The 1991 State/Federal
Natural Resource Damage Assessment
and Restoration Plan
for the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Volume I: Assessment and Restoration Plan
Appendices A, B, C
Mlil
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April 1991
Dear Reviewer:
This document describes studies proposed to be conducted jointly by
the State of Alaska and the United States during the third year
since the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The purpose of these studies is
to determine injury to natural resources resulting from that spill.
This document also describes restoration planning activities
proposed for 1991.
The 1991 proposed plan has greatly benefitted by incorporation of
many of the public comments on the "State/Federal Natural Resources
Damage Assessment Plan and Restoration Plan for the Exxon Valdez
Oil Spill, August 1990." This proposed plan was assembled through
the cooperative efforts of the State of Alaska acting through the
Departments of Fish and Game, Environmental Conservation, Natural
Resources, and Law, and the United States acting through the
Federal Departments of Justice, Agriculture and Interior, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
At this printing an agreement has been reached between the State
and Federal Trustees, and Exxon, regarding a judicially supervised
settlement of claims. Ratification of the settlement agreement may
result in modification of plans and projects currently proposed to
be conducted.
Public comment on this document will assist the Trustee Council in
developing future injury assessment and restoration efforts and may
also result in modification of plans and projects proposed to be
conducted in 1991. Questions concerning the plan and its
distribution should be directed to U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service Public Affairs Office (907) 586-8806.
printed on 50% recycled paper
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Comments should be received by June 3, 1991, at the following
address:
Trustee Council
P. O. Box 22755
Juneau, AK 99802
We appreciate your interest and look forward to your participation
in this important process.
Sincerely,
Michael A. Barton
Regional Forester
Alaska Region
Forest Service
Department of Agriculture
Charles E. Cole
Attorney General
State of Alaska
Steven Pennoyer
Director
Alaska Region
National Marine Fisheries Service
Carl L. Rosier
Commissioner
Alaska Department of
Fish and Game
John R. Sandor
Commissioner
Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation
Walter O. Stieglitz
Director
Alaska Region
Fish and Wildlife Service
Department of the Interior
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VOLUME I: THE 1991 STATE/FEDERAL NATURAL RESOURCE
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT AND RESTORATION FLAN FOR THE
EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL AND APPENDICES A, B, C
en
en
Q_
HEADQUARTERS LIBRARY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME I
INTRODUCTION 1
PART I
Injury Determination/Quantification
Marine Mammal Injury Assessment 9
Terrestrial Mammal Injury Assessment 48
Bird Injury Assessment 60
Fish/Shellfish Injury Assessment 87
Coastal Habitat Injury Assessment 175
Subtidal Injury Assessment 186
Technical Services 251
Archaeological Resources Injury Assessment 256
PART II
Peer Reviewers/Chief Scientist 259
PART III
Economics 260
PART IV
Oil Spill Public Information Support 275
PART V
Restoration Planning 276
PART VI
Budget 283
APPENDICES
A. Quality Assurance/Quality Control A-l
B. Histopathology Procedures B-l
C. Glossary of Terms and Acronyms C-l
VOLUME II
Appendix
D. Response to Public Comments D-l
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INTRODUCTION
The March 24, 1989, grounding of the tanker Exxon Valdez in
Alaska's Prince William Sound caused the largest oil spill in U.S.
history. Approximately 11 million gallons of North Slope crude
moved through the southwestern portion of the Sound and along the
coast of the western Gulf of Alaska (see map, Fig. 1). The spill
injured fish, birds, mammals, and a variety of other forms of
marine life, habitats, and resources.
The State of Alaska acting through the Alaska Departments of Fish
and Game (ADF&G), Environmental Conservation (ADEC), and Law
(Attorney General), and the United States acting through the
federal Departments of Agriculture (DOA), Interior (DOI) and
through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
are acting together as Natural Resource Trustees as provided by the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA), the Clean Water Act (CWA), and other state and
federal authorities. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is
assisting in damage assessment and is coordinating the federal
restoration efforts with the State of Alaska.
This plan, which describes the proposed 1991 studies, continues or
modifies certain 1989 and 1990 damage assessment studies. These
studies are designed to determine the nature and extent of the
injuries, losses or destruction of resources, and lost uses of the
resources. These data provide a base for developing a restoration
plan.
Funds received as the result of litigation or settlement will be
used to restore, replace, or acquire the equivalent of the injured
natural resources and services and to reimburse agencies for
relevant costs incurred. The U.S. Department of Justice and Alaska
Department of Law represent the federal and state governments,
respectively, in pursuit of these claims.
In 1989, the Trustees developed a damage assessment plan
incorporating 72 studies in 10 categories. In 1990, 50 studies
were undertaken. The proposed 1991 damage assessment plans
incorporates 42 studies in 10 categories.
Damage assessment is a dynamic process and it will continue to
evolve. In order to identify studies that should be continued,
terminated or new studies that should be initiated, the Trustees
considered the extensive public comments on the first two years of
work and consulted damage assessment investigators, other agency
scientific staff, legal counsel, and independent outside expert
reviewers. The studies were evaluated from five perspectives: (1)
immediate injury, (2) long-term alteration of populations, (3)
sublethal or latent effects, (4) ecosystem-wide effects, and (5)
habitat degradation.
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Studies were discontinued for a variety of reasons, such as the
determination that field work had been completed or that there was
no practicable way to measure injury. The mere fact that a study
was discontinued does not indicate that the resource was uninjured
by the spill. Funds are provided to conclude data analysis and
report preparation for certain studies that are not being continued
in 1991.
The studies described in this plan fall into ten categories:
(1) Marine Mammals, (2) Terrestrial Mammals, (3) Birds, (4)
Fish/Shellfish, (5) Coastal Habitat, (6) Subtidal Habitat, (7)
Technical Services (including chemistry and an integrated
geographic information system, complete with mapping) to support
the resource studies, (8) Archaeological Resources, (9) Economic
Studies, and (10) Restoration. The cost for all activities
described in the 1991 State/Federal Natural Resource Damage
Assessment and Restoration Planning for the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
is approximately $35 million.
Marine Mammal studies include direct observations of injury (e.g.,
through carcass counts) as well as estimates of population effects
based on censuses or pathologic and toxicologic indicators (as is
being undertaken with otters and seals). In addition, the direct
observational data allow for inferences to be made about injuries
to populations.
Terrestrial mammals near the coast may have been exposed to
hydrocarbons by breathing fumes or eating oiled carcasses or
vegetation. The studies will determine the presence of hydrocarbons
in tissues of dead animals and the effects, if any, of oil exposure
on local populations of brown bears and river otters.
The 1991 effort to determine injury to birds will focus on
seabirds, bald eagles, and waterfowl. Surveys and censuses, radio
telemetry, and documentation of sublethal and physiological impacts
will be used as means to determine injury. The information
obtained will contribute to an understanding of mortality,
population changes, and other factors essential for the damage
assessment process. Studies proposed for birds focus on the
collection of data on survival and reproductive success in relation
to initial and continuing exposure to hydrocarbons and conversion
products.
The Fish/Shellfish studies focus on identifying potential injury to
the various life stages of fish and shellfish in areas affected by
the oil spill. Species were selected for study based on their
respective niche or overall importance within the ecosystem,
ability to be sampled, and the existence of an historic data base.
The Coastal Habitat study measures spill-related changes in the
intertidal and shallow subtidal zones. It is designed to document
injury to resources that rely on these habitats, and to assess
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damages for the loss of services provided by these habitats.
The Subtidal Habitat studies determine the distribution and
composition of petroleum hydrocarbons or their environmental
conversion products in water, sediments, and living resources.
Information gathered on the distribution and nature of the
hydrocarbons and their conversion products provides a basis for
documenting exposure and for determining injury to resources. The
combined results of the Coastal Habitat and Subtidal Habitat
studies also form a basis for estimating rates of recovery of
natural resources and the potential for accelerating recovery.
The Technical Services category includes activities that provide
process support or information services to all studies in the areas
of analytical chemistry and an integrated geographic information
system, complete with mapping.
Studies on archaeological resources will proceed in two steps: (1)
inventory, description, and classification; and (2) qualitative and
quantitative descriptions and measurements of changes detrimental
to the archaeological resources related to the spill.
The value of lost or injured natural resources, and the goods and
services they provide humans, are based on results from economic
studies. In this regard, damages forming the basis of the
Trustees' claim against the potentially responsible parties are
calculated by considering (1) the reduction of these goods and
services, including intrinsic values, resulting from the spill, and
(2) the cost of restoring these goods and services to their
pre-spill level, replacing them, or acquiring their equivalent.
The restoration planning component describes the strategy and scope
of the restoration process planned for the third oil spill year.
Restoration measures will be implemented as appropriate methods are
identified and funds are available.
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TABLE ONE. STUDIES AUTHORIZED IN 1989, 1990 AND 1991
X = Initiated or Continued
STUDY
CATEGORY
Marine Mammals
1
Terrestrial
Birds
2
3
4
5
6
7
STUDY TITLE
(MM)
Humpback Whale
Killer Whale
Cetacean Necropsy
Sea Lion
Harbor Seal
Sea Otter Injury
Rehabilitated Sea Otters
Mammals (TM)
1 Sitka Black-Tail Deer
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Black Bear
River Otter & Mink
Brown Bear
Small Mammals
Mink Reproduction
Beached Bird Survey
Census/Seasonal Distribution
Seabird Colony Surveys
Bald Eagles
Peale's Peregrine Falcons
Marbled Murrelets
Storm Petrels
Black-Legged Kittiwakes
1989
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1990
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1991
X
*
X
X
moved to MM 6
X
X
*
X
X
X
X
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TABLE ONE (Con't). STUDIES AUTHORIZED IN 1989, 1990 AND 1991
STUDY
CATEGORY STUDY TITLE
Birds, continued
9 Pigeon Guillemots
10 Glaucous-winged Gulls
11 Sea Ducks
12 Shorebirds
13 Passerines
14 Exposure North Slope Oil
1989
X
X
X
X
X
X
1990 1991
X X
X
Fish/Shellfish (F/S)
1 Salmon Spawning Area Injury
7 Salmon Spawning Area
Injury, Outside PWS
8 Egg & Pre-emergent Fry,
Sampling Outside PWS
9 Early Marine Salmon
Injury Outside PWS
10 Dolly Varden & Sockeye
Injury, Lower Cook Inlet
11 Herring Injury
12 Herring Injury Outside PWS
13 Clam Injury
14 Crab Injury
15 Shrimp Injury
X
2 Eggs/Pre-emergent Fry Sampling X
3 Coded-wire tagging X
4 Early Marine Salmon Injury X
5 Dolly Varden Injury X
6 Sport Fishing Harvest & Effort X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X moved to subtidal
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TABLE ONE (Con't). STUDIES AUTHORIZED IN 1989, 1990 AND 1991
STUDY
CATEGORY
STUDY TITLE
1989
1990
1991
Fish/Shellfish, continued
16 Oyster Injury
17 Rockfish Injury
18 Trawl Assessment
19 Larval Fish Injury
20 Underwater Observations
21 Clam Injury Outside PWS
22 Crab Injury Outside PWS
23 Rockfish Injury Outside PWS
24 Dermersal Fish Injury
25 Scallop Mariculture Injury
26 Sea Urchin Injury
27 Sockeye Salmon Overescapement
28 Run Reconstruction
29 Life History Modeling
30 Database Management
Coastal Habitat (CH)
1 Intertidal Studies
Air/Water (A/W)
1 Geographic Extent of
Oil in Water
2 Injury to Subtidal Sediments
and Benthos
3 Hydrocarbons in Water
4 Injury to Deep Water
5 Injury to Air
6 Oil Fate and Toxicity
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X moved to subtidal
X *
(combined with F/S 13)
X
(combined with F/S 17)
X moved to subtidal
X X
X X
(combined with F/S 28)
X X
X
X moved to subtidal
X moved to subtidal
(combined with A/W 2)
X moved to subtidal
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TABLE ONE (Con't). STUDIES AUTHORIZED IN 1989, 1990 AND 1991
STUDY
CATEGORY
STUDY TITLE
1989
1990
1991
Subtidal
1 Hydrocarbon Exposure, Microbial and
Meiofaunal Community Effects (A/W2)
2 Injury to Benthic Communities (CH 1 and A/W 2)
3 Bio-availability and Transport
of Hydrocarbons (A/W 3)
4 Sediment Toxicity Bioassays (A/W 6)
5 Injury to Shrimp (F/S 15)
6 Injury to Rockfish (F/S 17)
7 Injury to Demersal Fish (F/S 24)
Technical Services
1 Hydrocarbon Analysis
2 Histopathology
3 Mapping
Archaeology
1 Archaeological
Economics
X X
X X
X X
Part of Econ 9 X
1 Commercial Fisheries Losses X
2 Fishing Industry Costs X
3 Bioeconomic Models X
4 Public Land Effects X
5 Recreational Losses X
6 Subsistence Losses X
7 Intrinsic Values X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
(combined with Econ 1)
(combined with Econ 1)
X
X X
X X
X X
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TABLE ONE (Con't). STUDIES AUTHORIZED IN 1989, 1990 AND 1991
STUDY
CATEGORY STUDY TITLE 1989 1990 1991
Economics, continued
8 Research Program Effects XXX
9 Archaeological Damage X
Quantification
10 Petroleum Products Price X
Restoration Planning XXX
* These studies are being funded for the completion of data analysis and
final report preparation.
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PART I: INJURY DETERMINATION/QUANTIFICATION
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MARINE MAMMAL ASSESSMENT
Although the most visible impact of the EVOS on marine mammals was
the large number of dead sea otters, other marine mammal species
were potentially injured by the spill, including Steller sea lions,
harbor seals, killer whales, and humpback whales.
In 1989, seven studies were assembled and implemented to gather
information on injury to marine mammals. Aerial surveys for
stranded cetaceans were also conducted. Additional data on
injuries to sea otters were gathered at the sea otter
rehabilitation centers.
In 1990, most of these studies were continued to further refine the
information documenting injury resulting from the spill.
Three of these studies will be continued in 1991 including studies
on killer whales, harbor seals and sea otters. In addition, the
study on sea lions conducted during 1989 and 1990 will be completed
with final data analysis and report preparation.
In many cases, the 1989 and 1990 studies have been expanded and
modified in response to knowledge gained during the two years
following the spill, as well as, comments from reviewers and the
public. The ongoing study on killer whales is intended to provide
information on changes in killer whale use of the spill zone, to
assess long-term impacts, and to corroborate information on injury
to killer whales gathered during the 1989 and 1990 studies. Data
from studies on harbor seals will provide information on
toxicological effects of the EVOS. The sea otter study will
continue to look at population effects and possible physiological
and toxicological impacts that could result in long-term, sublethal
injuries.
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 2
Study Title: Assessment of Injuries to Killer Whales in PWS
Lead Agency: NOAA
INTRODUCTION
During the first two years of the killer whale damage assessment
work, photographs of individual killer whales in PWS were collected
from May to September 1989 and 1990 to assess the impact of the
EVOS on killer whale life history and ecology. In PWS, research
vessels traversed over 20,000 nautical miles in search of whales or
while photographing whales, reflecting 507 days of field research.
This effort represents the most complete study accomplished to date
on killer whales in PWS. An unusually high number of killer whales
have been reported missing from the PWS area. The assessment of
the overall effects of the EVOS on killer whale populations in PWS
will be enhanced with photographic evidence that the whales missing
in 1989/1990 are confirmed missing in 1991.
The purpose of this study is to obtain photographs of individual
killer whales in PWS from May to late September 1991. Calves of
the year will be documented. Photographs collected will be
compared to the Alaskan photographic database for the years 1977 to
1990 to determine if changes have occurred in whale abundance,
seasonal distribution, continuity of habitat usage, pod integrity,
and mortality or natality rates. Results of this research will aid
in the determination of the extent of displacement or reduction in
numbers of killer whales as a result of the EVOS.
OBJECTIVES
A. To count the number and individually identify killer whales
within PWS.
B. To test the hypothesis that killer whale distribution within
PWS and adjacent waters is similar to that reported for
previous years (1984-1990).
C. To test the hypothesis that pre- and post-spill killer whale
pod structure and integrity have remained constant.
D. To test the hypothesis that killer whale natality rates within
PWS have not changed since the EVOS.
E. To test the hypothesis that killer whale mortality rates
within PWS have not changed since the EVOS.
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METHODS
Personnel from the National Marine Mammal Laboratory (NMML),
Seattle, Washington (Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NMFS/
NOAA/DOC) will develop and coordinate all killer whale research
activities associated with the Exxon Valdez damage assessment.
Field studies will be conducted by contractors that have recognized
expertise in the study areas of concern.
Shore-based camps will be established in PWS to conduct photo-
identification studies on killer whales from small boats (May
through September 1991). Camp locations will be similar to those
set up in 1990. Camps may be moved during the field season based on
whale distribution data collected during the study. All camps are
fully self-contained with necessary items for camp and vessel
safety. Camps will be resupplied with food and essentials at least
twice a month by a vessel chartered specifically for this reason.
Each camp is staffed by at least two biologists and one small boat.
Camp personnel will communicate among themselves via marine radios.
For consistency in data collection, key personnel remain in the
field throughout the 5-month period.
Weather permitting, field personnel will spend an average of 8 to
10 hours per day conducting boat surveys searching for whales.
Effort must be comparable to the 1989 and 1990 seasons. Specific
areas, known for whale concentrations, are investigated first.
However, if reports of whales are received from other sources (e.g,
sighting network described below), those areas are examined. If
whales are not located in "known" areas and opportunistic sighting
reports are not available, a general search pattern is developed
and implemented. Travel routes typically taken by whales are
surveyed. When whales are sighted, researchers stop further search
efforts and approach the whales to collect photo-identification
information. When whales are encountered, researchers select a
vessel course and speed to approximate the animals7 course and
speed to facilitate optimal photographic positioning.
To obtain a high-guality photograph, an approach within 30-60
meters is required. Photographs are taken of the left side of the
whale's dorsal fin and saddle patch. Any high-performance camera
system can be used to collect the data. Motor drives (5
frames/sec) and 300 mm fixed lenses are optimal. The camera
shutter speed is set to I/1000th second, or the highest speed
possible. The film type should allow for a high shutter speed and
good depth of field. For this project black and white ASA 400 film
is used and developed at ASA 1600. The camera should be held
steady and be supported by a shoulder brace if possible. All
exposed film during this study will be developed by the same
photographic laboratory. Film will be processed throughout the
season to allow field personnel to obtain necessary feedback within
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two weeks of encounters. Proper labelling of exposed film includes
date, roll number, photographer's initials, location, species code,
and ASA setting. A new roll of film is used for each encounter.
Daily effort logs are maintained each day which will permit 1)
quantification of the amount of time searching for whales vs
photographing whales, 2) quantification of search effort under
different weather conditions, 3) daily vessel trackline, and 4) an
estimation of number of vessels/aircraft encountered in the study
area.
To increase the sighting effort within PWS to ensure that all
whales are being seen and photographed, a marine mammal sighting
network will be organized throughout the PWS area. This network
will record all opportunistic sightings of whales collected from
Alaskan State Ferries and private aircraft and boats. Whale
sightings are reported directly to the whale research vessels.
Field teams respond by searching out the area where whales were
reported in order to collect photographic data.
All exposed film of killer whales collected during the 1991 field
season will be analyzed for individual identification. Each
negative (or print as needed) is placed under a dissection
microscope for identification purposes and notes and sketches are
made. Sub-standard photographs (not showing enough detail or
improper angle/side) are discarded, thus reducing the probability
of mis-matching photographs. Photographs are then grouped by
individuals. Each identified whale is then visually compared to
the historical photographic database available. Once an individual
whale is properly identified, it is relatively easy to identify the
pod to which it belongs. When all photographs are properly entered
and evaluated, it is then possible to determine 1) if all members
of the pod were present, and 2) if pod structure/integrity is
similar to previous years. Missing animals are noted. It is
imperative that 1991 studies be done to verify the missing
individuals described in 1990. The stability of resident pods over
time is such that if an individual is listed as missing for at
least one year, that missing whale is considered dead.
To avoid biases in data interpretation, it is important that the
amount of effort in searching for and photographing whales in 1991
is at least equal to (but not less than) that completed in previous
years. For a large pod (>12 animals), the likelihood of obtaining
photographs of all individuals is increased as the number of
encounters is increased. Some individuals, and certain pods, are
more likely to approach vessels, making photographic documentation
easier, while others remain considerably distant, making for more
difficult conditions. Whale behavior also plays a role when
attempting to obtain photographs of individuals. If the pod is
resting (typically grouped together), it is easier to obtain
photographs of all whales versus when the pod is travelling (spread
out through an area). Researchers with prior killer whale
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experience in a particular area, who are capable of recognizing
individuals, will also enhance the likelihood of accounting for all
whales within a pod.
Calves of the year will be noted and their mothers identified.
Natality (number of calves per adult female) will be calculated for
each pod for each year and comparisons made between resident and
transient groups using descriptive statistics. Mortality rates
through 1990 will also be calculated for resident groups.
Mortality for transient pods will be calculated when necessary data
are available.
General location of whales will be recorded each time photographs
are taken, allowing comparisons of pod distributions among years.
Changes in normal distribution patterns will be reported.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following killer whale articles are pertinent to the studies
being conducted in Alaska.
Anon. 1982. Report on the workshop on identity, structure, and
vital rates of killer whale populations. Rept. Int. Whal.
Commn, 32: 617-631.
Balcomb, K. C. 1978. Orca Survey 1977. Final report of a field
photographic study conducted by the Moclips Cetological
Society in collaboration with the U. S. National Marine
Fisheries Service on killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Puget
Sound. Unpub. Report to the Marine Mammal Division, National
Marine Fisheries Service, Seattle, Washington, 10 pages.
Bigg, M. A. 1982. An assessment of killer whale (Orcinus orca)
stocks off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Rept. Int.
Whal. Commn., 32: 655-666.
Braham, H. W. and M. E. Dahlheim. 1982. Killer whales in Alaska
documented in the Platforms of Opportunity Program. Rept.
Int. Whal. Commn. 32: 643-646.
Calambokidis, J. , J. Peard, G. H. Steiger, J. C. Cubbage, and R.
L. DeLong. 1984. Chemical contaminants in marine mammals
from Washington State. Natl. Oceanic Atmospheric Admin.,
Tech. Memo, NOS QMS, 6: 1-167.
Ellis, G. 1987. Killer whales of Prince William Sound and
Southeast Alaska. A catalogue of individuals
photoidentified, 1976-1986. Sea World Research
Institute/Hubbs Marine Research Center, Technical Report No.
87-200. April 1987.
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Fowler, C. W. 1984. Density dependence in cetacean populations.
In "Reproduction in Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises". Eds. W.
F. Perrin, R. L. Brownell, and D. P. DeMaster. Rept. Int.
Whal. Commn., Spec. Issue 6: 373-380.
Hall, J. D. 1981. Aspects of the natural history of cetaceans of
Prince William Sound. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of
California - Santa Cruz. 148 pp.
Heyning, J. E. and M. E. Dahlheim. 1988. Orcinus orca.
Mammalian Species Account, No. 304, pp. 1-9, 4 figs.
Leatherwood, S., K. C. Balcomb, C. O. Matkin, and G. Ellis.
1984. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) of southern Alaska -
results of field research 1984 preliminary report. Hubbs
Sea World Research Institute Tech. Report No. 84-175, 59 pp.
Leatherwood, S., A. Bowles, E. Krygier, J. D. Hall, and S.
Ignell. 1985. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Southeast
Alaska, Prince William Sound, and Shelikof Strait; A review of
available information. Rept. Int. Whal. Commn., SC/35/SM 7.,
10 pp.
Perrin, W. F. and S. B. Reilly. 1984. Reproductive parameters
of dolphins and small whales of the family delphinidae. In
"Reproduction in Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises". Eds. W. F.
Perrin, R. L. Brownell, and D. P. DeMaster. Rept. Int. Whal.
Commn., Spec. Issue 6: 97-134.
von Ziegesar, 0., G. Ellis, C. Matkin, and B. Goodwin. 1986.
Repeated sightings of identifiable killer whales (Orcinus
orca) in Prince William Sound, Alaska 1977-1983. Cetus, Vol.
6, No. 2, 5 pp.
BUDGET
Salaries $ 48.0
Travel 8.0
Contracts 110.0
Supplies 10.0
Equipment 10.0
Total 186.0
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 5
Study Title: Assessment of Injury to Harbor Seals in PWS, GOA
and Adjacent Areas
Lead Agency: ADF&G
Cooperating Agency: NOAA
INTRODUCTION
Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) are one of the most
abundant species of marine mammals in PWS. They are resident
throughout the year, occurring primarily in the coastal zone where
they feed and haul out to rest, bear and care for their young, and
molt (Hoover 1988) . Some of the largest haulouts in PWS, and
waters adjacent to these haulouts, were directly impacted by
substantial amounts of oil during the EVOS. Oil that moved into
the GOA impacted harbor seal habitat at least as far to the
southwest as Tugidak Island. The impacts of the EVOS on harbor
seals are of particular concern since trend surveys indicate that
the number of harbor seals in PWS declined by 40% from 1984 to
1988, and similar declines have been noted in other parts of the
northern GOA (Pitcher 1989).
During the EVOS, harbor seals were exposed to oil both in the water
and on land. In the early weeks of the spill they swam through oil
and inhaled aromatic hydrocarbons as they breathed at the air/water
interface. On haulouts in oiled areas, seals crawled through and
rested on oiled rocks and algae throughout the spring and summer.
Pups were born on haulouts in May and June, when some of the sites
still had oil on them, resulting in pups becoming oiled. Also,
many pups nursed on oiled mothers. At haulouts throughout the
oiled areas, seals were exposed to greatly increased human activity
in the form of air and boat traffic and cleanup activities.
Following the EVOS, field observations were made of seals in oiled
and unoiled areas of PWS. Carcasses of 47 seals were necropsied
and sampled; 19 were found dead or died in captivity, and 28 were
collected specifically for sampling. Preliminary histopathological
and toxicological analyses are almost complete.
In 1989 and 1990, aerial surveys were conducted during June to
count the number of harbor seal pups and non-pups on 25 oiled and
unoiled haulouts in PWS. Results from the two years have been
compared to determine whether the number of pups/non-pups is
similar in oiled and unoiled areas and whether the proportion
changed from 1989 to 1990. Aerial surveys were also conducted at
the same 25 haulouts during the fall molt. Results of fall 1989
15
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and 1990 surveys have been compared to results of surveys flown in
1984 and 1988 to determine whether trends in numbers are similar in
oiled and unoiled areas.
This project proposes to complete histopathological and
toxicological analyses of harbor seal tissues and to provide counts
of harbor seals on haulouts in oiled and unoiled parts of PWS
during pupping and molting in 1991. Data from this third year of
aerial surveys following the spill will be used to evaluate whether
1990 data were indicative of a normal year and whether changes that
occurred in the distribution and abundance of harbor seals
following the EVOS coincided with the presence or absence of oil in
the area or on haulouts. Toxicological analyses of tissues from
oiled seals will allow an assessment of how hydrocarbons were
assimilated by seals and how contaminant levels changed with time;
analysis of tissues from control seals will provide baseline data
for comparison with results from seals collected in oiled areas.
Final analysis and interpretation of histopathology slides will
provide thorough documentation of toxic damage to tissues. Survey
and laboratory data, in combination with historical data for PWS,
will be used to evaluate whether the EVOS caused a reduction in pup
productivity at oiled sites, and whether changes in abundance
during the fall molt were due to the EVOS. This information will
be used to make recommendations regarding restoration of lost use,
populations, or habitat where injury is identified.
OBJECTIVES
A. Test the hypothesis that harbor seals found dead in the area
affected by the EVOS died due to oil toxicity.
B. Test the hypothesis that seals exposed to oil from the EVOS
assimilated hydrocarbons to the extent that harmful
pathological conditions resulted.
C. Test the hypothesis that pup production was lower in oiled
than in unoiled areas, or than in years not affected by the
EVOS.
D. Test the hypothesis that the number of harbor seals on the
trend count route during pupping and molting decreased in
oiled areas of PWS as compared to unoiled areas.
METHODS
In 1991, aerial surveys will be conducted during pupping in June
and molting in September along a previously established trend count
route (Calkins and Pitcher 1984; Pitcher 1986, 1989) that covers 25
haulout sites and includes 6 sites impacted by the EVOS (Agnes,
Little Smith, Big Smith, Seal, and Green islands, and Applegate
16
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Rocks), 16 unoiled sites, and 3 intermediate sites that were not
physically oiled but were adjacent to oiled areas. Visual counts
will be made of seals at each site and photographs taken of large
groups for later verification.
During June, separate counts will be made of pups and non-pups.
Pupping surveys are needed in 1991 since there are no historical
data available from PWS during the pupping season with which to
compare the 1989 results, and a single year of post-spill data from
1990 is not enough to establish what is normal in a non-oil-spill
year.
Surveys during the molt in 1991 are necessary to determine whether
observed changes in the number of seals on oiled sites between 1988
and 1990 persist.
All statistical tests for significance will use alpha = 0.05.
Statistical testing is not appropriate for all objectives. The
assessment of cause of death of animals found in areas impacted by
the EVOS (Objective A) will require expert evaluation of limited
and varying toxicology and histopathology data sets.
Toxicological results for each seal collected will be entered into
a database along with information on date and location of
collection; presence of oil in the area; degree of external oiling
of the seal; and age, sex, size, and reproductive condition.
Hydrocarbon levels in the tissues will be tabularized. Differences
between groups will be tested where possible using ANOVA (Neter and
Wasserman 1974).
Types of pathology detected will be listed for each specimen and
will be grouped into tables by sex, age, collection location,
and/or degree of oiling. Incidence of pathology will be expressed
as the percentage of the total number of animals in the group that
exhibited a particular type of anomaly. Incidence of pathology
will be evaluated in light of toxicological results for each
specimen.
Harbor seal surveys must be conducted within biological time
windows imposed by the pupping and molting periods. While results
of previous harbor seal trend counts have indicated that it is
desirable to obtain 7-10 counts during a survey period (Pitcher
1986, 1989) , the actual number of counts is frequently limited by
the number of days suitable for flying. During pupping, the survey
window cannot be extended to accommodate sample size needs since,
as pups grow and are weaned, they become increasingly difficult to
differentiate from the air. Similarly, during the molt it is
necessary to confine surveys to the period when maximum numbers are
hauled out.
Aerial surveys of harbor seals do not estimate the total number of
seals present since they do not account for seals that are in the
17
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water or seals hauled out at locations not on the trend count
route. Surveys provide indices of abundance based on the number of
hauled out seals counted. Interpretation of trend count surveys
relies on the assumption that counts of harbor seals on select
haulout sites are valid linear indices of local abundance. We
assume that within a given biological window, such as the pupping
or molting period, haulout behavior remains the same from one year
to the next, and counts can thus be compared. Standardization of
procedures minimizes the affects of variables such as tide and
weather that could influence the number of seals hauled out on a
given day.
The trend count route includes haulputs impacted by the EVOS, as
well as haulouts that are north, east, and south of the primary
areas impacted by oil. There is an adequate sample of both oiled
and unoiled areas.
Data from 1991 pupping surveys will be used in a retrospective
analysis comparing counts of non-pup seals in oiled and unoiled
sites between years (1989-91) and using the same statistical
techniques employed for fall molting surveys (Frost 1990).
In order to compare pup production at oiled and unoiled sites
(Objective C) , a one-way analysis of co-variance (Neter and
Wasserman 1974) will be performed on the square roots of the
trimeans (Hoagliri et al. 1985) of pup counts, using the square
roots of non-pup trimean counts as the covariate. The square root
transformation will be used to correct for non-constant variation
of the count data (Snedecor and Cochran 1980). Linear contrasts
(Neter and Wasserman 1974), where the average number of pups is
adjusted to a common number of non-pups, will be used to test
working hypotheses.
Data collected during the molt in 1984, 1988, 1989, and 1990 will
be used for comparisons with data collected in 1991. A repeated
measures ANOVA (Winer 1971) will be performed on the trimean
(Hoaglin et al. 1985) of the site count data in order to examine
trends in abundance at oiled versus unoiled sites. The trimean
statistic will be used as a measure of central tendency because
sets of counts at a single location sometimes show bimodal
distributions or include extreme variations. This analysis assumes
random samples, constant variance, and normality of the
differences. If necessary, transformations (Snedecor and Cochran
1980) will be used to ensure constant variance and normality. The
test assumes that the mean proportion of the population hauled out
on the trend count route is constant over years. Hypotheses
addressing Objective D will be tested using orthogonal contrasts
derived from the ANOVA.
18
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Calkins, D., and K. Pitcher.
southern Alaska: 1983-84.
16pp.
1984. Pinniped investigations in
Unpubl. Rep. ADF&G, Anchorage, AK.
Frost, K. J. 1990. Marine Mammals Study Number 5: Assessment of
injury to harbor seals in Prince William Sound, Alaska, and
adjacent areas. State-Federal Natural Resource Damage
Assessment for April 1989-December 1990. Unpubl. Prelim.
Status Rep. ADF&G Fairbanks, AK. 22pp.
Hoaglin, D. C., F. Mosteller, and J. W. Tukey. 1985. Exploring
data tables, trends, and shapes. John Wiley & Sons. New York,
N.Y. 527 pp.
Hoover, A. A. 1988. Pacific harbor seal. Pages 125-157 in; J.
W. Lentfer (ed). Selected Marine Mammals of Alaska: Species
Accounts with Research and Management Recommendations. U. S.
Marine Mammal Commission, Washington, D. C.
Neter, J., and W. Wasserman. 1974. Applied linear statistical
models. Irwin, Inc., Homewood, IL. 842 pp.
Pitcher, K. W. 1986. Harbor seal trend count surveys in southern
Alaska, 1984. Unpubl. Rep. ADF&G, Anchorage, AK. 10pp.
Pitcher, K. W. 1989. Harbor seal trend count surveys in southern
Alaska, 1988. Final Rep. Contract MM4465852-1 to U.S. Marine
Mammal Commission, Washington, D.C. 15pp.
Snedecor, G. W. and W. G. Cochran. 1980. Statistical methods.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, 10. 507 pp.
Winer, B. J. 1971. Statistical principle in experimental design.
2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, N. Y. 907 pp.
Salaries
Travel
Contracts
Supplies
Equipment
Total
BUDGET
$54.6
8.3
28.5
2.8
Q
$ 94.2
19
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 6A
Study Title: Boat Surveys to Determine Sea Otter Abundance in
PWS Following the EVOS
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
In the first year following the EVOS, hundreds of sea otters are
known to have died as a result of contamination by oil. The
capacity of the population to recover to pre-spill levels is not
known. This study will assess the impacts of the oil spill on
Alaska sea otter populations through surveys of wild populations
living in oiled and unoiled areas.
OBJECTIVES
A. To test the hypothesis that sea otter densities are not
significantly different between oiled and unoiled areas.
B. To test the hypothesis that sea otter densities are not
significantly different between pre- and post-spill surveys in
oiled and unoiled areas.
C. To estimate the magnitude of any change between pre- and post-
spill sea otter population estimates in PWS.
D. To estimate post-spill population size of sea otters in PWS.
E. To estimate winter 1991 offshore densities of sea otters in
oiled and unoiled areas to estimate otter density values at
the time of the oil spill in March 1989.
METHODS
An original boat-based survey of PWS consisted of a complete sea
otter census of 718 shoreline transects totalling 4,062 km of
shoreline (Irons et al. 1988). This initial survey was conducted
using a single vessel over a period of two field seasons (June,
July, and August of 1984 and 1985) . A random sample of
approximately 25 percent of the transects was surveyed in June,
July, and August of 1989. In addition, offshore areas were
surveyed in July and August 1989. These same transects, .plus an
additional 25 shoreline transects, were again sampled in June,
July, and August of 1990. A slightly reduced sample of shoreline
and offshore transects were surveyed in March 1990. Surveys
proposed for 1991 include replication of the March and July
surveys.
20
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To insure that project design and standard operating procedures are
followed, (1) all crew members will read and discuss the observer
guidelines handbook, (2) all crew members will partake in trial
surveys prior to actual surveys, (3) one person on each boat will
have responsibility for maintaining consistent data collection
procedures, (4) standardized forms will be used during data
collection, and (5) data forms will be checked by the project
leaders at the end of each day to insure the integrity of the data.
Post-stratification of shoreline and offshore transects by presence
or absence of oil has been based on data collected by the Coastal
Habitat Study, the Air/Water Studies, and the Technical Services
Study Number 3.
Prior to the start of each survey, transect and environmental data
are collected and recorded on a standard data sheet. Transect data
consist of observer names, transect number, date, and start time of
transect. Environmental data include air temperature, water
temperature, sea state, wind direction and velocity, weather,
presence of ice on transect, and tidal state. In addition, an
overall observation condition is recorded, and notes on human
activity and presence of oil within the transect are taken.
Surveys are postponed or aborted in unsuitable conditions
(visibility less than 100 m, or wave heights greater than 2 ft).
Shoreline transects from Irons et al. (1988) are surveyed at a
speed of 5-10 knots from 100 m offshore. Distance to shore is
periodically checked using a rangefinder. One observer surveys
from the shoreline to the boat, while a second observer surveys
from the boat seaward an additional 100 m. The survey window
extends approximately 100 m ahead of, and 100 m above the boat
while travelling. Sightings of marine mammals, birds, and boats
within this window are recorded on the standard data sheet as being
within the "inside" strip (0-100 m) or the "outside" strip (100-200
m) . In addition to species, strip, and quantity, information is
collected on the disposition of the sighting (object was in the
water, in the air, on land, or following the boat). Deviation from
the transect due to rocks, ice, or other obstructions is noted in
the comments section of the data sheet.
Offshore transect lines are oriented along north/south axes, and
steered by a combination of compass heading and LORAN-C
interpolator. Boat speed for offshore surveys is slightly faster
than for shoreline surveys, ranging from 15-25 knots, dependent
upon sighting conditions. Transect and environmental data are
collected as in shoreline surveys. The sampling window is
essentially the same as well, with observers sampling a strip
100 m in width on each side of the boat, and forward approximately
100 m. By definition, shoreline surveys sample the 200 m strip
adjacent to shore. For the purposes of this study, the offshore
environment is therefore defined as any area greater than 200 m
from shore. Objects further than 200 m from shore are recorded
21
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within the "offshore" strip on the data sheet. Where offshore
transect lines intersect land, objects sighted within 200 m of
shore are recorded within the "nearshore" strip.
DATA ANALYSIS
Statistical assumptions pertinent to these analyses have been
outlined in the previous study plans. Data collected during 1989
and 1990 suggest that these assumptions are being met.
Abundance estimates will be calculated independently for shoreline,
coastal and pelagic environments using ratio estimator techniques
according to Cochran (1977). Estimates calculated from third-year
surveys will be compared to earlier estimates for the determination
of injury to the sea otter population within PWS. Differences in
otter densities will be tested using two sample t-tests and/or
ANOVA, dependent upon post-stratification of oil condition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cochran, W.G. 1977. Sampling techniques. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
New York, New York. 428pp.
Irons, D.B., D.R. Nysewander, and J.L. Trapp. 1988. Prince William
Sound sea otter distribution in relation to population growth
and habitat type. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Unpubl.
report. 3Ipp.
BUDGET
The costs of this study are included in the budget for Bird Study
Number 2 and totals $220.0. The budget breakout is not repeated
here.
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 6B
Study Title: Intersection Model of Sea Otter Mortality
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
Following the release and subsequent movement of oil from the EVOS,
live and dead oiled sea otters were observed within PWS and along
the KP. Oiled sea otter carcasses were retrieved and live oiled
otters were captured for transport to rehabilitation centers in
Valdez, Seward, and Homer. The number of dead oiled otters
retrieved may include some otters that were dead before the spill.
It is likely that additional otters became oiled and died and their
carcasses were not recovered, while others may have become oiled
and survived.
Three approaches are currently under investigation to estimate the
number of sea otter mortalities that resulted from acute exposure
to oil. One method estimates the number of unrecovered carcasses
based on the probability of carcass recovery. Another method
compares estimates of sea otter abundance before and after the
spill. The third approach uses an analytical model to relate oil
exposure to subsequent mortality of sea otters. The purpose of
this study is to develop such a model for application along the KP.
This model may be extended for application throughout the spill
zone to provide an estimate of the total acute mortality.
This approach involves: 1) estimating the abundance and
distribution of sea otters in near-shore and off-shore habitat
along the KP at the time of the spill, 2) estimating the level of
exposure of each otter, 3) estimating the degree of oiling received
by otters at each exposure level, and 4) estimating the mortality
rate associated with each degree of oiling. Sea otter oiling and
population data along with the oil distribution data will be
integrated by the model to provide an estimate of the total spill
induced mortality for this area.
OBJECTIVES
To develop an analytical model capable of estimating rates of
exposure of sea otters to oil, degree of oiling, and mortality
along the KP following the EVOS.
23
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METHODS
Oil Distribution
A hind-cast computer model developed by NOAA (on-scene spill model,
OSSM) will be used to simulate the distribution of oil particles as
they traveled through PWS and along the KP. The OSSM model traces
the movement of 10,000 particles (Lagrangian elements, each
representing about 1,100 gallons of oil) from their origin at Bligh
reef, at three hour intervals. Under this model, about 1,250 (12%)
of the oil particles moved out of PWS and along the KP.
Sea Otter Abundance
The abundance and distribution of sea otters in near-shore and off-
shore habitat along the KP at the time the oil passed through will
be estimated based on the spring 1989 helicopter survey that was
conducted during the spill response. The location of each observed
otter was recorded during the survey on large scale maps. These
locations and numbers of otters will be used as an estimate of the
distribution and abundance of otters at the time of the spill.
Exposure to Oil
In order to measure exposure, an exposure region will be defined
for each otter or group of otters, as a circle with radius 1.4 km
centered at the otter's location during the survey. Any portion of
this circle that overlaps land will be excluded from the exposure
region. The 1.4 km radius represents the average distance sea
otters were observed to move between successive radio relocations
recorded between 18 and 36 hours apart in California (Rails et al.
1988). The Rails et al. (1988) data include movements of adult and
sub-adult male and female sea otters.
The number of gallons per day times the number of days that oil was
within an exposure region divided by the area of the exposure
region (gallon*days/km2) will be used as a measure of the exposure
of that location to oil. The proportion of the observed otters at
each location will be used to estimate the proportion of the
population with that location's level of exposure.
Study Areas
Data for relating exposure levels to oiling and mortality of otters
were collected within two areas of PWS. The first of these areas
was Herring Bay on the north end of Knight Island where heavy
oiling was observed to persist over time, all otters were oiled,
the degree of oiling was heavy and mortality rates were high. The
second site comprised the northeast third of Prince of Wales
Passage, including Iktua Bay between Evans and Bainbridge Islands.
This area was lightly oiled along most of the shoreline and oil
24
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appeared to pass through in a short time. Most sea otters were
either non-oiled or lightly oiled and mortality was relatively low.
Mortality rate calculations exclude pups born in captivity, otters
with an undetermined oiling status and otters exhibiting obvious
non-oil related pathology (eg., paralysis or blindness). Bodkin
and Weltz (1990) describe a pattern of declining degree of oiling
and resultant mortality as the time interval between exposure and
capture increased in PWS. This pattern led to diminishing sea
otter capture efforts in PWS on April 21, 1989, and a shift in the
effort to the KP where initial oiling occurred on or about April 1,
1989.
Sea Otter Capture
During the first 3 weeks of April 1989, otters in Herring Bay and
Prince of Wales Pass were captured with dip-nets and tangle-nets
(Bodkin and Weltz 1990). Each otter was classified into 1 of 4
categories based on the quantity of oil observed on its pelage at
the time of capture. The degree of oiling categories were defined
as follows: heavy = complete or nearly complete coverage of the
pelage with visible oil, moderate = partial oiling of about 25-50%
of the pelage with visible oil, light = oil not easily visible or
detectable, or a small proportion (<10%) of the pelage containing
visible oil, and none = oil not visually or tactically evident on
the pelage.
Relating Mortality to Degree of Oiling
Oiled otters were transported to rehabilitation centers, where they
were cleaned and held. Mortality rates for each of the oiling
categories following capture and holding were recorded. Mortality
was considered spill related if it occurred within 30 days of
capture. Mortality usually occurred within 5 (65%) days of arrival
(mean =7.1 days; range 0 to 34 days) at a rehabilitation center.
Mortality rates used in the model are based on the mortality rates
observed in the rehabilitation centers and on a study of
experimentally oiled captive sea otters (Kooyman and Costa 1979).
Relating Degree of Oiling to Exposure
The relationship between the degree of oiling and the exposure will
be estimated by calculating the exposure in gallon*days using the
OSSM and relating that to oiling which occurred in the study areas.
Values defining high exposure, moderate exposure, and low exposure
will be defined for each area.
The proportion of the estimated total near-shore and off-shore KP
sea otter population in high, moderate, and low exposure categories
will be determined based on their estimated exposure values and the
scale developed for the study areas. The total mortality will be
25
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estimated by taking each of the products of the total population
estimate, the exposure level proportion, a corresponding degree of
oiling proportion and its associated mortality rate, and then
summing over the degree of oiling categories. Overall mortality
rates for each exposure category will be estimated based on the
mortality rate and the size of each portion of the population. The
total mortality for the KP otters will be estimated as the sum of
the totals for the three exposure categories for the near-shore and
off-shore habitats.
DATA ANALYSIS
A point estimate of sea otter mortality resulting from acute
exposure to oil along the KP will be obtained as described in the
Methods section.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bodkin, J.L. and F. Weltz. 1990. A summary and evaluation of sea
otter capture operations in response to the Exxon Valdez oil
spill, Prince William Sound Alaska. In K. Bayha and J.
Kormendy, eds., Proceedings of the Sea Otter Symposium,
Anchorage, Alaska. April 17-19, 1990. In press.
Kooyman, G.L. and D.P. Costa. 1979. Effects of oiling on
temperature regulation in sea otters. Report, Outer
Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, N.O.A.A.
Contract No. 03-7-022-35130. 25pp.
Rails, K., T. Eagle, and D.B. Siniff. 1988. Movement patterns and
spatial use of California sea otters. In D.B. Siniff and K.
Rails, eds., Population status of California sea otters. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Minerals Management Service,
Contract No. 14-12-001-30033. 368pp.
BUDGET
Salaries $70.0
Total $70.0
26
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 6C
Study Title: Radiotelemetry Studies on Sea Otters in PWS
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
On March 24, 1989, over 11 million gallons of crude oil were
spilled in PWS due to the EVOS. Thousands of sea otters were
potentially affected. Exposure of sea otters to components of
crude oil may have caused acute illness and mortality or chronic
illness which may cause population damage either due to eventual
mortality, reduced production or both.
Within months of the spill, research was initiated to determine
both the acute and the chronic consequences of exposure to crude
oil from the EVOS on sea otters that were not treated and remained
in the affected habitat, as well as on otters that were treated at
otter rehabilitation centers following exposure. From the wild
population, 100 adult and 64 dependent sea otters were captured,
examined, instrumented with radio-transmitters, and monitored in
PWS beginning in October 1989 to the present. Additionally, of the
large number of sea otters that were captured and brought into
otter rehabilitation centers, 45 were radio-instrumented during
June 1989, released in eastern PWS during July, and continuously
monitored until the present. The goal of this research effort was
to provide data on the survival, reproduction, and behavior of the
sea otters following release from these centers, and by doing so,
to gain insights into both the damage done to the PWS sea otter
population and in the efficacy of the "rehabilitation" strategy.
The studies proposed herein represent a continuation of the
research effort briefly described above. These studies were
designed to permit comparisons of certain characteristics of the
sea otters in the oil spill zone not only with those of sea otters
from eastern PWS, but also to information about sea otters
throughout PWS available from previous studies dating back to the
mid-1970's. This approach provides both a coincident baseline for
the data gathered on sea otters in the spill zone and a way to
address the question whether the spill may have directly or
indirectly caused damage over a larger geographic area than has
usually been assumed. Additionally, it provides a way to gauge
what is normal for this population, and in so doing, establishes
both a measure and a goal for recovery efforts.
In addition to the general goals described above, the information
gathered during these studies will provide information crucial to
formulating restoration policy for sea otters throughout the oil
spill zone, including information on habitat utilization, and more
specifically, identification of critical habitats, recolonization
27
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rates, predicting and monitoring population growth rates during the
recovery phase, and the formulation of future response and
restoration policies for sea otters throughout their range.
OBJECTIVES
Weanlings
A. To test the hypothesis that weanling survival at various age
intervals is not different between oiled and unoiled areas.
B. To document the movements of weanling sea otters with respect
to areas in PWS that have been affected by the EVOS.
Adult Females
A. To test the hypothesis that pup survival pre-weaning is not
different between oiled and unoiled areas.
B. To test the hypothesis that survival of adult female sea
otters is not different in oiled and unoiled areas.
C. To test the hypothesis that pupping rates of adult female sea
otters are not different between oiled and unoiled areas.
D. To document the movements of adult female sea otters with
respect to areas in PWS that have been affected by the oil
spill.
Otters from Rehabilitation Centers
A. To test the hypothesis that survival of sea otters that
underwent oiling, cleaning, treatment, and release is not
different from that of sea otters that were not affected by
the EVOS.
B. To test the hypothesis that reproductive rates of female sea
otters that underwent oiling, cleaning and treatment does not
differ significantly from that of female sea otters that were
not affected by the EVOS.
C. To document the movements of sea otters from treatment centers
relative to impacted habitats in western PWS and the KP.
METHODS
No additional capture or examination of sea otters is proposed for
this study. Capture, instrumentation, and biological sampling of
study otters has been well described in the 1989 and 1990 study
plans.
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Radio-instrumented sea otters will be monitored by observers in
aircraft and skiffs. Aircraft and skiffs will be equipped with
right-and left-mounted Yagi antennas and programmable, scanning FM
receivers. Aircraft will be flown at variable heights depending
upon whether observers are attempting to locate radio signals or
make visual observations on individual sea otters. An attempt will
be made to find and visually examine each otter at least biweekly
until 30 September, 1991. After that date, we will locate and
determine the status of each otter once per month until 15
February, 1992. Data will be recorded directly on xeroxed
topographical maps and on data sheets for later data entry into
computers.
Information on presence or absence of oil will come from data
collected in the Coastal Habitat Study, Subtidal Studies, Technical
Services Study Number 3, and response data sets.
DATA ANALYSIS
A. Tests
It is assumed that control animals, from unoiled portions of PWS,
are healthy and relatively uncontaminated, and that their survival
is representative of that of wild populations. It is also assumed
that sea otters captured in the treated areas have been either
directly or indirectly exposed to the spilled oil.
B. Analytical Methods
Survival analyses will be conducted using the Kaplan-Meier product
limit estimator (Kaplan and Meier 1958, White and Garrott 1990)
programmed in a simple Lotus 123 spreadsheet and plotted using
Lotus Freelance graphics software. Significance of differences
between control and treatment groups will be tested following the
procedure described by Cox and Oakes (1984).
Reproductive data will be compared between treatment and control
groups using contingency tables and tests of independence. Two-way
contingency tables will be used except when interactions among age,
sex, treatment type or location are of interest. In that case,
three-way or multi-way contingency tables based on log-linear
models will be used (Sokal and Rohlf 1981).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cox, D. R. and D. Oakes. 1984. Analysis of survival data.
Chapman & Hall, New York. 201pp.
Kaplan, E. L. and P. Meier. 1958. Nonparametric estimation from
incomplete observations. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 53:457-481.
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Sokal, R. R. and F. J. Rohlf. Biometry. Second Edition. W. H.
Freeman & Co., San Francisco, CA. 859pp.
White, G. C. and R. A. Garrott. 1990. Analysis of wildlife radio-
tracking data. Academic Press. New York. 383pp.
BUDGET
Salaries $ 146.0
Travel 14.0
Contractual 149.0
Commodities 41. 0
Total $ 350.0
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 6D
Study Title: Sea otter prey selection and foraging success in
Western PWS
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
Sea otters commonly prey on a variety of benthic marine
invertebrates that inhabit coastal waters ranging in depth from the
intertidal to approximately 20 fathoms (Kenyon 1969). Principal
prey species identified in PWS in the past include crab, clam, and
mussel (Calkins 1978; Garshelis 1986; Johnson 1987). Damages to
the nearshore benthic community resulting from the EVOS may
influence the recovery of affected sea otter populations. Probable
mechanisms of influence include (1) decreased food availability and
(2) consumption of prey contaminated by hydrocarbons.
Sea otters require a relatively high amount of energy to maintain
their body temperature in cold North Pacific waters (Costa and
Kooyman 1984) . Juvenile and adult sea otters consume between 20-
30% of their body weight per day (Kenyon 1969). In western PWS,
sea otters spend approximately 50% of a 24 hr period foraging, and
during the winter months (November-April) foraging activity
increases (Garshelis 1986).
To evaluate hydrocarbon contamination in PWS, certain shellfish and
coastal sediments have been systematically sampled in portions of
the sea otter range by the Coastal Habitat and Fish/Shellfish
damage assessment studies. Additional taxa of shellfish of sea
otter prey will be collected as needed.
There are at least two functional responses to a contaminated prey
base. Prey selection may continue as prior to contamination,
resulting in ingestion of hydrocarbons by sea otters. The
consumption of contaminated prey may increase the metabolic demands
on the sea otters' energy budget, which in turn may retard recovery
of the population. Alternatively, sea otters may reduce or
eliminate, through prey selection, contaminated prey from their
diet. If sea otter populations are limited by food resources in
PWS, as suggested by Johnson (1987), a decline in abundance or a
lack of recovery of the sea otter population may result. These
injuries may occur over a time scale longer than previous damage
assessment studies considered.
The purpose of this study is to describe the species composition
and relative frequency of occurrence of prey selected by sea otters
in three locations in western PWS, following the EVOS. The results
of this study will quantify the extent to which sea otters are
foraging on contaminated prey in these areas and allow evaluation
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of the need for the collection of additional sea otter prey for
hydrocarbon analysis. Additionally, this study may provide data
necessary to quantify the site specific exposure rate of sea otters
to dietary hydrocarbons.
