EPA910/R-94-006
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
Alaska
Idaho
Oregon
Washington
Water Division
January 1994
A Citizen's Guide to
Approaches to Restoring Vegetation
Communities and Wildlife Habitat
Structure in Freshwater Wetland
Systems
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A CITIZEN'S GUIDE TO
WETLAND RESTORATION
Approaches to Restoring Vegetation Communities and Wildlife
Habitat Structure in Freshwater Wetland Systems
Prepared By:
Ron Vanbianchi
Michelle Stevens
Terry Sullivan
Sono Hashisaki
Springwood Associates, Inc.
3644 Albion Place North
Seattle, Washington 98103
January, 1994
For:
Adopt a Beach
P.O. Box 21486 Seattle, WA 98111
With funds provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region 10
Wetlands Program, Linda Storm, Project Officer
1200 Sixth Avenue, Seattle, WA 98101
Adopt a Beach is a non-profit organization that develops stewardship projects
along Washington's marine waters and in its associated wetlands.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ruth Schaefer, a tireless worker for wetland and stream
protection, initiated this guidebook. Ruth saw the need for a
citizen's restoration guide and started the ball rolling by
preparing an early outline, and her involvement has continued
through the final draft. Linda Storm, Fred Weinmann, Ken
Pritchard, and Chuck Klimas provided valuable comments on
early drafts of the document.
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Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Intent of the Guidebook 1
Wetland Functions 5
Need for Permits 7
History of Restoration 8
Chapter 1
Site Selection 10
Sources of Landscape Information 13
Chapter 2
Analyzing the Restoration Site 15
Water 15
Plants 16
Soils 17
Topography 18
Disturbed Areas 20
Wildlife 21
Chapter 3
Developing a Conceptual Restoration Design 23
Protecting a Wetland 24
Restoring or Enhancing Vegetation 25
Controlling Invasive Species 27
Enhancing Wildlife Habitat 29
Sources for Help 31
Local Conservation District Offices 32
WSU Cooperative Extension Offices 33
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Chapter 4
Preparing and Planting Your Design
Developing a Restoration Plan
Restoration Scheduling
Native Plant Sources
Site Preparation
Providing for Human Access
Planting
Tool Suppliers
References for Further Reading
Appendix A:
Native Plant Growth Requirements
Trees
Shrubs
Herbs
Appendix B:
Typical Puget Lowland Plant Communities
Streamside Communities
Wetland Communities
Buffer Communities
Appendix C:
Restoration Checklist
Wetland Functions
Restoration Analysis
Developing and Implementing a Planting Plan
Appendix D:
Scientific Names of Plants
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A Citizen's Introduction to Wetland Restoration
When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may
begin to use it with love and respect. There is no other way for
land to survive the impact of mechanized man, nor for us to reap
from it the aesthetic harvest it is capable, under science, of
contributing to culture. That land is a community is the basic
concept of ecology, but that land is to be loved and respected is
an extension of ethics.
A Sand County Almanac
Aldo Leopold
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Introduction
In the Puget Lowlands over half of the wetlands that existed
before European settlement have been lost, and the vast majority
of the remaining wetlands have been damaged or impaired.
Habitats that have been most affected include estuarine wetlands,
forested wetlands, peat wetlands such as bogs and fens, and
highly complex wetlands which are sensitive to harmful impacts.
Fortunately, it is possible to restore and heal some of the damage
which has occurred. If carefully planned and conducted,
restoration projects completed by private citizens can make a
significant contribution towards maintaining and improving
wildlife habitat and water quality throughout the Puget Lowland.
The chapters and format of this guidebook provide a general
approach to environmental restoration by describing details that
need to be addressed during planning and implementation.
Chapters 1 through 4 discuss planning and implementation,
Appendices A and B provide specific information on plant growth
and selection, and the Reference section provides references for
additional information. Appendix C provides a checklist of
restoration tasks and issues, and Appendix D provides the
common and scientific names of plants mentioned in the text.
Intent of the Guidebook
This guidebook is designed to help citizens restore and improve
wetland and riparian habitats within the Puget Lowland (Figure
1). The intended audience is private landowners who have access
to a degraded wetland or stream, and wish to improve the
function or landscape aesthetics of the site without involving
earthwork or altering water flows. As a result, planting
vegetation and installing wildlife habitat features are the main
restoration techniques described in this guidebook. A
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professional biologist experienced in wetland restoration should
be contacted whenever substantial movement of soil or any
change in the flow or location of water is anticipated. In these
cases, the help of other professionals may also be needed, and
local, State, or Federal Government permits will probably be
required. The Washington Department of Ecology Wetlands
Section, many county planning departments, and other local
jurisdictions maintain consultant lists and can help with permit
requirements.
As used in this guidebook, "restoration" means the process of
intentionally returning an ecosystem to a close approximation of
its pre-disturbance condition. The goal of restoration is to restore
the structure, function, diversity and dynamics to an ecosystem
that will operate without continued human management or
reliance on engineered structures. The term "restoration" is
generally used to describe activities in communities that have
been severely degraded by clearing, filling, or invasion by non-
native plant species. Successful restoration not only requires
knowledge of the type of community that existed prior to
disturbance, but also an understanding of the site's existing
conditions. When this knowledge is successfully integrated with
well thought-out restoration plans, the restored ecosystem will
continue to exist and function on the landscape into perpetuity.
Enhancement involves increasing one or more values of all or a
portion of an existing wetland. In general, enhancement is the
term used when working within a community that is in good
shape, but may lack structural features or species that would
normally occur there.
The intent of this guidebook is to promote careful and considered
actions that will restore functions to existing degraded wetlands
or streams, and to avoid adverse impacts to high quality wetlands
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and streams. If it ain't broke,, don't try to fix it, because to do so
will almost always cause damage. For example, many people
prefer ponds or open, park-like woodlands to dense thickets of
vegetation. As a result, emergent, shrub, or forested wetlands
are sometimes converted to ponds, and forest undergrowth is
cleared in wetland buffers and along streams. The net result of
conversion or clearing is usually the loss of ecologically
important functions. As a result, altering any high quality
wetland or riparian community in an attempt to enhance a
particular attribute or aesthetic qualities is detrimental.
fcCEUJN^HAM
ft
Figure 1: The Puget Lowland includes a large area and a
wide range of climates, soils, and biological
communities.
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This guidebook does not provide the information needed to
attempt a wetland creation project. Wetland creation, which
involves transforming uplands into wetlands, requires
considerable expertise and information, and is often unsuccessful.
If done haphazardly, attempts to create wetlands can
inadvertently damage surrounding natural systems by altering
surface or groundwater flows, or result in communities with low
functional value. In addition, wetland creation usually requires
permits from local, State, or Federal agencies, and more time
and money than the restoration and enhancement activities
described in this guide.
This guide also does not provide recipes for restoration to apply
to various wetland types throughout the region. It does not
because each opportunity for restoration you encounter will
present a different set of circumstances in terms of hydrology,
soils, vegetation, and past disturbances. In each case, the
restoration goals you select and the environmental conditions you
have to work with will be unique, and will require unique
solutions.
Successful restoration is based on an understanding of ecology,
the scientific study of the interactions that determine the
distribution and abundance of organisms. The term "ecology" is
derived from the Greek oikos, which means "home" - for
humans, plants and animals. The watershed of the wetland or
stream to be restored is referred to as a landscape. The ecosystem
is a unit within the landscape that includes both plants and
animals and the physical and chemical components of the
immediate environment. Community ecology deals with the
composition or structure of groups of plants and animals that
occur together, and their interrelationships.
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Several ecological concepts pertain to the art of restoration.
Competition is an .interaction in which one organism consumes a
resource that would have been available to another; most weeds
are successful competitors for light, water, and nutrients,
Predation occurs when one organism eats or kills another, for
example when great blue herons or belted kingfishers prey upon
juvenile fish. Herbivory, such as geese eating planted vegetation,
is another form of predation. Mutually beneficial ecological
relationships, termed commensalism, in which organisms thrive
and benefit each other, are also very important. Mycorrhizal
relationships between fungi and flowering plants are one
example.
Wetland Functions
One of the most readily apparent functions of wetlands is
providing critical habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals,
including several threatened, endangered, or sensitive plant and
animal species. Plants found uniquely in wetland areas include
not only the familiar common cattail and yellow pond lilies, but
also cranberry, burreed, many sedges and rushes, and the
insectivorous sundews.
A high percentage of wildlife species depend on wetlands for
some part of their life cycle. During certain stages of an
animal's life cycle, aquatic habitat may be critical for its
continued existence. The constant changes wrought by flowing
water create "edge effect" - a mingling of plant and animal
species between upland, wetland and water. Vegetation
diversity, including both numbers of species and structural
complexity, contribute to high wildlife diversity. Wetlands
provide food, shelter and cover for many terrestrial and
amphibious animal species. Wetlands are particularly important
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during the breeding and nesting season, when animals are often
most vulnerable and need protection.
Wetlands also provide food and shelter for fish. Wetland
vegetation growing next to and over streams shades and cools the
water. Insects falling from overhanging plants feeds hungry
mouths below and downstream. . Dense roots provide bank
stabilization and erosion control, keeping banks in place when
threatened by waves or flooding. Roots secure streambanks,
reducing siltation that covers spawning gravels, but at the same
time allowing undercutting so fish have hiding places
Healthy wetlands and streams provide flood storage and lengthen
the time between a rain event and peak runoff. In watersheds
with healthy wetlands and streams, dense vegetation and
floodplain storage slow water velocity and reduce downstream
flooding. A watershed's water storage capacity is reduced when
wetlands are lost or streams are channelized, resulting in
increased flooding of homes and neighborhoods.
