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This is the first in a series of reports on international
environmental developments to be published by the
Office of International Activities at the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. The purpose of these reports is to
inform interested U.S. citizens about important international
environmental developments and concerns while focusing on
those issues most relevant to the quality of life in our nation.
This first report identifies certain emerging threats to global
ecosystems. Later reports will focus on:
• Threats to ecosystems shared by the U. S. with other
countries.
• Innovative approaches to environmental protection in
other countries.
• Growing threats to national security caused by
dwindling or degraded resources around the world.
• Successful application of U.S. technology and expertise
in helping people around the world solve their
environmental problems.
• The role of international institutions in solving inter-
national environmental problems that can't be solved by
any one nation acting alone.
These reports are being prepared because international
environmental problems pose direct threats to the quality of
life in the United States; present continuing challenges and
opportunities for U. S. leadership and expertise; and, with
increasing frequency, create potential national security risks.
These reports seek to fill information gaps about international
environmental problems while identifying additional sources
of more detailed information and expertise.
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Emerging Global Environmental Issues
Global Environmental
Problems and the
Quality of Life in the
United States
In 1950, the world's population was 2.5
billion people. By 1975, twenty-five
years later, the total was four billion.
Twelve years later, in 1987, the total had
increased another billion, to five billion.
The next billion are expected to be
added by 1997 or 1998. Although the
unprecedented rapid rates of world
population growth of 2.0 percent per
year seen in early 1970s have slowed
somewhat to 1.48 percent in 1995, by the
year 2050 world population is expected
to grow to between nine or ten billion
people.
During this time of rapid population
growth, human impact on the planet has
increased significantly. New technolo-
gies that have allowed us to dig deeper,
cut faster, and reroute large quantities of
water have profoundly altered our
physical environment. Although new
technologies have given humans
increased power both to protect and
destroy the environment, the combina-
tion of more people and greater techni-
cal potency has created several growing
environmental threats.
It is evident that human caused
environmental degradation existed long
before the twentieth century. Human
communities throughout history
frequently exceed the carrying capacities
of the local ecosystems that sustain
them. For instance, some early agricul-
tural societies often had to move to new
locations to feed their people after
depleting soil resources.
Yet the scale of environmental
problems has dramatically increased
recently. For the first time, human
actions are threatening global ecosys-
tems. In light of these global environ-
mental threats, nations can no longer
assume that environmental quality
goals can be achieved through indi-
vidual national action alone.
The amount of coal and oil burning
in one country may affect temperatures
in many others; the use of certain
pesticides in one part of the world can
affect the quality of life in other places of
the globe. For instance, several toxic
substances that are banned in the U. S.
still threaten this country because of
long range air transport from other
countries where they are still in use.
Among the more important environ-
mental problems facing the global
community today are: climate change,
depletion of stratospheric ozone, the
world wide spread of persistent organic
pollutants, loss of biodiversity, and
ocean degradation.
These problems should be of notable
concern to Americans. First, they create
direct and significant threats to human
health and the ecosystems in the United
States.
Second, U.S. actions may adversely
impact other parts of the world. To the
extent that U.S.-based activities are
contributing to global and regional
environmental problems, Americans
may need to modify their behavior.
Third, degradation of the world's
resources is rapidly becoming a matter
of strategic national interest, as competi-
tion for access to scarce and diminishing
resources has induced nations to go to
war, destabilizes governments, or
creates international refugees.
Fourth, global environmental
problems have the potential to diminish
the quality of life of our children. As the
world's resources are degraded by
present activities, current generations
may be failing to fulfill their responsi-
bilities to future ones.
On the plus side, global environment
problems contribute to the U.S. economy
by creating opportunities for U.S.
environmental technology and expertise
to be applied word-wide.
These global environmental prob-
lems present new challenges for
environmental policy makers because:
• Global problems cannot be solved
by U.S. domestic action alone. We
must work to achieve international
cooperation to solve them.
• Global problems cannot be measured
by monitoring only in the U.S. We
need global cooperation to monitor
and assess emerging international
problems.
• Global problems are not as visible as
domestic ones such as smog in large
cities or the destruction of a wetland.
Therefore, many Americans remain
unaware of such problems and how
their actions may impact them.
Threats to the global environment
are steadily increasing. As human
population and technological power
continue to grow, so does the need for
effective global environmental protec-
tion. In order to better facilitate the
international and local efforts necessary
to combat these global threats, it is
necessary to develop awareness and
understanding of these issues within the
United States.