OBJECTIVES
A. To describe prey species and the relative frequency that each
prey species is consumed by sea otters in 3 areas affected by
the EVOS.
B. To collect tissue samples of key sea otter prey (indicated by
frequency of occurrence > .10) for toxicological analysis if
not currently sampled by coastal habitat and fish\shellfish
studies.
C. To determine foraging success rates in each of three study
areas.
D. To compare prey species and foraging success rates from the
Green Island area to historic data from the same region.
E. To estimate mean size and determine approximate caloric value
per prey item.
METHODS
Sea otter prey will be determined at three sites within western
PWS. Study sites will be near Green Island, Herring Bay, and Drier
Bay (the latter two on Knight Island). Study sites were selected
based on several criteria: (1) the location of intertidal and
subtidal sampling sites for sediments and tissues, (2) the
locations from which sea otter tissue samples were collected
following the spill, (3) the capture location of radio telemetered
sea otters, and (4) the relative degree of oiling at each site as
quantitatively evaluated by an oil exposure model developed by the
NOAA (OSSOM) . In general, the Herring Bay site exhibited the
heaviest degree and persistence of oiling, the Green Island area
had a patchy distribution of heavy shoreline oiling, and the Drier
Bay site exhibited intermediate oiling. The benthic contours of
the Knight Island sites are similar to one another; the Green
Island area has a more extensive shallow water area. Hydrocarbon
contamination is assumed to be relatively uniform within the study
sites, and levels of hydrocarbons observed in sampled prey to be
representative of those prey species being consumed by sea otters.
The primary method of data collection will be observational.
Observations will be made with the aid of high resolution Questar
telescopes and 10X binoculars. Data recorded will include sex, age
class of focal animal (adult or juvenile) , number of prey and
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relative prey size (A: < 3 cm, B: > 3 to < 6 cm , C: > 6 cm to < 9
cm, D: > 9 to < 12 cm and E: > 12 cm) , dive time, surface time,
success rate and prey item to lowest taxon. Repeated dives will be
recorded for a focal animal until a maximum of 50 identifiable prey
items are observed per individual or until the animal is lost or
discontinues foraging. Radio-implanted sea otters from damage
assessment studies will be used as focal animals when feasible.
Focal animal selection, when more than one otter is feeding at an
observation site, will be random. A minimum sample of 500
identifiable prey items will be recorded at each of the three
selected geographic areas. An attempt will be made to distribute
foraging observations from all vantage points within each study
area. Compiled foraging data will be compared to species sampled
by the Coastal Habitat and Fish\Shellfish studies. If an observed
prey species constitutes more than 10% overall of the sea otter's
prey at any site and has not been sampled in supporting studies,
samples will be collected. Sea otter prey will be collected from
forage areas with the aid of SCUBA, and hydrocarbon levels of the
collected prey will be determined by standard analytical laboratory
procedures. Sampling protocols for identified prey will be
determined as necessary, depending on species, but will follow
accepted methodologies.
Data from radio-marked animals which are of known age and
reproductive status will be collected as a priority. However, the
majority of observations will likely be collected on unmarked
animals. Marked and unmarked animals will be distinguished in the
data set. Adult animals will be categorized as male, independent
female, or female with a pup. Juveniles will be identified as
small dark-headed otters estimated to be less than 24 months of
age. Dependent otters will be classified as such.
Data will be collected only during daylight hours, during as many
tidal cycles as possible. Tidal state will be recorded for all
observations.
Information regarding the species, their density (when available),
number of species, sample location, and results of toxicological
analysis of tissue of marine invertebrates identified as sea otter
prey species within the foraging study sites will be required from
the Coastal Habitat and Fish\Shellfish damage assessment studies.
DATA ANALYSIS
Initial analysis will consist of listing prey by species and
determining the frequency of occurrence for each prey type, by
site. Mean success rates, dive times and surface intervals will be
estimated by site and prey type. Differences between sites will be
tested with ANOVA. Prey selection and foraging success can be
compared to historic data collected at Green Island (Johnson 1987)
as comparable techniques will be used to gather data. ANOVA or
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chi-square contingency table analyses, as appropriate, will be used
to detect differences among dive times, success rates, mean
Kcal/unit effort, relative frequency of prey items, among areas,
and/or between times. A significance level of .05 will be used for
all tests.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Calkins, D. G. 1978. Feeding behavior and major prey species of the
sea otter, Enhydra lutris, in Montague strait, Prince William
Sound, Alaska. Fish. Bull. 76(1):125-131.
Costa, D. P. and G. L. Kooyman. 1984. Contribution of specific
dynamic action to heat balance and thermoregulation in the sea
otter, Enhydra lutris. Physiol. Zool. 57(2):199-203.
Garshelis, D. L. , J. A. Garshelis and A. T. Kimker. 1986. Sea
otter time budgets and prey relationships in Alaska. J.
Wildlife Manage. 50(4):637-647.
Johnson, A. M. 1987. Sea otters of Prince William Sound, Alaska.
Unpublished Report, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska
Fish and Wildlife Research Center, Anchorage, AK.
Kenyon, K. W. 1969. The sea otter in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
North Amer. Fauna 68. 352 pp.
BUDGET
Salaries $48.0
Travel 5.3
Commodities 8.0
Equipment 8.9
Total $70.2
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY 6E
Study Title: Sea Otter Mortality in PWS Following the Exxon
Valdez Oil Spill
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
Much of the initial work to assess damages to sea otters caused by
the EVOS focused on sea otter mortality as a result of acute
exposure to oil following the spill. Additional studies have been
directed at identifying possible longterm effects due to acute or
chronic exposure to hydrocarbons in the environment. Systematic
surveys for beach cast marine mammals and sea birds have been
identified as valuable for describing patterns of mortality over
time (Bodkin and Jameson, in press). Changes in the
characteristics of mortality (i.e., carcass recovery rates, age-
class and sex composition of dying animals) from pre- to post-spill
time periods may be indicative of groups of animals compromised by
exposure to oil or hydrocarbon residues in the environment.
Kenyon (1969) and Johnson (1987) documented patterns of mortality
for sea otter populations within areas at various stages of
reoccupation. Findings indicate extremely low levels of mortality
for prime age otters in habitat recently occupied. Levels of
mortality for young of the year and old animals increase with
length of occupation of an area. Recovery rates of prime age beach
cast carcasses remains low, regardless of length of occupancy.
These studies are based on information gained from carcasses
collected on beaches, and while they do not provide mortality
rates, they do provide an age class distribution and carcass
recovery rates that can be used to evaluate annual changes and
regional differences in mortality characteristics.
The Green Island area, in southwestern PWS, has a long established
sea otter population and is within the oil spill zone. Green
Island was the site of much of Johnson's work, which provided 10
years of baseline mortality data for that area, as well as 10 years
of mortality data for the more recently established northeastern
portion (Port Gravina) of the Sound which was not directly affected
by oil.
One year of post-spill data has already been collected on mortality
patterns in oiled areas (Green, Knight, Naked and Perry islands)
and a control area in the eastern Sound (Port Gravina). Continuing
the beach surveys will provide additional information on post-spill
characteristics of mortality and the persistence of changes that
may be occurring relative to pre-spill mortality patterns.
Additionally, fresh carcasses will be collected for necropsy and
samples taken for histopathology and toxicology studies.
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OBJECTIVES
The overall objective of this study is to conduct beach surveys in
three areas of PWS and collect sea otter carcasses to determine (1)
if mortality patterns (age class and sex distributions, and rates
of carcass deposition) are similar to previous years, and (2) post-
spill trends in mortality. Specific hypotheses to be tested for
each area are:
A. The proportion of prime age carcasses found in 1991 is not
significantly different from proportions found in previous
beach surveys in PWS.
B. The proportion of female carcasses found in 1991 is not
significantly different from proportions found in previous
beach surveys in PWS.
C. Post-spill levels of carcass deposition (number of carcasses
per linear kilometer of beach surveyed) are not significantly
different from pre-spill levels of mortality in PWS.
METHODS
Beaches will be surveyed in three areas: 1) Green Island in south-
western PWS, 2) Knight and Naked Islands in western PWS, and 3)
Port Gravina in northeastern PWS. These beaches include those
surveyed pre-spill by Johnson (1987). Control beaches will include
those in the Hell's Hole, Olsen Bay area of Port Gravina. These
beaches will be walked once in the spring, after the snow melts
from the supratidal zone but before summer revegetation occurs,
which may hide old carcasses washed high on the beach.
Skulls will be taken from carcasses and a tooth extracted for aging
(Garshelis 1984). Fresh carcasses will be collected and necropsied
as soon as possible. Tissue samples will be collected for
toxicology and histopathology. Badly decomposed carcasses or
partial remains may have no evidence indicating the sex of the
individual. In these cases, if a canine is present and the carcass
is that of an adult, sex may be determined by canine diameter
(Lensink 1962, Johnson 1987).
All teeth will be sectioned and prepared according to standard
procedures. Readings of age will be done by two qualified
individuals. Necropsies will be performed by personnel at the
University of Alaska-Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Biology,
whenever feasible. Samples taken for histopathology will be sent
to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. Tissue samples will be
taken for toxicological analysis according to protocols established
by the Analytical Chemistry Working Group.
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DATA ANALYSIS
Three variables will be analyzed: 1) the proportion of prime age
carcasses, 2) the proportion of female carcasses, and 3) the rate
of carcass deposition (carcasses per kilometer of beach). Analysis
of each of these three variables will be run separately.
The proportion of prime age carcasses will be the most sensitive
indicator of abnormal change in mortality. This variable is not
influenced by many of the confounding variables associated with the
other two, and a significant change in this parameter is the most
meaningful biologically. Prime age in this study refers to those
age groups with uniformly high survival rates as measured by pre-
spill data, and, based on Johnson (1987) , is defined as those
animals between 2 and 8 years old for the western PWS and 2 to 10
years old for the eastern PWS.
Changes in the proportion of female carcasses recovered could
reflect changes in the proportions of males and females in the area
due to immigration/emigration or initially high mortality of one
group at the time of the spill. Changes may also reflect
differential levels of continuing mortality between sexes due to
unequal levels of susceptibility to hydrocarbon toxins or unequal
levels of exposure to toxins because of spacial segregation.
Proportions (age-classes and sex) will be tested with a Chi-square
contingency table (Zar, 1984). Initially, data collected in 1991
will be compared to 1990 data for each area. If significant
differences are not found, data from 1990 and 1991 will be combined
and compared to pre-spill data (1974-1984).
The number of carcasses recovered for a given year is variable and
may be influenced by a number of variables (e.g., weather and
current patterns, yearly changes in otter distribution and
abundance) . For example, from 2 to 34 carcasses were found
annually on Green Island area beaches between 1974 and 1984.
However, examining rates of carcass deposition may be of some value
for describing patterns of mortality over time. For the Green
Island and Port Gravina areas, a t-test using years as replicates
will be used to compare rates of carcass deposition on transects
surveyed in 1990-91 to comparable transects surveyed in 1974-84.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bodkin, J.L. and R.J. Jameson. In press. Patterns of marine
mammal and seabird mortality as indicated by beach-cast
carcasses along the coast of central California (1980-1986).
Cdn. Jnl. Zoology.
Garshelis, D. L. 1983. Age estimation of living otters. J.
Wildlife Manage. 48 (2):456-463.
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Johnson, A. M. 1987. Sea otters of Prince William Sound, Alaska.
Unpublished Report, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska
Fish and Wildlife Research Center, Anchorage, AK.
Kenyon, K. W. 1969. The sea otter in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
North Amer. Fauna 68. 352 pp.
Lensink, C. J. 1962. The history and status of sea otters in
Alaska. Ph.D. Thesis, Purdue Univ. 188 pp.
Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis, 2nd Edition. Prentice
Hall, Inc., Eaglewood Cliffs, N.J.
BUDGET
Salaries $19.7
Travel 3.3
Contractual 5.0
Commodities 8.8
Equipment 3.0
Total $39.8
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 6F
Study Title: Bioindicators of Damage to Sea Otters From Exposure
to Oil
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
During 1989 and 1990, damage assessment studies on sea otters
included research on populations living in oiled areas in western
PWS. Sea otters in eastern PWS have served as a control group.
Assays on blood components, sperm and testicular cells, and
hydrocarbon levels in tissue samples have all been evaluated as
bioindicators of injury to the sea otters.
Adult female and juvenile sea otters with radio transmitters are
being monitored in PWS as part of the NRDA studies. By summer
1991, they will have been monitored for over a year. Data are
being collected on survival and reproductive rates, and on
movements. Previous blood data, collected at the time of capture
and instrumentation, are available. It is anticipated that
monitoring of these animals will continue through 1991. Recapture
and collection of a second blood sample as well as a urine sample
from these sea otters would provide the opportunity for further
physiological and toxicological monitoring of these animals.
Samples from the instrumented sea otters would be of particular
interest because of the opportunity to relate results to the known
history and continuing observations on the animals.
Many of the adult females are expected to have dependent pups in
the summer of 1991. Capture and examination of these pups would
provide an opportunity to further investigate the incidence of
physical abnormalities observed in 1990 captures.
Eastern portions of PWS were not directly oiled, and otters living
there have generally been considered a valid control for otters
found in western PWS. However, given the critical importance of
establishing reliable baseline values for Alaskan sea otters,
capture efforts on sea otters in a second control area are
necessary.
OBJECTIVES
The overall objective of this study is to evaluate bioindicators of
sea otters exposed to oil from the EVOS. Specific objectives are:
A. To collect blood samples from sea otters in western PWS and
southeast Alaska. Samples from western PWS will be compared
to those from southeast Alaska. In western PWS, instrumented
sea otters will be targeted because of their known history.
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B. To relate blood analyses on sea otters in western PWS
(instrumented otters) with outcome (survival and reproductive
rates) and to compare blood samples collected in 1991 to
previous samples collected on the same otters.
C. To measure pre-weaning growth rates of sea otter pups born in
1991 in western PWS.
D. To conduct physical examinations of all sea otters captured
and sedated, for evaluation of health and detection of
developmental abnormalities.
METHODS
Capture activities will be conducted in June and July 1991 in
western PWS and southeast Alaska.
In PWS, adult female sea otters were instrumented with radio
transmitters in the fall of 1989 and spring of 1990, and sea otter
pups were instrumented in the fall of 1990. Blood samples were
collected at the time of capture. Since instrumentation, they have
been monitored to measure survival and reproduction rates (for the
adult females). Due to the advantage of obtaining blood samples on
individuals of known history, instrumented sea otters in the
western Sound will be targeted for sample collection in the summer
of 1991. An attempt will be made to capture up to 30 of these
otters. If sufficient numbers of instrumented sea otters cannot be
recaptured, additional non-instrumented sea otters from western PWS
will be captured and sampled. The sea otters will be sedated,
blood collected by jugular venipuncture and, when possible, urine
samples will also be collected.
Locations of the instrumented otters will be known from ongoing
radio tracking efforts. Capture methods will include divers using
Wilson traps so that specific individuals can be targeted. Tangle
nets and dip nets will be used as a supplementary capture method as
needed.
Most of the adult females will be accompanied by a dependent pup,
which will also be captured and physically examined by a
veterinarian experienced in handling and treating sea otters.
Approximately 60 days after the initial capture, pups will be
recaptured, and weights and lengths again taken to estimate growth
rates. Previous studies (Monnett, unpublished data) provide
information on pre-spill growth rates for comparison.
In southeast Alaska (Sitka control area), sea otters will be caught
using tangle nets. Adult otters of either sex will be targeted.
Animals will be sedated, physical examinations will be done, and
blood and urine collected.
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Approximately 4 cc of whole blood will be put in a chemically clean
jar and frozen for toxicology analysis. Whole blood (in a EDTA
tube) and serum will be air-expressed to a qualified laboratory for
analysis of complete blood counts and blood chemistries. Fresh
blood smears will be made at the time of collection. Urine will be
collected by expression of the bladder and analyzed in the field
with reagent strips, and for specific gravities and sediment
levels.
Procedures for drugging the sea otters and collecting blood samples
will be as outlined in previous study plans (MM 6, 1989 and 1990).
Capture and handling techniques will be similar to procedures used
in previous studies in Alaska and California. For veterinary
panels, blood samples will be sent to the same laboratory used in
1989 and 1990 NRDA studies; a subset of samples will be sent to a
second laboratory, located in Alaska, for comparison purposes.
Toxicology assays will be done by the same laboratory as in
previous years, following established protocols from 1989 and 1990
studies.
Information on locations of instrumented sea otters will be
obtained from ongoing telemetry studies on these otters. A
clinical pathologist will be required for a interpretation of the
blood results. Mapped data on shorelines and offshore areas
affected by oil will be available for correlation with sea otter
capture locations and blood results.
DATA ANALYSIS
Blood values (veterinary panels and toxicology) from southeast
Alaska (control area) and western PWS will be compared in an
exploratory data analysis, using t-tests to test for differences
among the two areas. All variables will be examined for normality
and homogeneity of variance and transformed as appropriate.
Toxicology values of blood samples from western PWS will be
compared to values for the samples collected in 1989-90 using a
paired t-test. Additionally, for samples from western PWS, blood
values will be related to the history and outcome of the individual
sea otter. For example, values of sea otters that survive through
the end of 1991 will be compared to those of otters that die with
chi-square contingency table analysis. These types of comparisons
will also be used to relate outcomes to specific locations (and
degree of oiling thereof) where the otters have been residing.
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BUDGET
Salaries
Travel
Contracts
Commodities
Equipment
Total $ 88.4
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MARINE MAMMAL STUDY 66
Study Title: Assessment of Pathological Processes and Mechanisms
of Toxicity in Sea Otters that Died Following the
EVOS
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
Following the EVOS, a massive effort was undertaken to capture,
clean, and medically treat sea otters exposed to crude oil.
Following the spill, 329 sea otters were brought into
rehabilitation centers in Valdez and Seward. Approximately half of
these animals died during rehabilitation, a few were sent to
aquaria, and the remainder were released to the natural environment
in August, 1989. Approximately 18 million dollars were spent by
Exxon to rehabilitate affected otters. Studies on released sea
otters are providing evidence that a high percentage of these
animals may have died following release (Monnett et al., 1990).
There is concern that capture and rehabilitation may not be an
effective alternative for preservation of the sea otter population
following exposure to crude oil.
The subset of animals that died in captivity should provide crucial
information regarding mechanisms of toxicity associated with
exposure to crude oil and pathological processes that caused death
following contamination with this toxic substance. Analysis of
data from these animals will provide critical information to
determine if rehabilitation is a useful alternative for the
preservation of sea otter populations exposed to crude oil.
Although numbers of recovered carcasses were highest in the months
immediately following the oil spill, efforts to recover sea otter
carcasses from PWS have continued through 1990 and are planned for
1991. Recovered carcasses may provide valuable clues to the factors
involved in the death of these animals. Work conducted under this
study will continue efforts that have been ongoing since the spill.
OBJECTIVES
A. To determine the efficacy of sea otter medical treatment and
rehabilitation as a viable method for the restoration of the
Alaskan sea otter population following exposure to crude oil.
B. To evaluate chronic effects of residual oil in the environment
through examination of sea otter carcasses recovered in the
oil spill zone in 1991. Work conducted under this study will
continue efforts that have been ongoing since the spill.
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METHODS
A. Sea Otters from Rehabilitation Centers
In the six months following the EVOS, pathologists from
Environmental Protection Agency and the Armed Forces Institute
of Pathology were on site and performed complete gross
necropsies on all sea otters that died at rehabilitation
centers. Histopathology of samples collected from these
animals will be integrated with the clinical records,
hematology, clinical chemistries, and chemical residue
analyses. The specific objectives of this study are:
• to describe the gross anatomical and histopathological
lesions in sea otters that died at rehabilitation
centers;
• to develop a model to describe the toxic effects and
pathological processes that caused death in sea otters
following exposure to crude oil; and
• to test whether the necropsy, histopathology, toxicology,
and hematology results are statistically related to the
geographic location of capture, severity of oiling, date
of exposure, duration of exposure, or the changing
composition of oil.
B. Recovered Sea Otter Carcasses
In 1991, carcass recovery efforts will be continued. Ages
will be determined for recovered carcasses. Necropsies of
these carcasses, with sampling for histopathology and
toxicology, will further our understanding of pathological
processes associated with long-term exposure to residual oil
in the environment. In addition, 1991 studies of sea otter
foraging behaviour will determine prey composition and
hydrocarbon levels of prey for sea otters in western PWS,
which can be related to body hydrocarbon levels.
BUDGET
Salaries $ 0.0
Travel 20.0
Contractual Analysis 22.0
Administrative Support 5.0
Equipment 14.0
Total $ 61.0
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MARINE MAMMAL 6H
Study Title: Sea Otter Damage Assessment Studies: Database
Management and Data Analysis
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
Two years of oil spill response efforts and NRDA studies have
produced large amounts of data on sea otters affected by oil. To
date, most of these data have had only a preliminary analysis.
NRDA studies on sea otters, with the full or part-time involvement
of over 10 scientists, will continue to generate new data in 1991.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the work outlined in this proposal are:
A. To provide database support, including data entry, editing,
and record management, for ongoing sea otter studies.
B. To support statistical analyses and write-up of data generated
in previous and ongoing sea otter studies.
METHODS
The objectives of this proposal will be met by support of one
scientist, one database manager, and one biotechnician. All three
individuals will be full time. The majority of their time will be
spent in Anchorage working on data; however, a portion of the time
of all three will be spent in the field assisting with 1991 damage
assessment studies, as needed. Studies or data sets requiring
support and analysis are listed below.
DATA ANALYSIS
1. Morgue/carcass recovery: Almost 900 carcasses were recovered
within 6 months of the oil spill, and recovery efforts are
still continuing. Carcassses are maintained in frozen
storage. Necropsies have been done on most animals and, as
feasible, samples collected for histological analysis and
toxicology. Additionally, teeth have been collected and
submitted for aging and reproductive tracts of females have
been examined. Identification numbers are now being cross-
checked and all data compiled in one database. Biological
samples collected are stored or shipped, as required for
analyses.
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2. Sea otters from rehabilitation centers: Following the spill,
329 sea otters were captured in the oil spill zone and placed
in otter rehabilitation centers in Seward and Valdez. One
hundred and seventeen of those otters died in the centers. In
addition, sea otters that were not considered able to survive
in the wild following the rehabilitation process were sent to
aquaria, and their health is being monitored. Records on
condition and health, medical treatments, blood collections,
and behavior were kept for all otters. A thorough study is
ongoing to evaluate pathological processes contributing to
death following exposure to oil, and evaluating the success of
the rehabilitation effort (see MM 6H) . Clinical data are
currently being coded by veterinarians who worked with the
otters on a daily basis, and this information will be combined
with histopathology, clinical pathology, necropsy, and
toxicology information. Portions of this database are not yet
in digital format, and thus support is required to organize
and maintain all records on the sea otters from the
rehabilitation centers, and to provide data as required to the
cooperating pathologists involved in this study.
3. Blood data: Since the oil spill, blood samples have been
collected on approximately 200 sea otters in PWS (not
including sea otters that had blood samples drawn at the
rehabilitation centers). Additional blood samples will be
collected in the summer of 1991. Analyses of these data will
include relationships between blood panels (CBC's and
chemistries) and toxicology (hydrocarbon levels), geographic
locations, and reproductive and survival information on the
otters.
4. Toxicology data: Tissue samples from carcasses (depending on
condition) have been collected for analysis of hydrocarbon
levels. Additionally, blood and fat samples have been
collected from live animals caught in PWS since the fall of
1989. Several thousand samples are now in frozen storage
pending analysis of hydrocarbon levels. Results have been
received for approximately 150 tissue samples; 250 more are
currently being tested. Analysis of the toxicology data set
will require input from a biostatistician and toxicologist as
well as direction from the scientists who have been involved
in the studies to date. Prioritization will be done on
additional samples to submit for analysis. Relationships with
other information available on the animals will be
investigated.
5. Survey data: In 1989, helicopter surveys were done on the KP
and the KAP to determine sea otter abundance and distribution
prior to the arrival of oil (April and May), and again after
the oil had affected these areas (August and September).
Analysis of these data will be undertaken.
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BUDGET
Salaries $107.6
Travel 11.3
Contract 10.0
Commodities 2.5
Total $131.4
47
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TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL INJURY ASSESSMENT
Terrestrial mammals are an important part of the ecosystem in the
area affected by the EVOS. A wide variety of species are present,
many of which use intertidal habitats that were heavily impacted by
oil. They are important to humans for recreational viewing, sport
and subsistence hunting, and commercial and subsistence trapping.
In the 1989 damage assessment plan, 14 species were selected for
study from a total of 19 species that were identified as
potentially being impacted by the oil spill. In 1990, studies were
continued for four species: deer, mink, river otter, and brown
bear. A literature review on the importance of intertidal habitat
use by black bear was also done. During the coming year, work
will continue on river otter and brown bear only.
River otter work will continue to examine lethal and sublethal
injury within the oiled and unoiled study areas established last
year. This includes examination of animals found dead and
assessment of oil impacts on populations, food habits and habitat
use. In addition, several aspects of sublethal injury will be
investigated on a broad scale by expansion of data collection to
oiled and unoiled areas of PWS that are outside the established
study areas.
Brown bear investigations will be limited to monitoring female
bears that were radio-collared during 1989 and 1990. Any
mortalities will be noted and the cause of death will be
investigated.
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TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 3
Study Title: Assessment of the effect of the EVOS on River
Otters in PWS
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
River otter (Lutra canadensis) populations in PWS rely on
intertidal and subtidal environments for food. Studies of similar
coastal populations in southeastern Alaska documented that marine
fishes, crabs, and other invertebrates dominated food habits
(Larsen 1983, Woolington 1984). Because critical habitats for
otters were heavily contaminated by oil, otter populations are at
risk by direct contact with oil or by environmental changes to
other components of their habitats in response to oil. Data
regarding population density prior to the oil spill are lacking,
but otters were probably abundant. The goal of this study is to
determine if the VOS had measurable effects on river otter
populations. The approach is (1) to examine carcasses to determine
direct effects of oil, (2) compare pre- and post-spill dietary
information from scats, (3) continue comparison of population
density and various biological aspects between oiled and control
study areas, and (4) relate biological aspects of river otters in
different areas of PWS to the degree of oil contamination and
environmental impacts identified for these areas in other oil-
impact studies.
This study will employ extensive sampling of river otters through
live-capture techniques throughout PWS. Work already accomplished
in the two intensive study areas (Esther Passage control area and
Herring Bay/Lewis Bay oiled-area) has provided data on body mass-
length relationships and blood values for otters. Extensive
sampling will provide data on these relationships in all components
of the otter population. Additionally, the study will relate this
data to varying levels of oil contamination and environmental
impacts, by sampling study sites established by other impact
studies (e.g., intertidal invertebrates and fish). A larger sample
size of otters than can be obtained from the intensive study areas
is necessary to identify population level impacts for river otters
in PWS.
Continued work in the intensive study areas will monitor changes in
population levels, activity patterns, and home range size of the
previously documented otter populations. These data will be
related to 1990 data to identify trends that may be important to
proper interpretation of data from the extensive sampling effort
and for long-term trends. This work will continue to use radio-
telemetry, radioisotope labeling of feces, home range
determinations, and activity patterns to provide parallel data.
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Additionally, animals will be live-captured and released throughout
the summer to provide comparable blood and body measurements with
the extensive program.
OBJECTIVES
Direct Effects
At. Determine cause of death for river otters recovered from oiled
areas via necropsy and histopathological procedures.
A2. Test (a = 0.05) for higher hydrocarbon levels in river otters
in oiled versus unoiled areas.
A3. Determine sub-lethal effects of exposure to oil on river
otters.
Population Change.
Bj. Estimate population sizes of river otters with 10% of the true
value 95% of the time, on representative oiled and control
study areas using mark-recapture methods, and test (a = 0.05)
for lower population levels in oiled versus control areas.
B2. Estimate the rate of fecal deposition for river otters within
10% of the true value 95% of the time. This rate will be used
as an index to population size to test (a = 0.05) for lower
rate of deposition in oiled versus control study areas.
B3. Test (a = 0.05) for lower survivorship of river otters in
oiled versus control study areas.
Food Habits
B4. Test (o = 0.05) for differences in food habits of river otters
before and after the oil spill on the oiled study area.
Bs. Test (a = 0.05) for differences in food habits of river otters
on oiled and control study areas.
Habitat Use
B6. Test (a = 0.05) for differences in activity patterns
(foraging) of river otters between oiled and control study
areas.
B7. Use home range size and use patterns to test (a = 0.05) for
differences in habitat selection in river otters between oiled
and control study areas.
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METHODS
Methods used in 1990 will be continued in 1991. Trapping areas for
the extensive live-capture program will be selected to provide data
from differing levels of oil contamination and to allow the
greatest use of site-specific data from other appropriate oil-
impact studies. The intensive study areas will be utilized to
provide continued data on trends in otter populations and to
provide continuity for interpretation of data from the extensive
program.
The following are methods for collecting data by objective.
Direct Effects
Aj. Necropsy and histopathology procedures will be performed
according to standard protocols.
A2. Hydrocarbon protocols are established. No additional animals
will be collected but hydrocarbon and histological samples
will be taken from all suitable carcasses that become
available.
A3. River otters will be live captured at latrine sites in both
study areas and at pre-selected areas of PWS. The techniques
will be the same as used in 1990. The modified Hancock live
traps and drugging boxes to hold otters, as described by
Melquist and Hornocker (1979), will be used. Weather
permitting, traps will be monitored morning and evenings, and
traps will be equipped with a trap transmitter that signals
a sprung trap. Otters will be held only as long as necessary
to obtain body measurements, draw a blood sample, and extract
a premolar for age determination. Animals will then be
released at their original capture site.
Standard procedures will be used to collect and process blood
in the field. Obtaining blood values and morphometrical data
from the same animals should increase the power of our
analysis and allow a more complete understanding of the
relationship between these values and their relationship to
oil contamination.
Population Change
B!. . In May, river otters will be captured in both study areas for
this objective. These animals will be surgically implanted
with a standard implantable transmitter encapsulated in
biologically inert materials, and with radioactive isotopes by
a licensed veterinarian. Techniques for implantation of radio
transmitters will be those utilized in 1990 and originally
described by Woolington (1979). Animals will be held only as
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long as necessary to complete the marking process and recover
from surgery. Animals will then be released at their original
capture site.
The radioisotope implants will provide the basis for
estimating the population density in the oiled and control
study areas using a mark-recapture method. Marking of feces
will occur as the polylactic acid (PLA) tablets containing the
isotope are absorbed by the body and the long-lasting tracer
released (Crabtree et al. 1989). Feces will be recovered from
latrine sites to provide both early and late summer population
estimates. This mark-recapture technique was employed
successfully in 1990.
A closed population model, employing the radio transmitters to
determine exactly how many marked animals are resident in the
study area while scats are being sampled, will be used. Mark-
recapture models for closed populations are well established.
B2. Data to assess the rates of fecal deposition as a means of
estimating river otter population size will continue to be
gathered. These data will be used to assess population trend
and habitat use patterns in the intensive study areas.
B3. Estimates of survival will depend on data obtained from otters
instrumented with radio transmitters. Each transmitter is
equipped with a "mortality mode" so the fate of individual
study animals can be determined. Data collection for this
objective will coincide with data collected for objectives Bj,
B6, and B7.
Food Habits
B4 and B5. Food habits of river otters will be described from
prey remains in their feces. Such procedures have been used
successfully in past studies of these species (Gilbert and
Nancekivell 1982). A large sample of scats has been gathered
but those scats gathered for objective B2 and B3 will be
preserved and used if additional food habit analyses are
necessary. Laboratory analysis of prey remains in feces of
river otters will follow procedures outlined by Bowyer et al.
(1983).
Because of differential digestibility of prey and variable
rates of passage through the gut, volumetric measures of prey
remains in mustelid feces are meaningless. Consequently, the
analysis will be confined to the occurrence of prey items in
latrines and will be expressed in terms of percent of latrines
with food items, and percent of total food items (Bowyer et
al. 1983). To ensure that subsamples from a latrine are
representative of that site, all feces from that site will be
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mixed and a series of subsamples (about the volume of an
individual scat) will be drawn and analyzed separately.
Sampling will continue until the function between number of
prey items and number of samples becomes asymptotic. All
latrines included in the analysis, however, will contain at
least five scats per sampling period.
Because sample variance is unknown, it is not possible to
specify the total number of samples necessary to describe food
habits adequately at this time. However, monitoring
reduction in variation of the mean was addressed in 1990 by
increasing sample size (of latrines) for important food items
to ensure that all proportions are estimated within 0.05 of
their true value 95% of the time (Kershaw 1964:29). In the
control area, 113 latrines are established and in the oiled
area there are 131 sample sites. Additionally, a sample of
scats excess to the food habit studies will be submitted for
hydrocarbon analys i s.
HABITAT USE
B6. Otter activity will be monitored by recording the apparent
activity pattern when the radio signal is first picked up
during telemetry relocations. In 1991, emphasis will be
placed on obtaining visual observation of otters in the
intensive study areas to obtain parallel data on foraging
areas and durations.
B7. Habitat data for description of the two study areas was
completed in 1990. Data on home range and habitat selection
of individuals will be collected daily, weather permitting, by
monitoring telemetered animals. Radio tracking will be
conducted from a small boat, and the entire coastline of both
study areas will be surveyed. Because river otters are
distributed immediately along coastal areas (Larsen 1983),
telemetry "fixes" will be made over relatively short
distances, and multiple "legs" can be used in triangulation.
Consequently, error polygons should be small and biases from
animal movements during triangulation will be minimal.
Starting time of telemetry surveys will be randomized each day
to help minimize any bias from diel activities of otters on
estimates of home range size and habitat selection. Further,
aerial telemetry may be conducted if needed to determine
locations of individuals that cannot be located by boat.
Telemetry transmitters will be equipped with a mortality
signal that will allow the speedy recovery of dead animals.
The recovery of isotope-labeled scats from latrine sites will
also confirm individual home ranges determined by VHF radio
telemetry.
Methods for analyzing data are detailed below for each objective.
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Direct Effects
Aj. A cause of death will be assigned to each river otter carcass
based upon necropsy report and lab analysis of tissue
specimens. Hydrocarbon levels will be presented for all
usable samples.
A2. A one-tailed Z test for proportions (Snedecor and Cochran,
1980) will be used to test this hypothesis.
A3. Blood samples and standard body measurements were taken from
otters live captured in 1990. Differences in selected blood
values of otters from the oiled and nonoiled study areas will
be tested with multi-response permutation procedures using
"Blossom" statistical software (Biondini et al. 1988,
Zimmerman et al. 1985). Regression lines of length-mass
relationships will be compared according to Neter et al.
(1985).
POPULATION CHANGE
Bt. Analysis for river otters will follow methods described by
Seber (1982:; 120-121) for sampling a closed population with
replacement. Population size and 95% confidence intervals for
both control and oil affected areas will be estimated. A one-
tailed Z statistic will be used to determine if the population
density is lower in the oiled area versus the control area.
This test assumes that the population estimates are normally
distributed and have equal variance (Seber 1982: p 121-123).
B2. Differences in rates of scat deposition between oiled and
control study areas will be tested (a = 0.05) with a single
factor covariance analysis model (Neter et al. 1985: 848) .
The response, variable will be rate of scat deposition and the
covariate will be the number of latrine sites (to control for
any differences in population size between study areas). Main
effects will include oiling and months of study. Since a one-
tailed hypothesis is being tested with regard to the oiling
main effect, the critical region for this section of the ANOVA
table will be one-tailed. If variances are not homogeneous,
either a ranked ANOVA procedure will be employed or the data
will be transformed to obtain homogeneous variance or
normality.
B3. Estimation and analysis of survival distributions for radio
marked individuals will follow procedures of Pollock et al.
(1989). This method controls for censored observations due to
transmitter failure, animals leaving the study area, and
individual animals living longer than the study period.
Depending upon the structure of data, we will use either a
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parametric likelihood function or nonparametric Kaplan-Meier
procedure coupled with log-likelihood test to examine
differences (a = 0.05) in survivorship (by sex and age class)
of individuals inhabiting the two study areas. Model
assumptions include a random sample of animals, that survival
times are independent for different animals, and that
censoring mechanisms are random (Pollock et al. 1989). An
additional year of sampling may be necessary to obtain a
sample size large enough to make valid comparisons between the
oiled and unoiled areas.
FOOD HABITS
B4 and B5. Statistical analysis will include only food items
that compose at least 10% of the diet. Comparisons of food
habits, pre- and post-spill, between oiled and control areas,
and among months will be made with the Quade test, including
multiple comparisons of food items (Conover 1980:296-299).
HABITAT USE
B6. It is hypothesized that if availability of forage species in
the subtidal zone were reduced due to oil, otters would spend
more time foraging to obtain a diet equivalent to that in the
control area. Additionally, changes in the density of otters
in the two study areas could influence activity patterns.
Simultaneous reductions in otter populations and forage
species could result in change in individual activity
patterns.
Differences in activity of river otters (stratified by sex and
age class) between oiled and unoiled study areas will be
tested (a = 0.05) with a two-tailed Mann-Whitney test (Conover
1980: 216).
B7. The procedures of Swihart and Slade (1985a,b) will be used to
correct for auto-correlation among home range locations and to
determine the time interval to achieve independence of
observations. An adequate number of relocations to assess the
seasonal home range of an individual will be determined by
obtaining an asymptotic relationship between home range size
and increasing number of relocations. Once the proper time
interval and sample size have been determined, the method of
Dixon and Chapman (1980) will be used to calculate 25%, 50%,
75% and 95% isoclines of home range use.
Isoclines of home range use will be overlayed on detailed maps
of coastal habitats. The 95% use isocline will be employed to
determine the habitats available for a particular animal.
Proportional weighing by 25%, 50% and 75% isoclines within
each habitat will determine use. Thus, habitat use and
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availability will allow a determination of habitat selection
for each telemetered individual. Testing for differences in
habitat selection (rather than use) between oiled and control
areas is essential because a difference in habitat use may
occur as a result of differential availability of habitats
independent of effects of oiling. A knowledge of habitat
selection by river otters is essential for extrapolating from
our study areas to effects on habitat oiled in other areas.
Consequently, habitat selection (by sex) will be inferred from
a significant difference (P < 0.05) in use and availability
matrices compared simultaneously with Hotelling's T2
statistic; a posteriori comparisons of individual habitat
types will be accomplished using Bonferroni multiple tests
(Johnson and Wichern 1988:188). Similarly, comparisons of
habitat selection in oiled and control areas will be made with
a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), again using
Bonferroni multiple contrasts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biondini, M.E., P.W. Mielke, Jr., and E.F. Redente. 1988. Use of
a roller press to obtain cuticular impressions of guard
hairs on acetate strips. J. Mammal. 64:531- 532.
Bowyer, R.T., S.A. McKenna and M.E. Shea. 1983. Seasonal changes
in coyote food habits as determined by fecal analysis. Amer.
Midland Nat. 109:266-273.
Conover, W.J. 1980. Practical nonparametric statistics. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 493pp.
Crabtree, R.L., F.G. Burton, T.R. Garland, D.A. Cataldo and W.H.
Rickard. (in Review) Slow-release radioisotope implants as
individual markers for carnivores. J. Wildl. Manage.
Dixon, K.R. and J.A. Chapman. 1980. Harmonic mean measure of animal
activity. Ecology 61:1040-1044.
Gilbert, F.F. and E.G. Nancekivell. 1982. Food habits of mink
(Mustela vision) and otter (Lutra canadensis) in northeastern
Alberta. Can. J. Zool. 60:1282-1288.
Johnson, R.A. and D.W. Wichern. 1988. Applied multivariate
statistical analysis. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 606pp.
Kershaw, K.K. 1964. Quantitative and dynamic ecology. Edward
Arnold, London, 1983pp.
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Larsen, D.N. 1983. Habitats, movements, and foods of river otters
in coastal southeastern Alaska. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of
Alaska Fairbanks, 149pp.
Melquist, W.E. and M.G. Hornocker. 1979. Methods and techniques
for studying and censusing river otter populations. Tech
Report 78, Forest, Wildl. and Range Exper. Station, University
of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, 17pp.
Neter, J., W. Wasserman and M.H. Kutner. 1985. Applied linear
statistical methods. Richard D. Irwin, Homewood, Illnois,
1127pp.
Pollock, K.H., S.R. Winterstein and M.J. Conroy. 1989. Estimation
and analysis of survival distributions for radio-tagged
animals. Biometrics 45:99-109.
Seber, G.A.F. 1982. The estimation of animal abundance and related
parameters. Macmillan, New York.
Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1980. Statistical methods,
7th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames Iowa, 507pp.
Swihart, R.K. and N.A. Slade. 1985a. Testing for independence of
observations in animal movements. Ecology 66:1176-1184.
Swihart, R.K. and N.A. Slade. 1985b. Influence of sampling
interval on estimates of home range size. J. Wildl. Manage.
49:1019-1025.
Woolington, J.D. 1984. Habitat use and movements of river otters
at Kelp Bay, Baranof Island, Alaska. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis,
Univ. of Alaska Fairbanks, 147pp.
Zimmerman, G.M., H. Goetz, and P.W. Mielke, Jr. 1985. Use of an
improved statistical method for group comparisons to study
effects of prairie fire. Ecology 66:606-611.
BUDGET
Personnel $ 122.1
Travel 19.6
Contract 165.9
Supplies 39.2
Equipment 30.5
TOTAL $ 377.3
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TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL STUDY NUMBER 4
Study Title: Assessment of EVOS on Brown Bear Populations on the
AP
Lead Agency: ADF&G
Cooperating Agencies: DOI, NFS, FWS
INTRODUCTION
Brown bears reside along a section of shoreline on the southern
edge of the AP that was impacted by the EVOS. Brown bears may be
exposed to oil by eating tar balls, grooming oiled fur, consuming
oiled carcasses, and as top level consumers, through accumulation
of toxins in the food chain. Bears in the area reproduce on an
average of every four to five years and may live 25 years or
longer. Effects of oil exposure may be immediate, or more likely
would occur over longer periods of time. The effects of short term
exposure to high concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons may not
become evident for many years.
Aerial surveys and radio-telemetry were used during 1989 and 1990
to study population density, female mortality and exposure to
hydrocarbons in an oiled area within Katmai National Park, and in
an unoiled area near Black Lake. In 1991, the study will focus
only on the continuation of radio-telemetry to obtain additional
mortality information.
OBJECTIVES
A. Test the hypothesis that the survival (excluding hunting
mortality) of female brown bears near oiled areas of the coast
of Katmai National Park are lower than in other coastal brown
bear populations that were not exposed to oil.
B. Determine the cause of death of dead brown bears located
during monitoring flights in Katmai National Park. Obtain
tissues for hydrocarbon analysis if suitable to determine if
death can be attributed to the physiological effects of
ingesting hydrocarbons.
METHODS
A maximum of 34 previously radio-collared brown bears will be
located during monitoring flights between den emergence (May) and
den entrance (October). Monitoring will be conducted 3 to 4 times
per month during critical periods and twice per month during mid-
summer. The presence or absence of dependent offspring will be
noted when possible.
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The radio transmitters fitted to females were equipped with a
mortality indicating mode. When the animal is motionless for a
predetermined period (usually 6 hours) the signal transmits at a
slower (or in some cases, faster) interval. When movement occurs
(as when the animal was resting but not dead), the signal returns
to normal from mortality mode. During monitoring flights, bears
whose radios transmit on mortality mode will be visually located to
determine if they are dead. If visual location from the air is not
possible, a ground search will be conducted. Survival rates will
be calculated using the Kaplan-Meier technique.
If accessible, dead bears will be necropsied to determine the cause
of death and suitable tissues will be collected for hydrocarbon and
histological analysis.
BUDGET
Salaries $ 41.5
Travel 4.7
Services 28.1
commodities 0.7
Equipment i.o
Total $ 76.0
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BIRD INJURY ASSESSMENT
The EVOS resulted in the death of a large number of migratory
birds, especially seabirds, waterfowl, and bald eagles. In the
months following the spill it became apparent that the vast
populations of numerous bird species that inhabit or utilize the
spill zone remained at risk to direct mortality, as well as
sublethal, long-term injuries.
.Fourteen studies were developed and conducted during 1989 and 1990
to document injury to migratory birds. It was recognized early in
the process that it was not possible to study all the bird species
potentially affected by the oil spill nor the full scope of effects
to any species. Therefore, efforts were concentrated on studying
key species or groups of species where injury was most evident and
could be determined in a cost-effective manner.
Five of these studies will be continued in 1991. Studies on
peregrine falcons and passerines were not continued because it was
determined that all data pertinent to assessing injuries had been
gathered.
Continuing studies have been expanded and/or modified in response
to comments from reviewers and the public. The eagle study will
provide information on losses to breeding populations, chronic
injury, and carcass recovery rate. The seabird colony and
waterfowl surveys will provide a means to compare pre- and post-
spill populations as well as determine recovery rates and
mechanisms for impacted species. The seabird colony work will
emphasize documentation of injury to murre colonies. The sea duck
study will provide important information on sublethal effects of
the spill on various species of ducks that feed in the intertidal
and subtidal habitats affected by the spill. Finally, an
additional effort will be made in 1991 to more completely catalogue
and more efficiently store the numerous bird carcasses that were
collected during the spill response. This will facilitate the
future distribution of these birds to interested universities or
museums.
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BIRD STUDY NUMBER 1
Study Title: Further Examination of Bird Carcasses from the EVOS
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
Following the EVOS, thousands of dead birds were recovered from
beaches and nearshore waters by clean-up crews and stored in
freezer vans. It is important that these birds are put to their
best scientific use. Interest in obtaining these birds has been
expressed by various museums and universities for use in scientific
research and education.
Given the difficulties that field workers faced in identifying
large numbers of heavily oiled birds and managing the storage of
the carcasses during and after the field operations, it is
necessary to re-examine and organize the many birds presently being
stored in the freezer vans. The storage system for the carcasses
will be reorganized for quick and easy retrieval of specific
carcasses in the future. The re-examination of the unidentified
birds, partial carcasses, and refinement of some identifications
from a broad to a more specific category will serve to provide a
better basis for future disbursement of the carcasses.
Additionally, data important to other studies will also be gathered
from carcasses as they are examined.
OBJECTIVES
A. Re-examine carcasses for the refinement of bird numbers and
refine identification from a broad to a more specific level.
B. Classify carcasses according to the amount and distribution of
oil on the plumage.
C. Reorganize the storage system for the birds to allow for quick
and easy retrieval of specific birds.
D. Update log sheets with the best available information.
E. Gather data that are of value to other bird studies.
METHODS
Initially, the 9,000 carcasses in the Seward and Homer freezer vans
will be examined, followed by the remaining carcasses in the
Kodiak/Alaska freezer vans and the Valdez freezer van (about 23,000
carcasses).
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The carcasses in the Seward and Homer vans are stored in totes
(4' x 4' x 3') that will be lifted by fork-lift from the freezer
van, placed in a pickup truck and transported to the warehouse
facility, where they will be thawed and inspected. Bags of
carcasses in the other three vans are not stored in totes, but are
simply piled on the floor. These vans will be thawed to allow
removal of the bags.
At the warehouse, totes of carcasses from the Seward and Homer vans
will be thawed and the contents removed. The following information
will be updated on log sheets for each carcass:
(1) taxa (to species level where possible);
(2) state of decomposition;
(3) proportion of plumage oiled;
(4) distribution of oil on plumage; and
(5) completeness of specimen material (some carcasses are
represented by only a sternum or a wing).
In some cases, data on age class and other parameters will be
gathered to assist other bird studies. The bags of carcasses will
be repackaged, as necessary, and will retain their original number
and data sheet. After examination, birds will be individually
bagged (when possible), returned to the freezer van, refrozen in a
compact mass, organized and stored so that specific bags can be
quickly retrieved. By this process, the inventory of the contents
of each bag in the Seward and Homer vans will be updated.
The Kodiak/Alaska Peninsula vans and the Valdez van will be
examined following the Seward and Homer vans. Because of the way
the carcasses are stored, it will be necessary to thaw these vans
entirely to remove the bags. Additionally, it is probable that
there are too many birds in the Kodiak/Alaska Peninsula vans to
store on shelves. It may be necessary to store a portion of these
in the Seward and Homer vans if space is unavailable.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data collected during the process of carcass examination will be
recorded on standard forms, photocopied, and entered into a
computer database for analysis. Most analyses will focus on number
of carcasses, species, and degree of oiling.
At the end of the study, a report will be prepared. This report
will provide a complete and comprehensive description of all
carcass material and the complete results of analyses.
Additionally, photocopies of all data sheets will be provided as an
Appendix to the report.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Piatt, J. F., C. J. Lensink, W. Butler, M. Kendziorek, and D. R.
Nysewander. 1990. Immediate impact of the Exxon Valdez oil
spill on marine birds. Auk 107: 386-397.
Sanger, G.A. 1989. Seabird surveys between Kachemak Bay and
southern Kodiak Island, September - October 1989. Unpublished
report, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska.
BUDGET
Personnel $105.0
Travel and Other Costs 50.0
Contractual 158.0
TOTAL $313.0
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BIRD STUDY NUMBER 2
Study Title: Surveys to Determine Distribution and Abundance of
Migratory Birds in PWS and the Northern GOA
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
This study is a continuation of a similar study undertaken in 1989
and 1990 to examine whether the EVOS caused a decline in the
distribution and abundance of waterbirds in the waters and
shorelines affected by the spill, including PWS, Kodiak Island and
the northern portion of Shelikof Strait. These waters support
abundant waterfowl and seabird populations throughout the year
(Dwyer et al. 1976, Forsell and Gould 1981, Hogan and Murk 1982,
Irons et al. nd., Nishimoto and Rice 1987). Potential injuries to
waterbirds from exposure to the EVOS include, but are not limited
to, death, changes in behavior, and decreased productivity. Using
surveys by small boats, this project will collect information on
the summer and winter distribution and abundance of waterbirds in
PWS. These post-spill data will be compared to data collected,
using similar methods, in pre-spill surveys to determine whether
the oil spill affected and continues to affect waterbird
distribution and abundance in 1991.
This proposal describes the boat survey work that will be
accomplished in the third year of this study. (The aerial survey
portion of Bird Study No. 2 has been discontinued.) PWS will be
surveyed in March and July 1991. This field effort will be
conducted in concert with the Marine Mammal Study No. 6 (Sea
Otters). Surveys will not be conducted on Naked Island in Prince
William Sound, on the southern Kenai Peninsula or on Kodiak Island
waters in 1991.
OBJECTIVES
A. To determine distribution and estimate abundance (with 95%
confidence limits) of waterbirds in PWS.
B. To test the hypothesis that estimates of waterbird relative
abundances, using new and comparable historic data, are not
significantly lower (a = 0.05) in oiled than non-oiled areas
in PWS.
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C. To estimate the long- and short-term trends of populations
that were determined in previous objectives to be reduced by
the oil spill.
METHODS
A. Boat Survey Sampling Methods
Damage Assessment Surveys. Surveys will be conducted jointly with
the sea otter survey component of Marine Mammal Study No. 6 using
three 25-foot boats each manned with an operator and two observers.
Observers will record all birds and sea otters within 100 m on each
side of the boat within survey transects, and whether the animal is
in the water, on land, or in the air. The survey window will
extend approximately 40-50 m ahead of and 100 m above the moving
boat, but will be extended for animals that exhibited strong
avoidance behavior when the boat was more than 50 m away (e.g.
scoters, murrelets, harlequin ducks, harbor seals). Surveys will
be conducted only when seas are less than 2 feet. Date and time of
survey, and environmental variables including wind velocity and
direction, air and water temperature, weather, observation
conditions, sea state, tide, presence of oil on water or on
shoreline, and presence of human activity will also be recorded for
each transect.
A stratified random sampling design using shoreline, coastal/
pelagic and pelagic strata will be used to meet Objectives A-C.
Surveys will be conducted in March and July 1991. Fewer transects
will be sampled in March than in July because winter weather
conditions make it difficult to complete a longer survey.
The shoreline stratum was divided into 742 transects used in
surveys by Irons et al. (1988, nd) (see Pre-Oil Spill Surveys
below). For the March 1991 survey, the same 100 randomly selected
transects (covering approximately 13% of the shoreline) used in
March 1990 will be surveyed. The July 1991 survey will include the
same 212 transects (covering approximately 30% of the shoreline)
sampled in June, July and August 1990 surveys. These include 187
transects randomly selected to be surveyed in 1989, plus 25
additional transects randomly selected from the population of
transects surveyed by Irons et al. (1988, nd) in 1984.
The shoreline stratum includes all water within 200 m of shoreline.
Transects will be surveyed by travelling 100 m offshore, parallel
to the coast, at 5-10 knots. One observer will record all animals
seen between the coast and the boat while the other will record all
animals between 100-200 m offshore.
Pelagic and coastal/pelagic strata consist of plots of water
delineated by 5-minute intervals (latitude and longitude) on NOAA
65
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charts. Forty-six of 206 coastal/pelagic plots and 25 of 86
pelagic plots randomly selected to be surveyed in June, July and
August 1989 and 1990 will be surveyed in July 1991. The same 86
pelagic plots previously used in all surveys and the same 29
coastal/pelagic plots used in March 1990 will be surveyed in March
1991. Plots exclude any water within 200 m of the coast. The two
strata differ in that coastal/pelagic plots intersect more than
approximately 1 nm (nautical mile) of shoreline, whereas pelagic
plots intersect less than 1 nm of shoreline. For plots that are 5
minutes wide (east to west), two north-south transect lines located
1 minute inside the east and west boundaries of the plot will be
surveyed. For plots that are less than 5 minutes wide due to
intersection with land, either one or two transect lines will be
surveyed, depending on plot size. In cases where a plot would be
very small, it was combined with an adjacent plot, so that some
plots contain three transect lines.
