen for
many years. Avoiding unnecessary exposure
now can help you enjoy your later years,
instead of combatting a chronic illness.
Most exposure can be eliminated if
common clues, such as strong odors and
instrument readings, are heeded.
115
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GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF TOXIC EXPOSURE
-* Irritation of eyes, mucous membranes, and respiratory system
* Central nervous system depression and/or excitation
* Headache, nausea, drowsiness, dizziness, insomnia, confusion, tremors
* Dry and red skin upon contact
NOTES
116
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NOTES
117
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TOXICITY OF GASOLINE CONSTITUENTS
Ammattcs and alkanes may be responsible for most adverse health effects
carcinogenic properties are attributed to aromatic tractions, particularly benzene (4 to 10
percent of gasoline)
» other aromatics of concern are ethylbenzene, xylene, toluene, and naphthalene
alkanes have relatively low toxicity
some alkanes are associated with central nervous, system depression, kidney damage {rv
hexane and octane)
TOXICITY OF GASOLINE CONSTITUENTS NOTES
All petroleum products share the characteristic
of causing central nervous system depression.
The early symptoms of acute over-exposure
can include dizziness, drowsiness, Impaired
coordination, nausea, euphoria, convulsions,
coma, and death, in high enough doses.
The primary route of exposure for these
products is inhalation. If the products are
ingested, do not induce vomiting, since the
product may be aspirated into the lung easily.
Activated charcoal, followed by "stomach
pumping," is the preferred treatment.
Skin contact is not typically an immediate
hazard. Prolonged contact will cause burning
and blistering. Repeated exposures to skin will
result in defatting and possible dermatitis.
ALKANES
Hexane may be the most toxic member of the
alkanes. It comprises 11 to 13 percent of
gasoline by weight. Acute exposure to
hexane occurs primarily through inhalation.
Vertigo, headaches and nausea are the first
symptoms of exposure to be noticed. At high
concentrations, central nervous system (CNS)
depression results in a narcosis-like state.
118
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TOXICITY: GASOLINE CONSTITUENTS (con.)
Pre-narcotic symptoms occur at vapor
concentrations of 1,500 to 2,500 ppm as the
central nervous system is depressed. Skin
contact primarily causes fat removal and
irritation, Hexane also irritates the eyes and
mucous membranes with even a fairly short-
term exposure, for example, 880 ppm for 15
minutes.
Chronic exposure to hexane vapors causes
nerve damage. The first clinical sign of nerve
damage is a feeling of numbness in the toes
and fingers. Further exposure leads to
increased numbness in the extremities and to
loss of muscular stretching reflexes. Paralysis
develops with varying degrees of impaired
grasping and walking. In the most severe
cases nerve conductivity is neutralized and
cranial nerve involvement is also observed and
may require several years to recover. In mild
or moderate cases, recovery begins six to 12
months after exposure ceases.
Octane, if it is taken into the lungs, may cause
rapid death due to cardiac arrest, respiratory
paralysis, and asphyxia. It has a narcotic
potency similar to heptane. Prolonged skin
contact results in a blistering and burning
effect.
119
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TOXICITY: AROMATICS
Acute Exposure
central nervous system effects
may cause dermatitis vertiqo headache, nausea, and vomiting
Chronic Exposure
benzene is a carcinogen, linked to leukemia
increased risk of kidney cancer and lymphoma
nerve damage, possible paralysis
TOXICITY OF AROMATICS NOTES
It is almost impossible to assign a fuel
product's acute effects to any given
component, since they all have similar actions.
Worrying about air concentrations of specific
components is not practical. We typically look
at total organics.
Benzene is found at concentrations up to 4
percent by weight in gasoline. Older gasolines
may contain as much as 13 to 15 percent
benzene. Acute exposure will depress the
central nervous system (CNS) and may cause
acute narcotic reactions. The lowest observed
threshold for acute exposures is 25 ppm.
Headaches, lassitude, and dizziness may
become increasingly evident at exposures
between 50-250 ppm. Concentrations of 3,000
to 7,500 ppm may result in toxic signs within
the hour. Depending on the concentrations
and duration of exposure, these effects range
from mild symptoms such as headaches and
light headedness to more severe effects such
as convulsions, respiratory paralysis, and
death. Skin absorption is not considered to be
as important a route of entry as inhalation or
ingestion because skin absorption is extremely
low, with the highest absorption through the
palm. Direct contact with the liquid may cause
redness and dermatitis.
120
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TOXICITY: AROMATICS (con.)
NOTES
Benzene is a known carcinogen. Chronic
exposure to benzene has been linked to
leukemia and irreversible chromosome
damage. At the early stages, reversible
leukemia, anemia, or a decrease in the blood
platelet count may occur. Continued exposure
leads to severe bone marrow damage, which
results in a deficiency of all cellular elements of
the blood. The direct, life-threatening
consequence of this is an increased
susceptibility to infection and hemorrhaging.
The lowest air levels of benzene capable of
producing these effects are in the range of 40
to 50 ppm. Effects of high exposure levels
(>100 ppm) may persist for many years after
exposure has been discontinued. The most
important effect resulting from chronic benzene
exposure is its hematotoxicity, the targets
being the cells of the bone marrow. UST
workers may be exposed to as much as 10
ppm in their everyday activities.
Toluene is found in concentrations of up to 4
to 7 percent in gasoline. The primary hazard
of acute inhalation exposure is CNS
depression. Reaction times will begin to be
impaired after exposures of 20 minutes at 300
ppm. Toluene will also cause eye irritation,
and prolonged or repeated skin contact may
cause dermatitis. As concentrations increase,
symptoms can include: muscular fatigue,
confusion, tingling skin, euphoria, headache,
dizziness, lacrimation, dilated pupils, eye
irritation, nausea, insomnia, nervousness, and
impaired reaction time. Occupational exposure
to toluene has been linked to a higher reported
incidence of menstrual disorders. Children
bom to these women may experience more
frequent fetal asphyxia and be underweight.
Xylenes are found in concentrations of 6 to 8
percent in gasoline. Short-term inhalation
exposures are associated with narcotic effects
on the central nervous system, and high
concentrations may lead to CNS depression.
Both liquids and vapors are irritating to the
skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Skin
absorption of xylenes occurs readily and
xylenes can also be transferred across the
placenta. Incomplete brain development has
been reported in the fetuses
121
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TOXICITY; AROMATICS (con.)
NOTES
of mothers exposed to xylene. Chronic, high-
level human inhalation exposure results
primarily In CNS effects, lack of coordination,
nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. There
are variable effects on the liver, kidneys, and
gastro intestinal tract. Chronic effects of
xylenes resemble the acute effects but are
more severe. They include headache,
irritability, fatigue, digestive and sleep
disorders, CNS excitation followed by
depression, tremors, apprehension, impaired
memory, weakness, vertigo, and anorexia.
Xylenes are skin irritants and prolonged
contact may cause formation of blisters.
Ethylbenzene is known to be toxic to the liver
and kidneys. It will irritate the skin, eyes, and
upper respiratory tract. Inhalation of small
amounts may exacerbate the symptoms of
obstructive airway diseases and cause
extensive fluid buildup and hemorrhaging of
lung tissue. Although a tolerance to the eye
and respiratory effects may develop after a few
minutes, CNS effects will usually begin at this
stage, leading to CNS depression.
122
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TOXICITY: GASOLINE ADDITIVES
Telramethyl and tettciethyl teaiJ (TMl arid TEL)
Ethylene dibrormde (EDB) and ethylene dichloride (EDC)
Tri-ortho-cresyl-phosphate (TOCP)
TOXICITY OF ADDITIVES NOTES
Gasoline often contains substances that have
been added to improve the fuel's performance
properties. Gasoline additives of general
concern for leaded gasolines are tetramethyl
lead (TML) and tetraethyl lead (TEL), as well
as ethylene dibromide (EDB) and ethylene
dichloride (EDC). Both TML and TEL are used
as anti-knock agents; EDB and EDC are used
to prevent lead deposition. These compounds
are present in low concentrations in gasoline
(relative to benzene, toluene, and xylene), but
they are quite toxic.
TML and TEL can be absorbed through the
skin, ingested, or inhaled. TEL intoxication is
caused by inhalation or absorption through the
skin. Acute intoxication can occur through
absorption of a sufficient quantity of TEL either
through brief exposure at a very high rate (100
mg/m3 for 1 hour) or for prolonged periods at
lower concentrations. Exposure can cause
acute intoxication, liver and thymus damage,
and possibly death from a combination of
depression of the central nervous system,
respiratory irritation, and bronchiolar
obstruction.
Most severe exposure to TEL and TML have
resulted from sniffing gasoline. Some victims
have shown the symptoms listed as well as
fluid buildup in the brain, resulting in swelling
and increased intracranial pressure.
123
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TOXICITY: GASOLINE ADDITIVES (con.)
NOTES
The signs and symptoms of exposure are often
vague and easily missed. The onset of
symptoms may even be delayed up to 8 days
after exposure and include weakness,
fatigue, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
anorexia, insomnia, and weight loss.
Symptoms peculiar to TEL exposure are the
sensation of hairs in the mouth and the feeling
of insects crawling on the body.
As intoxication worsens, there is confusion,
delirium, manic excitement, and catatonia.
Nightmares, anxiety, and anorexia are also
seen. Loss of consciousness and death may
follow after several days. Severe intoxication
causes recurrent or continuous episodes of
disorientation and intense hyperactivity which
may rapidly convert to convulsions that may
terminate in coma or death. TEL is likely to
have adverse effects on human reproduction
and embryonic development.
124
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GASOLINE ADDITIVES: ACUTE EXPOSURE
- Affects central nervous system
Irritating to mucous membranes, eyes, and skin
Severe respiratory tract irritation
Vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pajn
Delayed lung damage
GASOLINE ADDITIVES: ACUTE EXPOSURE NOTES
Acute exposure to gasoline additives is a
serious health threat. In general, brief
exposure to additives (100 mg/m3 for 1 hour)
can cause acute intoxication and depress the
central nervous system. Symptoms include
insomnia, confusion, headaches, and tremors,
and may be delayed for up to 8 days.
Specifically, both EDB and EDC are highly
toxic and identified as carcinogenic, although
EDC has a much lower potency.
Acute exposure also causes vomiting, diarrhea,
abdominal pain and, in some cases, lung
damage. The vapor is irritating to the eyes
and mucous membranes and may cause liver,
kidney, and lung damage, including delayed
pulmonary lesions. The liquid form is highly
irritable to the skin, causing redness and
blistering. Death has occurred following
ingestion of 4.5 ml. Recent studies by NIOSH
have shown adverse reproductive effects in
men.
125
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GASOLINE ADDITIVES: CHRONIC EXPOSURE
WHfjii! loss anemia, Hmofkmdl instability, and toxic. psychosis
Adverse effects oh c^nlfal nervous system. p^riph^ral nerves, a»>l vascular system
» Adverse effects on reproductive and embryonic development
Liver find kidney damage.
GASOLINE ADDITIVES: CHRONIC
EXPOSURE NOTES
Chronic exposure to additives has equally
serious health effects. In general, chronic
human exposure is associated with adverse
effects on the central nervous system,
peripheral nerves, kidneys, and vascular
system. Adverse effects are also likely on the
human reproductive system and embryonic
development.
Symptoms of chronic exposure include weight
loss, anemia, emotional instability, and toxic
psychosis. Recovery may take months to
years, and 25 to 30 percent of cases never
recover.
126
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TOXICITY; MIDDLE DISTILLATE FUELS
Kerosene, avtatton fuels, diesel and f" u^t OiIk N
-------
TOXICITY; MIDDLE DISTILLATE FUELS (con.)
NOTES
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
are present in higher concentrations in middle
distillate fuels than in gasoline, but less than in
the residual fuels. Specific PAHs detected in
the middle distillates include naphthalene,
benzo(a)anthracene, and benzo(a)pyrene.
Benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene are
known to be very carcinogenic (cancer-
causing). PAHs have been shown to cause
cytotoxicity in rapidly proliferating cells
throughout the body, apparently inhibiting DNA
repair. Cytotoxicity causes changes in the
cytoplasm of the cell. The vascular system,
lymphoid system, and testes are frequently
noted as targets of PAHs.
No information about the carcinogenicity of
middle distillates in humans is available.
However, several members of the middle
distillate family, in particular Fuel Oil No. 2 and
diesel, have been shown to be weak to
moderate carcinogens in animals.
Teratogenic compounds affect fetal
development. No teratogenic effects have
been observed in animal tests using kerosene,
diesel fuel, and Fuel Oil No. 2,
The chief systemic reaction to the middle
distillates is depression of the central nervous
system. Effects of exposure are expected to
resemble those of kerosene, that is. low oral,
moderate dermal, and high inhalation hazard.
Symptoms include irritation to the skin and
mucous membranes as well as headaches and
nausea.
128
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MIDDLE DISTILLATE FUELS:
SYMPTOMS OF ACUTE EXPOSURE
*
Headache, nausea, merctai confusion
Irritation of respiratory .tract, skin, and mucous membranes.
Hemolytic anemia
~
Cardiovascular disturbances
MIDDLE DISTILLATE FUELS: SYMPTOMS
NOTES
OF ACUTE EXPOSURE
Acute exposure to middle distillate fuels can
lead to headaches, nausea, mental confusion,
and irritation of the respiratory system. Further
exposure can cause hemolytic anemia and
cardiovascular disturbances; in some extreme
cases, loss of consciousness can occur. The
compounds in the middle distillate fuels that
are most likely to be of toxicological concern
are non-carcinogenic PAHs, such as
naphthalene; the carcinogenic PAHs, benzo(a)-
anthracene and benzo(a)-pyrene; and cresols
and phenols.
Ingestion or inhalation of naphthalene
produces nausea, vomiting and disorientation.
It is irritating to the skin and eyes and may
cause cataracts. Benzo(a)-anthracene and
benzo(a)-pyrene have been detected in Fuel
Oil No. 2 and have been classified as probable
human carcinogens.
Cresols are highly irritating to the skin, mucous
membranes and eyes. They can impair liver
and kidney function and cause central nervous
system and cardiovascular disturbances.
Phenol is toxic to the liver and kidneys.
Several of the components of gasoline are also
found in the middle distillate fuels. For
example, toluene, xylenes, and ethylbenzene
are found in the middle distillates, although in
much lower concentrations than in gasoline.
Octane on the other hand, is present at much
higher concentrations in aviation fuels than in
motor gasoline. Additionally, a number of other
substances may be found in the middle
fractions of petroleum derivatives. These are
129
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MIDDLE DISTILLATE FUELS: ACUTE EXPOSURE (con.)
NOTES
not covered in this course due to their numbers
and complexity. These include components of
jet fuel as well as jet and diesel fuel additives,
such as Dodecane, Methylcyclopentane, N,N
Dimethylformamide, Manganese Compounds,
peroxides, and Alkyl Nitrate and Nitrate/Nitro
and Nitroso compounds.
130
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MIDDLE DISTILLATE FUELS;
IMPACTS OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE
« Neurological effects
~ Bronchopneumonia
Toxic to liver and kidneys
~ Toxtc to vascular and lymphoid systems, and testes
~ Probable human carcinogens
MIDDLE DISTILLATE FUELS: IMPACTS OF NOTES
CHRONIC EXPOSURE
Chronic exposure to middle distillate fuels
causes neurological effects. One study of
aircraft workers consistently exposed to
aviation fuel found that a majority experienced
recurrent symptoms such as dizziness,
headaches, and nausea. Feelings of
suffocation, coughs, and palpitations were also
prevalent. Inhalation of high concentrations of
these vapors can lead to an acute and often
fatal bronchopneumonia.
131
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TOXICITY: RESIDUAL FUEL OILS
Fu&l Oil Nos. 4, 5, and 8
Cracked bunker fuel and catalytically cracked clarified oil:
both carcinogenic In animals
~ cracked clarified oil is one of the most carcinogenic materials in petroleum refining
Contain higher concentration of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) than middle distillates
gasolines
TOXICITY OF RESIDUAL FUEL OILS NOTES
Fuel Oils Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are commonly
referred to as the residual fuels. They are very
viscous and have low water solubilities.
Residual fuels are blends of predominately
high molecular weight compounds and tend to
have a higher concentration of PAHs than
gasoline and middle distillates. These fuels
often contain blending agents including cracked
bunker fuel and catalytically cracked clarified
oil. Both of these blending agents have been
classified as animal carcinogens. Catalytically
cracked clarified oil is recognized as one of the
most carcinogenic materials in a petroleum
refinery. Acute oral effects of exposure to Fuei
Oil No. 6 in animals include lelhargy,
congestion of liver and kidneys, and intestinal
irritation. The heavy metals arsenic, lead, and
zinc have been detected in samples of Fuel Oil
Nos. 4 and 6.
132
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TOXICITY: USED OILS
Composition varies: may include lead, chromium, cadmium, chlorinated solvents
PCBs detected in 18 percent of a naiyses
Automotive used oils- higher concentrations of heavy metals
Industrial used oils: higher concentration ot chlorinated solvents and PCBs
No difference in concentration of aromatic solvents or PAHs
TOXICITY OF USED OILS NOTES
Used oils are the byproduct of using oil as a
lubricant. Through this use, the oils pick up a
number of substances, such as lead,
chromium, cadmium, and chlorinated solvents
which are hazardous to human health.
Analysis also indicates that PCBs contaminate
18 percent of used oils.
Automotive used oils tend to have a higher
concentration of heavy metals, while industrial
used oils tend to have a higher concentration
of chlorinated solvents and PCBs.
No differences in the concentration of aromatic
solvents or PAHs were found.
133
-------
TOXICITY: USED OILS (con.)
NOTES
Heavy metals typically found in used oil include:
Lead
Pre-1980 stock up 20,000 ppm
1980s stock 100 1,200 ppm
Barium 50 to 500 ppm (4,000 ppm)
Cadmium 2 to 10 ppm
Chromium 3 to 30 ppm
Arsenic 5 to 25 ppm
Zinc 100 lo 1,220 ppm
Other contaminants include:
Toluene and xylene 500 to 10,000 ppm
Benzene 100 to 300 ppm
Benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene 50 to 1,000 ppm
Naphthalene 100 to 1,400 ppm
Chlorinated solvents commonly detected in used oil include:
Dichlorodifluoromethane <1 to 2,200 ppm
Trichlorotrifluoroelhane <20 to 550,000 ppm
1,1,1 -Trichloroethane <1 to 110,000 ppm
Trichloroethylene <1 to 40,000 ppm
Tetrachloroethylene <1 to 32,000 ppm
134
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Table 2-3
SUMMARY OF TOXILOGICAL EFFECTS
Exposure
Potential
Exposure
Pathway
Target
Organs
Symptoms:
Acute
Chronic
otor Gasoline
54,5% of U.S.
Petroleum Market
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Lungs, Intestinal organs,
Kidneys
Low Exposure; drowsiness,
vertigo, vomiting.
High Exposure:
Unconsciousness,
hemorrhaging of lungs and
intestines, death
Kidney Damage
Probable human carcinogen
iddle Distillate Fuels
32.7% of U.S.
Petroleum Market
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Central Nervous System,
Mucous membranes, skin,
eyes, liver kidneys
Headache, nausea, mental
confusion, irritation of
respiratory tract, skin and
mucous membranea
Hemolytic anemia,
cardiovascular disturbances
Neurological effects, broncho-
pneumonia, toxic effect in cells,
hemotopoitic system, lymphoid
system, and testes. Probable
human carcinogen
esidual Oil Fuels
11.7% of U.S.