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Climate Change
The global climate is always changing.
It is influenced by both natural forces
and human activities. The greenhouse
effect, which allows incoming1 solar
radiation to pass through the Earth's
atmosphere but prevents much of the
outgoing infra-red radiation from
escaping into outer space, is a natural
process. Natural greenhouse gases
include water vapor, carbon dioxide,
ozone and other trace gases. Without
this natural greenhouse effect, life on
Earth as we know it would not exist.
Emissions of some greenhouse gases,
as a result of human activities, are
creating an enhanced greenhouse effect.
These anthropogenic (human induced)
greenhouse gases include carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
ozone depleting substances. Human
activities have altered the chemical
composition of the atmosphere and as a
result, the Earth's climate is changing.
Over the past 200 years, emissions from
cars, power plants, and other human
activities have led to about a 30 percent
increase in the natural concentration of
carbon dioxide and more than a dou-
bling of atmospheric concentration of
methane. Globally, the average tem-
perature of the Earth has warmed about
The Greenhouse Effect
1 degree Fahrenheit since the mid-19th
century when measurements began.
The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) concluded in its
1995 scientific assessment that "the
balance of evidence suggests a discern-
ible human influence on global climate."
There is strong scientific evidence that
the continued addition of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere will continue
to alter global climate and cause increas-
ing temperatures as well as changes in
rainfall and other weather patterns.
The IPCC reports that unless the
world takes steps to reduce the emissions
of gases that are causing this greenhouse
effect, global temperatures could rise 1.5
to 6 degrees Fahrenheit by the year 2100.
This would represent the fastest rate of
warming since the end of the last ice age
more than 10,000 years ago.
Climate change poses significant
risks to human health, the environment,
and the economy. Although there are
many uncertainties about the timing,
magnitude and regional patterns
involved, there is strong evidence that
these changes will have significant
implications for humankind and the
environment. The projected planetary
effects of the increased warming include:
• Higher average global precipitation
resulting in some parts of the Earth
becoming dryer and others wetter.
• A rise in sea level of 6-38 inches by
the year 2100.
• Variations in regional climate and
vegetation.
• Changes in productivity of agricul-
tural lands.
• Increases in the intensity and
severity of tropical storms.
Climate change models show that
the effects of climate change are not
distributed equally around the world.
Actual temperature differences will
likely differ greatly depending upon
location, with projected increases in the
tropics much smaller than in regions
near the poles. Decreases in precipita-
tion are expected in some areas, while
precipitation is expected to increase in
others. Some nations, such as the
Netherlands, Egypt, and Bangladesh
and many small island nations, are
particularly threatened by sea-level rise
due to climate change.
According to the IPCC, if the world
is to stabilize greenhouse gases at 1990
atmospheric levels, we must reduce
carbon dioxide emissions by over sixty
percent, methane by fifteen to twenty
percent, and other greenhouse gases
between forty and eighty percent.
The U.S. is the largest contributor of
greenhouse gases, contributing 19.14
percent of the world wide total. The
U.S. contributes approximately 22
percent of the world's carbon dioxide
emissions, although the U.S. share is
decreasing relative to the rest of the
world due to rapidly rising emissions
levels in the developing world.
The main man-made source of
carbon dioxide is the burning of fossil
fuels. Fossil-fuel combustion produces
ninety-nine percent of the total gross
U.S. emissions. Industry is the largest
source of total gross emissions, and
transportation the second.
Source: U.S. Department of State 1992
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Methane is the second most preva-
lent anthropogenic greenhouse gas.
Sources of methane in the U.S. include
landfills, agricultural activities, fossil
fuel combustion, coal mining, produc-
tion and processing of natural gas, and
wastewater treatment. Landfills are the
largest single source, comprising almost
a third of methane emissions. Emissions
from agricultural activities and oil are
the next largest sources of U.S. methane
emissions.
The U.S. was the fourth nation
overall, and the first industrialized
nation, to ratify the Framework Conven-
tion on Climate Change. Under this
treaty, the world's industrialized nations
pledged to undertake policies and
measures to reduce their emissions of
the greenhouse gases that are changing
the Earth's climate. To meet his pledge,
President Clinton unveiled the U.S.
Climate Change Action Plan (CCAP) in
October 1993. Its main goal is to reduce
U.S. greenhouse gas emissions to their
1990 levels by the year 2000. Under the
Framework Convention Treaty, the
United States is negotiating legally
binding targets for reducing greenhouse
gases.
