United States Office of September 1991
Environmental Protection Research and Development AWBERC-91-09
Agency Cincinnati. OH
&EPA Always a River
Supplemental Environmental Education
Curriculum on the Ohio River and Water
Grades K -12
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Notice
This document has been reviewed in accordance with the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's peer and administrative review policies and approved for publication. Men-
tion of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recom-
mendation for use.
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Always a River
Supplemental Environmental
Education Curriculum on the
Ohio River and Water
GradesK-12
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1991
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Acknowledgments
Researchers
The following individuals contributed to the curriculum's preparation and review:
Beverly Baughman, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
Sherlyn Beason, Princeton City Schools, Glendale, Ohio
Don Bogosian, Hamilton County Board of Mental Retardation and Developmental Dis-
abilities, Cincinnati, Ohio
Lillie H. Brown, Cincinnati Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio
Emile Coleman, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
Bonnie Fancher, Switzerland County High School, Rising Sun, Indiana
Norma Flannery, Oxbow, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio
Linda Franklin, Wyoming City Schools, Wyoming, Ohio
Doug Haskell, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Aggie Hemmer, St. Paul Elementary School, Florence, Kentucky
Tim Hoeflich, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
John Hubbard, Cincinnati Nature Center, Milford, Ohio
Jill Neal, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
Glenn Rice, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
Dr. Meg Riestenberg, College of Mount Saint Joseph, Mount Saint Joseph, Ohio
Dr. Frank Traina, Sunrock Farm, Wilder, Kentucky
Vivian Wagner, Cincinnati Park Board, Cincinnati, Ohio
Robert Zimmerman, Cincinnati Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio
Peer Review Board
The following individuals have reviewed and approved the curriculum:
Sharon Disher, Cincinnati Museum of Natural History, Cincinnati, Ohio
Elvin Friesen, Hamilton County Office of Education, Cincinnati, Ohio
Dr. Ronald Gardella, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky
Dr. John Hug, Ohio Department of Education, Columbus, Ohio
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Dr. Ruth Jacquot, Murray State College, Murray, Kentucky
Steven Lutkenhoff, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
Sister Jean Menke, Holy Spirit Elementary School, Covington, Kentucky
Mary Ronan, Cincinnati Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio
Caroline Rost, Mother of Mercy High School, Cincinnati, Ohio
Dr. Judith Schultz, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Ann Seppenfield, Kentucky Department of Education, Frankfort, Kentucky
Dr. David G. Stephan, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
Maude Thompson, Cincinnati Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio
Joseph Wright, Indiana Department of Education, Indianapolis, Indiana
Diane Wurzbacher, St. Martin of Tours School, Cheviot, Ohio
The development of this curriculum was sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (EPA), Office of the Senior Official for Research and Development, Center
for Environmental Learning, Cincinnati, Ohio. Thelma Johnson and Ann Gunkel of the
Center for Environmental Learning provided management and overall direction for the
project, and Jennie Doddy provided clerical assistance. Susan Richmond, Linda
Saunders, Heidi Schultz, Pat Kottmann, Anne Donovan, and Erika Haas of Eastern Re-
search Group, Inc. (ERG), Arlington, Massachusetts, provided writing and editorial sup-
port. Stephen Wilson of the EPA Center for Environmental Research Information and
Steven Waltrip of the Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory developed the graphics,
and Karen Ellzey, David Cheda, and Aarre Laakso of ERG designed and desktop pub-
lished the document.
ill
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Preface
This curriculum was developed as a significant component of the project, Always a River:
The Ohio River and the American Experience, a six-state collaboration devoted to exploring
the historical and cultural development of the Ohio River. The Always a River project is
being jointly sponsored by the Humanities Councils of Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Its
primary purpose is to provide people living in the states through which the Ohio River
flows with an opportunity to explore their local cultural and natural history. One fea-
ture of the Always a River project is a specially outfitted barge carrying an interactive ex-
hibit that, during the summer of 1991, stopped at various locations along the entire
length of the Ohio River, from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois. The exhibits
from this "floating museum" became a permanent part of the Clarksville, Indiana, Inter-
pretive Center upon completion of the barge's journey. Other features of the project in-
clude book readings and discussion programs in local libraries, a public history
conference, a series of educational programs, and the preparation of this curriculum for
students in grades kindergarten through twelve.
As its contribution to the Always a River project, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), Office of the Senior Official for Research and Development, Center for
Environmental Learning, developed this curriculum through a collaborative effort, with
the assistance of many individuals and organizations. The result, Always a River: Sup-
plemental Environmental Education Curriculum, Grades K-12, focuses on the environmental
aspects of water and the Ohio River. The curriculum was developed as an interdiscipli-
nary document, offering a wide variety of activities that can be integrated into existing
curricula in science, social studies, mathematics, English, art, music, and other subject
areas. A series of workshops have been conducted to introduce instructors to the cur-
riculum and to provide guidance on its use.
We at EPA believe that environmental education is critical to young people's under-
standing of the complex issues facing us in the world today. It is our hope that curricula
such as this will provide a valuable supplement to existing educational programs.
iv
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How to Use This Guide
Always a River: Supplemental Environmental Education Curriculum on the Ohio River and
Water, Grades K-12 is a series of interactive hands-on activities, supported by back-
ground information, designed to engage students of all grade levels in investigating the
Ohio River and its importance to the states through which it flows. The curriculum en-
compasses four primary objectives:
1. To demonstrate that the Ohio River is part of a total ecosystem that includes its
floodplain and watershed.
2. To introduce the biological, physical, and chemical aspects of water and their
importance to living things.
3. To explore human use of the Ohio River and the environmental impacts of
human activity on the river and its watershed.
4. To examine the Ohio River's influence on historical cultures and its
implications for shaping modern life.
Students will investigate each of these program areas in depth, focusing on such topics
as the natural history of the river and its flora and fauna; the water cycle; the effects of
physical and chemical properties on water quality and the organisms inhabiting a water
body; the many uses of water and the importance of water conservation; drinking water
and wastewater treatment; and cultures and settlements along the Ohio River Valley
from ancient times to the present.
The guide is organized to provide maximum flexibility and ease of use for teachers of all
grade levels. Each objective listed above constitutes a unit, which is further broken
down into two to four sections covering specific topics. The components of each unit are
as follows:
1. Unit opener page. Each unit opens with a page that describes the major
sections, introducing the topics to be covered and the types of activities that
students will encounter.
2. Section background information. Each section opens with several pages of
background reading that prepare the teacher for presenting the activities in
that section.
3. Resources. Following the background information are two lists of
resources—publications and audiovisual programs—that can be used as
valuable classroom references for particular activities or to broaden teacher
knowledge.
v
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4. Activities. The activities are the heart of the curriculum. Each section includes
three to eight activities that allow students to explore the topics covered in the
section. Each activity contains the following elements:
• Objective. What students will accomplish by completing the
activity and what skills they will use.
• Setting. Where the activity should be performed (usually either
in the classroom or outdoors).
• Duration. Approximately how long the activity will take.
• Subject. What academic subjects the activity encompasses.
• Skills. What cognitive or behavioral skills students will exercise
by performing the activity.
• Grade Level. The grade level range for which the activity is
designed.
• Vocabulary. Which new terms students will need to know to
understand the concepts presented in the activity. Vocabulary
words appear in boldface type where they are introduced in the
section background information. They are also defined in a
glossary at the back of the guide.
• Background Information. Where to look in the section
background information to review the concepts being presented.
• Materials. Equipment and/or resources needed to perform the
activity.
• Procedure. How to perform the activity. The procedure is
described in a series of numbered steps, often including
suggested discussion questions or alternatives for tailoring the
activity to specific needs.
• Extension/Evaluation. Suggestions for additional related
activities that expand upon or enrich the concepts learned or
that test students' mastery of these concepts.
In addition, many activities are accompanied by maps, diagrams, clip art, and
other handouts, which immediately follow the activity to which they pertain.
The curriculum also contains several additional tools designed to enhance the use of the
activities. Tables 1 and 2 (on the following pages) provide cross references to activities
by grade level and by academic subject area, respectively, so that teachers can easily
select projects suited to their needs. At the back of the curriculum, Appendix A, "Keep-
ing Classroom Aquaria—A Simple Guide for the Teacher," provides step-by-step in-
structions for setting up and maintaining an aquarium so that students can study
aquatic life firsthand. Appendix B, "Field Ethics: Determining What, Where, and
Whether or Not!" discusses the ethical decisions regarding whether or not to collect, and
how to do so with minimal impact to the environment. Appendix C, "Guidelines for In-
vi
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terviewing People," presents helpful hints on conducting interviews to obtain informa-
tion from experts or to gain historical context for specific projects.
The last item in the curriculum is a glossary of words that are presented in the activities
as new vocabulary. As mentioned earlier, these words also appear in boldface type as
they are introduced in the background information for each section.
VII
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Table!
Activities by Grade Level
The grade levels suggested below for each activity are intended as general guidelines.
Many of the activities may be easily adapted for higher or lower grade levels or for
more or less advanced students.
ACTIVITY
UNIT IA
How Big Is the
River— Really? (p. 12)
Make an Imaginary
River System (p. 16)
How Rivers Are
Formed (p. 18)
Making a Glacier
(p. 20)
What Lived Here?
(P- 22)
UNIT IB
Water Wings (p. 32)
Designing a
Habitat (p. 35)
Pieces of the
Puzzle (p. 38)
Ohio River
Wetlands (p. 40)
Wetlands Trivia (p. 43)
GRADE
K1 2345 6 789 10 11 12
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viii
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Table 1
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT 1C
Water Plant Art (p. 53)
Life Stages (p. 56)
Field Observations
of Aquatic
Organisms (p. 62)
Wildlife Flash
Cards (p. 66)
Plaster Casts of
Animal Tracks (p. 68)
Wetlands Safari
(p. 71)
Endangered Species
Poster (p. 74)
UNIT IIA
Water, Water
Everywhere (p. 85)
How Wet Is
Our Planet? (p. 87)
The Never-Ending
Cycle of Water (p. 91)
GRADE
K1 23456789 10 11 12
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Table 1
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT IIB
A Change in
the Weather (p. 101)
In Hot Water (p. 104)
Pondering pH (p. 1 07)
The Disappearing
Act (p. 111)
Go with the Flow
(p. 114)
Life at the Surface
(p. 117)
Dirty Water (p. 119)
Stream Study (p. 121)
UNIT IIIA
Water Use
Collage (p. 133)
Where Does Our
Water Come From?
(p. 135)
Model Distribution
System (p. 138)
Water Audit (p. 140)
GRADE
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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Table 1
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT 1MB
Losing Soil (p. 156)
Sinking In:
Development and
Flooding (p. 159)
Ohio River Navigation
Locks and Dams
(p.161)
Who Pollutes the
River? (p. 164)
Ground-Water
Model (p. 167)
Power Valley and the
Impacts of Acid Rain
(P- 171)
Problems with
Litter (p. 174)
UNIT IIIC
Looking at Algae
(p. 186)
How Clean Are
Your Hands? (p. 189)
Function of Filters
(p. 191)
How Water Is
Cleaned (p. 193)
GRADE
K 1 23456789 10 11 12
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Table 1
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT HID
Planning for the
Future (p. 205)
Careers on the
River (p. 209)
Whose Job Is It?
(p. 211)
Who Wants to
Pay? (p. 21 3)
To Develop or Not
to Develop? (p. 215)
Pollution Detectives
(p. 21 7)
UNIT IVA
Archeological Sites
(p. 230)
Artifacts from
the Past (p. 238)
Let's Prepare an
Ancient Indian Feast
(p. 242)
Who Were the Mound
Builders? (p. 244)
GRADE
K1 2 3 45 678 9 10 11 12
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Table 1
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT IVB
Ohio River Place
Names (p. 253)
The Shape of
Our Town (p. 256)
Examining Local
Economies of
Current Ohio River
Communities (p. 258)
Tales of the River
(p. 261)
Watered Down
History (p. 263)
GRADE
K 1 23 456 7 89 10 11 12
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Table 2
Activities by Subject Area
Activities are categorized by subject area according to subjects generally taught at the
grade levels recommended for those activities. For example, science activities geared
toward the elementary grade levels will be categorized as "Science," rather than as
''Biology" or "Chemistry." However, a science activity which spans a wide range of
grade levels mightbe categorized as both "Science" and "Biology."
ACTIVITY
UNIT IA
How Big Is the
River— Really? (p. 12)
Make an Imaginary
River System (p. 16)
How Rivers Are
Formed (p. 18)
Making a Glacier
(p. 20)
What Lived Here?
(P- 22)
UNIT IB
Water Wings (p. 32)
Designing a
Habitat (p. 35)
Pieces of the
Puzzle (p. 38)
Ohio River
Wetlands (p. 40)
Wetlands Trivia (p. 43)
SUBJECT
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Table 2
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT 1C
Water Plant Art (p. 53)
Life Stages (p. 56)
Field Observations
of Aquatic
Organisms (p. 62)
Wildlife Flash
Cards (p. 66)
Plaster Casts of
Animal Tracks (p. 68)
Wetlands Safari
(P- 71)
Endangered Species
Poster (p. 74)
UNIT IIA
Water, Water
Everywhere (p. 85)
How Wet Is
Our Planet? (p. 87)
The Never-Ending
Cycle of Water (p. 91)
SUBJECT
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Table 2
ACTIVITY
UNIT IIB
A Change in
the Weather (p. 101)
In Hot Water (p. 104)
Pondering pH (p. 107)
The Disappearing
Act (p. 111)
Go with the Flow
(p. 114)
Life at the Surface
(p. 11 7)
Dirty Water (p. 119)
Stream Study (p. 121)
UNIT IIIA
Water Use
Collage (p. 133)
Where Does Our
Water Come From?
(p. 135)
Model Distribution
System (p. 138)
Water Audit (p. 140)
SUBJECT
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Table 2
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT NIB
Losing Soil (p. 156)
Sinking In:
Development and
Flooding (p. 159)
Ohio River Navigation
Locks and Dams
(p. 161)
Who Pollutes the
River? (p. 164)
Ground-Water
Model (p. 167)
Power Valley and the
Impacts of Acid Rain
(p. 171)
Problems with
Litter (p. 174)
UNIT IIIC
Looking at Algae
(p. 186)
How Clean Are
Your Hands? (p. 189)
Function of Filters
(P- 191)
How Water Is
Cleaned (p. 193)
SUBJECT
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Table 2
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT HID
Planning for the
Future (p. 205)
Careers on the
River (p. 209)
Whose Job Is It?
(p. 211)
Who Wants to
Pay? (p. 213)
To Develop or Not
to Develop? (p. 215)
Pollution Detectives
(p. 217)
UNIT IVA
Archeological Sites
(p. 230)
Artifacts from
the Past (p. 238)
Let's Prepare an
Ancient Indian Feast
(p. 242)
Who Were the Mound
Builders? (p. 244)
SUBJECT
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xviii
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Table 2
(cont'd)
ACTIVITY
UNIT IVB
Ohio River Place
Names (p. 253)
The Shape of
Our Town (p. 256)
Examining Local
Economies of
Current Ohio River
Communities (p. 258)
Tales of the River
(p. 261)
Watered Down
History (p. 263)
SUBJECT
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XIX
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ii
Preface iv
How to Use This Guide v
UNIT I The Ohio River and the Total Ecosystem 1
Unit IA The Ohio River and Its Watershed 2
1. The Waters of the Ohio River . . . 2
2. The Geologic History and Evolution of the Ohio River ...... 3
3. Changes in the Modern Ohio 6
Resources 6
Activity: How Big Is the River—Really? .12
Activity: Make an Imaginary River System . .16
Activity: How Rivers Are Formed . 18
Activity: Making a Glacier . 20
Activity: What Lived Here? .22
Unit IB The Ohio River as an Ecosystem 24
1. What Is an Ecosystem? 24
2. Components of Habitat . . . . . .25
3. The Ecosystem of the Ohio River Basin . ... . .26
4. Wetlands and Their Importance . . . . . . . .27
5. Threats to Wetlands . . .28
6. Wetlands Protection . . . 28
7. A Cooperative Effort 29
Resources 30
Activity: Water Wings 32
Activity: Designing a Habitat 35
Activity: Pieces of the Puzzle 38
Activity: Ohio River Wetlands 40
Activity: Wetlands Trivia 43
Unit IC The Abundant Life of the Ohio River Basin „ 45
1. Flora and Fauna Along the Modern Ohio River 45
2. A World in Miniature 46
3. An Even Closer Look 48
4. Birth to Adulthood: A Study in Contrasts 48
5. Endangered Wildlife of the Ohio River Valley 49
Resources 50
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Activity: Water Plant Art .53
Activity: Life Stages 56
Activity: Field Observations of Aquatic Organisms 62
Activity: Wildlife Flash Cards . 66
Activity: Plaster Casts of Animal Tracks 68
Activity: Wetlands Safari 71
Activity: Endangered Species Poster . . . . . . . . . 74
UNIT II Physical, Chemical, and Biological Aspects of Water ...... 77
UnitllA Earth: The Water World . . . . . ..... .78
1. A Planetary Perspective 78
2. The Water Cycle .79
3. The World's Water Supply : 79
4. Water: A Necessity for Survival 80
Resources . . . . 82
Activity: Water, Water Everywhere 85
Activity: How Wet Is Our Planet? 87
Activity: The Never-Ending Cycle of Water . 91
UnitllB Chemical and Physical Properties of Water 94
1. The Molecular Structure of Water . 94
2. pH .94
3. Surface Tension . .'.' 95
4. Heat Capacity .95
5, Temperature ..................... ".-• : . . . .96
6. Density . . 96
7. Solubility 97
8. Nutrients . . . .98
9. Velocity . .98
10. Indicator Species 99
Resources .99
Activity: A Change in the Weather 101
Activity: In Hot Water . . , . . . ; . . 104
Activity: Pondering pH 107
Activity: The Disappearing Act 111
Activity: Go with the Flow ..........:... . 114
Activity: Life at the Surf ace 117
Activity: Dirty Water 119
Activity: Stream Study 121
xxi
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UNIT III Human Use, Influence, and Impact on the Ohio River 127
UnitlllA Our Relationship with Water . 128
1. Water's Many Uses 128
2. How People Get Their Water . . 128
3. Conservation of Water 130
Resources 131
Activity: Water Use Collage 133
Activity: Where Does Our Water Come From? 135
Activity: Model Distribution System 138
Activity: Water Audit 140
Unit IIIB The Impact of Residential, Industrial, and Agricultural Use
on the Ohio River 144
1. Erosion and Erosion Control 144
2. Human Development and Flooding 145
3. Locks and Dams for Navigation 146
4. River Pollution 147
5. Ground-Water Contamination 149
6. Power Plants in the Ohio River Valley and
Their Impact on Acid Rain 150
7. Problems with Litter . . 152
Resources 153
Activity: Losing Soil 156
Activity: Sinking In: Development and Flooding 159
Activity: Ohio River Navigation Locks and Dams 161
Activity: Who Pollutes the River? . 164
Activity: Ground-Water Model , 167
Activity: Power Valley and the Impacts of Acid Rain 171
Activity: Problems with Litter 174
•t
Unit IIIC Water Treatment: Yesterday and Today .176
1. The Overloaded Ohio River 176
2. Contaminants in Water Supplies:
Microorganisms and Chemicals 176
3. Milestones in Water Treatment 178
4. Methods for Treating Drinking Water and Wastewater 179
5. Cincinnati: A Model of Water Treatment Along the Ohio River . 181
Resources 182
Activity: Looking at Algae 186
Activity: How Clean Are Your Hands? 189
Activity: Function of Filters 191
Activity: How Water Is Cleaned . 193
XXII
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Unit HID Economics and the Environment: Ensuring a Healthy Tradeoff . . .198
1. Meeting Human Needs 198
2. The Costs of Economic Growth . . . 199
3. Unlimited Use Versus Conservation 199
4. The Role of the Government in Protecting the Nation's Waters 200
5. Leadership in Environmental Research 201
Resources 203
Activity: Planning for the Future . , , 205
Activity: Careers on the River . 209
Activity: Whose Job Is It? 211
Activity: Who Wants to Pay? 213
Activity: To Develop or Not to Develop? 215
Activity: Pollution Detectives . . 217
UNIT IV Historic Influence and Implications of the Ohio River 219
Unit IVA Ancient Settlements along the Ohio River 220
1. Paleo Indians—Times of Hit or Miss 220
2. Archaic Indians—A Good Life on the River 220
3. The Mound Builders—Aliens or Ancestors? 221
4. Fort Ancient Indians—Early River Farmers 222
Resources 227
Activity: Archeological Sites 230
Activity: Artifacts from the Past . . . 238
Activity: Let's Prepare an Ancient Indian Feast 242
Activity: Who Were the Mound Builders? 244
Unit IVB Settlement from the Europeans to the Present 246
1. Ohio River Indians (17th -19th Century)—
Refugees and Fugitives 246
2. Pioneer Settlements—The River Is the Roadway 246
3. Early Industries Develop—
Making the Most of Local Resources 247
4. Later Industrial Development—A Shift to the West and North . 248
Resources 249
Activity: Ohio River Place Names 253
Activity: The Shape of Our Town 256
Activity: Examining Local Economies of
Current Ohio River Communities 258
Activity: Tales of the River 261
Activity: Watered Down History 263
XXI11
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Appendix A:
Keeping Classroom Aquaria—
A Simple Guide for the Teacher 267
Appendix B:
Field Ethics:
Determining What, Where, and Whether or Not! 272
Appendix C:
Guidelines for Interviewing People . 274
Glossary .276
xxiv
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The Ohio River and the
Total Ecosystem
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The Ohio River and
the Total Ecosystem
his unit introduces students to the Ohio River and its
T watershed, and describes their function as an ecosystem
for an abundance of plant and animal life. Section A
presents a brief geologic history of the region from the Ice
Age tens of thousands of years ago to today, and describes
the river's current extent and geographical features. Ac-
tivities focus on identifying the Ohio River Basin as a geographical
region, speculating on the role of glaciers in carving out the Ohio River
Valley, and exploring the evolution of rivers and river features in general.
Primary emphasis is given to helping students to understand that the
Ohio River ecosystem encompasses not only the river itself, but the
floodplain and watershed that depend on it for life.
Section B begins by defining ecosystems and describing the interrelation-
ships among their living and nonliving components. The section then
focuses in more detail on some of the specialized habitats that can be
found along the Ohio River, in particular, the riparian and wetland en-
vironments. Activities allow students to experience ecosystems firsthand
using the senses of sight, touch, and hearing, and to form an aesthetic ap-
preciation of these natural environments and their o\vn connection to
them. Students will also perform research to learn about the significance
of wetlands and the threats facing them.
In Section C, students will have an opportunity to familiarize themselves
with the variety of plant and animal life, including endangered wildlife,
that lives in the fertile environment of the Ohio River Basin. Several
activities allow students to venture into the field on expeditions to
observe and, in some cases, collect for more detailed study, samples of
macroscopic and microscopic life. In one activity, students will use
resources in the classroom to study the life stages of different organisms,
and in another, students will use aquatic plants to create works of art that
can also serve as educational tools. One of the last activities in the unit
sends students out into a nearby habitat to make a survey of the plants
and animals they find there and to draw conclusions about the
interrelationships among these forms of life based on their observations.
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UNIT I-A
The
River and Its
Watershed
The Waters of the Ohio River
The Ohio River begins where the Allegheny River and the Monongahela
River waters meet and merge, at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. As the Ohio
River flows westward, numerous tributaries, or smaller rivers and
streams that flow into a larger river, join it. Some of these are Beaver
River, Scioto River, Licking River, Great Miami River, Kentucky River,
Green River, Wabash River, Cumberland River, and the Tennessee
River. Each of these rivers have also collected water from hundreds of
smaller creeks and streams, which they add to the Ohio River. When
the Ohio River reaches Cairo, Illinois, it too joins another river, becom-
'ing a tributary to the even larger Mississippi River.
An aerial view or drawing of a river system such as this often
resembles the branches of a tree. The particular shape of the pattern is
determined by the elevation of the land and the underlying rock
layers in the area. Sometimes the waters swell or shrink in response to
flooding or drought. The land area along a stream that is periodically
flooded when the stream overflows its banks is the river's floodplain.
The great land area covered by the pattern of branching waters is
known as the drainage basin or watershed. The Ohio River's drainage
basin reaches as far norm as New York State, and as far south as
Alabama. The river system draws its water, not only from the
tributaries that flow into it, but also from rain and snowmelt that wash
over the land and run into it from the watershed. Water that washes
over the surface of the land is known as surface runoff (see Unit II,
Section A-2).
Changes in the drainage basin, even those occurring 100 miles away
from the river itself, can and will affect it. As rain and snowmelt flow
across the land and into the river, they wash over everything in their
path—city streets, farms, parking lots, lawns, and forests. They pick
up and carry loose material on the way. When rainwater washes pes-
ticides and fertilizers off lawns and farms, the chemicals end up in the
river. When construction in the river's drainage basin causes heavy
soil erosion, the silt is carried toward the river. Other examples in-
clude polluters dumping waste into a small stream, which flows to the
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UNIT I-A
river. When tributaries are channelized or not permitted to overflow
into their natural flobdplains, the river receives all of the flood water
and is more likely to rage out of control.
On the other hand, positive changes in the drainage basin will also be
reflected in the quality of the river. When small streams are cleaned
up, their clean water helps flush and cleanse the river. When trees are
planted to hold rainwater and soil in place, the river's burden of silt
decreases. When small streams, during heavy rains, are permitted to
overflow in many small floodplains, the river's flow is moderated.
For good or bad, the river is affected by what happens throughout its
watershed. And these effects do not end with the Ohio River. Because
the Ohio is a tributary of the Mississippi River/these effects continue
into another river system and onward to the Gulf of Mexico and the
ocean. Since all oceans are connected and water flows from one to the
other, what happens on a small tributary of the Ohio River may even-
tually affect the ocean environment worldwide.
The Geologic History and Evolution of the Ohio River
The Ohio River of today runs through six states beginning in Pennsyl-
vania and flowing through Ohio, West Virginia, Indiana, Kentucky,
and Illinois. The river, however, has not always flowed such a great
distance or through the same valleys. Two million years ago a series
of glaciers, massive sheets of moving ice formed by the compaction of
snow over long periods of time, caused dramatic changes in the
topography of this region. The glaciers came down from Canada
spreading southward through Ohio, Indiana, and northern Kentucky.
Acting as mighty bulldozers, they picked up soil and rocks and
transported them from north to south. Material, such as dirt and
rocks, which is picked up and moved by glaciers is known as glacial
till. Glacial till as well as the glaciers themselves frequently acted as
dams forcing streams to change direction or find new routes, thus
carving new valleys. Glaciers were a primary force in shaping the
Ohio River region as it looks today.
One way to look at the changes that have occurred to the Ohio River
Basin is as nature recycling the landscape. We have learned to recycle
and reuse materials such as bottles, cans, plastic, and paper, but na-
ture has been recycling the very ground beneath ouir feet for millions
of years. The rolling uplands of the Greater Cincinnati area, its hills
and valleys, and its rivers and streams, all give evidence that the
landforms of the region have been recycled not once, but several times
in the last 2 million years.
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UNIT I-A
Many of the most dramatic changes came about during the period of
Earth's history called the Pleistocene Epoch or the Ice Age. Three
glaciers changed the shape of the Ohio River Basin: the Kansan (over 1
million years ago), the Illinoian (about 400,000 years ago), and the
Wisconsinan (about 70,000 years ago). Before the first major ice sheet
arrived in the region, the area was a gently rolling plain. Figure IA-1
shows what the river system in this area might have looked like in
pre-glacial time. From the illustration, one can see that the Teays River
(to the north) and the Ohio River (to the south) were the two major
streams that drained the area of the present day Ohio River Basin.
These streams both flowed westward toward the Mississippi River. A
huge bedrock formation called the Silurian Escarpment (shown by the
dotted line in the diagram) formed a divide that controlled the direc-
tion of flow and separated the waters of the Ohio from the Teays.
At this time, the waters did not originate in Pennsylvania, as they do
today. Glaciers that covered western Ohio and eastern Indiana
dammed the streams and forced the waters to merge and be routed
through new valleys, substantially lengthening the course of what
would become the modern-day Ohio River.
The Kansan Glaciation. When the first of these major ice sheets, the
Kansan, moved from the north over the Cincinnati area, the Teays
River was dammed by the advancing glacier (Figure IA-2). In time,
lake waters created by the dam overflowed and the streams cut new
courses. The Ohio River gradually evolved along the edge of the
glacier, formed by a patchwork of the courses of former streams.
As the Kansan ice sheet melted, water continued to follow the new
drainage system westward from near Hamilton, Ohio, as far south-
west as Louisville, Kentucky. Augmented by a large volume of
meltwater and accompanying higher velocity, this new river recycled
former valleys, eroding a deep, wide channel called the Deep Stage
Ohio. The Teays, which had drained much of the eastern and
southeastern United States, ceased to exist. Most of its former channel
now lies buried under 400 feet of glacial till. Only in southern Ohio
and northern Kentucky, where the glaciers never reached, is the Teays
valley still visible.
The Illinoian Glaciation. The next ice sheet, the Illinoian, advanced
from the northeast (out of Ontario, Canada) and covered almost all of
southwestern Ohio. There were two lobes of ice, an eastern lobe called
the Clermont and a western lobe called the Harrison (see Figure IA-3).
The Harrison advanced southward down the lowland ..of the Scioto
River toward Chillicothe and then southwestward to Cincinnati. At
the same time, the Clermont lobe pushed down along the Indiana-
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UNIT I-A
Ohio border into western Hamilton County. The area west of Mill
Creek lay between two ice tongues.
The Ulinoian ice sheet eventually dammed the Deep Stage Ohio.
Thus, a second lake formed, extending back up the Deep Stage Ohio
toward Portsmouth to the east and along the Deep Stage Licking to
the south. As time passed, the lake rose higher and higher; in due
course it spilled over directly westward from Cincinnati, cutting a
new, narrow gorge extending through Anderson Ferry, Sayler Park,
and on to North Bend. This breaching of the divide caused the waters
east of Cincinnati to merge with those west of Cinciinnati, to form the
present-day Ohio River.
The Illinoian glacier continued to creep southwestward, depositing a
blanket of till over the lake clays. For upwards of 300,000 years follow-
ing the retreat of this glacier from Ohio, weathering and erosion of
these glacial deposits continued to carve hew valleys and form ter-
races that are still visible along the Mill Creek and under Bond Ffill,
Norwood, and Mariemont.
The Wisconsinan Glaciation. The last continental glacier advanced
into southwestern Ohio about 70,000 years ago. This glacier also had
two lobes, the Miami to the west and the Scioto to the east, and stayed
at its maximum extent for several hundred years (Figure IA-4). When
the glacier retreated, it left a rolling belt of till marking the terminus of
glacial movement. A segment of this terminal moraine, called the
Hartwell Moraine, extends westward in Ohio from just east of Pisgah
to Sharon Woods, then south along the sides of the former Deep Stage
valley, north to Winton Woods and Greenhills, and westward to the
Indiana border. As the glacier melted, great braided streams of
meltwater carried large quantities of sand and gravel from as far away
as Ontario. Many of the valleys became filled with stratified deposits
of the material, which erosion has since cut into teixaces along many
of the valleys. (Figure IA-5 shows a profile of the Ohio River Valley
today, with its many stratified layers resulting from the glacial ac-
tivity.)
Animal Life of the Pleistocene Epoch. Excavations in glacial deposits
from the Wisconsinan ice sheet reveal that the Ohio River Basin was
home to a multitude of animal life during this period that was very
different from the animal life today. Bones, teeth, and other fossils of
many extinct animals which roamed the glacial! and interglacial
countryside have been uncovered. Two giant relatives of the modern-
day elephant—the mammoth and the mastodon—lived here in the
past. Other animals that resembled present-day species include giant
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UNIT 1-A
ground sloths, wild horses, giant beavers, peccaries, tapirs, and giant
bison.
Changes in the Modern Ohio
Even today, the shape of the Ohio River continues to shift and change,
although not as dramatically as during the Ice Age. As the river
moves along its floodplain gathering more water from tributaries, it
gradually slows and becomes wider and more winding. In these later,
or "older," stages, the river begins to flow on a thick accumulation of
alluvium, or material transported and deposited by the river in earlier
stages of its activity. One characteristic of an alluvial river is that it fre-
quently rises over its banks and floods annually or once every 2 years
during the season of largest water surplus in the watershed. Overbank
flooding normally inundates part or all of a floodplain.
On the alluvial plain, the river winds and curves, increasing its curves
by eroding the bank on the outer edge and depositing material on the
shallower inner edge. The curves, or meanders, eventually develop
narrow necks, which are finally cut through as the water breaks
through the banks to take the shortest route. This event is called a
cutoff. It is followed quickly by deposition of silt and sand across the
ends of the abandoned channel, producing an oxbow lake. The oxbow
lake is in turn gradually filled in with fine sediments brought in
during high floods and with organic matter produced by aquatic
plants. The oxbow lake is thus eventually converted into an
oxbow swamp. The various stages of this process are illustrated in
Figure IA-6.
Resources
Publications
Durrell, R. 1961. A Recycled Landscape. Cincinnati, OH: Cincinnati
Museum of Natural History. 9p.
Kaufmann, J.S., R.C. Knott, and L. Bergman. River Cutters: Teacher's
Guide. Great Explorations in Math and Science (GEMS). Berkeley, CA:
Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley.
Lafferty, M.B., ed. 1979. Ohio's Natural Heritage. Columbus, OH: The
Ohio Academy of Science. Produced jointly by The Ohio Academy of
Science and the Ohio Department of Natural Resources.
Ray, L. 1974. Geomorphology and Quaternary Geology of the
Glaciated Ohio River Valley—A Reconnaissance Study. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 826. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office. 74p.
Strahler, A. and A. Strahler. 1987. Modern Physical Geography, 3rd
ed. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
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UNIT I-A
Resources
(continued)
Audiovisual Programs
The River: A First Film. Phoenix Films, Inc. (BFA Educational Media),
468 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, 1-800-221-1274.
Presents how rivers are formed, where they get their water, and how
cities use rivers for their water (11 minutes). Primary and intermediate
grades.
River Channel Forms. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 743
Alexander Road, P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08540, 1-800-257-5126.
Analyzes the dynamic nature of rivers and the relationship between
their forms and processes (20 minutes). Rental fee: $75.
Rivers to the Sea. Bullfrog Films, Oley, PA 19547, 1-800-543-FROG.
Explores the abundant life in Atlantic Rivers with some spectacular
underwater footage. Stresses the role that humans play in river ecol-
ogy (46 minutes). Grades 7 to adult. Rental fee: $75.
The World of a River. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O. Box 3456, West
Side, Elmira, NY 14905, 1-800-527-4264. Illustrates aspects of a river
system and the characteristics of the animals and plants found therein.
Slide show. Cost: $79.95.
Unit I, Section A^2 was adapted with permission from: Durrell, R., A
Recycled Landscape (Cincinnati, OH: Cincinnati Museum of Natural
History, 1961).
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UNIT I-A
River /oLouisvi"a *
Salt River
38" -
Figure IA-1. Pre-glacial river system in the Ohio River Valley.
8
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UNIT I-A
Figure IA-2. The Kansan glaciation.
rawMSS^BflP^
WHARRISON f'Sfli^J^te
\ * '
„ OUTLET
i les ^ j-
Figure IA-3. the Illinoian glaciati
9
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UNIT I-A
Figure IA-4. The Wisconsinan glaciation.
ELEV. ILLINOIAN modern floodplain
Wisconsin outwash i alluvium
TILL PLAIN
Illinoian till
Illinoian lake clays
Deep Stage gravels
Figure IA-5. Profile of the modern Ohio River Valley.
10
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UNIT I-A
Figure IA-6. Stages in an alluvial river.
Meander
Cutolff
Oxbow Lake
Oxbow Swamp
11
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UNIT I-A
0%
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
How Big Is the River—Really?
Students will be able to define the concept of watershed, identify
the Ohio River's watershed system, and describe the immediate
watershed in which they live.
Indoors
Two 1/2 hour sessions
Geography, Science, Social Studies
Mapping, Discussion, Drawing, Inference, Identification
4-8
watershed tributary floodplain drainage basin
Refer to Unit I, Section A-l.
• Copies of the Ohio River Watershed map handout for each member
of the class and/or copies of travel maps of the states in the Ohio
River system (Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia, Pen-
nsylvania, New York, and North Carolina) posted at the front of
the classroom. A large map of the United States showing the Ohio
River and its tributaries would also be helpful.
• Copies of local maps for each student.
• Crayons or markers, and colored pencils.
(Automobile clubs have detailed maps. Hydrologic maps, which
show water systems, are available from the state Geologic Survey.)
Part 1
With the individual maps or with the large travel maps or the map
of the United States:
1. Have students locate the Ohio River and trace over it with a
marker or crayon.
2. Have students locate the rivers that join to form the beginning of
the Ohio and trace over them.
12
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UNIT I-A
Procedure (continued)
3. Have students locate tributaries along the Ohio, and trace them
back to their origins or as far back as possible.
4. If topographical maps are available, ask students to tell in what
direction the water is flowing and how they know.
Discuss with students how many states the Ohio River flows through
and from how many different states the river gets its water. Have stu-
dents speculate about how the waters of the Ohio River system connect
these different states (transportation, commerce, fishing, drinking
water supply, water quality). Ask them to think about how things that
happen in one state along the river could affect other states in the river
system. Some possible topics are dams, factories dumping pollutants,
or cleanup projects.
Part2
Explain the concept of watershed. Using the maps from the previous
exercise, explain that a watershed is an area of land from which rain
and snowmelt drain into a particular stream or river. Watersheds may
consist of small areas of land that drain water into small streams or
huge areas of land that drain water into large rivers;. Watersheds are
usually named after the river they drain into. Ask students to find and
indicate the Ohio River watershed on the map. Reinforce the idea that
all of the land in a watershed is connected.
Tell students that they will learn about the smaller watershed in
which they live.
On a state or local map:
1. Have students find their own town or community on the map.
2. On tracing paper, have students find and trace the section or
tributary of the Ohio River that flows closest to them.
3. With different colored pencil or marker trace all of the different
rivers and streams in their area.
4. With a third color, have them draw a line around their
watershed.
Ask students:
• What types of things might rainwater flow over in your area
(roads, parking lots, farms, lawns)?
• How might this affect the water in the watershed's rivers and
streams (fertilizers, pesticides, silt, pollutants could run into the
river)?
13
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UNIT I-A
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
m How might what happens in their watershed affect others?
• Where does all of the water eventually go?
Have students identify the states and rivers that make up the Ohio
River watershed. Students should be able to explain how the dif-
ferent states and waters of the Ohio River watershed are intercon-
nected and together make up the area called the Ohio River. Have
them draw an imaginary river system, labeling the sources and
tributaries of the river, and outlining and naming the watershed.
14
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0)
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15
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UNIT I-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
information
Materials
Procedure
Make an Imaginary River System
Students will construct their own miniature river systems and be
able to explain the concepts of watersheds and tributaries.
Indoors
One 1/2 hour art session and one 1-hour creative writing assign-
ment
Art, Language Arts, Social Studies
Writing, Psychomotor Development, Observation, Comparing
Similarities and Differences, Inference, Discussion, Media Construction
K-6
tributary floodplain
Refer to Unit I, Section A-l.
• Construction paper.
• Nontoxic, water soluble ink or thin paint.
• Straws.
• Newspaper, aprons, and protective covers for furniture and
children.
In preparation for this activity, cover furniture and outfit children
with smocks or other protective clothing. Cover working surfaces
with newspaper.
1. Pass out a piece of art paper and a straw to each student.
2. Put a small puddle (several drops) of ink or paint at the edge of
each piece of paper.
3.. Have students blow directly onto the ink or paint through the
straw. Be sure that student is blowing into the side of the drop
from the same level as the paper, not down on top of the drop.
The ink/paint drop should spread out in a branching pattern
similar to that of a river and its tributaries.
16
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UNIT I-A
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
4. Tell students that they have made an imaginary river system.
The force of their breath served as the wind or a force of nature
to make the paint/ink (river source) drain or run onto other
areas of the paper (land). They should name their river and its
major tributaries. Have students label their work with their
name and the name of the system and put it aside to dry.
For homework, ask students to think about whether their rivers are
"wild" or "settled." If settled, are there any towns or cities along
the river and its tributaries? Any natural areas? How do people
who live in the river system use the water?
Conclude with a discussion of what other forces; of nature (rain or
snow storms, mountains, gravity, glaciers) might act upon water to
form a river system.
When the paint or ink is dry, you may wish to extend this activity
into a creative writing assignment. Have students reclaim their
"river system" maps, and label them with the: names of rivers,
towns, and cities. Encourage students to show wrhere mountains or
hills might be located around the watershed boundaries and label
them accordingly.
Encourage students to write a story or travel piece about their river
system. Have them pretend they are trying to encourage people to
come and visit the area. Below are some questions they might want
to ask to get themselves started.
• What do the natural areas within the watershed look like? These
could include forests, lakes, streams, marshes, or valleys.
• What animals and plants live in the watershed?
• What is the history of the towns and cities in the watershed?
Who settled there and why? (Encourage students to use their
imaginations.)
• How do people use the river today? Include recreational and
commercial uses.
17
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UNIT I-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
How Rivers Are Formed
Students will create models of rivers, identify river features, and
compare their models to actual rivers.
Classroom or laboratory
One 40- to 60-minute period
Geography, Science
Recording Data, Media Construction, Psychomotor Development,
Small Group Work, Decision-Making, Inference, Communication,
Comparing Similarities and Differences
3-8 (Conduct as a demonstration for younger students.)
tributaries meanders alluvium cutoff oxbow lake
Refer to Unit I, Sections A-l through A-3.
• Sand table/sand box.
• Pitcher or other container of water.
• Paper and pencil.
Explain to students that they will be creating miniature rivers in
this demonstration. Break older students into small groups to
perform the activity, if space and materials permit. For younger
students, perform the demonstration yourself.
1. Mound the sand or soil into a small hill.
2. Pour water slowly onto the sand or soil.
3. Have students draw a picture of what they see.
4. Have students identify the source of the river and its mouth,
then label these features on their diagrams.
5. Ask students if they can identify other river features. If students
are not already familiar with tributaries, meanders, oxbow lakes,
cutoffs, and other features, allow time for them to research in
geology textbooks or other reference materials.
18
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UNIT I-A
Procedure (continued)
6. Have students label their diagrams with any additional river
features, then discuss what they have found.
Extension/ Have students experiment with different slopes in the sand boxes
Evaluation and different water flows to see the effect on the formation of their
rivers. Encourage students to draw pictures of rivers formed on
shallower and steeper slopes and with faster and slower flows.
Compare these rivers and discuss the differences.
If there is a river area nearby where students can observe the forma-
tion of oxbows, waterfalls, deltas, meanders, or other river features,
arrange a field trip.
19
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UNIT I-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Making a Glacier
Procedure
Students will observe how a glacier could have moved and infer
how glaciers might have changed the landscape.
Indoors
15 minutes
Science, Social Studies
Observation, Discussion, Comparing Similarities and Differences,
Inference
K-4
glacier glacial till Ice Age
Refer to Unit I, Section A-2.
• Chocolate swirl (marble) ice cream.
• Chocolate chip cookies.
• Marshmallow syrup.
• Plastic glove or lunch bag.
• Baking sheet or pan.
• Cups or bowls, and spoons (optional).
Explain to children that you will be showing them a process similar
to what happened in the Ohio River Basin hundreds of thousands
of years ago.
1. Crumble the cookies onto the baking sheet or pan. The crumbled
cookies represent glacial till, materials such as rocks and dirt
that are picked up and moved by the force of a glacier.
2. Remove ice cream from container and place it on top of the
cookies. Explain that the ice cream represents the glacier.
Although a glacier begins as clean snow, as it travels, it picks up
dirt and rocks so that it becomes streaked with dirt. The swirls
in the ice cream represent the "dirt" in the glacier.
20
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UNIT I-A
Procedure (continued)
3. Place a plastic lunch bag or glove over your hamd, and compact
the ice cream. Have children notice the cookies sticking to the ice
cream. As more and more ice and snow fall on the glacier, the
weight causes it to ooze, pushing the glacial till (cookies) in all
directions and carrying some along with it. Emphasize that this
process takes thousands of years.
4. To see how glaciers moved (or oozed), warm up the
marshmallow syrup or add a little hot water to make the syrup
slightly runny. Then pour the syrup over the ice cream.
5. Have students observe the movement of the "glacier," and try to
relate this movement to the way a real glacier might have
traveled.
You could now divide up the ice cream "glacier" into cups or bowls
for all of the children.
Extension/ s cren to explain the process by which a rock found in their
Evaluation schoolyard might have been moved and deposited by a glacier a
half a million years ago. If there is a glacier-carved valley or
evidence of glacial till in your area, you may wish to arrange a field
trip for children to observe the work of a real glacier firsthand.
21
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UNIT I-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
What Lived Here?
Students will learn through research that, along with the changing
landscape, the plant and animal life t>f the Ohio River Basin has
changed dramatically over time.
Classroom and library
Two to three 40-minute periods for research; 5 minutes of classroom
presentation per student
History, Science, Social Studies
Research, Writing, Public Speaking, Reading
5-12
extinct fossils mammoth mastodon Ice Age Pleistocene Epoch
Refer to Unit I, Section A-2.