Petroleum Market
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Liver, Kidneys, intestines
Oral effects of No. 6 fuel oil in
animals include lethargy,
congestion ol liver and
kidneys, and intestinal
irritation.
N/A
onslituents:
ROMATICS-
enzene
4% of Gasoline (by
weight)
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Central nervous system,
skin, kidneys, bone marrow
Low Exposure: dermatitis,
headache, light headed ness.
High Exposure: dizziness,
nausea, vomiting,
convulsions, respiratory
paralysis, death
Benzene is a known human
carcinogen.
Anemia, leukemia, and
decrease in blood packet
count. Severe bone marrow
damage resulting in deficiency
of all cellular elements of the
blood, increased susceptibility
to infection and hemorrtiagic
conditions.
Irreversible chromosome
damage
Dluene
4-7% ol Gasoline (by
weight)
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Central nervous system,
eyes, skin
Muscular fatigue, confusion,
tingling skin, euphoria,
headache, dizziness,
lacrimination, dilated pupils,
eye irritation, nausea,
insomnia, nervousness,
impaired reaction time
Dermititus
Higher reported incidence of
menstrual disorders, low
birth weight and fetal asphyxia.
Incomplete fetal brain
development due to placental
transfer.
-------
Table 2-3 (con.)
SUMMARY OF TOXILOGICAL EFFECTS
Exposure
Potential
Exposure
Pathway
Target
Organs
Symptoms;
Acute
Chronic
ylenes
6-8% of Gasoline (by
weight)
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Placental transfer
Central nervous system,
skin, liver, kidneys,
gastrointestinal tract, eyes,
nose, throat, mucous
membranes, placenta
Narcotic effects on the central
nervous system, CNS
depression at high
concentration
Irritation of the skin, eyes,
nose, throat, and mucous
membranes
Impaired reaction time,
manual coordination, and
body balance
Nausea, vomiting, abdominal
pain, loss of appetite
Placental transfer has
resulted in incomplete fetal
brain development
Central nervous system
excitation followed by
depression, tremors,
apprehension, irritability,
impaired memory,
incoordination, fatigue,
dizziness, headache,
anorexia, sleep disorders
Variable effects on liver and
kidneys, irritant effects on
gastrointestinal trace,
abdominal pain, nausea,
digestive disorders
Prolonged skin contact may
cause formation of vesicles
thyl benzene
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Liver, kidney, skin, eyes,
upper respiratory tract, lung
tissue, and central nervous
system
Irritates the skin, eyes, and
upper respiratory tract
Inhalation of small amounts
causes extensive edema and
hemorrhage of lung tissues
Skin contact may yield
inflamation
Eye irritation and lacrimation
are immediate and severe at
2000 ppm, accompanied by
moderate nasal irritation -
tolerance develops after
several minutes; CNS effects
begin at roughly six minutes
At 5000 ppm irritation to
eyes, nose and throat is
intolerable
Known to be toxic to liver and
kidneys
Depresses central nervous
system
irritation and damage to fung
tissue may exacerbate Hie
systems of other obstructive
airway diseases
rime thyl benzenes
NA
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Central nervous system,
lungs, blood
Nervousness, tension,
anxiety, asthmatic bronchitis,
hypochromic anemia, and
impacts on blood coagulation
Unknown
-------
Table 2-3 (con.)
SUMMARY OF TOX1LOGICAL EFFECTS
Exposure
Potential
Exposure
Pathway
Target
Organs
Symptoms;
Acute
Chronic
ALKANES & ALKENES -
Hexane
11-13% of gasoline
(by weight)
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Central nervous system,
skin, eyes, mucous
membrances, (kidneys?)
Initially dizziness, headaches,
nausea
Pre-narcotic symptoms occur
at vapor concentrations of
1500 to 2500 ppm
CNS depression yields a
narcosis-like state at high
concentrations
Skin, eye, and mucous
membrane irritation observed
at fairly 880 ppm for 15
minutes
Nerve damage, initially as
numbness in the extremeties,
increasing to loss of
muscular stretching reflexes,
eventual paralysis in varying
degrees, with neutralized
nerve conductivity and cranial
nerve involvement in most
severe cases
Recovery begins 6-12 months
after exposure ceases in
mild/moderate cases; severe
cases may require several
years to recover
Octane
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Central nervous system,
lungs, respiratory system,
skin
Direct aspiration into the
lungs may cause rapid death
due to cardiac arrest,
respiratory paralysis, and
asphyxia
Narcotic potency similar to
heptane
Although narcotic effects can
be expected from octane
exposure, the CNS effects
observed with heptane are
not found with octane
Prolonged dermal exposure
results in blistering and
burning effects
Isopentane
NA
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Centra) nervous system
skin, eyes
Exhilaration, dizziness,
headache, nausea,
confusion, inability to do fine
work, persistent taste of
gasoline, loss of
consciousness in extreme
cases
Inhalation of up to 500 ppm
appears to have no effect in
humans, higher
concentrations cause
irritation to skin and eyes
Repeated or prolonged skin
contact will dry and defat skin
resulting in irritation and
deimatitus
-------
Table 2-3 (con.)
SUMMARY OF TOXILQGICAL EFFECTS
Exposure
Potential
Exposure
Pathway
Target
Organs
Symptoms:
Acute
Chronic
ADDITIVES -
Tetraethyl &
Tetramethyl Lead
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Central nervous system,
peripheral nerves, liver,
kidney, thymus, human
reproductive system, and
hematopoietic system
Weakness, fatigue,
headache, apllor, tremors,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
anorexia, weight loss,
insomnia, irritability, delirium
Peculiar sensation of hair in
the mouth, feeling of insects
on skin
Progressive vegetative
disturbances: hypotonia,
hypothermia, and
bradycardia
Higher intoxication:
confusion, delirium, manic
excitement, and catatonia
Loss of consciousness and
death may follow after
several days
Severe intoxication: recurrent
or continuous episodes of
disorientation and intensive
hyperactivity, rapidly
coverting to convulsions,
terminating in coma or death
Death may occur from a
combination of CNS
depression, respiratory
irritation, and bronchiolar
obstruction
TEL is likely to adversely
affect human reproduction
and embryonic development
Ethylene Dibromide &
Ethylene Dichloride
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Central nervous system,
liver, kidneys, lungs, eyes,
mucous membranes, skin,
human reproductive system
Inhalation exposure causes
vomiting, diarrhea,
abdominal pain, delayed
lung damage and CNS
depression
Vapor is irritating to eyes and
mucous membranes
Liquid forms are highly
irritating to skin resulting in
marked erythema and
vesiculation
Ingestion has led to death
Exposure may result in lung,
liver, and kidney damage
EDB and EDO are highly toxic
Both EDB and EDC are
identified as carcinogens,
although EDC has a much
lower potency
Exposure causes liver and
kidney damage and often
results in delayed pulmonary
lesions
Recent studies by NIOSH
have shown adverse male
reproductive effects
Tri-ortho-cresyl
Phosphate (TOCP)
Ingestion
Inhalation
Absorption
Spinal cord, peripheral
nervous system
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
and abdominal pain
Acute symptoms followed by
a latent period of 3 to 30
days of muscle soreness,
numbness of irvgers, calf
muscles, and toes progress-
ing to foot and wrist drop
Recovery may take months to
years; 20-25% of cases
never recover
-------
SAMPLING
139
-------
SAMPLING
Objectives
Participants wili be able to:
list Jour types .of sample collection possible at US1 sites
« discuss hazards associated with each sampling technique
* describe precautions for each type of sampling
NOTES
140
-------
TYPES OF SAMPLE COLLECTION
» Satu rated/unsa?urated surface or subsurface soil
Ground or surface water
Free product
» In-tdnk samples
Degree of hazard depends on degree of contamination, age, and type of product
TYPES OF SAMPLE COLLECTION NOTES
AH three types of sample collection-soil, water,
and product-have some inherent potential
hazards. This section addresses the hazards
associated with sample collection and focuses
primarily on situations where contamination is
suspected. Professional judgment should be
used when determining the appropriate
protective clothing for the sampling you will
conduct.
Samples may be taken from soil or water in the
excavation area or even the tank itself. UST
inspectors must plan for this activity and have
not only the required sampling equipment
(sample bottles and shipping containers, labels,
and chain of custody forms), but also the
required monitoring equipment and personal
protective equipment available.
141
-------
SOIL SAMPLING
involves subsurface sampling in vicinity and down gradient of USts
Generally obtained by hand angering, drilling, or excavating
Potential hazards include chemical exposure and physcal m|ury (drilling)
SOIL SAMPLING NOTES
UST inspectors may routinely take soil samples
via hand augering, any use of power drills or
backhoes to collect samples will probably be
confined to the contractors on-site.
While the chemical hazards of the three
operations are basically the same, there is an
increased hazard during drilling or excavation
because of the larger amounts of subsurface
materials brought up during these two
procedures. During drilling or excavation
operations, drilling personnel should conduct
air monitoring using direct reading instruments
including flame or photoionization detectors
and CGI/Cyi-^S meters. UST inspectors
should stand upwind and at least 25 feet away
from drilling or excavating operations and
should use care when operating hand augers.
142
-------
SOIL SAMPLING HAZARDS
Based on the nature of the soils, the sample
may be wet or dry, compact, sandy, or dusty.
Unless the sample is dry and dusty, the major
health and safely concern is toxic exposure
due to inhalation of volatile vapors and direct
contact. Dry and dusty samples provide an
additional potential hazard for inhalation of
particulates that may include PCBs, dioxins,
heavy metals, and other materials. To insure
accurate readings, samples should be
immediately screened with direct reading
instruments, visually examined to determine
gross contamination as indicated by staining,
then collected and preserved.
143
-------
SOIL SAMPLING: HAZARDS {con.)
Physic&f hazards associated with drilling and excavating:
moving parts and equipment
ho! engine parts
fllmg equipment {pipe stacks)
flying projectiles
breaking air compressor hoses, chains or ropes
electricity hazards (overhead and buried lines)
NOTES
The physical hazards involved in soil
sampling include moving parts in machinery;
hot/burning engine parts; falling equipment,
such as pipe stacks; flying metal; the breakage
of air compressor hoses, ropes or chains; and
electrical hazards from hanging or buried utility
lines.
Safety guidelines for working around
mechanical equipment and in excavations are
described in the heavy equipment section
presented earlier.
144
-------
SOIL SAMPLING: MINIMUM PPE
» Hard hat
bye protection
Stee} toe/shank boots
Cotton or treated Chem-Resist coveralls
Surgical latex.gloves
» Nitrite overyloves
Respiratory protective equipment, if air monitoring indicates
SOIL SAMPLING: MINIMUM PPE NOTES
Personal protective equipment (PPE) should
always be used when taking soil samples.
Appropriate PPE includes steel toe and shank
boots as well as appropriate garments. Also,
surgical latex gloves should be worn with nitrile
overgloves. Hard hats and eye protection are
mandatory. Respiratory equipment should also
be worn if atmosphere monitoring equipment
indicates that it is needed. More detailed
information on PPE can be found in Section 3
of this manual.
Uncoated tyveks provide almost no protection
against materials with a low surface tension,
like petroleum products. They become soaked
almost immediately. They also melt and burn.
Tyvek is not recommended for use with
petroleum products. Nomex is fire-resistant,
but also expensive and subject to
contamination. The best option is simply to
use cotton or treated Chem-Resist coveralls.
145
-------
WATER SAMPLING
Surface- water sampling. Relatively hazard free, unless floating product exists
Ground-water sampling- Possible volatile organic exposure
use respiratory protection when opening monitoring wells
onr
-------
WATER SAMPLING (con.)
NOTES
1. Proceed with initial well opening in
Level C respiratory protection.
Standing upwind when opening a well
with respirator equipment on hand is
an effective approach as well. Do
not hang your head over the well until
it has vented, and has been checked
with an organic vapor detector.
Level C respiratory protection is not
usually necessary because in reality
a ground-water well that generates
significant vapors in the breathing
cone is unusual.
2. Wells should be screened with a
flame or photoionization detector and
CGI/02 meter. (Note that activities
that disturb the water column may
liberate volatiles not otherwise
observable and as such, it may be
desirable to "bounce" a bailer a few
times).
3. If initial readings are of such
magnitude to indicate a potential
health hazard from a brief exposure
period to monitoring personnel or to
the adjacent community from the
venting process, the wells should be
immediately recapped and locked.
4. If positive results are obtained (but to
a lessor extent than that described
above), the well should be allowed to
vent passively for approximately 15 to
30 minutes and monitored again,
5. If negative (that is, background)
results are obtained, sampling
activities can be initiated in Level D
respiratory protection
6. If positive results have not diminished
in the allotted time frame, sampling
should be conducted in a minimum of
Level C protection.
7. Because the volatiles that are
anticipated to be present at UST sites
are restricted to petroleum fractions,
action levels based on petroleum
should be used.
147
-------
FREE PRODUCT AND IN-TANK SAMPLING
*
High potential for both chemical exposure and fire hazards
Delegated to contractor with specialized training and experience, if possible-
Respiratory protection is recommended
»
Avoid in-tank sampling unless no-alternative
Level B protection recommended for in-tank sampling
FREE PRODUCT AND IN-TANK SAMPLING NOTES
Of all the sampling that may be conducted by
an UST inspector, product sampling is the
most hazardous and should be delegated to
personnel specifically trained for the operation.
It may be possible to forgo tank or free product
sampling if the owner/operator is able to
furnish full information on the contents of the
tank.
Pure product presents both toxic contamination
and fire hazards. Sampling of spilled or leaked
source materials, that is, pure petroleum and
petroleum products, presents similar hazards to
contaminated media sampling except that both
toxic and fire/expiosive hazards are
significantly increased due to the presence of
pure, undiluted product. Extreme caution and
the use of respiratory equipment is
recommended.
Samples may be taken by surface sampling
(ponding in depressions, floating on surface
water, and so on), subsurface sampling
(accumulations in excavations and ground
water), and in-tank sampling. Although not as
dangerous as sampling from inside a tank,
continuous monitoring and Level C protection
is recommended during free product sampling
activities.
Think smart. It is not necessary to wade and
wallow in contaminated soils or water to get a
sample. Use remote sampling probes
(otherwise known as "sticks") to obtain
samples.
148
-------
SOURCE SAMPLING; LEAKS (con.)
NOTES
Sampling operations involving extraction of
product or sludge samples of unknown
composition and concentrations from an UST
presents toxic exposure hazards (including
inhalation and direct contact) as well as those
of fire/explosivity. To the extent feasible, UST
inspectors should not be performing this type
of sampling. Should no other alternative exist,
UST inspectors must use the maximum level of
protection as assurance against exposure to
unknown hazards. Level B protection is
therefore recommended for this type of
operation.
There are very few good reasons for an UST
inspector to enter a tank.
Sticks and poles are not affected by oxygen
deficiency and toxic atmospheres, and they are
expendable. Use them whenever possible.
149
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SECTION 3
HAZARD RECOGNITION, EVALUATION,
AND CONTROL
HEALTH AND SAFETY HAZARDS
151
-------
ELEMENTS IN RECOGNITION, EVALUATION, AND CONTROL
Planning
Protective equipment
Monitoring instruments
Permissible exposure levels
NOTES
152
I
-------
153
-------
SITE HEALTH AND SAFETY PLANS
Objectives
Participants will be able to;
» describe safety plan purpose
* describe major safety plan elements
» distinguish between risk and hazard
NOTES
154
-------
SAFETY PLAN PREPARATION
NOTES
UST investigations require that all operations
be planned ahead ot time in order to keep
problems to a minimum. Anticipating and
preventing potential accidents is the best way
to protect workers and the public from injury.
The major aspect of planning for any
hazardous field activity is the development and
implementation of a comprehensive safety plan
that considers each specific phase of an
operation. This plan identifies all potential
hazards, and specifies methods to control
these hazards; prescribes work practice,
engineering controls and PPE; and defines
areas of responsibility.
The plan describes the organizational structure
for site operations {most appropriate for use at
state-lead cleanup sites) and plans for
coordination with existing response
organizations including the local fire marshal,
police, ambulance, and emergency care facility.
The plan should be prepared by an individual
knowledgeable in health and safety and at a
minimum, reviewed and approved by personnel
knowledgeable in industrial hygiene and health
and safety.
155
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SAFETY PLAN PURPOSE
~ Assures systematic attention to health and safety issues
Specifies procedures to protect on-site petsonnei, general public, ami environment
» Eliminates memory uncertainties; provides checklist for on-site activity
SAFETY PLAN PURPOSE NOTES
The purpose of a safety plan is to provide
guidelines and procedures required to assure
the health and safety of those personnel
working at sites. While it may be impossible to
eliminate all risks associated with site work, the
goal is to provide state-of-the-art precautionary
and responsive measures aimed at assuring
the use of proper occupational health and
safety procedures for the protection of on-site
personnel, the general public, and the
environment.
A written safety plan basically outlines the
steps workers should follow when on-site, and
eliminates the uncertainties of memory by
providing a checklist for inspectors to use when
preparing to go on site. Sample checklists are
provided in the appendix.
156
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SAFETY PLAN CONTENTS
Expected flstd activities
Potential hazards and control guidelines
» Work practices and engineering controls
Monitoring and protective equipment required
- Personnel roles.and responsibilities
« Emergency procedures and contacts
SAFETY PLAN CONTENTS NOTES
The safety plan is intended to;
Provide a systematic consideration of health
and safety issues in the preparation and
execution of site work and enhance the
ability of team members to use their best
professional judgement in reducing hazards.
¦ Describe potential hazards and specify
applicable guidelines, standards, and
regulations, and appropriate emergency
responses to such hazards.
Prescribe work practices, engineering
controls, and personal protection to protect
team members.
Prescribe monitoring equipment to detect
and measure potential exposures to
hazardous substances.
Prescribe guidance for changing work
practices and personal protection levels in
response to changing site conditions.
Provide a list of emergency contacts.
A sample safety plan is provided in the
appendix for your information.
157
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SAFETY PLAN HAZARD ASSESSMENT
Most difficult and critical plan element
Should be conducted by knowledgeable individual
Should consider:
chemical and physical hazartis
environmental conditions
mlerplrty between wofk nctivities and hazard;.
SAFETY PLAN HAZARD ASSESSMENT NOTES
The most difficult and critical aspect of the
safety plan is assessing all possible potential
hazards that may arise. If possible, the plan
should identify all of the potential hazards and
describe methods to control them.
Safety is defined as the practical certainty that
harm will not occur. A safety plan based on
reliable information will reduce the measure of
risk by preventing, or at least, minimizing
human exposure to hazards. Note that
exposure consists of human contact with a
hazard. A hazard is defined as any
substance, situation, or condition that is
capable of doing harm to human health,
property and/or the environment. Note that
this definition does not say that the hazards will
do harm, but merely that is has the capability
to do so.
The activities required to accurately assess
risks and determine their acceptability can be
divided into three interacting elements:
Ftecoqnitton: Identifying the substances,
situations or conditions that may be
hazardous and the characteristics that
determine the degree of hazard.
Evaluation: Comparing the potential impact
of the risk to acceptable levels of impact or
risk.
158
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SAFETY PLAN HAZARD ASSESSMENT (con.)
SAFETY PLAN HAZARD ASSESSMENT NOTES
Control: Instituting methods to eliminate or
reduce the impact of the potential hazards.
The risk associated with a potential hazard is
defined as the probability of harm to human
health, property or the environment. Inspectors
need to plan for effective control of both
physical and health hazards often encountered
at UST facilities. Inspectors are strongly
encouraged to use site-specific checklists to
ensure control of potential hazards.