Transects in pelagic and coastal/pelagic plots will be steered by
a combination of compass heading and LORAN-C coordinates. Boat
velocity for pelagic and coastal/pelagic plots will be higher than
for shoreline surveys, ranging from 15-20 knots, depending on
observation conditions.
Pre-Oil Spill Surveys. Two major survey efforts by the FWS were
made prior to 1989. Original data from these efforts were located
for this study for pre- and post-spill comparisons.
The first effort was a series of 4 boat surveys conducted in
March/April 1972, July 1972, March 1973 and August 1973 (Dwyer et
al. 1975). These surveys randomly selected approximately 13% of
transects in pelagic and shoreline strata in 1972, and randomly
selected transects within subgroups of these strata in 1973 ("open
water" and "coastal" subgroups within the pelagic stratum and
"outer exposed beaches", "inner exposed beaches" and "inner bays
and fjords" within the shoreline stratum). Observation methods
were comparable to those used in Damage Assessment Surveys, with
transect width 100 m on either side of the boat, except that small
bays were included in the shoreline stratum, and were surveyed in
their entirety as part of shoreline transects. Although individual
transects used in these surveys were different from those used in
Damage Assessment Surveys, methods were similar and population
estimates can be compared.
During July and August of 1984 and 1985, a complete survey of the
PWS shoreline was conducted, using observation methods similar to
those used for Damage Assessment Surveys (Irons, Nysewander and
Trapp nd).The shoreline was divided into 742 transects. (These
transects were subsequently sampled for the shoreline portion of
Damage Assessment Surveys). The western half of the Sound was
surveyed in 1984, and the eastern half was surveyed in 1985. No
surveys of pelagic strata were attempted in either 1984 or 1985.
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B. Quality Assurance and Control Plans
To ensure that project design and procedures are followed, 1) all
crew members will partake in training surveys prior to initial
surveys, 2) one person on each boat will be responsible for
maintaining consistent data collection procedures, 3) standardized
forms will be used during data collection, and 4) data forms will
be checked at the end of each day to ensure the integrity of the
data.
C. Information Required From Other Investigators
Shoreline and pelagic boat-based surveys in PWS will be conducted
in conjunction with sea otter surveys outlined in Marine Mammals
Study No. 6. Field data collection, computer data entry, and
quality control will be performed by biologists and technicians
from both the Marine Mammal Project and the Marine and Coastal Bird
Project.
Post-stratification of shoreline and pelagic transects based on
presence or absence of oil will be based on data compiled by the
Coastal Habitat Study, the Air/Water (Subtidal) Studies, and the
Technical Services Study No. 3. Oiling information was collected
by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) in
early summer 1989 (ADEC Summer 1989 Shoreline Assessment Data),
fall 1989 [ADEC Fall 1989 Shoreline Assessment Data ("Fall Walk-a-
thon")] and spring 1990 [Multi-agency Spring 1990 Survey ("SSAT
Survey")]. These 3 datasets will be used together to compile the
maximum extent of shoreline oiling. The area of water covered by
oil was estimated from a map based on ADEC aerial observations,
from a shoreline oiling map and from a NOAA HAZMAT hindcast model
of the movement of spilled oil (J.A. Gait and D.L. Payton, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Hazardous Materials
Response Branch, Seattle, WA) . The shoreline oiling dataset and
our estimated area of oil on the water were automated onto FWS
Geographic Information System (CIS) using Arclnfo software, and
were used to produce datasets describing the extent of oiling in
each transect.
DATA ANALYSIS
Population estimates and variances (Objective A). Estimates for
oiled and non-oiled areas of PWS (as defined by "oil on water"
datasets, above), as well as estimates for the entire Sound, will
be produced by adding estimates generated for each stratum within
a survey. For the shoreline stratum, these will be computed using
a ratio estimator as follows (Sheaffer, Mendenhall and Ott 1986:
131) :
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Population estimate: fy = rtx
Variance: V(tv) = (f )2? (r) = f 2 (^;
Bound on the error or estimation (EE) : EE = 2\Jv (ty)
where ty - population estimate for the shoreline stratum
y
r =
YI = number of birds counted on the shoreline transect
X( = area of the shoreline transect in km2
rx = total area of all shoreline transects in km2
V (t ) = estimated variance of t
V (r) = estimated variance of r
N = total number of shoreline transects
n = number of sampled shoreline transects
p. = mean area of all shoreline transects
The formulas will be the same for pelagic strata except that 1) Y;
will be estimated as the density of animals counted in transects
multiplied by the area of the block sampled, and 2) the finite
population correction (fpc=(N-n)/N) will not be included.
Using ratio estimators is appropriate if the number of birds
counted is positively correlated with transect length. The extent
of such a correlation will be determined. Simple totals and
variances will be calculated if the correlation between counts and
transect length is poor.
Statistical tests (Objective B). To examine whether oiled and
non-oiled populations changed in the same way between the Irons
1984 shoreline survey and surveys conducted after the spill, the
change in population size in oiled shoreline areas compared to non-
oiled shoreline areas will be computed as follows (after log
transformation) for transects surveyed within a given month (July
or August):
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Change in population = [(^-^2)^ - (Ri~R2^
in oiled compared
to non-oiled area
variance of change - [ V*r(f • ' f^> + v*r(T-
• oiled non-oiled
where f j = estimated population total in 1984
f2 = estimated population total in 1989 (or 1990)
yl = 1984 counts transects surveyed in 1984 and 1989 (or 1990)
y2 = 1989 (or 1990) counts .from transects surveyed
in 1984 and 1989 (or 1990)
w = counts transects surveyed in 1984 only
z = counts transects surveyed in 1989 (or 1990) only
x = transect area for y (x) ,vf (x') and z (x' )
x+x
i i (s2 + R2 s2 — 2J? s }
Tr A >. /« * \ _ vl r t ""• -^ \ \counts 1 tarea &**\ \counts,area '
Vox I T | ~ T^J — A II — — — — )
*A /' LX/»%^»^\ XT' /*5
S + -R 2S 2area
V 4- V* 2
( * *' )
(n, + n2) (nj + n3)
(n, + n2) (n, + n3)
The western half of PWS was surveyed in 1984, and the eastern half
in 1985. Transects surveyed in 1985 were not combined with those
sampled in 1984 because few transects affected by oil were sampled
in 1985; this meant that variation due to year surveyed could not
be distinguished from variation due to oiling. A separate test
using 1985 data could not be conducted because there were not
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enough transects sampled in oiled areas in 1985 to perform
statistical tests.
The above formulas allow the use of transects that were sampled in
either pre- or post-spill surveys, as well as transects that were
sampled in both survey periods. T-values and their associated
probabilities can be derived from them. If possible, both oiling
definitions (shoreline and "oil on water") will be applied.
Two-sample t-tests will be performed on datasets consisting of
population estimates from each survey in a given month prior to and
after the spill. For example, population estimates for all strata
combined for the month of March 1972, 1973 and 1991 will be
compared.
Post-stratification of PWS into habitats for various species is
currently underway using previously collected data on shoreline
types, bathymetry data and examination of each species7
distribution. Such stratification may make statistical tests more
sensitive to spill-related population changes. All statistical
treatments may be revised after such stratification.
Maps indicating distribution and abundance of birds will be
produced for each survey to illustrate differences between surveys
and oiled and non-oiled areas. Graphs of bird abundance will be
produced and updated with each survey to show population trends and
differences. Bird density and abundance estimates will also be
presented in tabular form.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dwyer, T.J., P. Isleib, D.A. Davenport, and J.L. Haddock. 1975.
Marine bird populations in Prince William Sound Alaska. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. Unpublished
Report, 21 pages.
Forsell, D.J., and P.J. Gould. 1981. Distribution and abundance
of marine birds and mammals wintering in the Kodiak area of
Alaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological
Services, Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-81/13. 81 pages.
Hogan, M.E., and J. Murk. 1982. Seasonal distribution of marine
birds in Prince William Sound, based on aerial surveys, 1971.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska.
Unpublished Report.
Irons, D.B., D.R. Nysewander, and J.L. Trapp. 1988. Prince
William Sound sea otter distribution. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Anchorage, Alaska. Unpublished Report, 31 pages.
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, & . nd. Prince William Sound waterbird
distributions in relation to habitat type. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 24 pages.
Nishimoto, M. , and B. Rice. 1987. A re-survey of seabirds and
marine mammals along the south coast of the Kenai Peninsula,
Alaska during the summer of 1986. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, Homer,
Alaska. Unpublished Report, 79 pages.
Sheaffer, R.L., W. Mendenhall and L. Ott. 1986. Elementary survey
sampling. Third edition. PWS Publishers, Boston,
Massachusetts.
BUDGET
Personnel $141.0
Travel 10.0
Contractua1 30.0
Supplies 33.0
Equipment 6.0
Total $220.0
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BIRD STUDY NUMBER 3
Study Title: Population Surveys of Seabird Nesting Colonies in
PWS, the Outside Coast of the KP, Barren Islands,
and Other Nearby Colonies, with Emphasis on Changes
of Numbers and Reproduction of Murres
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
The 1989 EVOS prompted resurvey of seabird colonies in PWS and
other areas westward along the spill trajectory. Most of these
colonies were censused at least two and up to six different years
out of the previous 17 years prior to the oil spill. Murres and
kittiwakes on one nearby colony site, Middleton Island, were
censused 11 of the 17 years before the spill. Cliff-nesting
species such as the black-legged kittiwake and common murre were
the primary emphasis of the 1989-90 censuses. Timing of egg laying
and productivity (numbers of fledgling chicks) were also noted for
these species. In 1990 the major effort was placed on replicate
counts of murres. Semidi Islands and Middleton Island monitoring
continued as the main control sites for murres.
There are approximately 320 seabird colonies, not including the
Semidi Islands, that occur within the area affected by the oil
spill. Before the spill they contained about 1,121,500 breeding
seabirds of which 319,130 were murres (FWS, Catalog of Alaskan
Seabird Colonies—Computer Archives 1986). The Semidi Islands
contained an additional 1,133,000 murres of both species (FWS
computer archives 1986). Diving seabirds are known to be easily
impacted by oil spills (King and Sanger, 1979). In addition, these
species are long-lived and have low reproductive rates, thus making
any mortality of adults a critical factor in these species' ability
to recover from loss.
This study will continue this year to look at changes in numbers of
adult murres at the breeding colonies selected: (1) Chiswell
Islands, (2) Barren Islands, (3) Puale Bay/Cape Unalishagvak, and
(4) Semidi Islands. Productivity and phenology will be measured
from land-based plots in the Semidis and compared with that
recorded similarly at the Puale Bay colony to develop estimates of
productivity and phenology at the other colonies where land-based
plots are not feasible.
OBJECTIVES
A. Determine whether the numbers of selected species of breeding
colonial seabirds within the oiled area have decreased
compared to numbers previously censused at these sites. Non-
oiled nesting colonies will be surveyed as a control.
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B. Compare reproductive chronology and productivity for murres
and kittiwakes at colony sites within the oiled area with
those found at nearby colonies in the GOA not affected
directly by the EVOS.
METHODOLOGY
This study will continue to look primarily at changes in numbers of
breeding adult murres at the previously mentioned sites. In some
areas there will be a secondary emphasis on counts of other
selected species such as black-legged kittiwakes, cormorant
species, and parakeet auklets if weather, logistics, timing, and
geography allow. Total counts are not feasible at large colonies
like the Semidi and Barren Islands and hence previously established
plots will be used of certain subcolonies.
Specifically, the two strategies used in 1989 and 1990 will
continue to be utilized: (1) counts of adult seabirds on plots
from land-based observation points; (2) counts from boat-based
observation vantage points where land-based observations are not
possible. If plots or subdivisions are not possible, then total
counts or photography from boats will be the sole option. Aerial
photography will not work at this time because the murre colonies
were highly asynchronous, and will not stay on the colony. The
above strategies, in combination with the widespread distribution
and number of colonies to be examined, determined that the sample
plan would have two basic applications for 1991:
(1) A combination of total counts and establishment/review of
plots counted from boats will occur at colony sites like
the Barren Islands and Chiswell Islands because the
colonies are much larger, in very exposed waters, have a
poor history of censusing, and require counts from boats.
Sample plots were established in 1989 and 1990 on the
basis of accessibility and visibility.
(2) Land-based plots will be continued at the Semidi Islands
because these colonies are too large for total counts.
Land plots are feasible and have been used for over 10
years. Sample plots were previously selected on the
basis of accessibility.
The AP murre colonies have required a combination of both
applications in the past and will continue to do so since some
portions of the colonies are visible from land, but most aspects of
the colony required boat counts.
Colonies will be recensused using the standard FWS methodology for
either land-based or boat-based counts of seabirds (Byrd 1989;
Hatch and Hatch 1988 and 1989; Irons et al. 1987; Nishimoto and
Rice 1987) . This will vary depending on the topography of each
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area. At least three replicate counts will be conducted, between
1000 and 1700 hours, of colonies or plots after eggs are laid.
These three replicate counts will be on three separate days. Plots
and photographs (using 6x7 cm format cameras) will again be
utilized for establishment of correction factors of total counts,
comparisons with past plots, and for evaluation of future recovery
or change. Survey units are subcolonies for cliff nesters and
islands for other species.
During boat censuses, seas must be less than 3 feet and rain should
not be more than a light drizzle. At least three observers
including skiff operator make the counts by binoculars from the
boat. Each observer counts each section of the cliff at least two
times and all counts are compared to see if sections of the plot
were missed (differences in counts by two observers cannot be
greater than 5%) and need more replicate counts.
Nesting phenology and reproductive performance on land-based plots
will be determined by viewing nests at regular intervals of
approximately 3 days. Nest sites will be numbered on plot
photographs and/or drawings and then followed throughout the field
season. Attendance of adults, nest starts, and the presence or
absence of eggs or chicks are recorded. For murres, it is
frequently not possible to see the contents of a site because the
birds remain motionless for long periods of time. Thus distinctive
behavior (e.g. wings held over the back so that tips do not cross,
tail down, back slightly humped) is used to indicate that a murre
is incubating an egg. Because it is possible to misinterpret a
bird's posture, we will use the convention that a site has to have
a bird in "incubating posture" on at least three consecutive checks
to consider the site as having an egg. In a similar fashion, wing
mantling will be used to indicate that a murre has a chick.
However, only one sighting of wing mantling is necessary to
consider a murre to have a chick or to be in a "brooding posture."
The conventions of murre monitoring used by the Alaska Maritime
National Wildlife Refuge will be used to resolve any questions of
interpretation.
Phenology and productivity data cannot be gathered as intensively
at areas where murre colonies can only be reached and observed from
boats. Instead, phenology will be determined indirectly by the
change in degree of murre attendance at the cliffs since murre
attendance is highly variable on a daily basis before egg laying
and becomes more consistent after that. As in 1990, some portions
of the rugged islands will be climbed occasionally whenever sea
conditions permit a landing and portions of murre colonies will be
scanned for eggs or chicks. Productivity will be evaluated by
number of chicks present on plots or subcolonies near fledgling
times.
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DATA ANALYSIS
The standard procedures and assumptions used by the FWS on colonies
in the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge are described by
Carton 1988 and Byrd 1989. Several key assumptions are: (1)
plots, by necessity, are not random and selection is based on
accessibility; hence this study makes the assumption that counts
within plots are representative of the way the counts varied on the
entire colony; (2) counts of plots or entire colonies from boats
are very difficult for large colonies and replications of counts by
several observers on the same day and different days illustrate the
need to refine the accuracy and the variation recorded. This means
that even counts of entire colonies are considered a form of index,
but this study assumes that changes in these indices represent the
changes occurring in the colony; (3) counts are unlikely to be
normally distributed and are more likely to be skewed and clumped.
This type of data requires either very large sample sizes, or the
use of a non-parametric test, or the data needs to be transformed
logarithmically and then tested by the appropriate parametric test.
This transformation normalizes the data and is required for valid
application of statistical tests on small sample sizes (Fowler and
Cohen 1986, D. Robson pers. comm.).
The standard FWS procedures mentioned prefer to compare trends
between years using numerous replicate counts where all plots are
censused each count day and these counts are replicated on
successive days. The average of daily counts on the Semidi Islands
will be used to calculate a confidence interval for the estimate as
was done on the Semidi Islands data in the past (Hatch and Hatch
1988; Hatch and Hatch 1989; Dragoo and Bain 1990). At other sites
where there are fewer replicate counts, the procedure used in the
past, which was usually an average of the available counts, will be
followed.
Data for 1991 will be treated similarly to 1990 data using standard
t-tests on logarithmically transformed data for all colonies except
the Barrens where an analysis of variance for the comparison of
change in murre numbers (also log transformed) was used for the
Barrens versus the Semidis between 1979 and post-oiling years.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Byrd, G.V. 1989. Seabirds in the Pribilof Islands, Alaska: trends
and monitoring methods. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Idaho, Moscow,
Idaho, 96pp.
Dragoo, D.E. and B.K. Bain. 1990. Changes in colony size, and
reproductive success of seabirds at the Semidi Islands, Alaska,
1977-1990. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Homer, Alaska,
Unpublished Report.
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Fowler, J. and L., Cohen. 1986. Statistics for ornithologists.
British Trust for Ornithology, BTO Guide No. 22, Tring,
Hertforre. 175 pages.
Carton, E.O. 1988. A statistical evaluation of seabird monitoring
programs at three sites on the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife
Refuge. Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. Unpublished Report from
contract with the refuge, 15pp.
Hatch, S.A. and M.A. Hatch. 1988. Colony attendance and population
monitoring of black-legged kittiwakes on the Semidi Islands,
Alaska. Condor 90:613-620.
Hatch, S.A. and M.A. Hatch. 1989. Attendance patterns of common and
thick-billed murres at breeding sites: implications for
monitoring. J. of Wildlife Management. 53(2):483-493.
Irons, D.B., D.R. Nysewander, and J.L. Trapp. 1987. Changes in colony
size and reproductive success of black-legged kittiwakes in
Prince William Sound, Alaska, 1972-1986. U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. Unpublished Report. 37pp.
King, J.G. and G.A. Sanger. 1979. Oil vulnerability index for marine
oriented birds. Pp. 227-239 in Bartonek and Nettleship eds.
Conservation of marine birds of northern North America. U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington D.C. 319pp.
Nishimoto, M. and B. Rice. 1987. A re-survey of seabirds and marine
mammals along the south coast of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska
during the summer of 1986. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, Homer, Alaska.
Unpublished Report. 79 pages.
BUDGET
Personnel $124.4
Logistics 140.8
Equipment 18.0
Miscellaneous
Supplies/Services 35.3
Travel/Per Diem 17.0
Contractual 194.5
Total $530.0
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BIRD STUDY NUMBER 4
Study Title: Assessing the Effects of the EVOS on Bald Eagles
Lead Agency: FWS
INTRODUCTION
The area affected by the EVOS provides year-round habitat for
approximately 5000 adult bald eagles and seasonal habitat for an
estimated additional 2500 immature bald eagles. An unknown number of
bald eagles from breeding areas in southcentral Alaska may also winter
in the spill area.
Bald eagles are closely associated with intertidal habitats that were
heavily impacted by the EVOS. Nearly all nests in the spill area
occur within 100 meters of the beach where eagles commonly forage in
intertidal habitats on fish and marine invertebrates. Eagles that
breed elsewhere, but spend winters in the spill area, also use the
impacted intertidal habitats for foraging.
This study is a continuation of work designed to document the
magnitude and duration of impacts to bald eagles caused by the EVOS.
Estimates for the number of eagles occupying the spill area after the
spill will be compared with historical data to identify changes in the
population. Nestling and adult bald eagles from oiled and non-oiled
areas will be monitored to estimate survival rates, distribution and
exposure to oiled areas, and determine causes of mortality. Estimates
of acute mortality will be improved through assessment of the number
of dead birds found in relation to the number of birds that were
killed, but never found. Blood samples will be collected to monitor
the health of eagles within the spill area.
Because eagles mature slowly and are long-lived, impacts to the
population may not be readily apparent. Furthermore, the long-term
impacts of oil contamination on bald eagles are unknown.
OBJECTIVES
A. Estimate numbers of resident bald eagles such that the estimate
is within 10% of the actual size 95% of the time; determine
whether changes in population size have occurred in the oil-
impacted areas since 1982 and test whether the change in number
of eagles in oil-impacted areas is different than changes in
non-oiled areas.
B. To test the hypothesis that survival rates are the same for bald
eagles in oiled and non-oiled areas.
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C. Determine the proportion of eagles that die on beachfront
relative to the number that die in areas away from the beach-
front .
D. Determine the toxic and sublethal effects of oiling on eagles
and eggs.
METHODS
Population Surveys (Objective A) . Surveys of randomly selected plots
will be conducted from Malaspina Glacier to Cape Elizabeth in early
May, following methodology discussed in Hodges et al. (1984). All
shorelines in each selected plot will be flown at an altitude of about
200 feet and an airspeed of 90 to 100 knots using fixed-winged
aircraft. Eagles will be classified as either white-headed or
immature. "White-headed" eagles will include sexually mature adults
and near-adults that have predominantly white heads. This survey will
not directly estimate the number of immatures, therefore, we will
assume that ability to detect all age classes is equal for birds in
flight, and a ratio of adults to immatures observed flying will be
used to estimate the number of immatures.
Survival Studies (Objectives B). During the winter, food resources
for bald eagles are at the lowest availability of the year and eagles
are presumably under the greatest nutritional stress. Mortality due
to inadequate food will most likely occur during the winter period.
Furthermore, some, contaminants stored in fat tissues are mobilized
during periods of nutritional stress. To estimate survival rates, 135
eagles (64 adults and 71 nestlings from oil and non-oiled areas) were
tagged with radio transmitters. Bi-weekly aerial flights will be made
to relocate the transmitters using standard telemetry techniques
(Gilmer et al. 1981) and to document eagle numbers, distribution, and
mortality within the study area. Dead eagles will be retrieved and
necropsied to determine the cause of death. Survival rates will be
estimated using the Kaplan-Meier (1958) procedure (Pollock et al.
1989). Survival functions will be tested for significant differences
between eagles marked in oiled and in unoiled areas, and between age
classes. Long-term monitoring will allow calculation of seasonal and
annual survival rates and a better interpretation of the long-term
effects of oil contamination on bald eagle populations through
population modelling.
Carcass Recovery Study (Objective C) . Data from the telemetered birds
in the survival study will also provide information on the number of
birds that die on the beachfront relative to the number that die in
wooded areas where they are unlikely to be found. This will provide
an index to estimate the total number of eagles killed by the EVOS in
1989 relative to the number of eagle carcasses recovered during 1989.
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Toxic and Sublethal Effects of Oiling (Objective D) . All eagles found
dead will be collected and necropsied to substantiate the cause of
death and look for signs of oil contamination. Tissue samples from
the collected specimens will be analyzed for contaminants. All
histopathology work will be accomplished through the FWS National
Wildlife Health Laboratory. All samples collected in the field will
be properly labelled and chain of custody procedures followed.
Blood samples from birds which are caught and released will be
collected and analyzed to determine concentrations of hydrocarbons and
other contaminants associated with oil contamination. Approximately
equal numbers of bald eagles will be sampled from oil and non-oiled
areas. Blood samples will also be analyzed for standard blood
chemistry profiles, which will help identify sublethal impacts. Blood
chemistry of eagles will be compared between oiled areas and non-oiled
areas, and tested (2-sample t-test, a = 0.05) for significant
differences. Blood chemistry results will also be interpreted by a
veterinary clinical pathologist.
DATA ANALYSIS
Population surveys (Objective A) . Analytical methods and tests:
Surveys will be conducted using a random plot design, as discussed in
Hodges et al. (1984) . This survey technique will allow estimation of
the changes in numbers of adult eagles and occupied nests when
compared with the previous surveys of PWS in 1982 and 1989, trying to
obtain a confidence interval of ± 10%. It will be assumed that no
major changes in habitat quality or quantity that may affect the
breeding population have occurred since 1982, other than the EVOS.
The following hypotheses will be tested (2-sample t-test or analysis
of variance, a = 0.05): (1) that the number of adult bald eagles in
the entire survey area in 1989, 1990 and 1991 is the same as the
number of adult bald eagles in 1982; (2) that the number of adult bald
eagles within the oil-impacted area is the same for 1982, 1989, 1990
and 1991; and (3) that the change in numbers of adult bald eagles in
the oiled areas is the same as the change in numbers in non-oiled
areas among and between years.
A parametric two-sample t-test (Steel and Torrie, 1960) will be used
which does not require equal variances to test the above hypotheses.
Analysis of variance will be used for multiple comparisons.
Assumptions necessary for valid application of the t-test will be
checked (e.g., test for normality). If assumptions are violated,
either an appropriate transformation or an equivalent non-parametric
test will be used.
Survival Studies (Objective B) . Analytical Methods and Tests: It
will be assumed that all eagles in the study area have an equal chance
of being captured and that all transmitters have a negligible effect
on the eagles behavior and do not influence the bird's chance of
survival. Survival data will be analyzed using the methods of Kaplan
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and Meier (1958) which accommodate infrequent visitation (i.e.,
relocations) of birds, and censusing of lost birds. This is an
appropriate method because it is expected that eagles will move from
the study area where they cannot be relocated during every survey.
Furthermore, the Kaplan-Meier method does not assume constant
survivorship during the period of observation.
A Z-test (Bart and Robson, 1982) will be used to test for significant
differences in survival rates between eagles marked in oiled areas and
eagles marked in unoiled areas. This Z-test requires the
transformation of the survival rate and standard error to normalize
its distribution and allow use of a Z statistic to test for
differences in survival rates. The potential exposure of individual
radio-marTced eagles in oiled areas based on frequent, accurate
relocations will be substantiated allowing a more appropriate
classification of eagles into treatment groups based on the
proportional amount of time they were located in oiled or unoiled
areas.
Toxic and Sublethal Effects of Oiling (Objective D) . Analytical
Methods and Tests: Blood samples will be collected from eagles
captured in PWS and will be tested for significant differences in
levels of contaminants and blood characteristics between bald eagles
from oiled and non-oiled areas using a 2-sample t-test (a = 0.05).
Assumptions necessary for valid application of the t-test will be
checked (e.g., for normality). If assumptions are violated, an
appropriate transformation or an equivalent non-parametric test will
be used. Information on blood characteristics will also be
interpreted by a veterinary clinical pathologist to access impacts on
bird health.
The spring population surveys will be conducted between April and May,
1991. The radio-marked eagles will be monitored bi-weekly between
February and June 1991. Dead eagles will be collected as available
between February and June 1991. Blood will be sampled between late
August and October 1991.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bart, J. and D.S. Robson. 1982. Estimating survivorship when the
subjects are visited periodically. Ecology 63:1078-1090.
Gilmer, D.S., L.M. Cowardin, R.L. Duvall, L.M. Mechlin, C.W. Shaiffer
and V.B. Kuechle. 1981. Procedures for the use of aircraft in
wildlife biotelemetry studies. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Resource Publication 140. 19 p.
Hodges, J.I., J.G. King and R. Davies. 1984. Bald eagles breeding
population survey of coastal British Columbia. J. of Wildlife
Management. 48:993-998.
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Kaplan, E.L. and P. Meier. 1958. Non-parametric estimation from
incomplete observations. Journal of American Statistics
Association 53:457-481.
Pollock, K.H., S.R. Winterstein, C.M. Bunck, and P.D. Curtis. 1989.
Survival analysis in telemetry studies: the staggered entry
design. J. of Wildlife Management 53:7-15.
Steel, R.G.D. and J.H. Torrie. 1960. Principals and procedures in
statistics. McGraw-Hill, New York. 481 p.
BUDGET
Salaries $ 83.0
Travel 17.0
Contracts 137.0
Commodities 14.0
Equipment 4.0
Total $255.0
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BIRD STUDY NUMBER 11
Study Title: Injury Assessment of Hydrocarbon Uptake by Sea Ducks
in PWS
Lead Agency: FWS
Cooperating Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
This study will focus on the effects of petroleum hydrocarbon
ingestion by harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus), Barrow's
goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica), common goldeneyes (Bucephala
clangula), black scoters (Oidemia nigra), surf scoters (Melanitta
perspicillata), and white-winged scoters (Melanitta deglandi) in PWS
as a result of the EVOS. PWS is a major wintering area for these sea
duck species (Isleib and Kessel, 1973) . It is also an important
migration area for sea ducks in spring and fall, and a breeding site
for resident harlequin ducks during the summer (Hogan, 1980).
Harlequin ducks in particular, because of their resident status and
intertidal foraging habits, are considered substantially at risk to
effects of the EVOS (King and Sanger, 1979). Goldeneyes and scoters,
although migratory, are also at risk because of their intertidal and
subtidal foraging habits.
The six sea duck species included in this study are heavily dependent
on intertidal and subtidal marine invertebrates (Vermeer and Bourne,
1982). Harlequins consume a wide variety of intertidal clams, snails,
small blue mussels, and limpets (Koehle, Rothe and Dirksen, 1982;
Dzinbal and Jarvis, 1982). Surf scoters and goldeneyes utilize larger
blue mussels (Mytilussp.) obtained by diving. Bivalves, particularly
blue mussels (Mytilussp.) , and small clams (Macomasp.) , are well known
for their ability to concentrate pollutants at high levels (Shaw et
al, 1976) . The crude oil spilled from the EVOS may injure marine
invertebrates that support sea ducks throughout the year (Stekoll,
Clement, and Shaw, 1980). Hydrocarbons may bioaccumulate in the food
chain and result in uptake of petroleum hydrocarbons by sea ducks over
a long period (Dzinbal and Jarvis, 1982; Sanger and Jones, 1982).
This study is designed to determine levels of petroleum hydrocarbon
ingestion by sea ducks and document resultant physiological and life
history effects (Gay, Belisle and Patton, 1980; Hall and Coon, 1988).
A predictive model may be constructed for harlequin duck reproductive
losses based upon physiological effects of petroleum contamination
resulting from the EVOS. Pre-oil spill baseline data are available
on petroleum contaminant levels in harlequin ducks tissue from PWS
(Irons, FWS, pers. comm.).
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OBJECTIVES
A. Develop a data base describing food habits of the six species of
sea ducks in PWS.
B. Obtain data from other NRDA studies on petroleum hydrocarbon
levels in marine invertebrates, particularly blue mussels, from
the PWS area; relate these data to the levels of petroleum
hydrocarbons found by chemical analysis of invertebrates in gut
samples from sea ducks collected in oil spill and control areas;
and test the hypothesis (at a = 0.05) that the incidence of
petroleum hydrocarbons in gut samples from collected sea ducks
is higher in the oil spill areas than in the control areas.
C. Estimate by chemical analysis petroleum hydrocarbon levels in
collected sea duck tissues and body fluids within 10% of the
actual value 95% of the time.
D. Test the hypothesis (at a = 0.05) that the incidence of
petroleum hydrocarbons in tissues of collected sea ducks is
significantly higher in 1989-91 in the oil spill areas than in
the control area.
E. From evidence of histopathology, estimate the ingested
petroleum hydrocarbon effects on morbidity and mortality of sea
ducks. This information may be related to other studies to
identify changes in abundance and distribution within the
affected areas.
F. Test the hypothesis that productivity of harlequin ducks in the
oil spill area of PWS is the same as productivity in control
areas of PWS.
METHODS
This study compares levels of petroleum hydrocarbons in tissues of six
species of ducks collected in four study areas. The areas exposed to
petroleum are western PWS and southwestern Kodiak Island. The control
sites are southeastern PWS and southeastern Alaska (north of Juneau).
Tissues were collected for evidence of both histopathological changes
and chemical contamination. Analysis of chemical and
histopathological samples from these ducks continues in 1991.
Female harlequin ducks are secretive and nests difficult to find.
Therefore, females will be mist-netted and radio-tagged at stream
mouths in oiled and unoiled areas of PWS in spring 1991 and radio-
tracked along streams to locate nesting sites. Clutch size, hatching
success, and brood size (a productivity index) will be obtained from
sample nest sites in oiled and unoiled areas.
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ANOVA (Snedecor and Cochran, 1980) will be used to test the hypothesis
that prevalence of petroleum hydrocarbons in gut samples from
collected sea ducks is higher in the oil spill areas than in the
control areas.
Cumulative logit loglinear models (William and Grizzle, 1972; Agresti,
1984) will be used to model the incidence of petroleum hydrocarbons
using area collected and species as explanatory variables. Hypotheses
concerning differences by area in incidence of petroleum hydrocarbons
will be tested with a conditional likelihood ratio statistic for
nested models (Agresti, 1984). A Bonferroni (Snedecor and Cochran,
1980) Z-statistic (Agresti, 1984) will be used to determine the nature
of the differences among areas if the main effect is significant.
Exposure of sea ducks to hydrocarbon contaminated prey may result in
physiological effects, such as changes in the amount of body fat. Sea
ducks were weighed and fat tracts photographed. Fat deposition was
classified by condition as: excellent, good, fair, poor, or none.
Adipose tracts scored were: throat, flank, subcutaneous, heart and
mesenteric. Loglinear models (Agresti, 1984) will be used to model
the distribution of physiological classification (fat tract scores)
by area and species. A conditional likelihood ratio statistic for
nested models will be used to test the hypothesis that physiological
classification is independent of area. If area and physiological
classifications are dependent, a Bonferroni (Snedecor and Cockran,
1980) Z-statistic (Agresti, 1984) will be used to determine
differences among areas while controlling for physiological effect.
Tissues were collected for either chemical analysis (presence,
absence, or degree of petroleum residue) or histopathology. Results
are being compared to unexposed specimens from "clean" (unexposed
control) areas. Choice of materials and tissues, handling, and
discussion of results are according to published guidelines for
interpreting residues of petroleum hydrocarbons in wildlife tissues
(Hall and Coon, 1988).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agresti, A. 1984. Analysis of ordinal categorical data. John Wiley
& Sons, New York. 287 pp.
Dzinbal, K.A. and R.L. Jarvis. 1982. Coastal feeding ecology of
harlequin ducks in Prince William Sound, Alaska, during summer.
pp. 6 - 10 in Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial
fisheries relationships. Nettleship, D.A., G.A. Sanger, and
P.P. Springer, eds. Proc. Pacific Seabird Group Symp., Seattle,
WA., 6-8 Jan. 1982. Can. Wildl. Serv. Spec. Publ.
Hall, R.J., and N.C. Coon. 1988. Interpreting residues of
petroleum hydrocarbons in wildlife tissues. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Biol. Rep. 88(15). 8 pp.
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Hogan, M.E. 1980. Seasonal habitat use of Port Valdez, Alaska by
marine birds. Unpublished administrative report. U.S. Fish and
Wildl. Serv., Anchorage, Ak. 25 pp.
Isleib, M.E. and B. Kessel. 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast -
Prince William Sound Region, Alaska. Biol. Pap. Univ. Alaska
14. 149 pp.
King, J.G. and G.A. Sanger. 1979. Oil vulnerability index for marine
oriented birds. pp. 227-239 in J.C. Bartonek and D.N.
Nettleship (eds.). Conservation of marine birds in northern
North America. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Wildl. Res. Rep. 11.
Washington, D.C.
Koehl, P.S., T.C. Rothe, and D.V. Derksen. 1982. Winter food habits
of Barrow's goldeneyes in southeast Alaska, pp. 1 - 5 in Marine
birds: their feeding ecology and commercial fisheries
relationships. Nettleship, D. N., G.A. Sanger, and P.F.
Springer, eds. Proc. Pacific Seabird Group Symp., Seattle, WA.,
6-8 Jan. 1982. Can. Wildl. Serv. Spec. Publ.
Sanger, G.A. and R.D. Jones, Jr. 1982. Winter feeding ecology and
trophic relationships of oldsquaws and white-winged scoters on
Kachemak Bay, Alaska, pp. 20-28 in Marine birds: their feeding
ecology and commercial fisheries relationships. Nettleship,
D.N., G.A. Sanger, and P.F. Springer, eds. Proc. Pacific
Seabird Group Symp., Seattle, WA., 6-8 Jan. 1982. Can. Wildl.
Serv. Spec. Publ.
Shaw, D.G., A.J. Paul, L.M. Cheek, and H.M. Feder. 1976. Macoma
balthica: an indicator of oil pollution. Mar. Poll. Bull. 7
(2): 29-31.
Snedecor, G.W. and W. G. Cochran. 1980. Statistical methods. Iowa
State University Press. Ames, Iowa. 507 pp.
Stekoll, M.S., L.E. Clement, and D.G. Shaw. 1980. Sublethal
effects of chronic oil exposure on the intertidal clam Macoma
balthica. Mar. Biol. 57: 51-60.
Vermeer, K. and N. Bourne. 1982. The white-winged scoter diet in
British Columbia: resource partitioning with other scoters, pp.
30 -38 in Marine birds: their feeding ecology and commercial
fisheries relationships. Nettleship, D.A., G.A. Sanger, and
P.F. Springer, eds. Proc. Pacific Seabird Group Symp., Seattle,
WA., 6-8 Jan. 1982. Can. Wildl. Serv. Spec. Publ.
Williams, O.D. and J.E. Grizzle. 1972. Analysis of contingency
tables having ordered response categories. Jour. Am. Stat. Assn.
Vol. 67: 55-63.
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BUDGET
Salaries $ 87.9
Travel 30.0
Contracts 40.0
Supplies 12.0
Equipment 9.0
Total $178.9
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FISH/SHELLFISH INJURY ASSESSMENT
The grounding of the tanker Exxon Valdez discharged crude oil into
one of the richest marine fisheries communities of the United
States. Although oil contamination was most severe within PWS, the
oil spread into large portions of the Gulf of Alaska (GOA), Lower
Cook Inlet (LCI), Shelikof Strait, and other North Pacific Ocean
waters off the coasts of Kodiak and the Alaska Peninsula. The fish
and shellfish populations inhabiting these marine and estuarine
waters form integral parts of a vast and complex ecosystem, which
also includes various other invertebrate species, birds, and
mammals (including humans).
For example, the various life history stages of Pacific herring are
important forage species for various piscivorous fishes (e.g.
Pacific salmon, halibut, etc.), birds (gulls, cormorants, eagles,
loons, etc.), mammals (sea lions, seals, whales, etc.),
invertebrates (crabs), and are used for subsistence and commercial
purposes. Outmigrating smolts of Pacific salmon are important
seasonal prey items for a variety of predatory fish and marine
birds. Maturing salmon in the high seas and adult salmon returning
to inland waters, are the major portion of the diet of marine
mammals such as sea lions, seals, and killer whales. Salmon are
also the summer mainstay for eagles and many species of gulls.
Spawning adults in the streams constitute almost 100% of the summer
diet for bear and some river otter and are a very important link
between the marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Salmon carcasses in
streams, estuaries, and lakes are a crucial source of nutrients for
planktonic communities and benthic organisms, which represent the
bottom rungs of the food chain for a wide variety of animals.
Various fish and shellfish species are also important components of
subsistence, commercial, and sport fishery harvests. Communities
such as Tatitlek, Chenega Bay, and English Bay depend upon
subsistence fisheries in PWS and LCI for the very existence of
their residents. The ex-vessel value of commercial fish and
shellfish catches within PWS and other affected areas was estimated
to be $1.3 billion. The largest recreational fisheries in Alaska
for salmon, halibut, and rockfish center in Homer and Seward; a
total of 300,000 angler days was recorded from these areas in 1987.
Finally, many non-consumptive users of fish and wildlife also
utilize the waters affected by the oil spill. Injury to fish and
shellfish populations and resulting alterations to ecological
communities would certainly diminish the value of the area to this
group of people.
Bioassays prior to EVOS using crude oil from Prudhoe Bay and other
areas have shown that exposure to concentrations as low as a few
parts per billion in seawater will cause loss of limbs in Tanner
crab, immediate death of eggs and larvae of herring, and death of
Dungeness crab and various shrimp species. To assess the type and
extent of injury to marine fish and shellfish communities by the
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EVOS, a series of Fish/Shellfish (F/S) studies was developed by
investigators from various State and Federal agencies. Species
were selected for study based on their value as indicators of
injury, their role as key species within the ecosystem, or their
direct importance to man as components of subsistence, commercial,
or sport harvests.
Comparisons of the abundance of larvae, juveniles, or adults
between oiled and unoiled waters were chosen as the basic
experimental units. In some studies, oiled and unoiled waters
pertain to different geographic areas; in other studies these terms
relate to the same area or populations before and after the oil
spill; in the remaining studies these terms refer to different
areas and populations before and after the spill. Contamination of
individual fish and shellfish is determined by analysis of tissue
samples, bile samples, or testing for induction of specific enzymes
associated with hydrocarbon exposure. Injuries to fish and
shellfish populations resulting from the oil spill may be expressed
as lethal (e.g., mortality to specific life history stages) or
sublethal (e.g., decreased growth, reproduction potential, etc.).
Such injuries to populations could cause losses in harvests and use
of these species by man, and result in undesirable alterations of
natural communities.
Project proposals were reviewed and modified through comments
provided by State and Federal agency staff members, State and
Federal attorneys, various experts retained by the State and
Federal governments, and many corporate and private individuals.
Based on these comments and results from 1989 and 1990 studies, a
number of changes were made for the 1991 fisheries program. Salmon
studies F/S 1, 2, 3, 4, 27, 28 and 30 were continued another year.
That portion of F/S 3 relating to tagging of hatchery and wild
stock salmon was recommended to be accomplished through the
restoration program while tag recovery from adult salmon and
analysis would be continued within this damage assessment F/S 3
project. Salmon studies F/S 7 and 8 were funded as necessary to
conclude these projects in 1991. Dolly Varden and cutthroat trout
study F/S 5, herring study F/S 11 and clam study F/S 13 were
approved for continuation in 1991. The injury to shrimp study F/S
15, injury to rockfish study F/S 17 and injury to demersal fish
study F/S 24 became subtidal studies ST 5, 6, and 7 respectively
and were recommended for continuation in 1991. Trawl assessment
study F/S 18 was funded only as necessary to conclude this project
in 1991. The crab study outside PWS (F/S 22) was not approved for
continuation in 1991.
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 1
Study Title: Injury to Salmon Spawning Areas in PWS
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
The recent annual production of wild stock pink salmon in PWS has
ranged from 10 to 15 million fish. Chum salmon returns have ranged
from 0.8 to 1.5 million fish. Much of the spawning for pink and
chum salmon occurs in intertidal areas (up to 75% in some years).
Intertidal spawning areas are susceptible to marine contaminants
and the March 24, 1989, EVOS may adversely affect spawner
distribution and success in PWS. To detect injury to pink and chum
salmon stocks, intertidal contamination will be documented and
correlated with trends in adult returns. Return estimates are
based on accurate appraisals of catch and escapements. This
project is designed to document oil contamination of intertidal
spawning habitat; provide accurate estimates of wild stock
escapements; and provide estimates of intertidal and upstream areas
available for spawning. F/S Study 3 provides estimates of the wild
stock component of the commercial catch. Results from F/S Study 3
and this study will be combined to estimate total return of wild
stocks. F/S Study 2 estimates eggs and fry per square meter and
egg to fry survival by tide zone in a subset of the streams in this
study. Egg and fry density and survival data from F/S Study 2 will
be combined with spawner density data by tide zone from this study
and historic average fecundity data to estimate total egg
deposition and egg to fry survival by tide zone in 138 streams.
The ADF&G has performed spawning ground surveys of the major salmon
spawning streams in PWS since the late 1950's. An aerial survey
program provides weekly estimates of fish numbers in 218 spawning
streams. A ground survey program has provided corresponding
estimates of fish numbers on a subset of approximately 116 streams
during the peak of spawning. During 1987 and 1988, funding for the
ground survey program was severely curtailed and only 58 streams
were walked. F/S Study 1 includes a thorough and extensive ground
escapement survey program on salmon spawning streams for which
there are past ground survey data and includes additional oiled and
unoiled streams in western PWS. The study also includes ground
surveys of salmon streams to document the presence of oil in
intertidal spawning habitat and the presence or absence of oil in
the tissues of adult salmon returns, and from fry outmigration
during and subsequent to the EVOS.
A total of 411 streams were surveyed in 1989 for the presence of
oil in intertidal spawning areas and 138 streams from among the 218
in the historic aerial survey program were included in a ground
census of pink and chum salmon escapements. In 1990 the oil survey
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was limited to 138 streams in the escapement censusing portion of
the project. Mussel samples for hydrocarbon analysis were
collected in the intertidal portions of the 138 streams in the
ground censusing program in both 1989 and 1990. The total area of
intertidal spawning habitat was estimated for each of the 138
streams and the area of upstream spawning habitat was estimated for
100 of the 138 streams. Total pink salmon spawning escapement at
four streams was estimated through weirs in 1990 and stream
residence time (stream life) estimates were made for pink salmon in
22 streams. Tissue samples for hydrocarbon analysis were collected
from spawning adult pink salmon in 12 oiled and 10 unoiled streams
in the ground survey program.
Based on results of the 1989 and 1990 studies, the program in 1991
will emphasize more detailed and intensive data collection on fewer
streams. Weirs will be installed on seven streams; the four streams
weired in 1990 and three additional streams. The six streams in the
wild stock tagging portion of F/S Study 3 will be among the weired
systems and adults will be sampled for coded-wire tags (CWT)
applied during the 1990 field season. Ground surveys and stream
life studies will be continued at each weired stream and
approximately 20 additional streams. Oil surveys as well as mussel
and adult salmon tissue sampling will continue on all surveyed
streams in 1991.
Results of this study will provide accurate estimates of pink and
chum salmon escapement to each stream surveyed; will correlate
escapement estimates based on aerial counts with weir and ground
counts to estimate past and current year escapements for 218
streams included in the ADF&G aerial survey program; will provide
estimates of post oil spill distribution of spawning within stream
zones and among streams; will estimate total available intertidal
and upstream spawning habitat for each stream; will estimate
average stream life for pink and chum salmon in PWS; will provide
coded-wire tag data for F/S Study 3; will document physical
presence or absence of oil in intertidal salmon spawning and
rearing habitat and presence or absence of oil in tissues of
mussels and salmon that rear or live there; and will provide an
atlas of aerial photographs and detailed maps of important spawning
sites.
OBJECTIVES
A. Determine the presence or absence of oil on intertidal habitat
used by spawning salmon through visual observation, aerial
photography, and hydrocarbon analysis of tissue samples from
intertidal mussels at stream mouths.
B. Document the physical extent of oil distribution on intertidal
spawning areas.
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C. Document the presence or absence of hydrocarbons from the EVOS
in the tissues of adult salmon originating from the fry
outmigrations in 1989 and subsequent years in oiled and
unoiled areas.
D. Estimate the number of spawning salmon, by species, within
standardized intertidal and upstream zones for 27 streams in
PWS.
E. Enumerate the total intertidal and upstream escapement of pink
and chum salmon through weirs installed on seven streams that
are representative of streams in the aerial and ground
escapement survey programs.
F. Estimate the accuracy of aerial counts for the 218 aerial
index streams by comparison of paired ground and aerial counts
from the same streams on the same or adjacent survey dates and
by comparison of aerial, ground, and weir counts on seven
streams.
G. Estimate average stream life of pink and chum salmon in at
least 27 streams in PWS using a variety of techniques.
H. Estimate pink and chum salmon escapements from 1961 through
1988 for the 218 aerial index streams using the average
observed error in the aerial survey method and stream life
data from 1989, 1990, and 1991.
I. Estimate the stream area available for spawning within
standardized intertidal and upstream zones for the 138 streams
surveyed.
J. Produce a catalog of aerial photographs and detailed maps of
spawner distribution for the more important pink and chum
salmon streams of PWS for use in designing sampling transects
in the egg deposition and preemergent fry studies.
K. Enumerate adult returns to streams where coded-wire tags were
applied to wild pink salmon stocks and assist in the spawning
ground sampling for tag recovery.
METHODS
This project is an integral part of the study of impacts of the
EVOS on Pacific salmon populations in PWS. Streams examined by
this project are a subset of the anadromous salmon streams
monitored by the ongoing ADF&G aerial survey program. Two
additional F/S studies in PWS, pink and chum salmon egg deposition
and preemergent fry studies (F/S Study 2) and salmon coded-wire
tagging studies (F/S Study 3) , will rely on information about
salmon spawning and distribution data and coded-wire tag recovery
data obtained from this project.
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Streams to be surveyed will be selected according to the following
criteria:
1. Stream is included in the ADF&G aerial survey program.
2. Stream is included in the pink and chum salmon egg
deposition and pre-emergent fry project (F/S Study 2).
3. Stream is included in the CWT project for wild stocks of
pink salmon (F/S Study 3).
4. Stream has been included in stream life studies conducted
by this project in 1989 and 1990.
5. Stream was enumerated in prior spawning ground foot
survey programs.
6. Stream is representative of the early, middle, and late
run pink and chum salmon stocks in PWS.
7. Stream is representative of the spatial distribution of
pink and chum salmon stocks in PWS and include streams
from oiled and unoiled areas.
Maps of all streams in the program prepared from aerial photographs
prior to the 1989 field season were modified and corrected during
the three survey circuits in 1989 and 1990 and will be used and
updated during the 1991 field season.
A pre-season survey to mark tide zones will be conducted in June,
prior to the return of the pink and chum salmon. The location of
tide levels 1.8, 2.4, 3.0, and 3.7m above mean low water will be
measured from sea level using a surveyors's level and stadia rod.
Sea level at each site will be referenced to mean low water with
site specific, computer generated tide tables which predict tides
at five minute intervals. Tide zone boundaries will be delineated
with color coded steel stakes. The linear length of the stream
within each intertidal zone will be measured with a surveyor's
chain or range finder. The linear length of the stream in the
upstream zone will be measured similarly on short streams and
estimated from accurately scaled aerial photos on long streams.
The average stream width will be determined from systematic width
measurements taken in each zone. The number of measurements in
each zone will depend on the length of the zone. Each measurement
will be recorded at the appropriate location on the stream maps
prepared in 1989 and 1990.
Crews marking, measuring, and mapping tide zones will also conduct
foot surveys of the intertidal stream bed and adjacent beaches to
document, map, and classify oiling. A composite sample of mussels
will be collected at the mouth of each stream for hydrocarbon
analyses. Results of the analyses will be used to document oil
impact that the stream sustained. Each sample will consist of
enough mussels to provide 10 grams of tissue (approximately 30
mussels) for analysis. The mussels will be collected from 0-2 m
above mean low water in the immediate vicinity of each stream mouth
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and above water to avoid contamination by hydrocarbons on the water
surface. The samples will be stored separately in properly
cleaned, glass jars with teflon lined lids.
Weirs for total escapement enumeration will be installed on seven
streams in 1991. These seven streams include the four weired in
1990 as well as the six streams in the coded-wire tagging project
for wild stocks of pink salmon (F/S Study 3) . The weirs will be
installed at or as near as possible to the 1.8 m tide level or the
lower level of intertidal spawning. Weir crews will record daily
passage through the weir and perform daily ground surveys of
intertidal and upstream portions of the weired systems as well as
the 20 other pink and chum salmon spawning streams. Live and dead
pink and chum salmon will be enumerated in standardized intertidal
and upstream zones in each stream. During each stream survey the
following data will be recorded:
1. anadromous stream number and name (if available);
2. latitude and longitude of the stream mouth;
3. date and time (24 hour military time);
4. tide stage;
5. observer names;
6. counts of live and dead salmon by species and tide zone
(0.0-1.8 m, 1.8-2.4 m, 2.4-3.0 m, and 3.0-3.7 m above
mean low water and upstream); and
7. weather and comments on visibility, lighting, and other
survey conditions.
All data will be recorded on pre-printed mylar data sheets which
will overlay a map of the stream. Maps will be improved and
modified during the survey to show spawner distribution within each
zone and the upstream limit of spawning. Particular attention will
be given to spawner density and distribution observations for
streams which are also sampled during F/S Study 2.
Counts of live and dead salmon will be made for the five tide zones
(the intertidal zones < 1.8 m, 1.8-2.4 m, 2.4-3.0 m, 3.0-3.7 m
above mean low water and the upstream zone) from the 1.8 m tide
level to the limit of upstream spawning on all 138 streams. Tide
stage will be monitored continuously and survey times and direction
will be adjusted accordingly. If the tide stage is at or below the
1.8 m level the stream walk will begin at the mouth of the stream
and progress upstream. The mouth or downstream limit of the stream
will be defined as the point where a clearly recognizable stream
channel disappears or is submerged by salt water. Fish seen below
the downstream limit will be included as an estimate of fish off
the stream mouth and noted as a comment on the data form. If
portions of the stream above the 1.8 m tide level are submerged,
the crew will proceed to the upstream limit of the walk, walk
downstream, and coincide the end of the walk with the time
predicted for the tide to be at or below the 1.8 m level. The
upstream limit of a walk will be determined by the presence of
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natural barriers to fish passage (i.e. waterfalls), by the end of
the stream, or by the upstream limit of spawning. The upstream
limit of spawning will be marked on U.S. Geological Survey color
aerial photos of each stream following each survey.
Crew members will walk together but independently count live fish
in each intertidal zone on moderate size streams with a single
channel. Crew members will individually enter their count on
mechanical hand tallies. A maximum of three replicate counts may
be made for each zone at the request of either observer. Upstream
counts in a single channel will be similarly conducted at
convenient stopping points (i.e., log jams or other clear counting
delineators). For large braided or branched streams, each crew
member will count separate channels or upstream forks. To avoid
confusion with counts of live fish, counts of dead fish will be
recorded on the return leg of the stream walk. Only fish that have
died since the previous count will be tallied as dead in the daily
surveys. To prevent duplicate counts between surveys, tails and
tags of all dead pink and chum salmon observed will be removed. To
avoid perpetuating counting biases within a counting crew,
personnel will be rotated daily. When possible, crew members will
not be assigned to the same streams on succeeding days.
Tests for variability among observers and among counting crews
(observer pairs) will be conducted on all streams on a minimum of
three separate occasions. During each test, all observers will
estimate numbers of live and dead pink salmon by zone and will
record their counts independently. Counts will be compared after
all test streams have been surveyed. Three crews of randomly
paired observers will also replicate counts on 10 streams and
results among observed pairs will be compared.