Wetlands provide water quality improvement. Dense vegetation
slows and filters water, and as the sediment load settles out, so
do excess nutrients and pollutants such as fertilizers or pesticides.
Many plants can uptake excess water-borne nutrients and convert
them to plant tissue, and many contaminants are safely
immobilized as a result of chemical binding with organic material
and sediments in wetlands. Unfortunately, the presence of
pollutants in surface water runoff also makes them available to
wetland organisms that may form the base of food webs that
include human beings.
Wetlands often provide areas for groundwater discharge or
recharge. During flooding or high water flows, water infiltrates
from the surface into groundwater aquifers. During low flows,
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this water is released slowly, improving water quality and
quantity for fish, wildlife, recreation, and plant growth.
Wetlands are also unique and highly productive ecosystems that
provide excellent opportunities for aesthetic enjoyment,
recreation, education, and scientific research.
Need for Permits
Whenever work is planned in or adjacent to a wetland, local,
State, and Federal government agencies should be contacted early
in the restoration planning process. There are two reasons for
this: 1) opportunities for technical or financial assistance can be
identified; and 2) a permit may be needed for the work you
propose to do. For example, any work within "Waters of the
State" (which includes all marine and fresh waters within the
ordinary high water lines and within the territorial boundaries of
the state) requires a Hydraulics Project Approval issued by the
Washington Department of Fisheries (for salt water and waters
supporting salmon) or by the Washington Department of Wildlife
(in fresh waters of the state without salmon).
Additional Federal, State, and local permits may be needed if you
plan to work within a stream corridor or wetland. Under no
circumstances should you excavate, recontour, place soil, mulch,
or rock, or use herbicides in or near wetlands or streams without
first consulting Federal, State, and local regulatory agencies.
Phone numbers for State and Federal agencies are listed at the
end of Chapter 3. City and County Planning Departments are
listed in your local phone book. €,
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-H
History of Restoration
Over 50 years ago, prairie restoration was initiated in the
midwestern United States by a private landowner, Aldo Leopold,
who is known as the father of the land ethic and author of A Sand
County Almanac. Leopold and his family bought a ruined and
abandoned farm, repeatedly planted native seeds, and slowly
accumulated enough experience so the seedlings grew and
flourished. Nina Leopold Bradley, his daughter, writes, "All of
us were learning something about ecology in perhaps the only
way it can really be learned - in formulating the small question.
By making the observations, keeping the records, and performing
the experiments, we began to discover the successful combination
of plants and animals that constitute a healthy land." Today,
people come from all over the country to see the beautiful
prairies, wet meadows, and deciduous forests restored by the
Leopold family.
The first major restoration ecology project in the United States
was initiated at the 1,200-acre University of Wisconsin
Arboretum in 1932 (Curtis, 1959). It was determined that the
Arboretum was not to be merely a collection of trees, but rather
that major emphasis was to be placed upon a collection of biotic
communities. Native plants and seeds were collected and planted
in the same relative abundance in which they occurred in natural
plant communities. Eventually, management options such as
fire, weed, and pest control were developed. This approach has
provided the basis for many other restoration projects.
One of the oldest restoration projects in the Pacific Northwest is
the Salmon River salt marsh restoration, located near Lincoln
City, Oregon. Begun in 1980, the goal was to return diked
pastures to functioning estuarine wetlands. Recent research and
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observations indicate the site has been successfully restored to a
functioning, natural, salt marsh.
Restoration of freshwater systems in recent years has largely been
the result of wetland regulation and a "no net loss" policy
adopted by government regulatory agencies. When the no net
loss policy was initiated, mitigation for wetland impacts (in the
form of wetland creation or restoration) generally required no net
loss of wetland acreage. More recently, replacement of wetland
functions is being used to evaluate restoration success, with acre-
for-acre replacement a secondary consideration.
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Chapter 1
Site Selection
Every restoration site should be selected based on its potential for
successful restoration, and should be screened for "red flag"
conditions that could prevent its use. Red flag conditions include
the presence of hazardous waste, inaccessibility, land covenants,
and the presence of rare species. If you suspect your site meets
any of these conditions, restoration will require the assistance of
trained professionals.
Sites chosen for restoration or enhancement should be obviously
degraded by clearing or overgrown by non-native species.
Undisturbed, uncommon, or pristine sites are not good choices
for enhancement. For example, bogs and forested communities
require special treatment, so you may want to enlist the help of
someone with experience in dealing with these systems. Seek
help whenever you have a question about the type of wetland you
are dealing with, a particular phase of a restoration project, or
you are unsure about what to do. Help with restoration planning
and implementation is available from local, state, and federal
agencies. Phone numbers for agencies and organizations that
may provide assistance are listed at the end of Chapter 3.
There are many ways to go about restoring a wetland, ranging
from large projects that completely change a site's physical
characteristics and biological community, to small-scale projects
that improve a site's function and value but do not involve
earthwork or great expense. Protecting a wetland or stream,
restoring or enhancing vegetation, controlling invasive species,
and enhancing wildlife habitat are actions that are within the
realm of possibility for many homeowners. Each of these
strategies are discussed further in Chapter 3.
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Restoration success will be best assured if you spend the time and
energy needed to understand your site's physical and biological
systems before developing plans and taking action. Wetlands are
integral parts of the physical features and biological communities
that form the landscape, and as a result are influenced by the
condition of the surrounding landscape.
For example, it would be a waste of time, energy, and plant
material to plant shade-requiring species in an area that receives
full sun, or to install nest boxes for birds requiring forest cover
when no forest cover exists nearby. Your site's location relative
to urban areas and other wetlands, streams, and forests will have
a strong influence on the success of your project.
Before beginning your restoration project, observe the
surrounding landscape and learn about the types of wetlands that
naturally develop in landscape settings comparable to your
situation. How your site fits into the greater landscape and its
location in the watershed are primary factors in determining the
kinds of wetland communities that would naturally occur there.
Information concerning locations of comparable wetlands may be
available from local Planning or Parks and Recreation
Departments, and from the Washington Department of Ecology.
Ecology has published a free guide to public-access wetlands,
entitled Wetland Walks, A Guide to Washington's Public-Access
Wetlands. Copies can be obtained by contacting the Washington
Department of Ecology Publications Office at (206) 407-7472.
Washington State University Cooperative Extension, King
County has also published a guide to public access wetlands,
entitled Wetlands of King County. The King County guide is
available through the King County Cooperative Extension office
(206) 296-3900).
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Visiting local wetlands that have soil and hydrology
characteristics similar to those at your restoration site may be
helpful in selecting plant species for your site, and will help to
identify each species' growth habits, water requirements, and
tolerances. Visits to local wetlands will also provide
opportunities to observe and learn about wetland plant and animal
communities. Developing a basic understanding of wetland
ecosystems is necessary for successful wetland restoration.
Sources of Landscape Information;
Information describing the landscape around your site may be
available from local, state, and federal sources. This information
is often provided free or at nominal cost, and may provide insight
into existing or historic conditions, and locations of wetlands or
streams that could serve as models for your project. Sources of
information include:
US Geological Survey Quadrangle Maps, available from local
map stores.
US Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service Soil
Maps, available from the Soil Conservation Service Olympia
office at (206) 753-9448.
US Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetland Inventory Maps,
available from the Washington Department of Ecology's Olympia
office at (206) 459-6202.
Local wetland and stream inventory maps and aerial photos
available from local planning departments. Information on Puget
Lowland wetland and stream inventories is also available from
the Washington Department of Ecology Wetland Inventory
Coordinator, at (206) 459-6836
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Current and historical aerial photos, available from local planning
departments, Federal and state agencies such as the US Army
Corps of Engineers [(206) 764-3677], Washington Department of
Natural Resources [(206) 902-1234], Washington Department of
Transportation [(206) 586-1936], and commercial suppliers.
Many of the maps and aerial photographs described above are
also be available through local libraries and in the University of
Washington Library Map Collection.
Long-term residents can often provide valuable site-specific
information on historic conditions such as plant communities that
previously grew in the area, seasonal water fluctuations, and
wildlife use of a site.
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Chapter 2
Analyzing the Restoration Site
An important first step in developing a restoration plan is to
assemble some basic information about the hydrology, soils,
vegetation, areas and types of disturbance, and wildlife use at
your restoration site. A Field Guide to Wetland Characterization
(Pritchard, 1991), available from King County Cooperative
Extension, is a practical citizen's guide to wetland identification
and characterization. Characterizing the existing conditions at
your site is the key to understanding what restoration activity is
needed and determining what activities are feasible. A good way
to analyze your site is to answer the question "What is wrong and
how can I fix it?" for each of the following topics.
Water
"Hydrology" is the general term used by wetland scientists to
describe a site's water regime. A site's water regime includes
flow patterns, water depths, inundation and saturation periods,
and seasonal fluctuations. Extreme high and low flows may be
more significant than normal flows for restoration success, and
should be investigated prior to restoration planning and
implementation. Ideally, site hydrology should be monitored
over a twelve-month (or longer) period before attempting
restoration.
If your restoration area is adjacent to a lake or pond, identify the
normal high and low water levels. If along a stream, you will
need to need to know how the restoration area is affected by high
flows during the winter and spring, and by low (or no) flows
during the summer. If in a marsh or swamp, you will need to
know whether the area is seasonally or permanently flooded or
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saturated. Water sources and watershed characteristics largely
determine whether a site will have a stable or seasonally
fluctuating water level, or water levels that fluctuate frequently
and rapidly as a result of runoff from roofs and roads.