While on-site, hazardous conditions may be in
a continuous state of flux (particularly vapor-
related hazards). As new monitoring results
become available, inspectors should evaluate
the relative risk on-site and if necessary, make
adjustments in work practices or PPE.
159
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HANDLING EMERGENCIES
ItJeMity/corrfir'iTi off-site emergency services and capabilities.
Define rapid evacuation procedure lor workers (audfele warning signals, .etc}
Prepare list of emergency equipment available on-site.
HANDLING EMERGENCIES NOTES
The site specific checklists in the safety plan
should identify all nearby emergency services,
including fire and rescue services, hospitals,
ambulances, medivacs, police departments,
public health departments, explosives experts,
and hazardous materials response teams.
The checklists should also include a list of
emergency equipment available on-site. At a
minimum, the checklists should include the
following:
A list of emergency service organizations
that may be needed. Arrangements for
using emergency organizations should be
made prior to the initiation of site activities.
Evaluate their capability to handle the sort
of emergencies that might occur.
A list of emergency equipment. This list
should include emergency equipment
available on site, as well as transportation,
fire fighting and equipment to mitigate
emergencies, for example, booms and
sorbents.
A list of utility company contacts, such as
power, electrical, gas, and telephone.
160
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161
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162
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RESPIRATORS
This discussion should not be considered as training in the use of respiratory equipment
Two major categories of respirators:
Air purifying respirators (APRs)
Air supplying respirators {ASRs)
RESPIRATORS NOTES
In some cases, a module that provides hands-
on respirator training and a fitness test is
added to this course. Without completion of
that module, this course does not provide
adequate training in the use of respiratory
equipment. The effectiveness of a respirator
depends on its use. The American National
Standard Institute's (ANSI) Practices for
Respiratory Protection (Z88.2-1980) is highly
recommended as a guide to respiratory
protection. Respiratory protection is regulated
by 29 CFR 1910.134 and 29 CFR 1910.1000.
Inhalation is the fastest and most common way
for chemicals to enter the body. Gas and
vapor inhalation hazards are found in tanks,
confined spaces, wet wells, poorly ventilated
areas, and in outdoor areas where chemicals
have been spilled or improperly used.
Respirators protect the user from breathing
contaminated air. The two major categories of
respirators are:
Air purifying respirators (APRs): clean
the air by removing contaminants as they
cross a purifying element. They do not add
oxygen to the air.
» Air supplying respirators (ASRs):
provide a contained source of clean air at
normal oxygen concentrations (21 percent).
ASRs should be used when oxygen
concentration are below 19.5 percent.
163
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RESPIRATORS (con.)
NOTES
It is imperative to select the appropriate
respiratory device for the anticipated hazards in
order to provide adequate protection. Prior to
each day's usage, workers should visually
inspect their respirators for damage and for fit
and function.
UST inspectors must have a respirator fit-test
and additional, hands-on training in the use
and maintenance of respirators before
attempting to use one.
164
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AIR PURIFYING RESPIRATORS (APRs)
» OSHA requires specific training and FHf testing. ; '
1 Beards interfere wtth proper fit, are therefore rial allowed.
Cartridges- have finite life span. - -
Breakthrough occurs when sorbents are saturated-
APRs are used only against chemicals smaller) oi felt well below hazardous levels
AIR PURIFYING RESPIRATORS (APRs) NOTES
There are several different categories of air
purifying respirators: disposable; quarter mask;
half mask; full face; and powered air, Half-
mask respirators would most likely provide
adequate respiratory protection, but full-face
respirators provide eye protection in addition.
The "purifying element" in the APRs is either a
particulate-removing filter, or a gas- and vapor-
removing cartridges and canisters. Gas- or
vapor-removing cartridges are selected based
the desired protection against a specific type of
contaminant. OSHA requires that these
cartridges be color-coded, for example, organic
vapors-black cartridge; acid gas-white;
ammonia gas-green.
It is important to understand the correct
terminology for air contaminants when
selecting respirator cartridges. Vapors are
generated by evaporation from liquids, and
behave exactly like gases. These
contaminants are removed by sorbent
cartridges.
Dusts, mists, fogs, and fumes are all solid or
liquid particles. They are removed by filter
cartridges.
165
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AIR PURIFYING RESPIRATORS (APRs) (con.)
NOTES
Multi-purpose cartridges are readily available
from all major respirator manufacturers. These
cartridges will remove most vapors and
particulates from the air. However, all
cartridges have limitations, which are printed
on the cartridge. You should be familiar with
your cartridge limitations.
Breakthrough occurs when chemical sorbents
are saturated. Cartridges should be replaced
at the first sign of breakthrough, for example.
Clues can include smell and skin irritation.
As air purifying respirators do not supply
oxygen and may not filter out all contaminants,
inspectors entering a confined space must be
aware that oxygen deficient atmospheres or
IDLH atmospheres are possible in routine work
situations and be prepared to use an air
supplying respirator.
166
I
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USE OF AIR PURIFYING RESPIRATORS
NOTES
APR cartridges have finite life spans based on
the saturation of the absorbent materials. The
length of time a cartridge will effectively absorb
the contaminants is known as its service life.
The cartridge's service life is dependent on
respiratory rate, contaminant concentration,
cartridge efficiency, and humidity.
As a rule-of-thumb, respirator cartridges should
be changed at a minimum of once a day.
Cartridges that are filter-only type may be used
until air flow begins to be impaired. They do
not necessarily have to be changed every day,
or even every week. Of course, they do not
provide protection from gasoline or other
vapors,
APRs should only be used when conditions
exist as specified on the above and
subsequent page, and there is periodic
monitoring of the work area to verify that no
significant changes have occurred.
All respirators have a numeric Protection
Factor associated with them that indicates the
concentration of contaminant they will protect
against. For example, if a respirator has a
protection factor of five, it may be used in
atmospheres having concentrations of up to
five times the occupational exposure standard.
167
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USE OF AIR PURIFYING RESPIRATORS (con.)
NOTES
Current NIOSH Protection Factors;
Half-face APR 10
Full-face APR 50
PAPR 50
SCBA (positive pressure)
10,000+
Individuals differ. Anyone using an air purifying
respirator should undergo a respirator fit test
before using a respirator. This helps the user
to find a respiralor that fits tightly and
comfortably, and works well for him.
The user first fils the APR snugly and performs
a positive-pressure test and a negative-
pressure test to insure proper seal. During the
test, various respirators are then worn in
different atmospheres, lo determine their
effectiveness.
Fit-testing may be conducted using a variety of
agents, including isoamyl acetate, saccharine
solutions, or stannic chloride (smoke tubes).
If a proper seal is achieved, and the user does
not smell any of substances while using the
respirator, the user then undergoes a
challenge atmosphere test. The wearer is
placed in a vapor or smoke-filled area, and the
substance is allowed to drift all around the
mask, while the wearer talks, breaths, looks all
around, jogs in place, and performs other
movements lo simulate actual work motions. If
the fit is good, the mask wearer should not be
able to delect the challenge atmosphere.
Ventilation smoke is preferable to the other
chemicals, because it is very irritating to the
eyes, nose and throat. Mask wearers are not
likely to give false information regarding mask
fit.
You must be tested with the same size and
brand of respirator you intend to wear.
168
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AIR SUPPLYING RESPIRATORS (ASRs)
NOTES
Air supplying respirators are used when APRs
cannot provide sufficient protection. Air
supplying respirators are appropriate where
action levels are exceeded, when confined
space entries are necessary, during tank
sampling, and in other situations when APRs
do not provide sufficient protection. However,
UST inspectors are expected to perform mainly
an oversight role, and air supplying respirators
should not be needed in most routine work
situations.
Air supplying respirators should not be used
under any circumstances unless the user has
been sufficiently trained in their use and
limitations.
There are four major categories of air
supplying respirators:
Oxygen generating respirators
Hose mask respirators
Airline respirators
Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
The following criteria should be used for
selecting SCBA's; the type and atmospheric
concentration of toxic substances have been
identified and require a high level of respiratory
protection based on established action levels,
or the type and concentrations of airborne
hazards are unknown; the atmosphere
169
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AIR SUPPLYING RESPIRATORS (ASR) (con.)
NOTES
contains less than 19.5 percent oxygen; and
work is initiated in a confined space.
Another type of self-contained respirator is the
Emergency Escape Breathing Apparatus
(EEBA). The device provides air for escape
from hazardous situations. An EEBA should
never be used to enter a hazardous
atmosphere; it is designed to be easily donned
over the head and to provide breathing air for
5 to 15 minutes. Under no circumstances
should an EEBA be used for general
respiratory purposes.
170
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PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS
FOR RESPIRATOR WEARERS
Emphysema
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
» Bronchial asthma
X-ray evidence of pneumoconiosis
« Epilepsy
~ Evidence of induced pulmonary function
* Anemta
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL NOTES
LIMITATIONS
A number of physiological and psychological
conditions may limit the use of respirators.
Several are particularly troublesome:
Pulmonary problems
Cardiovascular disease
Diabetes
Persons should not be assigned to tasks
requiring use of respirators unless they are
physically able to perform the work and use the
equipment. A local physician should determine
what health and physical conditions are
pertinent.
171
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PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS
FOR RESPIRATOR WEARERS (con.)
*
Coronary artery disease or cerebral blood vessel disease
~
Severe or progressive hypertension
#
*
Punctured eardrum
m
Breathing difficulty when wearing respirator
~
Claustrophobia/anxiety when wearing respirator
NOTES
172
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173
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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
Objectives
Participants will be able to:
describe main elements of head, eye/face, hand, and foot protection
* list 5 limitations of PPE
describe the basic components of Level A-D protection and when each level is
appropriate
~ describe decontamination procedures
NOTES
174
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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
NOTES
Protective clothing includes all outer garments
worn for the purpose of protecting the head,
eyes, ears, torso, feet, and respiratory system
from the harmful effects of chemical
substances and physical hazards.
The appropriate clothing will vary depending on
the predominant types of chemical substance
hazards to which an UST inspector may be
exposed at a particular site. For example,
clothing appropriate for protection against a
corrosive compound is different from that which
protects against loxic vapors. The level of
protection assigned must match the hazard
confronted. Final selection should be based on
a full evaluation of the potential hazards
expected during site operations.
175
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SOURCES FOR SITE HAZARD DATA
Federal, state* a?id Icodl agencies
» facility owner or operator
Previous Inspection records
SOURCES FOR SITE HAZARD DATA NOTES
Before going onto any site, it is extremely
important that an UST inspector make a full
evaluation of the hazards that may be
encountered. The selection of Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) is based on the
best available data. As additional data become
available, or as site conditions or job functions
change, it may be necessary to change the
level of protection. For example, if an
inspector discovers unexpected problems or
higher levels of contamination than expected,
higher levels of protection may be needed. Or,
conversely, protection may be downgraded if
conditions permit.
The most important factor in selecting PPE is
the type of chemicals that may be present at a
site. For UST inspectors, exposure to
petroleum products will be the primary concern.
Inspectors should consider the levels of
contaminants that may be present in the air,
liquids, soils, or at the source and the degree
to which they will come in contact with them.
Sometimes contamination data can be
obtained from federal, state, and local sources,
or the facility owner, operator, or manager. It
is also important to check previous inspection
records, if available.
When the type of chemicals, the
concentrations, and possibility for contact are
not known, the appropriate level of protection
must be selected based on professional
experience and judgment until the hazards can
be better identified. PPE reduces the potential
for contact with toxic substances, but it must
be combined with safe work practices and
decontamination, if necessary, for an integrated
approach to health and safety.
176
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TYPES OF PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
*
Face shields and safety glasses
Foot protection
~
Hand protection
»
Protective clothing
*¦
Respiratory protection
Hearing protection
TYPES OF PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT NOTES
Some PRE is regulated by the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
standards for PPE have been developed by
American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
These are summarized below.
Hard Hats: Regulated by 29 CFR
1910.135; specified in ANSI Z89.1, Safety
Requirements for Industrial Head Protection
(1969).
Face Shields, Safety Glasses: Regulated
by 29 CFR 1910.133(a); specified In ANSI
Z87.1, Eve and Face Protection (1968).
(UST inspectors should emphasize splash
protection when selecting eye/face
protection.)
Foot Protection: Regulated by 29 CFR
1910.136; specified in ANSI Z41.1, Safety
Toe Footwear (1967, as revised in 1972).
(Class 75 is recommended.)
Respiratory Protection: Regulated by 29
CFR 1910.134 and 29 CFR 1910.1000;
specified in ANSI Z88.2, Standards for
Respiratory Protection (1976). (Air purify
respirator cartridges should be selected
based on good protection from organic
chemicals.)
Protective Clothing: Not specifically
regulated.
177
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PROTECTIVE CLOTHING LIMITATIONS
NOTES
Protective clothing can limit the wearer in
several ways. Higher levels of protection limit
mobility, vision, hearing, and communication
with others. Be aware of the particular
limitations of your clothing ahead of time; if
possible, practice wearing clothing before going
on site.
Also be aware of the limits of your protective
garments. There is no "universal" protective
material; all will decompose, be permeated or
otherwise fail to protect under given
circumstances. Most protective garment
manufacturers provide guidelines on their
products' degradation rates. Consult these
guidelines whenever possible. Be sure to note
which chemical substances will permeate the
protective garment you are using.
Table 3-1 delineates the type of protective
material that should be used when working
with various petroleum compounds.
178
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TABLE 3-1
CHEMICAL RESISTANCES OF SOME PROTECTIVE MATERIALS
Chemical
Butyl
rubber
(IIR)
Natural
rubber
a
X
*
X
0
>8
N/R
0
yclopentane
X
X
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
iesel fuel
X
X
N/R
>8
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
eptane
X
X
X
>8
N/R
N/R
X
N/R
>8
N/A
N/R
-Hexane
X
X
X
>8
X
>8
X
>8
>8
X
N/R
octane
X
X
7
>8
N/R
N/R
X
N/R
0
N/R
N/R
=t fuel
3% aromatics
X
X
N/R
O
N/R
N/R
X
N/R
0
*
N/R
erosene
X
X
X
>8
N/R
>8
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
aphtha
3% aromatics
X
X
?
>8
X
N/R
X
N/R
N/R
0
N/R
aphtha
5-20% aromatics
X
X
7
>8
X
0
N/R
N/R
0
0
0
aphtha VMP
30% aromatics
X
X
X
0
N/R
0
X
N/R
O
N/R
N/R
ctane
X
X
?
o
N/R
N/R
X
N/R
o
N/R
N/R
entane
X
X
X
0
X
0
X
N/R
>8
N/R
N/R
etroleum ethers
10-110°C)
X
X
X
0
N/R
N/R
N/R
0
N/R
N/R
0
enzene
X
X
X
X
X
>8
X
0
*
X
0
thy I benzene
X
X
X
X
N/R
X
X
N/R
>8
N/R
N/R
asoline
>55% aromatics
X
X
X
>8
N/R
N/R
X
>B
>8
N/R
0
asoline
mleaded)
X
X
X
0
N/R
O
X
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
iluene
X
X
X
X
X
>8
X
>8
>a
X
0
/lene
X
X
X
X
X
>8
X
N/R
>8
N/R
0
aphthalene
X
X
X
N/R
N/R
N/R
X
>8
N/R
N/R
N/R
3-Butadiene
>8
X
X
N/R
N/R
N/R
X
N/R
>8
N/R
N/R
EY
X = not recommended >1 h artd/or degradation ? = questionable 1-4h
>8 = recommended >8h N/R = no recommendation
0 = recommended >4h * = <10 mg/m2 per minute
emical resistances of some protective materials (from Forsberg and Mansdorf, p. 44 and 45, 1989).
179
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HEAD PROTECTION
Recommended; hard hat at all times
provides protection from impact, splashes
protects against flying particles, electric shock
ANSI hard hats classification: ...
CLASS A: Limited votage resistance for general service
CLASS B: High voltage resistance
« CLASS C: No voltage protection
» CLASS D: Limited protection for ftre-fightmg
HEAD PROTECTION NOTES
UST inspectors should always wear a hard hat
when on-site to protect from falling/flying
objects, liquid splashes, and electric shock. If
possible, this hard hat should be "Class B,"
which protects against accidental contact with
high-voltage lines.
Depending on noise levels at a site, hearing
protection may also be used. Exposure to loud
noises can cause temporary or permanent loss
of hearing. Some manufacturers have adapted
hard hats so that ear protection, faceshields,
liners for cold weather, and chin straps may be
easily attached.
There is little difference in the protection
provided by properly fitted ear muff and ear
plugs. Personal preference is the deciding
factor.
Ear protection should provide at least 20 dB of
noise reduction.
180
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EYE AND FACE PROTECTION
Recommended: cushion-fitted gogglefc and face shields (directly attached to hard hats)
Wear when potential for splashing exists.
Do not wear contact lenses at an UST site:
* hard tenses may aggravate chemical splash injuries
* soft lenses may absorb vapors
* with both types of lenses, certain chemicals can "fuse" tenses to eye
EYE AND FACE PROTECTION NOTES
Eye and face protection should be worn during
all UST operations where potential for
splashing exists. Eye protection is available in
several styles.
Spectacles with impact-resistant lenses
resemble conventional eyeglasses. Clip-on
side shields are available for side
protection. These do not provide protection
against fumes.
Flexible or cushion-fitted goggles protect
against dust, fumes, liquids, splashes,
mists, and sprays.
Eyecup goggles provide the same
protection as flexible or cushion-fitted
goggles. Cushion-fitted goggles tend to be
more comfortable than other goggles and
provide protection over a larger area of the
face.
Face shields are designed to protect the
face from flying particles and sprays of
liquids and to provide antiglare protection,
when needed. Face shields are not
acceptable for protection against heavy
flying objects, for welding and cutting, or for
shielding against intense radiant energy.
181
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EYE AND FACE PROTECTION (con.)
NOTES
OSHA prohibits wearing contact lenses under
any respiratory equipment. However, even if
UST inspectors are not wearing respirators, it
is strongly recommended that contact lenses
not be worn on-site. Certain chemicals can
fuse hard or soft lenses to the eye, and soft
lenses may absorb chemical vapors.
182
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FOOT PROTECTION
Recommended: Ciass 75 steel toe/shank safety shoe
« 6 percent of recordable work injuries are foot injuries
Incidents most likely to occur from heavy object© falsing anchor rolling over feet
» Where chemical hazards exist use a Neoprene, PVC, or other chemical-resistant boot
FOOT PROTECTION NOTES
Approximately 6 percent of all recordable work
injuries are foot injuries-about 130,000 per
year. Therefore, foot protection is a very
important safety precaution.
ANSI classifies shoes into three groups
according to their ability to withstand various
degrees of force.
Class 75 shoes: Withstand the impact of
75 foot-pounds and compressions of 2,500
pounds.
» Class 50 shoes: Withstand the impact of
50 foot-pounds and compressions of 1,750
pounds.
Class 30 shoes: Withstand the impact of
30 foot-pounds and compressions of 1,000
pounds.
There is a big difference between impact and
compression stress.
Steel-shank boots can be pierced by nails.
The steel shank is only a narrow piece of metal
in the heel area of the boot. Some soles are
also degraded and leather may be ruined by
petroleum products. For messy sites, steel-toe
and shank neoprene boots should be used.
Shoes may have other "customized" features
such as conductive soles to drain off static
charges, reinforced soles to protect from nails
and sharp objects, and wood soles for work in
hot or wet areas. UST Inspectors expected to
work in cold weather should purchase footwear
with high insulation ratings.
183
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FOOT PROTECTION (con.)