The research for this activity should take place in a library, unless
you can stock the classroom with enough books on the Ice Age and
prehistoric animals. You will also need pictures of the modern-day
descendents of prehistoric animals, such as elephants, wild horses,
sloths, tapirs, and bison.
1. Show students pictures of the following animals or put them up
on the board: elephants, wild horses, sloths, tapirs, bison.
2. Have students identify where these animals live in the world
today. Then explain to them that thousands of years ago,
animals similar to these species lived in the areas covered by the
Ohio River Basin.
3. Have students choose a prehistoric animal (mammoth, mas-
todon, giant ground sloth, wild horses, giant beaver, peccaries,
tapirs, bison) to research. They should prepare a 5-minute
presentation for the class on where these animals used to live,
when they lived, what they looked like (including how they dif-
fered from their modern-day descendents), what they ate, who
their enemies were, how they became extinct (if known), and
how we have learned this information about them.
22
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UNIT I-A
Extension/ Students may wish to form small groups to create dioramas or
Evaluation murals of what the Pleistocene Age in the Ohio l^iver Basin might
have looked like, including glacial features and prehistoric plants
and animals.
Arrange a field trip to a local museum that has a display on this
time period, such as the Ice Age exhibit at the Cincinnati Museum
Center.
23
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UNIT I-B
CS The Ohio River as an
Ecosystem
What Is an Ecosystem?
Ecology is the science concerned with the interrelationships among
living tilings and their environment. The word ecosystem combines
two words: ecology and system. It connects the idea of ecology, or the
study of nature, with a system, a set of interactions over time among
various parts. An ecosystem can be as small as a piece of rotting bark
or as large as a desert. The Ohio river (or any river) can also be seen as
an ecosystem. The plants and animals that live and grow on the river's
banks and shorelines, and the aquatic life (fish, plants, algae, bacteria)
found within the river itself would all be part of the river ecosys-
tem. These would all be part of the biotic or living component within
the river ecosystem. Also included in the river ecosystem are the soil,
rocks, water, and other nonliving matter, which make up the abiotic
component.
Every system also needs one more thing to set it in motion—the addi-
tion of energy. In nature, this energy comes in the form of light, usual-
ly from the sun. If the sun is the "engine" driving the ecosystem, the
plants are the "factories" where that energy is captured and processed
into a usable form by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process
that occurs in the chloroplasts of green plants, in which simple sugars
(glucose) are formed from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
light and chlorophyll (a pigment that gives plants their green color).
(See also Unit n, Section A-4.) Plants break down glucose stored in
their cells to obtain energy. Oxygen is released as a byproduct of this
process. This basic reaction is:
(C02) (H20) (C6Hi206) (02)
carbon dioxide + water + sun = glucose + oxygen
Because plants are able to manufacture their own food, something
animals cannot do, they are known as producers or autotrophs.
Animals are called heterotrophs, meaning that they get their food
from other organisms. Animals that feed on plants directly are known
as herbivores (plant eaters) or primary consumers. Not all animals eat
plants, however; many get their energy by eating other animals that
24
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. ^____ UNIT {~B
have fed on plants. These are known as secondary consumers. And
animals that feed on secondary consumers are known as tertiary con-
sumers. Secondary and tertiary consumers are both carnivores (flesh
eaters). In addition, many animals, for example humans, may eat both
plants and flesh from other animals. Such animals are known as onv
nivores. A diagram showing these relationships among producers
and consumers is a food chain. An example of a food chain might
consist of an eagle eating a fish that has eaten a frog that has eaten in-
sects that have eaten plants.
To complete the food chain, however, still another set of organisms is
needed, special consumers known as decomposers. Decomposers
(such as bacteria and fungi) live by breaking down matter such as fal-
len trees and branches, dead animals, and rotting leaves into simpler
compounds. Decomposition completes the food chain by returning or
recycling needed nutrients back into the system so that they can be
used once again by the producers.
The constant interactions of all of these living and nonliving elements
over time make up the ecosystem. At a global level, all of the elements
on the planet interact. But in practical terms, it is useful to consider
groups of organisms interacting in a relatively direct way as an
ecosystem.
Components of Habitat
The environment in which an animal lives is called its habitat There
are many different types of habitat in the ecosystem that comprises
the Ohio River Basin. Each habitat, however, contains a very specific
arrangement of components that allow the plants and animals that
live there to survive. An animal's habitat includes food, water, shelter,
and adequate space in an arrangement appropriate to the animal's
needs. If any of these components of habitat are missing or are altered
significantly, the animal will be affected.
The basic life-giving conditions of food, shelter, air, water, and space
in a suitable arrangment are basic to the survival of all animals. For
animals in aquatic environments, however, the water is a uniquely
sensitive part of the habitat and must serve to do far more than merely
quench thirst. The water must meet specific requirements for different
forms of aquatic life. For example, slight changes in salinity, tempera-
ture, sunlight, or dissolved oxygen can spell disaster for certain
aquatic organisms. Some animals prefer deep water and others rocky
shallow bottoms. Some creatures thrive in the rushing, tumbling
waters of brooks and streams, while others need the calm, still waters
25
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UNIT I-B
of a lake or pond. (For more information on physical and chemical
properties of water, see Unit II, Section B.)
The Ecosystem of the Ohio River Basin
A river's ecosystem includes the plants, animals, soils, and other non-
living elements along its banks as well as in its waters. It is important
to realize that the Ohio River does not exist in isolation. It is simply
the biggest, most obvious part of a system that collects and carries
water from an area thousands of square miles in extent.
The river is also intimately tied to the riparian habitat along its edges.
The riparian community is a distinctive plant community that thrives
at the edges of flowing water. These plants in turn support particular
•wildlife species. Riparian environments have several characteristics
that make them unique habitats for wildlife. Leaf litter and terrestrial
insects falling from vegetation into a stream are a source of detritus,
providing nourishment for some aquatic life. The riparian plant com-
munity, especially trees and shrubs, provides food for animals as large
as deer and as small as insects. Trees and marshy areas provide shel-
ter for nesting birds and river banks provide homes for burrowing
animals. Vegetation may also provide shade from the sun for aquatic
plants and animals and for land-dwelling creatures at the water's
edge. Riparian zones often provide different and more abundant
vegetation than surrounding areas, resulting in a higher percentage of
shade, higher humidity, and more diversity in animals and plants.
The riparian community also benefits the river directly. Roots and
vegetation hold soil on the river banks, preventing erosion and silta-
tion, and helping to keep the water clear. The vegetation cleanses
runoff water before it enters the river. The plant community also acts
as a "sponge," holding excess water during high-volume times and
releasing it to the river when the flow is lower.
In turn, the river continually nourishes the riparian community and
during floods brings additional nutrients to the soil. The waters also
provide transportation for seeds, helping the riparian environment
spread and replenish itself. Without the nearby river water, the
riparian plant community would disappear causing changes in the as-
sociated wildlife populations.
To truly understand the Ohio River, one cannot study just the water
and organisms on its banks. The river is an inseparable part of a larger
ecosystem that includes the riparian community and the drainage
basin from which its waters flow.
26
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UNIT I-B
Wetlands and Their Importance
Although this large ecosystem is connected by the common link — the
Ohio River — many different habitats are traversed by the river's
course, from fertile farmland to marshes teeming with wildlife. The
Ohio River today is largely a series of long pools behind navigation
locks and dams, located in a deep carved valley. Yet the lower reaches
of the river, below Louisville, have an extremely wide floodplain, with
many meanders and cutoffs, which create extensive wetlands.
Wetland is a general term describing land that is sometimes or always
wet. Wetlands are important "in-between" places located between
open water and dry land. A wetland is an area that supports
predominantly aquatic vegetation and hydric (wet) soils, and is per-
manently or seasonally saturated with water. Wetlands may take the
form of marshes, wet meadows, swamps, bogs, oxbows, and similar
areas. Some wetlands stay wet all year, while others may be seasonal,
drying out during summer and fall months. Each of these areas is dif-
ferent in the types of life it supports and thus each represents a unique
habitat in the total ecosystem of the Ohio River.
The wetlands and floodplains of the Ohio River Basin serve as a
natural system for flood control, water purification, ground- water
recharge, soil and riverbank erosion control, and wildlife food chains
and habitat. Wetlands and floodplains can be compared to giant spon-
ges, soaking up the overflow of a flooding river, storing and delaying
floodwater, trapping sediments for the river water, and allowing the
water to seep slowly into the underground water table or aquifer.
Aquifers provide drinking water for the small communities of the
Ohio River Basin. (For more information on ground water, aquifers,
and drinking water, see Unit II, Section A, and Unit III, Sections B and
Wetlands also provide breeding and wintering grounds for millions of
migratory waterfowl and shorebirds. During the northern spring
migration of waterfowl, Ohio River Basin floodplains are often resting
and feeding areas for ducks, geese, and swans of many species. These
vernal (spring) wetlands may also become summer farmland on
which corn and soybeans can be raised in the rich soils that the waters
have left behind. Our coastal wetlands also provide nursery and
spawning grounds for commercial fishing.
27
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UNIT I-B
Threats to Wetlands
According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the United States has
lost more than half of the 200 million acres of wetlands that were
originally present in the lower 48 states when European settlement
began. The country continues to lose between 300,000 and 500,000
acres of wetlands every year. During the past 200 years, many wet-
lands in our country have been drained because these areas were con-
sidered wastelands—useless swamps and marshes serving as sources
of mosquitoes and flies. Agriculture has been responsible for a vast
amount of wetland losses, as farmers have drained wetlands to plant
crops. Wetlands also have been drained and filled in as cities, towns,
and industries have expanded.
Wetlands have become shopping centers, highways, and housing
developments. They have also been damaged from too much pollu-
tion from agriculture, industry, and development. Nearly one-third of
the nation's endangered and threatened species of plants and animals
live in wetlands as well.
Wetlands Protection
Our nation is now coming to realize that wetlands have great value in
their natural state, and they are now protected by laws. Two of the
most effective wetland protection programs are the Duck Stamp pro-
gram and Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (CWA). The Duck Stamp
program, administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS),
raises money to help buy valuable wetland habitats. Section 404 of the
CWA helps prevent wetland destruction through a carefully control-
led permit program. Under guidelines established by the U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency (EPA), the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers evaluates wetland projects, hears comments from citizens
and private interest groups (as well as local, state, and federal agen-
cies), and then decides whether or not to grant a permit to the
developer.
Other important laws protecting wetlands include Section 10 of the
River and Harbors Act of 1899, which requires the Army Corps of En-
gineers to review and authorize a permit before any structure can be
built, waterway altered, or material deposited or excavated in a
navigable waterway. In 1985, the Federal Food Security Act required
that federal subsidies be revoked for farming wetlands. This legisla-
tion is known as the "Swampbuster Provision." The Emergency Wet-
lands Resources Act of 1986 directs the FWS to develop National
Wetlands Inventory to map the nation's wetlands. In 1989, the Nation-
28
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UNITI-B
al Wetlands Policy Forum, at the request of EPA, released a report
called "Protecting America's Wetlands: An Action Agenda" calling for
"No net loss of wetlands." This request was issued publicly by Presi-
dent George Bush in asking for cooperative wetlands protection by all
federal agencies, such as EPA, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the
Soil Conservation Service, FWS, and the Army Corps of Engineers.
Many states have now passed or are considering legislation to protect
wetlands. There is currently much debate over proposed legislation in
the U.S. Congress that would redefine wetlands. If passed, this legisla-
tion could allow development on millions of acres previously
protected under CWA amendments.
A Cooperative Effort
The "Oxbow area" is an example of an Ohio River wetland that is in
trouble. This 2,500 acre area is found at the confluence of the Great
Miami and Ohio Rivers in southwestern Ohio and southeastern In-
diana. In 1985, political and business leaders announced plans to cre-
ate a major new port authority and barge shipping center on this
floodplain. This idea seemed to make economic sense to some, but
others knew that the Oxbow area was already serving as an invalu-
able resource for wildlife habitat, flood control, and water purifica-
tion. The Oxbow has long been used by people for hunting, fishing,
birdwatching, and farming.
In 1986, a volunteer citizens' group, Oxbow, Inc., was formed with the
help of local Audubon Society and Sierra Club members and other
conservationists. Oxbow, Inc. members began writing letters and call-
ing their state representatives to urge protection for this important
natural area. Once legislators understood the complex nature of the
Oxbow and its value for wildlife, they dropped plans for the port
authority and barge facility. Presently, over 1,000 citizen members of
Oxbow, Inc. are continuing to work for the protection of the Oxbow
area. With the cooperation of the Hamilton County Park District, the
Ohio and Indiana Departments of Natural Resources, and local land
owners, 1,373 acres have been protected, either by outright purchase
or conservation easement. Oxbow, Inc. continues to present public in-
formation programs, to do valuable wetland research, and to work
with officials of the FWS and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to restore
. lost habitat. The Oxbow story is a good example of citizens working
together with federal, state, and local governments to save vital
habitats.
29
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UNIT I-B
Resources
Publications
Audesirk, G. and T. Audesirk. 1989. Biology: Life on Earth, 2nd ed.
New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Banta, R.E. 1949. The Ohio. New York, NY: Rinehart and Company.
Heller, R. et al. 1973. Challenges to Science: Earth Science. New York,
NY: Webster Division, McGraw Hill Book Company.
Lafferty, M.B. 1979. Ohio's Natural Heritage. Columbus, OH: The
Ohio Academy of Science. Produced jointly by The Ohio Academy of
Science and the Ohio Department of Natural Resources.
Miller, G. T. 1991. Environmental Science: Sustaining the Earth, 3rd
ed. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Muller, R. and T. Overlander, 1978. Physical Geography Today:
Portrait of a Planet, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Random House.
National Wildlife Federation. 1989. Ranger Rick's Nature Scope:
Wading Into Wetlands. Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation.
Sisson, Edith A. 1982. "Chapter 11: Ponds, Streams, and other Watery
Places." Nature with Children of all Ages. New York, NY: Prentice
Hall Press. Developed by the Massachusetts Audubon Society.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1988. Conservation and the Water
Cycle. Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 326. 0-521-909: QL 3.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Usinger, R. L. 1967. The Life of Rivers and Streams. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Book Company. Developed jointly with The World
Book Encyclopedia.
Western Regional Environmental Education Council. 1987. Aquatic
Project Wild. For more information, contact Western Regional
Environmental Education Council, P.O. Box 18060, Boulder, CO
80308-8060,303-444-2390.
Audiovisual Programs
America's Wetlands. New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation, Audiovisual Services, Film Loan Library, 50 Wolf Road,
Room 516, Albany, NY 12233-4501, 518-457-0858. Free rental.
Conserving America's Wetlands. National Wildlife Federation, 1400
16th St. NW, Washington, DC 20036-2266,1-800-432-6564. Filmstrips
or slides: $26.95.
30
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UNIT I-B
Resources
(continued)
The Ecosystem: Network of Life. Phoenix Films, Inc. (BFA Educational
Media), 468 Park Ave. South, New York, NY 10016, 1-800-221-1274.
Explores the interactions that take place between living things, and be-
tween organisms and the physical elements in the environment (11
minutes). Junior and senior high levels.
Freshwater Biology. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O. Box 3456, West
Side, Elmira, NY 14905, 1-800-527-4264. Describes a freshwater en-
vironment with examples of food chains. Slide show. Cost: $39.95.
Freshwater and Salt Marshes. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O. Box 3456,
West Side, Elmira, NY 14905,1-800-527-4264. Describes and illustrates
the various types of marshes, how marshes are formed, and the plants
and animals common to these wetland habitats. Video or slide show.
Water. Bullfrog Films, Oley, PA 19547,1-800-543-FROG. An examina-
tion of freshwater ecosystems, and the effects of damming and diver-
sion (59 minutes). Grades 7-12.
Wetlands and Pinelands. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 743
Alexander Road, P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08540,1-800-257-5126.
A study of wetland ecosystems from the Pine Barrens of New Jersey to
areas of Mexico and Belize, where environmental planning are recog-
nizing the role of humans in the ecosystem (38 minutes). Rental: $75.
31
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UNIT I-B
Activity
Water Wings
Objective ;| Students will learn to identify water-related sounds and their sour-
ces within an ecosystem. They will also explore their own thoughts
and feelings about aquatic environments through visualization and
creative writing.
Setting -1 Outdoors or in a classroom
Duration ! One 20-minute listening session and one 40-minute period for art or
creative writing
Subject [ Art, Language Arts, Music
Skills --'I Listening, Visualization, Creative Writing
Grade Level j K-6
Vocabulary j ecosystem aquatic
Background | Refer to Unit I, Sections B-l through B-3.
Information 1
Materials • Tape-recordings of water sounds or of an aquatic habitat such as
a river, lake, stream, swamp, or marsh. (You can either make
these tapes yourself or obtain them from bookstores; music
stores, or stores that specialize in nature.)
• Art materials, including water-based paints (ie., acrylic, water
color, or poster paints), brushes, paper, containers for water.
• Writing materials.
Procedure
1. Play the tape for the children. The first time, have them listen
quietly and try to picture a setting for the sounds they hear.
Have them concentrate on the quality of the sounds, but ask
them not to write or draw anything while the tape is playing.
2. Now play the tape a second time. This time, have children in
grades 2-6 write down the names of things they think are
making the sounds they hear. For children in grades K-l, have
them say the names of things they hear as they listen, while you
write them on the board.
32
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UNIT I-B
Procedure (continued)
3. Ask children to name some of the things they wrote down (e.g.,
rain, bird songs, frogs croaking, a waterfall, a beaver's tail slap-
ping). Ask children where and when they ithink the sounds
might have been recorded (e.g., a marsh during a storm, a river
early in the morning). Have children justify their choices.
4. Ask children to close their eyes and try to recreate the picture in
their minds that was created by the sounds. Vtfliat do they see?
Tell them to imagine as much detail as possible, the colors, the
plants and animals, the sky. If you feel it would be helpful, you
may play the recording again.
5. Now tell children they will be painting a picture of the scene
they have just been listening to. Provide the art materials and
ask them to include all of the things that they heard and saw
when they closed their eyes. Alternatively, you may wish to
have older children write short poems about what they heard.
Some simple poetic forms are described below.
Haiku
Originated by the Japanese, haiku consists of three lines of five,
seven, and five syllables each. The emphasis is syllabic, not rhym-
ing. Here is an example:
The fish swam by me
Nothing left in the shimmer
My heart beat faster
Cinquain
Cinquain is derived from the French and Spanish words for five.
This form of poetry is also based on syllables—or may be based on
numbers of words. The parts are 1) the title in two syllables (or two
words); 2) a description of the title in four syllables (or words); 3) a
description of the action in six syllables (or words); 4) a description
of a feeling in eight syllables (or words); and 5) another word for the
title in two syllables (or words). Here is an example:
Osprey
Fishing eagle
Moves above dark water
With graceful strength it finds its meal
Seeker
33
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UNITI-B
Procedure (continued)
Diamante
Diamante is a poem shaped in the form of a diamond. It can be
used to show that words are related through shades of meaning
from one extreme to an opposite extreme, following a pattern of
parts of speech like this:
noun
adjective adjective
participle participle participle
noun noun noun noun
participle participle participle
adjective adjective
noun •
For example:
Stream
Small, clear
Rippling, moving, growing
Life, plants, animals, people
Rushing, sustaining, cleansing
Connected, universal
Ocean
You may wish to create a display of children's artwork and poetry
on a bulletin board.
Extension/
Evaluation
Older students may enjoy going out into the field to tape record
their own sounds. Take a field trip to a stream, pond, lake, river, or
wetland where human-made sounds will be at a minimum. Divide
students into groups and have them tape water-related sounds and
write down what they have recorded. Later in the classroom, allow
the different groups to play back their sounds so that the other
groups can guess what they are.
Adapted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC,
©1987).
34
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UNITI-B
Actiyity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Designing a Habitat
Students will learn about the components of a habitat that are essential
for the survival of aquatic animals by designing artificial habitats for
particular species. Through this activity they will recognize,and ap-
preciate the complex life requirements of aquatic wildlife.
Classroom
Two or more 45-minute periods
Art, Language Arts, Science
Media Construction, Small Group Work, Public Speaking, Research,
Interviewing, Writing
2-6
aquatic habitat
Refer to Unit I, Section B-l and B-2.
- - . . ;• ' J -
m A set of 3 x 5 cards, each with the name of one of the following
animals written on it: trout, river otter, largemouth bass, water
strider, diving beetle, crayfish, leopard frog, moose, ruddy duck,
great blue heron, and beaver (expand the choice as appropriate).
• Art supplies, including paints and brushes, paper mache,
modeling clay, string, cardboard.
• Gallon jars for aquatic environments.
• Cardboard boxes for semi-aquatic environments.
• Field guides and other reference materials. (See Resources for
Unit I, Sections B and C)
Explain to the class that to successfully house aquatic wildlife in
zoos or aquaria, careful attention must be paid to the range of con-
ditions each life form can tolerate. There are also certain physical re-
quirements hi terms of shape and dynamics of the display that must
be compatible with each creature. For example, some fish require
moving water or currents, while others prefer the still waters of
lakes or ponds. Some animals prefer deep watex, others shallow
rocky bottoms, and still others marshes or swampss.
35
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UNIT I-B
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
1. Divide the class into groups of two or four. Have each group
draw one card from a container.
2. Ask each group to design an artificial habitat in which its animal
could live. Inform them that teams will be expected to conduct
library research or consult reference materials or resource people
to determine the life requirements of their creature. In addition,
they must investigate and establish the characteristics of the
natural habitat of the animal. They must be concerned not only
with the basic life-giving conditions for survival, but must also
pay attention to the animal's comfort. Their "aquaria" should be
as similar to the animal's natural habitat as possible.
3. When the research is complete, each team of students should
design and build a model of a zoo exhibit or aquarium habitat
that would be suitable for its animal's survival and comfort.
Have each group establish a scale for their exhibit (for example,
1 inch = 5 feet for the large animals; actual size for the insects).
4. Once the models are complete, ask each team to report to the
rest of the class. Each report should include a description of the
basic biological needs of the animal, as well as a description of
the characteristics of its natural habitat. The students should point
out how their models are designed to meet the needs of the animal.
5. Ask students to summarize the components of habitat that seem
to be necessary for the survival of the aquatic animals they
studied. (Food, shelter, and space in a suitable arrangement
would be the minimum necessary components.)
6. OPTIONAL: You may wish to have students arrange their
models in. a plan for a zoo or aquarium, and invite other classes
in to see their display.
an a(luarium and arrange for a staff person to address the com-
ponents of habitat and the basic requirements necessary to sustain
the animals in healthy environments.
Create a balanced freshwater aquarium for the classroom. (Refer to
Appendix A, "Keeping Classroom Aquaria — A Simple Guide for
the Teacher.")
36
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UNIT I-B
Extension/ (continued)
Evaluation Discuss the reasons for and against keeping aquatic wildlife in cap-
tivity in zoos and aquaria. (Pros might include conservation, protec-
tion of endangered species, and environmental education; cons
would be difficulties of survival and reproduction in captivity, dis-
rupting the habitat and food chain by removing them from their
original home, and changing their natural behavior.)
Adapted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC,
©1987).
37
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UNIT I-B
Activity
Pieces of the Puzzle
Students will be able to define an ecosystem and arrange its com-
ponents into a system that shows how they work together.
Outdoors, along a river bank or stream
Ihour
Art, Biology, English, Language Arts, Science
Listening, Observation, Listing, Discussion, Inference, Synthesis
4-8
ecosystem riparian producers consumers herbivores car-
nivores decomposers omnivores
Refer to Unit I, Sections B-l through B-3. You may also wish to
consult Chapter 11, "Ponds, Streams, and other Watery Places,"
in the book, Nature with Children of all Ages (Prentice-Hall Press,
NY: Massachusetts Audubon Society, 1982).
Pencil and paper.
Arrange a field trip to a stream or riverside where students will be
free to observe and illustrate. (Potential field trip sites in the Cincin-
nati area include Fernbank Park on River Road, Shawnee Lookout
County Park, Magish Recreation Area, and Little Miami Scenic
River Park)
1. Have students choose a spot in an area designated by you and
make a list of all the living and nonliving things they can see in
the area. Alternatively, you may wish to have students draw
and label the things they see.
2. Bring students together and ask them to share their lists or draw-
ings with others in the class. Discuss how some of these interact
with one another or are related to one another. For example, for
plants, you might have students consider questions such as:
• What does a plant get from the soil?
• Where does the soil get what the plant needs?
• What else does the plant need to live?
• Does anything eat the plant?
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
38
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UNIT I-B
Procedure (continued)
3. Have students return to their spots. Tell them to close their eyes
and use only their senses of hearing, smell, and touch to add to
their lists. *
4. Have students share any new observations with the class and
discuss how these additional items are related to each other and
to the things already on their lists.
5. Have students return to their spots a final time to look for signs
of animals that may have passed through the area even if they
are not there now. Such signs might include broken twigs,
tracks, woodpecker holes, or animal burrows. Remind students
that they also are animals. Have they seen any tracks or signs
made by people? Have they themselves left any signs in the
ecosystem? Do they notice any difference in the signs left by
people and those left by other animals?
6. The final stage of the activity can be done at the field trip site or
back in the classroom. Have students write a short essay
describing the interrelationships of the components of the
riparian ecosystem they have explored, reminding them to
include all of the relevant items from their lists both living and
nonliving. Alternatively, you may wish to provide students with
drawing paper and have them draw a picture of the riparian
ecosystem, labeling all of the parts they have observed.
Extension/ After returning to the classroom, you may wish to have students
Evaluation create a mural showing the animals, plants, and nonliving things in
the ecosystem. They could draw arrows to show the connections be-
tween elements in the ecosystem or connect related components of
the ecosystem with pieces of yarn.
If the area you visited was excessively damaged by human in-
trusion, you may wish to discuss with students how this damage
could upset the balance of the ecosystem or keep it from functioning
properly. Talk with students about what they could do to return the
ecosystem to its natural state, and, if time and interest exists, revisit
the area to take those steps.
39
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UNIT I-B
Ohio River Wetlands
Students will perform research on and familiarize themselves with
a particular wetland and present their information to the class in the
form of an oral presentation.
Classroom and library
Several 40-minute class periods
Art, Biology, Economics, English, Government, Social Studies
Research, Writing, Public Speaking, Interviewing, Drawing
7-12
wetland oxbow lake meander migratory floodplain
Refer to Unit I, Sections B-4 through B-7. See also Unit I, Section A-4
• Paper and pen or pencil.
• Reference materials, including field guides (see Resources for
Unit I, Sections B and C).
• Copies of Ohio River Wetlands handout for each student.
1. Define wetland and discuss different types of wetlands. Show
pictures as you talk about different wetland environments.
2. Distribute handout showing major Ohio River wetlands, pointing
out the uniqueness of the Oxbow at the mouth of the Great Miami
River. In contrast to the many wetlands on the lower Ohio, the
Oxbow is the only such ecosystem for a hundred miles around.
3. Have each student choose an Ohio River wetland to research.
Each student's research should cover the wetland's:
• Importance to wildlife.
- • Recreational significance.
• Contribution to flood control and water quality.
• Economic significance.
• Current status of protection, including any regulations or
legislation pertaining to the area.
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
40
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UNIT I-B
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
4. Provide students with references, including addresses of Natural
Resources Departments and natural areas from which informa-
tion can be gathered (some of these addresses aire listed below).
Note: Make sure that students write to these sources well in ad-
vance of the scheduled time for doing research in class.
5. Allow students several class periods to research their topics.
Checkpoints for student progress can include reference lists, out-
lines, notecards, and draft reports.
6. Have students prepare written reports and present their findings
to the class in the form of 15-minute oral presentations. The
presentations should include visual aids including maps,
photographs, overheads, charts, and illustrations of wildlife and
habitat. If equipment is available, students may wish to develop
their reports as video presentations.
Take a field trip to one of the wetlands presented to the class. Have
students keep in mind what they learned from the oral presentation as you
explore the wetland as a class. Afterwards, discuss some of the points
brought up in the presentation in the context of what you have seen. You
may also wish to invite a speaker from Oxbow, Inc. or Little Miami, Inc.
(addresses below) to come and talk about the importance of wetlands.
Additional . The Ohio Valley. G. and E.
Resources Laycock. (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1983)
The Ohio River. J. Pearce and R.
Nugent. (Lexington, KY:
University Press of Kentucky,
1986)
Wetlands. Audubon Society
Natural Guide, Oxbow, Inc.
2073 Harrison Avenue
Cincinnati, OH 45214
(513-948-8630)
Little Miami, Inc.
3012 Section Rd.
Cincinnati, OH 45237
(513-351-6400)
Ballard County Wildlife
Management Area
RR.1
La Center, KY 42056
Henderson Sloughs
c/ o Kentucky Department of Fish
and Wildlife
Frankfurt, KY 40601
Horseshoe Lake'
Highway 3
Cairo, IL 62969
Conservation Area
Mermet Lake and Lower
Wabash Sloughs
Illinois Department of Conservation
100 West Randolph Street
Chicago, IL 60601
John J. Audubon State Park
P.O. Box 576
Henderson, KY 42420
Hovey Lake State Fish and
Wildlife Area
RR5
MtVernon, IN 47620
41
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(0
TJ
C
§
ir
o
IE
O
42
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UNIT I-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Wetlands Trivia
Students will perform research to learn about wetlands, their sig-
nificance, and threats facing them, then test their lo\owledge.
Classroom
Two 40-minute periods
Biology, English, Government, Science
Research, Writing, Reading, Synthesis, Application
6-12
endangered marsh bog wet meadow swamp
pollution threatened
Refer to Unit I, Sections B-4 througnB-7.
• Magazines, field guides, pamphlets, and other reference materials
on different types of wetlands and their significance. This may
include material on specific wetlands in your .urea and legislation
affecting them. (See also Resources for Unit I, Sections B and C.)
• Index cards or cards made of construction paper.
• Writing materials.
Session 1—Research
1. Present students with some background material on wetlands.
Discuss some of the problems facing wetlands and encourage
students to volunteer any information they know about local
wetlands.
2. Tell students that they will be researching questions for a game
called "Wetlands Trivia." Ask each student to come up with 10
questions (and answers) using the reference materials you have
supplied in the classroom. Their questions should cover, the
following topic areas: wetland wildlife; benefits of wetlands
including recreation> flood control, pollution control, wildlife
habitat, drinking water; threats facing wetlands; and wetland
protection. Tell students they also need to indicate the source of
43
-------
UNIT I-B
Procedure (continued)
their information and the page on which the answer appears. At
the end of the class period, collect the trivia questions (make sure
students' names are on their papers) and compile as many as
you can for use in the game.
Session 2—Playing the Game
1. In preparation for the class, write out the questions you have
selected on index cards. Write the answer and the source upside
down at the bottom of the card.
2. Divide students into teams of four to six Have students choose
names for their teams and write the names on the board to keep
score.
«
3. Determine which team goes first by thinking of a number and
asking team representatives to guess the number. The team that
comes closest goes first. Ask the team a question (any member
may answer). If the team answers correctly, give the team one
point. If it answers the question incorrectly, the question goes to
the next team, and so on until all teams have had a chance to
guess correctly.
4. Play now moves to team #2 whether or not team #1 answered
the first question correctly. Teams continue taking their turns
until one team has answered 10 questions correctly. This team is
the winner.
Extension/ You may want to throw in some questions of your own and sponsor
Evaluation a trivia championship. Have students play against each other in
pairs, with the winners playing other winners, working their way
up a "ladder" until a wetlands champion emerges!
Some of the questions that students uncover may suggest further
exploration. After the game, have each student write a short para-
graph about the most interesting thing they learned about the value
of wetlands.
44
-------
UNITI-C
The Abundant Life of the
Ohio River Basin
Flora and Fauna Along the Modern Ohio River
The Ohio River Valley contains a wide variety of flora (plants) and fauna
(animals) that have successfully adapted to the river environment. A walk
along the river's edge and its adjacent floodplaini brings the sights,
sounds, and smells of hundreds of species of plants arid animals. The ear-
liest spring night in the river valley is filled with the sound of spring
peepers, a frog of woods and thickets near wetlands. A weekly progres-
sion of wildflowers, such as Miami mist, a blue and white delicate,
fringed petaled flower of damp woods and fields, brings changing blos-
som and color throughout spring, summer, and autumn. Trees associated
with river banks and floodplains, such as the silver maples, cottonwoods,
and sycamores, line the creeks and river edges of the valley. Beech and
maple forests grow on the undrained uplands. Oak and hickory tree
forests dominate the well-drained hillsides.
In fall, floodplains can be abundant with the bloom and odor of the
goldenrods, ironweeds, great ragweed, Jerusalem artichoke, white
snakeroot, and wingstem. Plants found in floodplains and along river
edges include the arrowhead, lizard's tail, cattails, and sweet-flag.
True wetland habitat species, such as pimpernels, water-willow, and
purple ammania can be found on river mudflats.
Also in autumn, birds converge on the oxbow wetlcinds. Many species
of ducks, geese, birds of prey, shorebirds, and songbirds have been ob-
served in the sand bars, mud flats, river edges, bottoms, floodplains,
and wooded hillsides of the Ohio River Valley. Autumn also brings
an occasional drifting osprey, also known as a "fish hawk" In late
autumn, the uncommon migrating bald eagle or the even rarer golden
eagle may be observed. Migratory waterfowl, which use the area for
feeding and resting, include black ducks, ring-necked ducks, blue-
winged teal, canvasback, redhead, pintail ducks, scaup, wood ducks,
mallards, snow geese, greater white-fronted geese, and even the mag-
nificent tundra and mute swans. Shorebirds (such as plovers,
sandpipers, and yellowlegs) as well as great blue herons, green-back-
ed herons, and egrets also use the area for rest stops during migration
and for local nesting.
45
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UNIT 1-C
Other vertebrates that flourish here include mammals such as minks,
muskrats, and beaver, which can be seen in and along the many
streams and tributaries that feed the Ohio, as well as the surrounding
marshlands. With patience, one might catch a glimpse of the rare and
elusive river otter as well. The northern water snake and the garter
snake are common reptiles. Almost any nonpolluted stream or pond
may harbor a snapping turtle, which may grow up to 40 pounds.
Another turtle, the brown softshell turtle inhabits the rivers, and the
smaller painted turtle lives in a variety of wetland habitats. A large
aquatic salamander called the hellbender frequents the rivers and
larger streams. Despite the size and grotesque appearance of this am-
phibian, it is quite harmless. Ohio's smallest woodland salamander,
the red-backed salamander, rarely goes into the water, but it makes its
home in the floodplain. Of the many fish that inhabit the Ohio River
Basin's waters, the Ohio muskelunge is the largest and most spec-
tacular. This fish has been recorded at anywhere from 5 to 50 pounds.
Other prominent species of fish include catfish, chum, white bass, and
yellow fish.
A World in Miniature
Some of the most abundant organisms along the Ohio River are
those that are difficult to see on a casual stroll. Many thousands of
invertebrates, organisms lacking a backbone, have been found in
the Ohio's 44,000 miles of streams and rivers. Thousands of these
are macroinvertebrates, invertebrates which are small but still
visible to the naked eye. The invertebrates inhabiting freshwater
streams include insects, crustaceans (crayfish and relatives), mol-
lusks (clams and mussels), gastropods (snails), oligochaetes
(worms), and others. In most streams and rivers, larval insects
dominate the macroinvertebrate community.
Arthropods, the group to which insects, crayfish, and spiders belong,
are animals with an external skeleton, complex behaviors, and well-
developed body systems. Dragonflies, beetles, and flies are a few of
the insects that use watery environments to live or raise their young.
Many types of crustaceans live in the ponds and streams of the Ohio
River. Varieties that are easily observed with a hand lens include clam
shrimps, water fleas, and f airy shrimps.
The oligochaetes or worms are composed of a number of different
animals with similar shapes. Tubifex worms live on the bottom of
ponds with their heads buried in the mud. Leeches are flat and seg-
mented and found in warm dark waters. Flatworms avoid light and
hide during the day, eating tiny invertebrates, dead or alive.
46
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UNIT I-C
Hydras, which are related to the ocean-dwelling corals and jellyfish,
have a single opening through which they both take in food and
eliminate waste. This opening is rimmed with tentacles. They capture
their food by using special cells, called nematocysts, that are found
around the opening. These cells entangle, stick to, or paralyze their
prey, usually one-celled animals.
Streams and rivers consist of three basic habitats. Riffles are areas of
swift current, raceways are areas of moderate current, and pools are
areas where water flows very slowly, if at all. In each, the tempera-
ture, oxygen content, and sediments vary. Of these three habitats, rif-
fles and pools represent opposites. The animals that live in each of
these habitats have special adaptations for their specific environment.
The swift and steady current of riffles and, to a lesser degree,
raceways can dislodge and wash away small animals. For this reason,
the animals that live in strong currents have flattened bodies and
streamlined shapes that make them efficient swimmers. Many riffle
animals, such as sponges and flatworms, also possess adaptations that
enable them to resist the force of the current. Many remain on the un-
dersurface of rocks or out of die direct line of current. They also often
have special appendages, such as claws or suckers, for clinging to
stones or to the bottom. In addition, some have developed even more
specialized adaptations, such as the stonefly, whose eggs are coated
with a sticky jelly that allows them to attach firmly to rocks.
In pools, animals are not threatened with being washed away/Leaves
and other organic material collect in pools, providing a food source
and a surface for microscopic plants (those invisible to the naked eye)
to live and grow. Many of the animals found in pools are predators,
meaning they depend upon other animals for their food. The lack of a
current enables them to swim freely looking for prey. Other pool in-
habitants are burrowers, such as mayfly or dragonfly nymphs,
remaining most of the time under the protection of the bottom sedi-
ment. Because pools have less oxygen than riffles and raceways (be-
cause there is less mixing of the water), many pool dwellers have large
gills and can use oxygen that has been dissolved in water or can take
it directly from the air.
Two specially adapted pool dwellers are the water sirider and the whir-
ligig beetle. The strider makes use of surface tension to "skate" on the
water surface. It is able to do this with the help of hairs on the tips of its
legs, which are covered with a water-repellent waxy material. The
whirligig beetle swims in a gyrating fashion. Because 1the upper surface of
its body repels water, it is able to sit half in the water and half out. (See
Unit n, Section B-3 for a more detailed discussion of surface tension.)
47
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UNIT I-C
Water-dwelling macroinvertebrates generally require an environment
that has a plentiful supply of oxygen and is free of toxic pollutants, al-
though each varies in tolerance to low oxygen levels and toxic substances.
An Even Closer Look
Microinvertebrates are the simplest of animals, made up of only a
single cell. Examples of freshwater microinvertebrates are paramecia,
which move by means of hairlike projections called cilia, and
amoebas, which move by means of pseudopodia, or "false feet."
Microinvertebrates, called zooplankton, are abundant in ponds,
lakes, and other wetlands, and are an important link in the food web.
Without these life forms, the entire aquatic ecosystem could not func-
tion. Microorganisms, both plants and animals, are vital in the food
supplies of fish, aquatic birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mam-
mals—including humans.
There are tens of thousands of species of aquatic microorganisms
found in many different shapes and sizes and using many different
forms of locomotion. In numbers they probably exceed all other
animals found in ponds and lakes. The organisms reproduce either by
budding, forming an outgrowth which pinches off or breaks away
from the parent cell, or by fission, simply splitting in two. These
animals feed on algae, yeast, decaying materials, bacteria, or other
unicellular animals. Heterotrophs obtain food from the environment,
while autotrophs manufacture their own food through photosynthesis
in a process similar to plants.
Phytoplankton are microscopic plants that convert the energy of the
sun into chemical energy stored as food. The smallest of these plants
are the algae, which grow where organic matter is abundant. Most
algae form colorful green clumps or colonies. Diatoms, for example,
are a group of yellow-green algae with finely sculptured shells.
Bacteria are another important group of microscopic organisms. Most
are so small that they are not even visible through a magnifying glass
or common microscope. Bacteria are seldom abundant in waters with
a high oxygen content, and are therefore rare in clear ponds or lakes.
Birth to Adulthood: A Study in Contrasts
Many of the animals that inhabit the Ohio River look significantly dif-
ferent in their earliest stages of development than they do as adults.
This is most obviously true for some aquatic insects. Many aquatic in-
sects undergo metamorphosis, or changes during growth. Some insects
48
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UNIT I-C
experience simple metamorphosis, while others undergo complete
metamorphosis. In simple metamorphosis, the insect egg hatches to
produce a nymph. Insect nymphs have essentially all of the features
of adults. As they grow, they are visibly similar at each stage.
Insects that experience complete metamorphosis are characterized by
eggs -that hatch into larvae. The larva grows through several stages
and then changes into a pupa. Pupae are usually encased in a protec-
tive cover for their next stage of growth. From the pupae emerge the
soft-bodied, often pale-colored insects. They differ remarkably in ap-
pearance from their earlier forms, but are not yet completely formed.
Gradually, the soft pale body develops firmness and color. In com-
plete metamorphosis, there is little resemblance belweien the adult arid
earlier forms.
There are also remarkable similarities and differences between other
aquatic animals in different life stages/The eggs of many animals hide
their eventual form (birds, turtles, fish). Aquatic: mammals, on the
other hand, often are easy to recognize in their juvenile forms. They
frequently do not change as dramatically as some other animals in
overall appearance as they grow from young to adult stages.
Endangered Wildlife of the Ohio River Valley
Many of the plants and animals that inhabit the rivers, streams, and
wetlands of the Ohio River basin are now extremely rare. Plants and
animals that are so rare that they are in danger of becoming extinct
are known as endangered species. Wildlife whose numbers are very
low or are rapidly decreasing are called threatened. They are not en-
dangered yet, but could become endangered if the threats they "face
are not alleviated.
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 charges the U.S. Department of
the Interior with identifying species that are in immediate danger of
extinction. Such species are officially designated as endangered and
receive protection under the Act. The Act further requires the map-
ping of endangered species habitats and forbids any private, state, or
federal agency to destroy such habitats in the course of construction
projects such as dams, highways, or airports. Recovery plans for all
endangered species have also been developed by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. A critical element of these plans is habitat protection.
The wetlands and floodplains of the Ohio River need to be viewed as
important wildlife habitats when planning for future use.
49
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UNIT I-C
Resources
Publications
Biological Science, An Ecological Approach. Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Braun, E.L. 1950. Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America. New
York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
Braun, E.L. The Monocotyledoneae. Columbus, OH: Ohio State
University Press.
Braun, E.L. The Woody Plants of Ohio. Columbus, OH: Ohio State
University Press.
Buchsbaum, R. and M. Buchsbaum. 1957. Basic Ecology. Pacific
Grove, CA: The Boxwood Press.
Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1964. A Field Guide to the Mam-
mals. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Cvancara, A.M. 1989. At the Water's Edge: Nature Study in Lakes,
Streams, and Ponds. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Klots, KB. 1966. The New Field Book of Freshwater Life. New York,
NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Kopec, J. and S. Lewis. Stream Quality Monitoring. Columbus, OH:
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Natural Areas and
Preserves Scenic Rivers Program.
Kricher, J. and G. Morrison. 1988. Eastern Forests. Peterson Field
Guides. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Lafferty, Michael, ed. 1979. Ohio's Natural Heritage. Columbus, OH:
The Ohio Academy of Science. Produced jointly by The Ohio
Academy of Science and the Ohio Department of Natural Resources.
National Wildlife Federation. 1989. Ranger Rick's Nature Scope: Wading
Into Wetlands. Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation.
Newcomb, L. 1977. Wildflower Guide. Boston, MA: Little Brown
and Company.
Odum, E.P. 1959. Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia, PA: W.B.
Saunders Company.
Peterson, R.T. 1980. A Field Guide to the Birds. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company.
50
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UNITI-C
Resources
(continued)
Petrides, G.A. 1958. A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company.
Reid, G. 1967. Pond Life: A Guide to Common Plants and Animals of
North American Ponds and Lakes. New York, NY: Golden Press.
Thompson, P. 1985. Thompson's Guide to Freshwater Fishes. Bos-
ton, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Usinger, R.L. 1967. The Life of Rivers and Streams. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Book Company. Developed jointly with The World
Book Encyclopedia.
Weishaupt, C.G. 1971. Vascular Plants of Ohio. A Manual for Use in
Field and Laboratory, 3rd ed. Dubuque, IA: Kendall!/Hunt Publishing
Company. '
Western Regional Environmental Education Council. 1987. Aquatic
Project Wild: Aquatic Education Activity Guide. For more informa-
tion, contact Western Regional Environmental Education Council,
P.O. Box 18060, Boulder, CO 80308-8060, 303-444-2390,
Audiovisual Programs
Amphibians: Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders. Phoenix Films, Inc.
(BFA Educational Media), 468 Park Avenue South, New York, NY
10016, 1-800-221-1274. With close-up and micro photography, this
film illustrates a typical amphibian life cycle and studies the differen-
ces between three kinds of amphibians (11 minutes). Intermediate to
senior high levels.
The Ecosystem: Network of Life. Phoenix Films, Inc. (BFA Educational
Media), 468 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, 1-800-221-1274.
This film explores'the interactions that take place between living things
and between organisms and the physical elements in their environ-
ment (11 minutes). Junior to senior high levels.
Freshwater Biology. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O. Box 3456, West
Side, Elmira, NY 14905, 1-800-527-4264. Describes a freshwater en-
vironment with examples of food chains (slide show). Cost: $37.95.
Freshwater and Saltwater Marshes. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O.
Box 3456, West Side, Elmira, NY 14905, 1-800-527-4264. Describes
and illustrates the various types of marshes, how marshes are formed,
and the plants and animals common to these wetland habitats (video
or slide show).