More than anything else, how well you understand your site's
hydrology will determine the success of your restoration effort.
Failure to understand and anticipate hydrologic conditions is one
of the most frequent causes of restoration failure, and hydrology
is one of the most important considerations when deciding
whether certain plants will grow in a specific location. Each
species has its own water requirements and tolerances, and the
familiar adage "right plant, right place" applies at least as much
to landscape restoration as it does to residential landscaping.
Perhaps it applies even more so, since once plants are installed at
a restoration site they typically are left to fend for themselves
without the benefit of the maintenance residential landscapes
receive.
Plants
Identify the plants growing at your site and determine their
growth habits, including their sun or shade requirements,
flooding and drought tolerance; potential for weediness, wildlife
value, and aesthetic qualities. Knowing what already grows there
can tell you whether you can expect problems with weedy species
colonizing your site, and can help you decide what native species
are adapted to the site's growing conditions. The existing
vegetation at your site may strongly influence your plant choices.
Existing vegetation may shade the restoration area, or may
provide a seed or propagule source for revegetation. Weedy
species growing at or near the site may invade your restoration
area and be difficult to control.
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Look for areas where native vegetation could be enhanced, and
for areas where ^non-native invasive species could be controlled
and replaced by native vegetation. For example, Himalayan and
evergreen blackberries form dense thickets near wetlands in many
areas, often inhibiting the regeneration of native forest
communities (see Appendix D for scientific names of plants
mentioned in the text). Although blackberries provide some
benefit to wildlife, re-establishing a native shrub or forest
community will in many cases result in greater benefits to a
wider variety of wildlife.
Soils
The type of soil at your restoration site may also influence your
plant choices. Soil texture, p>H, nutrient content, and degree of
compaction affect plant growth, and may need to be amended to
ensure plant establishment. In addition, the amount of organic
matter in the soil may help determine which plants are suitable
for your site.
Wetland soils fall into either of two major classes: organic soils,
and mineral soils. Organic soils are formed from decomposed
plants (in which case the soil is called "muck") or undecomposed
plants (in which case the soil is called "peat"). Mineral soils are
composed primarily of sand, silt, and clay. Sandy soils percolate
rapidly, and may need irrigation while plants are becoming
established. Compacted glacial tills and clay soils are relatively
impermeable, difficult to dig, and may be challenging to the
restorationist, but are often most appropriate to sustain wetland
hydrology. Soils contaminated with toxic materials require
handling by trained professionals.
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Topography
Assess the topography of your restoration site to determine
whether slopes and water depths are appropriate for planting.
Eroding streambanks or bluffs may need to be stabilized or
recontoured to create favorable conditions for restoring plant
communities. "Bioengineering", which incorporates live plants
in erosion control systems, often offers good possibilities for
revegetating steep slopes and eroding streambanks. However,
slope and streambank stabilization requires a thorough analysis of
the erosive forces at work, and usually requires professional
assistance. When seeking professional help, be sure the person
you select has both expertise and practical experience in soil or
streambank stabilization.
Figure 2: The extent of a wetland area is often controlled by
topography. Here, a steep slope restricts the extent
of the wetland.
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The underwater topography in ponds or lakes will determine
whether areas are available for establishing plants that grow in
shallow water, such as burreed or spikerush, and plants that
require deeper water, such as pondweed and yellow pond lily.
Aspect, which is the direction a restoration site generally faces, is
another important consideration related to topography. For
example, plant community restoration on sites located on north-
facing slopes may require the use of shade-tolerant plants. In
contrast, sites on south-facing slopes will often require plants that
tolerate full sun and summer drought. Slope, site orientation,
and existing vegetation will all influence the microclimates found
at your site.
s-? >^
Figure 3: An area with more gentle topography typically
permits a broader wetland area to develop.
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Disturbed Areas
Identifying disturbed areas in a wetland, along a stream, or
within a wetland or stream buffer will usually be the first step in
determining the scope and feasibility of a restoration project.
Look for areas where native vegetation has been removed or
replaced by a non-native plant community, areas where livestock
has unrestricted access to the wetland or stream, or areas where
buffer vegetation could be enhanced to screen a wetland or
stream from human noise or activity.
Identifying the type and extent of disturbance is also important
because successful restoration depends on eliminating or
controlling the disturbance. Often, restricting access by cattle
and people will be the single most effective restoration action,
and no additional work may be needed. Native plant
communities will often recover without additional plantings once
a chronic disturbance is eliminated. In cases where eliminating
the disturbance is impossible, understanding the nature of the
disturbance will help determine potential control actions.
It is also important to identify areas where restoration success
may be limited by existing vegetation, hydrology, soils, or other
conditions. For example, attempting to restore native vegetation
within an area dominated by reed canary grass may be futile.
Similarly, attempts to restore vegetation may fail in wetlands or
streams whose natural water regimes have been drastically
altered. In this situation, pre-disturbance wetland hydrology may
have to be restored before native vegetation can be established.
Alternately, native plants that are adapted to the existing water
regime could be selected.
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Wildlife
Wildlife use of a site is largely determined by the habitat
resources that are present, and connections with adjacent habitats.
Wildlife will use sites where food, water, cover, and breeding
areas are available, as long as they have a corridor of suitable
habitat that allows them to reach the site. In areas without
suitable connections to nearby habitats, lack of travel corridors
may limit the numbers or types of wildlife using the site. In
these cases, it may be best to work towards establishing
connections between the isolated habitat, similar habitats nearby,
and adjacent upland habitats.
Physical and biological features that have particularly high value
for wildlife nesting, cover, or feeding are often referred to as
"habitat features." Habitat features often lacking in urban or
suburban areas include snags (standing dead trees), and logs.
Assess your wetland or stream to determine whether snags and
logs are absent or in short supply. Snags provide feeding areas
for insect-eating birds such as pileated woodpeckers and northern
flickers, nest sites for cavity-nesting birds such as black-capped
chickadees and tree swallows, and perch sites for a wide variety
of birds.
Logs provide perch sites for birds, and loafing and hunting sites
for mammals and reptiles. Frogs and salamanders attach their
egg masses to submerged branches, and logs also provide
substrate for plant growth. Although logs in streams are
sometimes perceived as barriers that impede flows and fish
passage, they perform functions: that are necessary for a healthy
stream. Logs provide cover for fish, substrate for invertebrates
and algae, and direct water flow.
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Additional Information
Additional considerations in or near a restoration site that may
influence your project include the location of overhead or
underground utility lines, property boundaries and ownership,
and road or utility easements. Trees should not be planted where
they will interfere with utility lines. Choose your planting area
in a site where chances are good the plants will remain
undisturbed. In the interest of maintaining good relations,
discuss your plans with your neighbors before planting shrubs or
trees that may block trails or views.
Also identify and assess off-site influences. Be aware of sources
of pollutants in the surrounding watershed. Stormwater runoff,
point source discharges, and road and agricultural runoff may
contribute pollutants, nutrients and potentially toxic substances
such as pesticides or heavy metals. Noise pollution, glare, high
amounts of human traffic, offroad automobile or bicycle use and
heavy littering also influence a site's potential for restoration.
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Chapter3
Developing a Conceptual Restoration Design
The information you gather .during the Site Analysis phase
described in Chapter 2 will be used to develop your restoration
goals and tasks. Developing goals and tasks is the first step in
creating your plan. Your goal is a statement of the overall action
you hope to achieve. Tasks are the major actions that need
completing to reach your goal. For example, after getting to
know your site and identifying the types of disturbances that have
affected the site, you may decide your goal is to increase the
area's value to wildlife. Several potential tasks may be
appropriate, including protecting the area from physical impact,
enhancing existing vegetation, controlling invasive species, and
installing habitat features. The actions you choose should be
based on your understanding of the physical and biological
characteristics of the area, and the types of impacts that have
affected the site.
Tasks also serve as milestones to help you keep track of your
progress towards the overall goal. For example, your goal may
be to restore a native forest community in a stream or wetland
buffer area 100 feet long and 50 feet wide. The major tasks
associated with this goal may include visiting nearby natural areas
to identify appropriate buffer zone communities, shrubs, and
trees, developing a planting plan and schedule, removing non-
native vegetation, installing native plants, and controlling weeds.
Once your goals and tasks are defined, the next step is to decide
upon specific actions and methods for accomplishing them.
Specific methods are described in Chapter 4, Developing and
Planting the Restoration Design.
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Protecting a Wetland
Sometimes the best way to restore a wetland or stream involves
actions that do not directly involve the area. Wetland and stream
buffers are undeveloped areas of natural vegetation that filter
sediments and pollutants in surface water runoff, slow the flow of
surface water runoff, provide habitat and connections between
habitats for wildlife, and screen wetlands or streams from the
noise and activity of adjacent areas. Restoring or enhancing
buffer vegetation can make a wetland more attractive to wildlife,
and at the same time may provide opportunities to increase plant
diversity and enhance aesthetics.
In areas where livestock have unrestricted access to a wetland or
stream, fencing the site to exclude livestock may be the best and
only action needed. Once livestock are excluded, native
vegetation will often recover on its own. Otherwise, planting
native trees, shrubs, and herbs will help the area recover.
Consider fencing off not only the wetland or stream, but also an
adjacent buffer of upland vegetation. The quality and functions
of the wetland or stream should determine the buffer width, and
your local planning or public works department or the
Department of Ecology can advise you on the recommended
width for your particular situation.