All streams in the daily foot survey program will be included in a
stream life study. Stream life studies will be modeled in part
after previous studies in PWS (Helle et al. 1964; McCurdy 1984).
Fish will be captured at the stream mouths with beach seines and
tagged with individually numbered Peterson disk tags color coded
for day of capture. Tagging will be conducted at weekly intervals.
During each tagging episode 120 fish per stream will be tagged. If
fewer than 120 fish are available, all fish captured will be
tagged. At weired streams, tagged fish will be enumerated by tag
color as they pass through the weir. Live and dead fish bearing
tags will be enumerated separately by color code and tag number
during daily counts of live and dead pink and chum salmon.
Stream life will be estimated using three methods. The first
estimate is the mean difference between date of tag recovery from
dead fish and the tagging date. A separate estimate will be made
for each tag lot at each stream to examine changes in stream life
through time. The second estimate will be based on daily and
cumulative weir counts and daily carcass counts. Daily weir and
carcass counts will be used to estimate total fish days. Total fish
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days will then be divided by the cumulative weir count to obtain
mean stream life. The third method will be based on the difference
in days between peak live count and the peak dead count from the
ground surveys.
The 22 streams where adult salmon tissue samples were taken for
hydrocarbon analysis in 1990 will be sampled again in 1991. Twenty
males and 20 females will be captured at the weir on each stream.
The fish will be iced and flown immediately to the Cordova ADF&G
laboratory where tissues will be excised, labeled, catalogued, and
preserved.
Changes in numbers and distribution of salmon escapements as a
result of the EVOS will be examined by dividing streams into
categories based on levels of hydrocarbon contamination.
Categorical data analysis techniques such as log linear models
using chi-square statistics will be used to compare differences in
spawning among streams and tide zones. Count and spawner
distribution data will also be compared with historical stream
survey data and related to the level of hydrocarbon impact.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Helle, J.H., R.S. Williamson, and J.E. Baily. 1964. Intertidal
ecology and life history of pink salmon- at Olsen Creek, Prince
William Sound, Alaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Fisheries No. 483. Washington D.C.
McCurdy, M.L. 1984. Eshamy District pink salmon streamlife study,
1984. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of
Commercial Fisheries. Prince William Sound Data Report No.
94-18. Cordova
BUDGET
Salaries $119.0
Travel 2.0
Contractua1 116.0
Commodities 31.0
Equipment 20.0
Total $288.0
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 2
Study Title: Injury to Salmon Eggs and Preemergent Fry in PWS
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
Much of the spawning for pink and chum salmon (up to 75% in some
years) occurs in intertidal areas. Moles, Babcock, and Rice
(1987) have shown the adverse effects of oil on pink salmon
alevins, particularly in salt water. The EVOS in PWS occurred
immediately prior to emergence of pink and chum salmon from
stream and intertidal spawning areas. These areas may have been
severely impacted by the oil spill.
This study, along with F/S Studies 1, 3, and 4, support a
comprehensive and integrated determination of injury to PWS
salmon stocks. Results will include documentation of oil in
intertidal salmon spawning habitat, pre-spill and post-spill
estimates of total adult returns of wild and hatchery stocks,
wild stock spawning success, wild stock egg to fry survival, and
early marine survival of wild and hatchery stocks. Information
on the extent and persistence of oil in the intertidal zone will
be supplemented by Coastal Habitat Study 1. The results of F/S
Studies 1 through 4 will be used by Economic Uses Study 1 to
determine the extent of injury to the PWS salmon resource.
The ADF&G has sampled pink and chum salmon preemergent fry since
the 1960's in order to predict the magnitude of future salmon
returns. The fry sampling program has operated at a reduced
level since 1985. The oil spill has the potential to cause
mortality to the critical egg and fry life stages, and thus an
increased and more comprehensive fry sampling program is
necessary. This project is designed to meet this need by
assessing the effect of the oil spill on egg and fry of wild
stock pink and chum salmon.
OBJECTIVES
A. Estimate the density, by tide zone, of preemergent fry in 48
streams, and eggs in 31 streams using numbers of live and
dead eggs and fry.
B. Estimate egg mortality and overwinter survival of pink and
chum salmon eggs in both oiled and unoiled (control)
streams.
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C. Document hydrocarbon contamination in preemergent fry using
tissue hydrocarbon analysis, and eggs and preemergent fry
using mixed-function oxidase (MFO) analysis.
D. Assess any loss in adult production from changes in
overwinter survival using the results of F/S Studies 1, 2,
3, and 4.
METHODS
There are approximately 900 anadromous fish streams in PWS.
Preemergent fry sampling from some of these streams has
historically provided an abundance index for pink salmon that is
used to forecast future returns. In recent years, 25 index
systems considered representative of pink and chum salmon
producing streams in PWS have been sampled. Prior to 1985,
sampling had been performed on as many as 45 streams. This study
is designed to compare rates of mortality and abundance among
areas with various levels of oil impacts and with data from
sampling prior to the oil spill.
Sampling will consist of egg deposition surveys performed from
late September to mid-October and preemergent fry sampling
conducted from mid-March to mid-April. Preliminary sampling was
performed on two occasions during the spring of 1989 in an effort
to assess fry abundance prior to and immediately after oil
impact. On the first occasion all 25 streams in the ongoing
ADF&G preemergent index program were sampled along with 14
additional streams. During the second event (approximately two
weeks after the oil spill), 14 of the streams were resampled
(representing both oiled and unoiled areas), and an additional 16
streams were surveyed to assess their potential as egg and
preemergent study streams. During September and October of 1989
and 1990 egg sampling was conducted on 31 of these streams.
Preemergent fry sampling was completed on 48 streams from mid-
March to early May in 1990.
Spring fry sampling in 1991 will be conducted on 48 streams.
These will include the 25 streams in the ongoing ADF&G
preemergent index program plus 23 additional streams. The
additional streams are located in central and southwest PWS where
most the oiling occurred. New study streams were selected using
the following criteria:
1. Adult salmon returns were expected to be great enough
to indicate a high probability of success in egg and
fry sampling.
2. Egg and fry sampling had been done in past years.
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3. Streams with low to no oil impact, i.e., controls, were
selected in the immediate vicinity of high oil impact
streams to help account for possible variability in egg
and fry survival due to different environmental
conditions.
Most of the streams with suspected or obvious oil impact were not
sampled prior to the EVOS. The 30 streams in low impact areas
include 27 with a history of sampling; six suspected of having
received some impact including four with a history of sampling;
and 12 streams with oil visibly present in the intertidal zone,
including five with a history of sampling.
As in 1989 and 1990, egg sampling will be conducted in the fall
on 31 of the 48 streams sampled for preemergent fry. Streams
included in the fry sampling program, but not in the egg program
are traditional fry sampling streams located on the eastern and
northern shore of PWS. These streams are outside the area
studied for oil impact effects. The 13 streams in low impact
areas left in the egg sampling program include four with a
history of sampling. Streams suspected of having some oil impact
and streams that had visible impact are included in both the egg
and fry sampling programs.
Sampling methods are identical for the preemergent fry and egg
sampling and are modeled after procedures described by Pirtle and
McCurdy (1977). On each sample stream, four zones, three
intertidal and one above tidal influence, will be identified and
marked during preemergent fry sampling. The zones are 1.8-2.4 m,
2.4-3.0 m, 3.0-3.7 m above mean low water, and upstream of tidal
influence. Separate linear transects 30.5 m in length will be
established for egg and preemergent fry samples in each zone (one
transect for each type dig in each zone). The transects will run
diagonally across the river with the downstream end located
against one bank and the upstream end against the opposite bank.
Overlapping of transects will be minimized to control the
influence of fall egg sampling on perceived abundance of fry
during spring sampling. Fourteen 0.3 m2, circular digs (56 per
stream) will be systematically made along each transect using a
high pressure hose to flush eggs and fry from the gravel. Eggs
and fry will be caught in a specially designed net.
Numbers of live and dead fry by species, as well as numbers of
live and dead eggs by species, will be recorded from each 0.3 m2
dig. Additional information such as date, time, zone, and a
subjective estimate of overall percent absorption of the fry egg
sacs in the sample will also be noted.
Preemergent pink salmon fry will be collected from the intertidal
channels of streams. Fry samples will be analyzed for the
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presence of hydrocarbons characteristic of those found in oil
from the Exxon Valdez.
Fry sampled for hydrocarbon analysis will be collected from the
intertidal stream bed at a level approximately 2.5 m above mean
low water. Samples will be collected when the tide is below that
level to avoid contamination from any surface oil film. A shovel
or clam rake will be used to dislodge the fry from the gravel. A
stainless steel strainer, pre-rinsed in dimethylchloride and
dried, will be used to catch fry as they are swept downstream.
Captured fry will be placed in jars with teflon lined lids and
frozen.
Fry from each tide zone will also be collected for MFO analysis.
These samples will be selected randomly from the digs in each
transect. Fry collected for MFO analysis will be preserved in
buffered formalin solution in glass jars.
Numbers of live and dead preemergent fry and eggs will be
summarized by date, stream, level of hydrocarbon impact, and
stream zone. A mixed effects analysis of variance will be used
to test for differences in egg to fry mortality due to oiling
using the 31 streams sampled for both eggs and preemergent fry.
Hydrocarbon results and degree of oiling as visually assessed by
the mapping portion of the assessment of intertidal spawning
areas will be used to post-stratify streams. Degree of oiling
and height in the tidal zone will be treated as fixed effects.
Height in the tidal zone is nested within stream, a random
effect. Analysis of covariance will be used if an ordinal
measure of hydrocarbon impact can be obtained from the analysis
of mussel tissue collected during F/S Study No. 1.
Power of the test was estimated for the analysis of variance
using data from the 1975 and 1976 egg and preemergent fry samples
in PWS. These data indicated the ability to detect an increase
of 15% in egg to fry mortality (e.g. 10% mortality to 25%
mortality) at a = 0.05, 95% of the time.
Specific statistics to be estimated are:
1. number of dead and viable eggs per square meter by
salmon species, stream, and stream zone;
2. number of dead and live fry per square meter by salmon
species, stream, and stream zone; and
3. egg to fry survival by salmon species, stream, and
stream zone.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Moles, A., M.M. Babcock, and S.D. Rice. 1987. Effects of oil
exposure on pink salmon, O. gorbuscha, alevins in a
simulated intertidal environment. Marine Environment
Research, 21:49-58.
Pirtle, R.B. and M.L. McCurdy. 1977. Prince William Sound
general districts 1976 pink and chum salmon aerial and
ground escapement surveys and consequent brood year egg
deposition and preemergent fry index programs. Alaska
Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial
Fisheries, Technical Data Report 9, Juneau.
BUDGET
Salaries $ 82.0
Travel 4.0
Contractual 144.0
Commodities 10.0
Equipment 19.0
Total $ 259.0
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 3
Study Title: Salmon Coded-Wire Tag Studies In PWS
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
Two questions must be answered to measure a loss in salmon
production due to EVOS: 1) which stocks were exposed to
contaminated waters and 2) to what extent did exposure reduce
survival and production (catch plus escapement)? This study will
contribute to estimates of survival and production for hatchery and
wild stocks in oiled and unoiled areas by quantifying fry
outmigration, the wild and hatchery stock components of the catch,
and the hatchery escapements.
Wild stock returns of pink salmon in PWS have ranged from 10 to 15
million fish in recent years. Chum salmon returns have ranged from
0.8 to 1.5 million. Additionally, returns of pink salmon to four
PWS hatcheries now average more than 20 million fish and hatchery
chum salmon returns in excess of 1.4 million fish are expected.
Catch and escapement data for wild pink salmon in PWS have been
collected since 1961. Hatchery production became a significant
part of the total salmon return in 1985. Consequently, pink
salmon fry tagging was initiated at three area hatcheries in 1986
to estimate hatchery contributions to the 1987 catch. Similar
estimates were made for a fourth facility in 1987 and 1988. F/S
Study 3 estimated catch and survival rates of pink salmon released
from these four PWS hatcheries based on tags applied in 1988 and
1989 and recovered in the commercial, cost recovery and hatchery
brood stocks in 1989 and 1990. Tags were also applied to chum,
sockeye, coho, and chinook salmon released from PWS area hatcheries
and to smolts from two wild stocks of sockeye salmon in 1989. A
similar multi-species tagging program was conducted again in 1990;
however, tags were also applied to smolts from one additional wild
stock of sockeye salmon and fry from six wild stocks of pink salmon
including three from oiled areas and three from unoiled areas.
Tagging in 1991 is being transitioned from damage assessment to
restoration.
Pink salmon tag recoveries are expected from all four hatcheries in
1991. Recoveries are expected for chum salmon released from Main
Bay Hatchery in 1986, Main Bay and Solomon Gulch Hatcheries in
1987, and Solomon Gulch in 1989. Tagged sockeye salmon will be
recovered from Main Bay Hatchery releases in 1988 and 1989, and
releases of coho salmon from Wallace H. Noeremberg (WHN) and
Solomon Gulch Hatcheries in 1990.
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OBJECTIVES
A. Estimate catch, escapement, and survival rates of pink, chum,
sockeye, coho, and chinook salmon released from five
hatcheries in PWS. Outmigrating smolt and returning adults
from these facilities are potentially exposed to oil in the
environment.
B. Estimate catch of the combined wild stocks of pink salmon in
PWS and using escapement data from F/S Study 1, estimate
differences in relative survival rates between pre- and post-
spill brood years.
C. Estimate survival rates of wild pink salmon from three streams
with contaminated estuaries and three with uncontaminated
estuaries.
D. Estimate survival rates of wild stocks of sockeye salmon, two
from oiled areas, one from an unoiled area.
METHODS
Under a separate proposed restoration project, a subsample of fry
or smolt from all hatcheries releasing salmon into PWS will be
tagged with a coded-wire tag (Appendix A) . Wild pink fry and
sockeye salmon smolt from both oiled and non-oiled areas of the
Sound will also be tagged (Appendix B) . Tags will be applied at
rates that insure sufficient numbers can be recovered in the
commercial fishery, hatchery cost recovery harvests, and hatchery
brood stock collections to allow researchers to estimate the
contribution of each tag release group by district, week, and
processor stratum.
Four hatcheries released 615 million pink salmon fry in 1990. Each
of 32 release groups were tagged at a rate of approximately one tag
per 580 fish released (1 in 580). The tag rate was held constant
across release groups to prevent confusion of differential tag
mortality with variation in survival between release groups (Peltz
and Geiger, 1988; Geiger and Sharr, 1989).
In 1989, chum salmon were tagged at the rate of approximately one
tag per 60 fish released at the Solomon Gulch Hatchery near Valdez.
Tagging of Solomon Gulch chum salmon continued at the same level in
1990 and the WHN hatchery release of 20.6 million chum salmon fry
was also tagged at a rate of approximately one tag per 480 fish.
Wild pink salmon were tagged from six stocks examined in F/S Study
2 in 1990; three from oil contaminated streams and three from
uncontaminated streams. Inclined plane traps were used to capture
fry as they emerged. Trapped fry were manually enumerated in 1990.
Manual enumeration will continue in 1991 but electronic fry
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counters will also be tested. A portion of the daily outmigration
were anesthetized and tagged. The anesthesia and associated trauma
required the tagged fish to be held separately from the untagged
fish, until they appeared to have recovered fully from the effects
of tagging. The extent to which the survival and behavior of the
tagged fish can be extrapolated to other groups of salmon will be
assessed at the time of recovery. Approximately 40,000 fry were
tagged for each stock at tagging rates ranging from 1 in 4 to l in
17 fish released.
Smolt in the 2.6 million fish release of sockeye salmon from the
Main Bay Hatchery were tagged at a rate of 1 in 21 in 1990.
Recovery samples are stratified by district, processor, and
discrete time segments (Cochran 1977; Peltz and Geiger 1988).
Fifteen percent of the pink salmon catch and a minimum of 20% of
other salmon species catches will be scanned for fish with a
missing adipose fin in each time and area specific stratum. Catch
sampling will be done in four fish processing facilities in
Cordova, one facility in Seward, and three facilities in Valdez.
When feasible, sampling will occur at facilities in Kodiak, Kenai,
Anchorage, and Whittier and on large floating processors. All
deliveries by fish tenders to these facilities will be monitored by
radio and by daily contact with processing plant dispatchers to
ensure the deliveries being sampled are district specific.
In addition to catch sampling at the processing facilities,
approximately 15% of the fish in the hatchery terminal harvest
areas will be scanned for missing adipose fins. There will be a
brood stock tag recovery effort at each of the three hatchery
facilities where tags were initially applied. A minimum of 50% of
the daily brood stock requirements of each facility will be scanned
for fish with missing adipose fins.
The recovery of tags from wild stocks of sockeye and pink salmon
will coincide with recoveries of hatchery stocks in the commercial
catch, terminal harvest, and brood stock sampling programs. Tags
will also be recovered in the escapements of each tagged wild
stock. At each of these streams, crews will enumerate the daily
escapement through a weir. As escapement passes through the
sockeye salmon weirs, a portion will be scanned daily for missing
adipose fins. At pink salmon weirs, daily foot surveys will be
conducted to enumerate fresh carcasses and the surveyors will scan
them for missing adipose fins. Carcasses enumerated each day will
be marked daily to prevent duplicate counting on subsequent days.
In the catch, terminal harvest, brood stock, and wild stock
escapement surveys, the total number of fish scanned and the total
number of fish with missing adipose fins will be recorded. The
heads will be removed from fish with missing adipose fins. Each
head will be tagged with uniquely numbered strap tags. Recovered
heads will be assembled and pre-processed in the Cordova area
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office. Heads will then be sent to the ADF&G FRED Division Coded-
Wire Tag Laboratory in Juneau for decoding and data posting.
Coded-wire tag sampling forms will be checked by the tag lab for
accuracy and completeness. Sampling and biological data will first
be entered onto the laboratory's database. The heads will then be
processed by removing and decoding the tags, and entering the tag
code and the code assigned in the recovery survey into the
database. Samples will be processed within five working days of
receipt.
The first step in the coded-wire tag analysis will be to estimate
the harvest of salmon from each tag lot in units of adult salmon.
For hatchery stocks, a modification of the methods described in an
ADF&G technical report by Clark and Bernard (1987) will be used.
The specific methods, estimators, and confidence interval
estimators are described in ADF&G technical reports for two
previous studies of pink salmon in PWS (Peltz and Geiger 1988),
(Geiger and Sharr 1989). Additional references on methods of
tagging pink salmon in PWS can be found in Peltz and Miller (1988) .
In the case of wild stocks, the methods, estimators, and necessary
assumptions are described by Geiger (1988) .
The contribution of a tag lot, to a fishery stratum, is estimated
by multiplying the number of tags recovered in the structured
recovery survey, by the inverse of the proportion of the catch
sampled (the inverse sampling rate) and the inverse of the
proportion of the tag lot that was actually tagged (the inverse tag
rate). The escapement (brood stock) of each tag lot is estimated
using methods unique to the particular situation. After the
contribution to each fishery is estimated by tag lot, marine
survival is estimated by summing the estimated harvest of the tag
lot in each fishery, and the estimated escapement (brood stock),
and dividing by the estimated number of fish represented by the tag
code.
Total catches stratified by week, district, and processor were
obtained from summaries of fish sales receipts (fish tickets)
issued to each fisherman. The total hatchery contribution to the
commercial and hatchery cost recovery harvest is the sum of the
estimates of contributions in all week, district, and processor
strata:
C, = ^ X,j ( N, / Sj ) p;1
where: Ct = catch of group t fish,
X,; = number of group t tags recovered in ith strata,
N; = number of fish caught in ith strata,
Sj = number of fish sampled in ith strata,
pt = proportion of group t tagged.
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For sampled strata, we used a variance approximation which ignores
covariance between release groups (Geiger 1988):
V (Ct) = SjXJN/feip, )2[1 - (Nrffejp,)-1].
The average tag recovery rate for all processors in a week and
district will be used to estimate hatchery contribution in catches
delivered to processors not sampled for that district and week.
Variances associated with unsampled strata will not be calculated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Clark, J.E. and D.R. Bernard. 1987. A compound multivariate
binomial hypergeometric distribution describing coded
microwire tag recovery from commercial salmon catches in
southeastern Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game,
Division of Commercial Fisheries, Informational Leaflet 261.
Cochran, W. G. 1977. Sampling Techniques, 3rd ed. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York.
Geiger, H.J. 1988. Parametric bootstrap confidence intervals for
estimates of fisheries contribution in salmon marking studies.
Proceedings of the international symposium and educational
workshop on fish-marking techniques. University of Washington
Press, Seattle. In press.
Geiger, H.J. and S. Sharr. 1989. A tag study of pink salmon from
the Solomon Gulch Hatchery in the Prince William Sound
fishery, 1988. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of
Commercial Fisheries. In press.
Peltz, L. and H.J. Geiger. 1988. A study of the effect of
hatcheries on the 1987 pink salmon fishery in Prince William
Sound, Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of
Commercial Fisheries. In press.
Peltz, L. and J. Miller. 1988. Performance of half-length coded-
wire tags in a pink salmon hatchery marking program.
Proceedings of the international symposium and educational
workshop on fish-marking techniques. University of Washington
Press, Seattle. In press.
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BUDGET
Salaries -$ 558.0
Travel 18.0
Contracts 442.0
Supplies 39.0
Equipment 18.0
Total $1,075.0
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Appendix A. Coded-wire tagging goals for hatchery
releases of salmon in PWS, 1991.
Hatchery
Armin F. Koernig
Cannery Creek
Solomon Gulch
Ually Norenburg
GRAND TOTAL
Solomon Gulch
Ually Norenburg
GRAND TOTAL
Solomon Gulch
Ually Norenburg
Whit tier
Cordova
GRAND TOTAL
Main Bay
GRAND TOTAL
U. Noerenburg
Cordova
GRAND TOTAL
Species
Pink
Pink
Pink
Pink
Pink
Chum
Chum
Chum
Coho
Coho
Coho
Coho
Coho
Sockeye
Sockeye
King
King
King
Projected
Release
116,000,000
140,000,000
140,000,000
225,000,000
621,000,000
1,600,000
78,000,000
79,600,000
1,000,000
20,000
2,300,000
100,000
50,000
3,470,000
3,575,000
3,575,000
600,000
60,000
660,000
Valid
Tag
Goal
193,000
234,000
233,000
375,000
1,035,000
20,000
156,000
176,000
30,000
10,000
73,500
10,000
10,000
133,500
125,000
125,000
30,000
10,000
40,000
Total
Release
Number /Harked
Tags to Ratio Number of
Order Goal Tag Codes
218,000
261,000
252,000
422,000
1,153,000
20,000
173,000
193,000
30,000
10,000
73,500
20,000
10,000
143,500
125,000
125,000
30,000
10,000
40,000
600
600
600
600
600
80
500
450
33
2
40
10
5
26
29
29
20
6
17
16
14
10
18
58
2
4
6
2
1
2
1
1
7
8
8
1
1
2
Tag
Length
Half
Half
Half
Half
Half
Half
Half
Half
Full
Full
Full
Full
Full
Full
Full
Full
Full
Full
Full
GRAND TOTAL All 708,305,000 1,509,500 1,654,500 470 81 Both
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Appendix B. Coded-wire tagging goals for wild stocks
of salmon in PWS, 1991.
System
Projected
Treatment Species Outmigration
Total
Valid Release
Tag /Marked Number of Tag
Goal Ratio Tag Codes Length
Upper Herring B.
Hayden Ck.
Loomis Ck.
Cathead Ck.
O'Brien Ck.
Totemoff Ck.
Oiled
Oiled
Oiled
Clean
Clean
Clean
Pink
Pink
Pink
Pink
Pink
Pink
210,000
360,000
210,000
150,000
300,000
720,000
40,500
40,500
40,500
40,500
40,500
40,500
5
9
5
5
7
18
3
3
3
3
3
3
Half
Half
Half
Half
Half
Half
GRAND TOTAL
All
Pink
1,950,000 243,000
18
Half
Coghill
Eshamy
Jackpot
Clean
Oiled
Oiled
Sockeye
Sockeye
Sockeye
600,000
600,000
600,000
27,000
27,000
27,000
22
22
22
2
2
2
Half
Full
Full
GRAND TOTAL
All Sockeye 1,800,000 81,000
22
Both
GRAND TOTAL
All All 3,750,000 323,000 30
24
Both
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 4
Study Title: Early Marine Salmon Injury Assessment in PWS
Lead Agencies: ADF&G, NMFS
INTRODUCTION
Recruitment to adult salmon populations appears to be strongly
affected by mortality during the early marine period, because
mortality at this time is typically very high (Parker 1968; Ricker
1976; Hartt 1980; Bax 1983) . During this period, slow-growing
individuals sustain a higher mortality because they are vulnerable
to predators for a longer time than fast-growing individuals
(Parker 1971; Healey 1982; West and Larkin 1987). In the
laboratory, sublethal hydrocarbon exposure has been shown to cause
reduced growth of juvenile salmon (Rice et al. 1975; Schwartz
1985). Thus, in the wild, sublethal hydrocarbon exposure is
expected to cause reduced growth resulting in increased size-
selective predation.
Oil contamination may also cause reduced survival by decreasing
prey populations or disrupting migration patterns. Oil can be toxic
to littoral and pelagic macroinvertebrates (Caldwell et al. 1977;
Gundlach et al. 1983). Hydrocarbon exposure can damage olfactory
lamellar surfaces (Babcock 1985) and cause an avoidance reaction
(Rice 1973) .
During the past decade, five salmon hatcheries have been
established within PWS. These facilities, operated by private non-
profit corporations, produced approximately 535 million juvenile
salmon in 1989. Approximately one million of these fish were marked
with a coded-wire tag (CWT). Recoveries of these marked fish in
PWS has played a major role in our assessment of the impact of the
oil spill.
In 1991, the impact assessment will be conducted by ADF&G and NMFS.
Studies conducted by ADF&G will focus on the impact of the oil on
fry growth, fry migratory behavior, and fry-to-adult survival.
Studies conducted by NMFS will focus on fry abundance, growth, and
behavior and oil contamination in the fish and their prey. Also, an
experiment will be conducted to determine the effects of ingestion
of whole oil on the growth and survival of pink salmon fry.
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GOALS
A. Determine the effects of oil contamination on abundance,
distribution, growth, feeding habits, and behavior of pink
salmon fry during their early marine residency.
B. Describe the apparent effect of oil contamination on the
migration patterns of pink salmon fry in western PWS.
C. Quantify hydrocarbon contamination in tissues of juvenile
salmon collected in oiled and unoiled areas.
D. Determine the relationship between pink salmon fry growth and
fry-to-adult survival.
E. Determine if hydrocarbon contamination affected the abundance
of primary prey species of pink salmon fry.
F. Determine the effects of ingestion of whole oil on survival
and growth of pink salmon fry.
PART I: Impacts of Oil Spill on Migratory Behavior and Growth
Lead Agency: ADF&G
Further studies are needed to determine whether oil contamination
caused reduced growth and survival of juvenile pink salmon
migrating into heavily-oiled areas near Armin F. Koenig (AFK)
Hatchery in PWS. This effort will involve (1) estimating fry
growth when the fish were near the areas where they were released
and recaptured, (2) examining the effects of other factors that may
have caused growth differences in oiled and unoiled areas, (3)
acquiring additional measures of the level of oil exposure of fry
in oiled and unoiled areas, (4) quantifying the relationship
between fry growth and fry-to-adult survival, and (5) collecting
additional data on fry growth and migration in oiled and unoiled
areas of western PWS. F/S Study No. 4 will focus on pink salmon,
because evidence of injury to this species has been collected in
previous years.
Otolith microstructure analysis will be used to estimate the short-
term growth of CWT fry. The locations where the CWT fry were
released and recaptured are known. The growth of CWT fry when they
were near these locations will be estimated by measuring otolith
growth between increments that are formed each day (Volk et al.
1984). This approach will enable a relatively clear logical
association between oil contamination, environmental conditions,
and fry growth in specific areas.
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An association between low fry growth and oil contamination is not
sufficient evidence of injury. Water temperature (Martin 1966;
Kepshire 1976), prey density, and prey species composition (Ivlev
1961; Parsons and LeBrasseur 1973) strongly affect the feeding and
growth rates of pink salmon fry. High densities of chum salmon fry
may cause declines of epibenthic prey populations (Healey 1979);
however, it is not clear whether this is true for pink salmon that
feed more on pelagic zooplankton (Cooney et al. 1981). A
quantitative examination of these factors is needed to determine
whether oil exposure caused reduced fry growth in 1989. Theoretical
and empirical techniques will be used to address this problem. A
bioenergetics model will be used to estimate the relative effects
of water temperature, prey density, and prey species composition on
fry growth given the conditions in 1989. The feeding rate of pink
salmon fry is strongly affected by prey size (Parsons and
LeBrasseur 1973). Additional measurements of prey size composition
will be made on samples of fry collected from oiled and unoiled
areas in 1989. Multiple regression analysis will be used to
estimate relationships between environmental conditions and CWT fry
growth. Residuals analysis and other diagnostic tests will be used
to determine whether the growth of fry in oiled areas was different
than expected given the environmental conditions in 1989.
The amount of mixed-function oxidase (MFO) activity in fish tissues
is a measure of hydrocarbon exposure (Kloepper-Sams and Stegeman
1989). MFO analyses will be conducted on selected samples of
untagged fry to establish the degree of oil exposure of fish in
oiled and unoiled areas.
The scientific literature and experience at hatcheries suggest that
pink salmon fry growth is related to fry-to-adult survival (Parker
1968; Parker 1971; Ricker 1976; Hartt 1980; Bax 1983; Nichelson
1986; Taylor et al. 1987); however, no quantitative relationship
between these variables exists for PWS pink salmon. A regression
equation relating mean fry growth to the fry-to-adult survival of
pink salmon from specific tag lots will be estimated using data
from the 1988 and 1989 broods. Data from the 1990 brood will be
incorporated in the regression after the adult return in 1992. The
regression equation will be used to estimate the survival of fish
in oiled and unoiled areas.
OBJECTIVES
(Letters refer to goals described above)
A-l. Estimate pink salmon fry growth in oiled and unoiled areas of
western PWS in 1991.
A-2. Complete an otolith microstructure analysis on all CWT fry
collected in 1989, 1990, and 1991. Use the analysis to
estimate fry growth during the two week time periods
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immediately after the fish were released and immediately prior
to recapture. Estimate the 95% confidence intervals on all
growth estimates.
A-3. Determine the amount of MFO activity in selected samples of
fry collected in 1989, 1990, and 1991. Use the results from
this analysis in conjunction with data on beach oil
contamination to group samples in an analysis of variance.
A-4. Conduct an analysis of variance on fry growth during the two
week time period immediately after release using otolith
growth estimates from fry collected in 1989, 1990, and 1991.
If significant differences (p=0.05) in fry growth are found
among tag lots or years, a multiple comparison of means test
will be performed.
A-5. Conduct a repeated measures analysis of variance on fry
growth during the two week time period immediately prior to
recapture using otolith growth estimates from fry collected in
1989, 1990, and 1991. If significant differences (p=0.05) in
fry growth are found among areas or years, a multiple
comparison of means test will be performed.
A-6. Conduct a multiple regression analysis to estimate the effects
of oil exposure and environmental conditions on fry growth
during the two week time period immediately after release.
Conduct residuals analysis and other diagnostic tests to
determine whether the growth of fry in oiled areas was
significantly different (p=0.05) from the expected value give
the environmental conditions in 1989.
A-7. Conduct a multiple regression analysis to estimate the effects
of oil exposure and environmental conditions on fry growth
during the two week time period immediately prior to
recapture. Conduct residuals analysis and other diagnostic
tests to determine whether the growth of fry in oiled areas
was significantly different (p=0.05) from the expected value
given the environmental conditions in 1989.
A-8. Test for differences (p=0.05) in prey composition between
oiled and unoiled areas using chi-square analysis.
A-9. Test for differences (p=0.05) in stomach content weights
between oiled and unoiled areas using repeated measures
analysis of variance.
A-lO.Use a bioenergetics model to estimate the relative effects of
water temperature, prey density, and prey composition on fry
growth in 1989.
B-l. Describe CWT fry migration patterns in western PWS in 1991.
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B-2. Qualitatively compare CWT fry migration patterns in 1989,
1990, and 1991.
D-l. Conduct a linear regression analysis to estimate (p=0.05) the
relationship between mean fry growth and the fry-to-adult
survival of pink salmon from specific tag lots released in
1989 and 1990.
METHODS
Field Studies:
Pink salmon fry will be collected using beach and purse seines
deployed from a 6 m long aluminum skiff. Sampling will begin the
first week of May and extend to the end of June. A 40 m long beach
seine and 70 m long purse seine will be used to capture the fish.
Methods used to isolate, handle, and preserve CWT fry in 1989 and
1990 will be employed again in 1991 (Raymond and Wertheimer 1990).
Samples (n=100) of untagged fry will be retained from sites where
CWT fry are recovered. These samples will be preserved in 70%
ethanol for later otolith analysis.
Coded-wire tags will be extracted and interrogated as they are
recovered in the field. This will enable specific tag lots to be
targeted. Methods developed by the ADF&G F.R.E.D. Division Tag
Laboratory for extracting and interrogating coded-wire tags will be
employed. Damage to the fishes' head will be kept to a minimum when
dissecting coded-wire tags. The remains of the head and the body
will be placed in a pre-weighed vial and frozen. The vials will be
weighed later on shore when accuracies of .01 g can be obtained.
The following criteria (listed in order of priority) will be
employed in making sampling decisions in the field:
1) Recover a minimum of 30 tagged fish from each tag lot.
2) Recover fish from each tag lot in at least three
different areas during a single sampling period. Sampling
sites where fry were collected in 1989 will be receive
priority (Raymond et al. 1990).
3) Recover fish from each tag lot during at least three
different sampling periods.
Approximately 60 tag codes will be used in 1991. Therefore, it will
not be possible to meet each of the sampling objectives for each of
the tag lots. To circumvent this problem, tag lots from the same
hatchery with similar fry size and time of release characteristics
will be treated as a group. Sampling criteria will initially be
applied to these groups then to individual lots if time permits.
Tag lots or groups having characteristics similar to important tag
lots in the 1989 database will receive priority (Raymond et al.
1990).
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Water temperature at 1 m depth will be measured at all sample sites
using a YSI temperature meter. Temperature measurements will also
be made at stations 100 m apart along 1 km long transects
perpendicular and parallel to shore near important fry nursery
areas (Raymond et al. 1990) . A range finder and compass will be
used to estimate the position of each station. At each station,
measurements will be made at 1 m intervals from the surface to 10
m depth using a YSI meter. The YSI meter will be calibrated weekly
with a mercury thermometer. Mercury thermometers will be calibrated
in an ice bath at the beginning and end of the season. Temperature
transects will be run after an extended period of calm weather and
after a storm to determine the effect of wind mixing on temperature
variability.
Samples of fry (n=60) will be collected from each tag lot at the
Wally Noerenberg and AFK hatcheries immediately before the fry are
released to estimate the mean and variance of fry body weight.
These samples will be placed in 10% formalin and later weighed to
an accuracy of .01 g in the laboratory. At both hatcheries,
samples of CWT (n=30) and untagged fry (n=30) will be taken from
each of two netpens at the same time. These samples will be used to
determine if the mean and variance of fry body weight are different
between CWT and untagged fry in the same netpen. Each sample taken
from the netpens will be made from at least three subsamples taken
at various places in the pen.
Laboratory Studies:
Otolith microstructure analysis will be used to estimate fry growth
during the two week time periods immediately after release and
prior to recapture. Thin sections of sagittal otoliths will be
prepared using methods developed by Volk et. al. (1984). A computer
image analysis system will be used to measure otolith
microstructures. The number of increments and the diameter of-the
marine zone will be measured along at least two radius lines in the
posterodorsal quadrant of each otolith. The mean of these
measurements will be used in subsequent analyses.
Measurements of prey composition and stomach content weights will
be taken from 16 additional samples of untagged fry collected in
oiled and unoiled areas where important CWT fry samples were
obtained in 1989. Thirty stomachs will be examined from each sample
of untagged fry. Prey items in the following categories will be
enumerated: large calanoid copepods (>2.5 mm), small calanoid
copepods (<2.5 mm), harpacticoid copepods, and other. The prey
biomass in each category will be estimated by multiplying the
number of individuals in each category by the mean dry weight of
the individuals in that category (Raymond, unpublished data). Fish
used for stomach analysis will be weighed to an accuracy of .01 g
before dissection.
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Data Analysis:
Otolith increment formation and growth may provide a more direct
assessment of effects of environmental conditions and oil exposure
on fish somatic growth over time. Otolith growth analysis assumes
that otolith increment formation is related to time, and that
otolith growth is related to fish growth (Campana and Neilson
1985). Linear regression analyses will be conducted first to ensure
that increment formation is functionally related to time and that
otolith growth is related to fish somatic growth. If these
relationships are significant, differences in increment formation
and otolith growth among tag lots will be tested using an analysis
of covariance (Neter et al. 1990). This analysis examines
differences in both mean response and slope among the tag lots. The
analyses will use data from all CWT fry collected in 1989, 1990,
and 1991. Data from tag lots with similar means and slopes (p=0.05)
will be combined and regression equations developed to estimate
growth of CWT fry over two week time periods. Ninety-five percent
confidence bands will be calculated for all growth estimates
obtained from otoliths.
Analysis of variance will be used to test the hypothesis of no
difference (p=0.05) in fry otolith growth between oiled and unoiled
areas. Analyses of fry growth over the two week time period
immediately after release will focus on differences among tag lots
and oil exposure. Fry released from AFK Hatchery in 1989 entered
oiled water while those released from other hatcheries and in other
years entered unoiled water. Repeated measures analysis of variance
(Winer 1971) will test differences in growth during the two week
time period immediately prior to recapture. Variables in the
analysis include tag lot, treatment (oil, non-oil), time period,
and year. MFO analyses and other data will be used to categorize
oiled and unoiled areas. Repeated measures analysis of variance is
necessary because fry are recovered from the same sample sites over
time. Significant differences in fry otolith growth will be
examined further with a multiple comparison of means test (Zar
1974) . Growth estimates from otoliths for all CWT fry collected in
1989, 1990, and 1991 will be used in this analysis.
A multiple regression analysis will be performed to determine
effects of oil exposure and release conditions on fry otolith
growth during the two week time period immediately after release.
Data from tag lots released in 1989, 1990, and 1991 will be used in
the analysis. The effects of size of release, size of fry at
release, timing of release, zooplankton abundance, water
temperature, and oil exposure on fry growth will be examined.
Examination of residuals and other diagnostic tests will assess
adequacy of the fit of the model and any violation of assumptions.
Fry from AFK Hatchery in 1989 were released into oiled areas while
all other fry were released into unoiled areas. Influence of data
from AFK Hatchery in 1989 on regression parameter estimates will
also be investigated using dummy variables (Draper and Smith 1981) .
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A bioenergetics model (Kimmerer et al. 1991) will be used to
evaluate the relative effects of prey density, water temperature,
and fry density on fry growth. Model parameters will be taken from
studies on pink salmon; however, when model parameters are not
available for pink salmon, parameters from other salmonids will be
used. The effect of parameter uncertainty will be investigated by
producing model growth estimates for the probable range of
parameter values. A range of growth estimates will then be produced
for the probable range of water temperature, prey density, and prey
composition encountered by pink salmon fry in oiled and unoiled
areas of PWS in 1989.
A linear regression analysis (Zar 1974) will be conducted to
estimate (p=0.05) the relationship between mean fry growth and the
fry-to-adult survival of fish from specific tag lots. Data from tag
lots released in 1989, 1990, and 1991 will be used in the analysis.
The regression equation will be used to examine possible
differences between estimated and predicted survival of fry in
oiled and unoiled areas in 1989.
Prey composition in the diet in 1989 will be examined using
separate chi-squared tests on the proportion of stomach content
weights in each of four prey categories. The analysis will test for
differences (p=0.05) in the proportion of stomach content weights
in each prey category between oiled and unoiled areas. Analysis of
covariance will be used to test for differences (p=0.05) in stomach
content weights between oiled and unoiled areas. Variables in the
analysis will include treatment (oil, non-oil) and time-of-day,
with fish weight as a covariate. Stomach weight will be examined
to determine if a transformation of the data is needed.
Part II. Impact of the Oil Spill on Juvenile Pink and Chum Salmon
and their Prey in Critical Nearshore Habitats
Lead Agency: NMFS
INTRODUCTION
Preliminary results from F/S Study No. 4 have documented effects of
the EVOS on juvenile pink salmon, including exposure and
hydrocarbon tissue burden, reduced growth in oiled areas, and
changes in migratory behavior (Cooney 1990; Raymond 1990;
Wertheimer et al. 1990) . The hydrocarbon profiles of juvenile pink
salmon contaminated in 1989 indicate ingestion of whole oil was the
primary route of contamination. Hydrocarbons dissolved in the
water column following the spill were low or undetectable (Short
1990), and thus were unlikely to have been a significant source of
contamination, while sheen and mousse were common in nearshore
waters of western PWS in 1989.
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Zooplankton and epibenthic crustaceans are the primary prey of
juvenile pink and chum salmon fry during their initial marine
residency (Kaczynski et al. 1973; Cooney et al. 1981; Wertheimer et
al. 1990). Oil could be ingested either directly as small
particles, or indirectly via contaminated prey. Oil particles from
0.1 - 1.0 mm diameter were observed as deep as 80 m following the
wreck of the tanker Arrow in Chedabucto Bay (Forrester 1971). In
that spill, Conover (1971) found that zooplankton ingested oil
particles and estimated that 20% of the oil spilled was sedimented
to the bottom as zooplankton feces. Epibenthic crustaceans, such
as harpacticoid copepods, may also bioaccumulate hydrocarbons from
contaminated sediments.
Proposed research for continuation in 1991 is divided into two
phases. The first is to complete the analysis of the data
collected for juvenile salmon in 1989 and 1990 on exposure and
contamination by hydrocarbons; distribution, abundance, and habitat
utilization; size and growth; feeding habits; and prey abundance.
Results and conclusions regarding extent and effects of oil
contamination to juvenile salmon are preliminary and tentative at
this time because of incomplete processing and analyses of 1990 and
some 1989 data. The objectives of this phase of the project are
essentially reiterations of the objectives previously defined for
the NMFS component of F/S Study No. 4.
The second phase will examine the effects of ingestion of whole oil
on juvenile pink salmon under controlled conditions. Most research
on the effects on hydrocarbon exposure to juvenile salmon has
focused on exposure to water-soluble fraction (Rice et al. 1975;
Rice et al. 1984) or prey contaminated with water-soluble fraction
(Schwartz 1985). There is little information on the effects of
whole oil exposure to pink and chum salmon. Laboratory data on the
toxicity of whole oil is needed to link evidence of ingestion with
observed or speculated effects in pink salmon. Such information
also will be valuable in assessing the potential for injury to
other fish species utilizing the nearshore habitats and food
resources exploited by juvenile pink salmon during their initial
marine residency.
OBJECTIVES
(Letters refer to goals described above)
Section 1; Completion of 1989/1990 Analysis
A-l. Compare the abundance of juvenile pink and chum salmon
between oiled and non-oiled areas in 1989 and 1990.
A-2. To compare distribution and habitat utilization by juvenile
salmon between 1989 and 1990.
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A-3. Compare sizes and growth rates of juvenile salmon between
oiled and non-oiled areas in 1989 and 1990.
A-4. Quantify the feeding habits of juvenile pink and chum salmon
in terms of fullness, frequency of occurrence, biomass, and
Index of Relative Importance, and to compare oiled and
non-oiled areas in 1990 and between 1989 and 1990.
C-l. Compare tissue contamination of juvenile pink salmon in
relation to the degree of environmental contamination in the
area of capture in 1989 and 1990.
C-2. Compare MFO induction in juvenile pink and chum salmon in
relation to the degree of environmental contamination in the
area of capture in 1989 and 1990.
E-l. Compare the abundance of epibenthic and zooplankton prey
species of juvenile salmon between oiled and unoiled areas.
E-2. Compare the abundance of epibenthic prey species of juvenile
salmon in relation to the degree of contamination in
sediments of beaches in contaminated embayments in 1990.
Section 2. Effects of oil inaestion.
F. Determine the effects of oil ingestion on juvenile pink salmon
in terms of degree of contamination (hydrocarbon tissue burden
and MFO induction), survival, and growth (measured by weight
gain, otolith increment, and RNA/DNA ratio).
METHODS
Phase 1; Completion of 1989/1990 Analysis
1. Sample Processing
Sample series that are incompletely processed include hydrocarbon
samples of pink salmon tissue, sediments, mussels, and water;
otolith increment analysis from pink salmon juveniles; epibenthic
pump samples from lightly oiled and heavily oiled transects in
Herring Bay; and MFO analysis of pink and chum salmon juveniles.
The hydrocarbon samples have been released to the analytical
laboratories through Technical Services 1, and should be complete
by spring of 1991. The otolith samples are being processed by the
Washington Department of Fish, and are scheduled for completion in
February, 1991. The epibenthic samples are contracted for
completion by August, 1991. An additional contract for completing
the appropriate MFO samples will be let in March, 1991.
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2. Data Analysis
The univariate approach to analysis of variance (ANOVA) of a
repeated measures design (Frane 1980) will be used to analyze
temperature, salinity, hydrocarbon contamination data, systematic
catch data, pelagic zooplankton, and epibenthic sled and pump
collections. The factors in the environmental data ANOVA are time,
oil, bay/corridor, and location, with location nested in oil and
bay/corridor. Three replicate observations of temperature and
salinity were taken for each cell. The same design will apply to
the hydrocarbon data. In the systematic catch data, the factors
considered are time, oil, bay/corridor, location, and habitat, with
location nested in oil and bay/corridor.
A second analytical approach to test the hypothesis of no
difference in abundance of juvenile pink and chum salmon between
oiled and unoiled locations will be to use the nonparametric
Wilcoxon paired-ranks test (Daniel 1978) . Differences in abundance
between matched cells of the a priori pairs of oiled and unoiled
locations will be compared; 56 such comparisons are possible for
each species. For pink salmon, differences in abundance will also
be tested separately in bays and corridors.
Based on Box-Cox diagnostic plots (Dixon et al. 1988), the biomass
of zooplankton and epibenthos will be transformed prior to the
ANOVA procedure by natural logarithms (In) in order to normalize
distribution and maximize variance homogeneity. For pelagic
zooplankton, the factors considered in the ANOVA will be time, oil,
bay/corridor, and location, with location nested in oil and
bay/corridor. For the systematic epibenthic sled samples, the
factors considered will be time, oil, bay/corridor, location, and
habitat, with location nested in oil and bay/corridor. For the
tidal transect epibenthic sled sampling, the factors are time, oil,
location, habitat, and tide level, with location nested in oil.
The number of species or species groups of zooplankton and
epibenthic crustaceans will be used as a simple measure of
diversity (Pielou 1975), and also compared using ANOVA.
Abundance, percent gravid females, and percent total harpacticoids
for primary prey species of juvenile salmon will be compared using
ANOVA for epibenthic pump samples from heavily oiled and lightly
oiled beaches within contaminated embayments. Data from each
embayment sampled with the epibenthic pump will be analyzed
separately, with the transects sampled nested within contamination
level. When hydrocarbon sediment data are available, the
abundance of the prey will be examined as a function of the amount
of oil actually found in the sediment samples.
Size and growth of juvenile salmon will be examined by comparing
mean sizes, apparent growth rates, and the weight/length
relationship between oiled and unoiled areas. Mean sizes of pink
salmon will be also analyzed using ANOVA and the nonparametric
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Wilcoxon paired-ranks test. The nonparametric approach will test
only the null hypothesis that there was no difference between fish
size in oiled and unoiled locations.
Apparent growth rates (change in size over time) will be calculated
for each habitat type within a location using the regression of
natural logarithm weight over time. Analysis of covariance will be
used to determine if fish can be pooled over habitats within a
sampling locations. Comparisons between oiled and unoiled
locations will then be made using ANOVA, where sufficient data
exists. The weight/length relationship will be used to compare the
condition of juvenile pink and chum salmon between oiled and
unoiled areas, as recommended by Cone (1989).
For each prey category, dry weight, dry weight as a percent of
total prey weight in a stomach, standardized dry weight (dry weight
as a percentage of fish dry weight) , numbers, and numbers as a
percent of total numbers in a stomach will be calculated for each
fish. Weight of stomach contents will also be calculated as a
percent of total weight for each fish. Index of relative
importance (IRI, where IRI = % frequency of occurrence x (%number
+ %weight)) will be calculated for each habitat type by oil and
bay/corridor. Minimum variance clustering of standardized dry
weights will be used to identify associations among habitats, bays
and corridors, and oiled and unoiled areas. Wilcoxon signed-rank
test will be used to compare diet parameters between paired sets in
oiled and unoiled areas.
Phase 2: Oil ingestion experiment
Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) fry will be obtained from the
Auke Creek Hatchery after emergence. Fry will be reared in 800 1
cylindrical tanks receiving 20 1m"1 single-pass filtered seawater.
Fry will be grown to a mean size of approximately 0.6 g on BioDiet
starter feed then switched to 1 mm pellets. At this time they will
be randomly allocated into three oiled treatments groups, a
dichloromethane control, and untreated controls, and placed in
rectangular (30 x 41 x 53 cm) tanks receiving 1 1m"1 seawater.
There will be 3 replicate tanks per treatment, for a total of 18
tanks. Initial numbers in each tank will be 1000 fry. Feeding
rates will be updated weekly, based on the estimated fry biomass in
each tank. Food will be delivered by automatic feeders,
supplemented by hand feeding. Lighting will be natural, and
temperature will be ambient seawater: tanks will be located
outdoors.
A preliminary experiment will start after the fry begin feeding to
determine palatability of oiled food and how the oil behaves when
the food is added to seawater. Fry size will be approximately 0.3
g, and the experiment will last one week. Observations will
120
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include feeding behavior, mortality, and slick characteristics (if
any). Contamination levels of food in the preliminary test will
be 0.1, 1, and 10% oil.
Food for the treatment groups will be contaminated with Prudhoe Bay
crude oil. Food pellets plus oil dissolved in dichloromethane will
be placed in glass flasks, then rotovaped to remove the dichloro-
methane. Samples will be contaminated with 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0%,
perhaps up to 10% oil by weight, depending on the outcome of the
preliminary experiment. Food for the dichloromethane controls will
be similarly treated, except no oil will be added: other control
food will not be treated. Food will be thawed shortly before use
as needed to minimize possible evaporative hydrocarbon loss.
Contaminated food will be analyzed periodically for hydrocarbon
levels.
Lethal and sublethal effects of contamination will be evaluated.
Mortality will be routinely monitored; dead fish will be removed at
least daily. Sublethal effects will be measured as growth in terms
of changes in mean length and weight and in terms of otolith growth
and the ratio of ribonucleic acid (RNA) to deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). Otolith increment widths and RNA/DNA ratios are growth
processes that may be more sensitive over short time spans than
total somatic growth (Volk et al. 1984; Barron and Adelman 1984).
Formalin preserved fry tissues will be examined histologically for
mixed function oxidase (MFO) induction. Tissues examined will
include gills, anterior intestine/cecal epithelium, kidney, liver,
heart, vertebral cord, and skeletal muscle. Condition factor will
be calculated.
Before distribution to the experimental tanks, 110 fry will be
subsampled randomly to establish baseline characteristics at the
beginning of the experiment. Subsequent subsamples of 110 fry will
be collected weekly from each replicate. To avoid oiled food in
the hydrocarbon analysis, 60 fry will be collected before first
feeding in the morning to ensure that food and fecal material has
been voided from the gut. These fry will be frozen immediately in
hydrocarbon free jars with Teflon lids for later hydrocarbon
analysis. The remaining 50 fry will collected in the early
afternoon (circa 1:00 pm), narcotized in MS-222, measured, blotted
dry, and weighed. Twenty of these fish will be randomly selected
for MFO analysis (n=10) or for possible histological/pathological
examination (n=10) and placed in 10% buffered formaldehyde.
Stomachs will be excised from the other 30 fry in the length-weight
sample, and weighed to determine fullness as a percentage of body
weight. Fifteen of these fry from each sample will also be
randomly selected, white muscle will be removed from just posterior
to the dorsal fin and frozen for RNA/DNA analysis, and the heads
removed and stored in 95% reagent-grade ethanol for otolith
analysis. Each sample will be labeled with a code identifying
121
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treatment, replicate, and fish number. Samples from week 0, 1, 3,
6 will be processed for hydrocarbons, otolith increments, and
RNA/DNA; samples from week 2, 4, 5 will be held in reserve.
Concentrations of hydrocarbons in preserved fry will be analyzed by
GC-MS and GC-FID using standard protocols established by Technical
Services 1. Fry will be thawed and viscera will be dissected from
the body. Viscera and carcasses will be analyzed separately for
hydrocarbon content. MFO samples will be processed by contract
with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute.
Sagittal otoliths will be used for analysis of otolith size and
increments. Using the method described by Winter (1985), the
sagittal otoliths will be removed from each of the preserved pink
salmon heads by removing the lower jaw and gill rakers and
extracting the sagittal otoliths (visible through the clear wall of
the neurocranium) with no. 5 fine-tipped forceps. The medial side
of the right otolith from each of the fish will be attached to an
acetate sheet and imbedded in casting resin (Schultz and Taylor,
1987). The otolith within the resin pellet will be thin-sectioned
via a diamond cut-off saw to expose the plane containing the focus.
The thin section of the otolith will then be lapped and polished to
remove excess resin and extraneous scratches and cutting marks
(Neilson and Geen 1981; Schultz and Taylor 1987). The section of
otolith will either be viewed directly under a transmitted-light
compound microscope or the image from the microscope will be
transferred to an image enhancement and analysis system for viewing
and analysis. A standard axis between the saltwater transition
check and the edge of the otolith will be measured in the
posterodorsal quadrant and the number of rings bisected by this
axis will be counted (Wilson and Larkin 1982; Volk et al. 1984;
Deegan and Thompson 1987). Incremental increase in the size of the
otolith along the standard axis, the number of increments and their
respective widths will be used as parameters to test for treatment
effects.