NOTES
A good practice is 1o tape sleeves and pant
legs over (not inside) boots to prevent liquids
from draining into them. Safety shoes only
protect the toe area of the foot. For protection
further up the foot, additional footguards may
be used.
184
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HAND PROTECTION
Recommended: neoprene, nitrite and/or viton gloves
Use gloves resistant Jo chemicals, punctures, and tears,
Thicker and longer gloves * better protection.
Wear two pairs of gloves tor maximal protection,
Tape jacket/coverall cuffs over (not inside) glove.
HAND PROTECTION NOTES
Gloves worn on-site should be strong enough
to resist puncturing and tearing, and should
provide the necessary chemical resistance.
Penetration of glove materials is time-
dependant. For a quick soil sample, almost
any glove will do; for longer, more intense
work, the less permeable gloves should be
used, such as nitrile gloves.
The thicker and longer the glove, the greater
the protection. However, the material should
not be so thick that it interferes with dexterity.
For greater protection, wear two pairs of
gloves; for instance, heavy leather work gloves
over nitrile gloves. If leather gloves become
contaminated while on-site they should be
discarded because leather is difficult to
decontaminate.
Viton gloves, at about $50 per pair, are too
expensive to be used frequently.
There are also lightweight laminate gloves
available which provide excellent protection
from a broad variety of compounds.
Taping jacket cuffs over glove cuffs will prevent
liquids from spilling into gloves.
185
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BODY PROTECTION
Heat stress: a major problem when wearing protective clothing
BODY PROTECTION NOTES
Several materials are available for protective
clothing
Cellulose or paper
Nomex: A non-flammable and fire-
retardant fiber used to make coveralls.
Tyvek: The melting/fire hazard of uncoated
tyvek, coupled with the fact that it does nol
block petroleum products, should preclude
its selection for these applications.
As hazard level increases, protective material
should increase. For example in particularly
hazardous conditions, the UST inspectors
should wear a suit constructed of neoprene,
saran, coated tyvek or PVC rather than the
standard tyvek or nomex suits,
A major problem with wearing protective
clothing is that the body is shielded from the
normal circulation of air. Perspiration does not
evaporate, making the person susceptible to
heat stress and, in some cases, heat stroke.
These heat-related problems are very common
when temperatures rise above 75°F.
Typical field apparel should be worn under
protective clothing, including long pants. Long-
sleeved shirts are highly recommended.
186
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LEVELS OF PROTECTION
Four baste levels of protection
Level
used when no respiratory or skin hazards exist
*
generally not used for sampling, or when chemical hazards extst
~
usually sufficient if not performing hands-on activities
Level
ijjll
«
air purifying respirators used
*
higher levels of skin protection may also be added
Level
«
used when highest degree of respiratory protection* but lesser degree of sktn protection
needed
Level
~
used when highest level of respiratory, skin, and eye protection is required
LEVELS OF PROTECTION NOTES
There are four categories of personal
protective equipment, based upon the degree
of protection afforded. The level chosen
should depend on the level of respiratory and
decimal hazards expected to be encountered
on the site.
Level D Protection: Should be worn only
as a work uniform and not during sampling
or other intrusive activities, nor when the
potential for chemical contamination exists.
Level C Protection; Should be worn when
criteria for air purifying respirators are met,
and when additional skin protection is
needed.
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LEVELS OF PROTECTION
LEVEL A AND B PROTECTION
NOTES
Level B Protection: Should be worn when
highest level of respiratory protection is
required, but a lesser degree of skin
protection is needed.
Level A Protection; Should be worn when
highest level of respiratory, skin, and eye
protection is required.
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LEVEL D PROTECTION
NOTES
It should be understood that Level D protection
is primarily a work uniform. It should be worn
in areas where there is no possibility of contact
with contamination, and when work functions
preclude splashes, immersion, or potential for
unexpected inhalation of any chemicals.
Containment levels should be within
established exposure limits, and oxygen levels
should be between 19 and 25 percent.
UST inspectors should have respirators
available for emergencies while wearing level
D protection.
Air purifying respirator
Emergency escape breathing apparatus
(Escape Pack or EEBA)
189
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LEVEL D PROTECTION
When using I evw! D, IJST inspectors should
avoid hands-on sampling or intrusive activities
* function in oversight or supervisory role only
LEVEL D PROTECTION NOTES
In Level D protection, UST inspectors should
not undertake any work activity with the
potential for exposure, either by direct contact
or inhalation. As much as possible, inspectors
should stand upwind of site activities and a
minimum of 25 feet away. When wearing
Level D protection, proceed cautiously to get a
closer look at site activities.
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LEVEL C PROTECTION
Level D protect ton, plus:
additional skin protection, such as saranax coveralls, tatex/neoprene gloves
air purifying respirator
LEVEL C PROTECTION NOTES
When using Level C protection, job functions
should not require air supplying respirator.
191
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LEVEL B PROTECTION
Level D protection, ft las:
supplied air respiratory equipment
chemical resistant coveralls, such as saranax. PVG
LEVEL B PROTECTION NOTES
Level B protection includes supplied air, via a
self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
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LEVEL A PROTECTION
NOTES
Level A protection not only provides an air
supply, but full shin protection as well. It does,
however, severely limit mobility, vision and
communication.
The air supply system has a bell inside to alert
others when you are short on air, because it is
not possible to get out of the suit without help.
These levels of protection are guidelines only,
and may be modified as necessary. For
example, it may be appropriate to wear gloves
without protective coveralls, or occasionally to
wear respirators without other protective
clothing.
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PROTECTION AGAINST BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
*
Snakebites: heavy work boots, chaps, and gloves
Fire ants: heavy work boots (tape pant cuffs)
Insects; coveralls, gloves
Swatmmq insects faco netting
PROTECTION AGAINST BIOLOGICAL NOTES
HAZARDS
In addition to the chemical injury and physical
worksite hazards, inspectors should be alert for
common biological hazards, such as snakes or
insects.
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DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES
Dtop contaminated tools and equipment into plastic containers
Remove contaminated clothing, gloves, arid boots
Take a shower or wash face and hands
DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES NOTES
An UST inspector returning from field work is
expected to be only minimally contaminated, if
at all. The inspector should follow simple steps
for decontamination. Do not wear
contaminated clothing again until cleaned.
Any tool or other equipment contaminated
by contact with toxic or corrosive materials
should be dropped separately in plastic
containers or on plastic drop cloths.
¦ Remove protective clothing, gloves, boots,
and deposit in a plastic container or on a
drop cloth. Ask for help in removing PPE, if
necessary. Wash items with
decontamination solution or detergent/water
as many times as necessary. Rinse
thoroughly. Wash inner gloves with solution
that will not harm the skin.
Take a shower or wash face and hands. If
there is a possibility that inner clothing has
been contaminated, do not wear off-site.
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196
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197
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MONITORING INSTRUMENTATION
Objectives
Participants will be able to;
* identify hazards requiring monitoring
* tet two main categories of monitoring instruments
* describe function, purpose, conditions for use. and limitations) of O' meter, HrS meter,
Dotector tubus. CGI, FID, PID
NOTES
198
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CHEMICAL HAZARDS REQUIRING MONITORING
Airborne toxics (during product handling, transfer, product release) .
Oxygen-delicient atmospheres (in confined spaces)
Combustible vapors (in confined spaces, product handling, product release)
Hydrogen Sulfide/Methane (entering sewers)
CHEMICAL HAZARDS REQUIRING
MONITORING NOTES
As stated earlier, toxic substances enter the
body via the skin, ingestion or inhalation. Of
these three routes, inhalation is the quickest
and most efficient route into the body. The
adverse effects produced by inhalation of a
toxic substance can be almost instantaneous
because the lungs efficiently and rapidly
transfer the inhaled substances to the
bloodstream, which distributes it lo all parts of
the body. The toxic effect will be proportional
to the concentration of the toxin in the air, its
toxicity, and an individuals' sensitivity to the
toxin. More detailed information on specific
toxicity hazards may be found in the section on
toxicity in this manual.
The objective of this section is to introduce
various monitoring instruments which can warn
inspectors of some of the major chemical
hazards they might face such as airborne toxic
substances, oxygen deficient atmospheres,
combustible gases/vapors, and hydrogen
sulfide. These can appear during product
handling, transfer or release, or while working
in confined spaces.
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MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Hazards can be measured by:
Direct Reading Instruments (DRIs)
Compound-Specific Detectors
DRIs effectively detect:
organic and inorganic vapors
» oxygen deficient atmospheres
explosive atmospheres
specific compounds, such as H2S
MONITORING INSTRUMENTS NOTES
The major chemical hazards faced by UST
inspectors can be measured by Direct
Reading Instruments (DRIs) or Compound
Specific Detectors. The most commonly used
instruments are Direct Reading Instruments
which can effectively detect both inorganic and
organic vapors, oxygen deficient atmospheres,
explosive atmospheres, and specific
compounds such as hydrogen sulfides.
Most DRIs respond to many different
substances. This characteristic is desirable
because it allows for fast identification of
dangerous situations, yet information about
specific substances often cannot be
determined directly. Ail DRIs have inherent
constraints in their ability to detect hazards:
They usually detect and/or measure only
specific classes of chemicals.
They are generally not designed to
measure and/or detect airborne
concentrations below the 1 ppm level.
Many of the DRIs that have been designed
to detect one particular substance also
detect other substances (that is, they are
prone to interferences) and may give false
readings.
200
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MONITORING INSTRUMENTS (con.)
NOTES
For example, some hydrogen cyanide gas
DRIs, if installed backwards will change
color in the presence of acetic acid.
201
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INSTRUMENT CERTIFICATION
All instruments should be certified safe in explosive atmospheres.
Certified instruments permanently carry plate showing testing by
Underwriters Labs;
* Factory Mutual; or
~ Mine Health and Safety Administration.
INSTRUMENT CERTIFICATION NOTES
Explosion hazards are a major concern at UST
sites; instruments used by UST inspectors
must not contribute to the hazard by being
potential sources of ignition.
A number of engineering, insurance, and safety
organizations have established definitions and
developed codes for testing electrical devices
used in hazardous situations. The National
Fire Protection Association publishes the
National Electrical Code (NEC) every three
years. Underwriters Laboratories, Factory
Mutual, and the Mine Health and Safety
Administration conduct tests to certify that
monitoring instruments meet the minimum
standards of acceptance set by the NEC.
An electrical instrument certified for use in
hazardous locations under one of these test
methods, will carry a permanently affixed plate.
This plate will show the logo of the laboratory
that granted the certification and the Class(es),
Division(s), and Group(s) the instrument was
tested against. If an instrument does not have
an approved rating, it should not be used in a
hazardous or potentially hazardous situation.
202
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NOTES
The instrument certification categories included
are divided into classes, divisions, and groups.
There are two classes covering "potentially
flammable gas/vapor" and "potentially
explosive dust," There are two divisions
including "explosive conditions exist routinely"
and "explosive conditions exist only after an
unintentional release," And finally, there are
six groups divided according to specific
compounds such as acetylene, hydrogen and
similar gases, and others. The categories of
instruments most likely to be encountered at
UST sites are approved for Class 1. Division 1.
Groups A. B. C, and D.
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INSTRUMENT CERTIFICATION (con.)
GROUP
A
Acetylene
GROUP
B
Hydrogen and similar gases
GROUP
C
Rhyl ether, cyclopropane; carbon disulfide
GROUP
D
: Methane, butane and most solvents ;
GROUP
E F
Explosive dusts : ¦ ¦
NOTES
Because of the wide variability of compounds
that can be encountered at an UST site,
instruments are more typically certified for
multigroups of substances. This affords the
widest applicability possible.
204
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DIRECT READING INSTRUMENTS
» Oxygen meter
Hydrogen sulfide meter
» Detector tubes
Combustible gas indicator (CGI)
Flame ionization detector (FID)
: Photoionization detector (PID)
DIRECT READING INSTRUMENTS NOTES
This course discusses six instrument types, all
of which are Direct Reading Instruments.
These include oxygen meters, hydrogen sulfide
meters, combustible gas indicators, detector
tubes, flame ionization detectors, and
photoionization detectors, UST inspectors
should be thoroughly trained in and familiar
with the use and interpretation of all of
these instruments.
205
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OXYGEN METER
Function: Detect oxygen percentage In air
* most models detect 0 to 25 percent range
a few models detect 0 to to percent or 1 to 100 percent
How they work: electrochemical sensor
~ air pumped into meler diffuses onto semipermeable membrane
reaction between oxygen and electrodes produces minut© current
~ current moves the needle indicator
OXYGEN METER NOTES
The oxygen meter has three principal
components; the air flow system, the oxygen
sensing element, and the mlcroamp meter. Air
is drawn into the detector with an aspirator
bulb or pump. The detector uses an
electrochemical sensor to determine the
oxygen concentration. The sensor consists of
two electrodes (a sensing and a counting
electrode), a housing containing the basic
electrolytic solution, and a semipermeable
teflon membrane.
Oxygen molecules diffuse through the
membrane into the solution. Reactions
between the oxygen and the electrodes
produce a minute electric current which is
directly proportional to the sensor's oxygen
content. The current passes through the
electronic circuit and the resulting signal is
shown as a needle deflection on a meter.
Oxygen measurements are most informative
when paired with combustible gas
measurement. Together they provide quick
and reliable hazard data. A lower oxygen
reading wili show a lower combustible gas
reading; while a higher oxygen reading will
show a higher combustible gas reading. In
general, oxygen measurements should be
taken before combustible gas indicator
readings.
206
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OXYGEN METER LIMITATIONS
Altitudes changes skew calibrations
*
Best when paired with CGI measurements {take oxygen readings first)
Oxidants (such as ozone) affect readings ~
~
CO^ interferes with the detector
OXYGEN METER LIMITATIONS NOTES
The use of an oxygen meter has limitations,
since its operation depends on absolute
atmospheric pressure. An oxygen meter
calibrated at sea level and operated at an
altitude of several thousand feet will falsely
indicate an oxygen-deficient atmosphere.
Furthermore, oxidants, such as ozone and
interfere with detectors. Chlorine, Fl, Br, and
acid gases are all potent oxidants (oxidizers).
An oxygen measurement should be paired with
a combustible gas measurement in order to
ensure reliability.
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HYDROGEN SULFIDE INDICATOR
Hydrogen sulfide indicators range from
simple color change devices to sophisticated
electronic meters. With the electronic versions,
sample air is introduced to the sensor by
passive diffusion or active pumps through a
gas-porous semipermeable membrane. The
ceil electro-oxidizes the gas in proportion to the
gas partial pressure in the sample. The
resulting electrical signal is then amplified to
run the meter.
Hydrogen sulfide gas can be fatal if inhaled in
sufficiently high concentrations. UST
inspectors would be most likely to encounter
H2S in sewers. The gas has a strong "rotten
egg" odor. UST inspectors should never rely
on their olfactory senses as a means of
determining concentrations of H2S, since the
gas "deadens" the sense of smell (i.e., the
olfactory nerves will adjust to and tolerate
concentrations of H2S).
Also, some individuals are congenitally unable
to smell H2S.
No hydrogen sulfide meters are sensitive at
less than 1 ppm. In addition, they are cross
sensitive to hydrogen cyanide, therefore, they
can, in certain instances, give misleading
readings.
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COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
Function: measures fiammabls vapor concentrations In air
* results shown as percentage of lower f lammabie lirnft
measure G2 percentage before using CGI
How it works, operates on "hot wire6 principle
« combustion chamber with platinum filament
* gas combustion raises filament temperature
~ increased temperature causes resistor circuit 'Imbalance"
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR NOTES
The Combustible Gas Indicator (CGI) or
explosimeter is one of the first instruments that
should be used when surveying a site. It
measures the concentrations of flammable
vapors or gases in air and indicates the results
as a percentage of the lower explosive limit
(LEL) of the calibration gas. Before using a
CGI, however, the percentage of oxygen
should be measured with an oxygen meter.
The LEL of a combustible gas is the lowest
concentration by volume in air which will
explode, ignite, or burn when there is an
ignition source. The UEL is the maximum
concentration of a gas or vapor which will
ignite. Above the UEL, there is insufficient
oxygen for the fuel level to support combustion.
Below the LEL there is insufficient fuel to
support ignition.
Most CGIs operate on the "hot wire principle."
In the combustion chamber there is a platinum
filament that is heated. This filament is an
integral part of a balanced resistor circuit called
the Wheatstone Bridge. The hot filament
combusts the gas(es) on the immediate
surface of the element, thus raising the
temperature of the filament. Any single gas, or
mixture of combustible gases, will cause the
meter to react; the effect of this trait must be
understood by the CGI operator.
209
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COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (con.)
NOTES
As the temperature of the filament increases so
does the resistance. This change in resistance
causes an imbalance in the Wheatstone
Bridge. This is measured as the ratio of
combustible vapor present compared to Ihe
total required to reach the LEL of the
combustible gas used to calibrate the CGI. If a
concentration greater than the LEL and less
than the UEL is present, the meter needle will
stay beyond the 1.0 (100 percent) level of the
meter. This indicates that the ambient
atmosphere is readily combustible. When the
atmosphere has a gas concentration above the
UEL, the meter will rise above the 1.0 mark
and then return to zero. This occurs because
the gas mixture in the combustion cell is too
rich to burn. This permits the filament to
conduct a current as if the atmosphere
contained no combustibles at all. For this
reason, it is critical to always watch the meter,
since this rapid deflection may go undetected.
This is not a problem with most of the newer
meters equipped with an audible alarm.
There is a relatively new detector system for
flammables on the market now. Some
detectors are using a tin oxide sensor. The tin
oxide coating on the surface of the sensor has
only a limited number of electrons available for
conduction of electricity. Oxygen, which is
highly electronegative, tends to gain electrons.
Normal oxygen content will pull most of the
electrons away from the tin oxide, reducing its
ability to conduct electricity (high resistance).
As concentrations of a flammable gas increase,
oxygen "turns away" from the tin oxide to
interact with the flammable compounds. The
newly freed electrons can now flow, and
resistance drops. The resistance changes are
calibrated to be proportional to a specific
flammable gas. This technology can also be
used to detect non-flammable vapors as well.
Pros and cons of this technology are not yet
fully field-tested, but it is reasonable to assume
that varying oxygen concentrations can cause
ambiguous readings, and that cross-
sensitivities exist. The sensor is reported to be
poisoned by halogenated gases.
210
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COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR LIMITATIONS
Limitations: must watch needle continuously - - -
when concentrations above UEL tout below UEL, meter needte stays beyond 1.0 (100
percent) mark
~ . . when concentrations above UEL, meter rises above 1.0 mark and quickly returns to zero
Always use with oxygen meter
Do not use in oxygen enriched or deficient areas
Leaded gasoline may "poison" internal filament
Gives accurate readings for the "calibration gas" only
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR NOTES
LIMITATIONS
There are limitations to the use of a
combustible gas indicator. As mentioned
previously, the needle of Ihe indicator must be
watched continuously because a reading
above UEL will return to zero. For a more
accurate measure of combustible gases,
readings should be taken at ground, waist, and
overhead positions to insure detection of
vapors whose densities are greater or less
than air.
The following substances may "poison" the
detection filaments: fuming acids, leaded
gasolines, silicones, silicates and other silicon
containing compounds. When it is suspected
that these substances have been aspirated,
the CGI should be checked with a calibration
kit; if leaded gasolines are anticipated,
additional filaments should be on hand. There
are also catalytic filters available for use with
leaded gasolines. The instrument should not
be switched On/Off unless it is known that you
are in a combustion free environment. The
CGI reads only from 0 to 100 percent of the
calibration gas, often either methane or
propane. Therefore, when another
combustible gas is detected, the exact meter
reading is not correct and cannot be relied
211
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CGI LIMITATIONS (con.)