The type of fencing used may affect wildlife use of the area.
Barbed wire fencing is often used since it is relatively
inexpensive, requires little maintenance, and effectively excludes
livestock while allowing unrestricted access to native wildlife.
Woven wire or solid wood fences may impede or prevent access
for some species of wildlife. Any type of fence will require a
long-term maintenance commitment.
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Both the U.S. Soil Conservation Service and the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service sponsor programs that provide assistance to
property owners wanting to install fencing to exclude livestock
from wetlands or streams. Phone numbers for western
Washington offices for both agencies are provided at the end of
this chapter.
Restoring or Enhancing Vegetation
In areas where native vegetation has been degraded or removed,
restoring or enhancing buffer zone, streamside, or wetland
vegetation can provide many benefits. In cases where adjacent
areas or sites elsewhere in the same system provide models of
high-quality communities, restoring the vegetation at your site
may be a matter of mimicking the model community. To have
the greatest chance of success, look for model communities that
occupy areas with hydrology, soils, topography, and aspect
similar to your restoration area.
In addition to basing your plant species selection on model
communities, limit your choices to native species. Ornamental
species and varieties are not appropriate for use in native
community restoration, as they have the potential to out-compete
native vegetation and contaminate native gene pools.
Purple loosestrife, reed canary grass, and several additional non-
native species often limit restoration success. In each case, these
species are invasive, pernicious weeds that out-compete native
vegetation. Weedy plant competition can be a serious problem at
restoration sites, so much so that competition from weedy species
is second only to misjudging site hydrology as a source of
restoration failure (Bill, 1990).
25
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Purple loosestrife should not be used under any circumstances.
Despite the fact that water gardening books often suggest using it
to add color to the landscape and it is still available from out-of-
state mail order nurseries, it is illegal to plant it in Washington
State. Purple loosestrife has invaded hundreds of thousand of
wetland acres throughout the northern United States, and is being
reported with increasing frequency throughout the Puget
Lowland. As a result of its invasive growth habit, Washington
State has banned its sale or use.
Yellow iris is another non-native species that is often introduced
in wetlands and along streams for its showy flowers. As a result
of its ability to spread by seed and uprooted rhizomes, yellow iris
has become naturalized and is so common that many people think
it is native to our area. In some settings it can form large, dense
stands. As a result, many biologists consider yellow iris a
contaminant in native communities, and inappropriate for use in
wetland or riparian restoration projects.
Certain native species also cause problems due to their aggressive
growth habits when introduced for restoration or enhancement.
Our native common cattail, despite its popular status as the
unofficial symbol of wetlands, can quickly grow into a large,
dense stand in which few other plants will grow. The preferred
habitat of common cattail is at a lake or pond margin, from the
water's edge to depths of about 2 feet. If your restoration area
doesn't already have cattails, it may be best to leave well enough
alone and plant hardstem bulrush instead. Although hardstem
bulrush occupies similar habitat to common cattail, it is less
aggressive, and still provides food and cover for many species of
wildlife. Douglas' spiraea, also called hardhack, is another
native species that can cause trouble at restoration sites by
prolifically seeding onto areas of bare soil and forming dense
thickets.
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Species that can cause problems or are otherwise unsuitable for
native community restoration include:
• common cattail
• common reed
• creeping buttercup
• Douglas' spiraea
• narrow-leaved cattail
« purple loosestrife
• reed canary grass
• soft rush
• yellow iris
• yellow loosestrife
• all non-native ornamental herbs, shrubs, and trees
Throughout the Puget Lowland many wetlands that were
originally shrub or forested swamps have been converted to
pastures. These sites sometimes also contain a stream whose
buffer vegetation has been removed. If a site's hydrology has not
been altered by ditching or draining, these sites often provide a
good opportunity for restoration. If the site will continue to be
used for pasture, providing an off-channel watering pond, fencing
off the stream, and restoring streamside vegetation can provide
significant water quality benefits. Information on off-channel
pond design and construction is available from the Soil
Conservation Service.
Controlling Invasive species
Communities dominated by non-native species are prime
candidates for restoration. Weeds such as reed canary grass,
blackberries, and purple loosestrife have unfortunately taken over
many of our riparian and wetland communities because they are
27
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strong competitors, and humans have altered natural hydrology,
vegetation, or soils in ways that favor these weeds. Controlling
invading species and eventually replacing them with native
communities requires not only persistence, but also identifying
and modifying the habitat conditions that favor the weeds.
Conditions that favor the growth of weedy species include
activities that destroy existing vegetation and create areas of bare
soil, widely fluctuating water levels, and the presence of weed
seed sources upstream or within the soil seed bank. Once weedy
species have become established, it can be very difficult to
replace them with native species.
Every effort to control weeds will require a long-term
commitment, since all weeds are successful reproducers, and
often use more than one method to colonize new areas. Potential
weed control techniques include burning, flooding, weed
whacking or mowing, herbicides, and immediate revegetation of
disturbed sites with native species. Long-term control methods
include establishing a canopy of trees to shade out weedy species
that require full sun. Each method has its own advantages and
disadvantages, and your selection will depend on the species you
are attempting to control, the physical and biological conditions
at the restoration site, and your long- and short-term goals.
Herbicide use near wetlands and along streams is discouraged due
to the potential for contamination. In addition, herbicides must
be applied by a state-licensed applicator within a wetland or
stream corridor. Help in designing and implementing a weed
control plan is available through a variety of sources, including
County Extension Agents, the Washington Department of
Agriculture, the Washington Department of Ecology, and private
consultants.
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Enhancing Wildlife Habitat
While restoring native plant communities by itself is a significant
form of wildlife habitat enhancement, non-living habitat features
such as logs, snags (standing dead trees), and artificial nesting
structures can also be installed to enhance wildlife values. If
during your site assessment you determine wildlife habitat
features such as logs or snags are lacking or exist only in limited
numbers or sizes at your site, installing them may increase
wildlife use.
Although installing tall, large-diameter snags requires heavy
equipment, small snags (less than about ten feet tall and 12 inches
diameter at breast height) can often be installed by hand. Snags
can be planted like oversized fenceposts, buried about one-third
of their length (a 15-foot log would make a 10-foot tall snag
when installed). Snags intended for use as perches should have
several branches and should be located where a bird's approach is
not obstructed by vegetation. Snags on which nest boxes will be
mounted must be tall enough and located properly for the birds
for which the nest boxes are intended.
Logs and stumps can also be installed to provide cover and perch
sites, and have the added benefit of providing sites for the growth
of mosses, herbs, shrubs, and trees as the wood slowly decays.
Logs that extend from the shore into open water provide perch
sites for waterfowl, reptiles, and amphibians, and cover for fish.
Logs located in areas of saturated soil or in buffer communities
also provide perch sites and cover for a wide variety of wildlife.
Logs or stumps located in areas where they could float away
should be anchored with cables attached to buried concrete
blocks. For a "natural" appearance and to increase habitat
diversity, logs should be buried about one-third to one-half their
diameter. The bases of stumps should also be buried if feasible.
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Ideally, it is best to provide a variety of snags, logs, and stumps
in various sizes and states of decay. As a general rule, the
greater a snag's or log's length and diameter, the greater its value
to wildlife.
If nest boxes and other structures are properly sized, located, and
maintained, they can be an effective means of enhancing wildlife
habitat. However, In areas where raccoons, domestic cats, or
other nest predators are common, the tree or post holding the nest
box should be wrapped with sheet metal at least 36 inches long.
If nest boxes are not properly constructed, installed, and
maintained, they may be a net detriment to the targeted species.
Much information regarding nest box design, construction,
installation, and maintenance is available from the US Fish and
Wildlife Service, the Washington Department of Wildlife, The
Audubon Society, and in publications available in bookstores and
libraries.
Other factors that will affect whether wildlife use the structures
include how well your restoration site meets a target species'
other habitat requirements, and whether the habitat feature is in
limited supply at the site. If natural sites are already available, or
if the habitat at your site is not otherwise suitable for the target
species, your efforts may be wasted.
Isolated remnants of habitat within an urban landscape may be of
limited use for many wildlife species, as there may simply be no
way for animals to reach these areas. Amphibians, small
mammals, and regionally rare species with limited distributions
or restricted habitats are particularly limited in their dispersal
abilities. In areas with artificially fluctuating water tables or poor
water quality, wildlife use may be even more limited.
30
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Free-roaming cats and dogs can reduce populations of small
mammals and ground-feeding or nesting birds. Deer mice,
meadow voles, flying squirrels, and songbirds are common prey
items of domestic cats that are allowed to roam. To reduce
predation by domestic animals, create dense buffers of native
vegetation, and use predator guards when installing nest boxes or
other habitat features.
Introducing animals to wetlands or streams to establish or
increase populations is not a good idea. In the worst cases,
introducing non-native species results in the loss of native
species. Bullfrogs, crappie, and largemouth bass all eat juvenile
cutthroat trout and other native fish, as well as the tadpoles of our
native frogs and larval stages of native salamanders. As a result,
populations of the introduced species have reduced or replaced
native fish and amphibian populations in wetlands and lakes
throughout the Puget Lowland.