The measurement of RNA and DNA will follow the methods described by
Bentle et al. (1981) . White muscle will be macerated with protease
and incubated at 37° C with ethidium bromide for 1 hr. The sample
will then be placed in a cuvette in a thermal-jacketed holder and
analyzed for fluorescence intensity in a fluorometer. RNAase will
then be added to the sample, the sample will be incubated for 45
minutes and then re-evaluated for fluorescence. DNAase will then
be added to the sample, the sample incubated for 30 minutes, and
again re-evaluated for fluorescence. The fluorescence intensities
will be compared to standard curves for RNA and DNA to determine
content of the nucleic acids.
122
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Babcock, M. M. 1985. Morphology of olfactory epithelium of pink
salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, and changes following exposure
to benzene: a scanning electron microscope study, p. 259-267,
In J. S. Gray and M. E. Christiansen (eds), Marine biology of
polar regions and stress on marine organisms. John Wiley &
Sons.
Bailey, J.E., B.L. Wing, and C.R. Mattson. 1975. Zooplankton
abundance and feeding habits of fry of pink salmon and chum
salmon in Traitor's Cove, Alaska, with speculations on the
carrying capacity of the area. Fish. Bull. 73:946-961.
Barren, M. G., and I. R. Adelman. 1984. Nucleic acid, protein
content, and growth of larval fish sublethally exposed to
various toxicants. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 41: 141-
150.
Bax, N.J. 1983. Early marine mortality of marked juvenile chum
salmon released into Hood Canal, Puget Sound, Washington, in
1980. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40:426-435.
Bentle, L. A., S. Dutta, and J. Metcoff. 1981. The sequential
enzymatic determination of DNA and RNA. Analytical
Biochemistry 116: 5-16.
Caldwell, R. S., E. M. Caldarone, and M. H. Mallon. 1977. Effects
of a seawater-soluble fraction of Cook Inlet crude oil and its
major aromatic components on larval stages of the Dungeness
crab, Cancer magister Dana. p. 210-220 In D. A. Wolfe (ed),
Fate and effects of petroleum hydrocarbons in marine
ecosystems and organisms. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Campana, S.E. and J.D. Neilson. 1985. Microstructure of fish
otoliths. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42: 1014-1032.
Cone, R. S. 1989. The need to reconsider the use of condition
indices in fisheries science. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
118:510-514.
Conover, R. J. 1971. Some relations between zooplankton and Bunker
C oil in Chedabucto Bay following the wreck of the tanker
Arrow. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 28: 1327-1330.
Cooney, R. T. 1990. UAF component. NRDA Status Report,
Fish/Shellfish Project 4.
Cooney, R.T., D. Urquhart, and D. Barnard. 1981. The behavior,
feeding biology and growth of hatchery-released pink and chum
salmon fry in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Alaska Sea Grant
Report 81-5. 114 pp.
123
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Daniel, W. W. 1978. Applied nonparametric statistics. Houghton
Mifflin Co., Boston. 510 pp.
Deegan, L. A. and B. A. Thompson. 1987. Growth rate and life
history events of young-of-the-year gulf menhaden as
determined from otoliths. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 116: 663-
667.
Dixon, W. J., P. Sampson, and P. Mundle. 1988. One- and two-way
analysis of variance with data screening, p 187-208, In
W.J. Dixon (ed), BMDP Statistical software manual. Univ.
Calif. Press, Berkeley.
Draper, N.R. and H. Smith. 1981. Applied Regression Analysis.
2nd Ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Forrester, W. D. 1971. Distribution of suspended oil particles
following the grounding of the tanker Arrow. J. Mar. Res.
29: 151-170.
Frane, J. 1980. The univariate approach to repeated measures -
foundation, advantages, and caveats. BMDP Tech. Rep. 69.
34p.
Godin, J.-G.J. 1981. Daily patterns of feeding behavior, daily
rations, and diets of juvenile pink salmon (Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha) in two marine bays of British Columbia. Can. J.
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 38:10-15.
Gundlach, E. R., P. D. Boehm, M. Marchand, R. M. Atlas, D. M. Ward,
and D. A. Wolfe. 1983. The fate of Amoco Cadiz oil. Science
221: 122-129.
Hartt, A.C. 1980. Juvenile salmonids in the oceanic ecosystem—
the critical first summer, p. 25-57, In W.J. McNeil and D.C.
Himsworth, eds., Salmonid ecosystems of the North Pacific.
Oreg. State Univ. Press.
Healey, M.C. 1979. Detritus and juvenile salmon production in
the Nanaimo Estuary: I. Production and feeding rates of
juvenile chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta). J. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 36: 488-496.
Healey, M. C. 1982. Timing and relative intensity of size-
selective mortality of juvenile chum salmon during early sea
life. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 39:952-957.
Ivlev, V.S. 1961. Experimental ecology of the feeding of fishes.
New Haven, (trans, by D. Scott), Yale University Press.
124
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Kaczynski, V. W., R. J. Feller, and C. Clayton. 1973. Trophic
analysis of juvenile pink and chum salmon in Puget Sound.
J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 30: 1003-1008.
Kepshire, B.M. 1976. Bioenergetics and survival of chum
(Oncorhynchus keta) and pink (O. gorbuscha) salmon in heated
seawater. Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon State University.
Kimmerer, W., J. Grebmeier, B. Kelly, D. Roseneau, A. Springer, M.
Willette. 1991. Conceptual model for the ecosystem of
Kasegaluk Lagoon, Alaska. Outer Continental Shelf
Environmental Assessment Program Report (in preparation).
Kloepper-Sams, P.J. and J.J. Stegeman. 1989. The temporal
relationships between P450E protein content, catalytic
activity and mRNA levels in the teleost Fundulus heteroclitus
following treatment with B-naphthoflavone. Arch. Biochem.
and Biophys. 268: 525-535.
Martin, J.W. 1966. Early sea life of pink salmon. Alaska
Department of Fish and Game Informational Leaflet 87: 111-125.
Neilson, J. D. and G. H. Geen. 1981. Method for preparing
otoliths for microstructure examination. Progressive
Fish Culturist 43(2): 90-92.
Neter, J., W. Wasserman, and M.H. Kutner. 1990. Applied Linear
Statistical Models: regression, analysis of variance and
experimental designs, 3rd ed. Richard D. Irwin, Inc.,
Homewood, Illinois.
Nichelson, T.E. 1986. Influences of upwelling, ocean temperature,
and smolt abundance on marine survival of coho salmon
(Oncorhynelas kisutch) in the Oregon production area. Can. J.
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43:527-535.
Parker, R.R. 1968. Marine mortality schedules of pink salmon of
the Bella Coola River, central British Columbia. J. Fish.
Res. Board Can. 25:757-794.
Parker, R.R. 1971. Size selective predation among juvenile
salmonid fishes in a British Columbia inlet. J. Fish. Res.
Board Can. 28:1503-1510.
Parsons, T.R. and R.J. LeBrasseur. 1973. The availability of
food to different trophic levels in the marine food chain. In
J.H. Steele (ed.), Marine Food Chains. Oliver and Boyd,
Edinburgh.
Pielou, E. C. 1975. Ecological diversity. John Wiley & Sons, New
York. 165 p.
125
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Raymond, J., A. Wertheimer, and R.T. Cooney. 1990. Early marine
salmon injury assessment in Prince William Sound: draft
preliminary status report. Alaska Department of Fish and Game,
Anchorage, Alaska.
Rice, S.D. 1973. Toxicity and avoidance tests with Prudhoe Bay
oil and pink salmon fry. p. 667-670. In Proceedings of the
joint conference on prevention and control of oil spills.
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D. C.
Rice, S. D., D. A. Moles, J. F. Karinen, S. Korn, M. G. Carls, C.
C. Brodersen, J. A. Gharrett, and M. M. Babcock. 1984.
Effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on Alaskan aquatic
organisms. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS F/NWC-67. 128 p.
Rice, S. D., D. A. Moles, and J. W. Short. 1975. The effect of
Prudhoe Bay crude oil on survival and growth of eggs, alevins,
and fry of pink salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha. p. 503-507,In
1975 Conference on prevention and control of oil pollution.
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D. C.
Ricker, W.E. 1976. Review of the growth rate of and mortality of
Pacific salmon in salt water, and non-catch mortality caused
by fishing. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33:1483-1524.
Schultz, D. L. and R. S. Taylor. 1987. Preparation of small
otoliths for microscopic examination. N. Am. J. of Fish.
Mgt. 7: 309-311.
Schwartz, J. P. 1985. Effects of oil-contaminated prey on the
feeding and growth rate of pink salmon fry, Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha. p. 459-476, In Vernberg, F. John, Frederick
Thurberg, Anthony Calabrese, and Winona Vernberg (eds.),
Pollution and Physiology of Marine Organisms. U. South
Carolina Press. Columbia, S.C. 545 pp.
Short, J. 1990. NRDA Status Report, Air/Water 3.
Taylor, S. G., J. H. Landingham, D. G. Mortensen, and A. C.
Wertheimer. 1987. Pink salmon early life history in Auke
Bay: Residence, growth, diet and survival. p. 273-318, In
APPRISE Annual Report-1986. Vol. I: Technical Report.
School of Fisheries, University of Alaska, Juneau.
Volk, E.G., R.C. Wissmar, C.A. Simenstad, and D.M. Eggers. 1984.
Relationship between otolith microstructure and the growth of
juvenile chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) under different prey
rations. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 41:126-133.
Wertheimer, A. C., A. G. Celewycz, and M. Carls. 1990. NMFS
component. NRDA Status Report, Fish/Shellfish Project 4.
126
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West, C.J. and P.A. Larkin. 1987. Evidence of size-selective
mortality of juvenile sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in
Babine Lake, Brititsh Columbia. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
44: 712-721.
Wilson, K. H. and P. A. Larkin. 1982. Relationship between
thickness of daily growth increments in sagittae and
change in body weight of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus
nerka) fry. Can. J. Fish, and Aquat. Sci. 39: 1335-1339.
Winer, B. J. 1971. Statistical principles in experimental design.
McGraw-Hill, New York. 907 pp.
Winter, Brian. 1985. A method for the efficient removal of
juvenile salmon otoliths. California Fish and Game 71
(1): 63-64.
Zar, J. H. 1974. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Salaries
Travel
Contractual
Supplies
Equipment
Total
ADF&G
$ 37.5
2.1
76.1
16.5
4.2
$ 136.4
BUDGET
NOAA
$ 65.0
10.0
40.0
27.0
30.0
$ 172.0
TOTAL
$ 102.5
12.1
116.1
43.5
34.2
$ 308.4
127
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 5
Study Title: Injury to Dolly Varden Char and Cutthroat Trout
In PWS
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
The goal of this study is to compare the survival and growth of
populations of Dolly Varden char (char) and cutthroat trout (trout)
differentially affected by the oil spill in PWS. This will be the
third year of this project. Trout and char are estuarine
anadromous species that inhabit PWS (Morrow 1980). Unlike
anadromous Pacific salmon, trout and char utilize nearshore and
estuarine areas for feeding. Their marine migrations are not as
extensive as those of Pacific salmon (Morrow 1980). Some of the
most important stocks of these species inhabit areas that have been
severely impacted by direct contact with oil including Green and
Montague Islands and Eshamy Bay (Mills 1988). Since these species
commonly Iiv6 to age 8 (Morrow 1980) , the potential exists for both
short-term and long-term effects from exposure to oil. Study of
these species is crucial in that they represent finfish species
that inhabit the most oil-affected areas throughout most of their
lives.
The experimental design for this program is based upon the model
developed by Armstrong (1970, 1974, 1984) and Armstrong and Morrow
(1980) to explain the migratory behavior of anadromous char. This
model identifies two patterns of life history, fish spawned in lake
systems and fish spawned in non-lake systems. For both groups,
juvenile char remain in freshwater residence in their natal stream
for up to four years. During their last spring of freshwater
residence, they smolt to sea. During late summer or early fall,
fish that were spawned in lake systems return to their natal stream
to overwinter in the freshwater lake. During the spring, they
again emigrate into marine waters and annually return to their
natal lake system during late summer or early fall to spawn and
overwinter. Fish that were spawned in non-lake systems exhibit a
more complex migration. Upon smelting, juvenile char search for a
lake system to overwinter. These fish then behave in the same
manner as do fish that originate in a lake system except that they
return to their natal stream to spawn and then return to their
selected lake system to overwinter.
The migratory habits of anadromous cutthroat trout are less well
understood than those of anadromous char in Alaska although it
appears that they exhibit similar migratory habits to char (Jones
1982). Trout, however, spawn in the spring as opposed to fall for
char.
128
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It is hypothesized that two detrimental impacts on these species
could result from the presence of large amounts of crude oil in
marine waters: (1) reduced survival; and (2) reduced growth. To
test whether there was a measurable impact, three stocks of trout
and char that overwinter in watersheds that issue into a marine
environment which has been directly exposed to oil (oiled group)
and two stocks of trout and char that overwinter in watersheds that
issue in unoiled areas (control group) were selected for study.
Significant changes in stock abundance, composition, or dynamics
from the initial emigration of stocks within the treatment group as
compared to stocks from the control group is assumed to be due to
contact with the oiled marine waters. Evidence from the literature
indicates that marine migrations can range up to 116 kilometers for
char (Armstrong 1974) and 80 kilometers for trout (Jones 1982).
Armstrong's model of migratory behavior provides the basic
framework for this study. First, each of the study streams
represents a stock of fish that annually homes to that specific
overwintering stream. Second, since overwinter residency occurs
entirely in freshwater, fish sampled during the 1989 spring
emigration had not yet encountered oiled waters. Given this, the
first sample from each stream (the emigration during 1989) provides
the baseline data for stocks in control and treatment.
OBJECTIVES
A. Test if there is no difference in annual survival rates of
char and cutthroat trout between oiled and control groups
during 1989-91 and 1990-91 (the test will be done given a
level of significance of alpha = 0.05).
B. Test if there is no difference in annual growth rates of char
and cutthroat trout between oiled and control groups during
1989-91 and 1990-91 (the test will be done given a level of
significance of alpha = 0.05).
METHODS
Trout and char were still in freshwater residence at the time of
the spill, and the opportunity existed to sample these fish during
their 1989 emigration prior to any potential exposure to an oiled
marine environment. Data collected during 1989 became the baseline
for each system. Therefore, in addition to comparisons between
treatment and control, comparisons are also possible for each
stream within oiled and control groups between subsequent years7
data and the 1989 baseline.
Each study stream consists of a freshwater lake-river system that:
(1) is a tributary to marine waters that were either impacted by
large quantities of oil (oiled) or received virtually no oil
129
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(control); and (2) contains stocks of anadromous trout and char.
A weir will be installed and completely block each study stream
prior to the initiation of the 1990 spring emigration. A smolt
weir for sockeye salmon will operate at the outlet of Eshamy Lake
as part of F/S 3. Sampling for char and trout will be conducted in
conjunction with this project.
During the spring sampling, weirs will be used to count and sample
the emigration of trout and char from study streams. Weirs will be
installed approximately 0.5 km upstream from the saltwater terminus
of the streams. The weirs will be operated by a two-person crew
from mid-April to early-July. Downstream live traps will be
installed.
All fish captured in the trap will be examined for presence or
absence of tags, tag scars, and adipose fins. Each fish containing
a tag from 1989, a tag scar, or missing its adipose fin will be
considered one recapture event. Recaptured fish with missing tags
will be retagged. Fish with no visible tag scar and containing
their adipose fin (not tagged in 1989) will also be tagged. Each
fish captured will be identified, counted, and measured (tip-of-
snout to fork-of-tail to the nearest mm) . Scale smears will be
collected from the preferred area from all cutthroat trout and
placed individually on acetate slides in coin envelopes. Date,
species, sex (if identifiable from external maturation
characteristics) , and length will be recorded for each fish.
Recapture events will be recorded separately for fish containing
tags and fish with missing tags. Tag numbers will be recorded for
each recapture and each fish tagged.
All fish found dead impinged on the weir or in the live box will be
examined for presence of tags and adipose fins, identified, and
measured as outlined above. Sex and maturity will be determined by
internal examination, and sagittal otoliths will be collected.
Date, species, sex, length, maturity, and tag number will be
recorded. Fish containing tags, tag scars or missing adipose fins
will be recorded as recaptures.
Estimates of annual survival will be computed for each study site
through analysis of tag returns. If all emigrating fish can be
examined for marks, the estimates of annual survival (S) can be
simply computed as:
S = m2/Ri
where:
m2 = number of fish recovered in year y+l
Rj = number of fish tagged in year y.
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If the weir holds, the hypothesis of equal survival between oiled
and control sites will be tested using contrast within a
multinomial analysis of variance (Woodward et al. 1990). Char and
trout of different sizes suffer different mortality rates
(Armstrong 1974; Sumner 1953) so the size structure of different
populations will be examined and controlled in the analysis if
necessary.
Jolly-Seber three-sample method (Seber 1982) will be used in the
event that each emigrating fish cannot be examined at the weirs.
Buckland's program RECAP (1980) will be used to generate the
estimates and variances. The 95% confidence intervals around the
survival estimates will be compared to tests for significant
differences between oiled and control sites.
Annual individual growth will be calculated from the tag data as
the difference between length at time of release and length at time
of recovery. At each site, a box plot will be constructed for the
growth values, and observations more than 1.5 interquartiles away
from the box edge will be considered recording errors and not used
in the analysis. An analysis of variance will be used to test for
significant differences in growth between fish from control and
oiled groups. Variation due to differences in years and initial
length can be controlled through the use of a block and covariate
in the linear model if necessary. The power to detect a 5%
difference in the growth rate of fish from treatment and control
areas is estimated to be 90%.
The assumptions of analysis of variance are:
1. random sample,
2. normal distribution, and
3. homogeneity of variance.
The assumption of normality will be tested using Kolomogorov's D
statistic. If the data is not normally distributed then a
logarithmic or a rank transformation will be necessary.
The homogeneity of variance assumption will be tested with a
Bartlett's test. Again, if the assumption is not valid, a
transformation will be used.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Armstrong, R.H. 1970. Age, food, and migration of Dolly Varden
smolts in southeastern Alaska. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
27:991-1004.
131
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1974. Migration of anadromous Dolly Varden (Salvelinus
malma) in southeastern Alaska. J. Fish Res. Board Can.
31:435-444.
. 1984. Migration of anadromous Dolly Varden char in
southeastern Alaska - a manager's nightmare, p. 559-570, In
L. Johnson and B.L. Burns (eds.), Biology of the Arctic char.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Arctic Char,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, May, 1981. Univ. Manitoba Press,
Winnipeg.
Armstrong, R.H. and J.E. Morrow. 1980. The Dolly Varden char. p.
99-104, In E.K. Balon (ed.), Chars: salmonid fishes of the
genus Salvelinus. Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publisher. The Hague,
Netherlands.
Buckland, S.T. 1980. A modified analysis of the Jolly-Seber
capture-recapture model. Biometrics 36: 419-435.
Clutter, R. and L. Whitesel. 1956. Collection and interpretation
of sockeye salmon scales. International Pacific Salmon
Fisheries Commission, Bulletin 9. 159 pp.
Jones, D.E. 1982. Development of techniques for enhancement and
management of cutthroat trout in southeast Alaska. Alaska
Department of Fish and Game. Annual Report of Progress,
Project AFS-42, 23(AFS-42-10-B): np.
Mills, M.J. 1988. Alaska statewide sport fisheries harvest
report. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fishery Data
Series No. 2. 142 pp.
Morrow, J. E. 1980. The freshwater fishes of Alaska. Alaska
Northwest Publishing Company, Anchorage, Alaska. 248 pp.
Seber, G. A. F. 1982. Estimation of animal abundance and related
parameters. 2nd edition, Griffin & Company, London. 655 pp.
Sumner, F.H. 1953. Migrations of salmonids in Sand Creek, Oregon.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 82: 139-150.
Woodward, J.A., D.G. Bonett, and M.L. Brecht. 1990. Introduction
to linear models and experimental design. Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich Inc., San Diego, California. 62 pp.
132
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BUDGET
Salaries $ 230.9
Travel 10.4
Contracts 55.8
Supplies 28.0
Equipment 0.0
Total $ 325.1
133
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 11
Study Title: Injury to PWS Herring
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
The oil spill in PWS coincided with the annual migration of Pacific
herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) to near-shore spawning areas. In
1989, a significant portion of the spawning area in PWS was located
within areas contaminated by oil. Additionally, adult spawning
herring and newly hatched juveniles traversed areas impacted by oil
and beach cleaning activities.
It was hypothesized that the oil spill would adversely impact adult
fish through direct mortality, food shortages, slowed growth, and
a possible reduction in fecundity. In addition, herring eggs have
been shown to be particularly susceptible to hydrocarbon
contamination due to the affinity of hydrocarbon compounds for yolk
sac material. Impacts on egg mortality, egg hatching success, and
percent viable hatch have the capacity to reduce the abundance and
availability of herring. Adult and juvenile herring, as well as
herring eggs, often form an important item in the diet of marine
fishes (e.g. salmon and halibut), mammals (e.g. sea lions, seals,
and whales), and birds (e.g. cormorants, ducks, puffins, gulls).
Herring also support an important commercial fishery within PWS,
worth approximately 12 million dollars in 1988 and 9 million
dollars in 1990.
The goal of this project is to determine whether the EVOS will have
a measurable impact on populations of herring in PWS. Accurate and
precise estimates of population abundance, age structure, weight,
and length composition data are needed to accomplish this goal. In
addition, the direct effects of oil contamination on spawning
success and egg and larval survival will be determined.
OBJECTIVES
A. Expand the normal sampling of the herring population in PWS to
increase the precision of herring abundance, age composition,
weight, sex ratio, and fecundity estimates. Specifically we
intend to:
1. Estimate the biomass of the spawning stock of herring in
PWS during 1991 such that the estimate is within ± 25% of
the true value 95% of the time.
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2. Estimate the age, weight, length, and sex (AWLS)
composition of herring in PWS during 1991 such that age
composition estimates are within ± 10% of their true
values 95% of the time.
B. Document the occurrence of herring spawn in oiled and unoiled
areas, validating the sites with quantified oil level
information obtained from shoreline survey maps and
hydrocarbon analyses of 1989, 1990, and 1991 herring eggs and
mussel tissue.
C. Estimate hydrocarbon contamination of, and physiological
impacts on, adult herring by analyzing tissue samples.
Test the hypothesis that the level of hydrocarbons in herring
tissues is not related to the level of oil contamination of
the area from which the herring were sampled. The experiment
is designed to detect a difference of 1.6 standard deviations
in hydrocarbon content with the probability of making a type
I and type II error of 0.05 and 0.1, respectively.
D. Estimate the presence and type of damage to tissues and vital
organs of herring sampled from oiled and unoiled areas.
Test the hypothesis that the level of hydrocarbons in herring
eggs is not related to the level of oil contamination of the
area from which the herring were sampled. The experiment is
designed to detect a difference of 1.6 standard deviations in
hydrocarbon content with the probability of making a type I
and type II error of 0.05 and 0.1, respectively.
E. Estimate the proportion of dead herring eggs in oiled and un-
oiled areas from a subsample of study sites that were utilized
in the 1989 and 1990 egg mortalities study, expanding the data
base and providing sample sites for sample collection of live
and preserved eggs.
Test the hypothesis that the proportion of dead herring eggs
is not related to the level of oil contamination of the area
from which the herring were sampled.
F. Estimate the hatching success, viable hatch, occurrence of
abnormal larvae, and collect embryonic and larval tissue for
sublethal testing including cytogenetics, MFO analysis, and
histopathological analyses by collecting herring eggs and
rearing them in field and under laboratory observation.
Test the hypothesis that hatching success, viable hatch, and
occurrence of abnormal larvae are not related to the level of
oil contamination of the area from which the herring were
sampled.
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G. Estimate the number (proportion) of eggs removed from the
spawning areas (due to wave action or predation) between the
time of egg deposition (spawning) and the time of hatching.
METHODS
This project will be conducted in three parts: (1) herring spawn
deposition estimation, (2) herring age, weight, length, growth, and
fecundity estimation, and (3) herring egg survival and egg loss
estimation.
Herring Spawn Deposition Estimation
The management of the PWS herring stock is based on a harvest
policy established by the Alaska Board of Fisheries which specifies
a maximum 20% exploitation rate for the combined harvest of all
herring fisheries. The allowable harvest is based on biomass
estimates established the previous year modified by the expected
growth and survival over the year. While aerial surveys were used
to estimate biomass from 1973-87, spawn deposition surveys were
performed in 1983 (Jackson and Randall 1983) and 1984 (Jackson and
Randall 1984) , and were the primary biomass estimate starting in
1988 (Biggs and Funk 1988). Aerial surveys are easier to perform
than spawn deposition surveys, but aerial survey biomass estimates
are not as reliable because of the varying visibility of herring
schools from the air and the unknown residence time of herring
schools on the spawning grounds. In addition, estimates of
precision are not available for aerial survey biomass estimates.
The ADF&G continues to conduct an annual aerial survey of spawning
biomass to provide in season indicators of run timing and
distribution of spawning activity. This information is used for
planning the spawn deposition survey.
This project represents an augmented program to assess the PWS
herring stock's response to the EVOS. The original goal of the 1989
herring spawn deposition survey was to estimate the spawning
biomass with a precision such that the biomass estimate would be
within ± 25% of the true biomass estimate 95% of the time under
optimal survey conditions. Fishery managers determined that this
level of precision was acceptable for estimating exploitation rates
and forecasting future abundance. If weather or other logistic
problems hampered the spawn deposition survey sampling effort,
fishery managers were willing to tolerate reduced precision. The
EVOS introduced a potentially new and unknown level of mortality on
herring stocks. The accuracy and precision of estimates of stock
abundance need to be assured from both oiled and unoiled areas (as
reflected in objectives Al and A2) . The opportunity to estimate
herring biomass with spawn deposition surveys is only available
during a relatively narrow two week window. After the oil spill,
the number of divers involved in the survey was increased to assure
that even if weather problems restricted the available sampling
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time, sufficient numbers of transects could still be performed. The
number of transects was also increased to provide a level of
precision such that the biomass estimate would be within ± 25% of
the true biomass 95% of the time.
The aerial survey project will provide a map indicating the general
location of herring spawning areas. Transects will be placed
perpendicular to the shoreline at locations selected randomly from
the shoreline maps of spawning areas. Divers will swim along the
transects and systematically place 0.1 m2 quadrants at 5 m
intervals. Divers will estimate the total number of eggs in each
quadrant. All egg-containing vegetation will be removed from a
subset of the quadrants for later enumeration of the number of eggs
in a laboratory procedure. These enumerated egg counts will be used
to correct bias in diver-estimated egg counts and estimate the
precision of the diver estimates. The survey design is described in
detail by Biggs and Funk (1988), and follows closely the two-stage
sampling design of similar surveys in British Columbia (Schwiegert
et al. 1985), and in southeast Alaska (Blankenbeckler and Larson
1982, 1987). The surveys use random sampling at the first stage
(transects), and systematic sampling at the second stage (quadrants
within transects). Random sampling in the second stage is not
feasible because of underwater logistical constraints (Schwiegert
et al. 1985). In addition to the two-stage design, the survey is
stratified by five areas within PWS (southeast, northeast, North
Shore, Naked Island, and Montague Island) because of the geographic
separation of these areas and the potential for herring in these
areas to be discrete stocks.
Mean egg densities along each transect will be combined to estimate
an overall average egg density. The observed widths of the spawning
bed along each of the transects will be used to estimate the
average spawning bed width. The average width, average density, and
total spawning bed shoreline length will be used to estimate the
total number of eggs deposited in each of five area strata
established within PWS. Using the average fecundity and sex ratio
derived from the AWLS sampling portion of this project, the total
number of eggs deposited will be converted into population numbers
and biomass. Based on the variances obtained during the 1989 and
1990 surveys, 160 transects will be needed to insure that the
estimated biomass would have a 95% chance of being within 25% of
the true biomass. (161 and 160 transects were conducted in 1989
and 1990 and the resulting biomass estimates had a 95% chance of
being within 19% and 23%) .
Sampling Procedure:
The general locations of spawning activity will be derived from
visible milt observed in the water column during scheduled aerial
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surveys. This information will be compiled and summarized on maps
showing spawning locations and the number of days on which milt was
observed.
Using this information, skiff surveys will be conducted in season,
by members of the spawn deposition dive team, to verify the
accuracy of spawning area maps derived from aerial survey data.
Diving where herring have spawned is not recommended for at least
5 days after spawning activity has ceased because of water
visibility problems caused by milt and because large numbers of sea
lions are usually present.
The shoreline area containing herring spawn on the map, verified by
skiff survey, will be divided into the smallest segments resolvable
on the scale of the map (0.1 mile). A total of 160 of the shoreline
segments will be proportionally allocated to each of five major
areas (southeast, northeast, North Shore, Naked Island, and
Montague Island) based upon the number of miles of spawn in each
major area. For example, if the northeast area contains
approximately 25% of the spawn in all five areas, then 25% or 40 of
the 160 transects will be placed in the northeast area. Transects
will be selected at random from all of the spawn-containing
shoreline segments within each area. Each transect will be assigned
a number and its location drawn on waterproof field maps that can
be taken out in the dive skiff. The dive team leader will determine
the exact transect location within the randomly selected shoreline
segment by identifying a shoreline feature (tree, rock, cliff,
etc.) located above the high tide line as the dive skiff approaches
the shore, but before bottom profiles, bottom vegetation, or
herring spawn are visible from the skiff.
A 0.1 m2 quadrant constructed of PVC pipe will be used for the
sampling frame. A depth gauge and compass will be fastened to the
quadrant. Data will be recorded on pre-printed single matte mylar
forms attached to PVC clipboards, using a large weighted
carpenter's pencil attached to the clipboard. Normally the dive
team leader will make egg density estimates and record data while
the assistant diver sets and follows the compass course, measures
distances, and carries and places the quadrant.
Sampling along the transects will occur in the following manner:
1. A compass course perpendicular to the shoreline at the
transect location will be set on the compass attached to
the sampling quadrant.
2. The first quadrant will be placed within the first 5 m of
spawn by tossing the quadrant.
3. The lead diver will estimate and record the number of
eggs in the quadrant. The number of eggs is normally
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recorded in units of thousands. The vegetation type,
percent cover, substrate, and depth are also recorded.
4. The assistant diver will measure four complete 1 m hand-
spans offshore, along the compass course. Halfway through
the fifth hand-span, the assistant diver will gently toss
the quadrant ahead approximately one-half meter and allow
it to come to rest. The lead diver then makes another
estimate at the new quadrant location.
5. This process continues every 5 m until the apparent end
of the spawn is found. Divers will verify the end of the
spawn by swimming at least an additional 20 m past the
end of the spawn, unless a steep drop-off is encountered.
Data codes have been developed for the vegetation types and species
that are encountered in PWS. If more than one is present in the
quadrant sampled, the three most common are recorded on the data
forms. Percent cover is a simple estimate of the percentage of
plant cover that exists within the quadrant sampled (e.g., if half
the area is covered, the cover is 50%).
Approximately every fifth quadrant will be used as a special diver
calibration sample. Both divers will estimate the number of eggs in
the quadrant in a manner such that neither can see the other's
estimate. Divers will attempt to remove all egg-containing
vegetation and scrape eggs off rock substrate, placing the material
in numbered mesh bags. A sample size goal of 80 calibration samples
per diver was established, including 20 in each of four vegetation
categories (eelgrass, fucus, large brown kelp, hair kelp), based on
1988, 1989, and 1990 survey results. Calibration samples should
also be spread over a wide range of egg densities. The spawn
deposition project leader will track the number of samples
collected by each diver by vegetation group and density to ensure
that sufficient calibration samples are taken in each category.
Upon completing a dive shift, calibration sample material will be
removed from the numbered mesh bags and placed in Nalgene Ziploc
bags. Gilson's solution will be poured over the sample so that all
material is completely immersed. A label will be made for each
sample (preferably in pencil on mylar) containing the transect
number, both diver's estimates, date, and vegetation type. Five or
6 calibration sample bags can be stored in a 5 gallon plastic
bucket. Samples should not be stacked over one another to prevent
spilling and mixing. Procedures for the enumeration of the number
of eggs in each calibration sample are described, including the
formulas used to prepare Gilson's solution and the other chemicals
used for sample processing.
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Data Analysis:
Biomass Estimation
The 1991 spawn deposition survey will conform with the 1988-1990
spawn deposition surveys in PWS (Biggs and Funk 1988). The overall
biomass estimator is:
(T • B')
B = , (1)
(1 ~ R)
where,
B = estimated spawning biomass in tonnes,
T = estimated total number of eggs (billions) deposited in an
area,
B' = estimated tonnes of spawning biomass required to produce
one billion eggs, and
R = estimated proportion of eggs disappearing from the study
area from the time of spawning to the time of the survey
(egg loss).
The estimates for T and B' are derived from separate sampling
programs and are thus independent. Ignoring the unknown variability
in R, the estimated variance for the product of the independent
random variables T and B7, conditioned on R is:
[T2Var(B') + B'2Var(T) - Var (T)-Var(B')]
Var(BJR) = , (2)
(1-R)2
where,
Var(B') = an unbiased estimate of the variance of B', and
Var(T) = an unbiased estimate of the variance of T
(Goodman 1960).
The total number of eggs deposited in an area is estimated from a
two-stage sampling program with random sampling at the primary
stage, followed by systematic sampling at the secondary stage,
using a sampling design similar to that described by Schwiegert et
al. (1985). In computing variances based on the systematic second
stage samples it is assumed that eggs are randomly distributed in
spawning beds with respect to the 0.1 m2 sampling unit. While this
assumption was not examined, in practice the variance component
contributed by the second sampling stage was much smaller than that
contributed by the first stage, so that violations of this
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assumption would have little effect on the overall variance. The
total number of eggs (T), in billions, in an area is estimated as:
T = N • y • icr6 , (3)
where,
N = L/v'o.l = the total number of possible transects,
L = the shoreline length of the spawn-containing stratum
in meters,
Vo.l = 0.3162 m = width of transect strip,
y = average estimated total number of eggs (thousands)
per transect, and
10"6 = conversion from thousands to billions of eggs.
The average total number of eggs per transect strip (in thousands)
is estimated as the mean of the total eggs (in thousands) for each
transect strip using:
Z y;
Y= — , (4)
n
where,
Yi = average quadrant egg count in transect i (in thousands of
eggs) ,
i = transect number,
MI = Wj/v/0.1 = number of possible quadrants in transect i,
W; = transect length in meters, and
n = number of transects actually sampled.
The average quadrant egg count within ,a transect, ~y;, is computed
as:
y, - -^ - f (5)
nij
where ,
j = quadrant number within transect i,
m; = number of quadrants actually sampled in transect i, and
Yij = adjusted diver-estimated egg count (in thousands of
eggs) from the diver calibration model for quadrant j
in transect i.
The variance of T is similar to that given by Cochran (1963) for
three stage sampling with primary units of equal size, although in
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this case the expression is modified because the primary units
(transects) do not contain equal numbers of secondary units
(quadrants), and the variance term for the third stage comes from
the general linear model used in the diver calibration samples:
Var(T) = N2(10^)2[ — • Sl2 + ^—^ • s22 + —^-2- s32], (6)
n Snij Sitij
where,
n .
2 (^. - ^)
Sj2 = — = variance among transects,
n-1
n , "Ji *V'J ~ Yi)
s2 = S Mj s = variance among quadrants,
, n ni;
s3z = S s Var(yjj) = sum of the variances of the
1=13~1 individual predicted quadrant egg counts
from the diver calibration model,
n
fl - = proportion of possible transects sampled, and
N
f2 = = proportion of quadrants sampled within transects
Mj (same for all transects) .
Diver Calibration:
Diver observations of vegetation species will be aggregated into
four vegetation categories based on structural and phylogenetic
similarities of plants in the quadrant: eelgrass, fucus, hair kelp,
and large brown kelp. Diver estimates of egg numbers are
approximately proportional to laboratory-enumerated counts, but
systematic biases in the diver estimates can be accounted for by
vegetation type and density (Biggs and Funk 1988). Individual diver
effects were not significant in the 1988 and 1989 survey, but
potential differences among individual divers will be examined. The
basic form of models used to account for biases in diver
observations is:
a Dj Vk Bjk e
Yijk = e • e • e • Xijk • e , (7)
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where,
a = a constant,
Dj = parameters representing the effect of j* diver,
Vk = parameters representing the effect of the k*
vegetation type,
Bjk = parameters controlling the functional form of the
relationship between the diver estimate and laboratory-
enumerated egg count for diver j in vegetation type k,
Yjjk = the 1th laboratory egg count in the vegetation-diver
stratum jk,
Xijk = the i* diver estimate in vegetation-diver stratum jk,
and
e = a normally distributed random variable with mean 0 and
variance a2.
A multiplicative-effect model is chosen because relative estimation
errors are expected to change with egg density. The distribution of
laboratory-enumerated egg counts for a given diver estimate was
positively skewed in the 1988 and 1989 surveys (Biggs and Funk
1988, Biggs in press), so that the logarithmic transformation used
to estimate the parameters of the multiplicative-effect model also
stabilized the variance and corrected the skewness of the egg
density estimates. After a logarithmic transformation, model 7
becomes:
l°ge(Yijk) = a + Dj + Vk + jyioge(Xijk) + e (8)
where, 6jk = the slope of the relationship between the logarithm of
the diver estimate and the logarithm of the laboratory-enumerated
egg count.
In logarithmic form, the model comprises a linear analysis of
covariance problem with two factor effects (vegetation and diver)
and one covariate (diver-estimated egg number). The SAS Institute
Inc. (1987) procedure for general linear models will be used to
obtain least squares estimates of parameters and evaluate variance
components. In addition to the two factor effects and one
covariate, terms for diver-vegetation group interactions, density-
vegetation group interactions and density-diver interactions will
be considered in the analysis of covariance. Three-way and higher
level interaction effects will not be considered because the
objective is to derive a simple model with a relatively small
number of parameters. Backward stepwise procedures will be used to
determine subsets of the six effects that explain .the maximum
amount of variability in the data with the smallest number of
parameters. During the backward stepwise procedures, effects will
be included or eliminated from the model based on the probability
level of F ratios for partial sums of squares.
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Translation of the predicted values from the logarithmic model,
equation (8), back to the original scale, equation (7), requires a
correction for bias. The bias in the expected value of Yijk is
exp(%a2) when the true variance of Yijk, a2, is known. Laurent (1963)
gives an exact expression for the bias correction that incorporates
additional terms when a2 is estimated from a sample. For the diver
calibration data, the biases in estimating a2 from a sample were
less than 0.05% (Biggs and Funk 1988), so expected values for Yijk
are estimated from:
a DJ Vk Bj,, %s2
E(Yijk) = e e e Xijk e , (9)
where, s = the mean squared error from the general linear model.
The variance of individual predicted Yijk is estimated from:
(2Yijk + a2) a2
Var(Yijk) = [e ] • [e - 1] . (10)
Although the above expression is appropriate when a is known
(Laurent 1963), s is assumed to be an unbiased estimate of a for
the 1990 study since only a small bias was introduced into
estimates of the mean when s was used to estimate a in past years
(Biggs and Funk 1988).
Spawning Biomass per Billion Eggs (B')
Catch sampling programs will be used to estimate the relationship
between spawning biomass and egg deposition. The tonnes of spawning
biomass required to produce one billion eggs (B') will be estimated
as:
W • S
B' = —=— • 103 , (11)
F(Wf)
where,
W = estimated average weight in grams of all herring
(male and female) in the spawning population in an
area,
S = estimated ratio of total spawning numbers (male and
_ female) to female spawning numbers,
F(Wf) = estimated fecundity at the average weight of females
in the spawning population in an area, in numbers of
eggs, and
10"6 grams to tonnes
103 = conversion factor = = .
10"9 eggs to billions
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Estimates of average weight, sex ratios, and fecundities are not
independent. The variance of B' is approximately:
Var(B') = (103)2 { [S/F(Wf) ]2 Var(W)
+ [W/F(Wf) ]2 Var(S)
+ [WS/F(Wf)2]2 Var(F(Wf))
+ 2COV(W,S) [S/F(Wf)] [W/F(Wf)]
- 2Cov[W,F(Wf)] [S/F(Wf)] [WS/F(Wf)2]
- 2Cov[S,F(Wf)] [W/F(Wf)J [WS/F(Wf)2] }. (12)
The covariance terms containing S, Cov(W,S) and Cov[S,F(Wf) ], will
not be included in the estimate for 1990. These terms were not
included in the estimate of Var(B') in 1988, 1989, and 1990 because
S was estimated from either the same pooled AWL samples or from a
single AWL sample. However, Cov(W,S) and Cov[S,F(Wf)] probably
contribute a small amount to Var(B') since the term involving
Cov[W,F(Wf)] was very small in 1988, 1989, and 1990.
Correction for Egg Loss:
The only component needed for the biomass estimate that has not
been estimated within the present study is egg loss (the proportion
of eggs disappearing from spawning areas between the time of
spawning and the time of surveys) . Before the extensive use of
SCUBA diving to survey herring egg deposition, estimates of egg
loss were considered to be relatively high. Montgomery (1958)
estimated that egg loss was 25 to 40% for southeast Alaska, and
Blankenbeckler and Larson (1987) used similar estimates in their
early egg deposition surveys in southeast Alaska. However, Haegele
et al. (1981), conducting diving surveys in British Columbia,
argued that egg loss was only about 10%. They based this assumption
on the fact that most spawn was deposited in the subtidal zone
where egg loss, primarily due to predation and wave loss, was
probably less than had been observed in the intertidal zone.
Presently, egg loss is assumed to be 10% in British Columbia,
southeast Alaska and PWS since the timing of diving surveys in
relation to spawning has been standardized among these areas (W.
Blankenbeckler, ADF&G, Ketchican, pers. comm.; Biggs and Funk
1988).
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Herring Age, Weight, Length, Growth and Fecundity Estimation
Mean Weight and Sex Ratio:
Mean weight and sex ratio will be estimated from AWLS samples
collected from the commercial catch and ADF&G test fishing
conducted before or after commercial openings. AWLS samples will be
collected from the spawning population in each of the spawn
deposition summary areas (southeast, Valdez Arm, North Shore, Naked
Island, and Montague Island). The approximate timing of peak
herring spawning in each summary area will be determined from
aerial survey sightings of milt and herring schools. All herring
AWLS samples taken during the time of peak spawning in each area
will be pooled to obtain estimates of mean weight and sex ratio for
each summary area. Mean weights and sex ratios for all of PWS will
be estimated as the average of the estimates from each of the areas
weighing by the spawn deposition biomass estimate in each area.
The estimated sex ratio, S, is expressed as the ratio of the number
of herring of both sexes in the AWL samples to the number of
females. The binomial distribution will be used to estimate the
proportion of females, p, in samples, where S = 1/p. The variance
of S is then given by:
S2(S-1)
Var(S) = , (13)
n
where, n is the number of herring in the AWL sample.
Commercial and test fishing catches will be sampled for AWLS,
fecundity, and roe maturity information. These data will be used to
estimate spawning biomass and spawn deposition, forecast herring
returns, and evaluate effects of the oil spill on survival.
Information on fecundity, mean weight of females, and sex ratio are
also important components of the spawn deposition biomass
estimator. AWLS sampling will be intensified in 1991 to increase
the precision of biomass estimates and, therefore, enhance the
possibility of detecting oil spill impacts upon herring stocks.
Sampling will begin as soon as concentrations of herring appear in
nearshore areas that can be sampled with purse seine gear. Efforts
will be made to sample major concentrations of herring throughout
PWS at periodic intervals throughout the spawning period. The major
objective of this portion of the study will be to determine the
age, sex, and size composition of all major herring concentrations
in the general areas including southeast area, northeast area,
North Shore area, Naked Island, and Montague Island. Results of the
aerial survey program will be used to direct test fishing efforts
within each area.
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Each week during the sampling period, early April through early
May, six to eight samples of herring will be collected through test
fishing or from the commercial catch. A sample of 403 herring is
needed to simultaneously estimate the proportion of at age of a
multinomial population such that 95% of the time the estimated
proportions will be within ± 10% of the true proportions (Thompson
1987). Therefore, efforts will be made to obtain samples consisting
of approximately 450 herring to allow for the occurrence of
unreadable scales (usually less than 5% of the sample). Herring
samples will be flown from the fishing grounds each day to Cordova
for processing. Augmentation of the standard AWL sampling program
will be needed to collect sufficient samples for hydrocarbon
analyses, fecundity estimates, and oocyte loss measurements. All
AWL data will be collected using personnel and funding from the
standard (i.e. non-oil spill related) AWL sampling program
conducted by ADF&G within PWS.
The following data will be collected for each herring sampled:
1. sex (determined by examination of gonads);
2. standard length (in mm);
3. weight (in grams);
4. age (determined by examination of scales);
5. capture information (date of capture, fishing district,
subdistrict, local name for the location, fishing vessel
name, gear type);
6. herring number on data form; and
7. data form number.
Fecundity:
Additionally, a subsample of herring will be collected to estimate
fecundity. The average fecundity at the average female weight
(F(Wf)) from expression (11) is a component of the spawn deposition
survey biomass estimator. The spawn deposition survey attempts to
estimate spawning biomass so that the 95% confidence interval is
within ± 25% of the actual biomass estimate. If fecundity sampling
is to contribute no more than 1% to the confidence interval width,
a sample of 85 females of exactly the average weight of females in
the spawning population is needed. Since average female weight is
unknown at the time of sampling, more herring must be sampled over
a range of sizes. Based on the precision of 1989 fecundity
sampling, a sample size of 130 herring would be needed to provide
the desired level of precision. An additional 100 samples
clustered around the mean size of females in 1991 will be taken to
compare with the past year's data. The mean weight of a female in
the fecundity sample in 1990 was 131 grams. The predicted average
weight for the population in 1990 is 155 grams, which translates to
an average predicted length of 230 to 240 mm. Therefore, sampling
clustered about the 220 mm to 240 mm length classes is desirable.
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Effects of the oil spill on fecundity will also be examined by
testing for differences in fecundity among five areas: (l)
southeast shore including Simpson and Sheep Bays, Port Gravina, and
Port Fidalgo; (2) northeast shore including Valdez Arm and Tatitlek
Narrows; (3) North Shore; (4) Naked Island; and (5) Montague
Island. While extensive mortality of adult herring from the oil
spill has not been documented, it is possible that sublethal
stresses could result in reduced fecundity.
Herring fecundity samples will be collected concurrently with AWL
samples. To accomplish this, at least five individual test purse
samples will be subsampled. Females within these purse seine
samples will be randomly selected within 10 mm length classes until
stratum goals are reached. The roe sacs from each selected female
herring will be removed and placed in a Ziploc bag labeled with the
AWL number corresponding to that female. Each individually packaged
roe sample will then be placed in a larger plastic bag labeled with
the sample date and location. Standard laboratory procedures have
been developed to process fecundity samples.
Samples for hydrocarbon analyses will also be obtained from herring
collected at each of the four locations (Naked Island, Galena Bay,
Cedar Bay, and Stockdale Harbor):
1. three gut samples for hydrocarbons;
2. three viscera samples for hydrocarbons;
3. three muscle samples for hydrocarbons; and
4. three gonad samples for hydrocarbons.
General observations on the prevalence of nematodes, liver and gall
bladder condition, and fullness of gut will also be made for each
herring collected for hydrocarbon analyses. Standard protocol,
including sample sizes and collection strata, for collecting
herring eggs for hydrocarbon analyses will be followed.
In addition to the 500 ovaries collected for fecundity analysis, 50
ovaries will be collected and preserved in a buffered formalin
solution for oocyte loss measurements. An additional 25 preserved
ovaries will be obtained from Sitka Sound, southeast Alaska, for
use as a control. Atretic eggs and histopathological damage in the
sac roe of the adult herring will be recorded during oocyte loss
observations.
A linear relationship was found between fecundity and weight for
herring samples collected in 1988, 1989, and 1990 (Biggs and Funk
1988). In 1991, the fecundity-weight relationship will again be
examined using data pooled across all areas. Average fecundity for
each area will be estimated from the fecundity-weight relationship
using the average female weight from each area. The average
fecundity for each area will_ then be applied to the spawn
deposition biomass estimator (F(Wf) in expression (11) . The variance
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of estimated average fecundities will be approximated using the
variance of predicted means from the fecundity-weight linear
regression (Draper and Smith 1981) :
=s,[_ + _ + «— ,]• (14)
2
where,
s2 = residual mean square from the fecundity-weight
_ linear regression,
Wf = average weight of female fish in the spawning
population,
WF = average weight of females in the fecundity sample,
W; = weight of individual females in the fecundity sample,
n = total number of females in the fecundity sample, and
q = total number of females in the AWL sample.
General Linear Model (GLM) extensions of linear ANOVA techniques
will be used to test for year and area effects in growth and
fecundity.
Egg Survival Study:
Oil contamination of herring spawning sites and exposure of
spawning herring to oil may cause mortality to herring eggs,
decrease hatching success, reduce larval viability, and impair
larval growth. The major objective of this portion of the study
will be to measure immediate, easily observable mortality of
herring eggs in a subsample of the sites used in 1989. In 1991,
nine sites will be used to conduct the egg loss study, collect
hydrocarbon samples, collect live eggs for the laboratory portion
of the study, and gather samples for sublethal impact testing.
Three study transects will be re-established in each of three areas
used during 1989 and 1990 (assuming those areas receive spawn in
1991): Naked Island, Fairmont Bay, and Rocky Bay on north Montague
Island. The ratio of live to dead eggs will be determined along
each transect from subsamples of 100 eggs. Dead eggs turn an opaque
white color and are easily identified with low power magnification
under a binocular microscope. Mussel tissue samples will also be
collected for hydrocarbon analysis.
Divers will establish the location of mean lower low water (MLLW)
at the start of each dive. Each dive team will attempt to sample
three transects each day. Each transect will be sampled every two
days until most herring eggs have hatched (about 20 May). A total
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of twelve to sixteen dives will be made along each transect over
the course of egg development.
The location of each transect will be marked. Divers will work
along transects by following a compass course set perpendicular to
shore. During the first dive, five sample stations at the +1, 0, -
5, -15, and -30 foot depths will be marked underwater with weighted
floats anchored by a spike. Station depths, corrected for tide
stage, will be determined using diver's depth gauges. Three samples
of vegetation containing at least 100 eggs will be collected at
each depth along the transect whenever possible.
The following data will be recorded the first time each transect is
sampled:
1. transect number;
2. site description (location, exposure, plant community);
3. number of depth strata from which herring eggs were
obtained; and,
4. original treatment category (high, medium, low, or no
oil-impact).
The following data will be recorded every time each transect is
sampled:
1. transect number and location;
2. date;
3. dive time;
4. treatment level;
5. air and water temperature;
6. maximum depth; and,
7. number of live, dead, and other eggs per sample.
Herring eggs and mussels will be collected at each site for
hydrocarbon analysis on the first day. Three samples each of eggs
and mussels (six per transect) will be collected from each sampling
location, including the three control sites in Sitka Sound, at the
lowest tide stage at which mussels occur (usually about 5 ft below
MLLW). Collection methods will follow established protocol,
including chain of custody forms.
During one of the sampling trips to each transect, herring eggs and
associated vegetation will be collected for the laboratory
incubation project. Herring eggs will be collected at nine sites
within PWS and three sites within Sitka Sound. At each site, three
samples of vegetation containing at least 300 eggs will be
collected at three depths (MLLW, -5 ft, and -15).
Herring eggs will also be collected and preserved in a phosphate
buffered formalin solution, using seawater, for biochemical
analysis. Results of these analyses may help determine the extent
of oil exposure from determination of sublethal effects.
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Finally, herring egg samples will be collected from each of the 12
study sites for cytogenetic analysis. Ten egg patches consisting of
approximately 1000 eggs each (5 ml) will be preserved in a buffered
formalin solution from each study site (i.e. a total of 120
samples) . A subsample of eggs will be taken from each sample jar
and analyzed for mitotic aberrations in the embryonic and yolk
cells. Detailed methodology will be provided by the lab contracted
to perform the service.
Egg survival data will be summarized by level of hydrocarbon
impact, transect, depth, date of sample collection, and proportion
of live eggs. Several different analyses will be conducted to test
for differences in egg survival due to the level or amount of oil.
The first analysis will be a nested mixed factor ANOVA
incorporating all possible factors and interaction effects like:
Yijkl = u + AJ + Bj(Ai) + Ck + D, + ACfc + ADU + CDU + ACD^ + eijkl, (15)
where ,
Yijkl = the arc sin transformed proportion of live eggs,
u = grand mean,
A; = oil impact level (treatment; fixed effect) ,
Bj = transect (random effect; nested within treatment) ,
Ck = depth (fixed effect) ,
D, = time interval (days) between spawning and sample
collection (random effect) ,
AClk + ADa + CDU + ACDju = interaction terms, and
eijkl = error terms, which, after arcsine transformation are
assumed to be normally distributed with mean 0 and
variance a2 .
The second analysis will be an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
where both treatment (A;) and time (D]) will be treated as
covariates. Treatment and depth will be treated as fixed effects,
while transect (nested within treatments) and time will be treated
as random effects. This model will describe the decrease in the
proportion of live eggs over time, using time as a covariate, and
will reduce the number of parameters that must be estimated for the
model.
Egg Loss Study:
Egg loss is the only component of the spawn deposition biomass
estimator that has not been measured. In the past, a 10% egg loss
factor was applied to all transect data to adjust the total spawned
biomass estimate. In 1990 a preliminary egg loss study was
conducted in conjunction with the egg survival study to determine
whether the 10% egg loss factor is appropriate for use at PWS study
locations. The egg loss study will be continued in 1991.