NOTES
upon. To provide additional safety factors, field
crews should discontinue operations where
combustible gas is measured above 25 percent
of the LEL for a methane or propane calibrated
CGI,
212
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DETECTOR TUBES
Function: measure levels of petroleum, other gases
How It Works: "Detecting Chemicals" change color
* air is drawn through tube
color change intensity shows gas concentrations
Limitations
» accuracy only within 25 percent of concentration
~ interfering gases can affect readings
slow and tedious
subjective results determination
DETECTOR TUBES NOTES
Detector tubes (also known as calorimetric
and indicator tubes) measure levels of
petroleum and other gases. They are small
glass tubes filled with a solid absorbent and
impregnated with detecting chemicals. Air is
drawn through the tube at a controlled rate,
and airborne contaminants will change the
color of the detecting chemicals. The intensity
of the color change is taken as an index of the
contaminant concentration. Because specific
tubes exist for the detection of hydrocarbons
and other petroleum product constituents, they
can be effectively used at UST sites as a
screening tool, but they are not very accurate.
There are two basic types of detector tubes:
Stain length
Color density
Stain length tubes are graduated, and the
length of the color change is proportional to
concentration. Stain length tubes are more
convenient.
213
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DETECTOR TUBES (con.)
NOTES
One limitation of detector tubes is that their
accuracy is limited lo within 25 percent of the
true concentration of the contaminant.
Furthermore, some gases can interfere with the
reading. It is a relatively slower and more
tedious approach to measuring contaminants
than some other instruments. The color or
stain must be evaluated immediately, as many
colors fade rapidly. Finally, with some tubes,
the air How must be in one direction only; this
is typically indicated by an arrow or a dot. This
type of tube usually contains a drying agent or
a precleaning layer ahead of the indicating
chemical, to remove interfering gases or
vapors, or an oxidizing layer which releases a
certain part of the vapor test molecule which
reacts with the indicating chemical.
214
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FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR {OVA)
Function: two modes '
» survey mode detects volatile organic concentrations
~ Gas Chromatograph Mode separates and measures individual components
How It Works:
~ sample drawn into hydrogen flame
~ sample burns, ions produce current, read by meter
FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR NOTES
Flame Ionization Detectors (FIDs)
(sometimes called organic vapor analyzes or
OVAs) are used to detect concentrations of
volatile organics. An OVA consists of two
major parts: (1) a 9-pound package containing
the sampling pump, battery pack, support
electronics, flame ionization detector, and
hydrogen gas cylinder; and (2) a hand held
meter/sampling probe assembly. When the
sample reaches the hydrogen flame it burns
and the resulting tons carry an electric current.
The current is then amplified and displayed on
the probe's meter. The measurement equals
the total concentration of organic compounds
relative to the calibration standard.
The FID can operate in two different modes.
In the survey mode, it can determine the
approximate concentration of all detectable
volatile organic chemicals in the air. The gas
chromatograph (GC) mode separates and
measures individual components. This is done
by drawing a sample into the FID's probe
which is then carried to the detector by an
internal pump.
215
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NOTES
In the GC mode, a small sample of ambient air
is injected into a chromatographic column and
carried through the column by a stream of
hydrogen gas. Contaminants with different
chemical structures are retained on the column
for different lengths of time (known as retention
times) and, hence, are detected separately by
the flame ionization detector. A strip chart
recorder can be used to record the retention
times and peaks (concentrations), which are
then compared to the retention times of a
standard with known chemical constituents,
Limitations of the OVA include the fact that it is
internally calibrated by the manufacturer
(usually to methane), and therefore, does not
give an exact reading for other compounds.
The OVA can only detect organic compounds,
however, since petroleum products are organic
compounds, this poses no major problem.
The OVA needs high-quality hydrogen to
operate. Hydrogen transport is regulated by
the U.S. Department of Transportation. If the
OVA's hydrogen tank is empty, it can be
shipped without restriction. Once on-site,
however, plans have to be made for the
acquisition of high quality hydrogen.
216
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FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR (OVA) (con.)
NOTES
Lead-acid batteries are used by the OVA and
they tend to lose power in cold weather which
could cause problems with on-site usage.
Finally, OVA's do not detect compounds less
than 1 ppm in concentration.
217
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PHOTOIONIZATION DETECTOR (HNu)
¦¦Function: detects tola! organic and som6 inorganic: gases
How it works:
sample subjected to ultraviolet radiation
* ions produced, meter reads resulting current
~ easier to use than the OVA
calibrated to benzene equivalent (isobutytene)
PHOTOIONIZATION DETECTOR NOTES
Photoionization Detectors (PIDs) are one
way to detect organic vapors. The HNu
system portable photoionizer detects
concentrations of organic gases and a few
Inorganic gases. The basis for detection is the
photoionization of gaseous species. The
incoming gas molecules are subjected to
ultraviolet radiation which ionizes a number of
gaseous compounds. Each particle is changed
into charged-ion pairs creating a current
between two electrodes which can be read by
a meter. The HNu measures the total
concentration of those organic (and some
inorganic) vapors in air that have an ionization
potential less than or equal to the energy of
the probe.
The HNu consists of two modules connected
via a signal-power cord; a readout unit
consisting of a meter, a battery, and
electronics; and a sensor unit consisting of a
light source, a pump, and an ionization
chamber.
The photoionization detector is easier to use
than the OVA and it has a lower detection limit.
The system is usually calibrated to a benzene
substitute such as isobutylene and reads
benzene directly.
218
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PH0T0I0N1ZATI0N DETECTOR (HNu) (con.)
NOTES
Two other photoionization detector models are
the TIP manufactured by photovac and the
OVM manufactured by Envirotherm. These
two models, unlike the HNu, have the ability to
retain readings in memory which can then be
down loaded into the computer at a later date.
219
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Limitations;
The HNu system does have a number of
limitations. It can be susceptible to radio
frequency interference from power lines,
transformers, high voltage equipment, and
radio transmissions. Also, the window of the
UV lamp must be cleaned on a regular basis to
insure that airborne contaminants are ionized.
Finally, the HNu system also uses a lead-acid
battery. These batteries lose power in cold
weather and can be unreliable. Once the
batteries have been severely discharged, they
may no longer accept a charge and will need
to be replaced. For these reasons, the unit
should be placed on the battery charger after
every use. The HNu charge circuit has a
protector that prevents overcharging.
220
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221
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PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LEVELS
Objectives
Participants will be able to:
distinguish between PEls, REU, and TLVs
l»st order of consideration for PFI &, RFLs. ft rid Tt.Vs, wh«n establishing permissible
exposure limits
» describe different approaches for establishing permissible exposure iirriits for
known/unknown airborne contaminants
* list three major labelling systems to identify hazardous substances/limitations
NOTES
222
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OSHA PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS (PELs)
PELs established for over 600 substances
Generally focus on exposure by initiation
Because of legal standards, consider PELs first when setting exposure limits
OSHA PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS NOTES
Regulatory agencies, trade associations and
professional organizations have developed
regulations and guidelines for worker exposure
to hazardous substances. They are used to
evaluate potential exposure hazards during
safety planning and site inspections. The
guidelines should also be used in planning for
the appropriate personal protective equipment
(PPE) if it will be necessary to conduct
activities in areas where exposure is likely.
The exposure limits normally focus on
exposure by inhalation because the other
routes of exposure-injection, ingestion and
dermal absorption-are normally controlled by
work practices and personal hygiene. In
addition, it is difficult to establish exposure
limits for these routes. The Occupational
Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) has
established Permissible Exposure Limits
(PELs) for over 600 substances. These
standards are codified as 20 CFR 1910.1000
(amended 1/19/89). The PEL for a substance
is the 8-hour "ceiling concentration" above
which employees may not be exposed. PELs
are legally enforceable standards and apply 1o
private and government sector employees.
They should be considered first when setting
exposure limits,
223
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NIOSH RECOMMENDED EXPOSURE LIMITS (RELs)
»
NIOSH develops, recommends standards to OSHA
Publishes tDLH concentrations
~
Publishes RELs
*
Consider RELs second when establishing exposure limits
NIOSH RECOMMENDED EXPOSURE LIMITS NOTES
The National Institute tor Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) is a division of the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services.
NIOSH is responsible for researching,
developing, and recommending health and
safety standards for OSHA. NIOSH
researches information for use in developing
OSHA PEL standards, although many
recommended exposure limits have not been
adopted. These are called the Recommended
Exposure Limits (RELs), For each REL,
NIOSH publishes a criteria document that is
the basis for their recommendation. RELs are
not enforceable.
Approximately 150 chemicals have been
assigned RELs. In accordance with OSHA
1910.120, RELs are considered second when
establishing a specific exposure limit.
NIOSH has also developed the Immediately
Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH)
concentrations which can be used as a
reference in selecting a respirator. The IDLH
concentrations represent the maximum
concentrations from which one could escape
within 30 minutes without symptoms of
impairment or irreversible health effects. RELs
and IDLH values are listed in the
NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical
Hazards, NIOSH/OSHA, DHHS Publication
#85-114, February 1987.
224
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ACGIH THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES (TLVs)
ACCatH establishes I LVs for about 600 substances
Three separate TtV levels;
. : TtV-TWA (time weighted average)
TLV-STEL (short-term exposure limit)
TtV-C (ceiling value)
Consider TLVs third when nstablishihg exposure limits
ACGIH THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES NOTES
The American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) establishes
exposure limits called Threshold Limit Values
(TLVs) and publishes a listing in its booklet,
Threshold Limit Values and Biological
Exposure Indices. The booklet lists
approximately 600 substances and is revised
annually. The TLVs refer to airborne
concentrations of substances and represent
conditions under which it is believed that nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed day
after day without adverse health effects.
According to OSHA 20 CFR 1910.120, the PEL
is considered first when establishing an
exposure limit, followed by the REL and TLV
values.
There are three separate levels of TLVs. The
TLV-TWA (time weighted average) is the
average concentration of a chemical to which
most chemical workers can be exposed over a
40-hour week and a normal 8-hour work day
without showing any adverse effects. The
TLV-TWA permits exposure to concentrations
above the limit; however, elevated
concentrations must be compensated by
periods of exposure below the limit. The TLV-
STEL (short-term exposure limit) is a 15-
minute, time weighted exposure.
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THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES (con.)
NOTES
Excursions above the TLV-STEL should be at
least 60 minutes apart, no longer than 15
minutes in duration, and should not be
repeated more than four times per day.
Because the excursions are calculated into the
8-hour, time weighted average, exposure
during the rest of the day must be lower to
compensate. Finally, the TLV-C represents a
ceiling value lhat should not be broached even
instantaneously. These three values should be
considered third when establishing exposure
limits.
TLV-C is typically used for substances that are
fast-acting, and dangerous in even short
exposures.
It is good practice to select the lowest of these
three values as the action limit.
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ESTABLISHING EXPOSURE LIMITS
For specific chemicals and compounds {gasoline) use PELs, RELs, or TLVs
If specific contaminants unknown, use total atmosphere concent i at ions following FPA
emergency response team action levels:
~ Background Level D
~ 5 ppm above background Level C
~ 5 to 500 ppm Level B
>500 ppm Level A
ESTABLISHING EXPOSURE LIMITS NOTES
When the identities and concentrations of
airborne contaminants are known, the PEL,
REL, and TLV can be used to establish the
permissible exposure limit. In unknown
situations, such as may exist at an abandoned
UST site, total atmospheric concentrations
(with a number of conservative restrictions) can
be used to establish limits until the airborne
contaminants can be identified and quantified.
In these instances, it may be appropriate to
use the EPA Emergency Response Team
(EPA-ERT) action levels (listed above).
The EPA-ERT action levels are guidelines only.
Obviously, for some contaminants they would
be inadequate, for others, far too stringent.
However, when used with some common
sense, they are good, general protection levels
for unknown contaminants.
Action levels were developed by EPA to
provide basic guidelines for decision-making in
unknown situations. They address the four
major site hazards: oxygen deficiency,
explosive atmospheres, radioactive
environments, and toxic atmospheres. If any
of these hazards is suspected, monitoring with
site screening instruments should be
conducted prior to site entry.
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CLASSIFICATION, LABELING SYSTEMS
Three major hazardous substances labeling systems:
DOT Hazard Identification System
NFPA Standard
UN Hazard Classification System (not discussed)
DOT system required by law
NFPA and UN systems are voluntary
CLASSIFICATION, LABELING SYSTEMS NOTES
Use of the DOT system, as outlined in 49 CFR
DOT Regulations, is required by law. Use of
the NFPA and UN systems are voluntary. The
NFPA system is typically used as a means of
in-plant communications, while the UN and
DOT systems are usually used for shipments.
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DOT LABELING SYSTEM
Diamond with hazard illustration on top- on«- or two-word hazard description in center
Four-digit UN JD numbers located in diamond's center
Common numbers;
~ Gasoline: 12G3'
« Kerosene: 1223
* Fuel oil: 1993
V,- Flammable Liquid: 1993
Aviation fuel: 1863
Vehicle placarding requirements similar to DOT warning label requirements
DOT LABELING SYSTEM NOTES
The DOT requires warning labels to conlain a
graphic illustration of the hazards at the top of
the diamond and a one- or two-word
description of the hazard in the center of the
diamond. Placarding requirements (49 CFR
172 Subpart F) mandate the placement of
placards on molor vehicles, rail cars, and
freight containers carrying hazardous materials.
Four-digit UN identification numbers (adopted
by DOT) are placed in the center of the
diamond. The hazard identification number
may be shown on placards by placing the
identification number over the one- or two-word
description, and the hazard class at the bottom
of the diamond.
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NFPA LABELING SYSTEM
Diamond symbol provides relative hazard level for:
flammabMy
« health
* reactivity
Five-step ranking system: 0 (lowest) to 4 (highest)
Identifies only level and hazard type, not exact chemical
NFPA LABELING SYSTEM NOTES
The National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) Standard 704M was developed to
quickly transmit the relative level of hazard in
three specific categories:
Flammability
¦ Health
Reactivity
Note that the NFPA system is not intended to
tell the viewer the exact chemical in the
container. Rather, it is intended to convey the
levels and types of hazards presented by the
chemical.
In the NFPA label, each "subdiamond" (that is,
category) in the diamond-shaped symbol is
ranked from 0 (lowest) 1o 4 (highest). Although
the ranking criteria differ according to each
category, numerical ranking itself is consistent
across all categories.
230
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SELECTED REFERENCES
Suggested Additional Reading and Resources
The Common Sense Approach to Hazardous Materials, Frank L. Fire, Fire Engineering
Guide to Occupational Exposure Values, Published Yearly, American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists
Handbook of Compressed Gases, third edition, Compressed Gas Association, Inc. (70S) 979-4341
Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 11th edition, N. Irving Sax and Richard Lewis, Van
Nostrand Reinhold
MEDLARS Online Database, National Library of Medicine, (800) 638-8480
Shreve's Chemical Process Industries, 5th Edition, George T. Austin, McGraw-Hill
TOMES Plus, Micromedex Inc. (CD-ROM Software (800-525-9083)
Casarett and Doull's, Toxicology, Doull Klassen and Amdur, editors, McMillan
The Merck Index, an Encyclopedia of Chemicals and Drugs, Marth Windholz et al., Merck and Co.
231
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APPENDIX A.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
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A.1 INTRODUCTION
Respiratory protection is of primary importance since inhalation is one of the major routes of
exposure to toxicants. Respiratory protective devices (respirators) consist of a facepiece connected
to either an air source or an air purifying device which protects the wearer from airborne hazardous
materials.
Respirators with an air source (atmosphere-supplying respirators) consist of two types;
* Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) which supply air from a source carried
by the user.
* Supplied-air respirators (SAR) which supply air from a source connected to the user
by an air-line hose. SARs may also be called an air-line respirator.
Respirators without a separate air source, but which utilize ambient air which is 'purified" through a
filtering element (canister or cartridges) prior to inhalation, are termed air-purifying respirators (APRl
SCBAs, SARs, and APRs can be further differentiated by the type of airflow which is supplied to the
facepiece.
* Positive pressure respirators fPPRs) maintain a positive pressure in the facepiece
during both inhalation and exhalation. This positive pressure may be a pressure
demand or continuous flow system. If a leak develops in a pressure demand
respirator, the regulator sends a continuous flow of clean air into the mask to
prevent penetration by contaminated ambient air. Continuous flow respirators (SARs
and powered APRs) send a continuous flow of air into the mask at all times.
Negative pressure may be created at maximal breathing rates when using the
powered APRs (PAPR).
* Demand respirators draw air into the mask via the negative pressure created by user
inhalation. If any leak develops in this system (ill-fitting mask facepiece), the user
will draw contaminated air into the respiratory area during inhalation.
Federal regulations require the use of respirators that have been tested and approved by the Mine
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) and NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health).
Under 29 CFR 1910.134, the employer is required to provide a suitable approved respirator and to
establish a respiratory protection program.
A-1
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As part of this program, the employer must:
1. Provide standard operating procedures for the use of respiratory protective equipment;
2. Train the employee in how to select a respirator based on potential hazard;
3. Train the employee in uses and limitations of respirators;
4. Provide instruction on general maintenance and cleaning;
5. Train employees in pre- and post-use inspection procedures;
6. Train employees to monitor for adverse conditions and worker stress;
7. Determine the employee's medical fitness;
8. Train the employee in storage procedures for respiratory equipment; and
9. Use MSHA/NIOSH approved respirators.
It is the employee's responsibility to:
1. Use respirator provided;
2. Guard against damage to respirator,
3. Report problems or malfunctions; and
4. Use as a system with only approved parts.
Respiratory protection will vary with field conditions. General rules for respiratory protection are:
Level A: SCBA with encapsulating suit
Level B: SCBA
Level C: Full face air purifying respirator/powered air purifying respirator, with escape mask
readily available.
Level D: No respiratory protection, but escape mask should be available.
The appropriate level of protection for field activities is determined based on an evaluation of the
hazards present at a given site.
A-2
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Legal Requirements:
1) The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 established standards which state that
¦approved respirators shall be used when they are available.'
2) 29 CFR 19111.134 outlines the legal requirements for selection and use of respiratory
equipment as promulgated by OSHA and based on ANSI Z88.Z
3) (NIOSH) - 30 CFR, Part II, "Respiratory Protective Devices; Tests for Permissibility; Fees'
gave jurisdiction for joint approval of respirators to NIOSH and MSHA in May of 1972.
4) Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) - has Jurisdiction over the approval of
respirators for mining. The Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977 transferred authority
of MESA (Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration) to MSHA.
5) ANSI 288.2 contains a wealth of information on practices for respiratory protection.
A.2 AIR PURIFYING RESPIRATORS (APR)
Types Of APRs Used
1) Single use (disposable). Example: filtration mask for painting.
2) Quarter mask (covers mouth and nose). Example: a dust respirator,
*
3) Half mask (covers chin, mouth and nose). Example: asbestos inspection.
4) Full-face mask (covers entire face and affords eye protection against irritating chemicals).
5) Gas masks:
Full-face mask - chin mounted canister
Full-face mask - belt mounted canister and breathing hose
6) Half mask. Belt-mounted cartridges and breathing hose (may be used with welders
faceshield).
7) Powered air - purify respirator (positive pressure unit).
Protection Factors For Respirators (PR
Single Use (disposable)
5
Quarter Mask
10
Half Mask
10
Full-Face Mask
50
Gas Mask
100
Powered Air Purifying Respirator
100-1000
(depending on filter type)
Full-Face Positive-Pressure SCBA
10,000+
A-3
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How is the protection factor used?