Sources for help with restoration design, implementation, and
permitting:
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle District, Regulatory
Branch (206) 764-3495
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington State Ecosystems
Conservation Program (206) 753-9440
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Wetlands Section (206)
553-1226
U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service (206) 753-9448
Washington State Department of Fisheries, Habitat Management
Division (206) 902-2534
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Washington Department of Wildlife, Habitat Management
Division (206) 753-3188
Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Aquatic
Lands Division (206) 902-1100
Washington State Department of Ecology, Shorelands Division,
Wetlands Section (206) 407-7272
Washington State Department of Agriculture, Plant Services
Division (509) 757-2106
King County Surface Water Management Division, Basin
Planning Program or Ecological Support Unit (206) 296-6519
Local Conservation District Offices;
Clallam County (206) 457-5091
Clark County (206) 696-7631
Cowl itz County (206) 425-1880
Grays Harbor County (206) 249-5980
Island County (206) 678-4708
Jefferson County (206) 385-4105
King County (206) 226-4867
Kitsap County (206) 876-7171
Lewis County (206) 748-0083
Mason County (206) 427-9670
Pierce County (206) 536-2945
San Juan County P.O. Box 38, Friday Harbor, WA
98250 (no telephone)
Skagit County (206) 428-4313
Snohomish County (206) 335-5634
Thurston County (206) 754-3588
Wahkiakum County (206)795-8240
Whatcom County (206) 354-2035
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Local Washington State University Cooperative Extension
Offices:
Clallam County (206)452-7831
Clark County (206) 696-8411
Cowlitz County (206) 577-3014
Grays Harbor County (206) 249-4332
Island County (206) 679-7327
Jefferson County (206) 385-9158
King County (206) 296-3900
Kitsap County (206) 876-7157
Lewis County (206) 748-9121 (ext. 121)
Mason County (206)427-9670
Pierce County (206) 591-7180
San Juan County (206) 378-4414
Skagit County (206) 336-9322
Snohomish County (206) 338-2400
Thurston County (206) 786-5445
Wahkiakum County (206) 795-3278
Whatcom County (206) 676-6736
Adopt-A-Stream Foundation (206) 388-3487
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Chapter 4
Preparing and Planting Your Design
Once you have decided what you want to do to restore or enhance
your wetland or stream, the next steps include preparing a
detailed plan, locating materials, preparing the site, and installing
the plants and habitat features. The following sections take you
through each step, describing key elements that need to be
considered. Although you may be anxious to dig in and get your
hands dirty, planning your actions first will usually result in a
more successful project.
Developing a Restoration Plan
Working your design out on paper will allow you to determine
plant spacings and numbers, wildlife habitat feature locations,
and to estimate costs. You will need an accurate base map of
your site at a scale of 1 inch = 10 feet or less, showing
topography at 1-foot contour intervals and the locations of
property lines, utility corridors, existing vegetation, view
corridors, wildlife use areas, water features, and other details that
will affect your design.
After completing your base map, use the information you
gathered during site visits to nearby wetlands and the growth
habit information provided in Appendix A and other references to
develop a plan that shows the plants and habitat features in their
desired locations. While deciding which species to use, consider
also that only a few specialty nurseries provide native wetland
and riparian trees, shrubs, and herbs, and even at these nurseries
species and numbers are often limited. Phone calls to potential
suppliers at this stage will help to minimize last-minute
substitutions during planting. In addition, finding out early that a
35
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particular species you want to use is unavailable may allow you
some time to collect seeds or cuttings and grow the plant
yourself.
The planting plan you prepare should allow you to determine the
numbers of each species you want to use. You will also need to
decide on the sizes of the plants you want. Trees and shrubs are
often available in sizes ranging from seedlings to plants so large
they require heavy equipment to move; herbs may also be
available in a range of sizes. Plants are also typically available in
containers, balled and burlapped, or bare root, depending on the
season. Whatever the case, because wetland and stream
restoration by the general public is relatively new, most retail
nurseries do not stock a wide variety of suitable native plants.
Recommended plant spacings are given in Appendix A. For
many species a range is given, with the shorter distance
representing the spacings that will usually achieve relatively
dense cover quickly. Wider spacings can be used in areas where
solid cover by a single species is not desired. When locating
plants, avoid an artificial look by placing plants in a random
manner, rather than in straight lines or other geometric patterns
such as those seen in many conventional landscape plantings.
The amount of maintenance you plan to provide once your area is
planted will also affect your plant size selection. Seedlings will
generally require more maintenance than larger plants to
minimize competition with other plants until the seedlings grow
large enough to successfully compete for water, nutrients, light,
and space.
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Restoration Scheduling
Plan your restoration effort so that the tasks follow each other in
a logical sequence and minimize impacts to existing habitats. For
example, to avoid trampling newly-planted areas, place snags and
other habitat features before planting the site.
To maximize chances for plant survival, plantings should be
installed during the early spring or late fall. Fall is an excellent
time since the ground is still warm and fall rains ensure adequate
moisture. Many plants may continue to grow roots through the
winter if the weather is mild, thus giving them "leg up" on the
following growing season. In contrast, trees and shrubs installed
in the spring are more likely to require irrigation through the
following summer.
Nest boxes should be installed during the summer and fall to be
ready for the nesting season the following spring, and to avoid
disturbing the current year's nesters. Although snags, logs, and
other habitat features can be installed any time of year outside of
the breeding season (approximately March 1 to August 1),
scheduling work within wetlands or streams during the dry season
(generally August and September) will minimize water quality
impacts.
Native Plant Sources
Since native wetland and riparian plants are not yet staple items
in most retail nurseries, you may have to go to several sources to
obtain the plants you need. In addition to purchasing plants from
commercial nurseries, other potential sources of plants include
salvaging plants that would otherwise be destroyed during
logging, home building, or road construction and maintenance,
and setting up your own nursery beds to grow the needed plants.
37
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Removing plants from natural wetlands is not appropriate.
Nothing is gained if we destroy or damage one wetland to
enhance another.
Whatever your plant sources are, be sure the plants have been
grown under environmental conditions similar to those at your
restoration site, and from seeds or cuttings collected close to the
restoration site. Local plants are most likely to be adapted to
local growing conditions, and using local plants will help to
preserve local races (also called "genotypes"). The forestry
industry has long recognized the advantage of using local
genotypes, and grows trees for specific areas only from seed
collected in those same areas. Although the same principle
should be applied to any habitat restoration project, the general
unavailability of native wetland plants has sometimes resulted in
the importation of plants from nurseries located in the
midwestern or eastern United States. Resist the temptation to do
this if the species you want are not locally available. Instead,
collect seeds or cuttings from local wetlands and grow your own
plants.
Bonus Northwest, a Pacific Northwest plant directory that lists
native plant nurseries and the plants they sell, is an excellent
place to begin your plant search. Copies can be purchased by
contacting the publisher in Canby, Oregon, at (503) 266-7968.
The Conservation Committee of the Central Puget Sound Chapter
of the Washington Native Plant Society also maintains a list of
native plant nurseries. A copy of the list can be obtained by
writing to the Washington Native Plant Society at PO Box 576,
Woodinville, WA 98072-0576.
Be sure to ask the nurseries you contact about the origins of their
plants, and whether the plants were collected from the wild or
nursery-grown. Plants with local origins are preferable to those
38
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from outside the Puget Lowland, and nursery-grown plants are
mandatory because collection from the wild damages our native
wetlands.
A relatively inexpensive and particularly satisfying method of
obtaining plants is to salvage plants that would otherwise be
destroyed during land development. Salvaging requires
contacting the landowner to receive permission to collect the
plants, and permits may be required from Federal, State, or local
governments. Salvaging is best done during the late fall, winter,
and early spring, when plants are dormant. Once growth begins
in the spring, transplant success diminishes rapidly. Unless the
salvage occurs when your site is ready for planting, the plants
will need to be stored in a holding area until the site is ready. A
simple and inexpensive method for holding dormant plants is to
heel them into moist soil or sawdust in a shady area. Red alder,
Oregon ash, and all of our native conifers transplant well when
dormant, as do many shrubs and herbs, including salmonberry,
red elderberry, vine maple, cascara, Indian plum, sword fern,
and lady fern.
Propagating and growing your own plants can be a rewarding
experience and in some cases may be the only way to get the
species and numbers of plants you need for your project. Basic
plant propagation information is available in The Sunset New
Western Garden Book (Editors of Sunset Books, 1979), which
also contains descriptions and growth habit information for
several native species. Gardening with Native Plants of the
Pacific Northwest (Kruckeberg, 1982) provides cultural and
growth habit information for many of the species mentioned in
this guide. Additional publications containing wetland and
riparian plant propagation information are listed in the
"References and Further Reading" section of this guide.
39
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While species used for riparian and buffer plantings can be
propagated and grown under normal garden conditions or with
traditional container methods, many wetland plants require
saturated soils. An easy way to maintain saturated soil is to build
a wooden frame (any length, but not more than four feet wide;
see Figure 4), on level ground that has been cleared of rocks and
sticks, line the frame with 10 mil or thicker black plastic sheeting
(or as thin as four mil if only temporary), fill the frame with
potting soil or individual containers, and flood the bed. Many
commercial potting soils are essentially sterile, so you will need
to add fertilizer to your wet bed or to the individual containers.
Compost or timed-release fertilizer can be added to the soil when
you prepare the bed, or add liquid fertilizer when you water.
Follow the manufacturer's directions to avoid over-fertilizing.
Site Preparation
Preparing your site and assembling the tools and materials you
will need before starting work will help your project proceed
smoothly and efficiently. Site preparation may include
identifying the limits of the work area, identifying areas or
individual plants within the work area that are to remain
undisturbed, identifying specific locations for plantings (these
three items are requirements if anyone other than yourself will be
doing the work), clearing unwanted vegetation, providing an
adequate water supply, and preparing holding areas for plants.