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The same three transects used in each of three areas for the egg
survival study will be used in the egg loss study: Naked Island,
Fairmont Bay, and Rocky Bay on north Montague Island. Egg loss will
be estimated by observing changes in egg density over time at these
locations.
To avoid sampler bias in selecting samples a marked leadline, 20 m
or less in length, will be used to select samples. The leadline
will be placed parallel to shore and to the left of each transect
station. Egg density estimates will be taken within 0.1 m2 sample
quadrants using the same procedures described for spawn deposition
diver transects. For each transect, five egg density estimates will
be made at each of five depths (+1, 0, -5,-15,-30 ft depths).
Divers making egg density estimates for the egg loss study will be
calibrated in a similar manner used for divers assisting in spawn
deposition surveys. One egg count calibration sample will be
collected at each transect and at each depth level. For the
calibration sample, all herring eggs and vegetation will be removed
from a 0.1 m2 sample quadrant. Counts of eggs within the
calibration sample will be made in the laboratory at a later time.
Egg density estimates and egg counts will be conducted every other
day from the time of spawning in each area until the time of
hatching (a period of approximately 20-25 days). It should be
possible to obtain egg density estimates and egg counts for about
eight days during the study. This would result in a total of
approximately 1,800 egg density estimates (three areas; 3 transects
per area; five depths per transect; five egg density estimates per
depth; eight days) and 540 egg counts (three areas; three transects
per area; five depths per transect; one egg count per depth; eight
days) for the season.
Egg loss data will be summarized by area, transect, depth, date of
sample collection, and estimated egg density. Egg density estimates
will be adjusted for observer (diver) biases, following procedures
set forth for diver calibration in the spawn deposition survey,
prior to analyses. The change in egg density over time for each
transect and depth will be examined.
Egg Incubation Experiment:
A much smaller laboratory egg incubation experiment will be carried
out by a private consultant contracted by ADF&G. This experiment
will estimate the survival of herring eggs and larvae collected in
PWS in 1991. The preliminary results of the 1989 and 1990 egg
incubation experiment can be found in McGurk et al. (1990).
The objective of the 1991 experiment is to replicate the experiment
done in 1989 and 1990 but on a much smaller scale. The eggs and
larvae will be reared under the same conditions as they were in
1989 and 1990. The eggs and herring collected during this
experiment will be sent to another independent contractor for
sublethal testing. The results from the sublethal testing will
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allow us to compare sublethal effects in 1989, 1990, and 1991 under
the same laboratory conditions.
Oil Exposure Study (Dose-Response):
The major addition to the 1991 herring study is an oil exposure
study that will measure the effects of oil exposure on herring eggs
and larvae.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biggs, E.D., and F. Funk. 1988. Pacific herring spawning ground
surveys for Prince William Sound, 1988, with historic
overview. Regional Information Report 2C88-07, Alaska
Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, 73 p.
Blankenbeckler, W.D. and R. Larson. 1982. Pacific herring (Clupea
harengus pallasi) spawning ground research in southeastern
Alaska, 1978, 1979, and 1980. Alaska Department of Fish and
Game Technical Report No. 69. 51 p.
Blankenbeckler, W.D. and R. Larson. 1987. Pacific herring (Clupea
harengus pallasi) harvest statistics, hydroacoustical surveys,
age, weight, and length analysis, and spawning ground surveys
for southeastern Alaska, 1980-1983. Alaska Department of Fish
and Game Technical Data Report No. 202. 121 p.
Cochran, W.G. 1963. Sampling techniques. John Wiley and Sons, New
York.
Draper, N.R. and H. Smith. 1981. Applied regression analysis. John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
Goodman, L.A. 1960. On the exact variance of products. J. of
the Amer. Stat. Assoc. 55:708-713.
Haegele, C.W., R.D. Humphreys, and A.S. Hourston. 1981.
Distribution of eggs by depth and vegetation type in Pacific
herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) spawnings in southern
British Columbia. Can. J. of Fish. Aquat. Sci. 38:381-386.
Jackson, M. and R.C. Randall. 1983. Herring spawn deposition
surveys in Prince William Sound, 1983. Alaska Department of
Fish and Game, Prince William Sound Data Report No. 83-6. 15p.
Jackson, M. and R.C. Randall. 1984. Herring spawn deposition
surveys, Prince William Sound, 1984. Alaska Department of
Fish and Game, Prince William Sound Data Report 84-16. 15 p.
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Laurent, A.G. 1963. Lognormal distribution and the translation
method: description and estimation problems. J. of the Amer.
Stat. Assoc. 58:231-235.
McGurk, M., D. Warbuton, T. Parker, and M. Litke. 1990. Early life
history of Pacific herring: 1989 Prince William Sound herring
egg incubation experiment. Final Report prepared for NOAA,
National Ocean Service/OMA/OAD. Triton Enviromental
Consultants Ltd., Richmond, B.C., Canada. 73 p.
Montgomery, D.T. 1958. Herring spawning surveys in southeastern
Alaska. United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries, Marine Fisheries Investigations Field
Operations Report. 22 p.
SAS Institute Inc. 1987. SAS/STAT Guide for personal computers,
version 6 edition. SAS Institute, Gary, North Carolina.
Schweigert, J.F., C.W. Haegele, and M. Stocker. 1985. Optimizing
sampling design for herring spawn surveys on the Strait of
Georgia, B.C. Can. J. of Fish, and Aquat. Sci. 42:1806-1814.
Thompson, S.K. 1987. Sample size for estimating multinomial
proportions. The American Statistician 41:42-46.
BUDGET
Salaries $ 238.5
Travel 5.5
Contracts 299.3
Supplies 9.7
Equipment 5.0
Total $ 558.0
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 13
Study Title: Effects of Hydrocarbons on Bivalves
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
Bivalve mollusks are an important component of the food chain,
existing as prey for bear and sea otters, and support subsistence
and sport fisheries in PWS. Because they are relatively sedentary
and occupy nearshore areas, bivalves may be particularly
susceptible to contamination by oil. Bivalves metabolize
hydrocarbons at a slow rate and are therefore likely to
bioaccumulate hydrocarbons. It is hypothesized that increased
hydrocarbons in nearshore sediments could affect bivalves for a
long period of time by increasing mortality, decreasing growth, or
causing sublethal injuries. The effects of oil on the growth and
survival of littleneck clams (Protothaca staminea) in particular
and other bivalves in general have been well documented (Anderson
et al. 1982; Anderson et al. 1983; Augenfeld et al. 1980; Dow 1975;
Dow 1978; Keck et al. 1978).
This study is a continuation of work which was conducted during
1989 and 1990. During 1991 field work will be conducted only in
PWS. Clam aging, data entry and analysis from 1989 and 1990 will
continue.
OBJECTIVES
A. Test if the level of hydrocarbons in bivalves and in sediments
is not related to the level of oil contamination of a beach.
B. Document the presence and type of damage to tissues and vital
organs of bivalves sampled from beaches such that differences
of ± 5% can be determined between impact levels 95% of the
time.
C. Test if the growth rate of littleneck clams is the same at
beaches of no oil impact, intermediate or high levels of oil
impact.
D. Identify potential alternative methods and strategies for
restoration of lost use, populations, or habitat where injury
is identified.
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METHODS
The 1991 field portion of this study will be conducted by the
ADF&G. Field work will be limited to a reciprocal transplant
involving littleneck clams. A similar transplant study was
conducted in 1990. During April 1991, clams will be tagged and
transplanted between the same oiled and unoiled sites utilized in
1990. These sites are located in the vicinity of bear and sea
otter habitat.
Six study sites for littleneck clams in PWS representing two levels
of oil contamination (no contamination and intermediate or high
contamination) will be sampled.
For each sample site, the following site description information
will be recorded: site orientation (N-NW etc.), latitude,
longitude, low tide height, temperature and salinity of the water,
weather and wave action. Temperature and salinity of the water
will be measured at a distance of approximately 5 m offshore from
the sampled beach at the daily low slack tide.
To quantify oil impacts on clam growth and to discount site
effects, littleneck clams will be transplanted from oiled to
unoiled areas and from unoiled to oiled areas. Three oiled beaches
and three unoiled beaches were chosen for this purpose. Criteria
for selecting paired oiled/unoiled beaches, to the extent possible,
will include similarity in profile, drainage and length-frequency
distribution of bivalves.
Two tidal heights will be utilized, each of which has an adequate
number of specimens at paired beaches. Clams will be transplanted
to the same tidal height from which they originated. At each tidal
height, three stations will be established creating triplicate
sampling stations at each height. Each location will consist of
three adjacent clearly marked 0.25 m2 plots. One plot will be
marked, but will not be disturbed until clams are sampled for
growth. Another plot will be dug to a depth of 0.3 m and all of
the removed clams and sediment will be replaced in the plot. Clams
from this plot will have a small notch filed into the ventral edge
of the valves to mark the time of disturbance. All clams will be
removed from the third plot which will be dug to a depth of 0.3 m
and the transplanted clams will be placed in this plot along with
the original sediment.
Clams to be transplanted will be obtained by digging a trench along
the prescribed tidal height of the donor beach until 150 clams
between 15 mm and 35 mm in length have been collected. Fifteen
millimeters is considered to be the smallest size which can
effectively be tagged. Clams less than 35 mm are selected to
narrow the range of ages for which differences in growth are being
determined and because the maximum growth rate appears to occur
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within this size range. A sample of 50 specimens from each of
three plots will provide 150 samples from each tidal height at each
beach and 450 clams for each tidal height and level of beach
impact. Sample size for growth is based on the difference between
mean shell height for age i and age i+1 clams, variance in shell
height for age i+1 clams, probability of making a type I error
equal to 0.01 and probability of making a type II error equal to
0.05 (Netter and Wasserman 1985). The sample size was determined
after comparing data for mean shell height and variance in shell
height taken from Paul and Feder (1973) and Nickerson (1977) . The
sample size for detecting between impact level differences in
growth at age of clams in the size range of 15 mm to 35 mm was
estimated at 133 clams from the Paul and Feder data and at 85 clams
from the Nickerson data for each impact level. The higher estimate
was rounded up to 150 clams by including the next smaller size
group (age 5-6). The purpose of 3 sites for each impact level is
to provide replicates at each impact level.
Transplanted clams will be identified by marking each clam with a
numbered Floy tag secured with a quick-drying adhesive. All marked
clams will have a small notch filed into the ventral edge of the
valves to mark the time of transplantation. Individual clams will
be measured at the beginning and end of the experiment. In
September of 1991, near the end of the growing season, clams will
be removed from each of the plots described above and analyzed for
growth. Wet and dry weights of clams will also be recorded so that
clam condition can be compared in terms of a weight to length
ratio. Hydrocarbon and histopathology samples will be taken during
the experiment.
A total of six sediment samples will be collected from each site
for hydrocarbon analysis. The triplicate sediment samples from
each tide height will be composite samples which will be collected
by scooping one tablespoon of sediment to a depth of 2 to 3 cm from
each of the nine sample quadrates at a tide height. The small
subsamples of sediment taken from each sampling quadrate will
provide a representative mixture of sediment composition and
contamination along the tide height.
Two hydrocarbon tissue samples will be obtained from each sampling
station. Each hydrocarbon sample will be composed of 10 to 20
clams. Specimens with a shell length of 2 - 5 cm will be collected
from the donor beach concurrent with the collection of clams for
tagging to form a hydrocarbon sample at the time of
transplantation. During transplantation 10 to 20 additional clams
will be collected from the donor beach for placement with tagged
clams in quadrate "A" at each sample station. These clams will
comprise the hydrocarbon sample during fall recovery.
Combined tissue samples from each sampling station will provide a
representative mixture of bivalve tissue composition and
contamination across the site. The desired size of each composite
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tissue sample is 15 grams. The number of bivalves to provide this
sample from each transect was estimated based on the average size
of individuals of each species.
Collection of specimens for necropsy will begin after all
hydrocarbon samples have been taken. Total sample size is 20 live
or moribund specimens taken at random from each beach site.
Noticeable numbers of moribund animals will be documented and
sampled separately.
To address Objective A (hydrocarbons in sediments and bivalve
tissues) , an ANOVA will be used to test for differences in
hydrocarbon content in sediment between sites. Differences in
sediment hydrocarbon content will verify that control sites (areas
of no oil impact) are in fact "controls". These differences will
also permit post-stratification of sample sites according to level
of impact. An analysis of variance will be performed on the
hydrocarbon content of clam samples among sites. The results of
this test will be related to the level of sediment impact.
Objective B will be met through ANOVA contingent upon the
processing of necropsy samples. These samples will be processed if
hydrocarbon analysis is positive.
To provide baseline (pre-impact) information on variance in growth
at age among sites, an analysis of variance on growth parameters
from clams taken during 1989 between areas will be conducted.
Growth parameters will be determined for various growth curves,
such as Gompertz, von Bertalanffy, or polynomial equations. Growth
parameters will be presented for the most appropriate growth models
only. A similar ANOVA will be conducted on growth parameters from
clams taken during 1990 between areas. Those beach sites which are
resampled in 1990 will be subjected to an analysis of variance on
growth parameters obtained from fitting algorithms for clam growth
after impact (1990 and beyond) and will be compared to growth
parameters for clam growth prior to impact (approximately 1979-
1989) to resolve impact of oil contamination on growth (Objective
C). Graphics will be used to display differences in growth among
areas over time, including growth curves (size at age) and growth
increment at age by year for each beach.
To address Objective D, all data will be analyzed to determine
degree of damage to stocks. Appropriate suggestions will be made
for restoration or mitigation measures. This may include
restrictions on human usage to reduce exposure to carcinogenic
levels of hydrocarbons or to protect threatened clam populations.
Other actions may include the need for continued monitoring of
stocks.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, J.W., R.G. Riley, S.L. Kiesser, B.L. Thomas, and G.W.
Fellingham. 1983. Natural weathering of oil in marine
sediments: tissue contamination and growth of the littleneck
clam, Prototheca staminea. Can. J. of Fish, and Aquat. Sci. 40
(Suppl. 2):70-77.
Anderson, J.W., J.R. Vanderhorst, S.L. Kiesser, M.L. Fleishmann,
and G.W. Fellingham. 1982. Recommended methods for testing the
fate and effects of dispersed oil in marine sediments. In Tom
E. Allen (ed.), Oil spill chemical dispersants: research,
experience, and recommendations. ASTM Special Technical
Publication 840. Philadelphia, Pa. p. 224-238.
Augenfeld, J.M., J.W. Anderson, D.L. Woodruff, and J.L. Webster.
1980. Effects of Prudhoe Bay crude oil-contaminated sediments
on Protothaca staminea (Mollusca:Pelecypoda): hydrocarbon
content, condition index, free amino acid level. Marine
Environmental Research. 4(1980-81):135-143.
Dow, R.L. 1975. Reduced growth and survival of clams transplanted
to an oil spill site. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 6(8):124-125.
Dow, R.L. 1978. Size-selective mortalities of clams in an oil spill
site. Mar. Poll. Bull. 9(2):45-48.
Keck, R.T., R.C. Heess, J. Wehmiller, and D. Maurer. 1978.
Sublethal effects of the water-soluble fraction of nigerian
Crude Oil on the Juvenile Hard Clams, Mercenaria (Linne).
Environmental Pollution. 15:109-119.
Neter, J., W. Wasserman, and M. Kutner. 1985. Applied Linear
Statistical Models. Richard D. Irwin, Homewood Illinois.
Nickerson, R.B. 1977. A Study of the littleneck clam Prototheca
staminea (Conrad) and the butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus
(Deshayes) in a habitat permitting coexistence, Prince William
Sound, Alaska. Proceedings of the National Shellfisheries
Association. 67:85-102.
Paul, A.J. and H.M. Feder. 1973. Growth, recruitment, and
distribution of the littleneck clam, Protothaca staminea in
Galena Bay, Prince William Sound, Alaska. Fish. Bull.
71(3):665-677.
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BUDGET
Salaries $ 88.0
Travel 5.0
Contracts 50.0
Supplies 2.0
Equipment 2.0
Total $ 147.0
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 27
Study Title: Sockeye Salmon Overescapement
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
Commercial fishing for sockeye salmon in 1989, was curtailed in
upper Cook Inlet (CI) , the outer Chignik districts, and the Kodiak
areas due to presence of oil in the fishing areas from the EVOS.
As a result, the number of sockeye salmon entering four important
sockeye producing systems (Kenai/Skilak, Chignik/Black, Red, and
Frazer Lakes) and two less important lake systems (Akalura and
Afognak or Litnik lakes) greatly exceeded levels that are thought
to be most productive. Sockeye salmon spawn in lake-associated
river systems. Adult salmon serve an extremely important role in
the ecosystem, providing food for marine mammals, terrestrial
mammals, and birds. Additionally, carcass decomposition serves to
charge freshwater lake systems with important nutrients. Juvenile
salmon which rear in lakes for one or two years serve as a food
source for a variety of fish, birds and mammals. Sockeye salmon
are also an important subsistence, sport, and commercial species.
The ex-vessel value of the commercial catch of sockeye from these
lake systems has averaged about $42 million per year since 1979,
with the 1988 catch worth $115 million. Sockeye salmon returns to
the Kenai River system support some of the largest recreational
fisheries in the State.
Overly large spawning escapements may result in poor returns by
producing more rearing juvenile sockeye than can be supported by
the nursery lake's productivity (Kyle et al. 1988). In general,
when rearing fish abundance greatly exceeds the lake's carrying
capacity, prey resources are altered by changes in species and size
composition (Mills and Schiavone 1982; Koenings and Burkett 1987;
Kyle et al. 1988) with concomitant effects on all trophic levels
(Carpenter et al. 1985). Because of such changes, juvenile sockeye
growth is reduced, mortality increases, larger percentages holdover
for another year of rearing, and the poor quality of smolts
increases marine mortality. Where escapements are two to three
times normal levels, the resulting high juvenile densities crop the
prey resources to the extent that more than one year is required to
return to normal productivity. Rearing juveniles from subsequent
brood-years suffer from both the poor quality of forage and from
the increased competition for food by holdover juveniles (Townsend
1989). This is the brood-year interaction underlying cyclic
variation in the year class strength of anadromous fish.
This project will examine the effects of large 1989 spawning
escapements on the resulting progeny for a select subset of the
above mentioned sockeye nursery lakes. Three impacted lake systems
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where the 1989 escapements were more than twice the desired levels
(Kenai/Skilak in Upper CI; Red and Akalura lakes on Kodiak Island)
were selected. Upper Station Lake which is near the two impacted
lakes on Kodiak did not receive a large escapement and will be
examined as a control.
This study is necessary to obtain a more timely assessment of
impact, as adult sockeye produced from the 1989 escapement will not
return until the 1994/1995 season. Further, total return data are
not available for individual Kodiak sockeye systems due to the
complex mixed-stock nature of the commercial fisheries and the
inability to estimate stock-specific catches.
OBJECTIVES
A. Estimate the number, age, and size of sockeye salmon juveniles
rearing in selected freshwater systems.
B. Estimate the number, age, and size of sockeye salmon smolts
migrating from selected freshwater systems.
C. Determine effects of large escapements resulting from fishery
closures caused by the EVOS on the rearing capacity of
selected nursery lakes through:
1. analysis of age and growth of juveniles and smolts
2. examination of nursery area nutrient budgets and plankton
populations.
METHODS
Numbers of adult sockeye salmon that entered selected spawning
systems outside PWS prior to and during 1989 have been estimated at
weir stations or by sonar. This information was collected during
projects routinely conducted by the ADF&G as part of their resource
management program. Optimal escapement levels, which on the
average should produce maximum sustained yield, have been based on
either past relationships between spawners and returning progeny or
the extent of available spawning and rearing habitat. The baseline
program will continue at each site, including but not limited to
estimates of adult sockeye escapement and collection of scales for
age analysis.
For each of the 4 lake systems identified, the response (abundance,
growth, and freshwater age) of rearing juveniles from the 1989
escapement will be studied through its likely period of freshwater
residence, early summer 1990 to spring 1992.
The total number of juvenile sockeye in each lake will be estimated
through hydroacoustic surveys conducted during the summer (late
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June) and fall (September-October) of 1990, 1991, and possibly
1992. Age and size information as well as diet items will be
obtained from samples of juvenile sockeye collected from concurrent
mid-water trawl netting surveys. Survey transect designs for
hydroacoustic sampling and tow-netting have been established for
Kenai and Skilak lakes (Tarbox and King 1989) , and will be
developed for each additional lake in the study. The basic survey
design will be a stratified random sample where each lake is
subdivided into areas and survey transects randomly selected in
each area. Such programs, funded through other studies, are
already in place for Tustumena and Afognak lakes. Depending on
densities of rearing juvenile sockeye, estimates of fish densities
will be made for each transect either by echo integration or by
echo counting. Total fish population estimates will be computed,
by summing transect populations, along with 95% confidence
intervals (Kyle 1989).
Freshwater growth and age of sockeye salmon rearing juveniles from
all study systems will be determined from scale and otolith
measurements made either by direct visual analysis of scales or on
an Optical Pattern Recognition system. In cases where data are
available (e.g., Kenai and Skilak Lakes), growth of progeny from
the 1989 spawning escapements will be compared with growth (size)
of progeny produced from spawnings within these systems during
prior years.
The total number of smolt migrating from each system will be
estimated with a mark-recapture study during 1990, 1991, and
possibly 1992 using inclined plane traps after Kyle (1983), and
Tarbox and King (1989) . Smolt will be captured in traps, sampled
for age and size information, marked with Bismark Brown Y (a
biological dye) , and transported upstream of the traps and released
for subsequent recapture (Rawson 1984). Periodic retesting will
determine the capture efficiency of the traps under changing river
conditions during the spring. Total population estimates (with 95%
confidence intervals) will be made using catch efficiencies.
Weekly number weighted smolt size and age information will be
calculated using a computer spreadsheet developed by Rawson (per.
comm. 1985) . Size and ages of sockeye smolts from the 1989
spawning escapements will be compared with smolt information from
spawnings within these systems during prior years. Finally, smolt
programs consistent to those for the study lakes are planned, under
separate funding, for Tustumena and Afognak Lakes.
Limnological studies will monitor the response of the lakes to the
high juvenile rearing densities and to estimate the carrying
capacity parameters of euphotic volume, nutrient budgets (carcass
enrichment), and zooplankton biomass, body-sizes, and population
shifts. Approximately six limnology surveys will be conducted at
two stations, during 1990, 1991, and possibly 1992, to determine
zooplankton species abundance and body-sizes, nutrient chemistry,
and phytoplankton abundance for Kenai/Skilak, Red, Akalura, and
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Upper Station lakes. Carrying-capacity parameters exist for
Afognak and Tustumena lakes based on ongoing studies by ADF&G FRED
and Commercial Fisheries Divisions.
In cases where seasonal data are available (e.g., Akalura, Kenai,
and Skilak lakes), limnological parameters taken during residence
of the juveniles from the 1989 spawning escapements will be
compared to parameters within these systems during prior years.
The holistic approach proposed here involves several evaluation
procedures to assess the effects of sockeye salmon overescapement.
First, freshwater production from the 1989 escapements will be
assessed in Kenai/Skilak, Red, Akalura, and Upper Station lakes.
This will be accomplished through analysis of growth, freshwater
survival (in particular overwinter survival), and freshwater age of
sockeye smolt populations. Any anomalies will be determined by
analysis of freshwater growth recorded on archived scales,
historical freshwater age composition, and modelled freshwater
survivals; and from results of previous studies as well as the 1991
smolt characteristics from each of the study systems. Also,
planktonic food sources will be assessed through estimation of
abundance of zooplankton prey biomass and numbers of species.
Second, future sockeye salmon production from the 1989 parent year
and subsequent parent years will be estimated based on
spawner/recruit relationships incorporating a brood-year
interaction term. Losses of adult sockeye production from
subsequent parent years may result from negative effects of progeny
of the 1989 escapement on the lake's carrying capacity. The
spawner/recruit relationships will be estimated from historical
stock specific return data (where available), and generalized
spawner/recruit data scaled to the carrying capacity parameters
(i.e., euphotic volume and zooplankton biomass) of the nursery
lakes where stock specific return data are not available (Geiger
and Koenings 1991).
Third, experimental and empirical sockeye life history/production
models (Koenings and Burkett 1987; Koenings et al. 1989) will be
used to compare salmon production by life-stage at escapement
levels consistent with management goals to the 1989 escapements.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carpenter, S. R., J. F. Kitchell, and J. R. Hodgson. 1985.
Cascading trophic interactions and lake productivity.
BioScience 35:634-639.
Geiger, H. J., and J. P. Koenings. 1991. Escapement goals for
sockeye salmon with informative prior probabilities based on
habitat considerations. J. of Fish. Res. (in press).
164
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Koenings, J. P., and R. D. Burkett. 1987. Population
characteristics of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) smolts
relative to temperature regimes, euphotic volume, fry density,
and forage base within Alaskan Lakes, p. 216-234. In H. D.
Smith, L. Margolis, and C. C. Wood (eds.) Sockeye salmon
(Oncorhynchus nerka) population biology and future management.
Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 96.
Koenings, J. P., J. E. Edmundson, G. B. Kyle, and J. M. Edmundson.
1987. Limnology field and laboratory manual: methods for
assessing aquatic production. Alaska Department of Fish and
Game, FRED Division Report Series No. 71:212 p.
Koenings, J. P., R. D. Burkett, M. Haddix, G. B. Kyle, and D. L.
Barto. 1989. Experimental manipulation of lakes for sockeye
salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) rehabilitation and enhancement.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game, FRED Division Report
Series No. 96:18p.
Kyle, G. B. 1983. Crescent Lake sockeye salmon smolt enumeration
and sampling, 1982. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, FRED
Division Report Series No. 17:24 p.
Kyle, G. B. 1989. Summary of acoustically-derived population
estimates and distributions of juvenile sockeye salmon
(Oncorhynchus nerka) in 17 nursery lakes of southcentral
Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, FRED Division
Report Series No. (In review).
Kyle, G. B., J. P. Koenings, and B. M. Barrett. 1988. Density-
dependent, trophic level responses to an introduced run of
sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) at Frazer Lake, Kodiak
Island, Alaska. Can. J. of Fish, and Aquat. Sci. 45:856-867.
Mills, E. L., and A. Schiavone, Jr. 1982. Evaluation of fish
communities through trophic assessment of zooplankton
populations and measures of lake productivity. N. Amer. J. of
Fish. Mgt. 2:14-27.
Rawson, Kit. 1984. An estimate of the size of a migrating
population of juvenile salmon using an index of trap
efficiency obtained by dye marking. Alaska Department of Fish
and Game, FRED Division Report Series No. 28:23 p.
Tarbox, K.E., and B.E. King. 1989. An estimate of juvenile fish
densities in Skilak and Kenai Lakes, Alaska through the use of
dual beam hydroacoustic techniques in 1989. Alaska Department
of Fish and Game, Commercial Fish Division Regional
Information Report No. 2S90-1.
Townsend, C.R. 1989. Population cycles in freshwater fish. J. of
Fish Bio. 35 (Supplement A):125-131.
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BUDGET
Personnel Services $189.7
Travel 11.2
Contractual 101.4
Supplies 29.6
Equipment 2.4
Total $334.3
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 28
Study Title: Salmon Oil Spill Injury Model and Run
Reconstruction
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
This study integrates results obtained from Fish/Shellfish Studies
1-10 to determine damages to wild Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus
spp.) resources exposed to crude oil from the EVOS which spread
through portions of PWS, CI, Kodiak, and Chignik. Damages to
Pacific salmon populations in these areas would have profound
impacts on both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems since Pacific
salmon are an important food source for many fish, bird, and mammal
species and cycle significant amounts of nutrients from marine to
estuarine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. Also, the
economies and culture of many communities in this portion of Alaska
rely heavily on harvesting Pacific salmon in commercial, sport, and
subsistence fisheries.
Two different procedures may be used in this study to assess
damages to wild Pacific salmon populations resulting from crude oil
contamination. The first, based on reconstructing salmon runs will
use total adult returns (harvests and spawning escapements) to
determine stock specific returns and production to oiled and
unoiled areas. The second, based on life history modeling, will
use spawning escapements and subsequent estimates of survival at
various life history stages to project future adult returns to
oiled and unoiled areas. Both approaches will use data from F/S
studies 1-10, as well as information from the scientific
literature, to set parameter values in computational models.
OBJECTIVES
Run Reconstruction
A. Develop a computational framework for estimating stock
specific abundance over time in the eight commercial fishing
districts in PWS.
B. Analyze the historical data to develop estimates of the model
parameters, including estimates of hatchery stock
contributions.
C. Reconstruct the 1990 and 1991 PWS pink salmon run and develop
estimates of salmon production (number of adult returns per
spawner) for oiled and unoiled areas.
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Life History Modeling
A. Develop a computational framework to account for specific
effects of oiling on species, stock, and life history stages
of wild Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) populations in PWS,
CI, Kodiak, and the Chignik areas.
B. Estimate "status quo" (i.e. in absence of oil contamination)
values for all parameters implicit in the computational
framework.
C. Estimate the "oil impact" values for all parameters implicit
in the computational framework.
D. Develop estimates of salmon injury by comparing simulations of
future Pacific salmon production using "status quo" and "oil
impact" model parameter values.
METHODS
Run Reconstruction
This portion of the study will develop techniques for
reconstructing stock specific pink salmon abundance by fishing
district in PWS. The study will consist of three activities, data
synthesis, model development, and parameter estimation.
Data Synthesis. Historical catch, effort, escapement, and tagging
data will be synthesized and an RBASE data base management system
developed to provide easy access to this data. Details of this
data are as follows:
A. Catch data will be summarized by species, district, daily or
biweekly time periods, separated into hatchery and wild stock
components for the years 1960 to 1991. Hatchery contributions
from 1987 - 1991 will be based on CWT tagging. Hatchery
contributions prior to 1986 will be based on assumption of
equal exploitation rate within and relative escapement
magnitudes by district.
B. Effort data will be summarized by district on daily or
biweekly time periods for the years 1960 to 1991.
C. Timing curves describing the entry of escapement into the
stream will be estimated by stream within district for years
1960 - 1991. The parameters of the timing curve will be
estimated by fitting the stream life model of live fish in the
stream to the escapement counts expanded to areas not counted
by aerial survey. The stream specific expansion factors will
be based on comparison of on-ground counts to aerial counts.
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D. Extensive and comprehensive tagging studies have been
conducted in PWS since 1957. A database management system
will be developed to summarize those data. A database will be
used to estimate parameters of stock specific migration models
(see model development section below).
Model Development
The model below is developed in full generality. In estimating
model parameters it may be necessary to simplify the model. The
following definitions and relationships apply:
indices:
a = fishing district, (eight districts)
s = stock, (eight wild stocks, four hatcheries)
t = time
N,M = abundance of stock s in district a
XM = number of stock s entering PWS
Y,'t = number of stock s entering the spawning stream
CM = catch of fish in district a
p'ij = transition probability that a fish of stock s
having left district i migrates to district j
eM = probability stock s enters PWS through district a
TM = residence time of stock s in district a
q = catchability coefficient
EM = fishing effort in district a
Movement of fish into and out of the district is as follows:
immigration
entry-
-catch
emigration & escapement
N,at = entry - catch - emigration + immigration
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Entry is the number of fish entering the district from outside PWS
and is given by:
Catch is the number of fish removed by the fishery and is known:
C=a°E°yN
*,t " M " Mit
The catch can be apportioned to stock specific catch ( C'M ) by the
relative stock specific abundance:
C'.
£ N.,.,.
stocks
Emigration is the number of fish migrating from the district to
other districts or to the bay of the spawning stream and is given
by:
stocks
NM>t
Immigration is the number of fish migrating into the district from
other fishing districts and is given by:
Z Z ( i / TM ) NM>t p\,t
stocks districts
Escapement is a component of emigration and is given by:
( 1 / TM ) N.t.>t ( 1 - I P'.,t )
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A normal probability distribution timing function f(*) will be
assumed for both the entry (x,t) and for escapement (y,t) :
x,t = ffx-.XifM'i)
yi>t = f(yaolla\fn\)
Where x",, onlf p,\ are the total run, standard deviation, and mean
of the timing function for entry, respectively; and y°°,, a'2, M*2 are
the total run, standard deviation, and mean of the timing function
for escapement, respectively. Note that the escapement timing
function will be estimated directly from the escapement data.
Fitting the Model
The migration parameters ( p'^, e,a, TM ) will be estimated by
analysis of historical tagging data. The method of estimation will
be based on Hilborn (1990) . Both the forward and backward methods
of run reconstruction (Schnute and Sibert 1983; Starr and Hilborn
1988) with the forward method parameters of the model (q, x00,, a\,
H\ ) will be estimated by fitting the model ( q S Nas ) to catch per
unit effort (Ca / Ea) . With the backward method, the escapements
are lagged back to the districts based on a migration model derived
from the tagging data.
DISCUSSION
The life history and run reconstruction models will accommodate
harvest in existing mixed stocks fisheries and will enable the
comparison of alternative commercial fisheries harvest policies.
This will facilitate the evaluation of fisheries restoration
strategies that attempt to rebuild damaged stocks by reducing catch
in fisheries that exploit stocks damaged and stocks not damaged by
the oil spill.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hilborn, R. 1990. Determination of fish movement patterns from tag
recoveries using maximum likelihood estimates. Can. J. Fish.
Aquat. Sci. 47:635-643.
Schnute, J and J. Sibert. 1983. The salmon terminal fishery: a
practical, comprehensive timing model. Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
Sci. 40:835-853.
Starr, P. and R. Hilborn. 1988. Reconstruction of harvest rates
and stock contribution in gauntlet salmon fisheries:
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Application to British Columbia and Washington sockeye salmon
(Oncorhynchus nerka). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45:2216-
2279.
BUDGET
Personnel $ 58.9
Travel 5.2
Contractua1 100.0
Supplies i.o
Equipment IQ.Q
Total $175.1
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FISH/SHELLFISH STUDY NUMBER 30
Study Title: Data Base Management
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
Large quantities of data are being analyzed in order to demonstrate
the extent of injury to natural resources due to oiling. The
purpose of this study is to make original data readily available in
electronic form to agency and non-agency personnel so that data
analyses can be conducted in an efficient and cost effective
manner. The data to be placed under the database management system
(DBMS) will be drawn from two categories:
1. historical data necessary to the interpretation and
implementation of the results of NRDA studies,
2. data resulting from NRDA studies.
OBJECTIVES
A. To construct a cost effective DBMS to readily retrieve and
order data from original selected data in electronic form
according to user specified criteria of time, space, and other
variables. The DBMS should be constructed to meet the
following criteria, in order of priority:
1. completeness of contents
2. speed of retrieval
3. ease of use in assembling primary data into
datasets for further analysis by other software.
Furthermore, the DBMS will take advantage of existing DBMS
applications currently available in the ADF&G.
B. To develop the structural facilities for individuals to access
data that is physically located at different sites. To
accomplish this, a Local Area Network (LAN) facility must be
developed in the Cordova and Anchorage ADF&G offices, along
with a system for linking these with existing LANs in Juneau
and Kodiak. Note that Objective B, although necessary for
this project, will be met by a concurrent and separately
funded "statewide database system" project currently being
implemented by ADF&G using non-oil spill related funding.
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METHODS
A relational database management application will be developed. It
will be based in standard structured analysis and structured design
methodologies. Development will employ the industry standard SQL
language for relational databases. The system will be accessible
by authorized IBM-compatible personal computers. It will be made
available through a linked system of LANs covering offices in
Kodiak, Anchorage, Cordova and Juneau. The end-user interface
software allowing non-programmer access to the database information
will be developed in Windows and made available to individuals.
The scope of data involves commercial species from PWS, Kodiak, CI,
and Chignik areas. Specific discussions with assessment
researchers have prioritized the type of observations to be
incorporated. They are, in order of priority:
1. Commercial fisheries catch and effort data by area,
species, and gear type.
2. Salmon escapement data, including aerial survey counts,
stream counts, weir counts, and sonar counts.
3. NRDA project data of global interest.
4. Preemergent and egg density counts.
5. Biological data including age composition, size, sex,
growth, and stock composition.
6. Groundfish and shellfish survey data.
This project will make use of an ADF&G statewide database network
infrastructure being separately developed with State of Alaska
general funds. This project will not develop the network.
BUDGET
Personnel Services $149.5
Travel 5.4
Contractual 7.8
Supplies 2.6
Equipment 10.5
Total $175.8
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COASTAL HABITAT - INTERTIDAL STUDIES
More than 1000 miles of coastal shoreline received light-to-heavy
oiling from the EVOS. Assessment of injuries to intertidal
resources and their rates of recovery require consideration of the
various categories of coastal morphology, the degree of oiling, the
specific biotic assemblages affected, and their trophic
interactions. Assessment of clean-up effects is another component
of the injury assessment.
These coastal shorelines are used by many organisms which are
important to people, including fish, shellfish, birds and mammals.
These shorelines are also used for human activities such as
recreation, fishing, mining, and for documenting past activities
through invaluable archaeological resources. The intertidal
studies are designed to estimate the effects of the spill and
associated clean-up activities in terms of: (1) the abundance of
intertidal organisms and the corresponding health of the ecosystem;
(2) contamination of these same resources by oil; (3)
quantification of injury from PWS to the KAP; and (4) natural
recovery of these resources.
These studies document the potential pathways of oil spilled in the
coastal environment as it moves through the food chain. Thus, the
studies will provide data for determining ecological effects as
well as other supporting data for determining and quantifying
injury to fish, shellfish, mammals, and birds that provide services
directly to humans. In addition, these studies serve as the basis
for estimating rates of natural recovery, and the need and
potential for assisting natural recovery of the resources through
restoration.
Lastly, clean-up procedures may not only reduce the adverse effects
of oil, but may also induce injury to intertidal resources. The
assessment of clean-up effects by these studies is an important
component of the overall injury assessment.
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COASTAL HABITAT INTERTIDAL STUDY NUMBER 1A
Study Title: Comprehensive Assessment of Injury to Coastal
Habitats
Lead Agency: USFS
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the Coastal Habitat Injury Assessment is to document
and quantify injuries to biological resources found in the
intertidal zone throughout the shoreline areas affected by EVOS.
Field work in the supratidal zone was concluded in 1990 and will
not be conducted in 1991, while the subtidal portion was integrated
into the formation of a 1991 suite of studies.
Study sites were selected and ground-truthed during Phase I. Phase
II is an intensive evaluation of the study sites to determine the
extent of injury to natural resources. The objective of this study
is to estimate the effects of various degrees of oiling on the
quantity (abundance and biomass), quality (reproductive condition
and growth rate), and composition (diversity and proportion of
standing stock) of key species in the critical trophic levels of
coastal communities. These data are expected to provide evidence
of injury to the overall health and productivity of these critical
coastal habitats, and provide information necessary to the more
species-specific studies on the effects of the oil spill on
affected mammals, birds and fish that use these habitats.
PHASE I
Selection and ground truthing of study sites were concluded during
1990. No further Phase I work will be conducted during 1991.
PHASE II
Injury Determination
Coastal habitats are unique areas of high productivity supporting
a diverse array of organisms, including many commercially and
ecologically important species. These habitats are particularly
vulnerable to oil spill impacts because of the grounding of oil in
the intertidal zone, the persistence of oil in intertidal
sediments, and the effects of associated clean-up activities.
Oil may affect coastal organisms directly by coating or ingestion,
with toxic effects leading to death or reproductive failure.
Indirectly, oiling may cause decreased productivity, accumulation
of toxic effects through the food chain, and loss of microhabitat
176
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such as algae beds. Assessment of injuries to coastal habitat
resources and determination of rates of recovery require
consideration of the various coastal geomorphologic types, the
degree of oiling, the affected habitat, and their trophic
interactions. Ninety-seven study sites comprised of 59 sites
retained from 1989 and 38 sites added in 1990 were selected for the
intertidal component of the Coastal Habitat Injury Assessment
(CHIA). These study sites are representative of the broad range of
coastal habitat types including exposed rocky shores, fine textured
beaches, coarse textured beaches, sheltered rocky shores and
sheltered estuarine shores, oiling characteristics, and clean-up
techniques found in the spill area.
Control sites were carefully paired with oiled sites to closely
match physical and biological characteristics while maintaining a
statistically valid site selection strategy. The current site
selection scheme will strengthen the ability of the CHIA to detect
injuries while maintaining the ability to extrapolate these results
to the universe of other oiled shorelines. From the original set
of 97 sites chosen in 1989-90, a total of 57 sites will be studied
in 1991.
Coastal intertidal animals may use multiple habitats, necessitating
a coordinated study of the effects of oiling over the entire
intertidal habitat. The complexity of this system requires
expertise in many disciplines. Therefore, an interdisciplinary
team with the appropriate expertise, including plant and systems
ecology, marine biology, and statistical analysis, has been
established.
The first year of field studies was completed on November 1, 1989.
In 1990, field studies were conducted from approximately May 1 to
September 30. In 1991, a May 1 to July 31 reduced field sampling
schedule is proposed. Processing of samples and data analysis is
being conducted to determine the variance and magnitude of changes
between unoiled and moderately and heavily oiled sites.
OBJECTIVES
A. Estimate the quantity (abundance and dry weight biomass),
quality (reproductive condition and growth rate), and
composition (diversity and proportion of standing crop) of
critical trophic levels (and subsequent impact on trophic
interactions) in moderately and heavily oiled sites relative
to unoiled sites.
B. Estimate hydrocarbon concentrations in sediments and
biological samples.
C. Establish the response of these parameters to varying degrees
of oiling and subsequent clean-up procedures.
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D. Extrapolate impact results to the entire spill-affected area.
E. Estimate the rate of recovery of the habitats studied and
their potential for restoration.
F. Provide linkages to other studies by demonstrating the
relationships between oil, trophic level impacts, and higher
organisms.
METHODS
Vertical transects will be established at 57 of the study sites
selected in Phase I. Work will be conducted along transects in the
intertidal zone. For this study, the intertidal extends from the
"0" tide mark to Mean Higher High Water (MHHW) . Work in the
supratidal zone was concluded in 1990. Work in the subtidal zone
is being conducted within the context of the subtidal studies.
Community composition, cover, and standing crop by trophic level
will be estimated. Key species (dominant producers and food
sources) will be determined and studied according to the methods
listed below, to estimate the quantity, quality, and composition at
each trophic level, and to collect samples for determination of
hydrocarbon contamination. Using a geographic information
approach, the impact (by habitat type and degree of oiling) over
the entire area affected by the oil spill will be integrated and
field-verified.
Specific methods for each component of the study were developed as
follows:
Coastal
1. Initial Site Survey
2. Locating Transects
3. Sample Identification and Chain-of-Custody
Intertidal
Invertebrates
1. Locating 1 Quadrats
2. Swath Surveys
3. Reproductive Condition
4. Growth and Survivorship
5. Hydrocarbon Sampling Procedures
6. Experimental Work
7. General Laboratory Sorting Procedures
8. Subsampling of Intertidal Samples
9. Processing of Histological Samples
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Fish
1. Locating Transects
2. Locating Quadrats
3. Sampling Quadrats
4. Minnow Trap Sampling
5. Sample Storage and Identification
6. Fish for Hydrocarbon Analysis
Plants
1. Introduction
2. Study Plan
a. Stratified Sampling
b. Site Experiments at Selected
Habitats
c. Field Experiments
Analysis of samples obtained in 1990 is still underway and will
continue as additional 1991 samples are collected. Samples from
1991 will be processed as rapidly as possible after they are
returned from the field. The reduced sampling scheme in 1991
should allow for complete sorting of 1990 and 1991 field samples
before commencement of any further field work. The data from all
of the component studies are being entered into a computer database
management system. This system is widely used, and has good data
security features. Use of this database system will therefore
maximize both internal integration and availability of the data to
related damage assessment projects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AOAC. 1980. Official Methods of Analysis of the A.O.A.C., 13th ed.
Chipperfield, P.N.J. 1953. Observations on the breeding and
settlement of Mytilus edulis (L.) in British waters. J. Mar.
Biol. Ass. U.K. 32:449-476.
Johnson, R.D. and H.L. Bergman. 1984. Use of histopathology in
aquatic toxicology: A Critique. Pp. 19-36. In V.W. Cairns,
P.V. Hodson and J.O. Nriagu, eds., Containment Effects on
Fisheries, John Wiley and Sons.
Ropes, J.W. 1968. Reproductive cycle of the surf clam, Spisula
solidissima, in offshore New Jersey. Biol. Bull. 135:349-365.
Seed, R. 1969. The ecology of Mytilus edulis L.
(Lamellibranchiata). I. Breeding and Settlement. Oecologia.
3:277-350.
Sheehan, D.C. and B.B. Hrapchak. 1980. Theory and Practice of
Histopathology. 2nd Ed. C.V. Mosby Co.
179
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Tietge, J.E., R.D. Johnson and H.L. Bergman. 1988. Morphometric
changes in gill secondary lamellae of brook trout (Salvelinus
fontinalis) after long-term exposure to acid and aluminum.
Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 45: 1643-1648.
Tranter, D.J. 1958. Reproduction in Australian pearl oysters. II.
Pinctada albina (Lamarck): gametogenesis. Aust. J. Marc.
Freshwtr. Res. 9: 144-158.
Wilson, B.R. and E.P. Hodgkin. 1967. A comparative account of the
reproductive cycle of 5 species of marine mussels (Bivalvia:
Mytilidae) in the vicinity of Freemantle, W. Australia. Aust.
J. Mar. Freshwtr. Res. 18: 175-203.
BUDGET
Services $
Travel
Contractual 5,100.0*
Commodities
Equipment
Total $5,100.0
*University of Alaska
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COASTAL HABITAT INTERTIDAL STUDY IB
Study Title: Pre-spill and post-spill concentrations of
hydrocarbons in sediments and mussels at intertidal
sites within PWS and the Gulf of Alaska
Lead Agency: NOAA
INTRODUCTION
Damage assessment of the oil spill in PWS and GOA requires
information on hydrocarbon contamination levels in water, sediment
and biota prior to the spill (baseline) and at various times after
the spill occurred, to determine the potential impact and duration
of impact. Hydrocarbon baseline information is available for
several sites in PWS prior to oil transport and for the first four
years of oil shipment. The intertidal baseline for hydrocarbon
levels in mussels, sediment, water, and fish were established at 10
sites from 1977 to 1981. Ten additional sites were established in
the path of the spill in 1989. All sites are located on low
energy, low gradient beaches, often associated with eel grass. All
sites have adjacent bands of mussels (Mytilus trossulus).
Because of the potential persistence of hydrocarbons in sediments
in temperate and subarctic intertidal and subtidal environments,
sampling will be continued to document depuration and recovery
rates. Concentrations of the full range of individual aliphatic
and aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments and mussels from intertidal
sites will be reported. Abundance of mussels and other epifauna
along sediment and mussel transects will be photographically
recorded during each sampling period. These data will provide a
basis for estimating temporal and spatial impact to other biota of
the nearshore environment and support other NRDA studies of fish,
birds, and mammals.
OBJECTIVES
A. To sample and estimate hydrocarbon concentrations in mussels
and sediments from 20 sites within 10% of the actual
concentration 95% of the time, when total aromatic
concentrations are greater than 200 ng/g dry wt. We will
compare these with 1989-90 data.
B. To test the hypothesis that hydrocarbon contamination of
sediments and mussels is the same for the pre-spill and post-
spill period.
C. To document changes in abundance and distribution of
intertidal epifauna and test the hypothesis that no
differences occur at oiled and unoiled sites.
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METHODS
Ten intertidal sites in PWS and Port Valdez were sampled for
sediments, mussels, water, and fish annually from 1977 to 1981 to
establish a baseline against which future changes in hydrocarbon
concentrations can be compared. Sites were initially sampled in
spring, summer and fall to determine if short-term changes occurred
during the warm season. These sites were resampled in March 1989
immediately before several of them were impacted by the EVOS.
Immediately after the spill, and in some cases prior to the arrival
of oil, ten additional sites were established to sample beaches
within the trajectory of the oil path. Four of these sites were on
the KP and the remaining six were in PWS. Sediment and mussel
samples were taken. Photo-documentation was initiated along mussel
and sediment transects at each site. These sites were re-sampled
several times during the summers of 1989 and 1990 to document the
appearance of and changes in hydrocarbon contamination from the
EVOS. In 1991, only the 16 sites in PWS will be sampled and
sampling frequency will be reduced to once or twice during the warm
season.
Sediments; Transect lines thirty meters (m) in length are located
parallel to the water line at the -0.75 m to +0.75 m tide level
(depending on specific site). Sediment samples are collected in
triplicate at each site. Each sample consists of a composite of 10
cores (dia 3.2 cm x depth 1.25 cm) taken at random along the 30-
meter transect. Composite sediment samples are placed in
chemically clean 4 oz. jars, placed in an ice chest with artificial
ice and transported. These are frozen within 2-3 hours of
collection. One blank sample is taken at each site.
Mussels; Transects for mussel collections are located parallel to
the water line, usually immediately above the sediment transects at
approximately the +1 m tide level. Triplicate mussel samples are
collected and each sample contains approximately 30 2-5 cm. mussels
(enough to produce >10 gms tissue) taken at random along the 30-
meter transect. Samples in 16 oz. jars are cooled, transported and
frozen in the same manner as the sediment samples. All samples are
handled and stored according to established protocols to maintain
quality assurance and control at all times.
Photo-Documentation; Close-range views of the strata, macroflora,
and epifauna are photographed. Photos are taken every 4 or 8 m
along the sediment transect and every 2 or 4 m along the mussel
transect line beginning at one meter. Macrophyte cover as well as
epifaunal occurrence and density are recorded from photographs
taken of 625 cm2 quadrants placed along the sediment and mussel
transect lines. A grid of 100 random dots projected on each slide
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is used to estimate occurrence and percentage of surface area
covered by macrophytes and epifauna. Macrophytes and epifauna are
identified to species where possible.
DATA ANALYSIS
Random sample and subsample collection prior to the analysis
procedure will ensure that hydrocarbons present in the sample
represent the average concentration at each site. "Hot spots" of
hydrocarbon concentration over the 30 meter transects will be
cancelled out by this procedure. Selected triplicate samples will
be analyzed, the mean concentrations and deviations from these
means determined, and appropriate statistical tests applied.
Digital tables of individual hydrocarbons will be reported.
Macrophyte and epifauna occurrence and cover will be analyzed using
one way ANOVA or paired comparisons (oiled vs unoiled where strata
are similar). They will be tested at the .05 level of
significance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Connell, Joseph H. 1970. A predator-prey system in the marine
intertidal region. 1. Balanus glandula and several predatory
species of Thais. Ecol. Monog. 40:49-78.
Gundlach, Erich R., Paul D. Boehm, Michel Marchand, Ronald M.
Atlas, David M. Ward, and Douglas Wolfe. 1983. The fate of
Amoco Cadiz oil. Science 221:122-129.
Karinen, John F., L. Scott Ramos, Patty G. Prohaska, and William D.
MacLeod, Jr. In Preparation. Hydrocarbon distribution in the
marine environment of Port Valdez and Prince William Sound,
Alaska.
Krahn, M.M., C.A. Wigren, R.W. Pearce, L.K. Moore, R.G. Bogar, W.D.
MacLeod, Jr., S.Chan, and D.W. Brown. 1988. Standard
analytical procedures of the NOAA National Analytical
Facility, 1988. New HPLC cleanup and revised extraction
procedures for organic contaminants. NOAA Technical
Memorandum NMFS F/NWC-153. 52pp.
Warner, J. S. 1976. Determination of aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons in marine organisms. Anal. Chem. 48:578-583.
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BUDGET
Labor $ 31.0
Travel 13.0
Contracts: Helicopter 22.0
Supplies 2.0
Equipment o.o
Total $ 68.0
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Figure 1. IntertI da I baseline sampling sites.
A = historical sitesH = established In 1989.
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SUBTIDAL RESOURCES INJURY ASSESSMENT
The subtidal regions of PWS and the GOA represent a vast and
complex ecosystem. The oil from the EVOS is known to have reached
portions of this ecosystem. This subset of the NRDA studies have
the objectives of documenting the geographical extent, persistence,
and toxicity of the EVOS oil in this environment and examining
effects of oil on select marine organisms. As the natural
resources and their habitats in the subtidal region are closely
related, the studies on them have been placed together in a new
Subtidal category for the 1991 NRDA study planning process. This
category of studies includes the former Air/Water studies,
including studies of benthic infaunal communities, and studies of
various species of demersal fish and shellfish.
Water Resources
Monitoring of the concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons in the
water column of PWS and portions of the GOA began immediately after
the EVOS. This monitoring was most critical during the first few
weeks following the spill when the dissolution of soluble
components was most rapid and the likelihood of toxic exposure was
highest. As dilution of the EVOS oil in the water column continued
below the levels that can be detected using direct measurements,
the strategy for long-term documentation of the locations and
concentrations of hydrocarbons available to marine organisms
shifted to the use of alternate means of detection. This involved
the study of bioaccumulators and measurements of the settling rates
of oil contaminated sediments settling out from the water column.
Subtidal Study No. 3 is dedicated to carrying out this monitoring.
Marine water quality is protected under state and federal water
quality standards which include classifications for such uses as
growth and propagation of fish and wildlife, aquaculture, and human
uses such as recreation. Moreover, State of Alaska water quality
standards for petroleum hydrocarbons establish criteria for water
habitats.
Sediment Resources
A portion of the EVOS oil reached the marine sediments in PWS and
in portions of the GOA. The extent of this contamination, its
persistence and toxicity, and its direct effect on the benthic
communities living in contact with sediments are studied by three
of the studies in this category. Subtidal Study No. 1 will
investigate the occurrence, persistence, and chemical composition
of petroleum hydrocarbons in marine sediments. Subtidal Study No.
2 will document the effects of EVOS oil in marine sediments on deep
and shallow water benthic communities. Subtidal Study No. 4 will
investigate the fate of EVOS oil and determine its long-term
toxicity.
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These studies will document the injury level to a large ecosystem
which contains a large number of organisms that are in the food
chain of many higher trophic level animals that are the subject of
other NRDA studies.