51
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UNIT I-C
Resources
(continued)
Frogs: An Investigation. Phoenix Films, Inc. (BFA Educational
Media), 468 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, 1-800-221-
1274.
Vanishing Animals of North America. National Geographic Society,
Educational Services, Dept. 85, Washington, DC 20036. Filmstrip
with cassette. Advanced grade levels.
Water and Plant Life. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 743
Alexander Road, P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NY 08540,1-800-257-5126.
Covers the water cycle and plant life (28 minutes). Rental: $75.
'What Is a Fish? Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corporation,
310 S. Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60604,1-800-554-9862. Focuses
on the main types of modern bony fishes, showing their behaviors and
morphologies. Includes a time-series of a developing fish embryo (20
minutes). Senior high.
The World of a River. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O. Box 3456, West
Side, Elmira, NY 14905,1-800-527-4264: Illustrates aspects of a river
system and the characteristics of the animals and plants found therein
(slide show). Cost: $79.95.
52
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UNIT IrC
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Water Plant Art
Students will learn to identify a variety of plant life in aquatic
environments by collecting, mounting, and writing about them.
Indoors, and outdoors if students assist in gathering plant material
One 20- to 40-minute period (an additional period for collecting)
Art, Biology, Science
Analysis, Classification, Comparing Similarities and Differences,
Discussion, Media Construction, Psychomotor Skills
K-12 (Younger children will need assistance with identification and
may not perform the written part of the activity.)
algae phytoplankton
Refer to Unit I, Section C-l. (Also see Unit I, Section B-l.)
• Samples of aquatic plants that have been collected.
• Shallow pan filled with fresh water.
• Heavy, porous white paper and wax paper.
• Newspapers.
• Several large heavy books or a plant press.
• Waterproof marking pen.
• A reference guide to common aquatic plants (see Resources for
Unit I, Section C).
1. Talk with students about the importance of there being a variety
of plant life in aquatic habitats. (Plants are important parts of
aquatic ecosystems, providing food and shelter for aquatic
animals.) -
2. Show the students pictures of some different kinds of aquatic
plants, animals, and habitats such as lakes, streams, and marshes.
(A slide show or film might be ideal for this purpose.)
53
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UNIT I-C
Procedure J (continued)
3. Show the students a sampling of the aquatic plants you have col-
lected. If you collect these yourself, do not take a large amount
from any one area, or, if possible, from any single plant. Also,
ensure that none of the plants you are collecting are protected by
law. Make sure the plants are abundant and that you will do no
permanent damage to the surrounding environment by remov-
ing them. While gathering these plants, also look carefully for
aquatic animals. Gently remove any that you find rather than
accidentally taking them with your sample. Put samples in plas-
tic bags to keep them moist.
Note: If you collect plants with students as a field trip, discuss
"field ethics" before you go. Follow the rules for not damaging
animals, plants, and habitat detailed in Step 3. (See Appendix B,
"Field Ethics: Determining What, Where, and Whether or Not!")
4. Ask the students to identify the different types of grasses, algae,
or other aquatic plants you collected. You may need to use refer-
ence materials or find plant experts on the faculty or in your
community to help you do this.
5. Place the plants in a pan filled with water. Clean them and, if
you want, tear the plants into smaller sizes for mounting.
6. Have individual students or small groups select plants from the
pan, gently lifting them and placing them on heavy, porous
paper. Have each student or group arrange the plants or parts
of plants into a desired design.
7. Cover the arrangement of plants with wax paper.
8. Have students identify the plant and write its name on the wax
paper with a waterproof pen, along with where and when it was
found.
9. Lift the artwork, white paper, and wax paper, and place it be-
tween several sheets of newspaper. (The wax paper protects the
plant, while the water will seep through the white paper. As the
plant dries, it will adhere to the paper.)
10. Place the stack of newspapers containing the plant on a flat sur-
face. Stack several heavy books on top to serve as a plant press.
An actual plant press is ideal, if available.
11. Drying may take from a few days to several weeks depending
on humidity.
54
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UNIT I-G
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
12. Display the aquatic art and ask the students to talk about what
they learned. Again talk with students about the importance of
the variety of plants in aquatic environments. Ask students to
give examples of ways these plants are important.
These plant prints can serve many purposes, including plant
identification keys for classroom use and for bulletin board
displays. The wax paper can be retained as protection, or it can be
removed gently, leaving the plant dried to the paper.
Use the dried plants to make a "field guide" of the pond or stream
where the plants were found. Students can research and write short
informational paragraphs about the plants they have preserved to
accompany the artwork. You might want to have students design a
cover and develop an introduction for the book that describes the
habitat where the plants were found and discusses how these plants
provide food and protection for animals that live in or near the
water.
Adapted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC
©1987).
55
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UNIT I-C
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Life Stages
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
•
-------
UNIT I-G
Procedure (continued)
4. Have the students at each station place their pairs of pictures on
the table and mix them randomly. Once the adult-child pictures
are mixed at each table, have the entire group shift to another
table, so there will not be anyone at the tables where their own
pictures are placed.
5. At the new table, have the group attempt to match pairs of
adult/child or student and infant photos.
6. When the students at each table have completed their efforts to
match the pairs, ask all of the groups to return to their original
tables—the place they left their own pairs of pictures. Are the
matches correct? Ask the students to change any pairs that are
not correctly matched. Talk about how difficult or easy it was to
correctly match the pairs. Introduce the idea Ithat many animals
that are familiar to them look remarkably different as adults
than they appeared in their younger forms. Tell the students that
they are about to learn how to match young cind adult forms of
different kinds of aquatic animals that they might find in ponds,
lakes, and rivers nearby.
7. Introduce the aquatic animal cards and divide the class in two.
Designate one half of the students "adults" and the other half
"young animals." Distribute one card to each student, making
sure there is a corresponding match, adult or juvenile, for each
card given. Instruct the students to look \for their
"match"—pairing the adult and juvenile forms.
Note: You can attach each animal card to a string loop so the
pictures can be hung around the students' necks as they try to
match the pictures.
8. When all the students have made their choices and think they
have a match, let everyone help to see if the matches are correct.
Some are more difficult than others and may be confusing,
especially for younger children. You may need to show the
students the matched images on the master.
9. Have all of the students look at all of the correctly matched pairs.
Look at similarities and differences in how different kinds of
aquatic animals grow and change.
Note: This activity can be repeated several times by shuffling the
adult and young images and passing them to new "animals" so that
each student becomes familiar with a wider array of animals.
57
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UNIT I-C
Extension/ Have students each pick one pair of images and find out more
Evaluation about the life cycles of the animals shown. Have them present
what they have learned to the class, either through a series of
pictures or by pantomiming the metamorphoses of their animal. If
possible, you may want to take a field trip to a habitat where some
of these animals live and find some of them in the wild.
Adapted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC,
©1987).
58
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Whirligig Beetle
Life Stages Clip Art
Whirligig Larva
Frog
Duck
Tadpoles
Ducklings
Butterfly
Butterfly Larvae
59
-------
Cranefly
Stonefly
Dragonfly
Caddisfly
Life Stages Clip Art
Cranefly Larva
Stonefly Nymph
Dragonfly Nymph
Caddisfly Larvae
60
-------
Adult Beaver
Mosquito
Life Stages Clip Art
Young Beavers
Mosquito Larva
Black Fly
Mayfly
Mayfly Nymph
61
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UNIT I-C
Activity
Field Observations of Aquatic
Organisms
Students will collect aquatic microorganisms and learn about their
habits and life history through observation.
Outdoors at a pond or slow-moving stream, and in the classroom
Three 45-minute periods
Art, Biology, English, Language Arts, Science
Collecting, Observation, Identification, Writing, Drawing
4-12
microinvertebrate macroinvertebrate microscopic amoeba
paramecium cilia zooplankton appendage predator
Refer to Unit I, Sections C-2 and C-3, and Unit I, Section B-l.
• Pond water.
• Hand lenses.
• Magnifying glasses.
• Fine mesh nets.
• Microscopes.
• Writing materials.
• Poster paper.
• Mural paper.
• Paints.
• Tape.
• Handout of Aquatic Microorganisms.
• Field and reference guides (see Resources for Section C).
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
62
-------
UNIT I-C
Procedure 1. Collect samples of water from a pond or stream that contain
microorganisms. One or two gallons should be adequate;
however, you may want to collect enough to stock a small
aquarium. If you choose to use an aquarium, collect the bottom
material with soil and detritus as well. Aquatic plants should
also be transplanted into the aquarium, and certain aquatic
insects such as diving beetles and water striders may be
included.
Note: See Appendix A, "Keeping Classroom Aquaria—A Simple
Guide for the Teacher," for additional information. This phase can
either be done as a field trip with the students or in advance by the
teacher. If it is done as a field trip, discuss with students the concept
of "field ethics" before you go. Encourage students to collect only
organisms that are in relative abundance and not to collect anything
that they do not think they can keep alive in captivity. (See
Appendix B, "Field Ethics: Determining What, Where, and Whether
or Not!")
2. Invite students to remove about a tablespoon of the water from
the container. Remember to tell them to get the water from
deeper in the container and not just at the surface. Have them
examine the water with hand lenses and microscopes. Tell them
to make sketches of living things they find. They should note
how the organisms move and how they interact. Do some seem
to be predators? Which forms of life do the predators prey on?
3. After they have sketched several organisms, encourage them to
choose a favorite life form to make a large painting of. Students
should strive for detail and accuracy in portraying the organism.
However, encourage artistic license and the use of color in the
background and the area surrounding the life form. Also, ask
them to write a short paragraph about their observations of the
organism, answering such questions as:
• Where was it found?
• How does it move?
• How big is it?
• What does it eat?
4. Have students try to identify the organism they painted. Some
common pond organisms are shown on the following pages.
Because there may be microorganisms that are difficult to
identify, you may have the students give their organism a
temporary name until they can find an adequate reference.
63
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UNIT I-C
Procedure (continued)
5. Create a dass mural of the pond or stream and its aquatic
organisms. Display the written paragraphs near the corresponding
organisms. Arrange them to show their relationship to one another.
At the end of the activity, return the water to its source, if possible.
Extension/ -• I Encourage students to do some additional research to discover
Evaluation more about the organism they chose to draw and write about. After
students have had a chance to study the projects done by other
students, have them draw a food web containing at least one
producer, one consumer, and one decomposer. They should be able
to accurately draw and label the corresponding organisms.
Adapted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC,
©1987).
64
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65
-------
UNIT I-C
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Wildlife Flash Cards
Students will learn to recognize some familiar vertebrate species
that inhabit the Ohio River Basin.
Indoors
One 30-minute period
Biology, Science
Memorization, Identification, Recognition
3-8
vertebrate amphibian reptile
Refer to Unit I, Section C-l.
Create flash cards (approximately 3x5 inches) of common ver-
tebrates associated with the Ohio River Valley by drawing,
photocopying, or cutting out illustrations from magazines or field
guides. Cards should include birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians,
and fish. You may want to use one set of cards for the entire class
or reproduce the pages to make sets so that students can work in
small groups or parrs.
You may want to initiate this activity by allowing some time for
browsing or free reading in field guides and other reference
materials.
1. Divide students into two teams. Let the teams choose names for
themselves and write their names on the board so you can keep
score.
2. Go through the flash cards once as a practice round, holding up
each card individually and allowing time for a student from
either team to name the animal. If he or she only names it par-
tially (for example, "duck" instead of "pintail duck" or "frog"
instead of "leopard frog"), give other students a chance to
answer. If no one can "name that animal," tell them the answer
and go on to the next card.
66
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UNIT I-C
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
3. Now you are ready for the real game. Have both teams count off
so that each person has a designated number. Tell students that
if it is their turn and they know the answer, they must raise their
hand as soon as possible. You will call on whoever raises his or
her hand first. (Remind them that if they answer incorrectly,
they can lose a point, so they should only raise their hand if they
have a good guess.) Begin by holding up the first flash card to
the player #ls on both teams. Allow the first player with a hand
raised to answer. If he or she answers correctly, that team gets a
point. If he or she answers incorrectly, the team loses a point,
and the other player #1 gets a chance to answer. If neither
answers correctly, the card goes back into the deck. (If the card is
guessed, put it aside.)
4. Proceed with play by holding up the next card for the #2 players.
Play until all of the cards have been guessed.
5. If any cards are left over, talk to students about distinguishing
marks and how they might be able to remember the animal the
next time.
This game can be played again later after students have spent more
time studying wetland wildlife. They might enjoy seeing how much
they have learned. The game can also be played in pairs with
students taking turns showing each other cards from a face down
deck and keeping track of how many points each person earns.
Take a field trip to a nearby pond, marsh, or river side park or
wildlife refuge, preferably in early morning. Bring binoculars and
see how many of the species on the flash cards you can identify in
the wild. If you like, note animals that you see that are not on the
flash cards. Back in the classroom, give students a chance to expand
their deck of flash cards with drawings of these animals.
67
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UNIT I-C
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Plaster Casts of Animal Tracks
Students will identify and preserve animal tracks found on or near
a riverbank, streamside, or pond, and make inferences concerning
the animals' activity.
Outdoors
One 2-hour period
Art, Biology, Science
Observation, Collection, Identification, Media Construction
5-12
mammal
Refer to Unit I, Section C-l.
• Plaster of Paris.
• Plastic container.
• Stirrer.
• Animal Tracks handout.
• Cardboard.
1. Arrange a field trip to a "collecting" site on the banks of a river,
stream, or pond. Before the trip, discuss with students the kinds
of signs you might find there. Explain to them that although
they will not see many mammals moving around during the
day, they will often be able to find their tracks in the mud beside
rivers, lakes, streams, and ponds.
2. At the site, spend some time getting acquainted with the area
and finding places where tracks are the clearest and easiest to
identify. Pass out the animal track handout to give students an
idea of what they might find.
3. Have students work in pairs to locate a good, clean animal track
and make a permanent cast. (You may want to do one first as an
example.) To make a plaster cast, follow these steps:
68
-------
UNIT I-C
Procedure (continued)
m Cut a piece of cardboard into a strip at leaist 20 inches long by
2 inches deep, and bend it into a circle by sticking one end
over the other. Gently push the ring into the ground around
the footprint.
• Make a thick, runny paste of plaster of Paris by adding the
powder to a plastic container half filled with water.
• Carefully pour the mixture into the ring to a depth of about 1
inch. Leave it for 20 minutes to set.
• When the plaster has dried, remove the outer ring and turn
the cast over to see the raised impression of the footprint.
• Leave the cast overnight before washing away any mud with
water.
4. While you are waiting for the casts to set, discuss the different
types of tracks that were seen and identify as many as you can.
Try to guess how long ago and in which order animals visited
the area.
Note: Caution students to be careful not to inhale plaster of Paris
dust while mixing paste. Or mix plaster of Paris yourself before
students are ready to begin making their casts.
Extension/ You might like to conclude the activity with a discussion of other
Evaluation types of animal signs students saw or might see. Some examples
might be a muskrat house, a beaver dam or gnawed branches, bark
stripped off a tree by deer, or an animal burrow dug in a river bank
To make the animal tracks stand out against the white plaster,
students may wish to paint them in different colors. Encourage
students to perform further research on the animals whose tracks
they have cast and prepare a "fact sheet" including this information
and a picture of the animal. Make a display in the classroom of the
tracks and their corresponding fact sheets.
69
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70
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UNIT I-C
Activity
Wetlands Safari
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
information
Materials
Procedure
Students will make a survey of animals and plants sighted on a wet-
land field trip and discuss populations based on their observations.
Outdoors at a wetlands park or refuge (Teachers should determine
wetland location in their area prior to the trip.)
A morning or afternoon
Mathematics, Science
Observation, Classification, Recording Data, Identification, Compar-
ing Similarities and Differences, Inference, Synthesis, Computation
K-12 (The students' ability to identify species independently will
vary with the age level. Younger students will need more guidance
from the teacher.)
flora fauna food chain vertebrate invertebrate
mammal reptile amphibian
Refer to Unit I, Sections C-l and C-2. (Also see Unit I, Sections B-l
through B-7.)
• Copies of Wetlands Survey handout.
• Field guides to insects, birds, mammals, plants, fishes, reptiles,
amphibians, and freshwater wildlife (see Unit I, Section C,
Resources).
Note: This might be a good activity to undertake after students
have performed some of the other activities in this section that
would help with identification.
1. Tell students to imagine that they are wildlife; researchers hired
to find out what kinds of plant and animal species are living in
the area you'll be surveying. Discuss some of the questions they
are being hired to answer.
• What are the dominant plant species?
• What are some of the other kinds of plants growing in the
ecosystem?
• What kinds of creatures live in the soil?
• What kinds of invertebrates are living in the water?
71
-------
UNIT I-C
Procedure (continued)
m What vertebrate species (mammals, birds, reptiles, am-
phibians, fishes) live in the area?
• What is the total number of each species identified?
2. Pass out the survey chart. Explain to students that they will
keep a record of everything they have sighted by writing down
the name and number seen to the best of their ability. (Tell them
that they will need to use their field guides and may ask you for
help if they get stuck.) Have them concentrate on identifying the
things they can see and distinguish-easily, and have them in-
clude signs of animals even if they do not see the animal itself.
(For example, if they see a beaver dam or lodge, they should
write that down under mammals.)
3. After students have had about an hour to make their observa-
tions, bring them back together to discuss their findings. You
might begin by asking some of the questions raised above. You
might also ask some of the following questions:
• In which category did you find the most different species?
(insect, mammal, bird, fish, reptile, amphibian, other)
• What category of animal was next most common?
• In which category did you find the least animals? (They will
probably say "mammals.")
• Can you guess why? (This might be a good place to intro-
duce the idea of a food chain or pyramid with fewer animals
at the top. Other answers might be: many are nocturnal, they
are more frightened of humans, they need more space.)
• If you went back to this area at a different time of day, how
might your list change? Why?
• How about at a different time of year? Why?
Extension/ ^lan a second trip to the same location at a different time of day or a
Evaluation different season. Before you go, discuss possible changes that stu-
dents might observe in the numbers and kinds of wildlife. If your
wetland area is on a migratory flyway or is a wintering ground for
bird species, try to go when bird populations will be at their peak.
After the trip, discuss whether your predictions were correct.
Based on all of the surveys, develop a wildlife checklist like the land
that is available at most national wildlife refuges. The checklist
should contain all species that have been seen in the area; whether
each species is abundant, common, uncommon, or rare; and in
which season(s) the different species can be observed.
72
-------
Wetlands Survey
Location:
Date:
Time:
Plants
Insects
Other
Invertebrates
Fish
Reptiles and
Amphibians
Birds
Mammals
73
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UNIT I-C
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Endangered Species Poster
Students will explore ways to ensure the survival of endangered
species in the Ohio River Basin by designing a poster that en-
courages the protection of an endangered species.
Classroom
Two or three 1/2 hour class periods
Art, Language Arts, Science, Social Studies
Painting or Drawing, Writing, Researching, Media Construction,
Communication
K-6 (7-12 using suggested Extension activity)
endangered threatened extinct
Refer to Unit I, Section C-5.
Materials:
• Large pieces of sturdy paper or oak tag for poster-making.
• Poster or acrylic paints, colored markers.
• Reference books on endangered animal species or a library
where students can perform research.
Present children with background information about endangered
and threatened species, particularly in the Ohio River Basin.
Explain to them that one way to help endangered plants and
animals is through education, and this is something they can do
right in their own classroom.
1. Have each student choose an endangered plant or animal that
he or she would like to protect. You might like to post a list of
endangered species in the Ohio River Basin to give students
ideas.
2. Allow at least one class period for students to research their
plant or animal. Tell them that their poster should not only be
attractive and have a message, but should also teach something
about the species. Some things they might want to include are:
74
-------
UNIT I-C
Procedure (continued)
m Where the species lives.
• What the species eats.
• How many there are left.
• What threatens the species.
• How the species is being helped.
3. Provide students with the art materials they will need to design
and complete the poster. You may want to have students com-
plete a draft on plain white paper first, which you can discuss
with them before they do the final poster. Allow at least one
class period for students to make the finished poster.
4. Display the posters in your classroom or on a school bulletin
board.
Extension/ You may wish to hold a poster contest, where entries are judged on
Evaluation such criteria as effectiveness of message, educational value, and/or
artistic execution/The contest could be titled "Save Our Species"
and could be judged either by other faculty members or another
class doing the same project.
If equipment is available, older students (7-12) may wish to work in
groups to develop a videotaped public service announcement that
encourages the protection of a particular endangered species or a
wildlife area where an endangered species lives.
75
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Physical, Chemical, and
Biological Aspects of
Water
-------
-------
Physical, Chemical,
and Biological
Aspects of Water
his unit focuses on the unique properties of water and
T emphasizes the importance of water to all living things.
Activities in Section A illustrate that without water, there
would be no life on Earth. Activities also focus on the
world's water supply and on the water cycle, which con-
stantly "recycles" the Earth's water supply from one
form to another (solid, liquid, vapor).
Activities in Section B focus on various physical and chemical properties
of water, including temperature, velocity, solubility, density, surface ten-
sion, pH, and nutrient content. At the close of this section is a field ac-
tivity in which students determine the relative amount of pollution in a
water body by analyzing water samples and discerning the types of in-
vertebrate "indicator" species present. This activity provides an oppor-
tunity for students to apply the knowledge they've g;ained from other
activities in Section B, as well as from Unit I, and serves as an introduc-
tion to Unit III, Human Use, Influence, and Impact on title Ohio River.
77
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UNIT Il-A
Earth:
The Water World
A Planetary Perspective
Water covers three-fourths of the surface of the Earth, and every land
mass on the planet contains some water. In addition to the oceans,
water is found on Earth in rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, pools, es-
tuaries, and wetlands. Water is also found under the ground and in
the atmosphere.
Earth has more water on its surface and in its atmosphere than any
other planet. In addition, Earth is the only known planet where water
is found in all three states of matter: gas (vapor), liquid (water
bodies), and solid (ice). Water on Earth can also move freely from one
state to another.
In contrast, Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, has no water at all.
Clouds cover Venus, but they are made of dust and droplets of sul-
furic acid, not water. There isn't enough water on Venus to fill a single
ocean on Earth. The water on Mars exists as subsurface permafrost
and as polar ice caps hundreds of feet thick The Martian atmosphere
contains only a trace of water vapor. Both Venus and Mars have lost
most of their water to solar ultraviolet radiation.
On Earth, very little water vapor rises high enough in the atmosphere
to be exposed to solar ultraviolet radiation. In addition, Earth is
protected by a layer of atmospheric oxygen (ozone), which absorbs in-
coming ultraviolet waves. Very little ultraviolet radiation passes
through the ozone layer to reach the abundant water vapor close to
the Earth's surface.
The planets beyond Mars (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are
composed mainly of hydrogen, helium, ammonia, and methane.
Jupiter has some water droplets and ice in a lower cloud layer. Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune are too cold for water to exist in any form but
ice. Pluto's composition is unknown, but would not likely include any
liquid water.
78
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UNIT II-A
The Water Cycle
There is the same amount of water on Earth today as there was mil-
lions of years ago during the time of the dinosaurs. Although the
amount of water on Earth doesn't change, water is constantly moving
and changing its form. This movement has a regular pattern to it and
is called the water cycle. As the word "cycle" implies, the events
repeat themselves over and over again. See Figure EA-1.
The water cycle collects, purifies, and distributes the Earth's fixed
supply of water. With energy supplied from the sun, water is
evaporated from oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds. In addi-
tion, animals and plants also give off water vapor (transpiration), par-
ticularly green plants which constantly lose water from their leaves to
the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, this water vapor rises with warm
air until the air begins to expand and cool as it reaches higher al-
titudes. Since cold air cannot hold as much moisture; as warm air, the
water vapor condenses into tiny droplets of water in the form of
clouds or fog in a process known as condensation. Eventually, these
droplets grow larger and heavier and fall to the Earth as precipitation.
Much of the precipitation that falls to Earth becomes locked in glaciers
and icecaps. Some precipitation also collects in puddles and ditches and is
carried as runoff into nearby surface water, such as lakes, rivers, and
streams, which eventually return this water to the ocean. Precipitation
also seeps or infiltrates into the soil. Some of this precipitation continues
to percolate down deep into the ground where it is stored as ground
water in aquifers (spaces in and between rock formations). In aquifers,
ground water continues to move horizontally underground following the
contours of the surrounding rock layers until it eventually returns to the
surface and to rivers, lakes, streams, or the ocean. (See Section HIB-2 for
more information on ground water.)
The World's Water Supply
The world's supply of water is enormous. It has been estimated at
over 369 quintillion gallons (369,820,250,000,000,000,000 gallons)
However, over 97 percent of Earth's water is found in oceans as
saltwater, and contains too much salt for drinking, growing crops, or
most industrial uses.
The remaining 3 percent of the Earth's water supply is freshwater.
Most of this (about 2 percent) is locked up in glaciers and ice caps,
mainly at the North and South Poles. If the polar ice caps were to
melt, the sea level would rise and inundate much of the present land
79
-------
UNIT II-A
surfaces in the world. The rest of the world's supply of freshwater
(less than 1 percent) is found in water bodies such as rivers, streams,
lakes, and ponds; in the atmosphere; and underground.
The amount of water contained in rivers and lakes is very small com-
pared to the total amount of water found on Earth. Lakes account for
approximately 0.009 percent of the total water supply, and rivers ac-
count for only about 0.0001 percent of Earth's total water supply. Al-
though small, this portion is important to people, who use this water
for drinking water and other purposes, and to the organisms that live
in it.
Water is also found in the swirling clouds that cover Earth. All the
water in the atmosphere makes up only 0.0001 percent of the planef s
total. If it were all to fall evenly over the Earth as rain, it would make a
layer about 1 inch deep.
In addition, water is found underground. Ground water makes up
about 0.62 percent of the Earth's water supply. While scientists believe
there are vast amounts of usable ground water on Earth, this water is
not always readily available for human use because it must first be lo-
cated and then extracted.
Water: A Necessity for Survival
Without water, no life could exist on the Earth. All life on the planet is
composed largely of water and depends on water for its survival.
Water flows in our veins and in the sap of trees, as well as in our
streams and rivers. The adult human body is composed of 65 to 75
percent water. In order for humans to survive, they must drink liquids
or eat food containing at least 1.5 quarts of water every day (large
animals like horses need about 15 gallons of water a day). People, as
well as plants and animals, can live only a few days without water.
Plants also need water for photosynthesis, a process that occurs in the
cells of plants that provides energy (in the form of glucose) for the
plants' growth. (See Unit I, Section B-l.) In general, plants obtain
water from the soil through their roots. Most animals, on the other
hand, acquire water by drinking from pools, lakes, or streams; by con-
suming foods high in water content (such as fruits and vegetables); or
by the process of cellular respiration, the process by which oxygen is
used to release the energy stored in cells. Water and energy are
released through respiration.
80
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UNIT II-A
Without water, Earth's surface temperatures would be too hot at the
equator and too cold at the poles for living organisms. The oceans
buffer the Earth from extremes in temperature by absorbing, storing,
and redistributing heat from the sun. In this way, the oceans moderate
and regulate climate all over the world, thereby enabling life forms to
exist.
Condensation
(Clouds)
Ice Caps
Glaciers
Ground Water
^rfNillilwHlAlllllllllllUlllUlllllllllUiiik mi...... ....miiMlllllI
Figure IIA-I.
The main processes in the water cycle are evaporation (conversion of
liquid water to water vapor), transpiration (the process in which
water is absorbed by the root systems of plants, passes through their
living structure, then evaporates into the atmosphere), and condensa-
tion (conversion of water vapor to liquid drops of water). After water
vapor condenses in the atmosphere, it returns to Earth as precipita-
tion (dew, rain, sleet, hail, snow) and either infiltrates the soil and be-
comes ground water or is carried as runoff back to the sea to begin
the cycle again.
81
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UNIT II-A
Resources
Publications
Angel, H. and P. Wolsely. 1982. The Water Naturalist. New York, NY:
Facts on File.
Audesirk, G. and T. Audesirk 1989. Biology: Life on Earth, 2nd ed.
New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co.
Fox, S.1.1984. Human Physiology. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown
Publishers. ;
Griffen, D.R. and A. Novick. 1970. Animal Structure and Function,
2nd ed. Chicago, IL: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.
Jastrow, R. and M. Thompson. 1984. Astronomy: Fundamentals and
Frontiers, 4th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
Klots, E.B. 1966. The New Field Book of Freshwater Life. New York,
NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Miller, G.T. 1991. Environmental Science: Sustaining the Earth, 3rd ed.
Belmont, C A: Wadsworth Publishing.
Ohio Department of Education. 1973. Environmental Learning Ex-
periences for Grades Three and Four. Columbus, OH: Ohio Depart-
ment of Education.
Pasachoff, J.M. 1985. Contemporary Astronomy, 3rd ed. New York,
NY: Saunders College Publishing.
Smith, H.A., R.P. Farazier, and M.A. Magnoll. 1977. Exploring Living
Things. River Forest, Illinois: Laidlaw Brothers.
Usinger, R.L. 1967. The Life of Rivers and Streams. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Books. Developed jointly with the World Book En-
cyclopedia.
Western Regional Environmental Education Council. 1987. Aquatic
Project Wild. Boulder, CO: Western Regional Environmental Educa-
tion Council.
82
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UNIT II-A
Resources
(continued)
Audiovisual Programs
Down the Drain. 1991. Children's Television Workshop. (30 minutes.)
Call the U.S. EPA at 513-569-7771 for ordering information.
Element 3. International Film Bureau, 332 South IVfichigan Avenue,
Chicago, IL 60604-4382, 312-427-4545. A look at the contrast between
the lyrical beauty of pure water and the aridity of ilts absence; focuses
on the cooperation that is essential for the distribution of water. Video
or 16mm film.
H2O TV: The Groundwater Video. 1989. Water Pollution Control
Federation, 601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-194. (Ap-
proximately 10 minutes.) Call the U.S. EPA at 513-569-7771 for order-
ing information.
Learning About Air and Water. National GeograpMc Society, Educa-
tional Services, Department 91, Washington, DC 20036, 1-800-368-
2728. Covers the basics about air and water, including interactions in
the water cycle, as well as causes of pollution (19 minutes). Grades 4-9.
Film or video. Rental: $25.
The Surface Water Video. 1989. Water Pollution Control Federation,
601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-194. (Approximately 10
minutes.) Call the U.S. EPA at 513-569-7771 for ordering information.
The Water Cycle. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O. Box 3456, West Side,
Elmira, NY 14905, 1-800-527-4264. A comprehensive overview of the
hydrologic cycle. Slide show. Cost: $37.95.
Water: A First Film. Phoenix Films, Inc., 468 Park Avenue South, New
York, NY 10016,1-800-221-1274. Describes the importance of water to
plants, animals, and the Earth (12 minutes). Primary and intermediate
grade levels. Video or 16mm film.
Water and Life: A Delicate Balance. #IE-1139. Films for the
Humanities & Sciences, 743 Alexander Road, P.O, Box 2053, Princeton,
NJ 08540,1-800-257-5126. Shows the role of water in the human body
(13 minutes). VHS or Betamax videocassettes; 3/4" U-matic copies
also available. Rental: $75.
83
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UNIT II-A
Resources
(continued)
Water and Plant Life. #IE-1674. Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
743 Alexander Road, P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08540, 1-800-257-
5126. Covers the water cycle in plants (28 minutes). VHS or Betamax
videocassettes; 3/4" U-matic copies also available. Rental: $75.
Water Pollution: A First Film. #72006. Phoenix Films, Inc., 468 Park
Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, 1-800-221-1274. Describes the
water cycle and our part in it; explains the problems and dangers of
pollution (12 minutes). Primary and junior high school levels. Video
or 16mm film.
Water: A Precious Resource. National Geographic Society, Education-
al Services, Department 91, Washington, DC 20036, 1-800-368-2728.
Students learn where water comes from and, by means of an animated
sequence of the hydrological cycle, how water is endlessly recycled
(23 minutes). Grades 6-12. Film or video. Rental: $35.
Water: We Can't Live Without It. National Wildlife Federation, 1400
16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036-3366, 1-800-432-6564. Filmstrip
or slides. Cost: $26.95.
Water's Way. #71987. Phoenix Films, Inc., 468 Park Avenue South,
New York, NY 10016,1-800-221-1274. A little boy is introduced to the
properties and purposes of water by a snowflake that melts in his
hand; an introduction to our greatest natural resource—water (7
minutes). Primary and intermediate grade levels. Video or 16mm film.
84
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UNIT H-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Water, Water Everywhere
Students will classify different types of water bodies found on Earth
and discuss how people, plants, and animals depend on water for
survival.
Classroom
1-hour class period
Science, Social Studies, Language Arts
Analysis, Classification, Comparing Similarities, and Differences,
Discussion, Map Reading
K-6 (7-12 using suggested Extension activity)
Earth water freshwater saltwater
Refer to Unit E, Sections A-l, A-3, and A-4
A map of the world.
1. Using a map of the earth, discuss with students the following:
• About how much of the earth's surface is water?
• What types of water bodies are found on earth?
• Which water bodies are saltwater? Which Eire freshwater?
• Why do we need water?
• Why do animals and plants need water?
• What types of plants and animals depend most on water and
which depend least on water?
• What would happen to the Earth if all the water on the planet
dried up and it stopped raining and snowing? What would
happen to plants and animals? What would happen to
humans?
85
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UNIT II-A
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
2. Ask students to imagine they are aliens from another world (a
dry one) coming to visit Earth. What would they notice about
the planet? What different types of water bodies would they
find? Where would they go to get away from water? Discuss in
class or ask students to write a short composition from the
alien's viewpoint.
Discuss which plants and animals live in the oceans and which live
in freshwater. Ask students if there are any types of animals that
can live in both saltwater and freshwater (for example, eels migrate
from rivers to the sea for breeding; salmon also pass through
estuaries as they swim up rivers for spawning). Help students to
conclude that most plants and animals can only live in one type of
water or the other and the invisible barrier that prevents them from
living in both is salt. The effects of freshwater and saltwater can be
observed in the classroom by conducting a simple experiment. Put
two eggs in vinegar and leave them overnight. This will remove the
hard outer layer of shell. Put one egg in a jar of freshwater and the
other in a concentrated salt solution. Discuss what happens after 8
hours. (The egg in the freshwater will burst; the egg in the saltwater
will shrink). With older students (grades 9-12), discuss the concept
of osmosis and explain that the egg's membrane is similar to the
semipermeable cell membrane in an organism. A freshwater
organism placed in the sea tends to shrink as water moves through
its cellular membranes into the sea, leaving less water in the cells
than before. When a marine organism is placed into freshwater, its
cells may rupture due to the movement of the water into its cells.
86
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UNIT II-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
information
Materials
Procedure
How Wet Is Our Planet?
Students will compute the amount and distribution of water on the
earth in oceans, rivers, lakes, ground water, icecaps, and the atmos-
phere, and make inferences about the importance of responsible use
of water.
Classroom
One 40-to 60-minute period
Mathematics, Science
Computation, Description, Discussion, Estimation, Inference, Inter-
pretation, Measuring, Observation, Psychomotor Development,
Small Group Work, Synthesis
4-7 (For younger students, this activity can be presented as a
demonstration.)
ground water surface water
Refer to Unit II, Sections A-l through A-3.
• A globe, 12 inches in diameter.
• Five gallons of water poured into a 5- or 10-gallon aquarium.
• Writing materials.
• Calculators.
• Measuring cup. '
• One quart container for every three students.
• One tablespoon for every three students.
1. Review with students, if necessary, that water exists in three
forms (solid, liquid, and gas). Explain that water is found on
Earth in all three states. Review also the concepts of ground
water and surface water with students.
2. Divide the classroom into groups of three. Give each group a
quart container and a tablespoon.
87
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UNIT II-A
Procedure -i (continued)
3. Provide students with the following statistics concerning the
amount of water found on Earth:
Water Type
Oceans
Icecaps / glaciers
Ground water
Freshwater lakes
Inland seas/salt lakes
Atmosphere
Rivers
Total
4.
Approximate
Amount
(in percent)
97.2
2.0
0.62
0.009
0.008
0.001
0.0001
99.8381
5.
Show students the aquarium filled with 5 gallons of water. Tell
them how much is there. Provide students with the following
quantity: 5 gallons = 1,280 tablespoons.
Have students assume that the 5 gallons represent all the water
on Earth. Ask students to calculate the volume of water for each
category listed above using the percentages given. This will re-
quire the use of decimals. Remind students that for multiplica-
tion, all the decimal places must be shifted two places to the left
so that 97.2 percent becomes 0.972 prior to multiplication (0.972
x 1,280 tablespoons = 1,244.16 tablespoons). The following
values result:
Water Type
Oceans
Icecaps / glaciers
Ground water
Freshwater lakes
Inland seas/ salt lakes
Atmosphere
Rivers
Total
Approximate
Amount
(in tablespoons)
1,244.16
25.60
7.936
0.115
0.1024
0.0128
0.0012
app. 1,280 tablespoons
88
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UNIT ll-A
Procedure (continued)
6. Once the values are obtained, ask the students to calculate the
amount of fresh water potentially available (in tablespoons) for
human use. The following calculation must be performed:
Approximate
Amount
Water Type (in percent)
Icecaps/glaciers 2.0
Ground water 0.62
Freshwater lakes 0.009
Rivers 0.0001
Total 2.6291
Answer: 2.6291 x 1,280 tablespoons = 33.6 tablespoons (or about 34
tablespoons).
7. Ask each group of students to take 34 tablespoons of water
from the aquarium, put it in a container, and take the container
of water back to their workplaces.
8. At their workplaces, ask the students to remove the amount of
water represented by all freshwater lakes and rivers. (It is about
0.111 tablespoon, approximately one-tenth of a tablespoon.)
Then ask students to extract the amount represented by just
rivers (it is less than one-thousandth of a tablespoon). This
aniount is less than one drop. Discuss the relative proportions
with the students.
9. Discuss that there is a limited amount of freshwater on our
planet and that the amount of usable water available to humans
is a very small percentage of the total water on the Earth. Dis-
cuss how all species depend upon this minute percentage of
water for their survival (see the Activity "Water, Water
Everywhere"). Also make the point that most freshwater is
locked up in icecaps/glaciers and that not all ground water is
readily available for human use).
10. Summarize the activity by using a globe to illustrate that if the
Earth were this size (12 inches in diameter), less than one-half
cup (8 tablespoons) of water would fill all the oceans, rivers,
lakes, and icecaps.
11. Conclude by emphasizing the importance of keeping the
Earth's waters clean and healthy and of using water wisely and
responsibly. Ask what steps students can take to conserve
water (see Unit III, Section A-3).
89
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UNIT II-A
Extension/ Convert the activity to the metric system. The table below shows
Evaluation metric approximations for the quantities used in this activity.
12 inches 3 decimeters
5 gallons 20 liters
10 gallons 40 liters
1,280 tablespoons 2,000 centiliters or
20,000 milliliters
34 tablespoons 52.76 centiliters
1 tablespoon 1.55 centiliters
111 tablespoons 0.182 centiliters
0.0001 tablespoon 0.002 centiliters
1/2 cup 8 tablespoons or
12.5 centiliters
Adapted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC,
©1987).
90
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UNIT H-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
The Never-Ending Cycle of Water
Students will visualize the phases of the water cycle and observe
how water changes its state of matter.
Classroom
One 30- to 40-minute period initially, and then a few minutes each
day (for about a week) for observation and discussion
Science —
Analysis, Discussion, Inference, Observation, Psychomotor
Development, Small Group Work, Visualization
3-8
gas liquid solid condensation evaporation photosynthesis
precipitation transpiration water cycle
Refer to Unit E, Sections A-2 and A-4.
A clear container of any size. Glass jars, aquariums, fish bowls,
goblets, and old-fashioned candy jars that can be closed or covered
with a clear material make good containers. Large (2-liter) plastic
soda bottles with black bottom bases also make good terrariums.
Remove the black bottom base and cut off the top stem of the soda
bottle. Invert the clear plastic bottle and it will fit snugly into the
black base. Students can be asked to bring an appropriate container
from home. Each student can make his or her own terrarium, or the
class can be divided into partners or small groups.
• One bag each of gravel, peat moss, and potting soil.
• Two types of plants either collected or purchased. Common
terrarium plants include:
• Native Plants—hawkweed, mosses, evergreens, shelf fungus,
violets, wild strawberry, wintergreen.
• Greenhouse plants—baby's tears, dwarf English ivy, ferns,
Japanese aucuba, philodendron, begonias, creeping fig,
Swedish ivy.
91
-------
UNIT II-A
Materials
(continued)
Note: Some very rare wild plants are protected by law. If you are
collecting plants yourself, be sure to check state and federal laws
regarding collection. (See Appendix B, "Field Ethics: Determining
What, Where, and Whether or Not!")
Procedure
1. Cover the bottom of the plant container with 1 inch of gravel for
drainage.
2. Put a layer of peat moss over the gravel.
3. Put a layer of soil over the gravel and peat moss.
4. Make two small holes in the soil and place plants in so that roots
can be covered. Pack the soil around the plants and press firmly.
Do not crowd the plants.
5. A small decoration (covered rock, shell, or piece of bark) may be
added to the terrarium to make it ornamental.
6. Water the terrarium lightly and cover it with a lid or plastic
wrap. (If you are using a soda bottle, use the inverted, clear plas-
tic bottle as your lid.) The terrarium will need only 1 or 2
teaspoons of water a month.
7. Place the terrarium in a sunny location.
8. Discuss, if necessary, that water exists hi three states of matter:
solid, liquid, gas (one or more of the activities provided below in
"Extension/Evaluation" may be useful for this discussion).
Describe the water cycle to students, using the master provided.
9. After a few days, observe the terrarium and ask students:
• What has collected on the sides of the glass jar?
• Where did the moisture on the sides of the jar come from?
• What provided the energy for the changes observed in the
water's form?
Explain that the terrarium is actually a model of the natural water
cycle. The plants take up the water through their roots and release it
through their leaves (transpiration). The water molecules will con-
dense on the glass (condensation) and fall back into the soil just like
rain (precipitation). Some of these water molecules will also be
evaporated by the sun. The plants will use the moisture in the soil
for photosynthesis, a process that occurs in the plants' cells and
provides energy for the plants' growth.
92
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UNIT II-A
Extension/ Illustrate the concept of water vapor by having one or more stu-
Evaltuation dents exhale close to the blackboard so that the moisture from their
breath forms a dark, wet spot. Trace the spot with chalk and ask
why the spot is darker than the rest of the board. Ask where the
moisture came from. Fan the spot so that it disappears. Write the
word "evaporation" on the board. Discuss the root word "vapor."
Ask students what other forms of water vapor they are familiar
with (water from a steaming kettle, water from a vaporizer).
Have the children paint a watercolor picture of ihe Ohio River, and
of the types of animals and plants found in and around the river.
When the paint is dry, ask children what happened to the water
(used to mix the paint) on the paper? Discuss title concept of
evaporation.
Fill a kettle half full with water. Using a hot plate, heat the water.
When the water starts to boil, steam will come out of the spout.
Hold a metal tray of ice cubes over the steam. Place another tray
beneath this one. When the steam hits the tray of ice cubes, conden-
sation will form. The water vapor being cooled as it hits the tray
will form liquid droplets and fall into the catch 1tray below. Discuss
the concept of condensation.
As a class, create a mural of the water cycle.
93
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UNIT II-B
JjIRta n
Chemical and Physical
Properties of Water
The Molecular Structure of Water
Water is made up of molecules. Every molecule of water is made up of
two hydrogen atoms chemically bonded to an oxygen atom. (An atom
is composed of a nucleus, which is positively charged, around which
negatively charged electrons orbit.) Molecules are held together in
fixed proportions by attractive forces called bonds. In water, the
molecules are held together by weak hydrogen bonds. These bonds
are responsible for many of the physical properties of water, such as
its surface tension (described below).
The water molecule is a polar one, meaning that oxygen is much more
electronegative than hydrogen, and therefore tends to "pull" electrons
to its side of the molecule, like bedcovers pulled to one side of a bed.
Atoms (or groups of atoms) that have lost or gained one or more
electrons are called ions. Every ion has a net positive or negative
charge. The number of positive or negative charges is shown as a su-
perscript after the symbol for an atom or group of atoms. The water
molecule consists of two ions: H+ (hydrogen ion, which is positively
charged) and OR- (hydroxyl ion, which is negatively charged). The
polar nature of water is very important in its function as a solvent (see
Section HB-7).
Whenever the H+ concentration equals the OH' concentration in a
solution, as it does in pure water, the solution is said to be neutral. A
solution is acidic when the H+ concentration is greater than that of
pure water. Conversely, a solution in which the H+ concentration is
lower than that of pure water is basic or alkaline.
Different levels of acidity and alkalinity of water solutions are ex-
pressed in terms of pH. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with each
whole number decrease in pH representing a tenfold increase in
acidity. A neutral solution has a pH of 7. A substance with a pH
greater than 7 is a base, and one with a pH below 7 is an acid. The
94
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UNIT II-B
higher the pH above 7, the more basic the substance. In the same way,
the lower the pH below 7, the more acidic the substeince.
Pure water has a pH of 7; however, the pH of water depends upon the
environment that it passes over since water can dissolve substances
that can change its pH. For example, water passing over limestone be-
comes more alkaline (or basic). In fact, limestone is sometimes added
as a buffering agent to acidic waters to help neutralize them. The pH
of a water body plays an important part in the distribution of plants
and animals in that environment. For example, mollusks with limy
shells cannot live in acidic waters. (See Unit El, Section B-6 for more
information on the effect of pH on wildlife.)