Example: We want to use an APR in an atmosphere that has 50 ppm benzene. Benzene has a
TLV value of 10 ppm. We attain a Maximum Use Concentration (MUG) by multiplying
our PF x TLV = MUC.
50 x 10 ppm = 500 ppm on the APR mask
We now know that we can use our APR in an environment measuring 50 ppm benzene depending
on whether or not our cartridge covers this particular maximum use concentration,
NOTE: OSHA Permissable Exposure Limit (PEL) may be less than the Threshold Limit Value
(TLV) value issued by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists,
so the MUC may change.
Example: Benzene measured at 50 ppm
OSHA PEL = 1 ppm
APR PF is 50
50 x 1 ppm = 50 ppm
APRs may only be worn in an environment containing 50 ppm or less benzene to insure that OSHA
standards are abided by.
A-4
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Full Mask APRs and PAPRs
Advantages
* Enhanced mobility.
* Light in weight. Generally two pounds or less.
* PAPRs offer enhanced protection over general APRs.
* Provides adequate protection for Level C environments depending on cartridge needed.
Disadvantages
* Can't be used in IDLH environment or an oxygen deficient atmosphere {less than 19.5%
oxygen at sea level).
* Limited duration of protection.
* Level and type of contaminant must be known.
* Can only be used against gas and vapor contaminants with adequate warning properties.
* Requires physical effort to breath through cartridges or filters
* Potential leakage around the face seal (negative pressure). Only fits 60% of population.
* Distorts speech when wearing.
* Limited use in high humidity or rainfall.
* Facial hair, dental work, weight loss or gain may affect fit of APR.
Principle Of Operation (APRs)
1. Ambient air is passed through a filter and/or sorbern bed (cartridge) and the contaminants
are removed.
2. The clean air passes on through the inhalation valve (one-way check valve) to the facepiece
where air is received by the wearer.
3. Exhaled air passes out the exhalation valve {one-way check valve) back to the atmosphere.
A-5
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Selection Of Cartridqes/Filters/Canisters For APRs
The APR is a system. Use only cartridges manufactured by the manufacturer of your APR. If you
use cartridges/canisters/filters produced by a different manufacturer you are breaking certification for
your APR, and voiding all legal and functional guarantees of respiratory protection.
Always check cartridge shelf life or expiration date.
MS HA APPROVED CANISTERS FOR HYDROGEN SULFIDE, HYDROGEN
CYANIDE, PHOSPHINE AND OTHER COMPOUNDS
Mine Safety Health Administration (MSHA) approved respirator canister/ cartridges for protection
against hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen cyanide, and phosphine may not be used for purposes other
than emergency escape. These canisters were originally approved by the Bureau of Mines for
concentrations far above their respective Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) values.
None of these compounds, nor those listed below, have adequate odor warning properties for the
respirator wearer to detect excessive facepiece leakage or sorbent breakthrough.
Additional compounds for which MSHA canisters are not appropriate, include, but are not limited to:
Acrolein
Aniline
Arsine
Bromine
Carbon monoxide
Dimethylaniline
Dimethyl sulfate
Formaldehyde
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen fluoride
Hydrogen selenide
Hydrogen sulfide
Methanol
Methyl bromide
Methyl chloride
Methylene chloride
Nickel carbonyl
Nitro compounds:
Nitrobenzene
Nitrogen oxides
Nitroglycerin
Nitromethane
Ozone
Phosgene
Phosphine
Phosphorous trichloride
Stibine
Sulfur Chloride
Toluene Diisocyanate
Vinyl Chloride
A-6
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SELECTION OF PROPER CARTRIDGES FOR PESTICIDE SITES
Only GMP or GMA-H cartridges are to be used in the Ultra-Twin APR when entering sites where
pesticides are the only known chemical present, and Level C protect ton is deemed appropriate.
GMC-H cartridges are not NIOSH/MSHA approved and may suffer a reduced service live in pesticide
environments.
A general description of the cartridges in question, and their appropriate use is presented below.
The attachment to the Safety Alert is an excerpt for MSA Data Sheet 10-00-03 Twin-Cartridge
Respirators,' which provides more detail about respirator and filter/cartridge use.
CARTRIDGE TYPE
COMPONENTS
RESPIRATORY HAZARDS
GMP
Activated carbon and
Aerosols from liquid
metal fume filter
pesticides and as noted on the
attached MSA Data Sheet
GMA-H
Activated carbon with a
HEPA filter
Pesticides bound to
soil particulates and as noted on the
attached MSA Data Sheet.
GMC-H Whethlerized carbon Organic vapors and as
(Trade name for carbon noted on the attached
impregnated with certain MSA Data Sheet
metallic salts) and a
HEPA filter.
A-7
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Filters/Cartridges
Respiratory hazards
Protection type
(1) Dust and mists having a Time Weighted Average
(TWA) not less than 0.05 mg/m or 2 million particles
per cubic foot. (1,5)
Type F
(1) Dlist,,funes and mists having a TUS not less then
0.05 mg/nr or 2 million particles per cubic foot and
(2) radon daughters attached to dus, fumes and mists
described above. (1,5)
Type S
CD Dust, funes and mists having a TWA less than
0.05 mg/nT, (2) asbestos-containing dusts and mists
and (3) radionuclides. (1)
Type H
(1) Dust, fines and mists having a TWA less than
0.05 mg/m , (2) asbestos-containing dusts and mists
and (3) radionuclides. (1)
Sperkfoe
Type H
C1) Not more than one-tenth (0.D percent organic vapors
by vol line and i2) dusts and mists having a TWA not less
than 0.05 mg/m or 2 million particles per cubic foot.
(2.3,4,5)
GMA
(D Not more than 10 ppm chlorine, 30 ppm formaldehyde,
50 ppm hydrogen chloride or 50 ppm sulfur dioxide and
(2) dusts and mists having a TWA not less than 0.05 mg/m
or 2 million particles per cubic foot. <2,4,5)
GMB
CD Not more than 1,000 ppm organic vapors, 10 ppm chlorine,
30 ppm formaldehyde or 50 ppn hydrogen chloride of 50 ppn
sulfur dioxide and (2) dusts and mists having a TWA not less
than 0.05 mg/m or 2 million particles per cubic foot.
<2,3,4,5)
GHC
(1) Not more than 300 ppm anmonia or 100 ppm methyl amine and
(2) dusts and mists having a TUA not less than 0.05 mg/m or
2 million particles per cubic foot. (2,3,4,5)
GMD
(1) Metallic mercury vapors
Hesorb
(1) Not more than 1,000 ppm organic vapors and (2) dusts and
¦ists with a TWA not less than 0.05 mg/m or 2 million
particles per cubic foot. (2,3,5)
GHA-F
JTES
Do not use in atmospheres
containing less than 19.5
percent oxygen, in atmospheres
containing toxic gases or
vapors, or in atmospheres
immediately dangerous to
tife and health.
Do not use in atmospheres
immediately dangerous to
life or health, or in
atmospheres containing less
than 19.5 percent oxygen.
3. Do not wear for protection against
organic vapors with poor warning
properties of those which generate
high heats or reaction with the sorbent
material in the cartridge.
Protection extended to dusts and
mists only by adding Type f filters
and filler covers.
5. This filter is no longer NIOSH approved for
respiratory protection against asbestos-
containing dusts and mists.
A-8
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Fitters/Cartridges
Respiratory hazards
Protection type
(1) Mot more than 1,000 ppm organic vapors, (2) dusts,
fumes and mists with TWA less than 0.05 ng/n , (3) asbestos-
containing dusts and mists Bnd (4) radionoclides. (2,3)
GMA-H
(1) not more than 10 ppm chloring, 30 ppm formaldehyde,
50 ppm hydrogen chloride, 50 ppm sulfur dioxide, (2) dusts,
mists and fines with a TUA less than 0.05 mg/m , (3) asbestos-
containing dusts and mists and (4) radionuclides. (3)
GMB-H
(1) Not rrnre than 1,000 ppm organic vapors, 10 ppm chloride,
30 ppm formaldehyde, 50 ppm hydrogen chloride and 50 ppm
sulfur dioxide, (2) dusts, funes and mists with a TUA less than
0.05mg/m , (3) asbestos-containing dusts and mists and
(4) radionuclides. (2,3)
GMC-K
(1) Not more than 1,000 ppm organic vapors, 10 ppm chlorine,
30 ppm formaldehyde, 50 ppm sulfur dioxide, 50 ppm hydrogen
chloride, (2) dusts, funes and mists with a TUA not less than
0.05 mg/m or 2 million particles per cubic foot and (3) radon
daughters attached to dusts, funes and mists described above.
<2,3,5)
GNC-S
(1) Not more then 300 ppm ammonia, 100 ppm methylamioe, (2)
dust, funes and mists with a TUA less than 0.05 mg/m ,
(3) asbestos-containing dusts and mists and (4) radionuclides.
(2,3)
GMD-H
(1) Not more than 1,000 ppm organic vapors (2) dusts, funes
Bnd mists with a TUA less than 0.05 mg/m , (3) asbestos-
containing dusts and mists and (4) radionuclides. (2,3)
Also effective against iodine vapor.
GMI-H
(1) Pesticides, not approved for funigants. (2,3,5)
GUP
<1) Mists of paints, lequers and enamels, (2) not more than
1,000 ppm organic vapors or (3) any combination thereof. Also
approved against dusts and mists having a TUA not less than
0.05 mg/m or 2 million particles per cubic foot. Not for
use with urethane or other diisocyarvaet containing paints.
<2,3)
Paint
A-9
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Changing Of Cartridge
1. Whenever the individual begins to smell the material or notices increased resistance to
breathing,
2. After each work shift (8 hour day). One must be careful not to use a bent, distorted or wet
cartridge.
3. Know limitations of cartridge and never use if a given situation approaches the limitations of
a cartridge. May upgrade protection.
Inspection Checklist Prior To Field Use
1. Exhalation Valve - Pull off plastic cover and check valve for debris or for tears in the
neoprene valve (which could cause leakage).
2. Inhalation Valves (two) - Remove cartridges and visually inspect neoprene valves for tears.
Make sure that the inhalation valves and cartridge receptacle gaskets are in place.
3. Make sure a protective cover lens is attached to the lens.
4. Make sure you have the right cartridge.
5. Make sure that the facepiece harness is not damaged. The serrated portion of the harness
can fragment which will prevent proper face seal adjustment.
& Make sure the speaking diaphram retainer ring is hand tight
Uttra Twin Donning Procedure
1. Loosen harness strap adjustments.
2. Put chin in facepiece and draw back on adjustment straps evenly (i.e., top two straps, then
bottom two straps, and center top strap last).
* Do not tighten straps too tight, you may get a headache if you do.
* Do not drink heavily the night before prolonged use.
a) Harness union should be centered on the back of your head.
b) Unevenly adjusted straps will create a leak. They are also very uncomfortable.
c) Straps should be drawn back no more than necessary.
3. Check for leaks and/or proper facial seal.
a) Cover cartridge air ports with palm of hands and attempt to pull air through the
inhalation ports. Mask should collapse slightly on face.
b) Count to eight while holding your breath. Pressure inside of facepiece should be
A-10
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maintained for duration of the count.
c) If pressure is not maintained, check and/or adjust straps.
(NOTE: Make sure that palms are blocking all of the cartridge airports. This could be
the source of leakage).
d) Check exhalation valve by exhausting air through the valve.
(NOTE: Should detect some resistance but facial seal should not be broken).
A.3 RESPIRATOR FIT TESTING
1. OSHA regulations (29 CFR Part 1910.134) require thai each person who wears a respirator
shall have it properly fitted, test the facepiece for face seal, and wear it in a test atmosphere.
In order to wear a respirator, the person must go through a fit test to determine whether the
person can obtain a satisfactory fit with a 'negative pressure" air-purifying respirator. The
results of the fit test will be used to select the specific type, make, and model of "negative
pressure" air-purifying respirator for use by the wearer.
The following policies should be adhered to in the fitting and use of the respirators:
A. A person must have passed the fit test in order to use any NIOSH/MSHA approved
respirators.
B. If it is found that a person cannot obtain a good respirator-to- face seal because of facial or
medical characteristics, the person should not use and/or enter an atmosphere that will
require the use of a respirator.
C. Facial hair such as beards, sideburns, or certain mustaches which may interfere with the fit
test are not allowable.
D. Persons requiring corrective lenses shall be provided with specially mounted lenses inside
the full-face mask. Under no circumstances will contact lenses and/or glasses be worn
while using full-face respirators.
E. Although fit testing for positive pressure SCBAs is not required as described in ANSI Z88.2
(1980), a less than acceptable respirator-to-face seal will increase the use of air via leakage
and therefore reduce effective breathing time. Such leaks may pose a hazard to the user if
sufficient air supply is not available to reach an uncontaminated air supply.
F. A person may only use the specific make(s) and model(s) of full-face, air-purifying
respirators for which the person has obtained a satisfactory fit via the qualitative fit-testing
procedures. Under no circumstances shall a person be allowed to use any make or model
respirator not previously fit tested or having failed a fit-test period.
2. Fit-testing by use of a two-stage, cross-checking procedure provides the necessary quality
assurance that the user of an air-purifying, cartridge/canister respirator is properly fitted and
has a good lacepiece-to-face seal.
A-11
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A. Stage I
1) Negative Pressure-Sealing Checks for Air-Purifying Respirators
The wearer can perform this test by himself or herself in the field or office after donning
the air-purifying respirator, tt consists of closing off the inlet of the cartridge(s) to
prevent the passage of air. This test is performed by closing off the inlet opening of
the respiratory cartridge(s) by covering with the palm of the hand(s) so that it will not
allow the passage of air, inhaling gently, and holding the breath for at least ten
seconds. If a facepiece collapses slightly and no inward leakage of air into the
facepiece is detected, it can be reasonable assumed that the fit of the respirator to the
wearer is satisfactory.
This test is made only as a gross determination of fit when the respirator is to be used
in relatively toxic atmospheres. Nonetheless, this test shall be used Just prior to
entering any toxic atmosphere.
2) Positive Pressure-Sealing Check for Air-Purifying Respirators
This test is very much like the negative pressure-sealing check. This test is preferred
after donning the air-purifying respirator which contains an exhalation and inhalation
valve. The test is conducted by closing off the exhalation valve and exhaling gently.
The fit of a respirator equipped with a facepiece is considered to be satisfactory if a
slight positive pressure can be built up inside the facepiece for at least ten seconds
without detection of any outward leakage of air between the sealing surface of the
facepiece and the respirator wearer's face.
This test is also to be used only as a gross determination of fit when the respirator is
to be used in relatively toxic atmospheres. This test shall be used just prior to entering
any toxic atmosphere.
NOTE: Both the positive and negative pressure-sealing checks can be used on the MSA Model
401 air mask to determine the gross fit characteristics,
B. Stage II
A person wearing an air-purifying respirator will be exposed to two test agents: isoamyl
acetate (an odorous vapor( and stannic chloride (an irritant smoke). The air-purifying
respirator will be equipped with an air-purifying cartridge which effectively removes the test
agents from respired air. If the respirator wearer is unable to detect penetration of the test
agent into the respirator, he has achieved a satisfactory fit.
1) Procedures for the Isoamyl Acetate Test
Isoamyl acetate or banana oil is a chemical which produces a pleasant banana-smelling
organic vapor. It is an easily detectable odor. The isoamyl acetate fit test will be
conducted by using a plastic garbage bag as a test hood hung from the ceiling over a
coat hanger suspended by twine, inside the plastic bag, a piece of cloth saturated
with isoamyl acetate is to be attached to the top portion of the bag. This procedure
will produce a rough concentration of approximately 100 ppm in the test atmosphere
A-12
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inside the plastic bag. Most people can detect isoamyl acetate at 1-10 ppm. The
permissible exposure is 100 ppm.
The isoamyl acetate fit test will be performed as follows:
* The wearer puts on the respirator in a normal manner. If it is an air-purifying device, it must
be equipped with a cartridge(s) specifically designed for protection against organic vapors.
* The wearer enters the test enclosure, so that the head and shoulders are well inside the
bag,
* If the wearer smells banana oil, he returns to clean air and readjusts the facepiece and/or
adjusts the headstraps without unduly tightening them.
* The wearer repeats the second step. If he does not smell banana oil, he is assumed to
have obtained a satisfactory fit. If he smells the vapor, an attempt should be made to find
the leakage point, if the leak cannot be located, another respirator of the same type and
brand should be tried. If this leaks, another brand of respirator with a facepiece of the
same type should be tried.
* After a satisfactory fit is obtained, if the respirator is an air-purifying device, it must be
equipped with the correct filter(s), cartridge(s), or canister for the anticipated hazard.
NOTE: During the test, the subject should make movements that approximate a normal working
situation. These may include, but not necessarily be limited to, the following:
* Normal breathing.
* Deep breathing, as during heavy exertion. This should not be done long enough to cause
hyperventilation.
* Side-to-side and up-and-down head movements. These movements should be exaggerated,
but should approximate those that take place on the job.
* Talking. This is most easily accomplished by reading a prepared text and/or reciting the
alphabet loudly enough to be understood by someone standing nearby.
* Other exercises may be added depending on the situatioa For example, if the wearer is
going to spend a significant part of his time bent over at some task, it may be desirable to
include an exercise approximating this bending.
The major drawback of the isoamyl acetate test is that the odor threshold varies widely among
individuals. Furthermore, the sense of smell is easily dulled and may deteriorate during the test
so that thB wearer can detect only high-vapor concentrations. Another disadvantage is that
isoamyl acetate smells pleasant, even in high concentrations. Therefore, a wearer may say that
the respirator fits although it has a large leak. Therefore check out these test results carefully
and move on to the next atmosphere.
A-13
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2) Procedures for the Irritant Smoke (Stannic Chloride) Test,
This qualitative test is similar to the isoamyl test in concept. It involves exposing the respirator
wearer to an irritating smoke produced by commercially available smoke tubes. These are
sealed glass tubes, approximately 12 cm long by 1 cm in diameter, filled with pumice
impregnated with stannic chloride. When the tube ends are broken and air is passed through
it, the material inside reacts with the moisture in the air to produce a dense, highly irritating
smoke.
As a qualitative means of determining respirator fit, this test has a distinct advantage in that the
wearer usually reacts involuntarily to leakage by coughing or sneezing. The likelihood of his
giving a false indication of proper fit is reduced.
The irritant smoke test will be conducted by using a plastic garbage bag as a test hood. The
bag will be hung from the ceiling over a coat hanger suspended by twine. A small hole is
made in the top portion of the bag so that the irritant smoke can be dispensed into the bag
when the test subject has entered the bag.
The irritant smoke fit test will be performed as follows:
* The wearer puts on the respirator normally, taking care not to tighten the headstraps
uncomfortably. Once the respirator is on, the subject is to enter the suspended bag so that
the head and shoulders are well inside the bag hood.
* Once the subject is inside the bag, the tester will begin to add the irritant smoke in small
quantities at first, pausing between puffs from the applicator, listening for a reaction.
* If the wearer detects no leakage, the tester may increase the smoke density, still remaining
alert to his reactions.
* At this point, if no leakage has been detected, the wearer may cautiously begin the head
movements and exercises mentioned in the isoamyl acetate test. The tester should remain
especially alert and be prepared to stop producing smoke immediately and remove the
subject from the bag.
* If a leakage is detected at any time, the tester should stop the smoke and let the wearer out
of the bag to readjust the facepiece or headstrap tension. The tester should then start the
test at the second step.
* If at the end of all movements and exercise the wearer is unable to detect penetration of the
irritant smoke into the respirator, the respirator wearer has a satisfactory fit.