No single U.S. department, agency
or level of government has sole respon-
sibility for the panoply of issues associ-
ated with climate change. On the
federal level climate change policy is
coordinated by officials from the State
Department, the Department of Com-
merce, the Department of Energy and
the EPA. At EPA, climate change
programs reside with the Office of Air
and Radiation and the Office of Policy,
Planning, and Evaluation. The Office of
International Activities provides support
to EPA's lead offices. To access further
information on climate change issues
contact OPPE's toll free Fax-On-
Demand line at (202) 260-2860 or visit
the world wide web climate change
home page at http:/www. epa.gov/
globalwarming.
Stratospheric Ozone
Another serious global environmental
problem is the depletion of the strato-
spheric ozone layer caused by chemicals
used primarily for refrigeration, fire
retardation, aerosol propulsion, and
cleaning. The stratospheric ozone layer
protects life on earth from dangerous
levels of ultraviolet radiation. This
ozone shield has been thinning because
of emissions of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and several other industrial
chemicals.
When the ozone layer is degraded, a
higher level of ultraviolet radiation
reaches the Earth's surface. From a
human health standpoint, increased
ultraviolet radiation can cause an
increase of skin cancer, cataracts, and
possible immune system impairments.
Environmentally, increased ultraviolet
radiation can cause a reduction in crop
yields and diminished productivity of
oceans; it may also be related to the
current world wide decline of amphibi-
ous populations.
CFCs were invented more than sixty
years ago in the U.S. and soon found
uses throughout the world. (Other
ozone-attacking chemicals include
carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide,
methyl chloroform, and halons.) When
CFCs are emitted, they mix with the
atmosphere and eventually rise to the
stratosphere, where they attack the
protective ozone layer.
This essential protective layer is
being steadily eroded. World wide
monitoring has shown that stratospheric
ozone has been decreasing for the past
few decades or more. The average loss
across the globe totals about 5 percent
since the rnid-1960s, with cumulative
losses of about 10 percent in the winter
and spring and a 5 percent loss in the
summer and autumn over North
America, Europe, and Australia. Since
the 1970s, an ozone hole has formed
over Antarctica each austral Spring
(September/October), in which 60
percent of the total ozone is depleted.
The sudden detection of an ozone
hole over Antarctica ten years ago,
galvanized international action. The
Vienna Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer became effective in
1988 and was quickly amended in 1989
by the Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The
Montreal Protocol called for the produc-
tion of CFCs to be reduced by fifty
Ozone Concentrations Over Antarctia
1979 1982 1985 1988
Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
4
1991
1994
-------
percent before 1995, and by another
fifty percent before 2000. In 1990, the
London Amendment to the Montreal
Protocol was enacted in the face of
growing concern about the state
of the ozone layer. The London
Amendment called for the complete
phase-out of CFCs by the year 2000.
In 1992, the Copenhagen Amend-
ment to the Montreal Protocol called
for complete phase-out of CFCs by
1996, in response to scientific
evidence that stratospheric ozone
was being depleted faster than
predicted.
To implement the Montreal
Protocol and its amendments, EPA
issued regulations for phasing out
production and importation of CFCs.
These regulations were issued under
authority of the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1990. In a relatively
short time, chemical substitutes for
CFCs have been developed, and
rising concentrations of these
substitutes are being measured in the
atmosphere. Although these
chemicals are reducing threats to the
ozone layer, some of the substitutes
are themselves potent greenhouse
gases. While production of CFCs in
the United States has been halted,
CFCs continue to be smuggled into
the United States and are still being
produced in some parts of the world.
At EPA, responsibility for
stratospheric ozone programs resides
in the Office of Atmospheric Pro-
grams, Stratospheric Protection
Division, and the Office of Air and
Radiation. For further information,
contact the Stratospheric Ozone
Hotline at 1-800-296-1996, or visit the
world wide web stratospheric ozone
home page at http:\\www.epa.gov
\docs\ozone.
Long Range Transport
of Toxic Substances
World wide evidence is growing of threats
to ecosystems and human health caused by
several long-range air pollution problems.
There is particular concern about a class of
chemicals generally referred to as persistent
organic pollutants (POPs). POPs are
receiving international attention because
they: are toxic to humans and animals; do
not degrade readily in the environment;
tend to bioaccumulate; and often change
from solid to gaseous phase and thereby
travel long distances in the air before being
redeposited in the environment. Scientific
evidence is mounting that some POPs
cause a variety of genetic, reproductive,
and behavioral abnormalities in wildlife
and humans, and may be associated with
increased incidence in humans of cancer
and neurological deficits.