Surface Tension
Surface tension is the tendency of a liquid surface to resist penetra-
tion. It is created because water molecules at the surface are attracted
more to other water molecules than to air. As a result, the surface
water molecules are attracted to each other and pulled tightly together
by attractive forces of water from underneath, thereby producing sur-
face tension. Surface tension decreases with increasing temperature
and increases with increasing salinity.
Surface tension is very important in supporting the weight of or-
ganisms that rest on the surface of water, such as the water strider (a
pond insect). The water strider has special hairs on its first and third
pair of legs that rest on the water's surface layer (the "skin" that
separates bodies of water from the surrounding atmosphere). The
strider's second pair of legs penetrate the water and work like oars to
propel the insect over the surface.
Some kinds of beetles, water bugs, and free-floating plants are
adapted to life only on the upper side of the surface layer. The larvae
of some beetles and flies spend much time hanging on the underside
of the surface layer. Surface-dwelling animals feed on floating plants,
on one another, or on insects and other animals that have died and
now float on the surface.
Heat Capacity
Water has one of the highest known heat capacities (the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1
degree Celsius). A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
95
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UNIT II-B
temperature of 1 gram (about 1/5 teaspoon) of liquid water by 1 de-
gree Celsius; a dietary Calorie is equivalent to 1,000 calories. The
dietary Calorie is distinguished from the calorie defined above in that
the dietary Calorie is always capitalized.
The heat capacity of pure water is 1 calorie/gram (cal/gm). That is, it
takes 1 calorie of heat energy to raise 1 gram of water (about 10 drops)
1 degree on the Celsius temperature scale. In contrast, the heat
capacity of iron is only about 0.1 cal/gm; that of aluminum, nitrogen,
and oxygen is about 0.2 cal/gm; and that of wood is 0.33 cal/gm.
Because of its high heat capacity, water has a built-in ability to resist
changes in temperature. As a result, water warms and cools much less
rapidly than land or air.
Temperature
Water bodies vary greatly in temperature, according to latitude, al-
titude, time of day, season, depth of water, and many other variables.
The temperature of a water body determines what aquatic species
may be present. It also controls the spawning and the hatching of
young creatures; regulates the activity of all organisms (both those
with a constant body temperature and those with a body temperature
that fluctuates with changes in the temperature of the surrounding en-
vironment); stimulates or suppresses the growth and development of
organisms; and can either attract or kill organisms when the water be-
comes heated or chilled too suddenly.
Under calm conditions, a body of water may become layered or
stratified, with regions of different water temperature. These different
temperatures can play a major role in determining the distribution of
living organisms. For example, in summer, the surface water of a lake
absorbs the sun's heat and warms faster than the water below. Some
animals, like trout, may therefore concentrate in the cooler, lower
depths. Seasonal temperature fluctuations that cause stratification also
play a role hi the distribution of nutrients and dissolved gases (see
Unit H, Sections B-7 and B-8 below).
Density
The density (the weight per unit volume) of water is greatest at 4
degrees Celsius (39.2 degrees Fahrenheit). It becomes less dense as
water warms. For example, in spring, when the sun warms the surface
96
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UNIT II-B
of ponds and lakes, a warm layer of water forms thait floats above the
cool deep water. The transition zone between the warm and cold
water is called the thermocline. The thermocline is characterized by a
sudden drop of temperature.
As water cools to freezing (0 degrees Celsius), it changes to ice, which
is less dense than liquid water and floats. The fact that ice floats is im-
portant to aquatic life. If ice sank, the sea floors might be covered with
ice, the polar seas would freeze solid, and some lakes; at high altitudes
would freeze in the winter and many would never completely thaw in
summer. This would greatly restrict the distribution of aquatic life
(particularly of those organisms that dwell on the bottom).
Freshwater is also less dense than saltwater. In estuaries (where a
river meets the sea), or where ice floes are formed, freshwater floats
above saltwater.
Solubility
Water dissolves more substances than does any other liquid. For this
reason, water is called the universal solvent. Table salt and sugar are
among the many substances that form a solution with water (that is,
they dissolve completely, mixing with the water and staying mixed).
Some substances appear to mix completely, but do not go into solu-
tion. When they are allowed to sit undisturbed, they settle out. These
compounds are said to form a suspension. (Cornstarch is an example
of a household compound that forms a suspension with water.) The
more suspended or stirred up particles or sediments there are in a
water body, the higher its turbidity.
Various gases, including oxygen, are soluble in water. Because all
living things depend on oxygen in one form or another, dissolved
oxygen (DO) is of great significance in the aquatic environment.
Oxygen enters the water by absorption directly from the atmosphere
or through photosynthesis (See Unit I, Section B-l for a description of
this process). It is removed by the respiration of organisms and by
decomposition. Agitation of a water body by wind or other movement
may also release dissolved oxygen. Fast, cascading streams are rich in
oxygen; slow-moving, stagnant waters are oxygen-poor. The solubility
of oxygen in water varies inversely with temperature,, so as waters be-
come warmer, there is less available dissolved oxygen in the.water.
The cooler the water, the more dissolved oxygen it will hold.
97
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UNIT II-B
Nutrients
Nutrients are chemicals, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, that are
needed for a plant's growth. Nutrients are added to a body of water
through either human activities (such as from sewage treatment
plants' effluents or runoff of fertilizers) or natural occurrences (such as
soil erosion, as described in Unit III, Section B-l). Water bodies rich in
nutrients are said to be eutrophic. In eutrophic waters, tremendous
growths (blooms) of phytoplankton, such as algae, often occur. Dense
algal growths may form surface water scums and generate foul odors.
They can also inhibit light penetration. As nutrient levels increase, the
number of species present also declines as less tolerant organisms die.
The distribution of nutrients in a body of water is affected by seasonal
changes in temperature. For example, during winter, the surface water
is warmed much more quickly than deeper water and it becomes
lighter. The water becomes stratified and little mixing occurs.
Nutrients near the surface of the water are depleted, but nutrients are
built up near the bottom because the "rain" of dead organisms from
above is decomposed in the deeper water.
Velocity
A river's current flows in one direction. The speed or velocity of the
current differs in different parts of the river and at different times of
the year. In general, the greater the volume of the river, the greater its
velocity. Thus, large rivers generally flow faster than small ones.
Velocity can also increase in accordance with the steepness, narrow-
ness, or shallowness of the stream bed. It may be slowed by turbidity
or by friction along the shore, with the bottom, or at the surface.
The velocity of water movement is important to aquatic organisms in
a number of ways, including the transport of nutrients and the addi-
tion of oxygen to the water through surface aeration. Flow can also
move silts and transport sediments, as well as the nutrients associated
with sediments (such as nitrogen and phosphorus). In addition, flow
determines those species of organisms that may be present in a par-
ticular river or stream. Some organisms such as the black fly larva re-
quire fast water; others, such as immature forms of caddisflies and
mayflies, will tolerate more sluggish waters. (See Unit I, Section C-2
for more information on the types of organisms that live in fast- and
slow-moving waters.)
98
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UNITII-B
Indicator Species
Resources
Animals have differing sensitivities to environmental conditions. In
streams and ponds, the presence or absence of certain organisms, called
indicator species, reveals much about the quality of the water. For ex-
ample, those animals that are able to live in highly polluted waters, main-
ly because they are tolerant of a reduced oxygen supply, include
rat-tailed maggots, midge larvae (bloodworms); sewage fly larvae, and
sludgeworms. Organisms that are somewhat tolerant of polluted condi-
tions include scuds, sowbugs, flatworms, cranefly and blackfly larvae, gill
snails, fingernail clams, leeches, dragonfly nymphs, and damselfly
nymphs. Organisms that are sensitive to pollution and live in clean-water
environments include stonefly nymphs, mayfly nymphs, caddisfly lar-
vae, water pennies, riffle beetles, unionid dams, and fish fly larva. These
creatures comprise a biotic index that provides a "living indicator" of the
amount of pollution present in a water body.
Water with a rich and varied range (or diversity) of aquatic creatures
is usually a healthy environment (one supportive of life). Water with
just a few species usually indicates less healthy conditions. Pollution
generally reduces the quality of the environment and, in turn, the
diversity of life forms.
Publications
Angel, H. and P. Wolsely. 1982. The Water Naturalist:. New York, NY:
Facts on File.
Cole, G.A. 1975. Textbook of Limnology. Louis, MO: C.V. Mosby
Company.
Fox, S. I. 1984. Human Physiology. Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown
Publishers.
Klots, E.B. 1966. The New Field Book of Freshwater Life. New York,
NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Mackenthun, KM. 1969. The Practice of Water Pollution Biology. U.S.
Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Ad-
ministration. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Miller, G.T. 1991. Environmental Science: Sustaining the Earth, 3rd ed.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
National Wildlife Federation. 1990. Ranger Rick's NatureScope. Pollution:
Problems & Solutions. Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation.
99
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UNIT II-B
Resources
(continued)
Ohio Department of Education. 1973. Environmental Learning Ex-
periences for Grades Three and Four. Columbus, OH: Ohio Depart-
ment of Education.
Smith, H.A., R.P. Farazier, and M.A. Magnoll. 1977. Exploring Living
Things. River Forest, Illinois: Laidlaw Brothers.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Acid Rain: A Student's
First Sourcebook. EPA/600/9-90/027. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Of-
fice of Environmental Processes and Effects Research.
Usinger, R.L. 1967. The Life of Rivers and Streams. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Books. Developed jointly with the World Book En-
cyclopedia.
Western Regional Environmental Education Council. 1987. Aquatic
Project Wild. Boulder, CO: Western Regional Environmental Educa-
tion Council.
Audiovisual Programs
Element 3. International Film Bureau, 332 South Michigan Avenue,
Chicago, IL 60604-4382, 312-427-4545. A look at the contrast between
the lyrical beauty of pure water and the aridity of its absence; focuses
on the cooperation that is essential for the distribution of water. Video
or 16mm film.
Learning About Air and Water. National Geographic Society, Educa-
tional Services, Department 91, Washington, DC 20036, 1-800-368-
2728. Covers the basics about air and water, including interactions in
the water cycle, as well as causes of pollution (19 minutes). Grades 4-9.
Film or video. Rental: $25.
Water: A First Film. Phoenix Films, Inc., 468 Park Avenue South, New
York, NY 10016,1-800-221-1274. Describes the importance of water to
plants, animals, and the Earth (12 minutes). Primary and intermediate
grade levels. Video or 16mm film.
Water's Way. #71987. Phoenix Films, Inc., 468 Park Avenue South,
New York, NY 10016,1-800-221-1274. A little boy is introduced to the
properties and purposes of water by a snowflake that melts in his
hand; an introduction to our greatest natural resource—water (7
minutes). Primary and intermediate grade levels. Video or 16mm film.
100
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UNITII-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
A Change in the Weather
Students will learn to read a thermometer, compare temperatures in
water and in air, apply the results of the experiment to the natural
environment, and make generalizations about the relative seasonal
temperature changes likely to be found in large and small bodies of
water.
Classroom
One 20-minute period and one 40- to 60-minute period '
Chemistry, Mathematics, Science
Analysis, Application, Comparing Similarities and Differences,
Computation, Discussion, Evaluation, Generalization, Observation,
Prediction, Problem-Solving, Psychomotor Development
4-8
temperature heat capacity
Background
Information
Materials
Refer to Unit II, Section B-4.
For each group:
m Three clear containers (two of the same size and one four times
as big). The two containers that are of the same size should also
be of the same material, such as two pint bottles, two plastic soft
drink bottles, or two fruit jars.
• Lids or aluminum foil to cover tops of containers.
• Three safe, breakproof thermometers.
• Water.
For the class:
m An ice chest or refrigerator.
101
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UNIT II-B
Procedure
1. Introduce the exercise by asking the students which they think
would be warmer on a hot day: a fish living in a big lake or a
turtle sitting on a log next to the lake? How about in the dead of
winter when snow is piled up—would it be colder under the ice
in the pond or on the shoreline? (Generally, the temperature is
more moderate in water than on land.) Ask the students if they
have ever thought about why the climate is more moderate
underwater.
2. Fill one of the smaller containers and the larger container with
water at room temperature, leaving a space at the top in case it
freezes. Leave the third container filled with air. Add ther-
mometers to each jar and record the time and temperature for
each. Cover each jar with the foil or put lids on loosely. Put the
jars in a cold location (a refrigerator, ice chest, or outside on a
cold day). Leave overnight or until temperature near freezing is
reached.
3. The next day, remove the jars of cold water and air, and place on
desks where students can read the thermometers. For the next
1/2 hour (or until the temperatures stop changing substantially),
periodically (about every 5 to 10 minutes) record the time and
temperature in each jar.
4. Ask students to calculate the rates of change for each sample by
dividing the total temperature change (from start to finish) by
the total elapsed time (minutes the experiment ran). The large
body of water should change more slowly than the smaller one.
Water should change more slowly than air. If you used small jars
with a lot of surface area, the water may not seem much dif-
ferent from the air.
5. Ask students to apply the results to the environment by discuss-
ing the following questions:
• Which animals are exposed to the most radical temperature
changes—those that live in the water or those that live on the land?
• Can any generalizations be made about the relative seasonal
temperature changes likely to be found in a pond, a lake, the
ocean? (Small ponds show greater changes in temperature
with the seasons; lakes show less; and oceans show the least
amount of changes. But even oceans, at least at the surface,
have temperature changes).
• If an animal needs to stay at nearly the same temperature all
year, would it prefer to spend the winter and the summer in
a big body of water or a little pond? (The bigger the body of
water, the smaller the changes with the season.)
102
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UNIT II-B
Procedure (continued)
Discuss with students that water has one of the highest known heat
capacities.
Extension/ Perform another experiment to determine whether air or water
Evaluation warms more quickly. Use two jars of the same size and material. Fill
one with room temperature water and leave the other filled with
air. Place both jars under an incandescent light (which will serve as
a heat source). Make sure the jars are not sealed so that the air has
room to expand as it warms. Over the next 1/2 hour or so,
periodically (every 5 minutes) take the temperature of the two jars,
recording the results in a notebook. Determine which warmed more
quickly (air should warm more quickly) and relate the results of the
experiment to the environment.
Adapted with permission from: National Aquarium of Baltimore,
Living in Water, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Department of Education,
National Aquarium of Baltimore, 1989).
103
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UNIT II-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
In Hot Water
Students will study the relationship between water temperature
and density, define a thermocline, and discuss the ecological sig-
nificance of stratification and mixing.
Classroom
One 40- to 60-minute period
Chemistry, Mathematics, Science
Comparing Similarities and Differences, Discussion, Evaluation,
Observation, Psychomotor Development, Small Group Work
6-10
density stratification thermocline
Refer to Unit E, Sections B-5 and B-7.
For the class:
m Hot tap water.
• Cold water (from refrigerator or ice water). If you don't have
access to a refrigerator, plan to do this activity early in the
morning and bring ice cubes from home. If you do not have an
ice chest, put the ice cubes into watertight plastic bags and wrap
them in newspaper.
For each group:
• Four clear plastic cups.
• A plastic spoon.
• A bottle of food coloring.
1. Divide the class into groups of three or four. Give each group
four clear plastic cups, a plastic spoon, and a bottle of food
coloring.
2. Ask each group to fill two of its cups with hot tap water (but not
so hot that it could burn a child's skin) and the other two with
cold water, and to take these cups back to their workstations.
104
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UNIT II-B
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
3. At their workstations, ask the students to add a few drops of
coloring to one of the hot water cups and one of the cold water
cups. Next, ask the students to take a spoonful of the cold
colored water and very carefully pour it on the surface of the hot
clear water. Observe what happens. (The cold colored water,
which is denser than.the hot clear water, should sink)
4. Now, ask the students to try the reverse. Take a spoonful of hot
colored water and pour it on the surface of the cold clear water.
What happens? (The hot water should float on the surface of the
cold water because it is less dense.)
Note: As a control, you might demonstrate to students what hap-
pens when a spoonful of hot colored water is added to a cup of clear
hot water, and when a spoonful of cold colored water is added to a
cup of cold clear water.
5. Discuss how a body of water can be stratified, or layered, with
two totally different kinds of places (in terms of temperature) for
plants and animals to live. Ask students if they know what the
zone between the two layers (warm and cold) is called? (A ther-
mocline.) Ask students if they have ever noticed a sharp drop in
temperature while swimming in a lake or pond, and explain that
this is the thermocline.
6. Ask the students to stir the water and observe what happens (the
water becomes mixed). Discuss what "stirs" real water (wind).
Discuss why mixing is ecologically important in a body of water
(for example, provides oxygen, helps transport nutrients).
Note: You might want to try this activity at home before conducting
this experiment in the classroom. It may be difficult to add the
spoonful of water so that the proper layering occurs. If so, another
simple way to demonstrate the principles of this lesson is to fill a
small balloon with very cold water (place a water balloon in the
refrigerator) and drop it into an aquarium filled with hot water.
Observe whether it sinks or floats (it should sink). Leave the balloon
in the water and observe what happens when it warms up (it rises).
Investigate what happens when a pond or lake freezes by having
the students make a model pond. Fill a plastic cup with cold water.
Put several Styrofoam® cups inside one another and then place the
plastic cup inside the Styrofoam® cups (the Styrofoam® will help
insulate the plastic cup). Check the cup .every 15 minutes. Where
does the ice form first? Record when the ice forms and where. If a
pond works in the same way, where does the ice form first? (Do not
try to freeze the water in the cup solid as it may burst.)
105
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UNIT II-B
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
Demonstrate why ice floats by filling a clear plastic cup with cold
water. Draw a line at the top of the water with an insoluble marker.
Put the water in a freezer overnight. The next morning, compare the
level of the frozen water with the line. What has happened to the
water? What does this say about the density of frozen water com-
pared to liquid water?
Adapted with permission from: National Aquarium of Baltimore,
Living in Water, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Department of Education,
National Aquarium of Baltimore, 1989).
106
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UNIT II-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Pondering pH
Students will determine the pH of various substances, differentiate
between acidic and basic substances, and make generalizations
about the effect of pH on the aquatic environment.
Classroom
One 40-to 60-minute period
Science
Analysis, Application, Classification, Comparing Similarities and
Differences, Definition, Discussion, Generalization, Observation,
Psychomotor Development, Small Group Work, Synthesis
3-8 (This activity can be done as a demonstration for younger
children.)
acid base pH pH scale neutralize buffering agent
Refer to Unit II, Section B-2.
For the class:
m Distilled water (available at grocery stores and drug stores).
• White vinegar,
• Baking soda.
• Measuring cups (1/2 cup and 1/4 cup) and teaspoons (1/2
teaspoon).
For each group:
• Litmus paper and pH chart.
• Three small, clear cups.
• Three stirring spoons.
• Notebook and pencil.
• Copies of the Scale of pH handout (make enough copies so that
each student in the class can have a copy).
107
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UNIT II-B
Procedure
1. Explain to the students that they will be measuring the pH of
various solutions using Litmus paper, a specially treated paper
that changes color in acidic or basic solutions.
2. Divide the students into groups of three or four. Give each
group three cups, three stirring spoons, and Litmus paper. Ask
the students to label one cup vinegar, one cup baking soda, and
the third cup water.
3. Ask each group to bring their cups to a central workstation)
where they should rinse each cup with distilled water and shake
out the excess water. Next, have the students measure and pour
1/2 cup of distilled water into each of the three cups.
4. Have the students add 1/2 teaspoon of white vinegar to the
vinegar cup and stir with a clean spoon. Add 1/2 teaspoon of
baking soda to the baking soda cup and stir with a clean spoon.
Do not add anything to the water cup.
5. Have the students take the cups back to their workstations. Ask
the students to dip an unused, clean strip of pH paper in the
vinegar cup for about 2 seconds and immediately compare it
with the color chart. Write down the approximate pH value. Is
the vinegar an acid or a base? (Vinegar is an acid and turns pH
paper yellow or red.)
6. Next, the students should dip an unused, clean strip of pH paper
in the baking soda cup for about 2 seconds and immediately
compare to the color chart. Write down the approximate pH
value and set the cup aside. Is the baking soda an acid or a base?
(Baking soda is abase and turns most pH papers blue.)
7. Dip an unused, clean strip of pH paper in the water cup for
about 2 seconds and immediately compare to the color chart.
Write down the approximate pH value and set the cup aside. Is
the water an acid or a base? (Pure distilled water is neutral, but
pure distilled water is not easily obtained because carbon
dioxide in the air mixes in the water, making it somewhat acidic.
To neutralize distilled water, add about 1/8 teaspoon of baking
soda or a drop of ammonia, stir well, and check the pH again. If
the water is still acidic, repeat the process until a pH of 7 is
reached.)
8. Ask students to guess whether some common household
products (such as lemon juice, tomatoes, milk, shampoo, am-
monia, black coffee, soap solutions, oven cleaner) are acidic or
basic. You might test some of these substances in the classroom.
Give each student a copy of the Scale of pH handout.
108
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UNIT II-B
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
9. Discuss how the pH of a water body could affect the plant and
animal life that grows there. You might ask older students if
there are certain chemical properties that very acidic substances
(like automobile battery acid) and very alkaline substances (like
household drain cleaners) have that could harm plants and
animals? (They are reactive and can cause severe burns.)
10. Discuss how the pH of a water body could change over time.
What kinds of substances could enter the water to change its
pH? (Some examples are effluents and fertilizers.) Where would
these substances come from? (industry, agriculture) Is there
anything that people could do to make the pH of a water body
neutral? (Add buffering agents like lime to acidic waters.) See
Unit III, Section B for a discussion of acid rain, another problem
that affects the acidity of water bodies.
Students can make a natural pH indicator in the classroom or at
home from red cabbage. Red cabbage contains a chemical that turns
from its natural deep purple color to red in acids find blue in bases.
Boil the cabbage in a covered pan for 30 minutes (or microwave for
10 minutes). Let the cabbage cool and then remove it. Pour about
1/4 cup of cabbage juice into 2 clear cups. Add 1/2 teaspoon of
baking soda to one cup and 1/2 teaspoon of vinegar to another cup.
Stir each cup with a clean spoon and observe the color changes that
take place. (The vinegar and cabbage juice mixture should change
from deep purple to red, indicating that vinegar is an acid; the
baking soda and cabbage juice mixture should change from deep
purple to blue, indicating it is a base.) Pour the contents of the
vinegar cup into the baking soda cup. Does the color change? (Yes,
the color should change from blue or red to purple.) What does this
tell you about the solution? (It has become neutralized.)
109
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Scale of pH
Neutral
0)
Battery Acid
— 1
— 2
Lemon Juice
3 Vinegar
— 4 Tomatoes
— 5 Black Coffee
— 6
— 8
— 10
— 11
— 12
— 13
Rainwater
Milk
7 Pure Water
Shampoo
g Baking Soda
Soap Solutions
Household Ammonia
Oven Cleaner
14
110
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UNIT II-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
The Disappearing Act
Students will compare rates at which different substances dissolve
in water and define different factors that affect the rates at which
some substances dissolve.
Classroom
One 40- to 60-minute period
Chemistry, Mathematics, Science
Analysis, Application, Classification, Computation, Description,
Discussion, Generalization, Graphing, Observation, Psychomotor
Development, Small Group Work
4-9
dissolve suspension solution
Refer to Unit II, Section B-7.
For the class:
m Water.
• Table salt (use canning or kosher salt).
• Granulated table sugar.
• Cornstarch.
• Large clear glass jar.
(5)
• Package of a dark flavor of unsweetened Kool-aid.
For each group:
m Three clear plastic cups.
• Three plastic straws or stirrers.
• A teaspoon.
• A graduated measuring cup.
• Three pieces of tape or sticky labels.
• Pencils or pens.
• Notebooks, ->
111
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UNIT II-B
Procedure
1. Show the students a large, clear glass jar of water and a package of
unsweetened Kool-aid . Ask them to predict what will happen if
you pour the Kool-aid into the water. Do they all agree? Pour
the Kool-aid® in and see what happens (it should sink and then
begin to dissolve and spread through the water). Ask students if
they can suggest a way to speed up the process of dissolving (stir-
ring, use hot water). Introduce the word "solution" for the mixture
and the word "dissolve" for the process of mixing completely.
2. Ask students to name other substances found around the house
that would dissolve in water. List them on the blackboard. Show
the students the table salt, sugar, and cornstarch. Ask them to
predict whether each will go into solution.
3. Divide the students into groups of three or four. Each group
should label one clear plastic cup as "salt," another as "sugar,"
and the third as "cornstarch." Fill each of the three plastic cups
with about the same volume of water at room temperature.
Leave about 1 inch of space at the top.
4. Add 2 heaping teaspoons of salt to the cup labeled "salt," 2
heaping teaspoons of sugar to the "sugar" cup, and 2 heaping
teaspoons of cornstarch to the "cornstarch" cup. Have the stu-
dents observe what happens for 2 minutes and record their ob-
servations in a notebook. Then ask the students to stir each cup
by making a circle around the edge of the cup with the stirrer ten
times. Was there a change? Repeat, stirring ten times in each
cup until one substance has completely disappeared or dis-
solved. Record how many times this cup was stirred. Continue
stirring and observing the other two substances to find out
which dissolves (or disappears) next fastest. Again, record the
results. Each group should have three numbers (the number of
times each substance was stirred before it was dissolved).
5. Have each group post its results on the blackboard. Compare the
results among the groups and discuss the results. (Sugar or salt may
be faster depending on the size of the crystals in the particular
brand; what happens to the cornstarch may be the subject of debate.
Some students will say it is in solution, others may not.) For each
substance, add all of the numbers obtained for that substance and
divide by the number of groups to get an average result. Have stu-
dents make a bar chart of the average numbers.
6. Save two sets of the solutions and place them in a safe place
overnight. The next day, ask students to observe what has hap-
pened to the solutions (the cornstarch will have settled out).
What conclusions can be drawn from these observations? (Not
all substances go into solution, and some dissolve faster than
others.)
112
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UN1TU-B
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
7. Ask the students if gases, such as oxygen, gp into solution in
water? Help the students to understand howoxygeri enters the
water and how it is used by organisms. Discuss with students
the importance of oxygen to living things.
Ask students to design an experiment to test whether substances go
into solution faster in hot water. They should be able to state the
central question to be addressed through the experiment, design a
procedure for carrying out the experiment, and determine an
appropriate control for comparison. Then have the students carry
out the experiments that they designed.
Adapted with permission from: National Aquarium of Baltimore,
Living in Water, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Department of Education,
National Aquarium of Baltimore, 1989).
113
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UNIT II-B
Activity
Go with the Flow
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Students will compute the velocity of a creek or stream, and explore
the relationship of velocity to different habitats, as well as the kinds
of species that live in those habitats.
Outdoors, at a small creek or stream
1/2 day to a full day if combined with other field activities, such as
"Stream Study," which is also found in Unit II, Section B
Mathematics, Physics, Science
Analysis, Application, Comparing Similarities and Differences,
Computation, Generalization, Observation, Psychomotor Develop-
ment
6-12
velocity volume
Refer to Unit E, Section B-9.
• String (measured and cut to 100 feet and marked in 1-foot
intervals for the first 15 feet of string).
• A yardstick.
• Ping pong ball (painted a bright color).
• Stop watch.
• Pencils and notebooks.
• Copies of Water Flow Chart.
1. Using the string, have the students mark off a 100-foot section of
the stream or creek (You might position a student at each end of
the measured section, or otherwise mark it, so you can discern
where the section begins and ends.)
2. Now use the string to make several measurements of the width
of the creek within the 100-foot measured section. Record these
numbers in a notebook.
114
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UNIT II-B
Procedure (continued)
3. Have the students measure the depth of the creek using the
yardstick. Again, ask the students to take several measurements
of the depth of water along the measured section and to record
these numbers in a notebook
4. Average the measurements to get a single number for water
depth and creek width.
5. Multiply width x depth x length (100 feet) to get the volume of
water in that section of the creek.
6. Have a student start the ping pong ball at the top of the
measured section. Another student at the bottom should act as
the timer. Allow the ball to float through the "course" several
times. Record how long it takes for the ping pong ball to reach
the bottom each time, and then average the results.
7. View the creek as a unit of volume per unit of time. How much
water flows by in 1 second, 1 minute, 1 hour? Record the
answers on the Water Flow Chart. Determine if the creek is a
relatively fast- or slow-moving one.
8. Have students note what types of animals and! plants live in the
stream. What do they look like? What are their shapes? (See
Unit I, Section C for more information about plant and animal
species.) Help the students to understand the relationship be-
tween the types of plants and animals present and the velocity of
the stream.
Extension/
Evaluation
You can observe how different shapes affect the speed of an
organism in water by conducting a simple experiment. Using an
aquarium or a long pan filled with water, measure off a 1-foot
section with a wax crayon. Put a mechanical or battery-powered toy
in the water and record how long it takes for the toy to travel the
length of the marked-off section. Then, change the shape of the toy
by gluing fin-like shapes that you have cut from a plastic bottle at
different positions and angles along the toy. Repeat the experiment
and discuss how the alterations affected the speed and direction of
the toy.
115
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Water Flow Chart
Time
Volume of Water
1 Second
1 Minute
1 Hour
116
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UNIT II-B
Actik/ity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Life at the Surface
Procedure
The students will be able to define surface tension and observe its
relationship to living organisms.
Classroom
One 40- to 60-minute period
Art, Language Arts, Mathematics, Physics, Science
Analysis, Application, Discussion, Invention, Media Construction,
Observation, Research, Synthesis, Writing
4-10
surface tension
Refer to Unit II, Section B-3.
For each student:
m A cup of water.
For the class:
m A box of "model parts," which might include toothpicks, thin
wire, string, straight pins or needles, clay, staples, wooden or
plastic coffee stirrers, wire screen, pieces of a plastic strawberry
basket.
• Glue or tape, if needed.
• A scale or triple beam balance.
• A large container (like an aquarium or a large, transparent pan
or bowl) filled with water.
Prior to this experiment, begin a discussion of the creatures that live
on the surface of the water (such as the water strider or whirligig
beetle) and their special adaptations for this environment. Discuss
the term "surface tension." Have students choose one of these
animals and perform research on it. Ask students to write a descrip-
tive paragraph and draw a picture of the animal: they choose. Post
the paragraphs and pictures in the classroom.
117
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UNIT II-B
Procedure (continued)
1. Provide students with a box of "model parts" (see the list in
"Materials" above). Tell students they will be designing a crea-
ture that, like the water strider or whirligig beetle, can "walk on
top of water," with its weight supported by surface tension.
2. After designing their model creatures, have each student bring
their "creatures" to the front of the room. Allow them to place
their models, one at a time, on the surface of a large, clear con-
tainer of water in full view of the class. Weigh the ones that are
successful. The student that designed the heaviest model is the
winner.
3. Initiate a followup discussion concerning which model shapes
and parts worked best. It will probably be clear that the models
with their weight evenly distributed over the surface area, not all
in one spot, worked best.
Extension/ If any students live near a pond, ask them if they can safely collect
Evaluation several water striders to bring to the class. (See Appendix B, "Field
Ethics: Determining What, Where, and Whether or Not!") In class,
have the students observe the water striders and watch how they
"walk on water." If your class has set up a freshwater aquarium
(see Unit I, Section B and Appendix A, "Keeping Classroom
Aquaria—A Simple Guide for the Teacher"), add the water striders
to the aquarium. The students may also see how the water striders
deal with hungry fish.
To further demonstrate surface tension, divide students into pairs
and give each pair a penny, an eyedropper; and a small container of
water. Have students squeeze drops of water one at a time onto the
surface of the penny, counting each drop. Have them observe what
happens. Ask students how many drops of water they were able to
add before the rounded bulge finally broke. Ask each group to write
its number on the board. Then have students add the numbers and
calculate the average number of drops added before the surface ten-
sion "stretched" too far.
Adapted with permission from: National Aquarium of Baltimore,
Living in Water, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Department of Education,
National Aquarium of Baltimore, 1989).
118
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UNIT II-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Dirty Water
Procedure
Students will compare the effects of various levels of nutrients on water
and discuss the results of eutrophication on an aquatic environment.
Classroom
One 20-minute class period; four 10-minute class periods (one per
week for 4 weeks); and one final 20-minute class period
Chemistry, Mathematics, Science
Analysis, Application, Comparing Similarities and Differences, Dis-
cussion, Generalization, Psychomotor Skills, Obsei-vation
4-10
algae erosion nutrients turbid
Refer to Unit II, Section B-8 and Unit HI, Section B-l.
• Five clear containers, one quart or more (plastic soft drink
bottles or canning jars are ideal).
• Water with algae from freshwater aquarium, a pond, or
purchased pond water from a biological supply company.
• Soil from a yard or flower bed or garden, or potting soil.
• Cloth to filter soil from water.
• Plant fertilizer.
• Aged tap water.
• Good light source, either indirect sunlight or strong artificial light
• Camera and roll of 12-exposure print film (35 mm is best),
1. Before class, mix 2 cups of soil with 1 quart of water and shake
vigorously. Let the mixture sit until the dirt settles and then
strain the water through cloth into another container.
2. In the classroom, add soil to water in one of the jars and shake.
The water becomes turbid as soil particles become suspended.
Discuss some causes of turbidity and how an increase in tur-
bidity in a water body affects plants and animals that live there.
Put the jar aside for future observation.
119
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UNIT H-B
Procedure (continued)
3. Add tap water to one of the other jars and label it "control." Fill
two of the three remaining jars with tap water and label one "1
tsp fertilizer" and the other "2 tsp fertilizer." To the last jar, add
water you prepared in Step 1 (explain that this water was
prepared in the same manner as the shaken soil and water
demonstration). Label this jar "soil." Add 1 teaspoon of fertilizer
to the jar labeled "1 tsp fertilizer/' and 2 teaspoons of fertilizer to
the jar labeled "2 tsp fertilizer." Now add aquarium water with
algae or pond water with algae to each jar. Use equal amounts,
up to one cup each. Set all three jars where there is good light.
4. For the next 4 weeks, take photographs of the jars side by side in
good light from close up once each week. Write the date on a
piece of paper that shows in the photograph and make sure the
labels on the jars show. Keep the jars in the same place in each
photograph.
5. After a month has passed, develop the photographs and arrange
them in order. Discuss the changes that were recorded. The jars
with the soil water and fertilizer should show a much more
luxurious growth of algae than the plain tap water. Discuss why
this has happened. Observe if there was a difference in the
amount of algae growth with the two different dosages of fer-
tilizer.
Discuss what nutrients are and where they come from (erosion,
runoff, etc). Also discuss whether nutrients are "good" or "bad."
(Nutrients are good initially because they help promote plant
growth. Too many nutrients, however, can generate water scums
and foul odors, and inhibit light penetration). Help students
understand the term eutrophication.
Extension/ Study the label of the plant fertilizer to discover what some plant
Evaluation nutrients are. The label will probably list compounds containing
nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium. Many brands have a number
of other chemicals as well.
Adapted with permission from: National Aquarium of Baltimore,
Living in Water, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Department of Education,
National Aquarium of Baltimore, 1989).
120
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UNITII-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Stream Study
Students will be able to identify several aquatic organisms, and as-
sess the relative environmental quality of a stream or pond based
on indicators of pH, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and the
presence of various organisms.
Stream or slow-moving pond
One or two 40- to 60-minute periods; may take longer if done as a
field study activity
Science, Biology, Chemistry
Application, Analysis, Classification, Comparing Similarities and Dif-
ferences, Computation, Description, Discussion, Drawing, Evaluation,
Generalization, Identification, Inference, Interpretation, Listing, Match-
ing, Measuring, Observation, Prediction, Psychomotor Development,
Reading, Research, Recognition, Synthesis, Writing (limited)
6-12
indicator species
temperature pH
healthy environment
dissolved oxygen
diversity
Refer to Unit II, Section B-10.
Identification guides such as Pond Life: A Guide to Common Plants
and Animals of North American Ponds and Lakes (New York, NY:
Western Publishing Company, 1967) or The New Field Book of
Freshwater Life (New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1966).
Stream and Pond Organisms handout.
Worksheets I and n.
Sampling equipment, such as assorted containers, sieves,
screens, plankton nets, seine nets, and dredge nets (a dredge net
can be created by fastening a cloth bag to a rake).
White enamel trays.
Magnifying lenses (microscope optional).
121
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UNIT II-B
Materials
Procedure
(continued)
m Waterscope. (A waterscope can be fashioned .by cutting a hole in
the bottom of a wooden bucket, covering the hole with a piece Of
glass, and tacking down strips of wood to hold the glass in place.
Seams can be sealed with aquarium cement.)
• Eyedroppers.
• Forceps.
• Water quality test kit (such as a Hydrion or Hach kit to test both
pH and dissolved oxygen). A simple water quality kit can be
obtained from scientific supply houses dealing with high school
biology supplies. It may be possible to borrow a Idt from a high
school biology teacher.
• Thermometer.
• Meter sticks or tape measure.
1. Select a sampling site. Try to find a small, fairly shallow, slow-
moving stream or pond. Be alert to the safety of the students. If
the stream is not a public site, be sure to gain permission to visit.
Advise the students in advance to dress for the setting. Old
shoes, shorts, or jeans would be best. Waders, if available, would
also be useful.
2. Brief the students on habitat courtesies. Alert them to ways to
minimize the potential for damaging the habitat and encourage
care in their collection techniques. Emphasize that all the wildlife
is to be returned to its habitat unharmed. You may choose
whether or not to take some of the organisms back to school for
further study. (See Appendix B, "Field Ethics: Determining
What, Where, and Whether or Not!")
3. Start by observing the water using a waterscope, if you have
one. Look for organisms on the surface and in the depths. Using
the sampling equipment, have the students collect as many dif-
ferent forms of animal life as possible. Ask them to be alert to
differing microhabitats near rocks, in riffles, and in eddies. Use
forceps and eyedroppers to place the animals to be observed in
the white trays. (The white background allows detail to be seen
in the animals collected.) Keep an adequate amount of water in
the trays and place them in a cool, shady spot. Change the water
often to keep the animals cool. This is a good time for using
microscopes if they were brought along.
122
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UNIT II-B
Procedure (continued)
4. Using microscopes or magnifying lenses, have the students identify
and draw the animals for Worksheet I. They should refer to the
Stream and Pond Organisms handout. Ask them to fill in the num-
ber of each kind of organism found and describe the actual location
where the animal was found. Once these observations are com-
pleted, carefully return the animals to their natural habitat. (If you
choose to take some of the animals to the classroom, be sure there is
adequate water that can be kept as cool as the natural setting. Petri
dishes or any shallow transparent dish under an overhead projector
makes for exciting viewing.)
5. Still in the outdoors, encourage students to discuss their obser-
vations. Were a lot of different organisms found? Introduce the
concept of diversity of life—that is, a variety oJ: different kinds of
plants and animals is usually an indication of a healthy system.
6. Now test the water at the field site for other indicators of quality.
Using the water quality kit, have students determine the pH of the
water, the temperature of both the water and the air, and the
amount of dissolved oxygen present (this may be difficult for
younger students). These data should be recorded on Worksheet H
7. Help the students understand that the pH, temperature, and dis-
solved oxygen content of a water body affect title diversity of life
forms found there. Ask students whether they would expect the
same variety of life in other locations.
8. Ideally, this activity should be repeated at other sites with dif-
ferent characteristics. The students should understand that
biologists examine hundreds of sites in order to try to under-
stand and predict what their evidence suggests is going on in
natural systems. If another site is visited, it might be useful to
divide the class into two groups with one half doing Worksheet I
and the others doing Worksheet TL When each group is finished,
they could come together and mutually predict what the other
group had found.
9. Summarize the study by reemphasizing that the diversity of
specific animals is a useful indicator of habitat quality, as well as
an overall indicator of environmental quality.
Extension/ Draw pictures or create a mural of a healthy environment and an
Evaluation unhealthy environment.
Adapted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEG,
©1987).
123
-------
Stream and Pond Organisms
Midge Larva
(Bloodworm)
Sludgeworm
Air-breathing
Snails
u
Rat-tailed Maggot
Larva Pupae
Sewage Fly
Species
Found in
Polluted
Water
Blackfly Larva
Sowbug
Species
Found in
Not So
Clean
Water
Caddisfly Larva
Water Penny
Stonefly
Species
Found in
Clean
Water
Riffle Beetle
124
-------
Worksheet I
Name of Organism
Sketch of Organism
Location
Number
Found
125
-------
Worksheet II
Observations .
Water Temperature
Dissolved O2
Air Temperature
Velocity
pH
Organisms Present
126
-------
Human Use, Influence, and
Impact on the Ohio River
-------
-------
Human Use,
Influence, and Impact
on the Ohio River
his unit will help students appreciate the importance of
T water in their own lives, and examine the effects, both
positive and negative, of human activity on the Ohio
River and its watershed. In Section A, students will ex-
plore the many uses of water and the Ohio River, includ-
ing drinking, bathing, cleaning, transportation, industry,
and recreation. They will build collages that show water uses, and
models that demonstrate how water is stored and how it is distributed to
homes and businesses. In the final activity in this section, students will
have an opportunity to monitor their own daily use of water and con-
sider ways to conserve this precious resource.
Section B delves into the many environmental problems facing the Ohio
River Basin, many of which are human-induced. Such topics as accelerated
soil erosion, flooding, river pollution, ground-water contamination, acid
rain, and littering are explored with a variety of demonstrations and hands-
on experiments that show both causes and effects.
In Section C, students will identify some of the signs that bodies of water
are polluted, and view some of the micororganisms that may con-
taminate water. They will also observe the effects of purifying techni-
ques, such as filtration, on dirty water and learn about the role of
drinking water and wastewater treatment plants in keeping the Ohio
River safe for human use.
In Section D, students will discuss the tradeoffs of economic use of the
Ohio River versus concerns about the environment. The students will
learn to make difficult decisions concerning resource use that balance the
needs of many different segments of society. They will also investigate
water pollution problems in their own community, learn about laws af-
fecting pollution control and pollution cleanup, and suggest solutions
that demonstrate their awareness of both economic and environmental
costs and benefits.
127
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UNIT III-A
Our Relationship with
Water
Water's Many Uses
Water is essential for survival (see Unit II, Section A). People use water on
a daily basis and for many different functions. As a liquid, water serves as
a beverage and assists in dozens of daily cleaning chores including
showering and washing clothes. When water is in its solid state, it serves
to keep things cool, in the form of ice cubes in a drink or ice in a freezer of
frozen foods. People also use water to keep house plants alive, to make
their gardens grow, and keep their lawns green. In addition, water allows
people to enjoy such recreational activities as swimming, sailing, scuba
diving, and canoeing.
On a larger scale, water is needed for industrial and agricultural uses.
Many manufacturing processes, such as steel making and frozen foods
packaging, require vast quantities of water. Farmers need water to ir-
rigate their crops and to clean produce before selling it to distributors
or to local markets. Water in the form of rivers, such as the Ohio River,
also serves as a major corridor for shipping produce and manufac-
tured goods and for commuting and tourism.
All living things need water to survive. (See Unit II, Section A-4.) In
addition to the water needed for drinking (about 1V2 quarts each day),
each individual uses about 86 gallons of water daily for showering,
flushing toilets, brushing teeth, washing hands, and other personal
uses.
How People Get Their Water
The nation's drinking water comes from two different sources. About half
comes from rivers, streams, and other forms of surface water. The United
States has 2 million miles of streams and over 30 million acres of lakes
and* reservoirs that can serve as potential drinking water supplies.
Reservoirs are large, deep bodies of standing freshwater created by
humans. They are often built behind dams to collect water running
down from mountains in streams and rivers. Reservoirs also capture
128
-------
UNITIH-A
water from melting snow and rain that would otherwise be lost. Since
the availability of water in different areas of the country varies,
utilities store extra water in reservoirs so communities will not run out
of water regardless of the amount of water they use. In addition to
providing water for home use, water released from reservoirs can be
used to generate hydroelectric power or to provide irrigation to grow
crops on dry land.
The other half of the country's drinking water comes from ground
water. Ground water supplies over 100 million people with their
drinking water. The country withdraws about 90 billion gallons of
ground water every day for all uses. This includes 12 billion gallons
per day to supply the public with water.
Once water has been stored in reservoirs or tapped from ground-
water sources, it needs to be treated to remove pollutants and dis-
tributed to its many users. (Section C of this unit will discuss the
treatment process in detail.) The first human-constructed system for
obtaining a supply of freshwater was through pumps from under-
ground wells. In places like China, India, and other eastern countries,'
many wells were built thousands of years ago. The Roman Empire
was one of the earliest civilizations to utilize a distribution system,
which consisted of aqueducts or canals that brought water from
mountains to cities. Although some of these aqueducts are still in use
today, many innovations in distribution have been made since that
time.
In 1652, Boston, Massachusetts, became the first American city to use
pipes to extract water from a deep reservoir fed by springs and wells.
This system allowed people to obtain as much water as they needed.
In 1776, the first complete domestic water distribution system was set
up. Stretching from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, to Winston-Salem,
North Carolina, this system carried water by pipes made of bored and
fire-charred logs to many different cities.
Not until this century, however, did water become available to the ex-
tent that people take for granted today. Water distribution facilities
exist all around the world transporting water to homes, businesses,
and farms. This water is carried across many miles through durable
pipes made of cast iron, steel, concrete, cement, or plastic. The water
flows by gravitational force throughout the distribution system. As
water travels through a distribution system, it is continuously
diverted down different pathways, which lead to individual homes
and businesses. The circumference of a pipe determines the quantity
of water that can be contained in the pipe at any one time and deter-
mines, in part, the rate at which the water will travel through the pipe.