* Remove the subject from the test atmosphere.
A.4 SELF CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS (SCBA)
The SCBA is an atmosphere-supplying breathing apparatus. The SCBA is a positive pressure
demand unit that can be used in an IDLH environment or in 02-deficient environments. The SCBA
unit is an integral part of Level B and Level A protective ensembles.
A-14
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Advantages And Disadvantages Of SCBA
Advantages
1. Operated in a positive pressure mode and can be an open circuit system which prevents
ambient air breakthrough.
2. System is self-contained and mobile.
3. Chance of contaminant breakthrough is eliminated since fitters or cartridges are not used.
4. If a leak occurs during use, the system vents outwardly regardless of leak location.
5. Warning alarm signals when 20-25% of the air supply remains.
6. Fogging problem in facepiece is reduced as compared to an APR.
7. Can work in an IDLH environment with an SCBA on.
Disadvantages
1. Relatively short operating time (30 to 60 minutes), depending on cylinder capacity and wearer.
Z The SCBA unit weighs approximately 20 to 30 pounds fully charged.
3. Less mobile and more awkward in comparison to an APR.
4. Facepiece will fog up on occasion.
5. Distorted speech.
6. Reduction of worker efficiency due to weight.
The Respirator facepiece will fit only 60% of the working population, but chances of contaminant
breakthrough are minimized since the unit prevents any inflow of ambient air into the facepiece. If
any leaks around the facial seal occur during use, the system vents outwardly, regardless of leak
location, due to positive pressure demand.
Facial hair (beards, sideburns) is prohibited while wearing an SCBA because of the adverse effect
on mask fit Facial hair is prohibited by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.
Weight loss or gain and dental work may also affect fit of SCBA respirator masks.
A-15
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Mode Of Operation
A. Demand Unit - Positive Pressure Is Not Maintained At All Times
1. Negative pressure created by inhalation opens demand valves to draw clean air into the
facepiece.
2. Due to negative pressure, contaminated air will be drawn in along the facepiece seal.
Leakage may occur,
3. Air-conserving mode.
B. Positive Pressure Demand Unit
1. Demand valve is spring loaded to keep valve open.
2. Exhalation valve is spring loaded at a pressure slightly greater than the demand valve,
3. If leaks occur around the facepiece seal, the demand valve remains open, and the unit will
vent continuously.
4. If leaks occur around the facepiece during inhalation, contaminants will be unable to enter
the facepiece since a positive pressure is maintained in facepiece area.
C. Closed Circuit Unit - uses oxygen rebreathing. Air is recirculated and C02 is purified {scrubbed
by alkaline scrubber) and oxygen from liquid or gaseous source replenishes the previously
consumed oxygen.
D. Open Circuit Unit - supplies clean air to the wearer from an air cylinder and wearer exhales air
directly into the environment
SCBA Air Quality And Testing Requirements
A Cylinder air must be grade D or E.
Limiting Characteristics Grade D Grade E
0? 19.5-23% 19.5-23%
Hydrocarbons 5 ppm 5 ppm
Carbon Monoxide 20 ppm 10 ppm
Odor None Pronounced None Pronounced
Carbon Dioxide 1,000 ppm 500 ppm
B. Testing of cylinder air Need to test every sixth cylinder or take a composite sample.
A-16
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1. Oxygen Test - Use 02 detector. Insert probe into a small plastic bag. Bleed cylinder air into a
bag, sealing and/or tying off open end. Take reading.
2. Hydrocarbon Test - No condensed hydrocarbons should be apparent. Bleed cylinder air into a
bag at room temperature and insert a small mirror into the bag for five minutes. Seal or tie off
the bag and examine the mirror for condensed (vapor) droplets.
3. Carbon Monoxide Test - Insert Draeger tube for carbon monoxide into an air bag. Seal lid and
take reading.
4. Odor - Air always has a slight odor, but no pronounced odor should be detectable.
5. Carbon Dioxide - Use Draeger tube as described in carbon monoxide test.
NOTE: Care must be taken when charging air cylinders with a compressor. Most
compressors use a piston-type motor which requires oil to support compression. The oii can
degrade air quality. Also, if compressors are used the ambient air must be of good quality.
Use of cascading air system is preferred for cylinder refill.
Cylinder Test And Markings
A. Tests
Cylinder must be hydrostaticalty tested at 5/3 of the rated pressure every three years. Tank is
usually checked internally and externally. Internal test is performed in a water jacket or by the
use of an expansion gauge that is accurate to one percent of the tank expansion. Pressure in
the tank must be maintained for 30 seconds.
B. Markings On Cylinders
1. DOT - E 7277 - 2216
DOT = Department of Transportation
E 7277 = Exemption Number
2216 = Charged Pressure
2. ALT 59 - 27/889 - a manufacturer's serial number.
3. Elastic Expansion = 96-106 ml in water jacket
4. Hydrostatic Test Date = 9/79
5. SCI - Name of Cylinder Manufacturer
6. A - Hydrostatic Test Company Licensed by DOT
7. MSA Part #460320 - Part Number
A-17
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SCBA Components And Parts
A. Regulator
1. Main Line Valve - regulates air as needed
2. Bypass Valve : allows air to flow continuously when open
3. Breathing Tube Connection - runs from regulator to facepiece
B. Composite Cylinder
1. Pressure gauge
2. Rupture disk
3. Hand wheel and lock
C. Audi-La rm
1. High pressure hose
2, Bell alarm - rings when 20 to 25% of air is left in cylinder
D. Facepiece Breathing Tube
1. Valves
2. Gaskets and "O" rings
3. Nose cup
E. Backpack and Harness Assembly
1. Cam key assembly
2. Straps and belt
3. Backplate
4. Clamp and spring
Check Out Procedures
A. Genera]
* Inspect SCBA
before and after each use
at least monthly when in storage
every time they are cleaned
* Check all connections for tightness
* Check material conditions for.
signs of pliability
signs of deterioration
signs of distortion
A-18
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3. Detailed checkout procedures
The high pressure hose connector should be tight on cylinder fitting.
The bypass valve should be closed.
The mainline valve should be closed.
There should be no cover or obstruction on regulator outlet
The cylinder should be fully charged.
* If you encounter any regulator problem, set the unit aside until repair by an MSA
technician can be made.
1. Straps
a) Visually inspect for complete set.
b) Visually inspect for frayed straps that may break during use.
2. Buckles
a) Visually inspect for mating ends.
b) Check locking function.
3. Backplate and Cylinder Lock
a) Visually inspect backplate for cracks and for missing rivets or screws.
b) Visually inspect cylinder hold-down strap and physically check strap tightener and lock
to insure that it is fully engaged.
4. Cylinder and Cylinder Valve Assembly
a) Physically check cylinder to insure that it is tightly fastened to back plate.
b) Check hydrostatic test date to insure that it is current.
c) Visually inspect cylinder for dents.
5. Head and Valve Assembly
a) Visually inspect cylinder valve lock.
b) Visually inspect cylinder gauge for condition of face, needle, and lens.
c) Open cylinder vah/e and listen or feel for leakage around packing gland. (If leakage is
noted, do not use until repaired.) Note function of valve lock.
6. High Pressure Hose and Connector
a) Listen or feel for leakage in hose or at hose-to-cylinder connector. (Bubble in outer
hose covering may be caused by seepage through hose when stored under pressure.
This does not necessarily mean a faulty hose.)
b) Check for presence and condition of O ring.
A-19
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7. Regulator and Low Pressure Alarm Check Out
a) Cover outlet of regulator with palm of hand. Open mainline valve and read regulator
gauge (must read at least 1800 psi and no more than rated cylinder pressure).
b) Close cylinder valve and slowly move hand from regulator outlet to allow slow flow of
air. Gauge should begin to show immediate loss of pressure as air flows. Low
pressure alarm should sound at about 500 psi down to 100 psi. Remove hand
completely from outlet and close mainline valve.
c) Place mouth onto or over regulator outlet and blow. A positive pressure should be
created and maintained for 5 to 10 seconds without any loss of air. Next suck a slight
negative pressure on regulator and hold for 5 to 10 seconds. Vacuum should remain
constant This tests the integrity of the diaphragm. Any loss of pressure or vacuum
during this test indicates a leak in the apparatus.
d) Open cylinder valve.
e) Place hand over regulator outlet and open mainline valve. Remove hand from outlet
and replace in rapid movement. Repeat twice. Air should escape each time hand is
removed, indicating a positive pressure in chamber. Close mainline valve and remove
hand from outlet.
f) Ascertain that no obstruction in or over the regulator outlet. Open and close bypass
vatve momentarily to insure flow of air through bypass system.
g) Check deflection and angle of aspirator control plate.
8. Facepiece and Corrugated Breathing Tube
a) Visually inspect head harness for damaged serrations and deteriorated rubber.
Visually inspect rubber facepiece body for signs of deterioration or extreme distortion.
b) Visually inspect lens for proper seal in rubber facepiece, body for signs of deterioration
or extreme distortion.
c) Visually inspect exhalation valve for visible deterioration or foreign materials buiid-up.
d) Check for protective lens cover.
9. Breathing Tube and Connector
a) Stretch breathing tube and visually inspect for deterioration and holes.
b) Visually inspect connector for good condition of threads and for presences and proper
condition of the rubber gaskets.
NOTE: Final test of facepiece would involve a negative pressure test for overall seal and check
for exhalation valve. If monthly inspection, mask must now be placed against face and
following tests performed. If preparing for use, don backpack, then don facepiece and
use following procedure.
10. Negative Pressure Test On Facepiece
With facepiece held tightly to face or facepiece property donned, stretch breathing tube to
open corrugations and place thumb or hand over end of connector. Inhale. Negative
A-20
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pressure should be created inside mask, causing it to pull tightly to face. This negative
pressure should be maintained for 5 to 10 seconds. If not, the facepiece assembly is not
adequate and should not be worn.
Storage of Units
1) Cylinder refilled as necessary and unit cleaned and inspected.
2) Cylinder valve closed.
3) High pressure hose connector tight on cylinder,
4) Pressure bled off high pressure hose and regulator.
5) Bypass valve closed.
6) Mainline valve closed.
7) All straps completely loosened and laid straight.
8) Facepiece property stored to protect against dust, sunlight, heat, extreme cold,
excessive moisture, and damaging chemicals.
Donning Procedures
A. Over-the-back method.
B. Bypass valve operation,
C. Tank Changing using buddy method.
SCBA Adjustments
A. High Pressure Air Line Hose
To adjust hose rotate the cylinder and the high pressure connector flywheel. This will
prevent hose contact to the hip which can cause bruises.
B. Back Pad Adjustments
Adjust tension in the back pad to prevent contact of the back from the backplate. This
prevents potential injury lo the lower back from the backplate.
C. Audi-Larm Adjustment
Adjust Audi-Larm spring to proper tension.
D. Handwheel Spring Adjustment
This should be flush with the valve stem. Overtightening will overcompress the spring and
cause leakage.
E. Packing Gland Adjustment
If the valves leak, tighten the hex nuts just enough to stop leakage. No more than one-
quarter of a turn should be necessary.
A-21
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F. Diaphragm Cap Adjustment
If the cap should come loose, retighten it by hand.
A.5 MSA 401 OPERATIONAL SPECIFICATIONS
1. GENERAL
Normal breathing rate = 6 liters/minute 12 breaths/minute (or 500 oc/breath x 12
breaths/minute = 6,000 cc/minute)
2. CYLINDER
air supply time = average of 30 minutes
cylinder capacity = 45 cubic feet of air at 2216 psi = 1273,5 liters
cylinder rupture disk vents at = 3360 psi
3. FACEPIECE
exhalation valve = calibrated at 1.5 inches H20 pressure over atmospheric
4. AUDl-LARM
sounds at = about 500 psi down to 100 psi
{= about 20% of cylinder volume)
5. REGULATOR
positive pressure = 1 Inch pressure over atmospheric
atmospheric pressure = 760 mm Hg - 29.9 inches HG - 14.6 psi
air delivery capacity = up to 400 liters/minute
low pressure relief valve = vents at 30-35 psi
high pressure release valve = vents at 105-125 psi
low side operating pressure = 25 psi
high side operating pressure = between 85-90 psi
A.6 CLEANING AND SANITIZING OF RESPIRATOR FACEPIECE
A. Facepiece and breathing tube should be cleaned and sanitized after each field use. This
insures decontamination even if the unit is not dirty. Uses MSA cleaner solutions and follow
procedures as outlined by directions which are printed on the cleaner package.
A-22
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B. Disassembly of facepiece for cleaning.
1. Use MSA Cleaner-Sanitizer (Part #34337)
(NOTE: Do not use bleach or any cleaner-sanitizer other than a quaternary ammonium
salt solution (50 ppm), hypochlorite solution (5Q ppm), or iodine solution (50 ppm). The
MSA-recommended cleaner should be used.)
2. Empty contents of package into a gallon of warm water at about 120° F.
3. Completely disassemble facepiece removing cartridges, inhalation and exhalation valves
cartridge receptacle retainers, gaskets, and speaking diaphragm assembly.
(NOTE: Facepiece lens and speaking diaphragm clamp should not be removed.
Overtightening of the clamp can cause leaking and damage the mask.)
4. Completely submerse disassembled facepiece in cleaner solution for about two minutes.
Then scrub mask with a soft brush or sponge prior to rinsing with warm water. Allow
mask to drip dry off if necessary, blow dry with electric dryer.
5. Reassemble mask.
A-23
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APPENDIX B.
MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
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B.1 INTRODUCTION
In the course of field work, several different types of field instruments may be utilized. What follows
is a description of several field instruments commonly utilized, and while for illustrative purposes
some specific manufacturers and models are referred to, this is not a recommendation of a
particular product or manufacturer.
B-1
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PHOTOIONIZER ANALYZER MODEL PI-101
HNU SYSTEMS INC.
B.2 HNU
Capabilities:
Detects total concentration of many organic and some inorganic gases and vapors. Easy to use
and has a rapid response (90% of actual concentration in three seconds for benzene). It has a
useful range of 0-2000 ppm and a lower limit of detection of 0.1 ppm (benzene).
Theory:
Ambient air is drawn into the probe which contains an ultraviolet (UV) source. Since every molecule
has a characteristic ionization potential, those molecules that are present with an ionization potential
less than the probe energy are ionized. The ion pairs formed cause a current to flow between two
electrodes. A readout of this current, which is proportional to the concentration of the ion pairs, is
displayed on a meter. Probes of 9.5, 10.2 and 11.7 ev are available, but the 10.2 ev probe is the
most useful. Although the 11.7 ev probe can detect more compounds than the other two probes, it
has a useful life of only 12 hours, making it cost-prohibitive to use on a regular basis. Obviously if
the presence of compounds that can be detected only by the 11,7 probe it will be used, instead of
the 10.2 probe.
Limitations:
Materials with an ionization potential greater than the probe energy will not be measured. For
instance, with a 10.2 ev probe, the following substances are among those which will not be
detected:
Methane (12.98 ev)
Hydrogen Sulfide (10.46 ev)
Hydrogen Cyanide (13.91 ev)
Carbon Dioxide (13.79 ev)
At the end of this section is a list of selected compounds and their responsiveness to various
probes. For information and additional compounds, consuit the NIOSH "Pocket Guide to Chemical
Hazards," or other chemical reference books.
The repeatability of the meter reading is +_ 1% of the full scale deflection (e.g., on the 0-20 ppm
scale the uncertainty is +_ 0.2 ppm). Therefore, at low concentrations near the detection limit the
error could be quite large.
Pre Field Preo:
Make sure the batteries are fully charged and run through the calibration procedure to check
instrument operation.
B-2
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Calibration:
1. Attach the probe to the instrument, turn the unit on and leave the instrument in the standby
position.
2. Allow five minutes for the instrument to warm up.
3. Zero the meter while still in the standby mode.
4. Set the switch to the appropriate range (0-200 ppm) for the calibration gas, and set the
span as required for the probe used (span 9.8 for the 10.2 ev probe).
5. Attach regulator to calibration gas cylinder, and probe extension to the probe. Connect
probe extension to calibration gas cylinder with plastic tubing. Turn on calibration gas
regulator and wait about a minute for calibration gas to flow into probe Then read the
meter on the 0-200 ppm scale, and enter the meter reading and the actual concentration
(read off the calibration gas cylinder) into the instrument logbook. The meter reading should
be within 10% of the concentration given on the calibration gas cylinder. If the reading is
off by more than 10% a trained operator should clean the lamp window (Refer to the
operating manual).
6. It should be noted that this calibration gas cannot be carried on board passenger aircraft,
therefore unless the team drives to the site the calibration gas has to be shipped in
advance as dangerous goods via Federal Express.
Field Use:
After calibration is performed, detach the calibration gas cylinder and allow the instrument to purge
for a few minutes. Then obtain a background reading on the 0-20 ppm scale in a clean area away
from vehicles. Record this background in the field notebook, and then proceed with the survey of
the anticipated work areas. It must be noted that the concentration readout is for benzene only,
since the calibration gas is benzene or an equivalent The instrument response to different
compounds is relative to the calibration setting. See Table 2, for factors to convert benzene
concentrations to concentrations fc*- other compounds. The actual concentration of total
contaminants can be higher or lower than the instrument readings. In addition, the response is not
linear over the detection range (e.g., if the concentration increases by 10%, the meter will not
necessarily rise by 10%). Figure 1 illustrates a typical calibration curve.
lies;
The batteries are gel cells and it is not possible to overcharge them. Since the instrument has to
be recalibrated every time "it's turned off, it should be left in the standby mode after calibration,
when not being used to take readings. The batteries should be charged overnight by first plugging
the mini-phone jack from the charger into the instrument and then plugging the charger into the *
120V mains. After charging is complete the charger should be removed from the 120V line before
being unplugged from the instrument
Troubleshooting:
If the reading is zero or negative, there is condensation present on the lamp. Move the instrument
to a drier area so that the air drawn into the probe will remove the condensation by evaporation.
B-3
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PORTABLE ORGANIC VAPOR ANALYZER
MODEL OVA-128
CENTURY SYSTEMS
B.3 'OVA'
Capabilities:
Responds to many organic gases and vapors. In the survey mode it detects total concentration of
gases and vapors, while in the GC mode it identifies and measures specific compounds. The GC
mode is not normally used for FIT work. The OVA is more sensitive and can detect more organic
materials than the HNU. This is due to the fact that it uses a hydrogen flame for ionization and is,
therefore, capable of ionizing compounds of higher ionization potentials than is possible with a UV
lamp. The useful range is 0-1000 ppm with a lower limit of detection of 0.1 ppm (methane).
Theory:
Ambient air is drawn into the instrument by a pump where it is ionized in a hydrogen flame. Any
compound that will ionize at a temperature below that of the flame (2000° F) will form ion pairs,
which are drawn to electrodes causing a current flow that is proportional to the concentration of ion
pairs.
Limitations:
Does not respond to inorganic gases or vapors, most importantly hydrogen cyanide. _ Also, any
organic gas or vapor which requires a temperature higher than 2000° F for ionization will not be
detected. The OVA should not be used below 40° because gases can condense within the pump.
Pre Field Prep:
Make sure the batteries are fully charged. Since they are gel cells there is no problem with
overcharging. Also, check the hydrogen gas supply. It should be noted that due to this
compressed hydrogen supply the instrument cannot be carried on board passenger aircraft and
unless the team drives to the site has to be shipped as dangerous goods.