Demersal Fish and Shellfish Resources
Subtidal studies 5, 6, and 7 have the goal of documenting exposure
to EVOS oil and injury for a number of demersal fish and shellfish
resources. These studies combine elements of 1990 Fish/Shellfish
studies 15, 17, 18, and 24. The large number of demersal species
potentially affected by the EVOS and the vast extent of the
available habitat that they occupy has resulted in these 1991
studies being primarily focused on representative species in areas
of PWS where the potential for injury is believed to be the
greatest.
The demersal fish/shellfish resources of PWS and the GOA, in
addition to being utilized by commercial, sport, and subsistence
fishermen, are a key food source for other fish, marine mammals,
river otters, and for various species of birds.
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SUBTIDAL STUDY NUMBER 1
Study Title: Hydrocarbon Exposure, Microbial and Meiofaunal
Community Effects
Lead Agency: NOAA, DEC
INTRODUCTION
A substantial proportion of the approximately 11 million gallons of
Prudhoe Bay crude oil released into the marine environment
following the grounding of the tanker Exxon Valdez became stranded
on the shoreline of PWS and northeastern GOA. Some of the oil that
entered the water (the original crude oil derived from the spill,
oil leaching from contaminated shorelines, and/or oil dispersed
into the water by shoreline cleanup activities) reached the
subtidal region as a result of physical and biological processes
(Boehm et al. 1987). The proportion of the original volume of
crude oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez that has reached subtidal
sediments in PWS remains to be determined.
NOAA
A primary objective of the present study is to synthesize the data
on hydrocarbon contamination of subtidal sediments collected by all
NRDA studies. This will allow an estimate of the amount of crude
oil that contaminated subtidal sediments in PWS and GOA and define
the geographic and bathymetric extent of subtidal hydrocarbon
contamination. Sampling of subtidal sediments in PWS will continue
on a reduced scale in order to resolve the dynamics of hydrocarbon
contamination of subtidal sediments influenced by additional
contamination resulting from 1990 cleanup activities and the
persistence of petroleum hydrocarbons in previously contaminated
sediments.
DEC
The DEC portion of this study will conduct microbiological assays
to measure the response of microbial populations to the EVOS. The
intertidal and subtidal sediments for this portion of the study
will be collected at the same sites where the NOAA sediment samples
are taken.
Assessment of microbial populations is important since the ultimate
fate of spilled oil depends on the ability of microorganisms to use
it as a source of carbon and energy (Leahy and Colwell 1990). The
microbial hydrocarbon oxidation potential assays are designed to
measure microbial activity under optimized environmental conditions
and independent of "in situ" hydrocarbon concentrations. Thus,
they are an indicator of the microbial communities' acclimation to
particular hydrocarbon fractions, implying exposure to these
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petroleum components "in situ." The observation of microbial
communities acclimated to hydrocarbon oxidation in intertidal and
subtidal sediments only implies exposure to hydrocarbons in
general. Definitive characterization of the hydrocarbons as
originating from the Exxon Valdez will depend on detailed chemical
analysis of the sediment samples collected in parallel to the
microbiological samples.
The sediment sampling will be coordinated closely with benthic
infaunal studies (Subtidal Study No. 2) . The benthic study will
examine the effects of the oil spill on infaunal communities below
a depth of 20 m. The sampling for this study will be conducted
from the same vessel simultaneously (June/July 1991) as the
deepwater sediment sampling. The second study will examine the
effects of the oil on infaunal communities associated with eelgrass
and Laminaria beds. Sediment and microbiological samples will be
collected at the same sites where infauna of the eelgrass community
will be taken. The benthic infaunal studies will be described in
detail in a separate plan. The sediment and benthic infaunal
studies were combined in the Air/Water Study No. 2 in 1990.
OBJECTIVES
A. Synthesize the analytical results on the concentrations of
petroleum hydrocarbons in subtidal marine sediments collected
under this study and all other NRDA studies under which
sediments have been collected.
B. Determine occurrence, persistence, and chemical composition of
petroleum hydrocarbons in all subtidal marine sediments
analyzed to date.
C. Provide marine sediment data to generate in mass balance
calculations on the fate of oil in the marine environment.
D. Enumerate populations of hydrocarbon-oxidizing microbes in
intertidal and subtidal sediments collected at oiled and
unoiled sites within PWS.
E. Assess the maximum potential for "in situ" biodegradation of
selected hydrocarbon substrates in subtidal sediments at oiled
and unoiled sites within PWS.
METHODS
NOAA
Sediments will be sampled at 20 sites in PWS (10 reference sites
and 10 contaminated sites). Fourteen sites will be sampled in
June/July. Sediment sampling will be coordinated with the
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microbiological and deep benthos projects at these 14 sites.
Nine sites will be sampled in May and September.
Three samples, each a composite of eight subsamples collected
randomly along 30 m transects laid parallel to the shoreline, will
be taken at each intertidal site. Samples will be collected at low
tide or by divers. Intertidal collections will be made at a single
tidal height in the range of +1 to -1 m relative to mean lower low
water (MLLW) depending on the distribution of fine sediments.
Subtidal sediment collections will be made at 6 m below MLLW in May
and September and at 3, 6, 20, 40 and 100 m in June/July.
Collections at 3, 6 and 20 m will be made by divers on transects
laid along the appropriate isobath and sampled in the same way as
described above for the intertidal transects. The eelgrass
community project will sample sediments, infauna and epifauna in
the same depth range at six of the PWS sites. Samples taken at
depths below 20 m will be collected with a Smith-Mclntyre grab.
Three grabs will be taken at each depth. Four subsamples will be
removed at randomly selected points within each grab. The
subsamples will be combined to form one sample per grab. The
samples will be taken at the same sites as the benthos (see deep
benthos sampling in the Subtidal Study No. 2 plan), however
sediments will not be taken from the same grab as the benthos
samples because the volume needed for sediment hydrocarbon
analysis.
DEC
Sediment samples for the microbiological work will be obtained from
sediment chemistry samples taken during the June cruise. Samples
will be taken at all 14 sites and at all depths where the sediment
chemistry samples are taken. The samples taken by divers at the 3
m, 6 m and 20 m depths will be generated by placing approximately
1 kg of surface sediment in sterile whirlpack bags, and sealed at
the sampling depth. The 40 m and 100 m samples will be obtained by
composite subsampling into a sterile whirlpack bag of the surface
sediment contained in the sampling device. The intertidal
microbiological samples are composites of eight subsamples
collected at random intervals along a 30 m transect parallel to the
shoreline in the low intertidal zone. All microbiology samples
will be collected as triplicate composites from the transect
sampled.
Care will be taken to avoid contamination of samples by the
sampling personnel and cross-contamination between different
sediment samples. Sampling apparatus will be thoroughly rinsed
with water between samples and disinfected with alcohol or
alternate disinfectant. Samples obtained from the deepwater grabs
will be collected from the center of the core to avoid surface
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contamination incidental to sample handling. All microbiological
samples will be placed in coolers for transport to the support
vessel for processing within three hours of collection.
Hydrocarbon biodegradation potential associated with sediment
microbes will be assayed by adding radiolabelled aliphatic (14C-
hexadecane) and aromatic (14C-phenanthrene) substrates to sediment
samples. Each substrate will be monitored for biodegradation by
the evolution of radio-C02 from the samples after two incubation
periods.
A total of 20 gm of sediment from each sample will be needed for
this assay. Each sediment sample assayed for hydrocarbon
biodegradation will first be mixed 1:10 with sterile seawater
augmented with mineral nutrients (Difco marine Bushnell-Haas
broth) . Ten ml aliquots of the resulting slurry will then be
placed in sterile 40 ml incubation vials fitted with silicone
septa. The substrate of interest will be added at a 10 ppm (ug/ml
slurry) concentration by injection via syringe through the septa.
The substrates will then be added in an acetone carrier (Baur and
Capone 1988). Two replicate vials for each substrate/sediment
sample/incubation time combination will be prepared with a "time
zero" killed control also prepared for each substrate and
triplicate set. AH vials will be placed on a rotary shaker for 24
hours and then incubated at ambient temperatures for the duration
of the incubation period.
Following incubation of the sample for the appropriate period (or
initially in the case of the controls), substrate biodegradation in
the sample vials will be halted by the addition of 1 ml ION NaOH
through the septum. This will result in a pH greater than 13,
killing the culture of degraders and sequestering any evolved C02
in the form of carbonates in solution. The extent of hydrocarbon
degradation will be monitored by measuring the radio-CO2 evolved
from each vial (Foght et al. 1988) . After transport to the
analytical facility at the University of Alaska, the sample vial
contents will be purged of radio-C02 and the effluent gas will be
passed first through an organic vapor trap and then through
phenethylamine scintillation cocktail to trap the evolved C02
(Fedorak et al. 1982). The mean of each set of biodegradation
samples for each substrate, concentration and incubation period
will be compared the "time zero" killed controls to assess for
losses due to volatization in transit or any possible abiotic CO2
evolution. The extent of biodegradation will be expressed as a
percentage of the total radiocarbon activity added to the sample
after correction for abiotic losses.
In addition to the biooxidation potential assay, all microbiology
samples will be analyzed using the Sheen Screen Most Probable
Number technique for the presence of surfactant producing,
hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms (Brown and Braddock 1990).
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While no technique to enumerate specific metabolic types of
microorganisms in marine systems is absolute, the Sheen Screen
technique provides consistent results that are appropriate for
relative comparisons among stations and depths.
DATA ANALYSIS
NOAA
Synthesis of Sediment Analyses
Sediment samples collected for 12 studies included in the NRDA
process have been catalogued in the damage assessment database of
Technical Services Study No. 1 and some of those samples were
submitted for analyses. The principal goal of the present proposal
will be to synthesize the results from the sediment hydrocarbon
analysis as they become available from Technical Services Study No.
1. Mapping of the geographic and bathymetric distribution of
hydrocarbon contamination of sediments in PWS and the northeastern
GOA will be carried out in coordination with the DNR. The combined
sediment data will also be used to test specific hypotheses about
the distribution of Exxon Valdez oil in sediments throughout the
study area.
Statistical Analysis
In general, for sediment analyses the null hypothesis states that
the concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons at particular depths or
the distribution of petroleum hydrocarbons with depth at oiled
sites does not differ from that at reference sites. All data will
be tested for heteroscedasticity with Bartlett's test or
equivalent. Data will be reported as means and 95% confidence
intervals calculated according to a standard formula (Sokal and
Rohlf 1981). Parametric statistics (Model I analysis of variance
with site and depth as fixed factors and Scheffe's a posteriori
test) will be used to test for differences in hydrocarbon
concentrations between sites and depths if underlying assumptions
of the parametric procedures are met (with data transformation if
required), otherwise nonparametric tests (eg. the Kruskal-Wallis
test) will be employed. Key petroleum weathering and source ratios
will be calculated (Boehm et al. 1987).
Data on microbial activity levels and hydrocarbon degrader numbers
will be subjected to non-parametric analyses (e.g. Mann-Whitney U
test) to demonstrate any significant statistical differences in
microbial community responses at oiled and reference sites.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bauer, J.E. and D.G. Capone. 1988 Effects of co-occurring
aromatic hydrocarbons on degradation of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in marine sediment slurries. Appl. Env.
Microbiol. 54:1644-1655.
Boehm, P. D., M. S. Steinhauer, D. R. Green, B. Fowler, B.
Humphrey, D. L. Fiest and W. J. Cretney. 1987. Comparative
fate of chemically dispersed and beached crude oil in
subtidal sediments of the arctic nearshore. Arctic 40, supp.
1: 133-148.
Brown, E.J. and J.F. Braddock. 1990. Scheen Screen, a
miniaturized most-probable-number method for enumeration of
oil-degrading microorganisms. Appl. Env. Microbiol. 56(12):
Fedorak, P.M., J.M. Foght and D.W.S. Westlake. 1982. A method for
monitoring mineralization of 14C-labeled compounds in aqueous
samples. Water Res. 16:1285-1290.
Foght, J.M., D.L. Gutnick and D.W.S. Westlake. 1989. Effect of
Emulsan on biodegradation of crude oil by pure and mixed
bacterial cultures. Appl. Env. Microbial. 55:36-42.
Gundlach, E. R., P. D. Boehm, M. Marchand, R. M. Atlas, D. M. Ward,
D. A. Wolfe. 1983. The fate of Amoco Cadiz oil. Science
221:122-130.
Leahy, J.G. and R.R. Colwell. 1990. Microbial degradation of
hydrocarbons in the environment. Microbial. Rev. 54(3):SOS-
SIS.
Sokal, R. R. and F. J. Rohlf. 1981. Biometry. W. H. Freeman and
Company, San Francisco. 859 pp.
Salaries
Travel
Contracts
Supplies
Equipment
Vessel
Total
NOAA
$123.0
18.0
20.0
6.0
8.0
120.0
$295.0
BUDGET
DEC
$28.0
3.5
107.5
0.8
0.0
0.0
$139.8
Totals
$151.0
21.5
127.5
6.8
8.0
120.0
$434.8
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SUBTIDAL STUDY NUMBER 2
Study Title: Injury to Benthic Communities
Lead Agency: ADF&G
Cooperating Agencies: DEC and NOAA
INTRODUCTION
Benthic organisms (both meiofauna and infaunal macrofauna)
associated with subtidal sediments generally represent good in situ
monitors for measuring effects of oil fluxing to the bottom (for
example see Cabioch et al. 1978; Kineman et al. 1980; and Sanders
et al. 1980). These organisms typically remain close to or at the
site of larval settlement, and, consequently, represent good
monitoring organisms. The composition of the marine benthic fauna
has been successfully used at various locations throughout the
industrial world as a basis for measuring effects of pollutants on
the bottom (e.g., see Pearson 1975; Cabioch et al. 1978; Pearson
and Rosenberg 1978; Gray and Mirza 1979; Sanders et al. 1980;
Kineman et al. 1980; Gray and Pearson 1982; Warwick 1986; Boesch
and Rabalais 1987; Warwick et al. 1987; and Gray 1989), and should
prove useful for assessing biological effects of the EVOS in PWS.
Subsequent to the crude oil spill from the EVOS, it was expected
that a certain proportion of oil in the water column (either the
original crude oil derived from the spill, oil leached from
contaminated shorelines, and/or oil dispersed into receiving waters
via shoreline remediation procedures) would reach the bottom by
physical and biological processes. Benthic data collected in
polluted waters elsewhere indicate that changes in species number,
abundance, biomass, and diversity occur if sizable quantities of
oil flux to the bottom. Changes in composition of benthic fauna
can have serious trophic implications since many subtidal benthic
invertebrates are important food resources for bottom-feeding
species such as pandalid shrimps, crabs, bottomfishes, sea ducks
and sea otters (see review in Feder and Jewett 1981, 1987; Hogan
and Irons 1988; McRoy 1988). Further, the larvae of most benthic
organisms in PWS move into the water column (March through June)
and are utilized as food by large zooplankters and larval and
juvenile stages of pelagic fishes, small salmon fry, and herring.
Thus, damage to the benthic system by hydrocarbon contamination
could affect feeding interactions of important species on the
bottom as well as in the water column.
Shallow (<20 m) subtidal studies were initiated in PWS in the fall
of 1989 and continued during the summer of 1990 under the Coastal
Habitat Study. Deep (>20 m) benthos studies were initiated in PWS
in July 1990 under Air/Water Study 2 (Injury to Deep Water [>20 m]
Benthic Infaunal Resources from Petroleum Hydrocarbons) . Six of the
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deep benthos sites sampled in 1990 were adjacent to eelgrass sites
sampled by the shallow benthic program.
Sampling (for at least five years) of subtidal benthic populations
should be continued as a method for assessing possible effects of
oil on benthic communities as related to redistribution of oil-
laden sediments from adjacent contaminated onshore sites. Oil that
initially coated sediments onshore may eventually be transported
offshore, thereby contributing to long-term effects on deep
subtidal benthic fauna. Examples of such effects were observed
following the Amoco Cadiz crude oil spill of 1978, in the Bay of
Morlaix off the Brittany coast of France (Cabioch et al. 1978) and
following the Florida No. 2 fuel oil spill of 1969 in Buzzards Bay
near West Falmouth, Massachusetts (Sanders et al. 1980).
OBJECTIVES
Shallow Benthos
A. Determine the temporal and spatial effects of the EVOS on the
infaunal invertebrate communities within selected PWS
embayments where eelgrass (Zostera) and the brown algae
(Laminaria) dominate.
Deep Benthos
A. Determine if changes occurred in the benthos following the
EVOS by comparing taxon (primarily determined at the family
level: see Methods) richness and diversity, general abundance
and biomass, and trophic composition of benthic biota living
on similar substrata at stations at depths of approximately 40
and 100 m below eelgrass beds in oiled and unoiled bays.
B. Determine if changes occurred in the benthos, as estimated
temporally, by comparing taxon (see objective above) richness
and diversity, general abundance and biomass, and the trophic
composition of benthic biota at stations within oiled and
unoiled bays on an annual basis for at least five years.
C. If changes are detected in the infaunal components of the
benthic system, determine how much time is required for the
benthos to recover to a relatively stable assemblage of taxa.
D. If changes are detected in the infauna, examine the
relationship between the accumulation and retention of
hydrocarbons in sediments and the effect on the benthic biota
(this will be accomplished in conjunction with the subtidal
project assessing hydrocarbon levels in sediments at the
sampled stations).
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METHODS
Shallow Benthos
General
Shallow subtidal sampling efforts will concentrate on infaunal
invertebrate communities in eelgrass and Laminaria habitats within
bays in PWS. These habitats were also sampled in 1990. They were
chosen based on their relative ecological importance, the history
of prior damage, and on their proportion of total habitat in the
oiled area. Six of the sites within the eelgrass habitat were in
common with the Deep Benthos sites. All studies will be conducted
at oiled sites (selected at random when possible) and control sites
that are matched to the oiled sites with regard to geomorphology,
degree of freshwater input, substrate type, and general circulation
and wave exposure regimes.
The shallow subtidal sampling for 1991 will occur in concert with
the rockfish studies to be conducted by ADF&G (Subtidal Study 6).
Both studies will utilize the same divers on the same platform to
sample the shallow waters in western PWS. Some of the sampling
sites for the two studies are in common.
Stratified Sampling - Rationale
A stratified sampling design, modified from the design used in our
1990 survey, will be employed in order to obtain estimates of basic
population parameters (density and biomass) for infaunal
invertebrates. These estimates will be used to indicate the
effects of the EVOS on this community by comparing density (and
other parameters) at oiled vs. control sites. The data will also
be used in support of other studies (e.g., otters and birds) since
the animals within the subtidal habitats are major food sources for
these other species.
Strata to be sampled
In the 1990 sampling, the shallow subtidal communities within PWS
was stratified into three major habitat types based on the dominant
plants within the habitat: Nereocystis beds, eelgrass beds, and
Laminaria beds (areas where either Laminaria saccharina or Agarum
cribrosum dominate). For the Laminaria habitat (the most widely
distributed), we further stratify into 3 oceanographic regions:
islands, mainland, and outer sound and into three physiographic
types: bays, points, and runs (straight shore line). This
stratification scheme resulted in 9 potential strata within the
Laminaria habitat, 1 within the Nereocystis habitat, and 1 within
the eelgrass habitat, for a total of 11 potential strata in all.
Another strata, silled fjords, was added in 1990 based on
preliminary finding from our 1989 survey.
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In 1990, we sampled 5 of the 12 potential strata: Nereocystis,
eelgrass, Laminaria in island bays, Laminaria on island points and
silled fjords. In 1991, we will sample only in the eelgrass and
Laminaria bay habitats.
Selection of sites within strata
Sites to be sampled in 1991 are a subset of those visited in 1990.
These were selected based on the summer 1989 oil maps and the
September 1989 "walkathon" data. Areas that were moderately to
heavily oiled in both surveys will be used as oiled sites. From
these oiled areas for each strata (i.e., island bays or eelgrass
beds), a section of shore line was selected to be sampled. The
selection of the sampling locations was based on the following
hierarchy for order of preference: sites for which there were pre-
spill biological data, sites previously sampled in NMFS or DEC
hydrocarbon surveys, sites sampled by Coastal Habitat intertidal
crews, randomly selected sites within the habitat, and sites
sampled in the deep benthos study.
Control sites were selected that were unoiled in both the summer
oil survey and the "walkathon." Controls were matched with
selected oiled sites with regard to aspect, proximity to sources of
freshwater input, slope, wave exposure, and water circulation. A
matched site will be selected randomly if more than one exists.
Initial site selections were made based on oiling maps and input
from scientists familiar with habitats within PWS, as well as from
fishermen familiar with PWS. Final selections were made in a
reconnaissance survey conducted in April, 1990.
A total of 3 to 5 oiled sites and 3 to 5 control sites were
selected from each habitat. Three of the oiled/control pairs
within the eelgrass habitat are also sites for the Deep Benthos
Component. In 1990, shallow and deep benthic sampling occurred at
the following oil/control paired sites: Bay of Isles (O)/Drier Bay
(C) ; Herring Bay (O)/Lower Herring Bay (C) ; and Sleepy Bay
(0)/Moose Lips Bay (C).
Data Analysis
All taxonomic identifications for the 1991 sampling period will
only be taken to the family level to accelerate processing time.
Data analysis will be coordinated with analyses performed under the
Deep Benthos component.
The general form of analysis for all data gathered will be a
comparison of oiled vs. control sites using t-tests or nested
analyses of variance. In studies where more than one site is
sampled, sites will be the primary sampling unit, with various
degrees of subsampling within a site.
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Deep Benthos
Sampling
The sampling plan for the project calls for collection of five
replicate samples at each of two stations within seven bays
identified as oil-exposed sites and two stations within seven bays
determined to have been uncontaminated (control) sites. All
stations sampled will be at approximate depths of 40 and 100 m on
a transect extending below seagrass beds within each of the
identified bays. Shallow subtidal stations on the transects for at
least eight of the bays will be sampled for biota for the Shallow
Benthic Studies. A total of 28 deep stations x 5 replicates will
be collected on a single cruise in July 1991 in conjunction with
microbiological and hydrocarbon sampling projects that will be
underway from the same ship platform. Shallow subtidal benthos
(<20 m) will be sampled at approximately the same time period from
a different ship platform, a circumstance necessitated by the need
for a special ship-diving platform. Deep benthic samples at oil-
exposed and unexposed sites will be collected on bottoms that are
as physically similar as possible. The seven oil-exposed sites to
be sampled for deep benthos are Northwest Bay, Disk Island, Herring
Bay, Bay of Isles, Snug Harbor, Sleepy Bay, and Chenega. The seven
unexposed (control) sites to be sampled for deep benthos are West
Bay, Rocky Bay, Zaikof Bay, MacLeod Harbor, Mooselips Bay, Lower
Herring Bay, and Drier Bay.
Deep benthic biological samples at stations at approximately 40 and
100 m will be collected with a 0.1 m2van Veen grab weighted with
31.7 kg of lead to facilitate penetration. Five replicate samples
will be taken at all stations. Material from each grab will be
washed on nested 1.0 and 0.5 mm stainless steel screens and
preserved in 10% formalin-seawater solution buffered with hexamine.
Analysis and Processing Data
Organisms that will be collected by grab and subsequently used in
analyses include infaunal macrofauna, slow-moving macrofaunal
surface dwellers, and small sessile epifauna. Highly motile
epifauna such as large gastropods, shrimps, crabs, and sea stars
(except the infaunal sea star, Ctenodiscus crispatus) are not
adequately collected by grab and will not be analyzed. Since
0.5 mm mesh fractions were collected and sorted, larger
representatives of the meiofauna that are retained quantitatively
by this screen will be analyzed. Thus, the following organisms are
included in the analyses: nematodes, tardigrades, ostracods,
harpacticoid copepods, tanaids and cumaceans. Although
Foraminifera were common at some stations, most specimens examined
were dead at the time of collection. Additionally, the sorting
time necessary to sort samples required that (up to 60 hours per
0.5 mm replicate) this group be deleted from the analyses. Thus,
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Foraminifera are not included in the analyses; however, all samples
containing large numbers of Foraminifera are archived.
All organisms will be identified primarily to Family or an
appropriate higher taxonomic level. Generic and specific
determinations for organism will be made whenever these categories
are known and will be recorded on the data sheets. The decision to
use higher taxonomic categories is expected to increase the speed
of processing samples. Earlier analyses of benthic samples
obtained at study sites shortly after the EVOS indicated that
species diversity was typically high. It was estimated that the
time necessary to determine taxa to generic and species levels
would result in a multifold increase in hours spent in sorting and
taxonomic identifications. Additionally, a recent paper by Warwick
(1988) and other papers (Rosenberg 1972; Heip et al. 1988) indicate
that better resolution of multivariate and other data emerges when
higher taxonomic levels are used. However, availability of generic
and specific names for common organisms allows an examination of
station data in more detail if any of these taxa are particularly
abundant at a site. All individuals are counted and weighed by
taxonomic group. Approximate carbon values for all wet-weights
will be calculated.
All data will be recorded on data sheets, entered on magnetic tape
and processed with the VAX computer at the University of Alaska
Fairbanks. Previously written programs at the University of Alaska
for comparison of rank abundance and biomass will be applied to the
PWS data. A diversity program will also be used to examine
differences and similarities between stations.
Numerical Analysis
Station groups and taxon assemblages for each year, and for the
combined data collected on subsequent cruises in future years, will
be identified using the technique of hierarchical cluster analysis.
Principal coordinate analysis will be used as an aid in the
interpretation of the cluster analysis of the data and to identify
the misclassification of stations by cluster analysis. Use of both
of these multivariate techniques will make it possible to examine
similarities (or dissimilarities) between groups of stations, and
should be useful when comparing oiled vs unoiled bays.
A Kruskal-Wallis and a multiple comparison test for significance
will be used to test for differences in the total abundance and
biomass between stations sampled each year and in multi-year data
sets. These tests will be made on the abundance and biomass of
selected, dominant taxa at stations between years. Taxa will be
chosen from the rank abundance and biomass printouts for each
station; taxa selected will generally be those commonly present
within bays being compared. However, taxa that are common at
stations within unoiled bays, but rare or missing at stations
within oiled bays, will also be tested. Analysis of variance
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(ANOVA) will also be used to test differences in abundance and
biomass between dominant taxa for stations at similar depths within
unoiled and oiled bays.
Various measures of diversity will be calculated, and compared
between stations at similar depths within unoiled and oiled bays.
The indices to be calculated and presented are: Shannon Diversity
(measures total diversity), Simpson Dominance (useful for
identifying dominance by one or a few taxa at a station) ,
Evenness, and Species Richness.
The K-dominance curves (Warwick 1986) that relate abundance and
biomass data will be used in an attempt to assess the effect of
hydrocarbons on benthic organisms in oiled bays. This is a recent
technique designed to detect pollution-induced disturbance on
marine benthic communities. However, there are problems of
interpretation of the output of this technique that must be
considered before environmentally-related conclusions can be drawn
(Gray 1989; Beukema, In press). Distributions of geometric classes
of abundance of species will also be calculated (Gray and Pearson
1982). Assessment of the distribution of taxa in these abundance
classes is often useful to identify indicator species within a
disturbed area.
Methodologies, rationale, and problems with the use of diversity
indices, K-dominance curves, and geometric abundance classes as
measures of pollution-induced disturbance are discussed in Bayne et
al. (1988), Gray et al. (1988) and Appendix C.
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Bartlett, M.S. 1936. The square root transformation in analysis
of variance. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
Supplement 3: 68-78.
Beukema, J.J. An evaluation of Warwick's abundance/biomass
comparison (ABC) method applied to macrozoobenthic communities
living on tidal flats in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Mar. Ecol.
Prog. Ser. In press.
Boesch, D.F. 1973. Classification and community structure of
macrobenthos of the Hampton Roads area, Virginia. Mar. Biol.
21:226-244.
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Boesch, D.F. and N.N. Rabalais. 1987. Long-term environmental
effects of offshore oil and gas development. Elsevier Applied
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Brillouin, L. 1962. Science and information theory. Academic
Press, New York, 169pp.
Cabioch, L., J.C. Dauvin, and F. Gentil. 1978. Preliminary
observations on pollution of the sea bed and disturbance of
sublittoral communities in Northern Brittany by oil from the
Amoco Cadiz. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 9:303-307.
Clifford, H.T., and W. Stephenson. 1975. An introduction to
Numerical Classification. Academic Press, New York, 229pp.
Day, J. H., J.G. Field and M.P. Montgomery. 1971. The use of
numerical methods to determine the distribution of the benthic
fauna across the continental shelf off North Carolina. J.
Animal Ecol. 40:93-123.
Dunn, O.J. 1964. Multiple comparisons using rank sums.
Technometrics 6:241-252.
Fager, F.W. 1972. Diversity: a sampling study. Am. Nat.
106:293-310.
Feder, H.M. and S.C. Jewett. 1981. Feeding interactions in the
eastern Bering Sea with emphasis on the benthos. In D. W.
Hood and J. A. Calder (eds.), The Eastern Bering Sea Shelf:
Oceanography and Resources. U.S. Dept. Commerce 2: 1229-1261.
Feder, H.M. and S.C. Jewett. 1987. The subtidal benthos. In D.W.
Hood and S.T. Zimmerman (eds.), The Gulf of Alaska. Physical
Environment and Biological Resources, Ocean Assessment Div.,
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Region, MMS 86-0095, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington,
D.C., pp 347-396.
Feder, H.M. and G.E.M. Matheke. 1980. Distribution, abundance,
community structure and trophic relationships of the benthic
infauna of the northeastern Gulf of Alaska. Inst. Mar. Sci.
Report R78-8, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks, 211pp.
Feder, H.M., G.J. Mueller, M.H. Dick and D.B. Hawkins. 1973.
Preliminary benthos survey, pp 305-386. In D.W. Hood, W.E.
Shiels and E.J. Kelley (eds.), Environmental Studies in Port
Valdez. Inst. Mar. Sci. Occas. Pub. No. 3, Univ. Alaska,
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Field, J.G. 1969. The use of numerical methods to determine
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Field, J.G. 1971. A numerical analysis of changes in the soft-
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J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 7:215-253.
Field, J. G., and G. MacFarlane. 1968. Numerical methods in
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3:119-253.
Gower, J.C. 1967. Multivariate analysis and multidimensional
geometry. Statistician 17:13-28.
Gower, J.C. 1969. A survey of numerical methods useful in
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Gray, J.S. 1989. Effects of environmental stress in species rich
assemblages. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 37:19-32.
Gray, J.S. and F.B. Mirza. 1979. A possible method for detecting
pollution-induced disturbance on marine benthic communities.
Mar. Pollut. Bull. 10:142-146.
Gray, J.S. and T.H. Pearson. 1982. Objective selection of
sensitive species indicative of pollution-induced change in
benthic communities. 1. Comparative methodology. Mar. Ecol.
Prog. Ser. 9:111-119.
Gray, J.S., M. Aschan, Mr. R. Carr, K.R. Clarke, R.H. Green, T.H.
Pearson, R. Rosenberg, and R.M. Warwick. 1988. Analysis of
community attributes of the benthic macrofauna of
Frierfjord/Langesundfjord and in a mesocosm experiment. Mar.
Ecol. Prog. Ser. 46:151-165.
Heip, C.R., M. Warwick, M.R. Carr, P.M.J. Herman, R. Huys, N. Smol
and K. VanHolsbeke. 1988. Analysis of community attributes
of the benthic meiofauna of Frierfjord/Langesundfjord. Mar.
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Hoberg, M.K. 1986. A numerical analysis of the benthic infauna of
three bays in Prince William Sound, Alaska. M.A. Thesis,
Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 153pp.
Hogan, M.E. and D.B. Irons. 1988. Waterbirds and marine mammals.
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Hurlbert, S.H. 1971. The nonconcept of species diversity: a
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Kineman, J.J., R. Elmgren and S. Hansson. 1980. The Tsesis Oil
Spill. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Marine Pollution
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Kruskal, W.H. W.A. Wallis. 1952. Use of ranks in one criterion
variance analysis. J. Amer. Stat. Assoc. 47:583-621.
Lance, G.N., W.T. Williams. 1966. Computer programs for
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analyses"). Comput. J. 9:60-64.
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McRoy, C.P. 1988. Natural and anthropogenic disturbances at the
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Mueller-Dombois, D. and H. Ellenberg. 1974. Aims and Methods of
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Pearson, T.H. 1975. Benthic ecology of Loch Linnhe and Loch Eil,
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Sager, P. and A.C. Hasler. 1969. Species diversity in lacustrine
phytoplankton. I. The components of the index of diversity
from Shannon's formula. Am. Nat. 102:243-282.
Sanders, H.L., J.F. Grassle, G.R. Hampson, L.S. Morse, S. Garner-
Price, and C.C. Jones. 1980. Anatomy of an oil spill: long-
term effects from the grounding of the barge Florida off West
Falmouth, Mass. J. Mar. Res. 38:265-380.
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communication. Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana, 177pp.
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Stephenson, W. and W.T. Williams. 1971. A study of the benthos of
soft bottoms. Sek Harbour, New Guinea, using numerical
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Stoker, S. 1978. Benthic invertebrate macrofauna of the eastern
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Dissertation, Inst. Mar. Sci., Univ. Alaska Fairbanks, 259pp.
Warwick, R.M. 1986. A new method for detecting pollution effects
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macrobenthos of Frierfjord/Langesundfjord at taxonomic levels
higher than species. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 46:167-170.
Warwick, R.M., T.H. Pearson and Ruswahyuni. 1987. Detection of
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BUDGET
Salaries $467.7
Travel 19.6
Contracts 90.8
Supplies 11.9
Equipment 2.5
Total $592.5
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SUBTIDAL STUDY NUMBER 3
Study Title: Bio-availability and Transport of Hydrocarbons
Lead Agencies: NOAA, DEC
INTRODUCTION
This study will continue to assess the geographic and temporal
distribution of dissolved and particulate hydrocarbons in the water
column resulting from the EVOS. Caged mussels will be used to
determine the bio-availability of suspended hydrocarbons. Sediment
traps provide a measure of suspended load as storms and clean up
activities expose remaining shoreline oil deposits to weathering.
Analysis of caged mussels at impacted sites will compare levels of
petroleum hydrocarbons with levels in mussels at unimpacted sites.
Levels of hydrocarbons in mussel tissue will demonstrate that
hydrocarbons are biologically available to biota in nearshore
waters.
In 1991, NOAA/NMFS will continue caged mussel deployments. Field
efforts will be reduced by placing mussels at ten sites in PWS for
two one month exposures, in addition to collection of indigenous
mussels at transplant sites.
In 1991, NOAA/NMFS will also begin the synthesis and interpretation
of hydrocarbon contamination data for mussels and seawater from
seven NRDA projects. This synthesis will provide information on
hydrocarbon exposure over a broad geographical area and temporal
duration.
DEC conducted two retrieval cruises in 1990 for the original set of
five sediment traps. Ten additional traps deployed in August 1990
will be retrieved in March 1991 after winter storms and before the
spring plankton bloom. Work in 1991 will concentrate all fifteen
traps at five sites to allow more intensive monitoring. The traps
will be retrieved again in June after the plankton bloom and
removed in September before winter storms.
OBJECTIVES
A. Evaluate trends in ambient water quality using bioaccumulators
Mytilus trossulus as surrogates for chemical measurements.
Estimate concentrations of petroleum derived hydrocarbons
accumulated by mussels transplanted for 1 or 2 months along
the oil spill trajectory such that the estimate is within 25%
of the actual concentrations 95% of the time.
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B. Synthesize all water and mussel hydrocarbon data in the
Technical Services 1 database to provide a comprehensive
geographic and temporal picture of trends in petroleum
hydrocarbon concentrations in the near shore water column.
C. Determine if sediments settling out of the water column in
nearshore subtidal environments contain adsorbed hydrocarbons.
D. Decipher subtidal oiled sediment transport mechanisms through
analysis of benthic sediments and stratigraphic analysis of
bottom cores.
METHODS
NOAA/NMFS
Experimental Design
Prior to a new deployment cruise, bay mussels, Mytilus trossulus,
will be collected from a hydrocarbon free site on Admiralty Island
in southeast Alaska. The mussels will be transported to Auke Bay
Lab and held in living stream tanks that have been rinsed with
dichloromethane and flushed with ambient unfiltered seawater at the
rate of 2 liters per minute at least overnight. Since mussel size
may influence hydrocarbon uptake (Bayne et al. 1981), only mussels
with shell length of 45-50 mm will be selected for deployment. At
least 30 animals from each collection will be sampled to determine
the population's base hydrocarbon level and condition.
Mussels will be kept aboard the deployment vessel in coolers and
the blue ice changed daily for up to 6 days. A mussel "cage" is a
nylon mesh diver collecting bag. For deployment, 20 mussels will
be placed on a rigid perforated polypropylene sheet fitted into the
bottom of each cage. Assuming some mortality during exposure, this
number was selected to provide at least triplicate samples of 10 g
of tissue for hydrocarbon analysis. On site, a cage will be
attached to an anchored mooring line at 1 m, 5 m, and 25 m depths.
The 2 shallower cage depths were selected to correspond to water
column depths sampled by this study in the first 6 weeks after the
spill; mussels at the third depth will be exposed to the water
column about 10 m above the bottom at low tide. Mussels will be
exposed for approximately 30 days. At the conclusion of each
deployment cruise another baseline mussel sample will be taken.
Details of deployment, exposed mussel collection, and sample
handling are provided in Air/Water 3 Study Plans 1989 and 1990.
Sampling 1991
Mussels will be deployed at ten 1990 sites within PWS. Eight sites
were in the spill trajectory and subject to maximum original oiling
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as indicated by preliminary analysis of water column samples
(Air/Water 3), sediment pore water samples (Air/Water 4), and by
DEC Shoreline Impact Composite Maps. All sites coincide with
Air/Water 2 sites and five coincide with Air/Water 3 sediment trap
locations. There are two reference sites. Deployment in 1991 will
indicate changes in hydrocarbon concentrations at these sites since
deployed mussels were last collected in September 1990. Additional
mussels may be collected in 1991 at specific sites in PWS where
hydrocarbon data is needed.
Data Synthesis
The geographic and temporal extent of water and mussel samples
collected, and of those submitted for hydrocarbon analysis will be
determined. Samples that have not yet been selected for analysis,
but that may be needed to provide a more complete documentation of
overall exposure levels, will be identified. Additional mussels
may be collected in 1991 at specific sites in PWS where hydrocarbon
data is needed.
Data Analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be used to determine the
statistical differences of hydrocarbons found in samples. ANOVA
will also be used to examine differences among water and mussel
samples in the data synthesis process.
Draft graphic presentations of the data synthesis of all NRDA
mussel samples will be prepared at Auke Bay Lab with Munmap and
Autocad. Final maps will be prepared by Technical Services No. 3.
DEC
Experimental Design
The sediment trap design incorporates guidelines developed from
previous sediment trap work with open-ocean moored traps and
laboratory flume studies (Woods Hole 1989). The original design of
the traps was only intended to capture sediments in the nearshore
subtidal habitat to show presence or absence of adsorbed
hydrocarbons, without quantification of flux rates. This is a
result of presence of the traps being deployed in the complex,
multidirectional, oscillatory current and wave environment of PWS
making control of variables difficult. The sedimentary processes
occurring in the area of a trap may be difficult or exorbitantly
expensive to monitor.
Theoretically, estimation of trapping efficiencies in the field may
be determined by use of three parameters:
(1) Reynolds Number, a function of current speed and the
ratio of fluid viscosity to fluid density,
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(2) aspect ratio (A) of height (H) to diameter (D), and
(3) the ratio of flow speed to particle fall velocities.
In short, the direction and velocity of any currents and the
geometry of the trap (aspect ratio and axial symmetry) will
determine if the trap disrupts the flow field and results in
turbulent eddies within and around the trap that will change any
naturally occurring sedimentation patterns. The spacing of the
traps determine whether they affect each other's trapping
efficiencies.
Based on the lack of data regarding currents, the traps were
designed so that the aspect ratio, symmetry, and spacing would be
adequate for a variety of conditions. The trapping cylinders are
constructed of Schedule 40, high chemical resistance PVC, (6"
inside diameter and 48" tall). A baffle of 0.5" square grid, 0.5"
deep fits flush with the top of each trap. These cylinders are
mounted on a 20" x 20" square base, with rebar extending 24" on
which the cylinders are clamped. Each trap suite contains three
cylinders. Design considerations follow the Woods Hole report
(1989) including:
(1) a cylindrical geometry for axial symmetry which promotes
trapping efficiency;
(2) an 8:1 aspect ratio to minimize eddies, reduce in-trap
flow, and allow for a tranquil layer within the trap for
current velocities to 20 cm/sec (0.39 knots). (In the
sheltered bays where most traps are deployed, currents
are probably within this range);
(3) a base in a triangular configuration that is oriented to
wave-induced shore-normal currents. Cylinders are spaced
at 18" centers and aligned to reduce chances any cylinder
would be downstream of another; and
(4) leveling after deployment to maintain orientation to
currents and the water column.
Sampling 1991
The 1991 sampling plan will locate traps along a transect to the
shore at three different depths. Fifteen sediment traps will be
deployed at five sites in 1991. At each site, divers will place a
suite of traps at 10, 15 and 20 meters below MLLW.
The sediment traps are designed and located to collect sediments
settling from the water column at single points throughout PWS.
Coordination with other studies provides for result extrapolation
both spatially and temporally. The trap sites have been matched
with sites used by Coastal Habitat previous DEC subtidal sampling,
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Subtidal 2, and NOAA caged mussels. Sediment chemistry data will
thus be available over time and from a larger area.
Knowledge is derived of current directions and velocity at the
sediment trap sites from qualitative observations of sedimentation
structures and drift patterns by the field team. Particle size,
settling velocities, and current measurements will aid in the
differentiation of bed-load movement versus resuspension (Visher
1969; Middleton 1976), delineation of erosional and depositional
events (Sundborg 1956), as well as allowing calculations of trap
efficiency. Differentiating between new sediment input to the
subtidal and cycling of previously deposited sediments will give a
better understanding of localized transport processes. Due to the
great distances fine sediment particles can travel before settling
out of the water column (in a current flow of lOcm/sec, a 0.06mm
silt particle may travel as far as 10 km before settling at 100
m.), coordination with Subtidal No. 1 deepwater sampling is
emphasized.
Data Analysis
Particulate samples from the sediment traps will be screened for
hydrocarbon content by ultraviolet fluorescence spectrophotometry
after methylene chloride extraction of samples. UVF is a
semiquantitative method of analysis for hydrocarbons (ASTM 1982).
Samples showing significant quantities of petroleum hydrocarbons
will be further analyzed for polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH) and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) according to
procedures established by Technical Services Study No. 1.
Particle size analysis will be performed by sieving the sample in
a stacked set of Wentworth grade sieves to 62 urn. Analysis of the
silt-clay fraction will be obtained by pipette analysis. Sediments
will be inspected for composition, and cores for sedimentary
structures.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASTM D-3650-78. Standard test method for comparison of waterborne
petroleum oils by fluorescence analysis.
Bassin, N.J., and T. Ichiye, 1977. Flocculation behaviour of
sediment and oil emulsions. J. Sedim. Petrol. 47(2): 671-677
Bayne, B.L., K.R. Clarke and M.N. Moore. 1981. Some practical
considerations in the measurement of pollution effects on
bivalve molluscs and some possible ecological consequences.
Aquatic Toxicolgy 1:159-174.
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Blount, A., 1978. Two years after the Metula oil spill, Strait of
Magellan, Chile - oil interaction with coastal environments.
Tech. Rept. No. 16-CRD, Coastal Research Division, Dept. of
Geology, Univ. of South Carolina, Columbia, S.C., 214 p.
Boehm, P.O., M.S. Steinhauer, D.R. Green, B. Fowler, B. Humphrey,
D.L. Fiest, W.J. Cretney. 1987. Comparative fate of
chemically dispersed and beached crude oil in subtidal
sediments of the arctic nearshore. Arctic 40 (1): 133-148.
Conover, R. J. 1971. Some relations between zooplankton and Bunker
C oil in Chedabucto Bay following the wreck of the tanker
Arrow. J. Fish. Res. Bd., Can. 28: 1327-1330.
Gundlach, E.R., C.H. Ruby, L.G. Ward, A.E. Blount, I.A. Fischer and
R.J. Stein. 1978. Some guidelines for oil-spill control in
coastal environments (based on field studies of four oil-
spills) In Proc. of 1977 ASTM sympos. on chem. dispersants for
the control of oil spills. Amer. Soc. Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, Penn. 32p.
Gundlach, E.R., P.D. Boehm, M. Marchand, R.M. Atlas, D.M. Ward,
D.A. Wolfe. 1983. The fate of Amoco Cadiz oil. Science 221:
122-129.
Middleton, G.V. 1976. Hydraulic interpretation of sand size
distribution. J. Geol. 84: 405-26.
Sundborg, A. 1956. The river Klaralven:
processes. Geogr. Ann. 38: 127-316.
a study of fluvial
Visher, G.S. 1969. Grain size distributions and depositional
processes. J. Sed. Petrol. 39: 1074-1106.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 1989. Sediment trap
technology and sampling. U.S. Global Ocean Flux Planning
Report Number 10, August, 1989.
Salaries
Travel
Contractual
Supplies
Vessel
TOTAL
NOAA
110.0
21.0
0.0
19.0
0.0
BUDGET
DEC
$69.0
10.3
11.5
2.2
103.2
150.0 $196.2
Totals
$179.0
31.3
11.5
21.2
103.2
$346.2
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SUBTIDAL STUDY NUMBER 4
Study Title: Fate and Toxicity of Spilled Oil From the Exxon
Valdez
Lead Agency: NOAA
INTRODUCTION
Overview and Relation to other Studies
This study is designed: a) to assess the toxicity of weathered
Exxon Valdez oil and its degradation products to selected test
organisms; and b) to integrate the results from selected other
projects, both within and outside the NRDA, into an overall budget
for the distribution, transport, transformation, and persistence of
spilled oil in Alaskan coastal environments. The study is very
closely coordinated with Subtidal Study No. 1 for its field work
and toxicity studies, and will require close interaction with all
of the present and past Air/Water studies, the Coastal Habitat
studies, and with related spill response studies for completion of
the spilled oil budget.
Toxicity of Prudhoe Bay Crude Oil and its Products of Weathering
Very limited information is available on the significance of either
the polar constituents of crude oil or the intermediate oxidation
products of petroleum hydrocarbons (whether from photooxidation or
biodegradation) in terms of their potential for bioaccumulation and
toxicity to resource organisms in the marine environment. Since
these compounds have undergone preliminary oxidation and
(sometimes) conjugation, they are more polar than their parent
hydrocarbons, and will as a result generally be more subject to
excretion or depuration, less subject to bioaccumulation, more
susceptible to further oxidation (or biodegradation if
accumulated), and more susceptible to dilution and dispersion in
the water column. A detailed review of the literature on these
topics was included as part of the study plan for this project last
year. Under this project very limited studies were initiated
during 1990 to determine whether such polar constituents pose a
significant risk of toxicity or mutagenicity to Alaskan marine
organisms as a result of the EVOS.
Acute Toxicity of Ambient Spilled Oil to Marine Organisms
Last year's study plan provided a review of the very considerable
body of literature that exists on the toxicity of Alaskan crude oil
to Arctic and subarctic marine organisms. The data base is
probably adequate for assessing the relative sensitivities of
different marine species to exposure and for estimating the range
of potential responses (at the organism level) that may result
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from a particular level of exposure in the environment. Very
little of this prior research on toxicity was directed, however, at
the specific contribution of either hydrocarbon metabolites or
other oxidation products of oil that may be produced by the
processes of biological or chemical weathering in the environment.
Much of the early work in this area focused on the acute toxicities
(generally 96-hour exposures) of water-soluble fractions (WSF) of
fresh Cook Inlet crude oil and Prudhoe Bay crude oil to a variety
of species and life stages of commercially or recreationally
important Alaskan marine organisms. Data on the acute toxicities
of crude oil to marine organisms of interest have been summarized
by Brodersen et al. (1977), Craddock (1977), Moles et al. (1979),
Rice et al. (1976, 1977, 1979, 1984), and National Academy of
Sciences (1985). Rice et al. (1981) demonstrated that the
compositions of the water-soluble fractions of Cook Inlet and
Prudhoe Bay crude oils were very similar both to one another and to
that of the discharge from the ballast treatment facility at
Valdez.
Sublethal effects of oil exposure have also been studied
extensively, through the use of long-term exposures (e.g., up to 40
days) to WSF of Alaskan crude oil, or of prolonged exposure to
oiled food or oiled sediments. Earlier work (which focused
primarily on temperate organisms and crude oils from sources other
than Alaska) was summarized by Anderson (1977), Johnson (1977),
and Patten (1977). During the late 1970's and early 1980's,
increased attention was given to arctic and subarctic organisms,
especially relative to Alaskan and Canadian oils, and some of this
more recent work has been reviewed by Rice et al. (1984) , Rice
(1985), Wolfe (1985), National Academy of Sciences (1985), and
Karinen (1988).
In conjunction with Subtidal Study No. 1, work was undertaken under
this project in 1990 to test the ambient toxicity of marine
sediments from PWS and the nearby GOA to two bioassay organisms:
the marine amphipod Ampelisca abdita and the oyster Crassostrea
gigas. Although results of this work have not been analyzed
completely, preliminary results indicate that sediments from oiled
sites in PWS were significantly more toxic to the bioassay species
than were sediments from unoiled or lightly oiled reference sites.
Fate of Spilled Oil: Budgets and "Mass Balance"
An accurate and complete mass balance is difficult to assemble for
a major oilspill in the marine environment. The quality of
estimates of the quantities and locations of oil affected by
different processes of transport or transformation have varied from
spill to spill, depending on the local circumstances of the spill
and the level of effort devoted to any particular process.
Selected observations at past spills have been summarized by Mackay
(1981), Gundlach et al. (1983), Jordan and Payne (1980), National
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Academy of Sciences (1985), and Wolfe (1985, 1987) . Information
especially pertinent for summarizing the fate of oil from the EVOS
has been and is still being gathered by the Interagency Response
Team and the DEC, and by certain projects under the NRDA Program:
especially Coastal Habitats Studies 1&2, A/W Studies 1-5,
Fish/Shellfish Study 24 and Technical Services Study 1. Oil
weathering models (Payne 1983, 1984) and transport/fate models
(Gait and Torgrimson 1979; Spaulding et al. 1983), constructed to
predict the distribution and fate of spilled oil, should also
provide valuable insight and assistance in preparation of a budget
for the oil spilled by the Exxon Valdez.
OBJECTIVES
A. Document the toxicity of contaminated sediments and related
environmental samples to selected marine biota
B. At selected sites, document and quantify the occurrence of
oxidized derivatives of Exxon Valdez oil; and determine the
extent to which the observed toxicity of oil-contaminated
environmental samples may be attributable to oxidation
products of petroleum.
C. Construct a summary budget or "mass balance" summarizing the
fate of the spilled oil.
METHODS
A. Toxicity of Oil-Contaminated Sediments And Other Environmental
Samples
A boat-based survey of surficial sediment toxicity was carried out
in 1989 under A/W Study No. 4, at all stations sampled during June
to August, 1989 (Leg II) . The toxicity bioassay used in that study
was the standard Microtox assay, in which a composite of the
replicate sediment samples obtained at each depth from each
sampling site is analyzed for sediment toxicity based on the
inhibition of bioluminescence in Photobacterium phosphoreum (15-min
Microtox assay). Organic extracts of the sediments were prepared
and assayed for toxicity by the methods of Schiewe et al (1985).
The Microtox assay is rapid, simple, inexpensive, and sensitive;
and the bioassay results have correlated well in other studies with
the results of other standard bioassays that use fish, amphipods
or bivalve larvae as test organisms (Chang 1981, Williams et al.
1986, Giesy et al. 1988). Results of the 1989 survey also
correlated with UV fluorescence analyses of oil in the sediment
samples.
Under A/W 6, toxicity tests were performed in 1990 on sediment
samples taken at selected sites sampled by A/W Study No. 2 from the
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NOAA ship Davidson. Two specific tests, both following
well-established protocols, were used: a sediment elutriate test
using larval oysters, and a whole sediment test using Ampelisca
abdita. Crassostrea is a standard bioassay species used to
represent intertidal and subtidal bivalve species whose larval
recruitment is vulnerable to interruption by toxic oil residues
remaining in intertidal sediments. Ampelisca inhabits soft
nearshore sediments that are possible sinks for petroleum.
Subtidal ampeliscid amphipods exhibited considerable sensitivity to
oil in the aftermath of the Amoco Cadiz spill (Cabioch et al.
1982). Use of these two species was intended to provide a direct
measure of the toxicity of the residual oil to actual marine
species. Preliminary test results from the 1990 samples indicated
that sediments from oiled sites were more toxic to both bioassay
organisms than were sediments from unoiled reference sites, and
both bioassays are proposed to be repeated in 1991 to determine
whether the toxicity has persisted and how its levels may have
changed.
Detailed methods for both of the proposed tests have been described
previously: for the oyster larvae bioassay (Chapman and Morgan
1983; Chapman and Becker 1986); and for the Ampelisca test (Long,
Buchman et al. 1989; Scott and Redmond 1990).
Sediment samples will be collected during one or more of the
sampling cruises described under Subtidal Study No. 1. Sampling
sites have been selected to represent the more heavily oiled areas
and a set of unoiled (or very lightly oiled) reference sites for
comparison. At each of 15 of the sites, eight one-liter samples
of surficial sediments (top 5 cm) will be collected (2 each at the
intertidal, 6-meter, 20-meter, and 100-meter depths) for toxicity
testing with Crassostrea and Ampelisca. These samples will be
stored at 0-4° C, and offloaded from the vessel at regular
intervals for shipment to a testing laboratory to be selected
through a competitive contracting procedure. Bioassays will be
initiated within 10 days of the collection of the samples.