The limits of the work area and plants or areas that are to remain
undisturbed can be marked with brightly-colored surveyor's
flagging. Be sure to tell workers what the flagging means so it
isn't ignored or mistaken for something else. Individual planting
locations can be identified with wooden or wire stakes.
Surveyor's flagging and wooden or wire stakes are available from
40
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local building supply stores or by mail order from the suppliers
listed at the end of this chapter.
LATM
Figure 4: For propagating vegetation requiring saturated soils,
the utilization of a wet bed is recommended.
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To be effective, clearing invasive species such as blackberries or
reed canary grass means digging out the roots, for unless the
roots are removed, most weedy plants will grow back in a short
time.
The plants you install may need irrigation until they establish
themselves, particularly if you are restoring buffer vegetation.
This usually means providing water to the site at least through the
first summer after the plants are installed, especially if the plants
are installed during the late spring or if the summer following
planting is unusually dry. Any plantings will require
maintenance until well established to minimize competition from
competing vegetation.
Storage area requirements for plants that need to be held for a
time before planting include a water supply and irrigation system,
and shade for species that do not tolerate full sun. Species that
require saturated soil can be held in a temporary wet bed made by
draping plastic sheeting over a frame of railroad ties or other
timbers. A child's plastic wading pool can also be used. Keep
the roots of bare root plants covered and moist until needed by
heeling them into sawdust or soil.
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The following checklist provides a list of tools and supplies that
may be needed toscomplete your work:
For planting;
G Shovel
G Machete
G Rake
n Weed eater
D Hand trowel
D Leather gloves
D Hose and nozzle
D Wheelbarrow
G Pruners
G Loppers
D Pruning saw
For fencing:
G Post hole digger
G Come-along
G Fence posts and fencing material
G Hammer and fence staples, nails, or other fasteners
G Machete or weed eater
G Leather gloves
For installing nest boxes;
G Galvanized self-driving #2 screws in assorted lengths
G #2 Phillips-head screwdriver
Q Cordless drill with #2 Phillips-head screwdriver bit
u Ladder
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Providing for Human Access
Repeatedly traveling the same route along streambanks and
through wetlands can do considerable damage to plants and soil.
Trails destroy vegetation, compact soil, alter water flows, and
once established may invite other people to use the area. Plan
your project in a way that avoids nesting or den areas, and
minimizes the number of trips into areas of saturated or credible
soils. Damage to vegetation and soil may be minimized by
creating a temporary walkway by laying boards across a wetland
surface. Permanent boardwalks for public access should be
professionally designed and installed.
Planting
Methods for planting native species in the landscape are similar
to those used in planting residential landscapes. Basic principles
include ensuring plants are planted at the proper depths, watering
in the backfilled soil to eliminate air pockets, staking large trees
until they are established, and controlling competing vegetation
(Figures 5 through 8). If you attempt to establish native trees
and shrubs in an area of dense grass, strip and maintain a grass-
free area around each plant until it is well established.
Mulches of weed-free organic materials such as compost, sterile
straw, or burlap sacks (available from coffee roasting houses)
help retain soil moisture, protect against erosion, keep weeds
down, and add organic matter to the soil as they break down.
However, mulches should not be used in areas where they could
wash into streams or wetlands and contribute excess nutrients.
Soils compacted by human or livestock use may require loosening
to encourage plant growth. Tilling or spading the compacted
layer and incorporating compost will increase the soil's water-
44
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holding capacity, improve tilth, and provide nutrients Artificial
fertilizers are not recommended for plantings along streams, or in
wetlands or buffers. Instead, planting red alder, a plant that
converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form it can use for growth,
is a good tactic in areas with nitrogen-deficient soils.
AT
Figure 5: Herbaceous Planting Detail
Figure 6: Shrub Planting Detail
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Figure 7: Deciduous Tree Planting Detail
WITHIN
Figure 8: Coniferous Tree Planting Detail
46
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Tool Suppliers;
Most of the tools and supplies commonly used in restoration
projects are available from local discount hardware suppliers.
Specialized tools or supplies may be available from:
Forestry Suppliers, Inc.
P. O. Box 8397
Jackson, MS 39284-8397
(800) 647-5368
Ben Meadows Company
3589 Broad Street
Atlanta. Georgia 30341
(800) 241-6401
References and Further Reading:
Bill, Peggy. 1990. An Assessment of Wetlands Mitigation
Required Through SEPA in Washington. Washington
Department of Ecology. Olympia, Washington.
Cooke, Sarah, et al. In preparation. A Field Guide to Common
Wetland Plants of Western Washington and Oregon.
Cowlitz County Soil and Water Conservation District. 1993.
Streamside Planting Guide for Western Washington.
Cowlitz County Soil and Water Conservation District.
Kelso, Washington.
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Curtis, John T. 1959. Vegetation of Wisconsin. University of
Wisconsin Press. Madison, Wisconsin.
Editors of Sunset Books. 1979. Sunset New Western Garden
Book. Lane Publishing Co. Menlo Park, California.
Feeney, Stephanie. 1993. The Northwest Gardener's Resource
Directory. Available from Stephanie Feeney, 59
Strawberry Point, Bellingham, WA 98226; telephone:
(206) 733-4461.
Hammer, Donald A. 1992. Creating Freshwater Wetlands.
Lewis Publishers, Inc. Chelsea, Michigan.
Hitchcock, Leo C. and Arthur Cronquist. 1973. Flora of the
Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Press.
Seattle, Washington.
Hortus Northwest, A Pacific Northwest Native Plant Directory
and Journal. Post Office Box 955. Canby, Oregon
97013. Telephone: (503) 266-7968
King County Surface Water Management. 1993. Northwest
Native Plants: Identification and Propagation For
Revegetation and Restoration Projects. King County
Department of Public Works, Surface Water Management
Division. Seattle, Washington.
King County Surface Water Management. 1993. Streamside
Savvy: SWM's Guide to the Good Life at the Water's
Edge. King County Department of Public Works, Surface
Water Management Division. Seattle, Washington.
48
-------
Kruckeberg, Arthur R. 1982. Gardening with Native Plants of
the Pacific Northwest, University of Washington Press.
Seattle, Washington.
Kruckeberg, Arthur R. 1991. The Natural History of Puget
Sound Country. University of Washington Press.
Seattle, Washington.
Kusler, Jon A. and Mary E. Kentula. 1990. Wetland Creation
and Restoration: the status of the science. Island Press.
Washington, D.C.
Menashe, Elliott. 1993. Vegetation Management: A Guide for-
Puget Sound Bluff Property Owners. Washington State
Department of Ecology Publication 93-31. Washington
State Department of Ecology, Olympia, Washington.
Michaud, Joy P. 1990. At Home with Wetlands; A
Landowner's Guide. Washington State Department of
Ecology Publication #93-31. Washington State
Department of Ecology, Olympia, Washington.
Myers, Rian. 1993. Slope Stabilization and Erosion Control
Using Vegetation: A Manual of Practice for Coastal
Property Owners. . Washington State Department of
Ecology Publication #93-30. Washington State
Department of Ecology, Olympia, Washington.
Pritchard, Ken. 1991. A Field Guide to Wetland
Characterization. Washington State University
Cooperative Extension, King County. Seattle,
Washington.
49
-------
Pritchard, Ken. 1991. Wetlands of King County. Washington
State University Cooperative Extension, King County.
Seattle, Washington.
Reed, P.B., Jr. 1988. National List of Plant Species that occur
in Wetlands: National Summary. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, D.C. Biological Report 88(24).
Stevens, Michelle and Ron Vanbianchi. 1993. Restoring
Wetlands in Washington; A Guidebook for Wetland
Restoration, Planning, and Implementation. Washington
State Department of Ecology Publication # 93-17.
Washington State Department of Ecology. Olympia,
Washington.
Stokes, Donald and Lillian Stokes. 1990. The Complete
Birdhouse Book. Little, Brown and Company. Boston,
Massachusetts.
Washington Department of Ecology. 1988. Wetland Regulations
Guidebook. Publication No. 88-5. Washington
Department of Ecology. Olympia, Washington.
Washington Department of Ecology. 1991. Wetland Walks; A
Guide to Washington's Public Access Wetlands.
Publication No. 89-30. Washington Department of
Ecology. Olympia, Washington.
Weinmann, Fred, Marc Boule, Ken Brunner, and Vic Yoshino.
1989. Wetland Plants of the Pacific Northwest. U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle District. Seattle,
Washington.
50
-------
Yates, Steve. 1989. Adopting a Wetland, a Northwest Guide.
Snohomish County Planning and Community
Development. Everett, Washington.
Yates, Steve. 1991. Adopting a Stream, a Northwest
Handbook. Adopt-A-Stream Foundation. Everett,
Washington.
51
-------
Appendix A:
Native Plant Growth Requirements and Landscape
Specifications
LEGEND
Species
Common Name
USFWS Rating
OBL
FACW
FAC
FACU
MR
Community
Scientific name according to Hitchcock and Cronquist
(1976)
According to Hitchcock and Cronquist (1976).
From the National List of Plant Species that occur in the
National Summary (Reed, 1988)
Obligate wetland plants that almost always occur in
wetlands (estimated probability 99%) under natural
conditions.
Facultative wetland plants that usually occur in wetland
(estimated probability 67-99%) but are occasionally
found non-wetland areas.
Facultative plants area that are equally likely to occur in
wetlands (estimated probability 34-66%) or non-wetland
areas.