Endocrine Disrupters, a group of
chemicals that include some POPs, are
believed to block or mimic the natural
action of hormones such as estrogen and
androgen, thereby disrupting the endocrine
system that regulates sexual and reproduc-
tive development. Wildlife exposure to
these endocrine-disrupting POPs has been
linked to:
• Thyroid dysfunction in birds and fish.
• Decreased fertility in birds, fish,
shellfish, and mammals.
• Decreased hatching success in birds,
turtles, and fish.
• Gross birth deformities in birds, fish,
and turtles.
• Feminization of male fish, birds, and
mammals.
• Masculinization of female fish, birds,
and mammals.
• Compromised immune systems in
birds and mammals.
Although the evidence of the endocrine-
disrupting functions of some POPs in
wildlife is mounting, the evidence of their
effects on humans is less strong. Neverthe-
less, some scientists see growing connec-
tions between people's increased exposure
to POPs and significant human health
problems. Many scientists are investigat-
ing linkages between POPs and breast and
testicular cancer, ectopic pregnancies,
reductions in sperm count,
Global Movement of POPs
maldevelopment of the testicles and the
urethra, and mood deficiencies.
Because POPs are persistent and semi-
volatile, they are prone to long-
range transport, moving great distances
across the globe. Their chemical make-
up also creates an affinity to colder
temperatures, an attribute known as
"cold-fractionation." This phenomenon
causes a generalized migration of these
substances from the warmer equatorial
regions northward and southward toward
the poles. As a result, POPs have been
detected at undefined levels in the Arctic,
far removed from any geographic region
where these compounds were used. Since
many of these compounds are also prone
to bioaccumulation, their distribution and
concentration can be significant in many
organisms throughout the world.
To address these problems, in October
of 1995, representatives of over 100
countries met in Washington D.C., at a
conference co-sponsored by the United
Nations Environment Programme and the
United States. These countries reached
agreement on a recommendation to
develop a legally binding instrument
addressing selected POPs.
At EPA, coordination of the interna-
tional work on POPs and other toxics is
the International Toxics Coordinating
Committee (ITCC) which is comprised of
representatives of the Offices of Air and
Radiation, Water, Prevention, Pesticides,
Toxic Substances, Research and Develop-
ment and International Activities. The
Office of International Activities serves as
Secretariat for the ITCC. For information
contact Richard D. White of the Office of
International Activities at (202) 260-6633.
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Loss of Biodiversity
Another global environmental threat is
the world wide loss of biodiversity.
Biodiversity includes all species of
plants, animals, and microorganisms
and the ecosystems and ecological
processes of which they are a part. It is a
term for the degree of nature's variety,
including both the number and fre-
quency of ecosystems, species, or genes.
Biodiversity is usually considered at
three different levels: genetic diversity,
species diversity, and ecosystem diver-
sity.
Although species extinction has been
a fact of life since life first emerged on
Earth, world wide concern about rapid
loss of biodiversity has been steadily
increasing. Current rates of extinction
are much greater than they have been at
any time in history except at periods of
cataclysmic destruction. Rates of species
extinction have increased dramatically
as human numbers and technological
power have increased.
The actual rate of species extinction
is not known because relatively few
species have actually been identified.
Even though scientists have been
identifying and cataloging species for
over two centuries, only 1.8 million have
been identified out of a total 3 to 30
million estimated species world wide.
While a great deal is known about the
more higher level species, such as
pandas, birds, and some plants, less is
known about insects and microorgan-
isms. Because so many species have not
been identified, scientists worry that
many will become extinct before they
are ever discovered and properly
catalogued.
Considering known rates of extinc-
tion, it is clear that humans are accelerat-
ing extinction rates as their impact on
the planet increases. Scientists can
account for the extinction world wide of
75 mammals and over 1600 birds,
resulting in a loss rate of one species
every four years up until the end of the
nineteenth century. Between 1900 and
1980 another 75 mammals and birds
became extinct, and the loss rate acceler-
ated to one species a year. In 1993, the
Number of Species Considered "Threatened'
Threatened Endangered
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibians
Fishes
Invertebrates
Plants
177
188
47
32
158
582
3632
Vulnerable Rare Indeterminate Total
199
241
88
32
226
702
5687
89
257
79
55
246
422
11485
68
176
43
14
304
941
5302
533
862
257
133
934
2647
26106
Source: The World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC pere. comm. 1995)
estimates for mammal and bird extinc-
tion were up to between one and three
species a year.