As the distribution system expands to homes and businesses, the
129
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UNIT III-A
volume of water needed per home or business represents only a por-
tion of the total volume leaving the treatment plant. Consequently,
smaller pipes are used in these areas of the distribution system,
whereas larger pipes are needed near the treatment plant.
Conservation of Water
A plentiful supply of water for drinking and washing is something
that many Americans take for granted. By simply turning on the tap,
people have access to gallons of drinkable water. Behind each gallon,
however, is the unceasing effort of scientists, engineers, legislators,
water plant operators, and regulatory officials who work to maintain
a constant supply of this precious resource.
Household and other municipal water use accounts for about 9 per-
cent of total water use in the United States. (See the table of Average
Water Volumes Required for Typical Activities on p. 142, which ac-
companies the activity "Water Audit.") Because of the Earth's limited
supply of usable freshwater (see Unit II, Section A-3) and the increas-
ing expense of providing water of sufficient quality to home users, in-
dividuals and communities alike would be wise to employ water
conservation measures.
One way to conserve water is to help preserve the quality of water in
potential drinking water supplies such as lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.
Ways that individuals can reduce nonpoint source pollution
(described in Unit IE, Section B-4) to these water bodies include:
• Keeping gutters and storm drains free of litter, pet wastes,
leaves, and other debris.
• Applying lawn and garden chemicals sparingly and according
• to directions.
• Disposing of used oil, paints, and household chemicals properly
and not in storm sewers or down drains;
• Controlling soil erosion in lawns and gardens by planting
ground cover.
In addition, people should report any dumping of trash into lakes,
rivers, or wetlands to the proper authorities.
Household members can also substantially reduce their daily con-
sumption of water by keeping faucets in good repair; storing a supply
of cold water for drinking in the refrigerator; installing water-saving
130
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UNIT III-A
toilets; taking shorter showers; and avoiding lettingthe water run
while brushing teeth, washing hands, or doing dishes by hand. Water
consumption outside the home can also be reduced by covering back-
yard pools to prevent evaporation, turning the hose off while washing
the car and on only for rinsing, and watering the lawn and garden
only as necessary and at night whenever possible. Wading pool water
and rinse water from outdoor washing also can be recycled to water
grass and shrubs.
Clean water is a valuable resource that must be used with care and
consideration. Reducing water pollution and water consumption
saves time and money in water treatment (see Unit HI, Section C-3)
and goes a long way toward ensuring a plentiful supply of water for
the future.
Resources
Publications
The Earthworks Group. 1990. 50 Simple Things Kids Can Do to Save
the Earth. Kansas City, MO: Andrews and McMeel.
Gartell, J.E., Jr., J. Crowder, and J.C. Callister. 1989. Earth: The Water
Planet. Washington, DC: The National Science Teachers Association.
Miller, G.T. 1991. Environmental Science: Sustaining the Earth, 3rd ed.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
The Global Ecology Handbook—What Can You Do About the En-
vironment. The Global Tomorrow Coalition.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1977. Water Wheel: Your
Guide to Home Water Conservation. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA Of-
fice of Water.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Drinking Water: On Tap
for the Future. EPA Journal, Vol 12, No. 7. September.
Water Pollution Control Federation. 1990. Surface Water: The
Student's Resource Guide. Alexandria, VA: Water Pollution Control
Federation.
131
-------
UNIT Ill-A
Resources
(continued)
Audiovisual Programs
Drip. Stuart Finley, Inc., 3428 Mansfield Road, Falls Church, VA
22041, 703-820-7700. Water-saving habits are an easy way to conserve
(20 minutes). 1975. Rental: $35.
The Little Rivers. 1969. Stuart Finley, Inc., 3428 Mansfield Road, Falls
Church, VA 22041, 703-820-7700. City streams require special water
resource planning (20 minutes).
The Valley. 1974. Stuart Finley, Inc., 3428 Mansfield Road, Falls
Church, VA 22041, 703-820-7700. Ohio River Valley water quality
management programs (28 minutes). Junior to senior high school
levels. Rental: $35.
Water and Life: A Delicate Balance. #IE-1139. Films for the
Humanities and Sciences, 743 Alexander Road, P.O. Box 2053, Prin-
ceton, NJ 08540,1-800-257-5126. The role of water in the human body
(13 minutes). Film rental: $75.
Water for the City. #70194. Phoenix Films, Inc. (BFA Educational
Media), 468 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016,1-800-221-1274.
Where cities get their water and how we get it to our homes (11
minutes). Primary and intermediate levels. Film availabe for sale or
rental.
Water: We Can't Live Without It. National Wildlife Federation, 1400
16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036-2266, 1-800-432-6564. Inter-
mediate and advanced levels. Filmstrip or slide set. Cost: $26.95.
132
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UNITIII-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Water Use Collage
Procedure
Students will gain an appreciation for the value of water in their
own lives through brainstorming techniques and art.
Classroom
One 1-hour period
Art, Science, Social Studies
Small Group Work, Listing, Discussion, Media Construction, Brainstorm-
ing, Synthesis
water
Refer to Unit IE, Section A-l.
• Magazines that can be used to make collages.
• Scissors.
• Paste or glue.
• Construction paper or other sturdy paper.
1 . Brainstorm with students to make a list of all the ways they use
water.
2. Divide students into pairs or groups of three or four.
3. Have each team search through magazines and cut out pictures
or words depicting or describing water use. You may ask each
team to look for all types of water use or encourage teams to
specialize in a particular area of water use, such as recreation or
household use. One possible theme might be "how I used water
today." Stress that students should be creative in distinguishing
what activities we use water for.
4. Working in these same groupings, have students assemble col-
lages demonstrating all areas of water use or their team's par-
ticular theme.
5. Ask students to think of a title that puts across the ideas in their
collage.
133
-------
UNIT III-A
Procedure (continued)
Display students'work on a bulletin board.
Extension/ From the list you made in Step 1 of the activity (and any additional
Evaluation uses), have students categorize the uses they make of water into es-
sential and nonessential uses. For example, drinking water would
be in the essential category; running under a sprinkler to cool off
would be nonessential. Ask students if any of these uses potentially
waste water. Help them to conclude that water is a precious
resource that should not be wasted.
134
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UNITIH-A
Activity
Where Does Our Water Come
From?
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Students will construct a model to explore the function of a reser-
voir and how it works.
Classroom
1 hour
Art, Science, Social Studies
Analysis, Application, Media Construction, Discussion, Observa-
tion, Experimenting, Psychomotor Development, Small Group
Work
3-6 (This activity also can be done as a demonstration for younger
grade levels.)
reservoir
Refer to Unit IH, Section A-2.
• Clear plastic box for each group of students.
• Spray bottle.
• Pebbles.
• Soil.
• Sand.
• Leaves.
• Model of a Reservoir handout.
1. Divide the class into teams of four to six students.
2. Have each team construct a model of a reservoir in a clean, clear
plastic box. The teams should line the bottom of the box with
small pebbles, and then layer sand, soil, and leaves on top (slop-
ing the material downward toward the center of the box). (See
the Model of a Reservoir handout.) Explain to students that
each layer corresponds to a natural layer of earth found beneath
a real reservoir.
135
-------
UNIT II1-A
Procedure (continued)
3. Have the students carefully spray water on the four corners of
each model until the soil mixture is saturated and the water has
seeped through to the open area. This becomes the reservoir.
4. Discuss the following questions with students:
• What are the sources of water for a reservoir? (precipitation
in the form of rain or snow)
• How does water get into a reservoir? (It seeps over and
through the soil above the reservoir.) You might also
introduce the idea that many reservoirs are constructed by
damming streams and rivers and thus have a continual
supply of water flowing into them.
• What contains or holds water in a real reservoir? (dams)
• Would water in a reservoir undergo any kind of natural
purification processes? If so, what might they be? (Natural
filtration through leaves, grass, and soil; also some settling of
soil and other impurities to the bottom of the reservoir.)
Extension/ Take a field trip to a nearby reservoir and observe where the water
Evaluation for the reservoir comes from. (Is it dammed from a stream or river,
fed by underground springs, collected from precipitation, or all
three?) Investigate which communities in the surrounding area use
the reservoir for their drinking water and how it is distributed. If
possible, invite a staff person from the local water resources
authority to accompany you on the field trip to explain the work-
ings of the reservoir.
Adapted with permission from: Water Wizards (Boston, MA:
Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, 1983), pp. 10-14.
136
-------
Model of a Reservoir
Sand
Pebbles
Soil and
Leaves
137
-------
UNIT IH-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Model Distribution System
Students will learn how drinking water is delivered to a community
by building a model water distribution system.
Classroom
1-hour
Art, Science, Social Studies
Analysis, Application, Discussion, Inference, Media Construction,
Problem Solving, Measuring, Application
3-8
distribution system circumference reservoir
Refer to Unit IE, Section A-2.
• Large piece of paper or cardboard.
• Paper towel tubes.
• Different sizes of pasta (linguini, spaghetti, ziti, manicotti).
• Glue.
1. Discuss the concepts of reservoirs and distribution systems with
students. You might discuss some of the earliest distribution
systems designed by humans.
2. Place the sheet of cardboard or paper on a large table and have
students gather around it.
3. Draw and label a reservoir or other water source at one end. Ask
students to help you fill in houses, farms, factories, stores,
schools, and any other businesses that need water.
4. Using the paper towel tubes and the pasta create a community pipe
system that distributes water to all of the "buildings" on your map.
Allow students to assist you in choosing appropriate "pipe" sizes,
laying them out, and glueing them down on the sheet. Discuss with
students as you work that the circumference of the pipe decreases
as the distribution system spreads out into the community, be-
cause the amount of water the pipe needs to hold decreases.
138
-------
UNIT UI-A
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
5. In a concluding discussion, ask students the following questions:
• What would happen if new homes or businesses are built in
this community?
• How would this growth affect the water supply?
• What possible actions might be taken? (Increase the capacity
of the reservoir, get water from another source, or decrease
the supply of water to each existing home and business.)
Have students speculate about what happens to the water after it
leaves the homes and businesses where it has been used. Where
might this water eventually end up? What potential problems might
it create? As a class, have students write a letter to the water
authority in your community or invite a representative to come
speak about where water goes once it has been used and what hap-
pens to it.
Adapted with permission from: Water Wizards (Bioston, MA: Mas-
sachusetts Water Resources Authority, 1983), pp. 10-14.
139
-------
UNIT IH-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Water Audit
Students will learn to value water by analyzing their own consump-
tion of water and suggesting ways to conserve this resource.
Classroom and home
Five days, including two 30- to 40-minute class periods
Economics, Mathematics, Science
Analysis, Application, Computation, Discussion, Estimation, Inter-
pretation, Recording Data, Synthesis
7-12
conservation
Refer to Unit m, Section A-3.
• Average Water Volumes Required for Typical Activities handout.
• Water Use Analysis handout.
1. Begin the activity by asking students to estimate how much
water it takes to perform the following activities: taking a
shower, washing your hands, washing a car, running the dish-
washer, brushing your teeth. Have them write their estimates on
a piece of paper.
2. Write some of the students' estimates on the board. Then pass
out the Average Water Volumes Required for Typical Activities
handout and see how close students came to the correct
amounts.
3. Ask students to keep a diary of water use in their homes for 3
days. Students should use the Water Use Analysis handout, ad-
ding any activities for which they use water that are not listed.
4. On the fourth day, have students, in class, perform the following
computations:
• Estimate the total amount of water your household used in
the 3 days. Give your answer in gallons.
140
-------
UNIT III-A
Procedure (continued)
m On average, how much did each member of your household
use during the 3 days. Give your answer in gallons per
person per day.
• Compare the daily volume of water used per person in your
household to the average volume used per person per day in
the United States (approximately 86 gallons). What reasons
can you offer to explain the difference?
5. In a concluding discussion, ask students if they were surprised
at the amount of water they used. What had they expected?
Extension/
Evaluation
Ask students to think of ways in which their households could
reduce their water consumption. Make a list on the board or have
students make their own lists. (Examples might be taking shorter
showers, waiting until the dishwasher is full before running it, turn-
ing the water off while brushing teeth instead of letting it run.) Then
have students repeat their audits and see if they can substantially
reduce their water use over the next 3-day period, employing some
of these conservation measures. Have them perform the same cal-
culations at the conclusion of the activity, compare: results, and dis-
cuss.
To sharpen students' computational skills, have them convert the
values they obtained in this activity into liters (or have them give
values in both gallons and liters initially).
Adapted with permission from: American Chemical Society,.
Chemistry in the Community (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publish-
ing Company, 1988), pp. 11,16-17.
141
-------
Average Water Volumes Required for Typical Activities
Use
Tub Bath
Shower (per min)
Hand Washing
Tooth Brushing
Washing Machine
Low Setting
High Setting
Dish Washing
By Hand «
By Machine
Toilet Flu'shing
Volume of Water
gallons (liters)
35 gal (130 L)
5gal(19L)
20 gal (76 L)
2 gal (7.6 L)
19 gal (72 L)
45 gal (170 L)
10gal(40L)
12 gal (46 L)
3 gal (11 L)
142
-------
Water Use Analysis
Data Table
Number of Persons in Family
Number of Baths
Number of Showers
Length of Each in Minutes
Number of Washing Machine Loads
Low Setting
High Setting
Dish Washing
Number of Times by Hand
Number of Times by Dishwasher
Number of Toilet Flushes
Other Uses and Number of Each
Cooking
Drinking
Making Juice and Coffee
Days
1 2 3
.
143
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UNIT III-B
The Impact of Residential,
Industrial, and Agricultural
Use on the Ohio River
£ f
|?fl
ifih ""if
Erosion and Erosion Control
The Ohio River Basin is part of the Eastern Woodlands Region. Before
intense human development of the area, the Ohio River Basin was
covered primarily with deciduous forests. The agricultural develop-
ment that occurred in the Ohio River Basin resulted in forest areas
being cleared, exposing the soil to wind and water, which caused soil
erosion.
Erosion results from natural environmental forces, such as wind, rain,
and glacial movement. Although erosion is a natural phenomenon, it
can be intensified by human activities. One human activity that sig-
nificantly intensifies erosion is the removal of vegetation, which ex-
poses soil to environmental forces. Vegetation reduces erosion because
the roots of trees and other plants tend to hold soil in place. In addi-
tion, leaves of trees and other plants, both on branches and on the
ground, reduce the intensity of environmental forces. For example,
leaves act as windbreaks, minimizing the ability of wind to pick up
and carry away soil particles. Leaves also break up rain drops, slow-
ing their speed and reducing the size with which they hit the ground.
In turn, this reduces the ability of rain to erode soil.
Clearing woodlands or meadows for cropland exposes soil to the for-
ces of wind and water. Tilling also disturbs the soil, loosening par-
ticles that can be more easily carried away by wind and water.
Overgrazing of rangeland by livestock, which can strip areas of ground
cover needed to keep soil particles in place, also accelerates erosion. Some
logging operations intensify erosion by stripping trees from an area
without replanting. Urban development also can accelerate erosion. Ac-
tivities such as bulldozing not only expose soil to natural forces, but can
also loosen soil particles.
Soil erosion has several negative consequences. First, it results in the
loss of topsoil, which contains organic matter that provides nutrients
for plant growth. Because it takes natural processes 500 to 1,000 years
144
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UNIT III-B
to create one inch of topsoil, this valuable resource iis essentially non-
renewable. Topsoil loss is particularly devastating for farmers, as it
can lower crop yields, increase fertilizer requirements, reduce the
soil's capacity to hold water, complicate tillage practices, and general-
ly increase costs of farm operation. Total costs to farmers alone for
erosion damage in the United States is estimated to be in the billions
of dollars each year. Erosion damage also costs many other people
money as well.
Soil erosion is also one of the major causes of water quality problems
in this country. Soil particles that enter water bodies cloud the water,
reducing its aesthetic value and potentially clogging the gills of fish
and other organisms, such as clams and mussels. Sediments also can
cover and even kill bottom-dwelling organisms in the aquatic environ-
ment, and may destroy fish spawning areas. In addition, soil particles
often carry fertilizers, which can cause excessive algae growth, and
pesticides, which can be toxic to aquatic organisms. Soil particles can
enter rivers and harbors in such quantities that navigation is restricted
and costly dredging of river channels may become necessary. Millions
of tax dollars per year are spent to dredge sediments from navigation-
al rivers and harbors. In addition, sediments decrease the capacity of
reservoirs and other waterways, increasing flooding hazards and
reducing the water supply available in times of drought. When
suspended in water, sediments can make water unsafe for drinking
and can significantly increase the costs of drinking water treatment.
Erosion control can be used to minimize soil erosion. For example, many
farmers currently leave crop residues or other plant material on the soil
surface between growing seasons to reduce soil exposure and minimize
erosion. Similarly, during construction projects, soil can be covered to
reduce its exposure to environmental forces. Farmers also can utilize till-
ing practices that reduce soil disturbance.
Human Development and Flooding
When precipitation falls in natural terrestrial environments, most of it
generally infiltrates the soil. The water that does not immediately sink
into the ground, but instead travels over the surface, is Iknown as runoff.
The development of residential communities, industrial centers, and
urban areas produces expanses of land covered by impervious sur-
faces (such as pavement and rooftops), which can cause significant in-
creases in surface water runoff. These impervious surfaces shed water
and prevent soil infiltration. A U.S. Geological Survey study indicated
that urban runoff in an area can be more than four times greater than
the runoff that occurs in the area prior to urbanization.
145
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UNIT III-B
Urbanization can also increase the threat of flooding. When rainfall is
light and of short duration, runoff will travel relatively short distances
before it is absorbed by a permeable surface. When rainfall is heavy or
of relatively long duration, however, the soil becomes saturated and
cannot absorb additional water. The greater the percentage of ground
covered by impervious surfaces, the more quickly this saturation oc-
curs. Once land is saturated, runoff will travel greater distances,
generally until it reaches a river, lake, or some other surface water
body. When great quantities of runoff enter surface water bodies,
flooding can result.
Development in the Ohio River Valley over the last hundred years has
resulted in increased runoff and a greater threat of flooding. The steep
hillsides, which are commonly found in the upper reaches of the Ohio
River (but are also found in lower reaches), are especially prone to runoff
and erosion. Severe floods in 1913 and 1937 and high unemployment
during the Great Depression resulted in strong governmental reforesta-
tion programs for these slopes. At the same time, dams were built for
flood control and recreation. Controversy still exists over which method,
dams or reforestation, is best for flood control.
Locks and Dams for Navigation
In its natural state, the Ohio River was difficult to navigate. Floods in
the spring caused treacherous conditions and the water level was
often too low for safe and easy passage during other times of the year.
In the early 1800s, U.S. government engineers cleared rocks and other
obstacles from the river and built a canal near the falls of the Ohio
River at Louisville. However, additional measures were necessary to
make the river a reliable shipping channel. So, in 1875, work began on
a series of more than 50 locks and dams. Locks and dams are con-
structed along a waterway to maintain a minimum depth, which is
needed to make the river or stream a useful transportation corridor.
Dams are structures that impound water that would naturally flow
along the river.
Locks are structures that allow boats to be raised or lowered. These
structures are enclosed by gates, or dams, that can hold water. When
boats enter the lock, water is either released from the lock, or allowed
to enter the lock, until the water level in the lock is the same as the
water level in front of the lock. When this level is attained, the gate at
the end of the lock is opened and the boat is allowed to travel on
without being subject to a steep incline or descent.
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UNIT III-B
The first stage of Ohio River lock and dam construction was com-
pleted in 1929 and maintained the depth of the river channel at a mini-
mum of 9 feet to allow for easy passage. After this work was
completed, the government began to build even larger locks and
dams. This improvement program continues today.
Locks and dams can affect the environment in several ways. First,
they slow the natural velocity of the river so that organisms that were
adapted to natural river flows are replaced by organisms that prefer
more slowly moving water bodies. Secondly/dams trap sediments
that would otherwise continue to flow down the river or stream. The
rivers or streams, therefore, may require significant dredging and
maintenance to keep sediments from hampering transportation. In ad-
dition, nutrients often are trapped behind the dams, reducing the fer-
tility of areas at the end of the river and resulting in a reduction in
plants and animals in these typically productive areas. Sediments also
help to construct deposits, or deltas, at the river mouth. If the sedi-
ments are trapped behind dams, these delta areas will shrink.
River Pollution
In the United States, more than 370,000 miles of streams and rivers are
contaminated. In general, water pollution is caused by four major
sources:
1. Nonpoint
2. Municipal
3. Industrial
4. Dredging
Nonpoint sources. Nonpoint sources are the largest contributors to
river and stream pollution in the United States and account for 65 per-
cent of contamination. Nonpoint source pollution does not come from
a specific location but rather results from land uses such as agricul-
ture, mining, forestry, and urban activity. An example of a nonpoint
source is runoff from rainwater washing over farmlands and carrying
topsoil contaminated with pesticides and fertilizers to nearby streams
or ponds. Runoff from urban areas, mining, forestry operations, and
construction activities are other examples of nonpoint sources of pol-
lution. Sediment is the primary water pollutant from nonpoint sources
(as discussed in Unit in, Section B-l). Runoff may also contain oil,
gasoline, pesticides, nutrients, heavy metals, other toxic substances,
bacteria, and viruses.
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UNIT III-B
Nonpoint water pollution can be minimized by reducing soil erosion
(mechanisms for reducing soil erosion are presented in Unit HI, Sec-
tion B-l). In addition, water bodies can be surrounded by buffers of
grass or woodlands that can absorb water and prevent sediments and
other contaminants from reaching the water.
Municipal sources. Municipal sources cause almost 20 percent of
river and stream contamination. Municipal sources of pollution in-
clude municipal wastewater and stormwater runoff that enters the
sewer system. Municipal wastewater is the water that flows from
residential or business sewers into the municipal wastewater treat-
ment system. This water contains human wastes and associated or-
ganic materials, nutrients, bacteria, and viruses; toxic substances such
as household cleaners, crankcase oil, paint, and pesticides; food wastes
from garbage disposals; and other solids. The municipal wastewater is
transported from homes and businesses to the municipal wastewater
treatment facility through a series of pipes and sewers. After treatment to
remove contaminants, water is released into a water body, such as a river,
stream, or lake (refer to Unit HI, Section C-2). Although most con-
taminants are removed during wastewater treatment, some contamina-
tion may be released.
Stormwater runoff is water that flows from the land into municipal
sewer systems, or directly into water bodies, during periods of
precipitation. Water runoff can pick up large quantities of con-
taminants, such as road oil and pesticides, as it runs over lawns,
through gutters, and along streets, hi some cases, this stormwater
enters the wastewater sewer system and is transported to wastewater
treatment facilities where the water is treated to remove contaminants.
Sometimes during periods of heavy precipitation, the system cannot
handle the combined flow and the water flows directly into water
bodies, causing water pollution. Efforts are underway to separate
wastewater and stormwater systems and, eventually, to ensure both
will receive complete treatement.
Water pollution associated with municipal wastewater can be sig-
nificantly reduced by properly constructing and maintaining
household and municipal wastewater systems. Technology in recent
years has greatly reduced pollution caused by wastewater treatment
facilities. Problems associated with stormwater runoff can be mini-
mized by constructing wastewater treatment facilities with extremely
large capacities to handle water generated during large storms, or
storage ponds to hold the water until it can be treated. Finally,
stormwater and wastewater flows can be separated to ensure that
stormwater and wastewater are not mixed.
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UNIT III-B
Industrial sources. Industrial sources of pollution are also significant
and cause almost 10 percent of all stream and river contamination. In-
dustrial sources include chemical discharges from industrial plants,
which are either released directly into a water body or into the air.
Pollutants in the air can eventually fall back to the ground or into a
water body through precipitation. Many of these chemicals are toxic
and can harm the health of humans, wildlife, and plants.
Several federal and state laws limit the quantity of chemicals that can be
released into a water body by industrial plants, and, in some cases, re-
quire that certain pollution control measures be used. Pollution control
technologies are used to treat contaminated water before it is released.
They also can be used to remove or reduce many contaminants from the
gases released into the air through industrial smokestacks.
Dredging. Dredging also causes water pollution. When waterways
become top shallow or narrow for navigational purposes, some of
their bottom sediments may be dredged and removed. Dredging stirs
up bottom sediments that often contain contaminants that have been
concentrated over time. Stirred-up sediments and contaminants can
cause significant pollution problems in rivers.
Pollution problems associated with dredging river and stream chan-
nels are extremely difficult to address. Fine-meshed screens can be
constructed around dredging activities to filter out sediments, but
these methods are not completely effective and sediments and other
contaminants are routinely released. In general, the only effective way
to minimize dredging pollution is to reduce both the frequency with
which dredging occurs and the contamination of bottom sediments.
Reduction of soil erosion will minimize the quantity of sediments that
enters waterways, thus limiting the number of times dredging will
need to be conducted. Control of point and nonpoint pollution will
reduce contamination of the bottom sediments of waterways, mini-
mizing the quantity of contaminants that are stirred up when dredg-
ing is necessary.
Ground-Water Contamination
Ground water is water that exists in spaces in rocl<, gravel, and soil
below the surface of the ground. Ground water accumulates in forma-
tions called aquifers when rainfall and surface water percolate
through the ground. (For more information about ground water and
its importance, see Unit II, Section A-2 and Unit III, Section A-2.)
149
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UNIT III-B
There are two major environmental problems that can affect ground
water. The first is overuse of ground-water supplies. In general, water
filters down into aquifers at very slow rates. This percolation of water
into the aquifer is called recharge. When water is pumped from the
aquifer at faster rates than it is recharged, the amount of water in the
aquifer is reduced. This means that less water will be available for fu-
ture use. In addition, the water takes up space in the aquifer. When
the water is removed, void spaces open up and rock or sediments
around these void spaces sometimes collapse. With the loss of void
spaces, the aquifer's ability to hold water is reduced, and future
recharge of the aquifer is more difficult. In addition, the collapse of
void spaces can cause the ground to sink, a process known as sub-
sidence. Roads, buildings, and natural features can be damaged when
subsidence occurs.
The second major environmental problem is contamination. Ground
water is generally contaminated when chemicals and other pollutants
filter down with water into the aquifer. The sources of these con-
taminants include runoff from agricultural and residential areas con-
taining pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers; runoff from roads
containing oil, gasoline, and other chemicals; release of contaminants
from landfills and other storage facilities; septic tank discharge; and
sewer leakage. In some cases, contaminants are released directly into
the aquifer from leakage or discharge from underground wells that
are used to dispose of wastes. Once ground water is polluted, it is
very difficult and costly to treat.
Power Plants in the Ohio River Valley and Their Impact
on Acid Rain
Many power plants are needed to supply electrical energy to the popula-
tion and industrial centers of the Ohio River Valley. In fact, the Ohio
River is known for the large number of coal-fired power plants along its
shores. Coal-fired power plants were constructed largely because coal
could be easily transported in barges along'the Ohio River. In addition,
river water could be used for power plant cooling towers. This large
number of coal-fired power plants, however, has caused environmental
problems on a local, regional, and even international scale.
Fossil fuel-fired power plants (those that burn coal, oil, or gas), as well
as cars and some other industrial and municipal sources, release sul-
fur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the air, which can cause acid
deposition, also known as acid rain. Acid deposition occurs when sul-
fur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are mixed with oxygen and water in
150
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UNIT III-B
the atmosphere and chemically transformed into acid compounds.
These compounds may return to the earth in rain, snow, fog, or dust.
Scientists believe that acid deposition is damaging lakes, streams,
rivers, forests, crops, buildings, and structures, and has the potential
to affect human health. As water bodies acidify even slightly (i.e., the
pH falls from 7 to 6), the diversity of species declines;. (See Unit II, Sec-
tion B-2 for more information on pH.) As the pH drops to 5, large
numbers of species are eliminated. When the pH falls below 4.7, al-
most all of the plants and animals that form the base of the food chain
are killed and birds, fish, amphibians, and mammals that depend
upon these food sources are consequently affected.
On a global scale, thousands of lakes are threatened by acid deposition.
In North America, lakes in the Adirondack region of New York and On-
tario, Canada, are especially damaged by acid deposition. There is a clear
link between activity in the Ohio River Valley and the acid deposition
problem in New York and Ontario. In order to meet Clean Air Act stand-
ards, many coal-burning power plants constructed tall smokestacks in the
1970s. This was meant to allow chemicals to disperse in upper air levels
where they would not be harmful to humans. However, prevailing
weather patterns caused the emissions to be swept from the Ohio River
Valley toward New England and into Canada.
The productivity of forests and the fertility of soils are also threatened
by acid deposition. A 1980 study on emissions from coal-fired power
plants in the Ohio River Basin concluded that acid deposition was
causing essential nutrients and minerals to be leached (i.e., dissolved
by the acidic water and carried away) from the soil, reducing the
forest growth in the Basin by an estimated 5 percent per year. Acidity
can also cause the leaching of toxic metals from soil or rock, raising
the levels of these metals in surrounding water supplies and aquatic
ecosystems. Laboratory experiments have indicated that acidity can
make plants more vulnerable to infection and lessen their resistance to
insect predation.
Acid deposition also significantly affects buildings and other man-
made structures. For example, acid rain will react with calcite in
marble objects, forming gypsum. Gypsum is a very soft material and
can easily be corroded.
Several organizations, including the National Audubon Society and
the National Atmospheric Deposition Program, are currently monitor-
ing acid concentrations in precipitation throughout the country. Ul-
timately, this information can be used to target areas of concern and to
monitor the effects of acid deposition control measures.
151
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UNIT 1II-B
One method of controlling acid deposition is to put "scrubbers" on
power plant smokestacks, which remove sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides. This technology can help to reduce the problem, but it is costly
and only partially effective. A better way to minimize acid deposition
is to conserve energy.
The first legislation in U.S. history to control acid rain was passed as
part of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. The law requires, over
time, that virtually all fossil fuel-fired utility plants significantly
reduce their emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. It also
provides incentives for utilities to conserve energy and use renewable
energy rather than fossil fuels. The legislation should go a long way
toward solving the acid rain problem.
Problems with Litter
Litter consists of objects that have been improperly discarded. Most
litter accumulates as a result of careless or negligent actions by people,
such as throwing unwanted items from cars or boats, or leaving gar-
bage after picnicking. Litter can also accumulate, however, when it is
blown from landfills, garbage trucks, or garbage barges.
Litter has several negative environmental effects, the most obvious being
the aesthetic degradation of outdoor settings. Beer cans or hamburger
wrappers strewn along the side of the road or along a river are unsightly.
Another problem is potential human health effects, such as people cutting
themselves on broken glass or rusted cans, or touching tissues and other
materials that have the potential to carry bacterial contamination.
Finally, litter can be life-threatening to wildlife. Fish, birds, and other
animals (such as turtles) can become entangled in plastic nets, line,
and six-pack rings. These entanglements can cause painful lacerations,
suffocation, or drowning. They also can hamper an animal's ability to
move freely and to obtain food. Birds and turtles also may ingest plas-
tic debris, which can become lodged in their intestines, hampering
their ability to digest food. Some of these animals can ultimately
starve to death.
Litter can be reduced when people are educated on the negative effects of
disposing of materials in improper settings. In addition, programs to
recycle articles that are littered, such as plastic bottles and newspapers,
can also reduce littering. Finally, making articles that are frequently lit-
tered degradable (i.e., capable of being broken down into smaller pieces
by the action of sun, water, or microorganisms) may minimize the effect
these articles have on wildlife when they are littered.
152
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UNIT Ml-B
Resources
Publications
Boyle, R.H. and R.A. Boyle. 1986. Acid Rain. New York, NY: Nick
Lyons Books, Schocken Books.
Branley, F.M. 1982. Water for the World. New York, NY: T.Y.Crowley.
Goudie, A. 1986. The Human Impact on the Natural Environment.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
LaBastille, A. 1981. "Acid Rain: How Great a Menace?" National
Geographic. 160(5):652-681. .. . .
Laycock, G. and E. Laycock. 1983. The Ohio Valley. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday.
Looma, J.R. 1980. "Troubled Skies, Troubled Waters" Audubon.
82(6):88-lll.
Massachusetts Water Resources Authority. 1989. Water Wisdom.
Boston, MA: MWRA.
O'Hara, K.J., S. ludicello, and R. Bierce. 1988. Citizen's Guide to Plas-
tics in the Ocean: More than a Litter Problem. Washington, DC: Cen-
ter for Marine Conservation.
Pearce J.P. and R. Nugent. 1986. The Ohio River. Lexington, KY:
University Press of Kentucky.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1987. "Ohio River Basin Map" The
Ohio Atlas and Gazetteer. Cincinnati, OH: Delorme Mapping Co.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Navigation Charter & Maps of the
Ohio River. Federal Office Buiding, Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Public Affairs. 1986.
Acid Rain: An EPA Journal Special Supplement. Washington, DC.
EPA-86-009. September.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1988. Environmental
Progress and Challenges: EPA's Update. Washington, DC. EPA-230-
07-88-033. August.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental
Processes and Effects Research. 1990. Acid Rain: A .Student's First
Sourcebook. Washington, DC. EPA/600/9-90/027.
Wehle, D.H.S. and F.C. Coleman. 1983. "Plastics at Sea" Natural His-
tory Magazine. February, pp. 21-26.
153
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UNIT HI-B
Resources
(continued)
Western Regional Environmental Education Council. 1987. Aquatic
Project Wild: Aquatic Education Activity Guide. Boulder, CO:
WREEC.
Western Regional Environmental Education Council. Project Wild.
1986. Boulder, CO: WREEC.
Audiovisual Programs
Acid Rain. Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 743 Alexander Road,
P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08540, 1-800-257-5126. This film covers
the history of acid rain and the problems that it poses (20 minutes).
Rental fee: $75.
Acid Rain: A Neglected Responsibility. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O.
Box 3456, West Side, Elmira, NY 14905, 1-800-527-4264. Discusses the
chemical and meteorological phenomena that contribute to acid
precipitation, the reaction of living organisms, secondary processes that
compound the problem, and the effects on humans (filmstrip or video).
Biological Studies of River Pollution. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O. Box
3456, West Side, Elmira, NY 14905, 1-800-527-4264. Shows the effects of
pollution on wildlife in rivers and streams (slide show). Cost: $79.95.
Clean Water. Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 743 Alexander
Road, P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08540, 1-800-257-5126. This film
looks at the unsuspected environmental and health problems people
unwittingly create at home and offers suggestions on how to mini-
mize these problems (29 minutes).
Conservation Down on the Farm. 1981. Stuart Finley, Inc., 3428
Mansfield Road, Falls Church, VA 22041, 703-820-7700. Describes best
management practices for agriculture to prevent erosion and nonpoint
source pollution (20 minutes). Fee: $40.
Flatboat to Towboat. Reserve through the Cincinnati Public Library,
Cincinnati, OH. Call 513-369-6900 for borrowing procedures.
Ground Water: America's Buried Treasure. National Well Water As-
sociation, 6375 Riverside Drive, Dublin, OH 43017, 614-761-1711 ext. 549.
Emphasizes the dangers of ground-water pollution caused by man.
154
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UNITIII-B
Resources
(continued)
Ohio River: Industry and Transportation. Phoenix Films, Inc., 468
Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, 212-684-5910. In this film,
cameras travel along the Ohio River from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to
Cairo, Illinois, and show how locks and dams are used for transporta-
tion. It also shows the pollution problems that have resulted (16
minutes). Junior high school level.
Problems of Conservation: Acid Rain. Encyclopaedia Britannica
Educational Corporation, 310 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL
60604,1-800-554-9862. Investigates the causes of acid rain and discus-
ses ways to alleviate the threat of acid rain to the environment (18
minutes). Junior to senior high school levels.
Problems of Conservation: Water. Encyclopaedia Britannica Educa-
tional Corporation, 310 South Michigan Avenue, Chiicago, IL 60604,1-
800-554-9862. This film provides examples of water pollution
problems and shows how dirty water can be treated and returned to
its pure state (16 minutes). Junior to senior high school levels.
The Underlying Threat. Bullfrog Films, Oley, PA 19547, 1-800-543-
FROG. Examines some of the causes and consequences of ground-
water pollution (48 minutes). Rental fee: $75. Junior to senior high
school levels.
Water Pollution. Educational Images, Ltd., P.O. Box 3456, West Side, El-
mira, NY 14905,1-800-527-4264. Surveys factors contributing to the con-
tamination of our water supply (filmstrip, slide show). Cost $24.95.
Water Pollution: A First Film. Phoenix Films, Inc., 468 Park Avenue
South, New York, NY 10016, 212-684-5910. Describes the water cycle,
the human role in the water cycle, and the problems of water pollu-
tion (12 minutes). Primary to junior high school levels.
155
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UNIT III-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Losing Soil
Procedure
Students will demonstrate by building models how soil erosion occurs
and what factors accelerate the process.
Preferably outdoors
One 1-hour period
Science
Observation, Analysis, Discussion, Experimenting, Media Construc-
tion, Comparing Similarities and Differences, Description, Application
1-6
soil erosion erosion control
Refer to Unit HI, Section B-l.
• A minimum of two pans or trays (e.g., aluminum cake pans).
• A garden trowel or stick.
• S oil (preferably s andy soil).
• Water.
• Watering can or pitcher.
• Mulch, leaves, and/ or grass seed.
• A brick or block.
Part 1 - Effect of Slope on Soil Erosion
1. Fill two identical pans (or trays) with soil. Pack down the soil
and level it off with the edge of the pans.
2. Place pans on a flat surface, preferably outdoors on a concrete
walk. Leave one pan flat. Tilt the other pan by propping one
end up on a brick or block.
3. Sprinkle both pans equally with a watering can or pitcher.
4. Repeat Step 1 and then tilt one pan gently and the other steeply.
Repeat Step 3.
156
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UNITIII-B
Procedure (continued)
Discuss with students what soil erosion is and how it can be caused
by rainfall. Ask students how the slope of the pan affected the
amount of soil that was washed out of the pan. Ask students why
steeper slopes increase rates of erosion.
Part 2 - Effect of Ground Cover on Soil Erosion
1. Fill two identical pans (or trays) with soil. Pack down the soil
and level it off with the edge of the pans.
2. Cover one pan with mulch or leaves. (Another alternative is to
plant one pan with grass or another ground cover, but this will
require several weeks of advanced preparation.) Leave the other
pan bare.
3. Place pans on a flat surface, preferably outdoors on a concrete
walk. Tilt both pans at equal angles.
4. Sprinkle both pans equally with a watering can or pitcher.
Ask students how ground cover affects soil erosion. Discuss why
ground cover minimizes erosion.
Part 3 - Effect of Furrow Orientation on Soil Erosion
1. Fill two identical pans (or trays) with soil. Pack down the soil
and level it off with the edge of the pans.
2. Place pans on a flat surface, preferably outdoors on a concrete
walk. Tilt both pans at equal angles.
3. "Plow" the soil with the garden trowel or stick. "Plow" so that
the furrows run up and down the slope in one pan and across
the slope in the other.
4. Sprinkle both pans equally with a watering can or pitcher.
Ask students how furrow orientation affects soil erosion. Ask why
less erosion occurred when the furrows ran across the slope.
Discuss with students the types of farming or development prac-
tices that can be expected to accelerate erosion. Students should be
able to explain that development on slopes, removal of ground
cover, development on bare fields, and plowing up and down
slopes increase soil erosion problems. Then discuss methods to
minimize soil erosion, such as maintaining ground cover, plowing
across slopes, and minimizing development on steep grades. Final-
ly, the negative effects of soil erosion (e.g., sedimentation in water
bodies, the loss of valuable topsoil), and the benefits of minimizing
soil loss should be discussed.
157
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UNIT III-B
Extension/ Visit a farm to observe erosion control practices or invite a local
Evaluation farmer to come in and talk to the class about soil erosion. Films or
fiknstrips on soil erosion can also be shown (consult Unit in, Sec-
tion B, Resources).
158
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UNIT III-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Sinking In: Development and
Flooding
Students will observe the effects of runoff and infer how develop-
ment increases the threat of flooding.
Outdoors, in an area with paved and grass-covered surfaces
One 1-hour period
Science, Social Studies
Analysis, Comparing Similarities and Differences, Description, Ob-
servation, Discussion, Application, Experimenting, Inference
K-4
runoff development infiltrate
Refer to Unit HI, Section B-2.
• A hose.
1. On the grass-covered surface, turn on the hose and let the water
run for a couple of minutes. Have the students watch the water
disappear. Ask them where the water has gone;.
2. On the paved area, turn on the hose and let the water run for a
couple of minutes. Have students follow the water to see where
it runs. Ask why the water did not sink in. Ask where the
water goes.
3. Have the students explore the area to find surfaces where water
would and would not sink in.
Discuss with students which surfaces caused the water to run off
and which surfaces allowed the water to sink in. Have them make
the link between manmade surfaces (such as pavement and
rooftops) and water runoff. Ask them what will happen to
rainwater as more areas are developed. Ask them if they think
flooding occurs more frequently in undeveloped areas, or in highly
developed areas of the Ohio River Valley.
159
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UNIT HI-B
Extension/
Evaluation
Ask students to conduct the hose experiment at home and find areas
where water runs off and areas where it sinks in. Have students
draw a map of their yards, indicating which areas absorb water and
which areas allow water to run off.
160
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UNITIII-B
Activity
Ohio River Navigation Locks
and Dams
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Students will use the number line concept to illustrate the large
number of locks and dams found along the Ohio River and to con-
sider the impact that locks and dams have on the surrounding
environment.
Classroom
One 1-hour period
Mathematics, Social Studies
Analysis, Application, Computation, Discussion, Identification, Map
Reading
4-6
dams locks
Refer to Unit HI, Section B-3.
Materials • Copies of the Ohio River Navigation Locks and Dams map.
Procedure 1. Review the concept of a number line.
2. Distribute an Ohio River Navigation Locks and Dams map
handout to each student.
3. Explain to students that each slash mark represents a naviga-
tional lock or dam located along the Ohio River, and explain
how locks and dams work Suggest that the map can be con-
sidered a "squiggly" number line.
4. Explain that the list given on the map contains the names of the
locks and dams found along the Ohio River. Also explain that the
numbers given after each name represent the number of miles
along the river that each lock or dam is located from the conver-
gence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers at Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, the source of the Ohio River.
161
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UNIT IH-B
Procedure (continued)
5. Have students use the list with the mileage numbers to name the
locks and dams on the map. The students could begin by rewrit-
ing the list from least to greatest distance from the Ohio River's
source.
6. Ask the students how many locks and dams can be found along
this stretch of the Ohio River. Ask what the distance is between the
closest of the locks and dams. Ask what the distance is between the
first and the last of the locks and dams. If the students have learned
how to compute averages, ask them what the average distance is
between the locks and dams along the Ohio River.
Extension/ Discuss with students the impact that locks and dams can have on
Evaluation tne surrounding environment, emphasizing how they alter the flow
and change the water level along different sections of the river.
Take a field trip to the closest lock or dam located on the map, or
suggest that students visit one of them on their own. Have students
note the difference in velocity between the water flowing behind the
lock or dam and in front of it. Have them observe the differences in
plant life and animal life in front of and behind the lock or dam.
Discuss the impact the lock or dam is having on the area surround-
ing it and the wildlife in that area. In addition, a film can be shown
on transportation locks and dams (consult Unit HI, Section B,
Resources).
162
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UNIT III-B
t
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Who Pollutes the River?
Students exercise problem solving by examining potential pol-
luters and exploring strategies for minimizing pollution.
Classroom
One 1-hour period (with one 1-hour period followup, if desired)
Language Arts, Science, Social Studies
Analysis, Description, Discussion, Problem Solving, Inference,
Reading
1-3 if profiles are read aloud, 4-6 if students read profiles in-
dividually
water pollution
Refer to Unit m, Section B-4.
• Copies of the "Who Pollutes?" handout.
1. Discuss with students what pollution is and ways that the Ohio
River can become polluted.
2. Distribute copies of the "Who Pollutes?" handout, and have stu-
dents read the handout. (For grades 1-3, the profiles can be read
aloud by the teacher.)
3. After students read handouts, discuss each person listed in-
dividually. Have students determine which individuals would
be guilty of pollution. Ask students what kind of pollution
these individuals would generate. This discussion should em-
phasize that many activities not commonly considered to be en-
vironmentally harmful do, in fact, cause pollution.
4. Ask students how the individuals profiled could reduce the pol-
lution they cause.
5. Ask students to identify ways in which they pollute. Discuss
measures that they can take to minimize their contribution to
polluting the Ohio River.
164
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UNIT III-B
Extension/ As a homework assignment, have students find piictures of polluters
Evaluation m magazines or newspapers and bring those pictures into class.
Encourage students to identify subtle sources of pollution (such as
nutrient contamination of streams caused by runoff from fertilized
lawns). Discuss why the students feel that the pictures they have
brought in indicate that pollution is occurring. Put together a
pollution collage for the class, hi addition, films or filmstrips on
river pollution can be shown (consult Unit IE, Section B, Resources);
165
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Who Pollutes?
Martha Jones:
Martha Jones is a mother and homemaker. Her activities include
grocery shopping, preparing meals, doing laundry, and cleaning
the house.
Joe Stone:
Joe owns a large farm. He plows his land twice a year. Once a
year he uses "Magic-Grow," a chemical fertilizer. He also uses
"Bugs-Be-Gone," a popular insecticide, when necessary.
Sally Smith:
Sally runs a small taxi company. Company taxis drive around
town all day and night. Sally services all of the taxis herself by
changing the oil, antifreeze, etc. She pours used oil and antifreeze
into the closest storm sewer.