Facultative upland plants that usually occur in non-
wetland areas but occasionally occur in wetlands
(estimated probability 1-33%).
Not Rated - No indicator status assigned.
The biological community where the species is likely to
occur.
52
-------
Soil
Water
Light
Condition
Available Size
Spacing
Mature Ht.
& Spread
Wet Season Water Level
Dry Season Water Level
The soil type that species is usually found in. Mineral
(m) or Organic (o).
The typical water regime requirements of the species:
PF permanently flooded
SF seasonally flooded
PS permanently saturated
SS seasonally saturated
SM seasonally moist
The typical light requirements of the species
fs full sun
s/s partial sun/shade
s full shade
The typical size available from nurseries.
Recommended spacing for installation.
Typical height and canopy diameter of the mature plant.
MA
<, : -W*- _ .. -J.
' '' '
^^te^S
Permanently Flooded
Seasonally Hooded
Permanently "Seasonally Saturated"
Saturated
Seasonally Moist
53
-------
Appendix A: Native Plant Growth Requirements and La-
SPECIES
Abies grandis
Acer macrophyllum
AInus rubra
Arbutus menziesii
Crataegus douglasii
Fraxinus latifolia
Pinus monticola
Populus tremuloides
Populus trichocarpa
Prunus emarginata
Pseudotsuga menziesii
Pyrus fusca
Rhamnus purshiana
COMMON NAME
grand fir
bigleaf maple
red alder
madrona
black hawthorn
Oregon ash
western white pine
quaking aspen
black cottonwood
bitter cherry
Douglas fir
western crabapple
cascara
USFWS
RATING
NR
FACU
FAC
NR
FAC
FACW
FACU
FAC
FAC
NR
NR
FAC
FAC?
COMMUNITY
forested buffer
forested buffer
forested
wetland,
streambank,
forested buffer
forested buffer
shrub wetland,
streambank
forested
wetland,
streambank,
forested buffer
forested buffer
forested
wetland
forested
wetland,
streambank,
forested buffer
forested buffer
forested buffer
shrub wetland,
streambank
Forested buffer
shrub buffer
t
54
-------
pe Specifications.
WATER
SM
SM
SF, PS
SS, SM
SM
PS, SS
SF, PS,
SS
SM
SF, PS,
SS
SF, SS,
SM
SM
SM
PS,SS
SM
LIGHT
fs,s/s,
s
fs, sis
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
fs
fs, s/s
fs
fs,s/s
fs
CONDITION
AVAILABLE
SIZE
SPACING
3MATUREHT.
& SPREAD
bare root,
b&b
container
bare root,
container
container
bare root,
container
bare root,
b&b
container,
b&b
bare root,
container
container
container,
b&b
bare root,
container
container,
bare root
1-6'
1-6'
2-8'
1-4'
3-8'
1-10'
MO1
3-8'
1-6'
1-8"
1-4'
1-6'
12'+
12' +
6' +
12'+
12'+
6' +
12' +
6'+
6' +
12'+
6'_
12'+
12'+
125' ht. x
30' dia.
80' ht. x
40' dia.
40'-60' ht. x
25' dia.
80' ht. x
25' dia.
20' ht. x
15' dia.
80' ht. x
40' dia.
165* ht. x
40' dia.
50' ht. x
30' dia.
60'-80' ht. x
30' dia.
50' ht. x
30' dia.
80' -100' ht. x
30' dia.
30' ht. x
20' dia.
30' ht. x
20' dia.
PF permanently flooded
SF seasonally flooded
PS seasonally saturated
SM seasonally moist
fs full sun
s/s partial sun/shade
s full shade
55
-------
Appendix A: Native Plant Growth Requirements and La
SPECIES
Salix lasiandra
Salix scouleriana
Salix sitchensis
Thuja plicata
Tsuga heterophylla
Acer circinatum
Cornus stolonifera
Gaultheria shallon
Holodiscus discolor
Lonicera involucrata
Oemleria cerasiformis
Physocarpus capitatus
COMMON NAME
Pacific willow
Scouler willow
Sitka willow
western red cedar
western hemlock
vine maple
red-osier dogwood
salal
ocean spray
>lack twinberry
Indian plum
Pacific ninebark
USFWS
RATING
FACW
FAC
FAC
FAC
FACU
FACU
FACW
NR
NR
FAC
NR
FAC
COMMUNITY
forested
wetland,
shrub wetland,
streambank
forested buffer
forested
wetland,
shrub wetland,
streambank
Forested
wetland,
streambank,
forested buffer
forested buffer,
streambank
forested buffer,
streambank
forested
wetland,
shrub wetland,
streambank
forested buffer
shrub buffer
shrub wetland,
streambank
forested buffer,
shrub buffer
shrub wetland,
streambank
i
56
-------
pe Specifications
WATER
LIGHT
SF, PS,
ss
SM
SF, PS,
SS
SF, PS,
SS, SM
SS, SM
fs
fs
fs
s/s, s
fs, s/s,
s
CONDITION
AVAILABLE
SIZE
SPACING
MATUREHT.
& SPREAD
bare root,
rooted or
unrooted
cuttings,
container
bare root,
rooted or
unrooted
cuttings,
container
bare root,
container,
b&b
bare root,
container,
b&b
1-6'
1-6'
1-8'
1-8'
1-8"
2'+ for
cuttings,
6'+ for
container
12' +
2'+ for
cuttings,
6'+ for
container
6'+
6' +
60' ht. x
30' dia.
40' ht. x
20' dia.
30' ht. x
30' dia.
60' -130' ht. x
40' dia.
40'-100' ht. x
40' dia.
SM
SF, PS,
SS, SM
SM
SM
PS, SS
SM
PS, SS
s/s, s
fs, s/s
s/s, s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s,
s
fs, s/s
container,
b&b
bare root,
unrooted
cuttings,
container
container
container
container
container
bare root,
container
1-6'
1-6'
4-12"
1-4'
1-4'
1-3'
1-3'
6+
2'+ for
cuttings,
4'+ for
container
18"
6' +
12' +
6' +
3' +
20' ht. x
20' dia.
10' ht. x
10' dia.
2'ht. xS'dia.
15' ht. x
40' dia.
8' ht. x 8' dia.
10' ht. x 10' dia.
6'-12' ht. x
6' dia.
PF permanently flooded
SF seasonally flooded
PS seasonally saturated
SM seasonally moist
fs full sun
s/s partial sun/shade
s full shade
57
-------
Appendix A: Native Plant Growth Requirements and La
SPECIES
iHHri^iifHvi
Rhododendron
macrophyllum
Ribes bracteosum
Ribes sanguineum
Rosa nutkana
Rubus parviflorus
Rubus spectabilis
Sambucus racemosa
Symphoricarpos albus
Vaccinium ovatum
Athyrium filix-femina
Carex obnupta
Carex stipata
Dicentra formosa
Elocharis palustris
COMMON NAME
Pacific rhododendron
stink currant
red-flowering currant
Nootka rose
thimbleberry
salmonberry
red elderberry
snowberry
evergreen huckleberry
ady fern
slough sedge
sawbeak sedge
deeding heart
common spikerush
USFWS
RATING
NR
FAC
NR
NR
FACU
FAC
FACU
FACU
NR
FAC
OBL
FACW
NR
OBL
COMMUNITY
forested buffer
streambank
shrub buffer
shrub buffer
shrub buffer
forested
wetland,
shrub wetland,
forested buffer
shrub buffer
forest buffer,
shrub buffer
shrub buffer,
forested buffer
forested buffer
/
forested
wetland,
streambank,
forested, shrub,
emergent
wetland
emergent
wetland
forested buffer
emergent
wetland
58
-------
Specifications
WATER
SM
ss
SM
SM
SM
PS, SS,
SM
SM
SM
SM
SF, PS,
SS
SF, PS
SF, PS
SM
PF, SF,
PS
LIGHT
s/s, s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
fs
fs, s/s
fs, s/s,
s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
s/s
CONDITION
AVAILABLE
SIZE
SPACING
MATURE HT.
& SPREAD
:;: - --
container,
b&b
container
bare root,
container
bare root,
container
bare root,
container
bare root,
container
bare root,
container
container
container
1-4'
1-4'
1-3'
1-3'
1-3'
1-3'
1-4'
1-3'
1-3'
12' +
6'+
3'+
3'+
3'+
4'+
4'+
4'+
3'+
s/s, s
s/s, s
fs, s/s
s/s, s
fs, s/s
container
sprigs
container
sprigs
sprigs
12-18"
12-18"
12-18"
12-18"
12-18"
12' ht. x 12' dia.
5'ht. x4'dia.
S'-IO1 ht. x
5'-8' dia.
4'ht. x4' dia.
6' -8' ht. x
6' dia.
10'-20' ht. x
10'-15' dia.
4'ht. x 4' dia.
4'-6' ht. x
4' dia.