Calibration:
For use in the survey mode the OVA is internally calibrated to methane at the factory. Therefore,
the instrument indicates the true concentration of methane in air; for all other organic compounds
the instrument reading may be higher or lower than the true concentrations. Calibration charts can
be made up to relate the instrument readings to the true concentrations or the instrument can be
adjusted to directly read other specific compounds correctly.
Field Use:
The OVA is a fairly complex instrument and the operating manual should be consulted for detailed
operating procedures. However, the basic operating
procedure is presented below:
B-4
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A. Start Up
1. Move the PUMP switch to the ON position,
2. Move the INSTR switch to the BATT position to check the condition of the
battery.
3. Move the INSTR switch to ON and allow the instalment to warm up for at
least five minutes.
4. Set the Alarm Level Adjust Knob on the back of the readout assembly so
that the alarm comes on at the desired concentrations.
5. Set the CALIBRATE switch to the X10 position and then use the CALIBRATE
knob to set the meter to zero.
6. Move the PUMP switch to the ON position and then place the instrument
panel in a vertical position and check to ensure that the SAMPLE FLOW
RATE INDICATOR reads about 2.
7. Open the Hz tank valve and the H2 supply valve.
B. Depress the ignite button until the burner lights (you will hear a 'pop'); do
not depress the igniter button for more than six seconds. If the burner does
not ignite, let the instrument run for several minutes before reattempting
ignition.
9. In a clean area use the CALIBRATE knob to zero out ambient background.
For maximum sensitivity below 10 ppm set the CALIBRATE switch to x1 and
readjust zero on the meter to 1 ppm. The zero is set at 1 ppm when using
the xl setting to avoid a false flame-out alarm; therefore, 1 ppm should be
subtracted from any reading obtained down range (i.e., a 7 ppm reading is
actually 6 ppm).
B. Shut Down
1. Close the H2 supply valve H2 tank valve.
2. Move the INSTR switch and PUMP switch to off.
Tips
Refer to the instrument operating manual.
Trouble Shooting
Refer to the instrument operating manual.
B-5
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B.4
EXPLOSIMETER
MODEL 2A COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR
Capabilities:
This instrument determines the level of flammable vapor and gas present in an atmosphere as a
percent of the lower explosive limit (% LEL). A suction bulb is used to draw ambient air into the
instrument through a built-in filter chamber that usually contains a cotton filter. The cotton filter
removes any dust or moisture present in the sample. An activated charcoal filter can also be used
which allows only methane to penetrate and then, obviously, the instrument reading is a measure of
methane alone. (The working range of the instrument is 0 - 20,000 ppm), It should also be noted
that the uncertainty of the explosimeter reading is +. 40%. The instrument can be fitted with
extensions so it can sample air in recessed areas.
Theory:
The instrument contains a balanced electrical circuit (wheatstone bridge), one component of which
is a coated filament When a volume of ambient air is aspirated into the instrument, flammable
materials present react exo- thermically with the filament This increases the electrical resistance of
the filament and unbalances the wheatstone bridge, and causes a current flow. This current is
proportional to the concentration of the flammable materials in the sample, and is displayed on the
meter as a % LEL The lower explosive limit (LEL) is the minimum concentration of a flammable in
air required to form a explosive mixture. The upper explosive limit (UEL) is the maximum
concentration of the flammable substance that would form an explosive mixture. In other words,
below the LEL the mixture is too lean to explode and above the UEL it is too rich to explode.
Limitations:
The instrument does not indicate what specific material is being detected. The meter reading is just
the % LEL Some chemicals can react with the filament and ruin it Examples are fuming acids,
leaded gasoline or any compounds containing silicon. The instrument will also not register above
the UEL due to overloading of the bonding sites on the coated filament The instrument is also not
capable of measuring the explosive potential of atmospheres containing suspended dust particles
such as coal dust or mists and sprays such as lubricating oil. Since the response of the instrument
is due to the temperature change of the filament wire, rapid fluctuations in ambient temperatures will
lead to incorrect readings. As the instrument is operated, the bonding sites on the coated filament
are used up and the response of the instrument changes. Also, the instrument will not function
correctly in an oxygen deficient (< 19.5%) or oxygen rich (> 25%) atmosphere. Therefore, the
explosimeter should always be used in conjunction with an oxygen meter. When the explosimeter is
used, the relative humidity must be between 10-90%.
Pre Field Preo:
Turn the instalment on and go through the calibration check procedure in order to ensure that the
instrument is operating correctly. Six extra D-cells should be taken with the instrument
Calibration:
The calibration check gas, which is 2% methane, should read 50-60% LEL This calibration gas is
not accurate enough for actual calibration but is useful for checking the operation of the instrument.
B-6
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If the instrument reads low, the filament and inlet fitter should be replaced (refer to the instruction
manual).
Field Use:
Lift the lever on the switch and turn the knob one quarter turn clockwise. In an area free of
flammable gas or vapor, pump the bulb five times to purge the instrument with fresh air (the bulb
should be pumped two more times for every extension). The zero can now be set. The
explosimeter is then taken to the area that needs to be tested. Five pumps on the bulb is usually
enough to obtain a maximum meter deflection (with two additional pumps for every extension).
Action Levels: 0-10% LEL continue with work
10-25% LEL, continue work with constant monitoring
> 25% LEL, leave the site
Tips:
If the meter needle moves rapidly to the extreme right and upon continued aspiration to the left of
the scale, the ambient atmosphere might be above the UEL Under such conditions the meter
deflection occurs very rapidly and drops back down. Thus, if the operator was not watching the
scale continuously the deflection could be missed completely. Move the instrument to a clean area
and rezero it after pumping the bulb five times to purge it of all flammable vapor or gas. At all
times, when zeroing, avoid turning the knob so that the meter needle moves much above zero since
this allows a larger current to flow through the filament, thus shortening its life. After each use do
not turn the instrument off until it is purged well with clean air. The life of the filament also depends
on how long it remains in contact with flammable gas or vapor, so the instrument should be flushed
as soon as possible after each use.
Troubleshooting:
If the reading drifts, it is an indication that the batteries are running down. If the needle remains
below zero and cannot be brought back up to zero even with the control knob turned to its extreme
clockwise position, it means that the batteries are dead. Remove the bottom of the instrument by
turning the two slotted screws that hold it in place. The cells operate in parallel so they should be
installed with their positive terminals toward the top of
the battery compartment If the meter needle moves to the extreme right when the instrument is
turned on and cannot be adjusted to zero, the filament may be burned out. A replacement is
included in the case of the instrument below the top panel. Three screws holding the panel down
have to be removed first. Refer to the instrument manual for the correct procedure to replace the
filament detector.
B.5 OXYGEN METER
MSA MODEL 245R.
Capabilities:
Measures oxygen content of air to determine if a suitable atmosphere is available on site (i.e, >
19.5% to < 25%% 02). All personnel working in an oxygen deficient atmosphere (< 19.5% 02) will
have to use approved positive pressure SCBA. In an oxygen rich atmosphere (> 25%% 02), aside
B-7
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from the hazard due to the reactivity of such high concentrations of oxygen, it should also be noted
that the explosimeter cannot be used. The oxygen meter automatically compensates for
temperatures between 32° F and 104° F.
Theory:
The instrument consists of a probe connected to a box containing electronics and a meter display.
The probe consists of two electrodes in contact with an electrolyte which is separated from the test
atmosphere by a gas permeable membrane. Oxygen diffuses through this membrane at a rate
proportional to the difference in partial pressure across the membrane, which in turn is proportional
to the concentration of oxygen in the test atmosphere. Due to the oxygen diffusion into the
electrolyte, a current flows between the electrodes, and is displayed on the meter as percent
oxygen.
Limitations:
A log should be kept on Sensor Replacement since their operational life is approximately one year.
The probe should not be allowed to get wet or be used under conditions where moisture could
condense on the probe membrane since this will cause the reading to be lower than the true value.
High concentrations (> 5000 ppm) of chlorine, fluorine, ozone and acid mists will yield erroneously
high readings. Atmospheres with >10% C02 reduce the life of the sensor.
Pre Field Prep:
Check the instrument response and calibration to ensure that it is operating properly.
Calibration:
Press and hold down the red button on the side of the case white exposing the probe to fresh air
offsite. After the reading stabilizes, set the meter at 20.8 (if at sea level) using the adjustment
screw.
If the meter is going to be used outside the 32° F to 104° F range, then it has to be calibrated
according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Field Use:
After calibration in fresh air the probe is placed in the atmosphere to be tested. The red button is
pressed and held down. Then the percent oxygen can be read off the scale.
Tips:
Make sure an extra 9V battery is taken along with the instrument. Also, it should be noted that the
instrument cannot be used below 0° F or above 125° F
Troubleshooting:
If the response is getting slow, the sensor is probably approaching the end of its useful life. In
addition, if the instrument cannot be adjusted as necessary (e.g., to 20,8%; 02. for fresh air at sea
level) either the probe or battery needs to be replaced.
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B.6 DRAEGER PUMP AND TUBE
The Draeger Tube Air Grab Sampler consists of a bellows pump for drawing air and species-
dependent detector tubes, A color change indicates the presence of the gas and the length of the
color change is proportional to the concentration of the gas.
Capabilities:
Although a semi-quantative method at best, detector tubes are available for gases which are not
detected by the OVA and HNU, and which would poison the filament of the explosimeter and
oxygen indicator. Some examples would be hydrogen suffide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide,
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide and chloride.
Limitations:
1. Because the tubes contain silica gel, high humidity may affect results.
2. Many types of tubes have cross sensitivities to the substances and will, therefore, give
incorrect readings in atmospheres containing substances other than the gas being
measured. The instructions that come with the tubes list these cross senstivties.
3. Draeger tubes must be used in a Draeger pump. Pumps and detector tubes supplied by
different manufacturers are not interchangeable.
4. The shelf life of most Draeger tubes is two years when stored at room temperature.
Exposure to sunlight and to temperatures in excess of 30° C will rapidly deteriorate tube
performance.
5. Contaminants and the identity and approximate amount of contaminants in the atmosphere
must be known in order to evaluate cross-sensitivities of the reagent and to ensure a
sensitive enough detection limit of the selected tube.
6. The tube response time is relatively slow. If ten pumps are required before a color change
is noted, then 1.5 to 6.5 minutes may have passed.
This time factor could seriously compromise health and safety, if the air on site is severely
contaminated,
Prefield Prep:
Check the pump for leaks.
Test #1:
Insert an unopened Draeger tube and completely compress the bellows. The pump is
sufficiently air-tight if the bellows has not expanded again completely after 10 minutes, i.e.,
the limit chain is not taut.
Test #2:
Compress the bellows without inserting a detector tube. The bellows should open suddenly
B-9
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after releasing the pressure.
If pump fails either Test #1 or Test #2, maintenance work is necessary.
Field Use:
A. Break off both tips of the Draeger tube in the break-off eyelet or in the break-off hust.
B. Insert the tube tightly into the pump head with the arrow pointing toward the pump.
C. Fully compress the bellows.
D. Straighten the fingers. The suction process takes place automatically and is completed
when the limit chain is taut. (The bellows is calibrated to draw in 100 cm3 of air per stroke.
Since the suction of the pump is caused only by the relaxation of the springs, any
subjective influence is excluded.)
E. Repeat the suction process as often as specified in the Tube Operating Instructions. The
resistance to the air coming through the tube, varies with the type of Tube Packing and the
¦opening time" of the bellows is therefore affected. This time ranges from 3-40 seconds.
Read the color change in the tube according to the tube operating instructions, to derive a
concentration value.
F. Remove the spent tube and dispose of it on site.
G. Before putting the bellows pump away, flush it out with air, making a few strokes without a
detector tube in a clean environment.
Maintenance:
Eliminating Leaks:
Any leaks can usually be eliminated by cleaning the valve. To do this, remove the front plate and
unscrew the valve using the special spanner. Raise the valve disc to prevent it from being
damaged by the spanner. Clean the valve by blowing it through with air or by rinsing it with water.
Dry it after cleaning.
If the rubber of the valve disc is sticky, brittle, hard or cracked, ft must be replaced. Remove the
pin from the valve seat stem and push in the pin of the new valve seat. It is best to moisten the
pin a little first When fitting the cover plate, ensure that the limit chain is not twisted and that the
fixing hook lies in the longitudinal direction of the pump, so that it fits satisfactorily in the slot of the
cover plate.
Cleaning of the Metal Screen:
After prolonged use of the bellows pump, the wire mesh sieve under the rubber bung in the pump
head may become blocked. The sieve must, therefore, be cleaned from time to time, about every
four weeks when the pump is used frequently. Loosen the two-hole nut with the special spanner
and remove the rubber bung. Take out the sieve and clean it with a brush under running water.
When re-inserting the two-hole nut, tighten it only until the rubber bung is just under stress and the
Draeger Tube can be inserted easily, but tightly.
B-10
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Flushing the Pump with Air;
During testing, certain tube types give off vapors which pass into the interior of the bellows pump
(e.g., sulfuric acid mist). To prevent corrosion, flush out the pump with air by making a few strokes
without a detector tube every time it has been used.
Tips:
1. Be familiar with the specific detector tube prior to field use. For example, some tubes
require breaking an ampule prior to pumping, or require a color comparison tube. Estimate
the response time based on the sensitivity of the detector tube and the anticipated gas
concentration.
2, A Draeger detection tube has a typed designation. This defines the smallest concentration
which can be exactly measured with the tube (ppm or mg/l). A letter after this number is
changed when changes in the construction or properties of the tube occur:
e.g., Draeger tube H2SI/C
The number '1' means that the minimum amount of hydrogen sulfide measured by this tube is 1
ppm (with the number of strokes of the gas detector pump specified for the tube). The letter "C
indicates that an "a" and a 'b* tube for HgS have been manufactured, but have different construction
or different minimum detection level.
B-11
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SITE HEALTH AND SAFETY PLAN FOR UNDERGROUND
STORAGE TANK INSPECTIONS
The following is a generic site health and safety plan for underground storage tank inspections. As
indicated throughout the plan, selected sections should only be filled out by people with technical
expertise in health and safety issues. In addition, State organizations using this plan should set up
a system to ensure that: (1) the plan is used properly and (2) staff follow proper safety procedures.
PART I
Part I (Sections l-IV) should be completed by the UST inspector prior to the site visit.
SECTION I. GENERAL SITE INFORMATION
SITE NAME AND ADDRESS;
CONTACT PERSON AND PHONE NUMBER:
SITE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER:
PROPOSED DATE(S) OF SITE WORK:
SECTION II. DESCRIPTION OF INSPECTION ACTIVITY
PURPOSE OF ACTIVITY:
New Tank Installation
Tank Closure
Tank/Pipe Removal
Tank/Pipe Disposal
Petroleum Release Investigation
Tank/Pipe Repair
Leak Detection Testing
Installation of Monitor Wells/Sampling
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PROVIDE A BRIEF NARRATIVE DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED INSPECTION ACTIVITIES:
SECTION III. SPECIFIC SITE INFORMATION
SPECIFIC TANK SYSTEM INFORMATION:
Age/Size/Capacity of Tanks and Piping:
Contents of Tank:
Other (Specify):
TYPE OF SITE
CHECK ALL APPROPRIATE:
Active
Inactive
Industrial facility
Gas station
TSDF
R&D Facility
.Military base
_Other (Specify)
RELEASE HISTORY
No evidence of leaks or soil contamination ( )
Suspected or known leaks and soil contamination ( )
Known groundwater contamination ( )
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BACKGROUND AND DESCRIPTION OF ANY PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS OR INCIDENCE:
BACKGROUND INFORMATION STATUS: ( ) COMPLETE
( )
INCOMPLETE
SECTION IV. POTENTIAL HEALTH AND SAFETY HAZARDS
ANTICIPATED PHYSICAL HAZARDS OF CONCERN: (CHECK ALL THAT APPLY AND DESCRIBE)
Heat (high ambient temp.)
Cold
Noise
Oxygen depletion
Asphyxiation
Excavation
Cave-ins
Falls, trips, slipping
Handling and transfer of petroleum
products
Fire
Explosions
Heavy equipment
Physical injury and trauma resulting
from moving machinery
General construction
Physical injury and trauma
Electrical Hazards
Confined space entry
Explosions
Other (Specify)
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ANTICIPATED BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS: (UST BELOW)
Snakes Poisonous plants
Insects Other
Rodents
NARRATIVE: (Provide ail information which could impact Health and Safety - e.g., power lines,
integrity of dikes, terrain, etc.)
ANTICIPATED CHEMICAL HAZARDS: (LIST BELOW ALL CHEMICALS PRESENT ON SITE; ATTACH
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS-MSDS)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
4
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PART II
Section V should only be completed by persons with technical expertise in health and safety.
SECTION V. EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL HAZARDS
CHEMICALS OF CONCERN
Highest Symptoms/
Observable PEL/ Effects of
Chemical Concentration (medial TLV IDLH Acute Exposure
5
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PART 111
Sections VI and VII should be completed by the UST inspector prior to the site visit.
SECTION VI. METHODS TO CONTROL POTENTIAL HEALTH AND SAFETY HAZARDS
MONITORING INSTRUMENTATION: (NOTE: MONITORING INSTRUMENTS MUST BE USED FOR
ALL OPERATIONS UNLESS APPROPRIATE RATIONALE OR RESTRICTIONS ARE PROVIDED).
Organic Vapor Analyzer
Photoionization Detector
Combustible Gas Indicator (CGI)
Oxygen Meter
Hydrogen Sulfide Meter
Detector Tubes (specify)
Other, specify (toxic gas, air sampling pumps, etc.)
IF MONITORING INSTRUMENTS ARE NOT USED, SPECIFY RATIONALE OR JUSTIFICATION OR
ACTIVITY/AREA RESTRICTIONS.
ACTION LEVELS (breathing zone):
Combustible Gas Indicator
0-10% LEL No Explosion Hazard
10 -25% LEL Potential Explosion Hazard; Notify Site Health and Safety Officer
>25% LEL Explosion Hazard; Interrupt Task/Evacuate
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ACTION LEVELS (breathing zone): continued
Oxygen Meter
<21.0% 02 Oxygen Normal
<21.0% 02 Oxygen Deficient; Notify Site Health and Safety Officer
<19.5% 02 Oxygen Deficient; Interrupt Task/Evacuate
Photoionlzation Specify;
Detector
( ) 11.7 ev
( ) 10.2 ev
( ) 9.8 ev
Type:
Flame Ionization Specify:
Detector
Type:
Detector Tubes Specify:
Type
Type
Type
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT: Ust all applicable items
Minimum personal protective equipment:
1. Hardhat
2. Safety glasses/goggles
3. Steel toed/shank shoes or boots
4. Flame retardant coveralls
5. Hearing protection (muffs or ear plugs)
Is additional PPE required? YES / NO
7
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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT continued
Check all additional necessary items:
Uncoated tyvek coveralls
Saranex tyvek coveralls
. Rubber boots
_ Overboots
Surgical (inner) gloves
. Butyl/neoprene/viton/nitrile outer gloves
_Full face respirators
type of cartridge:
SCBA / SAR
_ELSAs
_Other (specify):
VII. EMERGENCY INFORMATION
Emergency Contact:
Fire/Rescue:
Ambulance:
Police;
Hazardous Waste Materia) Response Units
Health and Safety Director:
Poison Control Center.
On-site medical facility (clinic): YES / NO
Facility health and safety officer: YES / NO
Name:
Phone number:
Hospital Name and Address:
Directions to hospital (include a map):
PART IV
SECTION VIII. PLAN APPROVAL
Plan prepared by:
(Date)
Plan approved by:
(Date)
Plan approved by:
(Date)
8
¦ft U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1993 O - 339-042 QL3
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