Carlos Rodriques: Carlos owns a steel plant along the Ohio River. Raw materials are
shipped to his company and used to produce steel. Black smoke
usually billows from the chimneys of the plant.
Robert Wang:
Robert works as a machine operator in a coal-fired power plant.
Water is used to cool the machinery. After it is used, the water is
returned to the Ohio River.
Howard Shwartz: Howard is a bicycle courier. He delivers packages all over town.
166
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UNITIII-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Lever
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Ground-Water Model
Students will demonstrate through building a model how aquifers
are formed and ground water becomes polluted.
Classroom
One 11/2-hour period
Science
Observation, Analysis, Discussion, Experimenting, Media Construc-
tion, Comparing Similarities and Differences
3-6 (if teacher performs demonstration); 7-12 (if students build
model)
ground water pollution aquifer
Refer to Unit III, Section B-5.
For each model
• Ground-Water Model handout.
• One 20 ounce clear plastic tumbler.
• 12 inches of clear plastic tubing.
• A small piece of nylon fabric to cover the end of the tubing.
• Masking tape.
• Small pebbles.
• Clean sand.
• Filter paper (e.g., a section of a coffee filter).
• Pump-type sprayer (e.g., from window cleaner).
• A disposable syringe.
• Red food coloring.
• A clear glass container.
167
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UNIT I1I-B
Procedure With younger students, the teacher should build the model as a
demonstration. Older students can be divided into small groups to
build the model, or can each build the model individually if there
are enough materials. Have them use the Ground-Water Model
handout for reference.
1. Define ground water and aquifers. Discuss with students the im-
portance of ground water in the United States and the Ohio
River Valley.
2. Secure nylon fabric over one end of the plastic tubing with
masking tape or a rubber band.
3. Tape the tubing to the inside of the tumbler so that the nylon-
covered end of the tubing almost touches the bottom of the
tumbler.
4. Fill about one-third of the tumbler with pebbles.
5. Cut the filter paper into a circle with a diameter slightly larger
than the diameter of the inside of the tumbler. Place the filter
paper on top of the pebbles and tape it securely to the sides of
the tumbler.
6. Fill the rest of the tumbler with sand.
Note: A shallow layer of potting soil can be added on top of the
sand to represent the Earth's crust.
7. With the sprayer, apply water to the sand until it is saturated.
The water will filter down into the pebbles.
8. Put the end of the syringe into the tubing and make sure the con-
nection is tight.
9. Pull back the plunger of the syringe to create a vacuum. Water
will be drawn from the pebbles/sand into the tubing and ul-
timately into the syringe. Discuss with students that this repre-
sents how ground water is pumped from aquifers.
10. Add a few drops of red food coloring to the sand. Explain to the
students that the red food coloring represents a pollutant. Dis-
cuss what kinds of substances can pollute ground water.
11. Apply more water to the sand.
168
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UNIT III-B
Procedure (continued)
12. Continue "pumping" water from the tumbler with the syringe.
When the syringe fills with water, remove it from the tubing and
pour the water into the clear glass container. Refasten the
syringe to the tubing and continue "pumping" water. Ultimate-
ly, the water in the clear glass container will have a reddish hue.
Discuss with students how the "pollutant" applied at surface
level has "contaminated" the "ground water" in the experiment.
Extension/ Discuss with students how ground-water contamination occurs in
Evaluation real-life situations and how it can be prevented. In addition, a film
or filmstrip can be shown on ground water (consult Unit III, Section
B, Resources).
169
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Ground-Water Model
Tubing
Dirt/Potting Soil
Sand'
Tape'
Filter Paper
Rocks/Gravel •
h • - - .' •• • • ' .'
X
Nylon
170
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UNIT III-B
Activity
Power Valley and the Impacts
of Acid Rain
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Students demonstrate the effects of acidity on plant life through a
controlled experiment. They will also infer how power plants in the
Ohio River Valley contribute to the acid precipitation problem.
Classroom
Two 1/2- to 1-hour periods and several 15-minute observation
periods
Chemistry, Science, Social Studies
Analysis, Application, Comparing Similarities and Differences, Dis-
cussion, Experimenting, Inference, Recording Data
3-6, if teacher demonstrates experiment, and 7-12, iif students conduct
experiment themselves
acid rain acid deposition coal-fired power plants
sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxide
Refer to Unit III, Section B-6.
• pH testing kit (these are readily available in aquarium stores).
• Vases or cups.
• Plants that can be easily rooted, such as spider plants, golden
pothos, and coleus.
• Vinegar.
• Baking soda.
• Copies of the handout, Ohio River Power Plants, Coal and Oil
Fields, and Major Markets for Electricity.
(With grade levels 3-6, the teacher should perform these steps.
With grade levels 7-12, the students can perform these steps them-
selves.)
1. Test the pH of vinegar to demonstrate that it is an acidic sub-
stance.
171
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UNIT III-B
Procedure (continued)
2. Mix vinegar with water and test the mixture. If the mixture has
a pH of less than 4, add more water. If the mixture has a pH
higher than 4, add more vinegar. Continue this process until a
pH of 4 is reached.
3. Test tap water or distilled water. If the pH is lower than 7, add
baking soda until a neutral pH is reached. If the pH is higher
than 7, add vinegar until a neutral pH is reached.
4. Place several plants in vases or cups. Add the water with the pH
of 4 to half of the vases or cups and add the neutral water to the
other vases or cups.
5. Every few days, examine the root growth of the plants. Com-
pare the root growth of plants in acidic water to those in neutral
water. Record root growth results.
6. After a few weeks, have students make conclusions about the ef-
fect of acidic water on plant growth.
Discuss with students how acid rain is formed and help them to
make the connection between what they have just observed and the
potential impacts of acid deposition. Distribute copies of Ohio River
Power Plants, Coal and Oil Fields, and Major Markets for Electricity
to students and discuss with them the large number of power plants
in the region. Explain the link between coal-fired power plants and
acid rain. Ask students about the impact the power plants might
have on the plant and animal life in the area.
Extension/
Evaluation
Have students collect rainwater samples in jars outside the classroom.
Test the samples to determine if they are acidic. Have students collect
water samples from lakes, ponds, swamps, streams, and rivers in their
neighborhoods. Test these water samples to determine if they are
acidic. Discuss the possible sources of the acidity and attempt to deter-
mine if acid deposition is a contributing factor. In addition, a film or
filmstrip on the causes and/or effects of acid deposition can be shown
(consult Unit IE, Section B, Resources).
172
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173
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UNIT III-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Problems with Litter
Students record data on pollution from litter and draw conclusions
regarding the impacts of litter on the environment.
Outdoors, along a riyerbank
1/2 day trip, 1-2 hour wrapup
Science, Social Studies
Analysis, Discussion, Inference, Observation, Recording Data
4-12
litter degradable recycle
Refer to Unit m, Section B-7.
• Trash bags.
• Protective gloves (plastic or cloth).
• Notepads.
• Pens.
In preparation for the exercise, find a local area along a river or
stream that needs to be cleaned up.
Note: Caution students to avoid picking up pieces of broken glass,
sharp objects, or litter that may contain medical waste, such as
syringes. Students should also wear protective gloves while work-
ing in the littered area.
1. Have students pick up litter within a specified area along the
river or stream (a 50-yard stretch is recommended).
2. Students should work in pairs. Have one student collect litter
while the other student records items that are collected.
3. Back in class, make a list on the board of all litter items collected.
174
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UNIT III-B
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
Discuss with students the quantity of litter collected and the types
of items found. Ask how the litter was deposited along the river
(this discussion should cover littering by those who walk or drive
along the river; littering by boaters; items being blown from
landfills, garbage trucks, or barges into the river, etc.). Discuss with
students why littering occurs and how it can be minimized. Ask if
they litter, and if so, why.
Ask students which litter items are degradable and discuss the long-
term implications of degradability of litter. Discuss the negative im-
pacts of littering (this should include aesthetic degradation;
potential health problems, such as being cut on broken glass;
wildlife entanglement in plastic rings or line; etc.). Ask students to
devise schemes to minimize the impact of litter on wildlife, the en-
vironment, and human health.
Students may wish to "adopt a stream" by finding a river, stream,
or creek in a public area near to school and taking responsibility for
keeping it clean and healthy. For example, students might organize
cleanups of the area, hold a "planting party" to plant trees or shrubs
along the river or stream bank to control erosion, or patrol the
waters for signs of pollution that should be reported to local
authorities.
175
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UNIT IH-C
Water Treatment:
Yesterday and Today
The Overloaded Ohio River
Drinking water in the United States is among the safest in the world. One
of the major sources of drinking water in the country is the Ohio River.
The Ohio River is the principal source of water for many areas adjacent to
its watershed. The water that flows in the Ohio River comes from
precipitation that falls on the eight-state watershed and is carried through
tributary streams into the river (see Unit I, Section A-l).
At one time, before the development of great cities and towns along its
riverbanks, these waters were clean, pure, and safe to drink However,
with the increasing use of the river as a "dispose-all" for human and
industrial wastes, it became apparent that untreated water was unsafe
to drink. In fact, contamination can degrade the quality of water to the
point where it cannot be used for any purpose.
Rivers can absorb some wastes. For example, some solid materials will
naturally settle out in a river. Other wastes in the water will decom-
pose over time. People once felt that the river's natural ability to ab-
sorb wastes would be enough to handle most pollutants, but today it
is recognized that society has placed too great a burden upon the
river's assimilating capacity.
Contaminants in Water Supplies: Microorganisms and
Chemicals
Early in the nineteenth century, scientists first began to recognize that
specific diseases could be transmitted by water through microor-
ganisms such as bacteria. Since that discovery, treatment to eliminate
disease-causing microorganisms has dramatically reduced the in-
cidence of waterborne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and
hepatitis. For example, in 1900, 36 out of every 100,000 people died
from typhoid fever; today there are almost no cases of waterborne
typhoid fever in the United States.
176
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UNIT III-C
Although water treatment processes have greatly improved the
quality and safety of drinking water in the United States, many of the
water sources in this country are still not adequately protected to
prevent the transmission of some disease. Between 1971 and 1985,
there were more than 500 outbreaks of waterborne disease reported
in the United States, involving 110,000 illnesses related to con-
taminated drinking water. An outbreak is defined as two or more
people contracting illness after using drinking waiter from the same
source, a source that contains disease-causing microorganisms. Hikers
and backpackers who drink from untreated and unfiltered rivers,
lakes, and springs are particularly vulnerable to waterborne diseases
because these supposedly "pristine" sources may contain disease-
causing microorganisms.
The protozoan Giardia lamblia is the most commonly identified or-
ganism associated with waterborne disease in this country. This or-
ganism causes giardiasis, which usually involves diarrhea, nausea,
and dehydration that can be severe and last for several months. Over
20,000 water-related cases of this disease have been reported in the
last 20 years, with probably many more cases going unreported.
Another protozoan disease, cryptosporidiosis, is caused by Cryp-
tosporidium, a cyst-forming organism similiar to Giardia. Other com-
mon waterborne diseases include viral hepatitis, gastroenteritis, and
legionellosis (Legionnaires' Disease).
Chemical contaminants, both natural and synthetic, also can be
present in water supplies in amounts great enough to affect human
health. Common sources of chemical contamination include pes-
ticides, herbicides, and fertilizers used in agriculture; leaking under-
ground petroleum storage tanks; industrial effluent pollution; seepage
from septic tanks, sewage treatment plants, and landfills; and any
other improper disposal of chemicals in or on the ground. In some
cases, poor water quality can also promote corrosion of materials in
the distribution system, possibly introducing lead and other metals
into the drinking water. The water treatment process itself can also in-
troduce some contaminants into water supplies such as
trihalomethanes (see Unit III, Section C-4 below).
Prior to treatment, authorities will perform tests or use certain in-
dicators to determine if water contains pollutants. Turbidity, or the
amount of suspended particles in the water, is one indication that
water may need treatment. (See Unit III, Section B-7 for more informa-
tion on turbidity.) The presence of certain types of algae also indicates
to water authorities that a river or waterway is polluted.
177
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UNIT I1I-C
Milestones in Water Treatment
For thousands of years, people have treated water intended for drink-
ing to remove particles of solid matter, reduce health risks, and im-
prove aesthetic qualities such as appearance, odor, color, and taste.
Today, the public is protected from the health risks of drinking water
contaminants by regulations covering the quality, treatment, and
sources of drinking water. The timeline below charts the progress that
has been made from early water treatment methods to present day
techniques and standards.
2000 B.C.: Sanskrit manuscript states: It is good to keep water in cop-
per vessels, to expose it to sunlight, and filter it through charcoal.
Circa 400 B.C.: Hippocrates emphasizes the importance of water
quality to health and recommends the boiling and straining of rain-
water.
1832: The first municipal water filtration works opens in Paisley, Scot-
land.
1849: Dr. John Snow discovers that the victims of a cholera outbreak in
London have all used water from the same contaminated well on
Broad Street.
1877-1882: Louis Pasteur develops the theory that diseases are spread
by germs.
1882: Filtration of London drinking water begins.
1890s: The Lawrence Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Board
of Health discovers that slow sand filtration of water reduces the
death rate from typhoid by 79 percent.
Late 1890s: The Louisville Water Company combines coagulation with
rapid sand filtration. This treatment technique eliminates turbidity
and removes 99 percent of bacteria from water.
1908: Chlorination is introduced at U.S. water treatment plants. This
inexpensive treatment method produces water 10 times purer than fil-
tered water.
1912: Congress passes the Public Health Service Act, which authorizes
surveys and studies of water pollution, particularly as it affects
human health.
1914: The first standards under the Public Health Service Act are
promulgated. These introduce the concept of maximum permissible
178
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UNIT lll-C
safe limits for drinking water contaminants. The standards, however,
apply only to water supplies serving interstate means of transportation.
1948: Congress approves a Water Pollution Control Act. Its provisions,
too, are restricted to water supplies serving interstate carriers.
1972: The Clean Water Act, a major amendment to the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, contains comprehensive provisions for restor-
ing and maintaining all surf ace water bodies in the United States.
1974: The Safe Drinking Water Act is passed, greaitly expanding the
scope of federal responsibility for the safety of drinking water. Earlier
acts had confined federal authority to water supplies serving inter-
state carriers. The 1974 Act extends U.S. standards to all community
water systems with 15 or more outlets, 25 or more customers.
1977: The Safe Drinking Water Act is amended to e>ctend authorization
for technical assistance, information, training, and grants to the states.
1986: The Safe Drinking Water Act is further amended. Amendments
set mandatory deadlines for the regulation of key contaminants; re-
quire monitoring of unregulated contaminants; establish benchmarks
for treatment technologies; bolster enforcement powers; and provide
major new authorities to promote protection of ground-water resources.
Methods for Treating Drinking Water and Wastewater
Drinking water treatment plants often combine several methods to
produce safe, clean water in what is known as the multiple barrier ap-
proach. In addition to ensuring that ground-water and surface water
sources of drinking water are protected from contamination by
human and animal wastes, drinking water systems frequently employ
two or more techniques to treat the water before distributing it to the
community.
Disinfection, a chemical or physical process that kills disease-causing
organisms, is the most common method of treating drinking water.
For several decades, chlorine (as a solid, liquid, or gas) has been the
disinfectant of choice in the United States because it iis effective and in-
expensive and can provide continuing disinfection in the distribution
system. In some circumstances, however, chlorine can produce harm-
ful by-products, called trihalomethanes. Because of the presence of
trihalomethanes, some researchers suggest that long-term use of
chlorinated drinking water may slightly increase the risk of certain
types of cancer.
179
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UNIT IH-C
Small drinking water systems sometimes use ozone, an unstable form
of oxygen, or ultraviolet radiation, as a primary disinfectant. Chlorine,
or an appropriate substitute, must still be used as a secondary disin-
fectant, however, to prevent microorganisms from growing back
when the water is distributed.
Filtration, which is often used in combination with disinfection,
removes solid particles from water, usually by passing the water
through sand or other porous material. Filtration helps to control the
presence of bacteria and other disease-causing organisms, as well as
the amount of suspended particles in the water. One of the most com-
mon filtration techniques, especially in rural areas, involves passing
the water slowly through a sand filter, in a process called slow sand
filtration. In urban areas, another filtration technique is often used in
which water is passed rapidly through sand filters (rapid sand filtra-
tion). This technique requires less time than slow sand filtration, but
the water must be pretreated. Pretreatment uses chemicals, such as
alum, to form clumps, called floe, with water impurities so that they
can easily be removed during the filtration process. Yet another filtra-
tion method commonly used involves passing water through filters
made of diatomaceous earth, the remains of single-celled algae known
as diatoms. Diatomaceous earth is used where water is relatively clear,
and is common in swimming pool filters.
In addition to pretreatment, sedimentation is another step sometimes
used in the drinking water treatment process. In sedimentation, heavy
particles are allowed to settle out of water in holding ponds or large
basins prior to filtration. Figure IIIC-1 shows a conventional treatment
train that uses chemical pretreatment, sedimentation, filtration, and
disinfection with chlorine.
A number of technologies also have been developed to treat or
remove specific chemical contaminants. These contaminants may be
either human-manufactured compounds containing carbon or inor-
ganic contaminants. Inorganic contaminants are primarily naturally
occurring elements in the ground such as arsenic, fluoride, sulfate,
and radon. A common inorganic contaminant whose presence is con-
centrated in agricultural areas due to fertilizer application is nitrate.
Other inorganic contaminants include lead, cadmium, copper, iron,
and asbestos, which may result from corrosion in distribution pipes
and plumbing systems.
Wastewater treatment plants, unlike drinking water plants, must con-
vert an extremely concentrated brew of organic and inorganic waste
material into water that can be safely discharged into public water-
ways. This waste originates in houses, business locations, and in-
dustrial plants everywhere with each flush of the toilet and many
180
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UNIT III-C
industrial processes. In addition, the combined sewers of most major
cities add street wash from storms to this waste material.
All municipalities in the United States currently require both primary
and secondary treatment for wastewater, in a process that typically
removes up to 95 percent of the pollution from raw sewage. In addi-
tion, many systems use tertiary treatment, in which human-manufac-
tured chemicals are removed. Before primary treatment occurs at the
wastewater treatment plant, the sewage flow passes over a bar screen
to remove large debris and through a grit chamber to remove sands
that might damage plant equipment. Primary treatment begins with a
large settling tank, where the wastewater is allowed to stand for 2 to 3
hours. Solid particles sink to the bottom of the tank; grease and oil
float to the top. The goal of this stage of the process is to remove most
of the solids that have been suspended and about one-third of the or-
ganic contamination.
In secondary treatment, water from primary treatment enters large
tanks that are subjected to the mixing action of huge quantities of
forced air. In these tanks, aerobic (oxygen-breathing) microorganisms
degrade the incoming organic matter. After 6 to 8 hours of aeration,
the water exits into a large clarifier tank where leftover solids and
microbes sink to the tank bottom as sludge. This sludge is then
withdrawn, with most going to be dried and eventually disposed of.
But about one-quarter of the sludge returns to the aeration tank as "ac-
tivated sludge" to mix again with fresh organic matter. The remaining
water becomes crystal dear as the solids drop to the bottom.
The final step before the water is discharged into a lake, stream, or
other water body is disinfection with chlorine or other chemicals to
kill any lingering disease-causing organisms. Figure DIC-2 shows a
typical treatment train for a wastewater treatment plant.
Cincinnati: A Model of Water Treatment along the Ohio River
Over the years, technology has improved to the point where even
water containing many contaminants can be treated with complete as-
surance of public health. The California potable water treatment
facility in Cincinnati is one of the most advanced systems in the
world.
Most of Cincinnati's drinking water comes from the Ohio River. When
it is withdrawn, this water is first sent over a bar screen to remove
large objects. It is then pretreated by being mixed with chemicals to
produce clumping of solid particles (flocculation) to promote settling.
181
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UNIT IH-C
This water then moves upward through inclined tubes, where the
solids aggregate and fall by gravity as sludge, which is then collected
and removed.
The partially clarified water then flows to large holding basins. Here,
the water remains until needed. When it is withdrawn for use, the
water travels to large sedimentation basins where additional chemi-
cals may be added to remove virtually all of the solids. The next step
is rapid sand filtration.
Cincinnati has progressed beyond conventional treatment by adding
an additional cleanup stage using a substance called granulated ac-
tivated carbon (GAC). GAC is an additional step that will remove
even tiny chemical pollutants that escape the sand filters. After this
step, chlorine is added as a disinfectant. The treated water then goes
to reservoirs and holding tanks throughout the city, awaiting final dis-
tribution to consumers' taps.
About 850,000 people throughout the city receive this water. Of the
135 million gallons of water produced each day, approximately 50
million gallons goes for household use. Another 62 million gallons
goes to industry and commerical businesses, and the remaining water
provides for fire protection, swimming pools, and other public and
recreational uses.
Resources
Publications
Cariby, T.Y. 1980. Our Most Precious Resource, Water. National
Geographic. 158(2)152. August.
Decker, D.S. No Laughing Matter: Safeguarding Our Water Supply.
The River Book, Cincinnati and the Ohio. 112 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Drinking Water: On Tap
for the Future. EPA Journal, Vol. 12, No. 7. September.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Protecting Our Drinking
Water from Microbes. EPA 57019-89-008. August.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Environmental Pollution
Control Alternatives: Drinking Water Treatment for Small Com-
munities. EPA/625/5-90/025.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Series of Seven Algae
Posters. Cincinnati, OH: Office of Research and Development.
(Reprinted from U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978, 760-319.)
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UNIT II.I-C
Resources
(continued)
Audiovisual Programs
Clean Water. #IE-2514. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 743
Alexander Road, P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08540, 1-800-257-5126.
Looks at the unsuspected environmental and health problems people
unwittingly create at home, and offers suggestions on common
household products (29 minutes). Rental: $75.
Element 3. International Film Bureau, 332 South Michigan Ave,
Chicago, IL 60604-4382, 312-427-4545. A look at the contrast between
the lyrical beauty of pure water and the aridity of its absence. Focuses
on cooperation, which is essential for the distribution of water.
Fit to Drink. #IE-1674. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 743
Alexander Road, P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08540, 1-800-257-5126.
Traces the water cycle beginning with the collection of rainwater in
rivers and lakes, through a water treatment plant, through human
usage, and back to the atmosphere. Examines current techniques for
the treatment of water (20 minutes). Rental: $75.
Pollution, the First. 1972. Stuart Finley, Inc. 3428 Mansfield Road, Falls
Church, VA 22041, 703-820-7700. Water quality management ideas for cities
and towns (26 minutes). Junior to senior high school levels. Rental: $35.
Problems of Conservation: Water. Encyclopaedia Britannica Educa-
tional Corporation, 310 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60604, 1-800-
554-9862. Provides examples of water pollution problems and shows
how dirty water can be treated and returned to its pure state.
Sewers. 1978. Stuart Finley, Inc 3428 Mansfield Road, Falls Church,
VA 22041, 703-820-7700. How a big city sewer system works and how
to manage it (20 minutes).
The Valley. 1974. Stuart Finley, Inc. 3428 Mansfield Road, Falls
Church, VA 22041, 703-820-7700. The Ohio River Valley water quality
management programs (28 minutes). Junior to senior high school
levels. Rental: $35.
Water for the City. #70194. Phoenix Films, Inc. (BFA Educational
Media), 468 Park Ave. South/New York, NY 10016, 1-800-221-1274.
Where cities get their water and how people get it to their homes (11
minutes). Primary and intermediate grade levels.
183
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UNIT III-C
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UNIT lil-C
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UNIT III-C
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Looking at Algae
Procedure
Students will analyze water samples for algae growth and make a
determination about the quality of the water sample.
Classroom
One 40- to 50-minute period
Art, Biology, Health, Science
Analysis, Application, Discussion, Observation, Recording Data,
Comparing Similarities and Differences, Inference, Identification,
Drawing, Small Group Work
3-12
algae
Refer to Unit HI, Section C-2.
• Microscopes.
• Slides with water collected from different sources.
• Types of Algae handout.
• Some field guides that include pictures and descriptions of algal
forms. A good source is Pond Life: A Guide to Common Plants and
Animals of North American Ponds and Lakes by George Reid (New
York, NY: Golden Press, 1967). Another good reference is the
Series of Seven Algae Posters (Government Printing Office, 1978.
760-319. Reprinted by EPA Office of Research and Development
in 1991). These posters can be obtained free of charge from EPA
by calling 513-569-7771.
1. Collect water samples the day before the lab from several dif-
ferent sources and label the samples with the location. Try to
collect from areas with algal growth ranging from water that is
almost clear to water that is covered with a dense algal mass.
(See Appendix B, "Field Ethics: Determining What, Where, and
Whether or Not!")
2. Add a drop of dishwashing soap to each sample then apply
samples to slides.
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UNIT III-C
Procedure (continued)
3. Divide students into as many small groups as; there are micro-
scopes. If you have enough microscopes, you may want to let
each student use his or her own.
4. Put one slide from each sample at each microscope station.
5. Have students take turns examining the different samples and
drawing sketches of what they see on each slide. Ask them to
compare the slides for numbers and types of algae.
6, Give students time to refer to the Types of Algae handout or to
field guides and other resources to name some of the algae that
they see.
After students have had a chance to draw and research their algal
forms, explain to students that the presence of certain types of algae
indicate that a river or waterway is polluted and needs to be treated
before it can be used by humans. Based on this information, ask
students if they can guess which of the samples 1that they studied
came from water sources that were potentially polluted.
Extension/ , Arrange a field trip so that students can visit some or all of the sites
Evaluation where the samples were collected. Ask them to look for reasons why
some of the waters are polluted and others are cleaner or clearer.
Possible reasons might include visible effluent outfalls, proximity to
areas with lots of litter, lack of water movement, or dead or decay-
ing organic matter.
187
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Types of Algae
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UNITIII-C
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
.Materials
Procedure
How Clean Are Your Hands?
Students will demonstrate the value of proper hygiene by observing
how water alone and water together with soap can remove poten-
tially harmful bacteria from our bodies. ,
Classroom
1 hour initially, then 30 minutes each day for 4 additional days
Biology, Health
Experimenting, Observation, Comparing Similarities and Differences,
Synthesis, Graphing, Recording Data, Small Group Work, Discussion
9-12
bacteria waterborne disease
Refer to Unit HI, Section C-2.
• Three nutrient agar petri plates per student.
• One microscope per student or small group of students.
• Running water.
• Soap.
• Incubator or a warm area.
• Wax pencil.
Discuss the concepts of bacteria and waterborne disease with stu-
dents. Explain that some organisms can cause disease if they enter
the mouth or get into a cut on our bodies. These organisms can be
found everywhere, including in water. Explain to the students that
they will conduct an experiment to learn about environments that
promote the growth of bacteria.
Have each student follow these steps:
1. Put your name on the bottom of three petri plates containing
nutrient agar (culture media) and number them 1 through 3.
2. Remove the lid of plate #1 and touch the agar with your finger.
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UNIT ill-C ^_______^_
Procedure (continued)
3. Run water over your hands, dry, and touch plate #2.
4. Wash your hands with soap and water, dry, and touch plate #3.
5. Turn all plates upside down and store in a warm area (such as
near a heater) or in an incubator (30 degrees Celsius).
6. Check the plates daily for a week to see the amount and diver-
sity of growth in plates #1, #2, and #3. Count the colonies
(populations of cells arising from single cells) under a micro-
scope and graph the number of colonies as a function of days for
each plate. In addition, or as an alternative, you may wish to
have students draw what they see each day in every plate.
7. Discuss with students the results of their experiment:
• At the end of the week, which plate contained the greatest
number of colonies? Can you guess why?
• Which plate contained the fewest colonies? Why?
• How fast did colonies grow from day to day on the three
plates?
• What conclusions can you draw from your experiment that
might be applicable in people's daily lives?
Extension/ Collect data (graphs) from all the students and post them on the
Evaluation bulletin board. Have students compare their data with others. Were
all of the results identical? Ask them to account for any differences.
Repeat the experiment with students using different brands of soap.
Compare results and discuss any conclusions.
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UNIT III-C
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Function of Filters
Procedure
Students will observe how an actual filter functions and draw con-
clusions relating filtration to water purity.
Classroom.
15 minutes each day for 4 days
Science
Observation, Comparing Similarities and Differences, Experiment-
ing, Inference, Synthesis, Prediction, Discussion
K-6
filter sewage wastewater treatment plants
Refer to Unit III, Sections C-3 and C-4.
• Two goldfish.
• Two fishbowls filled with water. These should sit out overnight
before the experiment so that chlorine in the water will
evaporate.
• A water filter.
• Notebooks and pens or pencils.
1. Introduce students to the concept of filters and explain that they
are going to participate in a demonstration to see how filters
function.
2. Put a water filter unit in one of the two fishbowls.
3. Add one fish to each bowl.
4. At the same time each day for 3 consecutive days, check on the
two bowls with the students. Ask them to compare the two
bowls and describe the differences. Have the students record
their observations each day in a notebook.
5. At the end* of the third observation period, ask students the fol-
lowing questions:
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UNIT HI-C
Procedure (continued)
m What might happen if we continued this experiment for
another week?
• Why are filters in aquariums necessary for the health of the
fish and other living things in them?
• What other types of filters do you know about and what
function do they serve? (Students might mention coffee
filters, pool filters, or oil filters.)
Conclude with a discussion of the use of filters in water treatment
plants to purify water containing sewage and other pollutants.
Extension/ Ask students why fish and other wildlife in rivers, streams, lakes,
Evaluation and other natural water bodies do not need filters to stay healthy.
Help students to understand that there are natural sources of
filtration and purification that keep water clean including settling of
heavy particles, movement of water through pebbles or sand, and
the metabolism of plants and other microorganisms (refer to Unit II,
Section B for a discussion of the properties of water and to Unit HI,
Section B for more information on water pollution). Explain to
students, however, that often even in the wild, pollution becomes so
great in a single area, that these natural treatment methods are not
enough to keep water pure.
Take a field trip to a local aquarium to learn about the use of filters
on a larger scale. Ask a member of the aquarium staff to explain to
your class the importance of filters in their facility and, if possible,
to show the students how these filters work.
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UNIT III-C
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
How Water Is Cleaned
Students will perform an experiment that demonstrates the procedures
used by municipal water plants in purifying water for drinking.
Classroom
One 40-minute period
Chemistry, Health, Science, Social Studies
Analysis, Application, Discussion, Experimenting, Evaluation, Ob-
servation, Synthesis, Comparing Similarities and Differences
7-12
drinking water treatment plants disinfection filtration aeration
sedimentation floe
Refer to Unit IE, Section C-4.
• How a Water Treatment System Works handout.
• A collection bucket containing 5 liters of "swamp water" (or add
21/2 cups of dirt or mud to 5 liters of water).
• One 2-liter plastic soft drink bottle with its cap (or a cork that fits
tightly into the neck of the bottle).
• Two 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles—one bottle with the top
removed and one bottle with the bottom removed.
• One 1.5-liter (or larger) beaker or another soft drink bottle bot-
tom.
• Two tablespoons of alum (potassium aluminum sulfate—
available at a pharmacy).
• Fine sand (about 800 milliliters in volume).
• Coarse sand (about 400 milliliters in volume).
• Small pebbles (about 400 milliliters in volume).
• Large beaker or jar (500 milliliters or larger).
• Small piece of flexible nylon screen (approximately 5 cen-
timeters x 5 centimeters).
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UNIT III-C
Materials
Procedure
(continued)
• A tablespoon.
• A rubberband.
• A clock with a second hand or stopwatch.
1. Pour about 1.5 liters of "swamp water" into a 2-liter bottle. Have
the students describe the appearance and smell of the water. Tell
students that each step you are about to perform corresponds to
a stage of conventional water treatment.
2. Aeration. Place the cap on the bottle and shake the water
vigorously for 30 seconds. Continue the aeration process by
pouring the water into either one of the cutoff bottles, then pour-
ing the water back and forth between the cutoff bottles 10 times.
Ask students to describe any changes they observe. Pour the
aerated water into a bottle with its top cut off. Explain that this
process allows gases trapped in the water to escape and adds
oxygen to the water.
3. Coagulation. Add approximately 2 tablespoons of alum crystals
to the water. Slowly stir the mixture for 5 minutes. Explain that
particles suspended in the water will clump together with the
alum to produce floe.
4. Sedimentation. Allow the water to stand undisturbed in the bottle.
Have students observe the water at 5-minute intervals for a total of
20 minutes and write their observations with respect to changes in
the water's appearance. The floe should settle to the bottom.
5. Filtration. While the floe is settling, construct a filter from the
bottle with its bottom cut off:
• Attach the nylon screen to the outside neck of the bottle with
a rubberband. Turn the bottle upside down and pour a layer
of pebbles into the bottle—the screen will prevent the pebbles
from falling out of the neck of the bottle.
• Pour the course sand on top of the pebbles.
• Pour the fine sand on top of the course sand.
• Clean the filter by slowly and carefully pouring through 5
liters (or more) of the clean tap water. Try not to disturb the
top layer of sand as you pour the water.
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UNIT I1I-C
Procedure (continued)
After a large amount of the floe has settled, carefully—and without
disturbing the sediment—pour the top two-thirds of the swamp
water through the filter. Collect the filtered water in the beaker.
Pour the remaining (one-third bottle) of swamp water into the col-
lection bucket. Compare the treated and untreated water. Ask stu-
dents whether treatment has changed the appearance and smell of
the water.
6. Disinfection. Inform students that a water treatment plant
would, as a final step, disinfect the water (e.g., would add a dis-
infectant such as chlorine) to kill any remaining disease-causing
organisms prior to distributing the water to homes. Therefore,
the demonstration water is not safe to drink.
7. Ask students the following questions to trigger discussion of
what they observed:
• What was the appearance of the original swamp water?
• Did the aeration process change the appearance or smell of
the water? (If the original sample was smelly, the water
should have less odor. Pouring the water back and forth
allowed some of the foul-smelling gases to escape to the air
of the room.)
• How did sedimentation change the water's appearance? Did
the appearance of the water vary at each 5-minute interval?
(The rate of sedimentation depends on the water being used
and the size of alum crystals added. Large particles will
settle almost as soon as stirring stops. liven if the water
contains very fine clay particles, visible clumps of floe should
form and begin to settle out by the end of the 20-minute
observation period.)
• How does the treated water (following filtration) differ from
the untreated swamp water? (The treated water should look
much clearer and have very little odor.)
After the experiment, distribute copies of the How a Water
Treatment System Works handout. Compare the steps you have just
performed with those in a water treatment plant.
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UNIT III-C
Extension/ Arrange for a tour of a local drinking water treatment plant where
Evaluation students will be able to observe firsthand a number of the processes
shown in the demonstration. Have each student come up with at
least one good question to ask plant personnel about the treatment
process, based on what they learned during the demonstration.
Review these questions before the field trip and, if possible, share
some of the best ones with plant personnel in advance so they can
better respond to your students' interests. After the field trip, dis-
cuss with students how the water treatment plant processes differed
from those in the demonstration and how they were similar.
Adapted with permission from: Gartrell, J.B. Jr., J. Crowder, and J.
C. Callister; Earth: The Water Planet (Washington, DC: The Nation-
al Science Teachers Association, 1989).
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UNIT lll-D
Economics and the
Environment: Ensuring a
Healthy Tradeoff
Meeting Human Needs
The factories, farms, businesses, and residential developments that
have sprung up along the banks of the Ohio River provide people
with a variety of valuable services, including shelter, food, employ-
ment, and other necessities, hi addition, the river is a prime highway
for transportation and commerce and an important source of energy in
the form of electricity. The construction of marinas, dams, and flood
control measures also allows the river to be used recreationally for
such activities as boating, fishing, and river-oriented festivals.
Thousands of people are employed in careers that are directly and in-
directly tied to the river. Locks and dams, which facilitate river
transportation (see Unit El, Section B-3), employ people who serve as
lock masters, operators, and maintenance personnel, hi addition, the
Corps of Engineers operate and repair the locks, as well as building
landing ramps and adjacent parks for boaters, making maps, dredging
the channels, issuing permits for new river facilities, and clearing
wrecks and other hazards from the river. The U.S. Coast Guard also
aids navigation on the river by inspecting boats and boating equip-
ment for safety, issuing licenses to commercial navigators, maintain-
ing lights and buoys, and investigating boating accidents.
River terminals along the Ohio River employ hundreds of workers to
load and unload goods such as coal, gasoline, steel, and salt from ship-
ping barges. Towing and tugboat industries help the barges navigate
in and out of these terminals. There are also many jobs for engineers,
navigators, and maintenance personnel onboard the barges and other
commercial and recreational boats.
Other important river businesses include water treatment plants that
purify and provide water to many cities along the banks of the Ohio
River, and power plants that supply electricity to many of these same
cities. The fire department patrols the river for fires and has a fire boat
to meet emergencies. Other organizations provide services to the
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UNIT Ul-D
river's many recreational users. These businesses include floating gas
stations, repair facilities, marinas, boat and equipment sales, and float-
ing restaurants. There are even educational barges, such as the
Marilyn K McFarland tugboat that provides vocational training to
young men and women in the marine industry, and the floating ex-
hibition, Always a River: The Ohio River and the American Experience,
which explores the cultural and natural history of the Ohio River.
The Costs of Economic Growth
Riverfront development, whether commercial or private, must take
into account the costs of encroaching on the river system even as it ac-
commodates people's expectations of a better lifestyle. Development
can deplete scarce resources and promote overcrowding. Pollution
from contaminated sediments, runoff, and factory emissions affects
water quality and, consequently, human health. River traffic requires
locks and dams and occasional dredging to maintain navigability,
which may have consequences for the aquatic life of the river.
Floodplain development requires special flood control construction
and channel protection activities that also may have negative effects
on the river's ecosystem. In addtion to these environmental costs, un-
checked economic growth can even lead to increased monetary costs
due to expensive cleanup efforts.
Unlimited Use Versus Conservation
Many of the alternative uses of the rivers and wetlands of the Ohio
River Basin are in competition with one another. Industrial, commer-
cial, recreational, and residential demands cannot all be met with the
same scarce resources, and all of these demands must be weighed
against preserving the quality of the environment. Achieving a
balance between these uses and conservation is important because
development affects not only the natural environment but human wel-
fare as well.
The public's access to clean water is a good illustration of how
degraded environmental quality affects individuals. The cost of drink-
ing water treatment depends on the amount of pollution present in
the water being treated. Consumers must pay to remove con-
taminants and purify water not only for human consumption but also
for industrial, commercial, and recreational use. The; dirtier the water,
the more the consumer must pay. So even from a purely economic
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UNIT IH-D
standpoint, unlimited industrial and commercial use of a resource
such as the Ohio River is not always the most profitable.
The decision of how (or if) to use a resource requires a tradeoff of
goals. If a resource is used for one thing, it may be unavailable for
another use. The opportunity cost is that next best use or choice that
cannot be accomodated. For example, if a riverfront area is developed
as a shopping district, it cannot at the same time be used as a recrea-
tional beach or a waterfront park. The loss of the opportunity to use
the area as a beach or park is the opportunity cost of increased shop-
ping and employment. Because people always give up some uses
when they elect others, an important component of any usage decision
is that it be carried out with the least waste and the least impact on the
environment. This type of careful planning will reduce both economic
and environmental costs. If any use involves a tremendously high
economic or environmental cost, perhaps it is a signal that alternative
uses or goals should be sought.
As economic growth continues, people must become more mindful of
their ability to cause what may be irreparable harm to the environ-
ment. Wise decisions concerning the use of scarce resources should in-
clude consideration of the tradeoffs between the short-term benefits of
economic progress and the long-term costs of environmental decline.
Some of these long-term costs are aesthetic and moral as well as
economic. For example, the value of an endangered species may not
be measurable in economic terms. Once an animal becomes extinct,
however, it can never be brought back to life. Other environmental
problems, such as depletion of the ozone layer, may be irreversible.
Education plays an important role in making people aware of the
limits of natural resources and the costs associated with their indis-
criminate use. To make sound choices requires a knowledge and con-
cern for costs as well as benefits. If people recognize the scarcity of
resources such as clean water, a healthy river, and productive wet-
lands, they will be more likely to make the best use of them.
The Role of the Government in Protecting the Nation's
Waters
Water pollution has long been considered an environmental problem
of national significance. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) in partnership with state and local agencies has set a goal of im-
proving and protecting water quality. These agencies are committed
to mamtamirig high drinking water quality, preventing further
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UNIT III-D
degradation of critical aquatic habitats, and reducing pollution in free-
flowing surface water.
The U.S. Congress has given EPA, the states, and Indian tribal govern-
ments broad authority to deal with water pollution problems. The
principal mechanism Congress has used to grant such authority is the
Clean Water Act (CWA), passed in 1972 to "restore and maintain the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters."
EPA has developed regulations and programs Hinder the CWA to
reduce the quantity and toxicity of pollutants entering surface waters
within the United States. In 1987, Congress strengthened the CWA by
enacting amendments to this legislation in the Water Quality Act.
These amendments ensured that support for municipal sewage treat-
ment plants would be maintained, initiated a new state-federal pro-
gram to control nonpoint source pollution, and set up a more
stringent time table for the implementation of tighter controls on toxic
pollutants.
Another law enacted by Congress to address problems of freshwater
pollution is the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974. The SDWA,
which was amended in 1986, requires EPA to establish drinking water
standards and to develop standards to protect underground sources
of drinking water from contamination. Other environmental laws,
such as the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and the
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) help to improve water quality
by controlling the quantity and toxicity of chemicals being released to
the environment. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is also required
to regulate certain activities in all waterways, such as construction, ex-
cavation, and discharge or deposition of materials, under the River
and Harbor Act of 1989 and Section 404 of the CWA.
The CWA and SDWA, as well as other environmental laws, have been
called upon extensively to reduce pollution in the Ohio River and its
tributaries. Federal legislation of this land together with state stand-
ards have paved the way for the development of ordinances and
regulations to safeguard the water quality of the Ohio River Valley.
Leadership in Environmental Research
Developing laws that regulate pollution and protect the quality of
waterways such as the Ohio River is a complex process. Extensive re-
search must be conducted to generate the scientific and technological
tools necessary to understand the causes, extent, and consequences of
pollution and to develop strategies for its prevention and abatement.
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UNIT III-D
These research efforts provide the foundation of knowledge for for-
mulating environmental policy and regulations.
With the establishment of the Andrew W. Breidenbach Environmental
Research Center (AWBERC), EPA brought together internationally
renowned scientists and engineers to form EPA's largest water re-
search and development program. Coordinating the efforts of these
experts, EPA has made great progress in cleaning up the nation's
waterways. EPA's research concentrates not only on obvious path-
ways of water quality degradation such as industrial discharges,
municipal sewage treatment wastes, and chemical spills, but has ex-
panded in focus to include more subtle routes of pollutant transport
such as stormwater runoff, air contaminant deposition on surface
waters, and the discharge of polluted ground water into rivers and
streams. Additionally, AWBERC performs significant research on
evaluating ecological risks to provide criteria for prioritizing pollution
regulation strategies.
AWBERC uses state-of-the-art equipment and methods to perform re-
search. Short-term research projects have been very successful in in-
vestigating and solving current environmental problems, while
long-term research has proven valuable in identifying and under-
standing the cumulative effects of contaminants over time. Scientists
and engineers at AWBERC currently are participating in designing the
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP).
EMAP, when fully implemented, will provide periodic reports on the
condition of national ecological resources, such as the Ohio River,
based on the results of monitoring numerous indicators of environ-
mental exposure.
Improving water pollutant monitoring methods and technology is an
important EPA goal. Toward this effort, AWBERC's "biomarkers" re-
search investigates methods to measure contamination levels in tis-
sues of living organisms. This information will contribute to the
development of standards for evaluating the ecological condition of a
particular medium (air, water, land). For example, scientists are per-
fecting methods to measure the levels of various blood components
(much like those checked by a physician during routine physical
exams) of fish captured in area streams and rivers. These results are
then correlated with the measured ecological condition of a particular
water body to establish trends. Based on these trends, scientists will
quickly be able to determine the condition of a stream or river using
tne blood analyses of the fish living there.
Other areas of EPA research include the effects of specific chemicals
and mixtures on human health and the environment. AWBERC per-
sonnel have been called upon to investigate waterborne disease out-
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UNIT III-D
Resources
breaks worldwide. At an EPA laboratory next to the Cincinnati
municipal wastewater treatment plant, technologies for treating
wastewater and sludge are being developed and tested. AWBERC also
runs several drinking water treatment plants to determine how effec-
tive certain treatment processes, such as filtration and aeration, are at
removing contaminants from potential drinking water. Additionally,
EPA scientists survey the quality of community drinking water sup-
plies across the country.
The environment cannot be protected simply by responding to instan-
ces of contamination. Recycling, reuse, and reduction practices must
be stressed to effectively prevent pollution. For this reason, EPA
places a great deal of emphasis on environmental education. Through
AWBERC, EPA's Office of the Senior Official for Research and
Development (OSORD) organizes seminars on environmental topics,
prepares environmental education materials, and hosts visits from
many schools and community groups. On the international front,
AWBERC hosts over 100 visits each year from representatives of
foreign countries and conducts research projects in cooperation with
many foreign governments. From the transfer of technology and in-
formation to the promotion and support of educational programs
such as "Always a River," EPA's Andrew W. Breiidenbach Environ-
mental Research Center encourages investigation and understanding
to assure the preservation of the nation's natural resources.
Publications
Cavanaugh, T.M. and W.J. Mitsch. 1989. "Water Quality Trends of the
Upper Ohio River from 1977 to 1987," The Ohio River: Its History and
Environment. 89(5)153-163. December.