2'
2'
2'
1'
1'
PF permanently flooded
SF seasonally flooded
PS seasonally saturated
SM seasonally moist
fs full sun
s/s partial sun/shade
s full shade
59
-------
Appendix A: Native Plant Growth Requirements and La
SPECIES
Lysichitum americanum
Nuphar polysepalum
Oenanthe sarmentosa
Polystichum munitum
Potamogeton species
Sagittaria latifolia
Scirpus acutus
Scirpus microcarpus
Sparganium emersum
Tiarella trifoliata
Tolmia menziesii
COMMON NAME
skunk cabbage
yellow pond lily
water parsley
western sword fern
pondweed
wapato, arrowhead
hardstem bulrush
small-fruited bulrush
simple-stem burreed
foamflower
piggyback plant
•Kifflf AiiuiMB'aiUfiauir iCT^iiMPKmjtf amg«S!riiiiig'B'iiarBM.Hig i1KiPMBg~7wr.?iy :J
USFWS
RATING
OBL
OBL
OBL
MR
OBL
OBL
OBL
OBL
OBL
NR
FAC
e*^^TF'iCTB3J!rafHiiiai3l!l"''iB8l»jl»7'.vi'|g
COMMUNITY
forested
wetland
aquatic bed
wetland
forested, shrub,
emergent
wetland
forested buffer
aquatic bed
wetland
emergent
wetland
emergent
wetland
emergent
wetland
emergent
wetland
forested buffer
forested
wetland,
forested buffer
IT
•B
60
-------
pe Specifications
WATER
PF,PS
PF
PF, SF,
PS
SM
PF
PF
PF, SF
SF, PS
PF
SM
SS, SM
LIGHT
s/s, s
fs
s/s, s
s/s, s
fs
s/s, s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
fs, s/s
s
s/s, s
Wt*.L*=.U^JtHt^,f,<^}*
CONDITION
' .• • • , " "
AVAILABLE
,.';'; SIZE,.'.-'
container,
bare root
bare root
bare root,
container
bare root,
container
bare root
tuber
bare root
sprigs,
container
rhizome,
container
container
container
A^aaaL^ggj^^teaKj^*''-*-^ wye*
SPACING
MATURE HT.
24" 4-
48"
12-18"
36-48"
48"
12-24"
18-36"
12-18"
12-18"
18"
18"
3'
floating leaves
1'
3'
floating leaves
3'
6'
2'
2'
1'
6"
PF permanently flooded
SF seasonally flooded
PS seasonally saturated
SM seasonally moist
fs full sun
s/s partial sun/shade
s full shade
61
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-------
Appendix B:
Typical Puget Lowland Plant Communities
The native species listed below were chosen because they are
generally available in nurseries and, except as noted for
individual species, grow throughout the Puget Lowland. Under
each plant community, species that typically provide the greatest
amount of cover and therefore dominate a community's
appearance are listed under the heading "Dominant Species".
Additional species that generally grow as scattered individuals
within the community are listed under the heading "Associated
Species". Since these lists are incomplete and only general
guides covering the entire Puget Lowland, visits to local streams
and wetlands will help you fine-tune your plant list to reflect
local plant communities.
STREAMSIDE COMMUNITIES
Streamside Shrub Thicket
Dominant Species: salmonberry, red osier dogwood,
Sitka willow, Pacific willow
Associated Species: red elderberry, Pacific ninebark,
stink currant, western crabapple, black twinberry
Streamside Forest
Dominant Species: western red cedar, western hemlock,
red alder, Oregon ash (distribution limited to southern
portion of Puget Lowland only), black cottonwood,
salmonberry, red osier dogwood, vine maple, piggyback
plant, false lily of the valley
Associated Species: Pacific willow, red elderberry, stink
currant, Indian plum, lady fern, sword fern
63
-------
WETLAND COMMUNITIES
Aquatic Bed (permanently flooded shallow water zones of
ponds and lakes)
Dominant Species: yellow pond lily, pondweed
Associated Species: none
Emergent Wetland (seasonally or permanently saturated or
flooded herb-dominated communities)
Dominant Species: hardstem bulrush, small-fruited
bulrush, spikerush
Associated Species: sawbeak sedge, simplestem burreed
Shrub Wetland
Dominant Species: Sitka willow, Pacific willow, red osier
dogwood, salmonberry
Associated Species: black twinberry, western crabapple
Forested Wetland
Dominant Species: western red cedar, western hemlock,
red alder, Oregon ash, salmonberry, red osier dogwood,
slough sedge, water parsley, piggyback plant, skunk
cabbage
Associated Species: Sitka spruce, lady fern
64
-------
BUFFER COMMUNITIES
Forest
Dominant Species: Douglas fir, western red cedar,
western hemlock, red alder, bigleaf maple, bitter cherry,
salmonberry, salal, sword fern
Associated Species: western white pine, grand fir, Scouler
willow, madrona, cascara, ocean spray, snowberry, red
elderberry, Indian plum, evergreen huckleberry,
rhododendron, bleeding heart
Shrub
Dominant Species: Nootka rose, thimbleberry
Associated Species: Indian plum, cascara, red-flowering
currant, red elderberry
65
-------
Appendix C:
Restoration Checklist
The following checklist provides a guide to restoration planning
and implementation, and is organized in the same manner as the
text.
1. Wetland Functions
A. Identify the functions the wetland that will be restored or
enhanced provides:
C education and research
Q erosion control
D fish habitat
D flood attenuation
D historic, cultural, and archaeological resources
G open space and aesthetic values
D recreation
I! sediment control and water quality enhancement
LJ threatened, rare, and endangered species habitat
u wildlife habitat _,
B. Describe how your restoration plan will affect each of the
wetland's functions. If your plan does not result in a net
increase in functional value, consider changing or abandoning
the plan.
66
-------
2. Restoration Site Analysis
A. Gather baseline information concerning:
[] soils
D hydrology (surface water inlets and outlets, seasonal
fluctuations, high and low water levels)
D water quality
D topography and aspect
G existing vegetation
D aesthetic quality
U utility right-of-ways and other easements
D property lines and ownerships
D view corridors
D public and private intentions for future use of site
B. Summarize the information in a way that provides an
understanding of existing conditions, describes the potential
for restoration, and identifies limiting factors or constraints to
restoring or enhancing the wetland.
C. Contact local, State, and Federal government agencies to
determine whether permits are required for your project.
3. Developing and Implementing a Planting Plan
A. Identify potential actions:
D protect wetland by enhancing or restoring buffer
vegetation, or installing fencing
D restore or enhance native wetland or stream
vegetation
D control invasive species
67
-------
D enhance wildlife habitat
B. Determine whether natural colonization can occur at the
restoration site.
D Is there an acceptable seed bank in the existing soil on
site?
D Are plant sources available in nearby or adjacent
wetlands that may be transported to the site by
wind, waves, currents, or animals?
C. Will planting be required to meet your restoration
objectives? If so:
D Identify potential native plant sources and determine
whether enough seeds, transplants, and other
propagules of appropriate size will be available
when needed.
D Will selected species be compatible with existing
nativeplant communities at your site?
D Will selected species be compatible with planned
landscape features, aesthetics, and other constraints?
G Will invasive non-native species compete with the
desired plant species?
D Determine plant costs and assure adequate funds are
available to purchase plants and materials
68
-------
D Identify and prepare stockpile areas if plants will need
to be stored before planting
D. Will the desired plant species adapt to site conditions and
the selected location? Consider the following conditions:
D soil type and depth
G shade or sun exposure
D water depth
D flood frequency
D water level fluctuation
E. Will wind or wave action uproot plantings?
F. Prepare the work site:
[j dentify limits of work
D identify areas or plants that are to remain
D identify locations for plantings
G. Install plants and habitat features.
H. Is a temporary irrigation system or other maintenance
needed to ensure survival of planted vegetation through the
dry season?
I. Are vegetated buffers or fences needed to protect the
restoration site from human disturbance, sedimentation,
pollution, or grazing disturbance? Contact Federal, State, and
local conservation agencies to determine whether assistance is
available for installing fencing.
69
-------
Appendix D:
Scientific Names of Plants Mentioned in the Text
bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum)
bitter cherry (Pmnus emarginata)
black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpd)
black hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii)
black twinberry (Lonicera involucrata)
bleeding heart (Dicentra formosd)
cascara (Rhamnus purshiana)
common cattail (Typha latifolia)
common reed (Phragmites communis)
creeping buttercup (Ranunculus repens)
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii}
evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum)
false lily of the valley (Maianthemum dilatatum)
grand fir (Abies grandis)
hardhack (Spiraea douglasii)
hardstem bulrush (Scirpus acutus)
Indian plum (Oemleria cerasiformis)
lady fern (Athyrium felix-femina)
madrona (Arbutus menziesii}
narrow-leaved cattail (Typha angustifolid)
Nootka rose (Rosa nutkana)
ocean spray (Holodiscus discolor)
Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia)
Pacific ninebark (Physocarpus capitatus)
Pacific willow (Salix lasiandra)
piggyback plant (Tolmiea menziesii)
pond weed (Potamogeton spp.)
purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria)
red alder (Alnus rubra)
red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa)
70
-------
red osier dogwood ; (Cornus stoloniferd)
red-flowering currant (Ribes sanguineum)
reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinaced)
rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllutri)
salal (Gaultheria shallori)
salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis)
sawbeak sedge (Carex stipata)
Scouler willow (Salix scouleriand)
simplestem burreed (Sparganium emersum)
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)
Sitka willow (Salix sitchensis)
skunk cabbage (Lysichitum americanum)
slough sedge (Carex obnupta) \
small-fruited bulrush (Scirpus microcarpus)
snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus)
soft rush (Juncus effusus)
spikerush (Eleocharis palustris)
stink currant (Ribes lacustre)
sword fern (Polystichum munitim)
thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus)
vine maple (Acer cirdnatum)
water parsley (Oenanthe sarmentosd)
western crabapple (Pyrus fused)
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)
western red cedar (Thuja plicata)
western white pine (Pinus monticola)
yellow iris (Iris pseudacorus}
yellow loosestrife (Lysimachia terrestris)
yellow pond lily (Nuphar polysepalurti)
71
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