Although mammals and birds
receive most of the public's attention,
lower species such as insects are often
vital to the interconnected web of life on
which we all depend. Scientific specula-
tions suggest that depletion rates for all
species, not just mammals and birds,
vary from one to three species a day, to
the most pessimistic estimates, of one to
three species per hour. Some of these
projected losses are to species that may
play important roles in maintaining
ecosystems such as pollinating insects.
Scientists often estimate species loss
rates by making projections from known
rates of habitat loss and comparing these
losses with species density in similar
ecosystems. Based on these projections,
a recent United Nations report projects
that between 2 and 25 percent of the
world's tropical forest species will be
committed to extinction in the next 25
years. This rate would be equivalent to
one-thousand to ten-thousand times the
expected rate of loss that would occur
naturally without human intervention.
World wide, the major threats to
biodiversity are non-native species
introduction, habitat destruction, and
hunting or other acts of deliberate
extermination. Habitat destruction is
caused by outright loss of areas due to
land development, by degradation
caused by pollution or vegetative
removal and erosion, and by fragmenta-
tion of ecosystems.
From a human interest point of
view, biodiversity loss deprives us of
valuable resources that could make
important contributions to humanity in
the form of food, pharmaceuticals,
fibers, and petroleum substitutes. The
diversity of species and populations is
also the world's gene pool that may be
used by humans to improve the species
that are used by humans. For instance,
we cross breed wild relatives with
commercial p>lant and food species to
improve the 'yield, nutritional quality,
responsiveness to different soils and
climate, and resistance to pests and
diseases.
Although international attention on
biodiversity has often been focused on
threatened species-rich tropical areas, to
preserve the world's biodiversity
requires that each nation preserve the
biodiversity within its borders.
At the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in Rio
de Janeiro in June of 1992,123 nations
agreed to the Convention on Biological
Diversity, designed to conserve both
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Ocean Degradation
intranational and international
biodiversity. Although, the U.S. did not
originally sign this convention, it was
signed by President Clinton in 1993. It is
currently awaiting ratification by
Congress. It calls for each nation to
preserve global biodiversity by:
• Taking steps to conserve intra-
national biodiversity.
• Promoting the sustainable use of
biodiversity.
• Sharing the benefits of global
biodiversity by requiring those
nations that benefit from genetic
resources to share some of the
economic benefits with those nations
that have acted to preserve the
biodiversity.
• Participating in a global forum on
biodiversity.
In the U.S. from 1977 to 1993, an
average of 34 species per year were
listed as threatened or endangered
under the Endangered Species Act. As
of 1993,3500 species were candidates for
listing as threatened or endangered
under the Endangered Species Act; of
these, 59 percent were plants, 27 percent
were invertebrates, and 14 percent were
vertebrates.
At the federal level in the United
States, various agencies have responsi-
bility for biodiversity matters including
the Department of Interior and EPA.
The Office of International Activities at
EPA takes the lead on international
biodiversity issues. An excellent source
of information on international
biodiversity is the Global Biodiversity
Assessment, published by the United
Nations Environmental Programme. For
additional information on EPA's interna-
tional biodiversity protection efforts,
contact Don Brown at the Office of
International Activities at (202) 260-0714.
Marine ecosystems and biodiversity in
coastal areas around the world are being
seriously threatened by human activi-
ties, stemming largely from increasing
urbanization and pollution.
Perhaps the most significant
ramification of this increased coastal
degradation is habitat loss to marine
organisms. This is caused by the
construction of harbors and industrial
installations, the development of tourist
facilities and mariculture, the growth of
settlements and cities, and pollution.
Habitat losses include destruction of
coral reefs, wetlands, and mangrove
forests.
Recent losses of coral reefs around
the world are of particular concern.
Pollution, over-fishing, and physical
destruction have greatly reduced the
natural productivity of coral reefs world
wide.
Both the developed and the develop-
ing world contribute to the degradation
of the coastal marine environment.
Developing countries account for the
overwhelming majority of urban
population expansion. Because the
urban population in much of the
developing world is doubling every 10
to 15 years, governments in those
countries are overwhelmed as they
attempt to provide sewage treatment or
other basic services necessary to protect
marine and other environments.
Developed countries, on the other
hand, produce the majority of the
world's pollution. Land-based sources
causing ocean pollution include, sewage,
nutrients, agricultural runoff, and
disposal of plastic material. These
sources of pollution contribute between
70-90 percent of the coastal pollution,
while discharges from ships also
contribute significantly to the marine
pollution problem.