The Conservation Foundation. 1988. Protecting America's Wetlands:
An Action Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Wetlands Policy
Forum, The Conservation Foundation.
Cutter, S.L., H.L. Renwick, and W.R. Renwick. 1985. Exploitation,
Conservation, Preservation. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld.
Goudie, A. 1986. The Human Impact on the Natural Environment.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Joint Council on Economic Education. 1989. Elementary Economist. New
York, NY: Joint Council on Economic Education. Vol. 10, No. 3. Spring.
203
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UNIT IH-D
Resources
continued
Lafferty, M.B. 1979. "Ohio's Waters." In: Ohio's Natural Heritage.
Columbus, OH: The Ohio Academy of Science. Produced jointly by
The Ohio Academy of Science and the Ohio Department of Natural
Resources.
The National Wildlife Federation. 1989. A Citizen's Guide to Protect-
ing Wetlands. Washington, DC: The National Wildlife Federation.
U.S. Army Corp of Engineers. 1981. Are You Planning to Work in a
Waterway or Wetland? Baltimore, MD: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1988. Environmental Progress
and Challenges: EPA's Update. EPA-230-07-88-033. August.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Leadership in Environ-
mental Research: EPA's Andrew W. Breidenbach Environmental Re-
search Center. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. EPA Office of Research and
Development.
Audiovisual Programs
Good Riddance. 1960. Stuart Finley, Inc., 3428 Mansfield Road, Falls
Church, VA 22041, 703-820-7700. Pollution control efforts along the
Ohio River Valley (25 minutes). Junior to senior high school level.
Ohio River: Industry and Transportation. #70924. Phoenix Films (BFA
Educational Media), 468 Park Ave. South, New York, NY 10016, 1-
800-221-1274. The Ohio River travels from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
to Cairo, Illinois. Shows how industry uses locks and dams for
transportation, but also presents the pollution problems that have
resulted (16 minutes). Intermediate and junior high school levels.
The Valley. 1974. Stuart Finley, Inc., 3428 Mansfield Road, Falls
Church, VA 22041, 703-820-7700. The Ohio River Valley water quality
management programs (28 minutes). Junior to senior high school
levels. Rental: $35.
204
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UNIT III-D
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Planning for the Future
Students will learn to balance a variety of economic needs with environ-
mental concerns by creating a land use plan for a model community.
Classroom
One to three 40-minute class periods
Social Studies, Art
Media Construction, Decision-Making, Application, Synthesis,
Communication, Public Speaking, Mapping, Discussion, Small
Group Work
K-6
use conservation
Refer to Unit in, Sections D-l through D-3.
For each student
m Community Landmarks handout.
• Habitat handout.
• Scissors.
• Construction paper.
• Glue.
1. Explain to students that they are going to have a chance to plan
their own community. Discuss the necessity of balancing dif-
ferent needs when deciding what to include in their plans. In-
troduce the terms "conservation" and "use" and explain the
importance of each.
2. Pass out materials to each student, including the two handouts.
Explain to them that they will begin by cutting out the habitat
on the Habitat handout and glueing it onto a large piece of con-
struction paper. This is the land on which they will develop
their community.
3. Next, have students cut out the landmarks on the second handout.
Define any of the landmarks with which the students are unfamiliar.
205
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UNIT II1-D
Procedure (continued)
4. Tell students that they must decide which landmarks to include
in their community and glue them down on the habitat where
they belong. (For example, if students choose to use the barge
facility or the public marina, it should be glued next to the river.)
Explain to students that they do not need to use all of the
landmarks and, if they choose, they can set aside some of the
land for conservation.
Note: Alternatively to Steps 3 and 4, you may wish to write a list of
possible landmarks on the board, and allow students to design their
own out of construction paper, label them, and attach them to their
habitats.
5. When students have completed their community plans, allow
them to explain why they made the decisions they did. This can
be done in individual conversations with the student or in small
groups. Older children may wish to present their land use plans
to the whole class. In your discussions, ask questions such as the
following:
• What uses will your community make of the river? How will
these uses affect the river?
• What will happen to the marsh under your plan?
• Where will the people live?
• Where will they work?
• Have you included any conservation land in your plan?
Why or why not?
• What are some of the most important features of your
community?
• What will happen if more people move to the community?
6. In a concluding discussion, help the class to understand that plan-
ning a community requires taking into account the present and fu-
ture needs of many different people, as well as the environment.
Extension/ Have students examine the community in which they live. If they
Evaluation were community planners, what types of things would they change
in the community? What would they add and/or what would they
take away? Encourage students to use their imaginations and to
consider the needs of people other than themselves. (Possible chan-
ges could include more natural spaces, a recycling center, or a new
housing development. Students might also suggest tearing down
dilapidated buildings or making parkland or playgrounds out of
empty lots.)
206
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Community Landmarks
Gut out the following landmarks or design your own out of pieces of paper. Glue these
onto your community.
I Public Marina
un_n_n_
Landfill
Gornfield
nan a c
m
3 a
y/^ Laundry \^
Power Plant
Highway
/">
Farm
Home
Hospital
Home
Home
Recycling Center
nmn
Photo Shop
Grocery
Drug Store
Ice Cream
My Home
207
-------
Habitat
Glue this sample habitat on a large sheet of construction paper to begin your community
land use plan. Or design your own original ecosystem, containing river, marsh,
floodplain, or wetland habitat of your own choice!
Oxbow
Wetlands
Cattail
Marsh
208
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UNIT lll-D
Activfity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Careers on the River
Students will learn about various river careers by developing
brochures that describe and promote their own businesses.
Classroom
Several 40-minute class periods and time outside of class for research
Art, English, Social Studies
Application, Communication, Decision-Making, Description, Draw-
ing, Media Construction,~Reading, Research, Synthesis, Writing
6-12
career
Refer to Unit IE, Section D-l.
• Library books and other reference materials.
• Paper and pen or pencil.
• Construction paper, scissors, and glue.
1. Discuss with students various careers that are directly associated
with the Ohio River. These might include working with locks,
power plants, barges, water treatment plants, riverfront res-
taurants, commercial or recreational piers, or the U.S. Coast
Guard.
2. Tell students to imagine that they have been given the oppor-
tunity to own a business on the river. Provide students with
time to research different careers and choose their business.
3. Have students write and design a brochure that promotes their
business. In the brochure, they should include::
• The nature of the business and the service it performs.
• The name of the business.
• Where the business is located.
• The types of job opportunities available at the business.
209
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UNIT HI-D
Procedure \ (continued)
• Some of the most outstanding features of the business. (Why
would someone want to use this business, or why would
someone want to work there?)
• How the business fits in with the natural environment of the
area. (What type of recycling or pollution control does the
business exercise, or how does the architecture of any
buildings blend in with the landscape?)
4. Encourage students to make use of illustrations and other design
elements to make their brochures attractive. For example, stu-
dents might want to design maps indicating how to get to their
businesses or draw pictures of their businesses in operation.
5. Display finished brochures on the bulletin board.
Extension/
Evaluation
Hold a "Career Day" where students take turns presenting their
brochures and answering questions about their businesses posed by
other students.
Invite local business people to your classroom to talk about their
own careers and the benefits their businesses provide to the com-
munity. Encourage students to prepare questions in advance to
help make the interview more productive. (See Appendix C,
"Guidelines for Interviewing People.")
210
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UNIT III-D
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Whose Job Is It?
Through examining pollution problems and people's roles in society,
students will learn that cleaning up the environment involves tradeoffs
in people's time as well as money.
School grounds and classroom
One 1/2-to 1-hour period
Social Studies, Science
Observation, Discussion, Analysis, Synthesis, Problem-Solving,
Small Group Work
2-6
resources opportunity cost
Refer to Unit in, Sections D-l through D-5.
• Worksheets for each group with the headings: Who Can Help,
Other Uses of Time, and Opportunity Cost.
• Pencil or pens.
1. Find an unsightly area somewhere on the school grounds and
point it out to students. Some possibilities are the playground,
near the dumpster or trash cans, near the school cafeteria, or
even certain hallways.
2. Back in the classroom, ask children to think who might be
responsible for cleaning up the area (students, teacher, principal,
custodian, parents, others).
3. Pick one of these potential "helpers" and discuss how this per-
son could use his or her time other than cleaning up the area.
For example, a teacher would have to give up class time to clean
it up. Explain that in order to clean the environment, productive
resources are required. If these resources are used to clean, they
are not available to perform other useful work. The work that is
unable to be performed is known as the "opportunity cost" of a
clean environment.
211
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UNIT III-D
Procedure (continued)
4. Break the class into small groups and give each group a
worksheet with the headings as .listed' under "Materials." Ask
students to fill in the worksheet for all of the people named in
Steps.
5. After students have finished with the worksheet, brainstorm
with students to come up with some solution to the problem.
(Possible solutions could be assigning cleanup to a particular
person, dividing the cleanup detail equally among different
people, establishing rules of behavior that prevent such messes
from occurring in the future.) Discuss the pros and cons of each
possibility.
Extension/ Have students investigate pollution problems in their school more
Evaluation comprehensively. Then, as a class, or again in small groups, have
students formulate a list of rules that would apply to everyone in
the school to reduce the costs of cleanup by reducing the amount of
pollution generated.
Adapted with permission from: The Joint Council on Economic
Education, Elementary Economist, Vol. 10, No. 3, Spring 1989.
212
-------
UNITIII-D
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Who Wants to Pay?
By conducting a simulation, students will appreciate the costs of
pollution abatement and the complexity of the problem of who
should pay for cleanup.
Classroom
1 hour
Mathematics, Science, Social Studies
Role-Playing, Computation, Communication, Evaluation, Interpretation
2-6
tradeoff costs consumer
Refer to Unit IE, Sections D-l through D-5.
• Pennies or small tokens to represent monetary units.
• Real candies or cutouts that resemble candies.
1. Tell students that they are going to imagine that several of their
classmates are manufacturers who produce a special type of
candy. The rest of them will be consumers who enjoy eating this
candy. The factories for these candies are located on the Ohio
River and the production process uses thousands of gallons of
river water that must then be dumped back into the river. (You
might want to draw a rough sketch on the board showing how
these factories are located in relation to the river and your com-
munity.)
2. Ask for volunteers or select four students to be the producers.
3. Tell students that the price of a piece of candy is set at two can-
dies for a penny (or token). Distribute a penny or token to each
consumer and equally distribute candies to each of the four
producers (so that there are enough candies for each child to
buy two).
4. Allow students to make their purchases. Have students observe
that all producers have sold all of their candy.
213
-------
UNIT IH-D
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
5. Call the producers together and ask for two of them to raise their
price to pay for equipment to clean up the pollution flowing
back into the river. The price for these producers is one candy
for a penny.
6. Again distribute pennies to the consumers and candies to the
producers. This time give fewer candies to those electing to con-
trol pollution; more to the polluters.
7. Allow students time to buy.
8. Contrast this outcome with the first round of buying.
• Who sold more candy? Why?
• Why did the consumers decide to buy from the polluting
producers rather than the environmentally conscious ones?
• How do you think the producers who bought the pollution
control equipment felt? ,
• As consumers, would you voluntarily pay more money for a
product that caused less pollution? Why or why not?
9. Discuss with students alternatives to consumers or responsible
producers bearing the cost of pollution control, such as taxing or
fines.
For an out-of-class assignment, have students list examples of social
costs that occur as the result of consumption (overflowing trash con-
tainers, litter on the highway, overflowing landfills). Discuss alter-
natives for reducing these costs including voluntary efforts and
actions of local governments. For example, local government agen-
cies could encourage recycling by specifying that garbage would
only be picked up if it was separated into recycling categories
(newspapers, aluminum, glass, etc.).
You may wish to invite a business person and a local government
official to discuss government incentives for reducing the social
costs of pollution.
Adapted with permission from: The Joint Council on Economic
Education, Elementary Economist, Vol 10, No. 3, Spring 1989.
214
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UNITIII-D
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subfect
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
To Develop or Not to Develop?
Students will evaluate the impacts of local development projects,
and weigh their positive and negative aspects.
Classroom
Two or three 40-minute class periods
Economics, English, Social Studies
Writing, Persuasion, Evaluation, Decision-Making, Communication,
Application/Analysis/Discussion
6-9
economic
Refer to Unit IE, Sections D-l through D-4.
• Newspaper clippings.
1. For several months (or longer) prior to performing this activity
in class, collect newspaper clippings of development projects
along the Ohio River and its tributaries, wilh an emphasis on
projects that affect your community. Be sure to include some
that are controversial. You may wish to have students "help"
you with this preparation by encouraging them early on to
begin bringing in clippings to add to your file.
2. Discuss some of these projects in class, bringing up such issues
as:
• Who does this project benefit and what are those benefits?
• Who, if anyone, does this project harm?
• What are the economic and environmental costs involved?
• Do you think the benefits outweigh the costs?
3. Establish an interest in a proposed project that will impact the
river environment near your community. Thiis might be a float-
ing restaurant, a marina, a riverfront housing development, or a
new factory. Discuss in detail the issues raised above in Step 2.
215
-------
UNIT 1I1-D
Procedure (continued)
4. If possible, invite a spokesperson for the development project (or
an opponent, or both) to present his or her views. The class
should prepare questions in advance that allow them to explore
the issue in more depth than was possible from articles or news
reports and their own discussion. Encourage students to remain
as objective as possible until all the facts are in.
5. In a final discussion, try to come to a consensus as a class on
whether you support or oppose the development activity.
Allow dissenters to hold to their opinions if they choose.
Extension/ Have students write editorials expressing their views on the
Evaluation development project as if they were sending them to a school paper
or local newspaper or magazine. Encourage them to present their
arguments logically and systematically, and back up their points
with concrete examples. You might also like to hold a classroom
debate on the issue.
216
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UNIT lll-D
Activity
Pollution Detectives
Objective
Setting
Duration
»
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Students will investigate pollution problems in their own community,
learn about laws that affect these problems, and make decisions
that involve weighing the costs and benefits of pollution cleanup.
Classroom and the community
One 1/2-hour class period preparation, several afternoons outside
of class, and ample class time for student presentations
Government, Science, Social Studies
Listening, Investigation, Application, Synthesis,, Recording Data,
Discussion, Writing, Decision-Making, Communication, Problem-
Solving, Brainstorming
7-12
tradeoffs
Refer to Unit IE, Sections D-l through D-5.
• Map of the community for display in the classroom.
• "Pollution detective" diaries or notebooks (students can make
their own).
1. Read students the paragraph below (you maty wish to modify
the text to the appropriate level for your class)::
Once upon a time there were three curious teenagers. They were al-
ways asking why things happened and were not satisfied until they
got an answer. One day toward dusk, they were walking home
from school when one saw a river of curious substances flowing
down the stream into the storm sewer. "Look at that!" shouted Jes-
sie. "I wonder what it is," exclaimed Manuel. "It's blood,"
whispered Dina. The three of them walked closer. They saw that
the mysterious fluids were actually the fluids of an old school bus
and two automobiles left to rust next to a house. The "blood" was
oil, gasoline, brake fluid, and battery acid. "Don't touch this stuff!"
shouted Dina. "Those are hazardous substances!" "Why would the
owner leave old vehicles there?" asked Manuel. "Let's find out."
217
-------
UNIT HI-D
Procedure (continued)
2. Ask the students to brainstorm possible reasons why the bus and
cars were left in the yard. Have students consider who is af-
fected by the problem and who should persuade the owner to
remove the old bus and cars. Help students to understand that
the fluid being drained into the sewer is imposing a potential
hazard on many people.
3. Tell students that they are going to become "water pollution
detectives" in their community. Their assignment is to seek out
situations where environmental problems exist in their com-
munity which cause harm to water bodies or the community's
water supply. They are to record their findings by writing para-
graphs describing or drawing pictures of what they see, and
locating the sites on a community map that is displayed in the
classroom. (Be sure to caution students to obey "No Trespassing"
signs and keep their distance from potentially hazardous substances.)
4. Each student should pick one problem from his or her investiga-
tion to research further and present to the class. His or her
presentation should cover the following issues:
j
• The reasons for the pollution.
• Who is experiencing the negative effects of the pollution.
• What should be done to solve the problem.
• What laws, if any, cover the problem.
• What it will cost to solve the problem.
5. After students have finished giving their presentations, have the
class decide which problems should be solved first based on the
relative costs and benefits derived from the cleanup.
Note: As an alternative to Step 3, in areas where student "sleuthing"
might be difficult or dangerous, have students investigate national or
international environmental problems in magazines or newspapers.
Extension/ ^ equipment is available, students may wish to develop a photo
Evaluation essay or videotape to accompany their presentation. For videotape
projects, students might want to get together in pairs or small
groups to focus on a single problem site.
You could further extend this activity to allow students to make
presentations at a schoolwide assembly, a community meeting, or a
meeting of a local environmental group.
Adapted with permission from: The Joint Council on Economic
Education, Elementary Economist, Vol. 10, No. 3, Spring 1989.
218
-------
Historic Influence and
Implications of the Ohio
River
-------
-------
Historic Influence and
Implications of the
Ohio River
his unit examines the influence of the Ohio River on the
T location and cultures of settlements in the area—from
ancient times through the present. Activities in Section A
investigate the lives of the ancient people who lived
along the Ohio River, as determined by the archeologists
who uncover their artifacts. Several activities focus on the
culture of the Mound Builders, who used the Ohio River to implement a
vast trading network.
Activities in Section B review the development of the Ohio River Valley
since the arrival of European settlers. From the first flatboats carrying
pioneers and their possessions to the huge barges carrying raw materials
today, the Ohio River has served as a vital artery in the development of
America's heartland. In three activities, students investigate the growth
of a specific community along the river or its tributaries. Students
examine both the economic development of these towns and the lives of
the people who lived in them. In the activity "Watered Down History,"
students predict the fate of the river, and explore their roles in shaping its
future.
219
-------
UNIT IV-A
Ancient Settlements
along the Ohio River
Paleo Indians—Times of Hit or Miss
The first humans along the Ohio River probably were small groups of
nomadic hunters called Paleo Indians. They hunted the mastodons,
mammoths, horses, and other large beasts that inhabited the area
during the Ice Age. They did not form settlements, but followed the
herds as they roamed. The only evidence they left were large flint
blades apparently used as spear points for hunting.
The number of Paleo sites along the Ohio River is less than a hundred,
and the time span of Paleo occupation is vast—several thousand
years. (See Figure IVA-1.) Therefore, initial Ohio River settlement was
random, sparse, and temporary. (See Unit I, Section A-2 for more in-
formation about the Ice Age.)
Archaic Indians—A Good Life on the River
As the vast ice sheets melted, Indians were forced to adapt to a chang-
ing environment. The large beasts became extinct, and Indians roamed
less and relied more on the environment around them for food. In the
Ohio River Valley, this meant a diet procured from the newly develop-
ing woodlands and from the many lakes and rivers left by the melting
glaciers.
The first people to live in permanent settlements along the Ohio River
were the Archaic Indians. Their population was scarce, including only
several hundred camps and small villages along the river. The Archaic In-
dians occupied the area for several thousand years. (See Figure IVA-2.)
Archeologists have found the remains of several Archaic sites. At
these sites they find artifacts, which are the articles left behind by the
ancient culture. By carefully examining these artifacts and noting the
context in which they are found, archeologists are able to develop
theories about how the Indians lived. Archeologists have found a
variety of flint blades among Archaic artifacts, perhaps indicating
there were many different groups of Archaic people along the Ohio
220
-------
UNIT IV-A
River. Specialized stone tools have also been found, which suggests
permanent settlements and the use of forest products.
Archaic sites are often characterized by large deposits of freshwater
shellfish and large caches of burned acorns. These findings signify the
Indians' reliance on food sources associated with a river environment,
which were more reliable than nomadic hunting.
The Mound Builders—Aliens or Ancestors?
When early European settlers came to the Ohio River Valley, they
were astonished at what they saw. Large earthworks in the form of
mounds, several miles long, dotted the landscape. Over a thousand
mounds were located in valley areas along the Ohio River, on hilltops
overlooking the river, and far up major tributaries. (See Figure IVA-3.)
Early excavations showed the majority of these mounds to be burial
sites containing exquisitely carved pipes, beautiful jewelry, and care-
fully worked copper ornaments. The Europeans, blinded by their
prejudice against the Indians around them, theorized that these ar-
tifacts must be the work of a glorious ancient people who bore no
relationship to the "savages" who then occupied the valley. This "lost
race" was thought to be the lost tribe of Israel, or perhaps the remains
of the great culture of Atlantis.
Archeologists have disproved these early theories, and shown these
artifacts to be the work of ancestors of Indians who occupied the val-
ley at the time the Europeans came. The mounds were built by two
early groups of ancient Indians: the Adena (700 B.C. - 400 A.D.) and
the Hopewell (200 B.C. - 500 A.D.). These Indian artifacts represented
a high state of cultural development characterized by several sig-
nificant developments. The Mound Builders were the first Ohio River
Valley Indians to use pottery, with which to cook and store food. They
also began cultivating certain wild plants. This early agriculture sup-
plemented the hunting and gathering of forest resources, which
dwindled as the population increased. The Mound Builders also intro-
duced the burying of high-status dead with extravagant grave goods
and burial mounds.
Archeologists have uncovered more than 200 Adena sites in southern
Ohio and adjacent areas of West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Kentucky,
and Indiana. The Adena Indians made pottery, smoked strong tobacco
in tubular pipes, and lived in villages of from two to five houses. They
buried their dead in cone-shaped mounds, some as high as 70 feet.
The largest Adena mound is located in Moundsville, West Virginia.
221
-------
UNIT IV-A
The Hopewell Indians, who appeared later than the Adenas, are
known for the variety and beauty of the objects found in their burial
mounds. Certain concentrations of their burial mounds and
ceremonial earthworks, usually located where two or more rivers join,
are speculated to be centers of a vast trade network that utilized river
transportation (dugout canoes) to access exotic materials for grave of-
ferings. Hopewellian mounds have yielded artifacts made from ob-
sidian and grizzly bear teeth from Yellowstone Park in Wyoming,
marine conch shells from the Gulf of Mexico, copper nuggets from Isle
Royale near Canada, and mica sheets from the Blue Ridge Mountains.
In turn, materials native to the Ohio River Valley—flint, freshwater
pearls, and pipestone—have been found in ancient archeological sites
in other parts of the United States.
Archeologists believe the Hopewellian culture was hierarchical, with
elaborate mound burial reserved for priests, chiefs, and other impor-
tant people. The vastness of some earthworks suggests the existence of
valued "experts" who taught skilled crafts and directed construction
of the burial mounds. As evidence of this, a recent analysis showed
that Hopewellian mounds located as far as 14 miles apart were per-
fectly aligned.
The Hopewell relied on small game, fish, and some agriculture for
their sustenance. Archeologists believe that these Indians began select-
ing wild plants for favored traits. For example, they collected the
largest seeds from certain wild plants and planted them. They would
then use the plants grown from these large, cultivated seeds. The
Hopewell were so successful at feeding themselves that their popula-
tion grew substantially. Archeologists estimate that one Hopewell set-
tlement along the Illinois River supported 50 people per square mile, a
population denser than the one that currently occupies this area.
Fort Ancient Indians—Early River Farmers
Late ancient Ohio Indians, including the Fort Ancient Indians (1200
A.D.-1500 A.D.), lived in large towns along the Ohio River and other
major streams. They supplemented hunting (now with bow and
arrow) and gathering with corn agriculture. The population apparent-
ly increased greatly with this new and plentiful food supply.
Settlements usually occurred in valley areas where two or more rivers
joined, although hilltop and inland sites are also common. (See Figure
IVA-4.) The artifacts found at some late ancient sites suggest that there
may have been conflicts between these tribes.
222
-------
UNIT IV-A
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UNIT IV-A
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UNIT IV-A
Resources
Publications
Coe, M., D. Snow, and E. Benson. 1986. Atlas of Ancient America.
New York, NY: Facts on File Publications.
Gibbons, E. 1964. Stalking the Wild Asparagus. New York, NY: D. McKay
Company.
Regina, K. 1989. Cincinnati: An Urban History. Cincinnati, OH: Cin-
cinnati Historical Society. Produced in cooperation wiith the Cincinnati
Public Schools.
Potter, M. 1968. Ohio's Prehistoric Peoples. Columbus, OH: Ohio His-
torical Society Press.
Silverberg, R. 1968. Mound Builders of Ancient America. Greenwich,
CT: New York Graphic Society Ltd.
Speerstra, K. 1980. The Earthshapers. Happy Camp: Naturegraph
Publishers, Inc.
Streuver, S. 1979. Koster: Americans in Search of Their Prehistoric
Past. New York, NY: Anchor Press.
Stuart, G. 1972. "Who Were the Mound Builders?" National
Geographic Magazine.
The Last Two Million Years. 1973. New York, NY: The Reader's Digest
Association.
Audiovisual Programs
Odyssey: Myths and Moundbuilders. 1981. Public Broadcasting
Associates, Inc.
Archeological Sites:*
For more information concerning these and other sites, contact your
state archeological society or historical society.
Illinois .
Cahokia Mounds Sate Park, reached from East St. Louis. A mound
group including the largest earthen mound in the United States.
Center for American Archeology, Kampsville. Archeological site and
program that offers tours for students of all ages, and a field school for
middle and high school students. Also provides teacher training
programs. Telephone 618-653-4316 for more informaltion.
227
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UNIT IV-A
'Resources
(continued)
Dickinson Mounds Museum of the Illinois Indian, Havana. A
Hopewellian burial mound and ancient village site.
Indiana
Angel Mounds State Park, Evansville. An extensive mound and vil-
lage site.
Mounds State Park, Anderson. Nine Hopewellian mounds.
Kentucky
Adena Park, near Lexington. Adena circular earthwork ceremonial
center.
Ancient Burial City, Wickliffe (reached from Cairo, Illinois). A private
commercial exhibit with mound groups and village patterns.
Blue Licks Battlefield State Park, Blue Licks (reached from Lexington).
A salt spring used by Paleo-hunters and a Fort Ancient culture village
site.
Ohio
Campbell Mound, Cplumbus. An Adena culture mound.
Flint Ridge Quarry, Zanesville. The most famous aboriginal flint
source in the eastern United States. Museum at site.
Fort Ancient, near Lebanon. Hopewellian earthworks and a later set-
tlement by the Fort Ancient people. Museum.
Fort Hill State Memorial, reached from Hillsboro or Chillicothe.
Hopewellian ceremonial and defensive earthworks. Museum.
Miamisburg Mound, Miamisburg. A large Adena mound.
Mound City Group National Monument, Chillicothe. A burial mound
and ceremonial center for the Ohio Hopewell people. Artifacts are
considered spectacular. Museum.
Newark Earthworks, Newark. A large Hopewellian earthworks com-
plex, of which little remains.
Seip Mound, Bainbridge. A group of Hopewell burial mounds, with a
circular earthwork over a mile in circumference. Museum.
228
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UNIT IV-A
Resources
(continued)
Serpent Mound, Locust Grove. A quarter-mile-long effigy mound of a
snake with an egg in its mouth, attributed to the Adena. Considered
one of the greatest ancient wonders in the present United States.
Shawnee Lookout, Hamilton County District Park, Western Cincin-
nati. Hopewellian earthworks and village sites from various cultures
and a small interpretive museum.
Story Mound, Chillicothe. A reconstructed Adena mound that is
visible from the street.
West Virginia
Grave Creek Mound State Park, Moundsville. The largest known
Adena mound in the center of at least 47 mounds. Museum.
Museums
Behringer-Crawford Museum. De Vou Park, Kentucky.
Big Bone State Park Union, Kentucky.
Cincinnati Museum of Natural History. Cincinnati, Ohio.
*List taken from: Brennan, L.A., Beginner's Guide to Archeology
(Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1973.)
229
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UNIT IV-A
Activity
Objective
Archeological Sites
Students will learn to recognize the names of the three Indian
groups who inhabited the Ohio River Valley in ancient times and to
identify contemporary civilizations in other parts of the world.
They will be able to locate on a map the sites of six ancient Indian
habitats in Hamilton County, Ohio.
Classroom
1-hour period, or two 1 / 2-hour periods
Social Studies
Map Reading, Discussion, Comparing Similarities and Differences,
Application, Analysis, Generalization
5-8
Adena Hopewell Fort Ancient B.C. A.D.
Refer to Unit IV, Section A-3.
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Parti
m Archeological Sites—Activity Sheet.
• Map of Ancient Indian Sites.
• Crayons or colored pens.
Part 2
m Archeological Sites—Timeline handout.
• Blank Timeline.
• Crayons or colored pens.
Parti
1
Explain to students that there were three main groups of ancient In-
dians who inhabited Hamilton County, Ohio, and the Ohio River
Valley in general. Briefly describe the concept of archeological sites,
and how researchers uncover the remains of ancient cultures. Tell
students that the Ohio River Valley is considered to be one of the
richest archeological regions in the United States.
230
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UNIT 1V-A
Procedure (continued)
2. Pass out the Map of Ancient Indian Sites and the Activity Sheet
handouts.
3, Tell students to complete the map as directed and answer the
questions at the bottom of the sheet. Students who are un-
familiar with the Cincinnati area may require teacher assistance
with this step.
4. When students have finished, review the maps with the entire
class. Discuss students' answers to the questions.
5. If available, show students pictures of these sites, and of artifacts
taken from them.
Part2
1. Explain to students that these Indian groups were not the same
as those found by early European settlers, but were their ances-
tors.
2. Pass out the Archeological Sites—Timeline handout and the
blank Timeline. Review with students the concept of a timeline.
Explain the concepts of B.C. and A.D. Have students locate the
dates on the timeline.
3. Discuss with students what else was occurring in the world
during the time of the ancient Ohio Valley Indians. Point out the
contemporaries of each of the three Ohio Indicin groups. Note
that the Adena and Hopewell Indians inhabited the Ohio River
Valley for much of the same time.
Extension/ Divide the class into three groups, and have students research each
Evaluation °f the three Indian groups. Students should report back to the entire
class with pictures, etc.
Ancient Indian sites abound throughout the entire Ohio River Val-
ley. Take students to visit one of the ancient Indian sites in Cincin-
nati, or near their own community. If no site is convenient, visit one
of your local museums that displays ancient Indiem artifacts. (See
the Unit TV, Section A, Resources for a list of sites and for informa-
tion about the Center for American Archeology in Kampsville, Il-
linois.)
231
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UNIT IV-A
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
Have students pick a period of time in ancient history. This could
be a single year, or a period of a few hundred years. Tell students
they are the editors of a world yearbook, which is supposed to
chronicle the events of that period of time throughout the world.
Have students pick parts of the world they are interested in, and re-
search what was going on there in this time frame. When students
have completed their research, have them write stories describing
what occurred in their part of the world. Have students compile
these stories and prepare a yearbook for publication. Encourage
students to be creative—to draw pictures, use art work, and write
creative, first-person accounts of how people lived.
Adapted with permission from: Regina, K., Cincinnati: An Urban
History (Cincinnati, OH: Cincinnati Historical Society, 1989).
232
-------
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233
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Archeological Sites—Activity Sheet
Your teacher will give you a map that shows a number of major archeological sites in
Hamilton County, Ohio. The chart below gives information about these sites. Follow
the directions below to fill in the map. Then answer the questions that follow.
Number
On Map
1
Location
On Map
Fifth &
Mound Sts.
(downtown)
Dig
Years
1840s
Who Lived
There?
Adena
What Was Found
stone tablet
with symbols
2
3
5
6
Mariemont
(Madisonville)
Anderson
Township
(Turner Works)
Newtown
(Turpin Farm)
Sayler Park
Cleves (Miami
Fort
Shawnee Lookout)
1880s and
1980s
1880s
1940s
1950s
1970s
Fort Ancient
Hopewell
Fort Ancient
Adena
Hopewell
village site, storage
pits, burials
monster sculpture
village and burial
mounds
bones and artifacts
structure of a fort
Complete the map by:
if Labeling the states of Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana, and Hamilton County.
li Labeling Ohio River, Great Miami River, and Little Miami River.
n Use a symbol or color to identify each site as Adena, Hopewell, or Fort Ancient.
n Draw a picture to represent what was found at each site.
u Color in the area that is Cincinnati.
Now answer these questions:
1. Do you notice any pattern to the location of sites?
2. What would you find if you visited these sites today?
3. Are any of these sites close to where you live?
234
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Archeological Sites—Timeline
Your teacher will pass out a blank timeline. Using crayons or a colored pen, show the
dates listed below. If the time given is for a period of time, for example, 1000 B.C. to 800
B.C., draw a line, not a dot. Use different colors for each line. Next to each time you
find on the timeline, write in the words given on the list.
Time
Words to Write on
Timeline
What Happened Then
1A.D.
1000 to
800 B.C.
700 B.C. to
400 A.D.
490 B.C.
753 B.C. to
476 A.D.
200 B.C. to
500 A.D.
560 B.C.
570 A.D.
986 A.D.
Jesus Christ
Pharaohs, Egypt
Adena
Marathon, Greece
Romans
Hopewell
500 to 100 B.C. Kush, Africa
Buddha
100 to 300 A.D. Mayans
100 to 300 A.D. Paper, China
Muhammad
Vikings
Jesus Christ was born. He founded the Christian
religions.
The last of the great Pharaohs ruled in Egypt.
The Adena Indians lived in the Ohio River Valley.
In ancient Greece, a messenger ran from the city
of Marathon to the city of Athens to tell of a great
military victory. This was the first "marathon."
The Roman Empire grew from the city of Rome to
most of the area surrounding the Mediterranean
Sea.
The Hopewell Indians lived in the Ohio River
Valley.
In Africa, the Kingdom of Kush developed exten-
sive trade routes across northeast Africa.
In Nepal, Buddha was born. He taught people
that they must lead a moral Hire.
In Mexico and Central America, the Mayan In-
dians developed hieroglyphic writing and a com-
plex calendar.
Paper, made from vegetable fibers, was invented
in China.
Muhammad was born in Arabia. He founded the
religion of Islam, which means submission to the
will of God.
The Vikings came to North America.
235
-------
Archeological Sites—Timeline
Time
Words to Write on What Happened Then
Timeline
1200 A.D.
to!650A.D.
Fort Ancient
1400 to 1500 A.D. Incas
1492 A.D.
Columbus
The Fort Ancient Indians lived in the Ohio River
Valley.
The Inca Indians expanded from Peru and built a
prosperous empire along the western coast of
South America.
Christopher Columbus arrived in the "New
World."
236
-------
Timeline
1000 B.C.—|
900—
800—
700-
600—
500-
400—
300—
200—
100—
0—
100—
200—
300—
400—
500—
600—
700—
800—
900—
1000—
1100—
1200—
1300—
1400—
1500A.D.—
237
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UNIT IV-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
information
Artifacts from the Past
Students will be able to define the concepts of culture and artifacts,
identify key artifacts of the Hopewell culture, and recognize some
potential artifacts of their own culture.
Part 1, classroom; Part 2, classroom and outdoors
Part 1: one 40-minute period; Part 2, two 40-minute periods
Social Studies
Inference, Comparing Similarities and Differences, Analysis, Discus-
sion, Small Group Work, Recognition, Description, Generalization,
Observation, Visualization
3-4
archeologist artifact Hopewell
Refer to Unit IV, Sections A-l through A-3.
Materials • Hopewell Indian Artifacts handout.
• Artifacts from the Past chart.
Procedure Part 1
1. Explain to students the concept of archeological digs.
2. Pass out the Hopewell Indian Artifacts handout and Artifacts
from the Past chart. Tell students that these artifacts were found
by archeologists. These objects were all used by the Hopewell
Indians, who lived in the Ohio River Valley almost 2,000 years
ago, around the time of Jesus of Nazareth. Have students com-
plete the chart. Students may work individually, or in small
groups.
3. Discuss the students' charts. If available, show the class addi-
tional pictures of Hopewellian artifacts. Ask students:
• What do all these things tell us about the Hopewell Indians?
• How do these artifacts compare to things we use today?
238
-------
UNIT IV-A
Procedure (continued)
Part2
1. Have students think more about artifacts and their own culture.
Ask students:
• Many years from now, how could archeologists know what
our culture was like?
• What is our culture like? What kinds of clolthes do we wear?
What do we eat? What do we play with?
• Which objects show this?
2. Have students draw up a list of artifacts that would describe
their own culture to an archeologist in the year 3000.
3. Have students bring in some of these things, as appropriate.
Using a box or suitable container, make a time capsule contain-
ing these artifacts and bury it.
Extension/ Take the class to visit a museum or archeological site listed in the
Evaluation Resources for Unit IV, Section A. Have students make a list of what
they see. When they return to class, ask them what they think the
Indians used the artifacts for.
Adapted with permission from: Regina, K., Cincinnati: An Urban
History (Cincinnati, OH: The Cincinnati Historical Society, 1989).
239
-------
Hopewel! Indian Artifacts
240
-------
Artifacts from the Past
Your teacher will hand out drawings of common Hopewell Indian artifacts. As you
study the artifacts, pretend to be an archeologist. Fill in the chart below.
Artifact What is it? What id it made of? What was it used for?
Number
These clues can help you complete the chart.
• Is it a falcon, a needle, an ax, a shell, a spear point, a pot, a pipe?
• Is it made of: animal bone, copper, clay, mica, stone (flint), shell, obsidian?
• Next to the picture of each artifact, list three words that describe it. Think about what
its texture, size, shape, color, and weight might be.
241
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UNIT IV-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Let's Prepare an Ancient
Indian Feast
Students will experience a connection to their local environment by
preparing a meal made from wild local foods. They will compare
this diet to that of the ancient Indians who inhabited the Ohio River
Valley.
Classroom, preferably in a kitchen
One 40-minute period to plan the feast, 11/2 hours to prepare and
eat it
Health, Social Studies
Discussion, Cooking, Application, Comparing Similarities and Dif-
ferences, Generalization, Small Group Work, Measuring
4-8 (K-3, if food is prepared for the children)
Archaic Adena Hopewell
Refer to Unit IV, Sections A-l through A-3.
• Stalking the Wild Asparagus, by Euell Gibbons (New York, NY: D.
McKay Company, 1964).
• Fresh foods that were native to the Ohio River Valley in ancient
times. These include cracked corn, whole nuts, fresh oysters,
leafy lettuce, stew meat, whole fresh fish, berry juice, and turtle
soup.
• A stove or hot plate.
1. Explain to students that the ancient Indians who inhabited the
Ohio River Valley—the Archaic, Adena, and Hopewell In-
dians—lived in the woods and used the surrounding fields,
streams, and forests as their supermarket. Discuss the types of
foods these tribes might have found. Suggest that students
prepare a feast of wild foods.
2. Have students look at Euell Gibbon's book and decide which
foods they would like to roast, fry, or boil.
242
-------
UNIT IV-A
Procedure (continued)
3. Have students decide who will bring in the various foods. The
teacher may want to take responsibility for this.
4. Prepare the feast as planned.
5. As students prepare and eat the feast, have them discuss their
reactions to the foods they are eating. Ask them to consider ways
in which their own diets are affected by where they live.
Extension/ Have students research the diets of each of the three Indian groups
Evaluation discussed and report to the class. How are they different and alike?
Have students research specific edible plants and animal species na-
tive to the Ohio River Valley.
As part of a food or nutrition class, have students evaluate the
healthfulness of the ancient Indian diet. What does this diet suggest
about the lives of the ancient Indians?
Check local recreation commissions, natural history museums, or
nature centers to see if they are offering programs in either wild
foods or Indian life.
243
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UNIT 1V-A
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
information
Materials
Procedure
Who Were the Mound
Builders?
Students will be able to describe the cultures of the Adena and
Hopewell Indians and will develop an appreciation of their achieve-
ments. Students will understand how these Indian groups were
viewed by early European settlers of the Ohio River Valley.
Classroom
Two 40-minute periods
Social Studies, History
Description, Discussion, Researching, Reporting, Observing, Analyz-
ing, Reading, Listening, Public Speaking, Comparing Similarities and
Differences
9-12
Adena Hopewell
Refer to Unit IV, Section A-3.
• A map of the United States.
• Library books.
1. Describe the mounds seen by the early European settlers of the
Ohio River Valley. Tell students about the theories of the set-
tlers, who thought that the mound-building Indians were a lost
master race. Explain that the mound builders were members of
two groups, the Adena and the Hopewell Indians. These In-
dians were the predecessors of the Indians of colonial days. Ask
students:
What other theories could the settlers have invented
explain the mounds and artifacts they saw?
Why did people choose to believe the "lost race" theory?
to
244
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UNIT IV-A
Procedure
Extension/
Evaluation
(continued)
2. Explain the concept of archeological digs. Show students pictures
of Adena and Hopewell artifacts. Examples cam be found in the
books and magazines listed in the resources to Section IVA. Tell
students briefly about the Adena and Hopewell Indians.
3. On a map of the United States, point out where the mound
builders got the materials for their artifacts. Be sure to mention
that the Ohio River Valley mounds contained deposits of marine
conch shells from the Gulf of Mexico, copper nuggets from Isle
Royale near Canada, obsidian and grizzly bear teeth from Yel-
lowstone National Park, and mica sheets from the Blue Ridge
Mountains. Ask students:
• How did the mound builders get these materials?
• How might they have traveled to these locations?
Point out that pipestone, freshwater pearls, and flint from the Ohio
River Valley have been found at ancient archeological sites
throughout the United States. Discuss the notion of trade routes,
emphasizing the vastness of the mound builders' trade network.
5. Divide the class into groups that will research various aspects of
the mound builders' culture. Topics might include food and diet,
trade, artifacts, and religion.
6. Have students report to the class about their findings. Encourage
students to report creatively: reconstruct artifacts, build models
of burial mounds, write first-person accounts of life as an Adena
or Hopewell Indian.
7. Take students to visit one of the Adena or Hopewell archeological
sites near them. If no site is available, visit a museum that
displays artifacts of the mound builders. See the Resources for
Unit IV, Section A. "
Have students write a letter to the editor of a nineteenth century
Ohio River Valley newspaper. Students should argue against the
"lost race" theory that was then popular, and tell about the cultures
of the Adena and Hopewell Indians.
245
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UNIT IV-B
Settlement from the
Europeans to the Present
Ohio River Indians (17th - 19th Century)—Refugees and
Fugitives
When the first European settlers came to the Ohio River Valley, they
found the region curiously empty of inhabitants. Gun-bearing Iroquois
Indians had driven out other tribes in order to monopolize the fur trap-
ping in Ohio.
When the Iroquois left Ohio, the Miami, Wyandotte, Shawnee,
Delaware, and other Indians returned. They located their villages far
up tributaries and streams to avoid the explorers, trappers, soldiers,
and warriors who traveled on the river. (See Figure IVB-1.)
Pioneer Settlements—The River Is the Roadway
The frontier period saw hundreds and then thousands of American
pioneers travel down the "Great Westward Flowing River"—the Ohio.
Most pioneers settled first along the Ohio River itself, then later, fur-
ther inland up the tributaries or further west beyond the Mississippi.
Most settlers chose their settlements based on geographical and safety
factors. Major cities and towns usually grew up where the Ohio River
joined with one of its tributaries, and where the United States military
established a fort to defend settlers against Indians. There are excep-
tions, however. For example, Louisville and Steubenville have no
second river; there is no major town at the mouth of the Wabash
River; and a number of smaller cities had no military post in the early
days. (See Figure IVB-2.)
To reach settlements, many pioneers traveled downstream on large,
unwieldy flatboats packed with their worldly possessions—furniture,
dishes, farm animals, and more. To go upstream, they relied on barge-
like keelboats, which they powered by pushing long poles into the
river bottom. Sometimes crew members reached overhead for hanging
willow branches, which they pulled on to move forward.
246
-------
UNIT IV-B
By 1792, a river packet—an elaborate keelboat—was making scheduled,
30-day trips between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh. Flatboats, crammed
with crockery, cutlery, tinware, and clothes, were traveling between set-
tlements selling household goods like floating general! stores.
In 1811, the first steamship, the Orleans, was launched on the Ohio
River and a new era was born. Huge shipments of pork, whiskey,
cheese, flour, and other products made their way on the swift new
boats to places like Pittsburgh and New Orleans. During the height of
the steamboat era, American inland ships carried more tonnage than
all the vessels of the British Empire's merchant fleet
Early Industries Develop—Making the Most of Local
Resources
Despite the improvements in river transportation, farmers in the Ohio
River Valley, particularly those inland, had difficulty transporting
their products to markets. Stories abounded of farmers whose grain
lay rotting in the fields. The settlers found two solutions to this prob-
lem. The first was an elaborate system of canals which some states
built to link inland areas to the Ohio River. The canals helped consid-
erably, but travel along them was difficult. Boats were pulled at a
speed of 2 to 3 miles per hour by horses and mules located on the em-
bankment. Cabins on deck were small, cramped, and plagued by the
mosquitoes that thrived in the canals. Malaria was commonplace.
The second solution was to convert the grain into flour and meal, which
could then be fed to hogs or distilled into whiskey. This reduced the
volume that needed to be shipped. The idea caught on, and before long
almost every town in the valley had at least one grist mill, one distillery,
and one slaughter house. Cincinnati developed a large meat-packing in-
dustry, earning it the nickname "Porkopolis." Meat, and the large
amounts of whiskey and flour the city produced, allowed Cincinnati to
become the first industrial metropolis in the west.