Humans are also stressing ocean
ecosystems, reducing marine
biodiversity, and endangering food
supplies of much of the world, by over-
exploiting fish stocks. Because more and
more boats with more efficient fishing
technology are chasing a limited number
of fish, fish stocks in many parts of the
world are decreasing. Maximum limits
on fishing, beyond which fish popula-
tions may rapidly decline, are appar-
ently being surpassed throughout the
Atlantic, Mediterranean and Pacific
regions, as evidenced by dwindling
catches. Since 1989, world wide total
fish extraction levels have stagnated or
declined. In certain areas, extraction
levels have now decreased by more than
50 percent from their peak in the early
1970s. Some of the world's greatest
fishing grounds, including the Grand
Banks and Georges Banks of eastern
North America, are now essentially
closed. Some formerly dominant fish
species have been reduced to a tiny
fraction of their previous abundance and
are considered commercially extinct.
Ocean marine environments are also
threatened by human-caused global
atmospheric changes. Two changes to
the atmosphere that may have poten-
tially profound effects on the ocean
ecosystems are loss of stratospheric
ozone and greenhouse-induced climate
changes. Decreases in stratospheric
ozone allow injurious radiation to
penetrate the ocean and reduce popula-
tions of important life sustaining
biological organism including, phy-
toplankton and zooplankton. These
organism, being on the bottom of the
food chain, are the platform on which all
life is built in the ocean. This damage
could reduce species populations
throughout the entire marine food web,
further impacting world wide food
production.
At the same time, greenhouse-
induced climate change threatens
marine environments through ocean
warming. Ocean warming in turn
changes circulation patterns, rainfall
distribution, and storm tracks. In
addition, as the warmer water expands
and glaciers and pack ice melt, sea levels
will rise; estimates range from 6-38
inches by the year 2100.
At a conference jointly sponsored by
the U.S. and the United Nations Envi-
ronment Programme, over 100 countries
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Coastal Ecosystems Threatened by Development
Source: Dirk Bryant et al., "Coastlines at Risk: An Index of Potential Development-Related Threats to Coastal Ecosystems," World Resources Institute (WRI| Indicator Brief (WRI), Washington, D.C., 1995), p. 4A.
agreed to a "Global Plan of Action" to
deal with critical oceans issues. EPA
and other federal agencies are
currently working on the implementa-
tion of the Global Plan of Action. In
addition, nations around the world,
including the U.S., have recently
begun to tackle the over fishing
problems under two multilateral
agreements. These are the United
Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization Code of Conduct and
the Straddling Stock Agreement under
the Law of the Sea.
In the United States, various
agencies share responsibility for
oceans issues including the Depart-
ments of State, the Department of
Commerce, and the Environmental
Protection Agency. At EPA, oceans
issues are handled in the Offices of
Water and the Office of Pollution
Prevention and Toxics with the
support of the Office of International
Activities. For additional information
on oceans issues visit the EPA Office
of Water home page at http://
www.epa.gov/waterhome.
Other Global
Environmental
Issues
Other emerging world wide environ-
mental problems include deforestation,
the transformation of arable land into
deserts, degradation of drinking water
supplies, inadequate sewage treatment,
and the mismanagement of hazardous
and nuclear wastes. These problems
have not been given the same level of
emphasis as the other problems in this
report because, for the most part, their
impacts are mostly local or regional,
rather than global in environmental
significance. Yet these problems may
be the most immediately life-threaten-
ing and therefore create the highest
immediate risk to millions of people
around the world. The threat to
human health posed by inadequate
drinking water and sewage treatment
is far more direct and immediate for
millions in the developing world than
are the longer-term threats represented
by climate change.
Moreover, some of these more
localized and regional problems, such
as diminished water supplies in areas
with growing populations, although
not threats to global ecosystems, are
creating international security threats
as tensions build over scarce re-
sources. Conflicts over diminishing
resources are growing around the
world. The four resources most likely
to produce international conflict are
cropland, water, fish, and forests.
Recent examples of international
conflict over resources include: the
shooting, by a Spanish fisherman, of a
rival French fisherman; an order by
the Norwegian government to the
Coast Guard to impound certain
vessels, which has prompted the
Icelandic Coast Guard to begin
protecting Icelandic trawlers; and
Russia's arrest and 15-month deten-
tion of three Japanese fishermen for
illegal fishing.
For more information on
emerging global environmental issues
call Don Brown at the EPA Office
of International Activities at
(202) 260-0714.
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