While most settlers earned their living on family farms, others began
developing small industries. Towns developed economies based on
local resources: Pittsburgh's steel industry relied on nearby iron ore
and coal. In Zanesville, Ohio, pottery manufacturing made use of local
clay deposits, and in Louisville, Kentucky, grains and forests were
used to produce bourbon and baseball bats. Other developments were
more circumstantial. A variety of immigrant groups arrived and set-
tled in specific areas, bringing with them high-level skills needed for
new industries, such as beer brewing and glass making.
247
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UNIT IV-B
Later Industrial Development—A Shift to the West
and North
After the Civil War, the Ohio River Valley saw dramatic changes.
With the expansion of the United States, the grain-growing centers
shifted westward, taking agriculturally dependent industries with
them. The meat packing capital of the country changed from Cincin-
nati to Chicago, and companies that made farm machinery were sur-
passed by larger companies in the west. Nevertheless, although
agriculture-related industries were no longer the largest in the Ohio
River Valley, corn, wheat, cattle, and hogs continued to play a sig-
nificant role in the region's economy.
Another major shift was brought about by the country's increased
reliance on railroads over river transportation. Railroads, and later
roads, could better reach into inland areas, and were not as vulnerable
to weather conditions. Railroads were constructed in the northern
section of the region, because builders preferred the flat plains of the
Lake Erie area to the rolling hills of the Ohio River Valley.
Since the railroads allowed greater access to inland resources, new
areas could be developed. In the 1870s, John D. Rockefeller started the
Standard Oil Company in Cleveland, Ohio, close to rich petroleum
deposits. The iron ore and coal found in the northern regions of Ohio
and Indiana fueled the development of great steel-making centers in
the north. Gradually, the industrial focus of the region shifted from
the towns along the Ohio River to the new industrial cities along the
Great Lakes—Cleveland and Toledo, Ohio; and East Chicago and
Gary, Indiana. These developing industrial centers served as magnets
for new waves of immigration from the East.
Despite these changes, the Ohio River Valley maintained its status as
an important industrial center. Smaller companies grew into larger
ones, based upon the original industries of the region. One company,
for example, began by using the by-products of Cincinnati's meat
packing industry to make soap.
Today, the river that Thomas Jefferson once called "the most beautiful
river in the world" continues to play an important role in the area around
it. It serves as a major resource for leisure and recreational activities and
remains a vital artery for the region and the country. A 1983 report by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers estimated that 18 percent of US. com-
merce relied upon the Ohio River navigation system. That same report
noted that each day, 192 barges loaded with goods passed by Cincinnati
on their way to major ports. An equivalent volume of goods would re-
quire 11,520 twenty-five-ton trucks to transport it.
248
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UNIT IV-B
Resources
Publications
Bartram, W. 1973. Travels of William Bartram. Facsimile by Gordon
Dewitt. Savannah, GA: Beehive Press.
Baskin, J. 1976. New Burlington. New York, NY: Norton Press.
Cunningham, R. Stockades in the Wilderness.
Eckart, A. 1967, The Frontiersman. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and
Company.
Hale, N. 1959. Pelts and Palisades. Richmond, VA: Dietz Press.
Hart, A. ed. American History Told by Contemporaries. New York,
NY: Macmillan Company.
Havinghurst, W. 1960. Land of Long Horizons. New York, NY:
Coward Me Ann.
Hubbard, H. 1974. Payne Hollow. New York, NY: Eakins.
Klein, B. ed. 1958. The Ohio River Handbook and Picture Album. Cin-
cinnati, OH: Young and Klein, Inc.
Kyvig, D. and M. Marty. 1982. Nearby History. Nashville, TN: The
American Association for State and Local History.
Lavender, D. 1988. The Way to the Western Sea—Lewis and Clark.
New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Laycock, G. and E. Laycock. 1983. The Ohio Valley. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday.
J. Pearce and R. Nugent. 1986. The Ohio River. Lexington, KY: Univer-
sity Press of Kentucky.
Regina, K. 1989. Cincinnati: An Urban History. Cincinnati, OH: The
Cincinnati Historical Society. Produced in cooperation with the Cin-
cinnati Public Schools.
"River with a Job to Do." 1977. Vesilind, National Geographic Magazine,
February.
Stuart, J. 1973. The Land Beyond the River. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill.
Terrell, J. 1968. LaSalle: The Life & Times of an Explorer. New York
NY: Weybright & Talley.
249
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UNIT IV-B
Resources
(continued)
Thorn, J. 1981. Follow the River. New York, NY: Ballentine.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Ohio River Division. Navigation
Charts and Maps of the Ohio River.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Ohio River Division. 1983. Navigation
in the Ohio River Valley—Heartland of the U.S.A.
Wright, J. 1990. Above the River. Middletown, CT: University Press of
New England.
Western Regional Environmental Education Council. 1987. Aquatic
Project Wild. Boulder, CO: WREEC.
Writers Program of the Work Projects Administration. 1941. In-
diana—A Guide to the Hoosier State. New York, NY: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Writers Program bf the Work Projects Administration. 1940. The Ohio
Guide. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Audiovisual Programs
The Ohio River—Background for Social Studies. 1967. Coronet. Sur-
veys the development of America's busiest inland waterway and the
cities along its banks from colonial times to the present (11 minutes).
Reserve film through the Cincinnati Public Library. Call 513-369-6900
for borrowing procedures. Junior high to adult.
Maps
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Ohio River Division
Federal Office Building
P.O. Box 1159
Cincinnati, OH 45201
Community Resources
The Kentucky Folklif e Program
CPO Box 760
Berea College
Berea,KY 40404
606-986-9341, ext. 5139
250
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UNIT IV-B
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UNIT IV-B
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UNIT IV-B
Activity
Ohio River Place Names
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
, Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Students will be able to identify some of the flora, fauna, and
minerals indigenous to the Ohio River Valley at the time of
European settlement. Students will also develop an understanding
of the environment and lives of the early settlers.
Classroom
1 hour
Language Arts, Science, Social Studies
Classification, Listing, Writing, Description, Discussion, Generaliza-
tion, Invention, Observation
3-5 : r: ., .; ' .;.
none
Refer to Unit IV, Sections B-2 through B-4.
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers navigation maps. (See Resources
to Unit IV, Section B.)
• U.S. Geological Survey maps.
• Ohio River Valley Place Names map.
Parti
1. Explain that before the Europeans arrived, Indians had their
own names for the Ohio River and the surrounding area. The
word "Ohio," for example, is an Indian word that perhaps
means "beautiful" or "white cap." When Europeans came they
kept some Indian names, but also renamed many features of
their environment in their own language, English.
2. Point out that the settlers often gave names that described the
flora and fauna they saw when they arrived.
3. Show the class examples of the U.S. Geological Survey quad-
rangle maps of the Ohio River, or U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
maps of the Ohio River area. Have students point out some of
these descriptive names.
253
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UNIT IV-B
Procedure (continued)
4. Using the maps listed under materials, and/or the handout of
Ohio River Valley Place Names, have students list the names ac-
cording to the following categories: Plants, Animals, and
Minerals.
5. Using the lists students develop, discuss what the environment
of the early settlers must have looked, felt, and smelled like.
Note: For younger children, as an alternative to Steps 3 through 5,
select certain place names from the map and say them aloud to
students. Then conduct the discussion in Step 5.
Extension/
Evaluation
Part2
1. Using the same maps used above, point out to the class some un-
usual Ohio River place names, such as: Monkey's Eyebrow, Lost
Creek, Rabbit Hash, Rising Sun, Scuffletown Bar, Cold Friday
Hollow, Hurricane Hollow, and Haunted House Bar.
2. Have each student pick a place name and write a story about
how the place got its name. Encourage students to be creative
and use their imaginations.
Have students visit a section of the Ohio River or one of its
tributaries. Students should identify plants and animals they see.
Have students think of their own names for this section of the river.
Students might want to write in the new names on a geological map
of the area.
254
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255
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UNIT IV-B
I -—-'«
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
The Shape of Our Town
Students will be able to describe the physical geography of their
town and its influence on the development of their community.
Classroom
One 1-hour period
Social Studies
Map Reading, Analysis, Inference, Visualization, Description, Dis-
cussion, Drawing, Observation, Generalization
4-6
geographical
Refer to Unit IV, Sections B-2 through B-4.
• U.S. Geological Survey maps of the local area.
• Crayons or markers, and colored pencils.
1. Discuss with students the concept of how geographical features
such as rivers, swamps, and farmland could affect the way an
area was developed by the European settlers.
2. Pass out geological maps showing the community students live
in.
3. On tracing paper or clear plastic, have students draw over the
map and show the buildings, bridges, neighborhoods, and other
features that make up their town.
4. Have students look at the human-made features in relationship
to the geographical features. Discuss how geography influenced
the development of their town.
256
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UNIT IV-B
Extension/ Have students take a tour of their community's downtown area
Evaluation with someone from the local historical society, who can explain the
significance of what students see. If a tour isn't possible, invite
someone from the historical society, or a knowledgeable person, to
speak to the class about the history of their town. The talk should
emphasize the role played by geography. (You might want to refer
to Appendix C, "Guidelines for Interviewing People.")
Have students use their local library to do additional research about
the history of their community. Students might choose specific in-
dustries or companies and write a history of their development.
They could also look at the successive development of various
neighborhoods within their community. The reports should focus
on why development happened as it did.
257
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UNIT IV-B
Activity
Examining Local Economies of
Current Ohio River Communities
Students will learn to appreciate the relationship between natural
resources and economic development by examining the local
economies of Ohio River Valley communities.
Classroom and library
A minimum of two 40-minute periods and library research time
Economics, History, Social Studies
Analysis, Description, Discussion, Inference, Listening, Research,
Reading, Writing, Public Speaking
6-10
economies resources
Refer to Unit IV, Sections B-3 through B-4.
• Local Economies of Current Ohio River Communities map.
• Library books.
1. Pass out the map, Local Economies of Current Ohio River Com-
munities, that shows unique economies that developed along
the Ohio River.
2. Discuss how these developments might have taken place, and
their relationship to the natural resources of the region.
3. Have each student pick one Ohio River city or town and then re-
search the unique economic product or service of that city or
town. Have students explain why that product or service might
have developed there.
4. Have each student present their findings to the class in a written
or oral report.
Objective
Setting
Duration
•it--
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
258
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Extension/ Visit a local business or industry.
Evaluation
UNIT IV-B
If available, visit a local museum that has an exhibit showing the
development of a local economy.
Invite some local business people to talk to students about why they
located their business in this community. Ask students:
• Are these the same reasons that earlier business people had?
• If not, how are they different? Why?
259
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li
22.0
260
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UNITIV-B
Activity
Tales of the River
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Through books and first-person accounts/students will learn about
the everyday lives of people who lived along the Ohio River. By
identifying with these accounts, students will develop an apprecia-
tion of the beauty and influence of the Ohio River on American cul-
ture.
Classroom and home or library for outside reading
A month for reading the books and sufficient class time to allow
each student to report orally
English, History, Music, Social Studies
Reading, Reporting, Writing, Description, Analysis, Discussion,
Public Speaking, Generalization, Visualization, Comparing
Similarities and Differences
K-12
none
Refer to Unit IV, Sections B-l through B-4.
Materials
Procedure
• Library books.
• First-person accounts of life along the Ohio River. Some
possibilities are New Burlington by J. Baskin (New York, NY:
Norton Press, 1976); Payne Hollow by H. Hubbard (New York,
NY: Eakins, 1974); and Above the River by ].Wright (Middletown,
CT: University Press of New England, 1990).
1. Discuss with students the value of reading personal accounts of
life in other times. Explain how seeing directly through
someone's eyes gives you more details about an environment
and helps you understand the emotions people felt.
2.
Bring in examples of books written by Ohio River authors. Dis-
cuss the various authors, their books, and what they tried to ac-
complish in their writing. In addition to books, you may want to
include literary journals or history books containing first-person
accounts of life in the Ohio River Valley.
261
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UNIT IV-B
Procedure (continued)
3. Have each student choose a book to read. If students prefer to
read literary journals or first-person accounts, have them read
several. Students should read the books at home.
4. Have each student write a book report and/or report orally to
the class. In their reports, students should describe at least one
feature of life in the Ohio River Valley that their book/accounts
helped them appreciate better. Discuss the reports with the
entire class. Have students compare life along the river in earlier
days with their own lives.
Note: For younger children, as an alternative to Steps 3 and 4, read
stories or excerpts from accounts aloud to students and discuss. You
may also wish to introduce students to songs that have been written
about the Ohio River or other rivers. (Some examples are Ohio River,
She's So Deep and Wide; Beautiful Ohio; Waiting for the Robert E. Lee;
Cruising Down the River on a Sunday Afternoon.)
Extension/ Have students choose a type of person who lived in the Ohio River
Evaluation Valley during the time of early European settlement. Suggest some
possibilities: an Indian who was losing his or her land, a keelboat
crew member who carried early settlers, or a woman who worked
on her family farm. Have students write a fictional diary entry for a
week in the life of that person.
Have students research other ways in which the historical people of
the Ohio River Valley expressed themselves, e.g., through songs,
dances, games. Students should report to the class or prepare an ex-
hibit for the school.
Have students identify long-living citizens of their community who
lived along the river when it was different. Have students interview
them about their lives and changing community. Students should tape
record or videotape the interviews. After sharing these interviews with
classmates, students may want to make the tapes available to their local
library. You may want to refer to Appendix C, "Guidelines for Inter-
viewing People," at the back of this curriculum.
262
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UNIT IV-B
Activity
Objective
Setting
Duration
Subject
Skills
Grade Level
Vocabulary
Background
Information
Materials
Procedure
Watered Down History
Students will be able to: 1) describe the geographical formations
and natural resources along a particular section of the Ohio River or
one of its tributaries; 2) describe the development of that same area
through various periods in history; 3) analyze cause and effect
relationships between the geography of the region and its develop-
ment and history; and 4) predict the future of this portion of the
river.
Classroom and library; a visit to the area is recommended
A minimum of three 45-minute periods
Geography, History, Economics
Analysis, Classification, Communication, Comparing Similarities
and Differences, Description, Discussion, Inference, Interpretation,
Interviewing, Invention, Listening, Listing, Mapping, Prediction,
Public Speaking, Reading, Reporting, Research, Small Group Work,
Synthesis
7-10
none
Refer to Unit IV, Sections B-2 through B-4.
• Library books or other reference sources.
1. Explain the general purpose of the lesson, which is to under-
stand the relationship between the geography and resources of
an area along the river and how it developed throughout his-
tory. The principles learned should help to predict the future of
the area.
2. Ask the students to refer to a county, state, or regional map
and—as a group—select one portion of the Ohio River, or one
of its tributaries, that will be the focus of their research. Point out
that it might be easiest for students to select their own or a near-
by community, since this will allow greater access to historical
information.
263
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UNIT 1V-B
Procedure (continued)
3. Once their choice has been made, divide the class into small
groups. Ask students in each of the groups to choose a major
topic area, e.g., geography and resources, early settlements, early
industries, recent history. Choosing a variety of topics helps es-
tablish historical perspective and spreads out the demand for
reference sources. Within the general topic areas, students might
explore specific areas such as pollution and misuse of the river,
life and culture of the European s.ettiers who "discovered" the
area, 19th and early 20th century immigrants to the area, recrea-
tional uses of the river, etc.
4. Ask students to identify resources for their research. If possible,
try to include living reference sources such as long-living
citizens, members of local historical societies, and history and so-
cial studies teachers from high schools or colleges. Old
newspapers and historical archives may also be available. Stu-
dents might ask the following types of questions.
• How did European explorers find this place?
• What was the geography of the area like when early settlers
came here? What were the local natural resources?
• What was life like for the early European settlers?
• What immigrant groups came to this area? When did they
come? Why?
• What industries developed in this area? Why?
• What is this area like today? How has it changed?
Note: You might like to refer to Appendix C, "Guidelines for
Interviewing People," at the back of this curriculum.
5. Have the teams plan to report in an historical sequence from the
earliest times to the present. Hold a class meeting to identify the
major time periods each group is researching. Establish a se-
quence for reporting so that each topic—industries, lifestyles,
immigrants—can be addressed in each major time period.
6. When enough information is gathered, have students begin
reporting. You might want to have students create displays of in-
formation for each major time period.
7. When students have finished reporting, ask them collectively to
analyze major changes that have taken place throughout this
area. Include the role of the river or waterway in this analysis.
Have students create a timeline noting major events in the
region's history.
264
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UNIT IV-B
Procedure (continued)
8, Based on what they have learned from the past, have the stu-
dents create a "history" of the future of this area. Alternatively,
students might want to predict a Utopian future—an image of
the future that they feel would represent an effective ecological
balance among people, the environment, and the river. Ask stu-
dents:
• Does this image differ from what you think will actually
happen to this region? If so, why?
• Are there actions you could take to change the future of the
region?
Extension/ Have students compile a "biography" of their region to summarize
Evaluation this activity.
Have students write a play with traditional or original music to
portray the history of this area. End with possible futures being
depicted—emphasizing human responsibilities for the consequen-
ces of our choices.
Have students report their findings to the community they have
chosen. This might take the form of a museum exhibit, or address-
ing community or historical groups. Students should be sure to in-
clude their analyses of the future.
Adapted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental
Education Council, Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC,
©1987).
265
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APPENDIX A
Appendix A
Keeping Classroom Aquaria—
A Simple Guide for the Teacher
There are many resource books available on the topic of keeping aquairia. These books
provide a great deal of detailed information on aquaria of many different types includ-
ing tropical, freshwater, and marine aquaria. Many specialized aquaria require equally
specialized equipment and a lot of care and attention to keep the animals and plants in
them healthy. Most classroom teachers have neither the time nor the resources to do
this, but may want to maintain a simple aquarium during the times that they are using
this curriculum. Some will want to use an aquarium throughout the entire school year
as an object of interest and a catalyst for activities in their classes.
The following procedure should be seen as a very simple way to start a freshwater aquarium
in a classroom. It is suitable for many species of hardy fish that are widely sold in pet shops.
If you or your students are bitten by the "aquarium bug," you will want to turn to a more
detailed book for guidance—but this procedure is adequate to get you stalled.
Some people will have ethical objections to keeping a classroom aquarium. Whether it is
or is not appropriate to keep plants and animals in a classroom aquarium for instruc-
tional purposes will be left to individual teachers and students to decide. If instructors
do decide that a classroom aquarium is appropriate, these instructions will help ensure
that it is a healthy medium within which the plants and animals can live.
Equipment
'-*i • ' " • - '
You will need the items on the following list in order to get started with a classroom
aquarium.
A glass fish tank. The size will depend upon the number of fish you want to keep. A 5-
to 10-gallon tank (19 to 38 liters) is recommended as a beginning size; however, this size
will only hold a few fish. An aquarium can safely support about 1 inch of fish per gallon
of water (10 inches of fish in a 10-gallon aquarium).
Aquarium sand and/or gravel. This can be purchased in a pet shop. Natural sand,
especially from a seashore or lakeside beach, will have to be carefully washed before use
in your tank. It is easier to buy prewashed sand or gravel. Natural sand may also intro-
duce unwanted organisms. A ratio of one pound of gravel for every gallon of water is
recommended.
An air pump with plastic tubing. Tygon is a high quality plastic tubing.
267
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APPENDIX A
An air stone. This is a porous, stone-like block of material that attaches to the end of your
tubing and forces the air from the pump to spread into many small streams of bubbles.
A water filter system. Many pumps are attached to a filter of some kind. Some filters
hang outside the tank Others are built into a plastic grid that is placed below the sand
and gravel in the bottom of the tank. Sub-sand filters are often cheaper and are suitable
for a general purpose tank with a small number of fish or small animals.
Nylon wool (glass wool) and charcoal granules.
Foil wrap (aluminum cooking foil).
Reagent grade salt. This is non-iodized or natural sea salt.
A few crystals of potassium permanganate. This is available in many drug stores and
is often found in school science storerooms. ' •
An aquarium hood or cover is necessary to keep fish from jumping out. Many hoods
have built-in lights. Check standard hood sizes before constructing your own aquarium.
Dried fish food.
An aquarium heater. This is optional, for certain conditions.
An aquarium thermometer is useful for maintaining correct water temperature.
The funds to buy even a small, professionally made fish tank may simply not be available.
You can make your own tanks if you want to save money. If so, you will need the following:
Five pieces of glass. One piece is needed for the bottom and four pieces are needed for
the sides. You can get these at a glass shop. They will cut them for you from glass of the
weight (thickness) you desire. Bigger tanks should be made from heavier glass, but nor-
mal window grade glass is suitable for 5-gallon,tanks. Have the glass shop polish all the
edges of the glass pieces on their machines so that they are smooth and square. Ask
them not to bevel the polished edges. Once you have the glass pieces, you are ready for
the next step.
Aquarium sealant. Aquarium sealant is a glue for sticking pieces of glass together. It is
usually a high quality silicone sealant. Do not use ordinary silicone sealant for this—it
contains a compound that is toxic to fish and other animals. The tube will say
"aquarium sealant" on it. Most aquarium supply shops sell this material. Squeeze a
wide line of sealant out of the tube around the perimeter of the piece you are going to
use for the bottom of your tank. Squeeze a line of the sealant around three sides of two
of the other side pieces. Stand them up on top of the bottom piece so that their edges
overlap at the corners. Repeat the process with the two other side pieces. The tank will
now be formed from the bottom and the four sides. Make sure the sides are square at
the corners and perpendicular to the bottom. Leave the tank where it was assembled
until the sealant dries. It always stays somewhat soft or rubbery. This drying process
268
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Appendices
Appendices
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APPENDIX A
will take about 12 to 24 hours. Then go around the inside corners and the entire bottom
inside where the sides join the bottom piece with a good line of sealant Let this dry for
from 24 to 48 hours. Fill your new tank with water and let it stand to test that it is
leakproof and mat the sealant is secure.
Caution: Water is heavy! It is never a good idea to try to carry even a small
aquarium while it is filled with water.
Preparation of Tank for Animals
Once you have a tank, and the other items mentioned above, follow these steps to get it
ready for the fish or other animals.
Step 1. Set up the tank where it is not in direct sunlight. You may use a 25
watt bulb in a normal lamp for light if your room has little natural
light.
Step 2. Put your aquarium sand in a bucket and wash it with hot water.
Swirl the water with the sand and pour off the water and any fine
debris. Repeat this process until the wash water is clear. New sand is
usually dusty—and this process removes the dust.
Step 3. Pour the sand into the bottom of the tank and smooth it until it covers
the bottom. If you are using a sub-sand filter, you should place it on
the tank bottom before you add the sand.
Step 4. Cover the sand with a sheet of the aluminum foil wrap. Slowly add
hot tap water. The foil prevents the sand from being stirred up as you
pour in the water, but pour quite slowly and gently, Once the water
cools, remove the aluminum foil wrap.
Step 5. Add a teaspoon of the plain salt (non-iodized). Add a few crystals of
potassium permanganate. This step helps to maintain the chemical
balance of the tank water. Or, instead of potassium permanganate,
use some dechlorinator available from pet stores; use according to in-
structions provided at the time of purchase.
Step 6. Set up your air pump, tubing, and air stone. If you are using a filter
that hangs outside the tank or that is attached to the air pump, set this
up now as well. (This is where you will use the charcoal and glass
wool.) If you are using a sub-sand filter, attach the tubing from the
pump to the tube coming up from the sub-sand filter. (The booklets
that come with the filters or pumps usually will explain this.) Once
your pump and filter are working, and air is bubbling, let the system
"age" for at least 2 days. Five days is better. Aging means letting the
equipment operate with no fish or plants in the water.
269
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APPENDIX A
Step 7. Add plants. These can be floating plants or the type that are planted
in the sand. Make sure your hands are clean before you plant the bot-
tom plants. Rinse them well to get rid of any traces of hand soap,
hand lotion, etc. Be sure the plants are healthy before adding any
animals.
Step 8. You are now almost ready to add the fish or other animals. Before ad-
ding the fish to the tank, float the bags containing the fish or other
animals and the water from the pond or shop where you obtained
them on the surface of your tank for 1 to 2 hours before opening them.
This allows the water from the pond or shop to come to the same
temperature as that in your tank and reduces any stress to the
animals. Add one-half cup of aquarium water to the bag of fish every
15 minutes for 45 minutes to an hour before adding any fish to the
aquarium water. Begin by adding no more than two fish to the
aquarium or else some poisons may develop, killing the fish. Wait
from 3 to 5 days before adding any more fish.
Step 9. You may need a tank heater if you want to keep tropical freshwater
fish, or if your tank gets cold because your school heat is turned off on
weekends or overnight. Heaters for small tanks are fairly inexpensive
and have built-in thermostats to maintain the temperature. They
come with instructions. You may want to set up the thermostat
during Step 6 above. Install an aquarium thermometer to monitor
and maintain recommended water temperature.
Step 10. Once the fish are in the tank and the aquarium is balanced, you
should never have to change all the water. Every month, remove and
replace 25 percent of the water. Remember that the water you use to
replace the aquarium water should be aged water. Keep a supply of
water that has been taken from the tap hot and then allowed to stand
for 2 days in a clean bottle, with salt and permanganate crystals or
dechlorinator added. If aquarium water is heated, add replacement
water slowly to avoid shocking fish with cold water.
Feeding. Feed the fish lightly once each day. Do not feed more than the fish can eat in
2 or 3 minutes. Feeding on weekends may not be necessary. Never leave quantities of
decaying food or any vegetable matter (dead plants, etc.) in the tank. Make or purchase
a siphon and "vacuum" your tank with it. If you are away for a long time, you can get
slow feeding tablets from pet supply shops. Make friends with the school custodians—
they will often look after your tank on holidays. Some animals—frogs, salamanders,
dragonfly nymphs, and diving beetles—require live food. Brine shrimp are good sour-
ces for this; you can set up and keep a brine shrimp colony in the classroom. You can
also buy live brine shrimp in many aquarium supply shops.
270
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APPENDIX A
Disease. There are many diseases which afflict aquarium fish, but probably the two
most common are fungus and Ich. Fungus occurs after an injury or loss of the fish's
protective mucous coating and appears on the fish as white cotton-like patches. Ich
usually occurs after a period of stress and looks like small grains of salt on the fish. Con-
sult a pet shop for proper medications.
Special Purpose Tanks
Aquaria can take many forms and shapes. You can make small aquaria from gallon jugs
if they have clear glass. You can use a two-hole stopper on top so that the tube from an
air pump can be let into the neck of the bottle. You will have to use a small air stone so
that it can be slipped through the narrow neck into the bottle. If you have a special jar
cutter, a tool for scribing around glass jars so that they can be cut to remove the neck,
you can make a number of cylindrical tanks from scrap bottles and jugs. Be careful to
avoid cutting yourself. Some local glass shops will do this job for you. Always have the
newly cut surfaces polished—a freshly cut glass surface is very sharp.
You can use aquarium sealant and small pieces of glass to make miniaquaria of special
shapes so that you or the students can photograph fish and pond animals in a thin
"sandwich" of water. Otherwise, the thickness of water in a normal tank allows the
animal to turn away from the camera or swim out of view, especially in closeups. You
can also adjust the lights on small tanks to get well-lighted photos. If you are studying
special behaviors—egg laying or predation, for example—then small, narrow tanks are
often best.
Often small aquaria and small animals are more useful for examination and observation
than are big tanks, but big tanks can serve as long-term classroom learning centers the
focus for many instructional activities, including creative writing, drawing, painting,
poetry, reading, and research, as well as science and mathematics activities.
Reprinted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental Education Council,
Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC, ©1987).
271
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APPENDIX B
Appendix B
Field Ethics: Determining What, Where, and
Whether or Not!
The question of whether to collect some objects from natural settings—either temporari-
ly or permanently—is difficult to answer. Such decisions are left to individual teachers
and their students. We do, however, urge thoughtful decision-making about the
process. We urge caution and respect for the living environment. In most cases, we
urge no collecting at all—and recommend instead leaving the natural environment as it
is found, with as little impact from students in the process of learning as possible. There
are times, however, when it may seem appropriate and so instructionally powerful that
some limited forms of collecting are desired. If so, we recommend involving students in
the process of deciding whether, what, and how to collect.
Collecting for instructional purposes can take a variety of forms. Sometimes it involves
going outside to .the school grounds and picking up fallen leaves on an autumn day.
Sometimes it involves collecting human-made litter from a park. Sometimes it involves
using a net and examining organisms found in pond water. If any collecting is to be
done, students should begin with a respect for the environment. You should determine
in advance what laws may apply. Involve your students in deciding what, if anything,
to collect. Have them decide in advance how much is appropriate. By involving stu-
dents in the process of deciding whether and what to collect, they are more likely to
develop an ethic which considers their impact on ecosystems. This kind of thoughtful
decision-making about the consequences of our actions is an important lifelong skill.
The following ethic was developed by a class of sixth graders in Illinois:
1. We should obey all laws protecting plants and animals.
2. We should ask the owner before we take anything.
3. We should only collect an animal if we know we can keep it
alive long enough to learn from it.
4. We should not collect things that will hurt us.
5. We should only collect something if there are a lot of them in
that place.
6. We should only collect something if we can learn something
very important about it.
Obviously, any collecting for instructional purposes should leave the environment as lit-
tle changed as possible. It should not significantly damage wildlife or its habitat. Where
272
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APPENDIX B
possible, any thing collected from the environment for instructional purposes should be
returned to the environment in the location in which it was found at the conclusion of
the activity.
We also need to consider an ethic that goes beyond the collecting issue. We can affect
living things in other ways too. For example, just by walking over fragile areas outdoors
or observing animals under certain conditions, we can destroy or disturb organisms.
When we leave a trail, we can kill plants and animals. When we walk on rocks, we can
remove new soil and crush mosses and lichens if they are present. When we walk along
the banks of a pond or stream, vegetation can be affected. When we leave traces of
aquatic vegetation on a shore, they can change the beauty and ecology of an area.
We cannot decide what is ethical and appropriate for teachers and students. We can en-
courage every learner to pay attention to the consequences of actions. We do urge
thoughtful decision-making and responsible behavior—not. just as an outcome or goal of
a project—but as a path to take in the process of learning.
Reprinted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental Education Council,
Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC, ©1987).
273
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APPENDIX C
Appendix C
Guidelines for Interviewing People
To some extent, everyone in a community is an expert on something. Perhaps your stu-
dents will want to know what something in the community looked like 20 or 40 years
ago. They may want to speak with some long-living residents. Ah interview can pro-
vide a powerful piece of oral history—or it can be an intrusion into the life and privacy
of a person. If students are sent out to interview people, some guidelines are useful.
Students should have an introductory letter on school stationery explaining what they are
doing, who they are, and asking for cooperation and assistance—with thanks in advance.
• Interviews should be planned in advance, at least in terms of outlining
major questions to be asked.
• Students should be taught to conduct a professional interview, and to
keep the interview focused on the purposes of the research. For
example, students should listen and record their subject's responses.
Rather than the students using the time of the interview to expound
their own views on the topic, their task is to learn the subject's views.
The subject should at all times be treated with dignity and respect.
• If any form of recording is desired, the people being interviewed should be
asked in advance for their permission and should be told what will be
done with the information. If you want to quote the person being
interviewed by name, then the person should be given the opportunity to
see the written proceedings of the interview, review any excerpts to be
used, or review the recording before any class or public use of the
information takes place.
• If any public opinion surveys or other forms of interviews in public places
are planned, students should be supervised by adult helpers. People who
might be concerned (shop keepers, mall managers, etc.) should be asked in
advance and informed about the project and its purposes.
• If people do not want to be interviewed, thank them politely for their
time and let them proceed with their business.
• As a general principle, it is recommended that any interviews to be
conducted by students be arranged in advance by their teacher.
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APPENDIX C
ii An in-class trial run or practice session using role-playing techniques
with students acting parts and other students serving as constructive
critics of their performances can be effective preparation for actually
conducting interviews.
Reprinted with permission from: Western Regional Environmental Education Council,
Aquatic Project Wild (Boulder, CO: WREEC, ©1987).
275
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GLOSSARY
Glossary
acid: a substance with a pH less than 7; a substance that has more hydrogen ions than
hydroxide ions, and releases hydrogen ions in solution
acid deposition: the acids and acid-forming compounds that fall from the atmosphere
to the Earth, as a result of air pollution
acid rain: the falling of acids and acid-forming compounds from the atmosphere to the
Earth through precipitation in the form of rain, snow, fog, and hail
A.D.: anno Domini (Latin for "in the year of the Lord"); an abbreviation used to denote
the number of years after the birth of Jesus Christ according to the Gregorian calendar
Adena: a group of ancient Indians that populated the Ohio River Valley from 700 B.C.
to 400 A.D.
aeration: the process of exposing and mixing a substance with air; in water treatment,
aeration helps release certain contaminants to the atmosphere as gases and accelerates
the decomposition of microbial contaminants
algae: small, simple plants (without roots, stems, or leaves) that carry out
photosynthesis in rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans, and other surface waters
alluvium: material transported and deposited by a river; also, any stream- or river-laid
sediment deposit found in a stream or river channel or low-lying parts of a stream or
river valley that is subject to flooding
amoeba: a single-celled organism with a characteristically indefinite and changeable
form; amoeba move by means of cytoplasmic flow that produces protrusions, or "feet,"
called pseudopodia
amphibian: a type of vertebrate that is aquatic and gill-bearing in its larval stage but
air-breathing as an adult; amphibians are generally terrestrial except when they breed,
and include frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders
appendage: a part that is joined to the main body of an organism
aquatic: something that lives or grows in or on the water
aquifer: porous, saturated layers of underground rock that contain pumpable quantities
of water
Archaic: the first group of people to live in permanent settlements along the Ohio River
archeologist: someone who systematically recovers and studies material evidence from
human cultures from the past
artifact: an article that has been left behind by an ancient culture
276
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GLOSSARY
bacteria: a type of one-celled organism; some bacteria transmit diseases but most are
decomposers
base: a substance with a pH more than 7; a substance that has less hydrogen ions than
hydroxide ions, and releases hydroxide ions in solution
B.C.: "before Christ;" an abbreviation used to denote the number of years before the
birth of Jesus Christ according to the Gregorian calendar
bog: an environment that is characterized by wet mats of vegetation/ usually has
mosses as the most common plant species, and is underlain by undecomposed organic
soil or peat
buffering agent: a substance that serves to resist a change in pH of another substance
career: a chosen job or field of occupation
carnivore: an animal that feeds on other animals
cilia: a hair-like structure that is used for locomotion (primarily in single-celled
organisms)
circumference: the distance around a circle, or perimeter of a closed area
coal-fired power plant: a plant that burns coal in order to produce energy
condensation: the physical transformation of a gas into a liquid
conservation: the use, management, and protection of resources so that they are not
degraded, depleted, or wasted and are available on a sustainable basis for use by present
and future generations
consumer: an organism that cannot manufacture food from nonliving substances, but
instead must feed on other living things for energy; a person who etcquires goods or
services
cost the resources that must be expended to attain a good or achieve a goal
cutoff: the process by which water in a meandering river continually erodes the river's
banks until it ultimately breaks through, generating a more direct route for river flow
and leaving behind an oxbow lake
dam: a structure built across a river or stream to capture water that would otherwise
naturally flow along the river or stream; a dam can be used to control water depth or
hold water for use during droughts
decomposer: an organism that feeds on and breaks down dead plant and animal
material into substances that are used as nutrients by plants
degradable: capable of being broken down into smaller pieces by the action of sun,
water, or microorganisms
277
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GLOSSARY
density: weight per unit volume (for example, grams per milliliter)
development the conversion of natural environments to human-built environments
(such as farms or urban areas)
disinfection: a chemical or physical process that kills disease-causing organisms
dissolve: to cause to pass into solution
dissolved oxygen: oxygen that is in solution
distribution system: a system in which water (or some other resource) is transported
from areas of supply to where it is needed
diversity: the number of species present in an ecosystem
drainage basin: the land area that delivers runoff water, sediment, and dissolved
substances to a body of surface water (also watershed)
drinking water treatment plant: a plant at which ground-water or surface water
contaminants are removed through a variety of processes so that the water can safely be
used as a drinking water supply
Earth: the planet on which we live
economic: pertaining to the production, development, and management of resources
economy: a system created by a human population to manage and develop resources
ecosystem: a community of organisms that interact with each other and are influenced
by the chemical and physical factors that make up their environment
endangered: a species that has been classified as being in immediate danger of
extinction
erosion: the movement of surface materials, usually soils, from one place to another by
the forces of wind, water, or gravity
erosion control: a method used to minimize soil erosion, such as planting ground cover
on fallow fields
eutrophic: excessively nutrient-rich; eutrophic conditions stimulate extreme plant
growth (primarily algae), which can deplete a water body of dissolved oxygen, resulting
in the death of oxygen-dependent species in that water body
evaporation: the physical transformation of a liquid into a gas
extincfa no longer in existence
fauna: the animals of a particular area
filter: to remove solid particles from water or other fluid
278
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GLOSSARY
filtration: a process that removes solid particles from water, usually by passing the
water through sand or other porous material
floe: particles that have clumped together to form larger masses, which can settle out of
a liquid, as in water treatment
floodplain: land along a stream or river that is periodically flooded when the stream or
river overflows its banks
flora: the plants of a particular area
food chain: a series of species that interact in such a way that certain species feed on (or
decompose) other species that are lower on the chain
Fort Ancient: a group of Indians that inhabited the Ohio River from about 1200 A.D. to
1650 A.D.
fossil: a remnant or trace of an organism from a past geologic age that is preserved in
the Earth's crust
freshwater: water with a salinity (salt) level of 0-0.5 percent; inland water as opposed to
water in the ocean or coastal marshes
gas: a state of matter in which a substance has very low density, the ability to readily
expand and contract due to pressure and temperature changes, and the tendency to
become uniformly distributed within any container that it is held
geographical: pertaining to the natural features of the earth, including terrain, climate,
water, soils, and minerals
glacial till: material, such as soil and rocks, that is picked up and moved by glaciers
glacier: a massive sheet of moving ice formed by the compaction of snow over long
periods of time
ground water: water that sinks into the soil and is stored under the surface of the earth
in rock formations and/ or sediments
habitat: the type of surroundings in which an animal or plant species normally lives,
consisting of food, shelter, air, water, and space in a suitable arrangement
healthy environment: an environment that is supportive of life
heat capacity: the amount of heat required to raise the temperature: of one gram of a
substance by one degree Celsius
herbivore: an animal that eats plants
Hopewell: a group of ancient Indians that populated the Ohio River Valley from 200
B.C. to 500 A.D.
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GLOSSARY
Ice Age: Any of a series of cold periods marked by extensive glaciation, together
constituting the Pleistocene or glacial epoch; during the Ice Age, glacial deposits covered
much of North America, including most of the Ohio River Valley
indicator species: a species whose condition, presence, or absence gives early warnings
that an ecosystem is being degraded
infiltrate: the process by which surface waters move into rock or soil
invertebrate: an animal that has no backbone
larva: an immature form of an animal that looks very different than the mature adult
liquid: a state of matter in which a substance flows readily, is not easily compressed,
and has little tendency to disperse
litter: objects that have been improperly discarded; a form of pollution
lock: a section of a waterway that is enclosed by gates, in which boats are raised or
lowered by the raising or lowering of the water level between the gates
macroinvertebrate: an organism without a backbone that is visible to the naked eye
mammal: a warm-blooded animal with hair (or fur); mammals give birth to live young
and produce milk to feed their offspring; mammals include animals such as dogs,
rabbits, and humans
mammoth: an extinct animal that was an ancestor to the elephant and lived throughout
the Northern Hemisphere during the Ice Age
marsh: an aquatic environment with shallow, slow-moving or stagnant water that has
grasses as the most common plant species; freshwater marshes are usually associated
with rivers
mastodon: an extinct animal that resembled the elephant
meander: a bend in a river; the process by which a river bends
metamorphosis: a change in body form that transforms an immature animal into an
adult
microinvertebrate: an animal without a backbone that is too small to be seen with the
naked eye
microscopic: too small to be visible to the naked eye
migratory: a species that seasonally moves from one location to another
neutral: a substance with a pH of 7; a substance that has the same number of hydrogen
ions and hydroxide ions
280
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GLOSSARY
nitrogen oxide: a compound that combines with water in the atmosphere to form nitric
acid; nitrogen oxide is a precursor to acid rain and acid deposition
nutrient: an element or compound that is needed for the survival, growth, and
reproduction of a plant or animal
nymph: a young insect that generally resembles its parents when it hatches but lacks
some adult characteristics, which it gains when it undergoes metamorphosis
omnivore: an animal that feeds on both plants and animals
opportunity cost: the alternative benefit that must be foregone when resources are used
to attain some good or achieve some goal
oxbow lake: a crescent-shaped lake that has been formed by the cutoff of a meandering
river
paramecium: a unicellular organism that moves by use of cilia
pH: a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
pH scale: a system used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a material that ranges
from 0 to 14; a pH of 7 is neutral, a pH of less than 7 is acidic, and a pH of more than 7 is
basic
photosynthesis: a process by which plants form organic compounds (usually glucose)
from inorganic compounds (usually carbon dioxide and water) using energy absorbed
from sunlight by chlorophyll and releasing oxygen
phytoplankton: microscopic, free-floating, photosynthetic organisms that are the major
producers in aquatic ecosystems
Pleistocene Epoch: a geologic epoch that lasted from 500,000 to 11,000 years ago
pollution: any substance, biological or chemical, that contaminates an environment,
reduces its environmental quality, and is detrimental to living organisms in that
environment when it occurs in excess
precipitation: water that falls from the atmosphere in the form of rain, sleet, hail, and
snow
predator: An organism that captures and feeds on parts or all of other species of
organisms (prey)
producer: an organism that forms organic compounds using only inorganic materials
and energy from external sources (usually sunlight); plants and some microscopic
organisms are producers
pupa: a developmental stage in insects between the larval and adult stages; pupae are
immobile (sometimes in cases, such as cocoons) and undergo extensive body changes
281
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GLOSSARY
recycle: to collect and reprocess resources so that they can be used again
reptile: a cold-blooded vertebrate that breathes with lungs and usually has a skin
covered with dry plates or scales; reptiles include animals such as turtles, snakes,
crocodiles, and lizards
reservoir: a human-created body of standing freshwater, held in reserve for use, which
is often built behind a dam
resource: anything obtained from the environment to meet human needs and wants
riparian: located or living along or near a stream, river, or other flowing freshwater
body
runoff: water (in the form of rain, snowmelt, etc.) that does not immediately sink into
the ground, but instead travels along the surface
saltwater: water with a relatively high salinity (salt) level; saltwater in the open sea
generally has a salinity level of from 3.2-3.75 percent
sedimentation: a process in which heavy particles settle out of water; this process is
usually conducted as part of water treatment in holding ponds or large basins;
sedimentation is also the end result of erosion
sewage: organic and inorganic waste material carried in suspension through sewers
and into wastewater treatment systems
soil erosion: the wearing away of soil by environmental forces such as water, wind, and
gravity
solid: a state of matter in which a substance has a definite shape and volume, and does
not flow or disperse
solution: a homogenous mixture in which one or more substances (i.e., solutes) are
dissolved in a liquid (i.e., a solvent)
stratification: tihe separation of water layers; a layer of warmer and less dense water
floats on top of colder and denser water, and both layers are separated by a thin layer of
relatively rapid temperature change called a thermocline
sulfur dioxide: a compound that combines with oxygen and water in the atmosphere to
form sulfuric acid; sulfur dioxide is a precursor to acid rain and acid deposition and is
usually emitted from the combustion of impure fossil fuels, particularly in coal-fired
power plants and automobiles
surface tension: a property that causes the surface of a standing body of a liquid to act
like an elastic film because the molecules of the liquid have a stronger attraction for each
other than they do for the air above
282
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GLOSSARY
surface water: water and ice found in rivers, lakes, swamps, and other aboveground
water bodies
suspension: the dispersion of small, solid particles in a liquid
swamp: an aquatic environment with shallow slow-moving or stagnant water that has
trees as the most common plant species
temperature: the degree of hotness or coldness of an environment
thermocline: a thin water layer of rapidly changing temperature between stratified
water layers of different temperature
threatened: a species that is likely to become endangered if the threats facing it are not
alleviated
tradeoff: a gain in one thing at the expense of another
transpiration: the process by which water moves up through a living plant and is
transferred to the atmosphere as water vapor from exposed parts of the plant
tributary: a smaller river or stream that flows into a larger river or stream
turbid: liquid that is cloudy because it contains significant quantities of suspended
particles and other material
use: the application or employment of something for some purpose
velocity: the rate at which a body moves in a given direction
vertebrate: an animal with a backbone
volume: the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by a substance
wastewater treatment plant: a plant at which contaminants are removed from
residential and industrial wastewater through a variety of processes so that this water
can be safely released into public waterways
water: a liquid that is made up of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom;
water is essential for plant and animal life
waterborne disease: a disease that is transmitted through water by disease-causing
microorganisms
water cycle: the circulation of the Earth's fixed supply of water from the oceans and
surface waters to the atmosphere and back to the oceans and surface waters by way of
evaporation, transpiration, precipitation, runoff from streams and rivers, and
ground-water flow
water pollution: any physical or chemical change in surface water or ground water that
can harm living organisms or make the water unfit for certain uses
283
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GLOSSARY
watershed: the land area that delivers runoff water, sediment, and dissolved substances
to a body of surface water (also drainage basin)
wetland: an area that floods periodically, has waterlogged soils, or is covered with a
relatively shallow layer of fresh-or saltwater
wet meadow: a grassy area that is under water during part of the year
zooplankton: usually microscopic, free-floating, animals in aquatic ecosystems
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*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1992-649-632
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