B. Oxidation Products of Petroleum
Two contracts were initiated under this study (A/W 6) in 1990 to
determine the presence and significance of polar oxidation products
of petroleum in the marine environment of PWS.
At two heavily oiled sites and one lightly or unoiled site in PWS,
special samples were taken by a team of researchers from Science
Applications International Corporation, to assess the
concentrations and compositions of petroleum oxidation products,
and their toxicity, in intertidal sediments and interstitial water.
Large quantities of sediments and interstitial water were required
to support the necessary development of suitable techniques for
bulk fractionation of samples for chemical characterization and
quantification of the polar metabolites and for toxicity testing.
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The intertidal sediments and interstitial water were extracted with
methylene chloride, and the extracts were subjected to toxicity
testing with a suite of bioassays, including the standard Microtox
bioassay (Schiewe et al. 1985), the Ames mutagenicity test (Ames et
al. 1975), the SOS Chromotest assay for genotoxicity (Quillardet
and Hofnung 1985, Quillardet et al. 1985), and the Mytilus larval
toxicity bioassay. The extracts were then fractionated to separate
polar from non-polar constituents, and the toxicity of the polar
fractions will be compared with the better known toxicities of
aromatic fractions and reference compounds. Those fractions that
demonstrate significant toxicity will be analyzed by GC-MS to
identify the composition of polar constituents.
A second contract was let to Bermuda Biological Station for the
analysis of selected mussel (Mytilus trossulus) tissue samples for
polar oxidation products to ascertain whether these compounds were
present in, and bioaccumulated from, the oiled PWS environment.
At the time of this plan, results were not available from either of
these contracts. During 1991, the contractors' reports will be
received and evaluated, and final recommendations will be developed
on how to assess the probable toxicity of polar constituents
arising from the EVOS. These studies may lead also to
recommendations for analyses of polar constituents to supplement
the traditional hydrocarbon analyses being performed on
environmental samples taken by other projects within the overall
NRDA.
C. Budget for Fate of Spilled Oil
This task is primarily a synthesis function. Information on the
distribution and fates of Exxon Valdez oil needs to be assembled
from a number of sources, interpreted in the light of existing
information and models, and presented in a way that will support a
region-wide assessment of the potential effects of the spill.
During 1990, a small Steering Group of spill experts met to
identify the compartments and processes that should be included in
the FATES budget. The Steering Group identified the following
compartments for initial analysis and inclusion in the budget: 1.
Water Surface (floating oil), 2. Intertidal Zone (stranded oil),
3. Water Column (dissolved and accommodated oil), 4. Subtidal
Sediments (sunken and settled oil, or oil otherwise transported to
bottom sediments), 5. Atmosphere (evaporated oil). The actual
masses of oil in these different compartments are quite different,
and because of transfers among compartments as the spill was
transported through and out of PWS, the pertinent time and space
scales are also quite different. As a result, very different
estimation methods have been used (by different people) for the
various compartments. The Steering Group concluded therefore that
information for these five compartments would best be synthesized
separately, with appropriate effort to reconcile both the separate
216
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compartmental estimates as well as any estimates of fluxes between
compartments . For each compartment and its associated major
fluxes, the Steering Group identified and discussed important
sources of data, historical information, and modeling expertise,
and suggested preliminary courses of action, as summarized in the
report of the steering group meeting.
Potential sources of data, historical information, and modeling
expertise were identified for:
1. Floating oil (distribution in Time & Space)
2. Evaporation and atmospheric dispersion
3. Photooxidation in the atmosphere
4. Mousse formation
5. Beaching of oil & mousse (T&S)
6. Water column accommodation (T&S)
7. Photooxidation in water column, in
slicks and on beaches
8. Biodegradation in water column
9. Transport to subtidal sediments
10. Biodegradation in sediments
Representatives of the above noted activities, along with other
recognized experts on oil weathering and fates, will be consulted
for recommendations on appropriate approaches to synthesis, and for
their judgments on the suitability and adequacy of existing
information for development of the FATES model. Timely progress on
the FATES budget will depend on the availability of suitable
information from other sources and projects. Chemical data, i.e.,
from TS No. 1, will be of utmost importance to the completion of
this project. Where existing information is found to be deficient,
means will be explored for gathering of improved information. The
reliability of all estimates will be assessed and qualified in the
final analysis.
To the extent practical, lead individuals will be designated for
coordination and completion of the synthesis related to each of the
identified compartments, especially where those compartments and
processes are included explicitly in the NRDA. For example,
initial assessment of the hydrocarbon levels and weathering in
intertidal and subtidal sediments will be conducted under Subtidal
No. 1 (A/W 2), while the assessment of water column data will be
done under Subtidal No. 3 (A/W 3) . Effort should be made to
identify all sources of relevant data and information for each of
the individual compartments in the Fates budget. The synthesis for
each of the compartments should include estimates of the rates of
transport and transformation processes ongoing within and/or
between compartments, including such processes as mousse formation,
Photooxidation, biodegradation, evaporation, dissolution,
accommodation, chemical weathering and compositional change,
"bleeding" of sheen, adsorption-sedimentation, sinking, down-slope
transport of oiled sediments, etc. Following this initial
217
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synthesis at the compartmenta1 level, the results will be brought
together at a summary review and workshop to examine, explain, and
eliminate inconsistencies among data sets; and to encourage and
promote development of a single, complete, and accurate consensus
synthesis product for all components together. Every effort should
be made in advance of the workshop to compare and reconcile the
independent estimates of inter-compartmental transfers, however,
these will be scrutinized in detail at the workshop itself. The
final synthesis will include detailed assessments of the quality of
the data and information, including analytical confidence limits,
sampling adequacy in time and space, and model reliability. As
part of this analysis, the reliability of all estimates will be
assessed and qualified. Efforts will also be made to present
estimates of oil distribution in a form amenable to comparison with
existing information on toxicity to facilitate any subsequent
assessments of the potential effects on biological resources.
D. Quality Assurance and Control
All samples will be taken with careful adherence to
Chain-of-Custody requirements. All of the intertidal and subtidal
sediment samples analyzed under this study will be retained in the
custody of the laboratories performing the analyses, as called for
in the guidelines provided by the Technical Services No. 1
Analytical Committee. The detailed protocols for collection of
intertidal and subtidal sediment samples are given in past
proposals for Air/Water Study No. 2.
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Cabioch, L., J.-C. Dauvin, C. Retiere, V. Rivain, and D.
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Chang, J.C., P.B. Taylor, and F.R. Leach. 1981. Use of the
Microtox assay system for environmental samples. Bull.
Environ. Contam. and Tox. 26: 150-155.
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conducting laboratory bioassays on Puget Sound sediments. In;
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Chapman, P.M., and J.D. Morgan. 1983. Sediment bioassays with
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Craddock, D.R. 1977. Acute toxic effects of petroleum on arctic
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Academic Press, New York.
Gait, J.A. and G M. Torgrimson. 1979. An on-scene spill model for
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environment. May 7-9, 1979, Princeton, NJ., Dept. of Civil
Engineering, Princeton Univ.
Giesy, J.P., R.L. Graney, J.L. Newsted, C.J. Rosiu, A. Benda, R.G.
Kreis, Jr., and F.J. Horvath. 1988. Comparison of three
sediment bioassay methods using Detroit River sediments.
Environ. Toxicol. & Chem. 7: 483-498.
Gundlach, E.R., P.O. Boehm, M. Marchand, R.M. Atlas, D.M. Ward, and
D.A. Wolfe. 1983. The fate of Amoco Cadiz oil. Science 221:
122-129.
Johnson, F.G. 1977. Sublethal biological effects of petroleum
hydrocarbon exposures: bacteria, algae, and invertebrates.
Pp 271-318. In D.C. Malins (ed.) Effects of petroleum on
arctic and subarctic marine rnvironments and organisms. Vol.
II, Biological Effects. Academic Press, NY.
Jordan, R.R., and J.R. Payne. 1980. Fate and weathering of
petroleum spills in the marine environment: A literature
review and synopsis. Ann Arbor Science Publishers. Ann
Arbor, Michigan. 174 pp.
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Karinen, J.F. 1988. Sublethal effects of petroleum on biota. Pp.
294-328. In D.G. Shaw and M.J. Hameedi (eds.) Environmental
studies in Port Valdez, Alaska: A basis for management.
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Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
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biotransformation and the toxicity and fate of xenobiotic
chemicals in fish. Environ. Health Perspectives 35:115.
Long, E.R., M.F. Buchman et al. 1989. An evaluation of candidate
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Assessments Division, Seattle, WA. 106 pp. + appendices.
Mackay, D. 1981. Fate and behaviour of oil spills. Pp. 7-27. In
J.B. Sprague, J.H. Vandermeulen, and P.G. Wells (eds.) Oil
dispersants in Canadian seas-research appraisal and
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Moles, A., S.D. Rice, and S. Korn. 1979. Sensitivity of Alaskan
freshwater and anadromous fishes to Prudhoe Bay crude oil and
benzene. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 108(4): 408-414.
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fates, and effects. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Patten, B.C. 1977. Sublethal biological effects of petroleum
hydrocarbon exposures: fish. Pp. 319-335. In D.C. Malins
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environments and organisms. Vol. II, Biological Effects.
Academic Press, New York.
Payne, J.R. 1983. Oil-weathering computer program for multivariate
analysis of petroleum weathering in the marine environment-sub
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Payne, J.R. 1984. Multivariate analysis of petroleum weathering
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Quillardet, P., and M. Hofnung. 1985. The SOS-Chromotest, a
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Quillardet, P., 0. Huisman, R. D'Ari, and M. Hofnung. 1985. The
SOS-Chromotest, a colorimetric bacterial assay for genotoxins:
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79-95.
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environment. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, New York.
Rice, S.D., J.W. Short, and J.F. Karinen. 1976. Toxicity of Cook
Inlet crude oil and No. 2 fuel oil to several Alaskan marine
fishes and invertebrates. Pp. 394-406. In Sources, effects
& sinks of hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment. The
American Inst. of Biological Sciences, Washington, D.C.
Rice, S.D., J.W. Short, and J.F. Karinen. 1977. A review of
comparative oil toxicity and comparative animal sensitivity.
Pp. 78-94. In D.A. Wolfe (ed.) Fate and effects of petroleum
hydrocarbons in marine organisms and ecosystems. Pergamon
Press, New York.
Rice, S.D., A. Moles, T.L. Taylor, and J.F. Karinen. 1979.
Sensitivity of 39 Alaskan marine species to Cook Inlet crude
oil and No. 2 fuel oil. Pp. 549-443. In Proceedings, 1979
oil spill conference (prevention, behavior, control, cleanup).
American Petroleum Institute Publication No. 4308, Washington,
D.C.
Rice, S.D., S. Korn, C.C. Brodersen, S.A. Lindsay, and S.A.
Andrews. 1981. Toxicity of ballast-water treatment effluent
to marine organisms at Port Valdez, Alaska. Pp. 55-61. In
Proceedings, 1981 oil spill conference (prevention, behavior,
control, cleanup). American Petroleum Institute Publication
No. 4334, Washington, D.C.
Rice, S.D., A. Moles, J.F. Karinen, S. Korn, M.G. Karls, C.C.
Brodersen, J.A. Gharrett, and M.M. Babcock. 1984. Effects of
petroleum hydrocarbons on Alaskan aguatic organisms: A
comprehensive review of all oil-effects research on Alaskan
fish and invertebrates conducted by the Auke Bay Laboratory,
1970-1981. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA Tech. Memo.
NMFS/NWC-67. 128 pp.
Scott, J.K., and M.S. Redmond. 1990. The effects of a
contaminated dredged material on laboratory populations of the
tubiculous amphipod Ampelisca abdita. In U.M. Cowgill and
L.R. Williams (eds.) Aquatic toxicology and hazard assessment,
Vol. 12. ASTM STP 1027. Am. Soc. Testing Materials,
Philadelphia, PA.
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Shiewe, M.H., E.G. Hawk, D.I. Actor, and M.M. Krahn. 1985. Use of
a bacterial bioluminescence assay to assess toxicity of
contaminated marine sediments. Can. J. Fish, and Aquat.
Sci. 42: 1244-1248.
Spaulding, M.L., S.B. Saila, E. Lorda, H. Walker, E. Anderson, and
J.C. Swanson. 1983. Oil-spill fishery impact assessment
model: Application to selected Georges Bank fish species.
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Williams, L.G., P.M. Chapman and T.C. Ginn. 1986. A comparative
evaluation of marine sediment toxicity using bacterial
luminescence, oyster embryo and amphipod sediment bioassays.
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Wolfe, D.A. 1985. Fossil fuels: Transportation and marine
pollution. Chapter 2. Pp. 45-93. In Iver W.Duedall, Dana R.
Kester, P. Kilho Park and Bostwick H. Ketchum (eds.), Wastes
in the ocean, volume 4. Energy wastes in the ocean. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
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299-316. In K.L. Dickson, A.W. Maki, and W.A. Brungs (eds.),
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systems. Proc. of the 6th Pellston Workshop, Aug 12-17,
1984. Florissant, Colorado. Pergamon Press, Oxford, England.
BUDGET
Salaries $ 24.0
Travel/shipping 11.0
Contracts 85.0
Supplies 5.0
Total $125.0
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SUBTIDAL STUDY NUMBER 5
Study Title: Injury to PWS Spot Shrimp
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
This project will continue to determine possible damage to spot
shrimp, Pandalus platyceros, due to the EVOS. Spot shrimp are a
representative species of the deepwater nearshore benthic
ecosystem, serving as a food source for a variety of fish. They
are a commercially important species and also support subsistence
and personal use fisheries in PWS. This project is a continuation
of F/S Study No. 15 which was conducted during 1990-91.
Spot shrimp are known to be sensitive to oil contamination in both
the larval and adult phase, and the effects of oil on spot shrimp
in particular and shrimp in general are well documented (Anderson
et al. 1981; Brodersen et al. 1977; Brodersen 1987; Mecklenburg,
Rice and Karinen 1977; Sanborn and Malins 1980; Stickle et al.
1987; Vanderhorst 1976). To determine the . impacts that
hydrocarbons from the spill may have had on spot shrimp, samples
will again be collected from the three oiled and three non-oiled
sites in western PWS which had been surveyed in 1990. An
additional site will be used in 1991 to increase the sample size
for fecundity and modal analysis in the oiled area. The data
collected from the samples will be analyzed to determine tissue
hydrocarbon levels and tissue damage. The collected data will also
be tested to confirm or reject the hypothesis that there is no
significant difference in hydrocarbon levels between the oiled and
non-oiled areas. Relative abundance, in terms of catch per unit
effort, at each study site and changes in relative abundance over
time will be tested to determine possible relationships with the
level of oiling. A comparison with historical records will also be
made. The size composition of the stock at each site will be
estimated and, dependent upon recruitment to the fishing gear,
analyzed to determine whether the 1989 year class suffered a high
mortality rate in areas of high oil impact relative to other year
classes in non-oiled areas. Spot shrimp fecundity will also be
determined and tested for significant interannual differences
between oiled and non-oiled sites.
OBJECTIVES
Estimate the relative abundance by weight and sex of spot
shrimp and the relative abundance by weight of incidentally
caught pink and coonstripe shrimp in oiled and unoiled areas
and compare these values to those obtained during surveys in
1989 and 1990.
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B. Compare size and age frequencies of spot shrimp (by sex and
depth stratum) between sites using mixture modal analysis.
C. Estimate fecundity, egg mortality, and other sublethal
effects between oiled and unoiled areas over time, and
determine whether those effects result in adverse changes in
reproductive viability.
D. Analyze tissue and egg samples for presence of hydrocarbons
and compare differences between oiled and unoiled sites. Test
the hypothesis that the level of hydrocarbons is not related
to the level of oil contamination present at a site.
E. Document injury to tissues and compare differences between
oiled and unoiled sites if warranted by results from tissue
hydrocarbon analysis.
F. Provide information on stock status, hydrocarbon concentration
and other indicators of stock condition for restoration of
damages and management of the spot shrimp resource for
subsistence, personal and commercial user groups.
METHODS
This project uses commercial spot shrimp pots of a standardized
size to catch spot shrimp in oiled and unoiled areas. Shrimp
specimens will be analyzed for Prudhoe Bay crude oil levels and
necropsied to determine if damage has occurred to tissues as a
result of oil contamination. Only one sampling period will occur
during the winter of 1991-92. The sampling period will take place
in early November (1991) following the fall molt and egg extrusion.
Relative abundance estimates of spot shrimp will be made using a
stratified pot deployment based on depth and location. Size
distribution, species composition, and reproductive data will also
be collected. Previous spot shrimp research in PWS is documented
by Kimker and Donaldson (1987), Donaldson (1989), Donaldson and
Trowbridge (1989), and Kruse and Murphy (1989).
This project will be carried out in two general areas. One will be
an area of little apparent impact, the northwestern portion of PWS.
This area includes Unakwik Inlet, the site of previous ADF&G
research on abundance and growth of spot shrimp. The second area
will be central and southwestern PWS, an area of generally high oil
impact. This area includes Green Island where ADF&G test fishing
occurred in 1981. Within each of these two areas, fishing will
take place at three sites. In the northwestern sound, test fishing
will occur in Unakwik Inlet, Port Wells, and Culross Passage. In
the central and southwestern sound, test fishing will take place
near Herring Bay, Chenega Island, and Green Island. An additional
oiled site will be located at Elrington Passage to increase the
sample size for mixture modal analysis in 1991. Shrimp
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distribution in these areas has been established by surveying the
commercial fleet.
Fishing will take place at seven sites - four in oiled areas and
three in unoiled areas. Each site will be stratified by depth.
Stratum 1 will be shallow waters - 20 to 70 fathoms. Stratum 2
will be deep waters - 70 to 120 fathoms. Based on past research,
spot shrimp are not abundant below those depth ranges. Because of
the difficulty of placing the gear at precise depths, it is
impractical to divide the depth into more than two strata. Strata
span 50 fathoms in depth or approximately 65 to 85 fathoms in width
along the bottom at slopes of 75 to 100 percent. Fishing a 100
fathom string will span the width of each strata and allow for a
complete placement of gear over the strata.
Eleven pots spaced 10 fathoms apart will be fished on a long line
so that each string of pots is 100 fathoms long. One 100 fathom
string of gear constitutes a sampling station. Two stations will
be fished in each stratum at each site for a total of 22 pots per
stratum per site, or 44 pots per site. Forty-four pots is the most
that can be fished in a day while collecting all of the various
samples and data. If necessary, pots will be redeployed an
additional day at each site and at each depth until a minimum of
500 shrimp are captured per depth stratum. A total of 264 pots
will be fished during each time period.
Water temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen concentration by
depth will be recorded using a CTD, transferred from the CTD to a
micro-computer and stored on diskette. CTD casts will be at one
station in the deep stratum every day. The CTD will be lowered at
a rate of 60 meters per minute. Because of the configuration of
the CTD, only readings from the downcast will be used.
Total weight of catch, sub-sample weight, and the weight of each
species in a sub-sample will be recorded for each pot on a paper
form at the time the pot is retrieved. The total weight of shrimp
per pot will be determined by weighing the contents of each pot on
an electronic scale. Spot shrimp that are removed as hydrocarbon
samples will be accounted for in the total weight by adding weight
representative of the number and size of shrimp removed. The
average number of shrimp per kilogram will be determined. If less
than 500 shrimp are estimated to be contained in all of the pots,
all of the shrimp will be sampled. If the pots are estimated to
contain more than 500 shrimp, a constant proportion by weight of
each pot will be sampled for a total sample of 500 shrimp.
Each sub-sample will be sorted by species. Weight and number of
animals will be recorded for each species. Only spot shrimp will
be retained for further data collection. All spot shrimp in the
sub-sample will be measured for carapace length to the nearest 0.1
millimeter using a digital caliper and sex will be determined as
juvenile, male, transitional, or female. For female spot shrimp,
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egg color and stage of development (eyed or uneyed); relative
clutch size; presence of breeding dress and egg parasites or
parasitic externa will be noted. Each female retained for
fecundity analysis will be identified with a code number to allow
cross reference of fecundity and other data.
Specimens for necropsy analysis will be taken after the catch is
weighed and processed. Twenty shrimp from a single station in each
stratum will be selected randomly to make up a necropsy sample.
Necropsy samples will be labeled with the date, station number,
latitude and longitude, sample number, project leader's name,
species, and agency.
To prevent contamination, specimens for hydrocarbon testing will be
taken from the pot immediately after removal from water and before
contents are weighed. Three spot shrimp will form one composite
sample. Each composite will be taken from a different pot. Two
replicates of the composite will be taken randomly from one station
in the stratum and the third replicate will come from the other
station. Three samples per site per depth stratum result in 12
samples per depth stratum (four sites X three samples) for the
oiled area, and nine samples (3 sites x 3 samples) per depth
stratum in the unoiled area. Twenty four samples (12 samples x 2
depth strata) will be taken in the oiled area and 18 samples (9
samples x 2 depth strata) in the unoiled area. This will allow
hypothesis testing to detect differences in hydrocarbon levels of
1.2 standard deviations with the probability of a type I or type II
error being 0.05 and 0.10, respectively.
The number of specimens for one hydrocarbon analysis is dependent
on the size of the specimens collected. Tissue volume based on the
average size of the species was estimated and the number of
specimens needed to provide 15 gm of tissue was calculated to be
three spot shrimp. It is estimated that three hydrocarbon samples
from each treatment level are needed for detecting contamination
between levels.
Twenty five egg-bearing females will be taken at random from each
station to estimate fecundity and egg mortality. A total of 28
stations will yield a total sample size of 700 females. Specimens
from each station will be individually labeled. Each sample bag
will be labeled with project leader's name, species name, "eggs",
date, station, and agency name.
Fecundity will be determined by removing the eggs from the
pleopods, drying each egg mass to a constant weight, weighing a
sub-sample of a known number of eggs, and expanding the sub-sample
weight to the weight of the entire clutch. Carapace length will be
taken for each specimen at the time of subsampling and assigning a
fecundity number.
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A minimum number of five shrimp from each station will be sampled
for fecundity which will allow an adequate sample (30 per depth
strata per oil impact level) to test for differences in fecundity
between depth strata and oil impact level.
Objective A will be addressed by estimating the average catch per
pot by weight, sex, and species. ANOVA will be used to test for
significant differences in each of these categories between strata
(depth), sites, and oiled versus unoiled areas. To define the
relationship between hydrocarbon levels and changes in relative
abundance, statistics for analysis of covariance or an appropriate
multivariate technique will be calculated to contrast differences
in hydrocarbon content and relative abundance in oiled and unoiled
areas. Changes in average catch per pot over time will also be
analyzed between different depth strata, sites, and oiled and
unoiled areas.
A size frequency distribution will be made by sex to address
Objective B. The hypothesis that there is no significant
difference between strata, and oil impact levels for size frequency
distribution will by tested using quantile-quantile plots, chi-
square tests or other appropriate methods. A t-test or a similar
non-parametric test will be used to test for similarity in means.
To meet Objective C, the relationship between size and fecundity
will be examined. The percentage of spot shrimp females bearing
eggs; the stage of spot shrimp egg development (color and presence
or absence of eyes); the percentage of spot shrimp egg fouling and
egg mortality; the fecundity by size; and the relative clutch size
will be determined for each station. Chi-square tests will be used
to test for differences in strata, sites and levels in data which
involve percentages and proportions. Differences between strata,
sites, and impact levels for fecundity and relative size of clutch
will be tested for using analysis of variance.
To address Objectives D and E, the average levels of oil present in
spot shrimp tissue by strata and site will be estimated.
Significant differences in hydrocarbon concentrations between oiled
and unoiled sites will be tested by analysis of variance. To
further define the impact of hydrocarbon levels on the stock, the
percentage of animals with abnormal tissues in oiled and unoiled
areas will be determined. A chi-square test will be utilized to
test for significant differences in percentage of animals with
abnormal tissues between strata, sites, and impact levels.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, J.W., S.L. Kiesser, R.M. Bean, R.G. Riley, and B.L.
Thomas. 1981. Toxicity of chemically dispersed oil to shrimp
exposed to constant and decreasing concentrations in a flowing
system. In 1981 Oil spill conference (prevention, behavior,
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control, cleanup), Proceedings. Washington D.C. American
Petroleum Institute, pp. 69-75.
Brodersen, C.C., S.D. Rice, J.W. Short, T.A. Mecklenburg, and J.F.
Karinen. 1977. Sensitivity of larval and adult Alaskan
shrimp and crabs to acute exposures of the water-soluble
fraction of Cook Inlet crude oil. In 1977 Oil spill
conference (prevention, behavior, control, cleanup),
Proceedings. Washington, D.C. American Petroleum Institute.
pp. 575-578.
Brodersen, C.C. 1987. Rapid narcosis and delayed mortality in
larvae of king crabs and kelp shrimp exposed to the water-
soluble fraction of crude oil. Mar. Environ. Res. 22:233-239.
Donaldson, W. 1989. Synopsis of the Montague Strait experimental
harvest area 1985 - 1988. Alaska Department of Fish and Game,
Division of Commercial Fisheries, Regional Information Report
No. 2C89-04. 21 pp.
Donaldson, W. and C. Trowbridge. 1989. Effects of rigid mesh
panels on escapement of spot shrimp (Pandalus platyceros) from
pot gear. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of
Commercial Fisheries, Regional Information Report No. 2C89-05.
22 pp.
Kimker, A. and W. Donaldson. 1987. Summary of 1986 streamer tag
application and overview of the tagging project for spot
shrimp in Prince William Sound. Alaska Department of Fish and
Game, Division of Commercial Fisheries, Prince William Sound
Management Area Data Report 1987-07.
Kruse, G. and P. Murphy. 1989. Summary of statewide shrimp
workshop held in Anchorage during October 24-26, 1988.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial
Fisheries, Regional Information Report No. 5J89.
Mecklenburg, T.A., S.D. Rice, and J.F. Karinen. 1977. Molting and
survival of king crab (Paralithodes camtschatica) and
coonstripe shrimp (Pandalus hypsinotus) larvae exposed to Cook
Inlet crude oil water-soluble fraction. In D.A. Wolfe (ed.).
Fate and effects of petroleum hydrocarbons in marine
ecosystems and organisms. Pergamon Press, New York, NY. pp.
221-228.
Sanborn, H.R. and D.C. Malins. 1980. The disposition of
aromatichydrocarbons in adult spot shrimp (Pandalus
platyceros) and the formation of metabolites of naphthalene in
adult and larval spot shrimp. Xenobiotica. 10(3):193-200.
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Stickle, W.B., M.A. Kapper, T.C. Shirley, M.G. Carls, and S.D.
Rice. 1987. Bioenergetics and tolerance of the pink shrimp
(Pandalus borealis) during long-term exposure to the water-
soluble fraction and oiled sediment from Cook Inlet crude oil.
In W.B. Vernberg, A. Calabrese, F.P. Thurberg, and F.J.
Vernberg (eds.). Pollution physiology of estuarine organisms.
Belle W. Baruch Libr. Mar. Sci. 17, Univ. S. C. Press,
Columbia, pp. 87-106.
Vanderhorst, J.R., C.I. Gibson, and L.J. Moore. 1976. Toxicity of
No. 2 fuel oil to coonstripe shrimp. Mar. Poll. Bull.
7(6):106-108.
BUDGET
Personnel Services $ 35.0
Travel 1.5
Contractual 12.0
Supplies 1.5
Equipment 0.0
Total $ 50.0
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SUBTIDAL STUDY NUMBER 6
Study Title: Injury to Demersal Rockfish and Shallow
Reef Habitats in PWS and Along the Lower KP
Lead Agency: ADF&G
INTRODUCTION
In light of the findings of potential impacts on rockfish
populations continued study of demersal rockfish populations and
shallow reef habitats is warranted for 1991. Unlike many species
of marine fish, demersal rockfish complexes are relatively
sedentary, residing near rocky reefs and boulder fields. The
potential impact of the oil spill on various nearshore assemblages
is dependent upon location of various rockpiles. The potential
uptake of various contaminants will be related to the level of oil
contamination and food web characteristics of these reefs. Of
primary importance are questions of transport of oil to subsurface
habitats and the potential for residual persistence of this
contamination. Khan (1987) reports that crude oil can contaminate
sediments and persist for long periods of time in the environment.
Under these conditions, the petroleum hydrocarbons can exert a
broad range of effects on animals, from impaired feeding, growth,
reproduction, and changes in behavior; to tissue and organ damage,
damage to blood cells, changes in enzyme activity and changes in
parasite densities (Khan 1986; Khan 1987; Kiceniuk and Khan 1986;
Rice 1985; Wennekens et al. 1975; Malins et al. 1977; Rice et al.
1977; Gundlach et al. 1983; Hose et al. 1987; Spies et al. 1982).
These possible affects are especially critical to demersal rockfish
since they are long-lived, recruitment is low, and the potential
for long-term stock decline due to chronic exposure to crude oil is
high. Continuation of this study will help determine long term
histopathological effects on the fish and will quantify the extent
to which hydrocarbons persist in the environment.
Only limited baseline data are available for rockfish populations
in PWS and along the lower Kenai Peninsula (LKP). Rockfish were
studied as part of a study of nearshore fish assemblages during the
years 1977-1979 in PWS (Rosenthal 1980) and Morrison studied select
reefs along the LKP during 1980 through 1984. These investigations
provided descriptions of selected rockfish populations including
estimates of species and prey composition, density, length and age
composition.
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OBJECTIVES
A. Determine the presence or absence of hydrocarbons in demersal
rockfish, benthic suspension feeders, and sediments from two
control and two treatment sites in PWS and two control and two
treatment sites along the LKP.
B. Determine the physiological effects resulting from oil
contamination through histopathological examination of six
organs, enzyme activity, and the examination of developing
embryos.
C. Determine the feasibility of using otolith microstructure to
evaluate depressed growth as a result of oil contamination.
METHODS
Eight sites (four oiled and four control) in PWS and along the LKP
will be sampled in 1991. Demersal species of rockfish,
unconsolidated benthic sediments and sessile suspension feeders
will be collected at each sample location for analysis of
hydrocarbons. From the results of these analyses the mechanism of
hydrocarbon uptake in demersal rockfish and the extent to which
hydrocarbons persist in reef ecosystems may be determined. The
effects of sublethal hydrocarbon contamination in demersal rockfish
will be determined through histopathological examination of six
organs; evaluation of enzyme activity; examination of developing
embryos; and examination of otolith microstructure. Results will
be compared between oiled and control sites.
Sample sites will be the same as those established in 1990. A
systematic sampling design will be used to identify sampling sites
within each reef. Transects will be established at discrete depths
by deploying an anchor line along specific contours of the reef and
each end will be marked by anchored flag pole assemblies.
Coordinates, length, depth, and orientation of the transect will be
recorded. The actual number of sample sites will depend on the
length of the transect and the orientation of the reef in the ocean
currents. Sampling will be conducted during late July and early
August which is the time frame that consistent with 1990 sampling
and also the time frame that Rosenthal (1980) identified as near
the peak abundance of rockfish in nearshore areas. Collection
methods for finfish, sediment, and sessile invertebrates are
outlined below.
Fifteen adult demersal rockfish (target primarily yelloweye
rockfish Sebastes ruberrimus) will be collected at each sample site
using hook and line jigging techniques. Baited lures will be
lowered to the substrate and raised enough to allow for adequate
jigging action. When a fish is on the line it will be retrieved
slowly in order to allow the air bladder to equilibrate and prevent
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extrusion of the stomach and regurgitation of its contents. Where
hook and line techniques do not yield results, divers will verify
the presence or absence of demersal rockfish assemblages, and if
present, collect them using spear guns. Stomach contents will be
collected to determine composition of the prey species and for
analysis of hydrocarbons. Species identification of adult rockfish
will be accomplished using the methods of Kramer and O'Connell
(1988) and Hart (1973).
Fifty juvenile demersal rockfish will be collected using variable
mesh, monofilament gillnets set in the shallow areas of the reef
and in intertidal zones adjacent to the reefs. Given estimated
proportions of 0.6 and 0.2 respectively, sample size was determined
(Zar 1984) to be 50, where a =.05. Species identification of
juvenile rockfish species will be accomplished using the methods of
Matarese et al. (1989).
Nine sediment samples will be collected at each sample site by
divers outfitted with SCUBA equipment prior to the collection of
air-lift samples outlined above. Each sample will be collected
from the upper two centimeters of substrate and stored in
hydrocarbon-free four ounce jars. Each jar will be filled
approximately one-third full. Excess water will be poured off at
the surface and the sample will be frozen. Three sediment samples
will be collected at each reef.
Three samples of sessile filter feeders will be collected from each
reef by divers outfitted with SCUBA equipment. Each sample will
consist of pieces of two or three sessile filter feeders. Enough
samples will be collected to at least half fill a 4 oz. hydrocarbon
sampling jar.
Samples collected will be handled differently depending upon the
data required and type of analysis being conducted. The following
sections explain each type of preparation that will be used. Most
samples collected will be used for only one type of analysis;
however, each rockfish captured will be used or prepared for a
variety of purposes. Rockfish will be processed in the following
specific order: 1) rockfish will be measured to the nearest
millimeter (fork length) and weighed to the nearest gram for
calculation of condition factor; 2) tissue will be sampled for
hydrocarbon analysis and histopathological evaluation according to
procedures outlined in proceeding sections; and, 3) otoliths will
be removed for later age determination.
Length (fork length), to the nearest millimeter, and weight, to the
nearest gram, will be used to calculate a relative condition
factor. Condition factors will be calculated for all rockfish
captured.
Ten of the 15 rockfish (Rice 1990) collected at each reef will be
prepared for hydrocarbon analysis. All samples will be collected
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from live fish. Bile samples will be collected first by removing
the whole gall bladder and emptying the bile into 0.5 oz. amber
sampling jars. Ten grams each of stomach, pyloric caeca, liver,
and muscle tissue will be collected from each rockfish. Each
tissue type will be stored in separate 4 oz. sampling jars.
Fifteen live demersal rockfish, including the ten sampled for
hydrocarbons, will be collected at each reef for histopathological
analysis and processed under the guidelines outlined by the
Histopathology Technical Group (Meyers 1989). One centimeter
sections of tissue will be removed from the following organs:
liver, spleen, kidney, gills, gonads, and eyes. All developing
embryos will be collected and preserved in a neutral buffered
formalin solution.
Sagittal otolith pairs will be collected from 50 juvenile yelloweye
rockfish (measuring less than 200 mm) from each reef. Age
validation studies involving daily growth increments, such as
Boehlert and Yoklavich (1987), typically utilize otoliths from
juveniles because growth is deposited more rapidly, and
physiological checks and daily growth increments are more visible.
Upon collection, otoliths will be rinsed and stored dry in pairs in
coin envelopes.
Juvenile otoliths will be prepared for examination following
methods outlined by Boehlert and Yoklavich (1987). Otoliths will
be viewed, under transmitted light with a compound microscope at
400X magnification. Presence and location of hyaline zones
comprising annuli, daily growth increments, and checks resulting
from physiological factors including a reduction in growth will be
examined. The feasibility of distinguishing differences in the
type of zones will be explored by measuring the width of growth
zones deposited over consecutive periods of time (days and years).
Where physiological checks are clearly discernible from annuli, the
presence of checks will be determined with respect to annuli.
Checks deposited within the growth zone of the previous year will
be noted. The proportion of otoliths containing checks within this
growth zone will be compared between control and treatment groups.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis will consist primarily of the comparison of results
between control and treatment groups for each of the following:
LeCren's relative condition factor (KJ (Anderson and Gutreuter
1983) will be calculated for each adult and juvenile rockfish. The
mean condition factor for adult and juvenile rockfish for each reef
will be calculated and differences between control and treatment
groups will be tested using ANOVA.
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Rockfish tissues, sessile filter feeders, and sediments will be
analyzed for the presence of hydrocarbons. Proportions of
contaminated samples in each category will be compared between
control and treatment groups.
For each species the proportion of treatment sites containing
contaminated samples will be compared to the proportion of control
sites with contaminated samples using a two-sampled z-test from Zar
(1984).
Tissues will be examined for histopathological abnormalities and
enzyme activity by a qualified laboratory. The proportion of
samples showing evidence of histopathological abnormalities will be
compared between control and treatment groups for each tissue type
using the z-test from Zar (1984).
Otoliths from juvenile demersal rockfish will be examined as
described in the methods section. Proportion of otoliths
containing checks between the last two annuli will be compared
between control and treatment groups using the z-test from Zar
(1984). Age composition and mean length-at-age will be calculated
for each species of rockfish.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, R.O., and S.J. Gutreuter. 1983. Length, weight, and
associated structural indices. Chapter 15 In L.A. Neilson and
D.L. Johnson eds., Fisheries techniques, American Fisheries
Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Boehlert, G.W. and M.M. Yoklavich. 1987. Daily growth increments
in otoliths of juvenile black rockfish, Sebastes melanops: An
evaluation of autoradiography as a new method of validation.
Fish. Bull. 85 (4): 826-832.
Chess, J.R. 1978. An airlift sampling device for in situ
collecting of biota from rocky substrate. Mar. Tech. Soc. J.
12:20-23.
Gundlach, E.R., P.D. Boehm, M. Marchand, R.M. Atlas, D.M. Ward, and
D.A. Wolfe. 1983. The fate of Amoco Cadiz oil. Sci.
221:122-129.
Hart, J.L. 1973. Pacific fishes of Canada. Bulletin 180, Fish.
Res. Board of Can. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, pp. 388-453.
Hose, J.E., J.N Cross, S.G. Smith and D. Deihl. 1987. Elevated
circulating erythrocyte micronuclei in fishes from
contaminated sites in California. Mar. Environ. Res. 22:167-
176.
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Khan R.A. 1986. Effects of chronic exposure to petroleum
hydrocarbons on two species of marine fish infected with
hemoprotozoan, Trypanosoma muranensis. Can. J. Zool. 65:2703-
2709.
Khan R.A. 1987. Crude oil and parasites in fish. Parasitology
Today 3:99-102.
Kiceniuk J.W. and R.A. Khan. 1986. Effects of petroleum
hydrocarbons on Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, following chronic
exposure. Can. J. Zool. 65:490-494.
Kramer, D.E. and V.M. O'Connell. 1988. Guide to northeast Pacific
rockfishes genera Sebastes and Sebastolobus. University of
Alaska Marine Advisory Bulletin No. 25.
Malins, D.C., E.H. Gruger, Jr., H.O. Hodgins, N.L. Karrick, and
D.D. Weber. 1977. Sublethal effects of petroleum
hydrocarbons and trace metals, including biotransformations,
as reflected by morphological, chemical, physiological,
pathological, and behavioral indices. DCS Energy Assessment
Program. Seattle, Washington.
Manen, C. A., Chairperson. 1989. State/federal damage assessment
plan. Analytical Chemistry Group, National Marine Fisheries
Service, Auke Bay, Alaska.
Matarese A.C., A.W. Kendall Jr., D.M. Blood, and B.V. Vinter. 1989.
Laboratory guide to early life history stages of northeast
Pacific fishes. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 80. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Adm., National Marine Fisheries Service.
Seattle, Washington 98115. 625 pp.
Meyers, T. R., Chairperson. 1989. State/federal damage assessment
plan. Histopathology Technical Group, Alaska Department of
Fish and Game, Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement, and
Development Division, Juneau, Alaska.
Rice, S.D., J.W. Short, and J.P. Karinen. 1977. Comparative oil
toxicity and comparative animal sensitivity. In D.A. Wolfe,
ed., Fate and effects of petroleum hydrocarbons in marine
organisms and, ecosystems, proceedings, Pergamon Press, New
York. Pp. 78-94.
Rice, S.D. 1985. Effects of oil on fish. Pp. 157-182. In F.R.
Engelhardt ed. Petroleum effect in the arctic environment.
Pp. 157-182. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London.
Rosenthal, R.J., V. Moran-O'Connell and M. C. Murphy. 1988.
Feeding ecology of ten species of rockfishes (Scorpaenidae)
from the Gulf of Alaska. Calif. Fish and Game 74:16-37.
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Rosenthal, R.J. 1980. Shallow water fish assemblages in
northeastern Gulf of Alaska: habitat evaluation, species
composition, abundance, spatial distribution and trophic
interaction. Prepared for NOAA, OCSEAP Program. 84 pp.
Rubin, J. 1988. A review of petroleum toxicity and fate in the
marine environment, with implications for the development of
a penalty table for spilled oil. Institute for Marine
Studies, University of Washington. Seattle, Washington.
Spies, R.B., J.S. Felton, and L. Dillard. 1982. Hepatic mixed-
function oxidases in California flatfishes are increased in
contaminated environments by oil and PCB ingestion. Mar.
Biol. 70:117-127.
Wennekens, M. P., L. B. Flagg, L. Trasky, D. C. Burbank, R.
Rosenthal, and F. F. Wright. 1975. Anatomy and potential
costs of an oil spill upon Kachemak Bay. Alaska Department of
Fish and Game, Habitat Protection Section. Anchorage, Alaska.
Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice Hall, Inc.,
Edgewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
BUDGET
Personnel $ 40.9
Travel 2.7
Services 63.6
Supplies 11.8
Equipment 1.0
Total $120.0
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SUBTIDAL STUDY NUMBER 7
Study Title: Assessment of Oil Spill Impacts on Fishery
Resources: Measurement of Hydrocarbons and Their
Metabolites, and Their Effects
Lead Agency: NOAA
INTRODUCTION
Because petroleum and its components may cause severe injury to
fishery resources, monitoring of the nearshore fisheries resources
of PWS. Such monitoring will include measurement of petroleum
exposure and short-term effects, as was done in the summer and fall
of 1989 and the summer of 1990. This study will continue to
encompass a selected assessment of long-term biological effects,
including measurements of reproductive dysfunction and
histopathological lesions of liver, gill, kidney, and gonad, as was
done in the summer of 1990 (Varanasi et al. 1990, 1991). However,
the scope of the 1991 study is reduced substantially compared to
studies done in 1989 and 1990, in that the primary study area will
be limited to PWS, and fewer species will be examined. This
narrowing of focus reflects findings of the previous two years, and
is aimed at continuing only those portions of the study which are
most likely to assist in documentation of injury. This study will
also include the measurement of petroleum exposure and possible
effects in pollock from PWS and the Shelikof Strait.
Certain petroleum components [e.g. AHs] may cause reproductive
toxicity and teratogenicity in rodents (Shum et al. 1979; Gulyas
and Mattison 1979; Mattison and Nightingale 1980). Similarly,
reproductive impairment has been noted in benthic fish residing in
contaminated areas of San Francisco Bay (Spies and Rice 1988) and
southern California (Cross and Hose 1988). Moreover, English sole
from areas of Puget Sound having high sediment concentrations of
AHs showed inhibited ovarian maturation (Johnson et al. 1988), and
fish from these areas that did mature often failed to spawn after
hormonal treatment to induce spawning (Casillas et al. 1991). In
general, reproductive impairment (including reduced plasma levels
of the sex steroid, estradiol) was found in English sole which
showed evidence of exposure to aromatic compounds. Moreover,
laboratory studies have shown that plasma levels of estradiol are
reduced in gravid female English sole exposed to chemical
contaminants extracted from urban sediments (Stein et al. 1991).
More importantly, our preliminary laboratory studies have shown
that exposure to Prudhoe Bay crude oil reduced plasma levels of
estradiol in gravid female rock sole. The continued assessment of
possible reproductive dysfunction in animals from impacted areas
will be very important in determining biological damage to living
marine resources as a result of the EVOS. Histological examination
of ovaries of selected species will be performed to determine if
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ovarian maturation is being affected in animals from oil-impacted
areas. Fecundity and levels of plasma estradiol in these same
animals will be determined. Combined with measurements of
petroleum exposure (e.g. metabolites in bile and enzyme activities
in liver, these studies will allow estimation of the degree of
reproductive dysfunction which may be occurring in oil-exposed
fish.
Exposure of animals to crude oil may also result in changes at the
tissue and cellular levels (National Academy of Sciences 1985).
Examples of such changes after exposure of fish to oil-contaminated
sediments include liver hypertrophy and fatty liver in winter
flounder (Payne et al. 1988) and the occurrence of hepatocellular
lipid vacuolization in English sole (McCain et al. 1978). Certain
AHs (e.g., benzo[a]pyrene) are known carcinogens in rodents and
fish (Lutz 1979; Bailey et al. 1989), and studies with several
bottomfish species show that, of the xenobiotic chemicals in
sediments, AHs are most strongly associated with high prevalences
of liver lesions, including neoplasms (Myers et al. 1987; Varanasi
et al. 1987; Baumann 1989). Generally, histopathological lesions
of the types noted above do not become manifest until at least
several months after exposure. However, by the summer of 1991,
fish in and around oil impacted sites will have potentially been
exposed to petroleum components for more than two years.
Moreover, there are some published data which suggest that
histopathological changes have occurred in some fish species as a
result of exposure to oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez (Khan et
al. 1990).
Preliminary studies in 1990 suggested that pollock were being
exposed to petroleum both inside and outside PWS. This study has
been expanded to cover assessment of exposure and possible
associated biological effects in pollock, both inside and outside
PWS.
Briefly, this study will continue to measure exposure to oil and
oil components in the biota of PWS and other areas affected by the
oil spill, by determining levels of hydrocarbon metabolites in bile
and by measuring hepatic AHH activities. Additionally, the study
will measure a range of biological effects, especially indicators
of reproductive dysfunction and histopathological effects. Only by
employing such a broad spectrum of state-of-the art chemical,
biochemical and biological methods will analytical data be obtained
to document the degree of exposure and resultant biological effects
of petroleum hydrocarbons on economically and ecologically
important fish species. This information for important Alaskan
fish species will be incorporated into models for use in estimating
oil spill impacts on fishery resources.
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OBJECTIVES
A. To sample selected fish species (e.g. pollock, yellowfin
sole, rock sole, flathead sole, Pacific cod) from several
sites inside and outside PWS, with emphasis on sites inside
PWS. Site selection is primarily based on data from the last
two years of sampling and analyses. Representative sediment
samples will also be taken from each benthic sampling site for
subsequent chemical analysis.
B. To estimate the exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons by
measuring levels of hydrocarbon metabolites in bile of the
above species from oiled and unoiled habitats such to detect
significant differences in bile concentrations with a = 0.05.
Additionally, stomach contents of fish showing high levels of
hydrocarbon metabolites in bile will be analyzed for
hydrocarbons, such to detect significant differences in
concentrations with a = 0.05.
C. To estimate the induction of hepatic aryl hydrocarbon
hydroxylase activity or increased levels of cytochrome
P-450IA1 in the above species from oiled and unoiled habitats
such to detect statistical differences in levels of effects
with a = 0.05.
D. To estimate the prevalence of pathological conditions in the
above species from oiled and unoiled habitats such to detect
statistical differences in levels of effects with a = 0.05.
E. To estimate the levels of plasma estradiol, the degree of
ovarian maturation, and fecundity in adult females of two of
the above species (yellowfin sole and pollock) from oiled and
unoiled habitats such to detect statistically significant
differences with a = 0.05.
F. To estimate temporal changes in the parameters described in
Objectives B&C, by comparing data obtained in 1991 to data
obtained in 1989 and 1990. In order to assess either recovery
or increased damage of habitats from the oil spill, trends in
these parameters must be statistically significant at a =
0.05.
G. Using the above data, as appropriate, construct simulation
models similar to those of Schaaf et. al. (1987) for important
Alaskan fish species for use in estimating oil spill impacts
on fishery resources. These models will incorporate pre-spill
information from the fisheries literature on mortality and
fecundity together with information on reproductive
impairment, pathological conditions, and biochemical effects
in fish exposed to petroleum hydrocarbons as a result of the
spill.
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METHODS
A. General Strategy and Approach
Samples of benthic fish (yellowfin sole, rock sole, flathead sole,
and to a lesser extent, Pacific cod) will be collected from five
sites during 1991, from mid-May to mid-June. Sites proposed for
sampling are Olsen Bay, Rocky Bay, Snug Harbor, Sleepy Bay, and
Squirrel Bay. As feasible, the sample locations will be
coordinated with Subtidal Study 1. The selection of species is
based primarily on results obtained in 1990 and 1989 under
Fish/Shellfish Study 24, and to a lesser extent, Fish/Shellfish
Study 18. Surficial sediment samples for establishing levels of
petroleum hydrocarbon residues will be collected at these sites,
with analyses projected to be done under Subtidal Study 1. Pollock
will be collected in March, 1990, at several sites inside PWS and
in the Shelikof Strait. Because of the schooling nature of this
species, and the dependence on assistance from other federal and
state groups for use of sampling platforms, sites cannot be
predetermined. Efforts will be made to sample sites representing
a spatial gradient away from the spill's occurrence and path.
Petroleum exposure of fish will primarily be assessed by measuring
(a) concentrations of metabolites of aromatic petroleum compounds
in bile, and (b) AHH activities in liver. These types of
measurements are necessary because petroleum hydrocarbons in fish
are rapidly metabolized to compounds that are not detectable by
routine chemical analyses. AHH activity in fish is due primarily
to a single cytochrome, P-450IA1 (Varanasi et al. 1986; Buhler and
Williams 1989). Measurement of hepatic AHH activity will provide
a very sensitive indicator of contaminant exposure of sampled
animals (Collier and Varanasi 1987; Collier and Varanasi 1991).
Moreover, the induction of AHH activity indicates not only that
contaminant exposure has occurred, but also that biological changes
have occurred as a result of the exposure. In addition to
measuring AHH activity, cytochrome P-450IA1 will be directly
quantitated in selected liver or tissue samples by an
immunochemical method recently developed at the University of
Bergen (Collier et al. 1989; Gokseyr 1991). Direct quantitation of
cytochrome P-450IA1 has the advantage of using archived samples
frozen at non-cryogenic temperatures (> -80° C) . Thus future
comparisons may be made between data collected in this program and
data from other sample collection programs, if samples from the
other programs are subjected to the same immunochemical
quantitation techniques.
Other biological effects in fish will be estimated by examining
selected species for pathological conditions and by assessing
reproductive impairment in suitably mature female fish.
Pathological conditions will include grossly visible abnormalities
(e.g., fin erosion) and other lesions diagnosed by histological
procedures (e.g., gill necrosis, liver cell necrosis).
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Reproductive capacity will be estimated by examining the
developmental stages of ovaries and by measuring plasma levels of
certain reproductive hormones (Johnson et al. 1988) , in addition to
measuring fecundity (Cross and Hose 1988). The two primary species
for assessing reproductive impairment are yellowfin sole and
pollock. It is anticipated that, during the respective sampling
periods (May/June and March) , these two species will be at an
appropriate stage in their reproductive cycle for such assessments.
Laboratory studies will also be conducted to determine the effects
of known doses of oil and oil components on reproductive processes
in these or related species.
Samples of sediment, and selected stomach contents of fish (whose
bile had evidence of oil exposure) will be analyzed (sediment under
Subtidal Study 1) for hydrocarbons by recently developed,
scientifically sound and cost-effective analytical procedures
involving high-performance liquid chromatography, gas
chromatography and mass spectroscopy (Krahn et al., 1988).
Environmental damage will be assessed using statistical and
simulation models, which will be developed as part of these
proposed studies, as well as from other investigations with related
fish species. The bile and tissue chemistry data will be used to
establish relationships between biological damage and estimated
exposures to petroleum hydrocarbons.
B. Sampling Methods
Sampling activities will be conducted at several sites in PWS,
including unoiled sites in Rocky Bay and Olsen Bay and
petroleum-exposed sites in Snug Harbor, Sleepy Bay and Squirrel
Bay/Fox Farm. Sample collection will be performed from a charter
vessel for the three flatfish species and cod, at water depths of
approximately 0 to 100 meters. At each site, sediment samples will
be collected with a box corer, VanVeen or Smith-Mclntyre grab.
Sediments will be stored at - 20* C. The coordinates and depths of
each station will be recorded. For pollock, samples will be
collected at sites within the oil spill area.
Fish will be collected with a bottom trawl, long-line gear, or
midwater trawl. Bottom trawls will be performed with an otter
trawl (7.5m opening, 10.8 m total length, 3.8 cm-mesh in the body
of the net, and 0.64 cm-mesh in the liner of the cod end). Tows
will be of 5 to 15 minutes duration. In order to reduce
contamination of the catch by free oil, trawling will avoid areas
of surface films or slicks. If a net is fouled by subsurface or
bottom oil, it will be replaced (or cleaned, if possible) and a new
area for trawling will be selected. Other fish sampling gear
appropriate to the species and conditions will also be deployed.
Individuals of selected target fish species will be sorted and
examined for externally visible lesions; up to 30 fish of selected
species will be measured, weighed, and necropsied; and tissue
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samples will be excised and preserved in fixative for
histopathological examination or frozen for chemical analyses.
C. Laboratory Analyses
1. Bile Metabolite Assay (analyses done under Technical Services
1)
Samples of bile will be injected directly into a liquid
chromatograph and a gradient elution conducted using a Perkin-Elmer
HC-ODS with a gradient of 100% water (containing 5/LtL acetic acid/L)
to 100% methanol (Krahn et al. 1984, 1986 a, b, c) . Two
fluorescence detectors are used in series. The excitation/emission
wavelengths of one detector are set to 290/335 nm, where
metabolites of naphthalene (NPH) fluoresce. Excitation/emission
wavelengths of the other detector are set to 260/380 nm, where
metabolites of phenanthrene (PHN) fluoresce. The total integrated
area for each detector is then converted (normalized) to units of
either NPH or PHN that would be necessary to give that integrated
area.
2. Liver Aryl Hydrocarbon Hydroxylase (AHH) Activity and Cytochrome
P-450IA1 Analysis
Hepatic microsomes are prepared essentially as described by Collier
et al. (1986) and microsomal protein is measured by the method of
Lowry et al. (1951), using bovine serum albumin as the standard.
AHH activity is assayed by a modification of the method of Van
Cantfort et al. (1977) as described by Collier et al. (1986) , using
14C-labeled benzo[a]pyrene as the primary substrate. All enzyme
assays will be run under conditions in which the reaction rates are
in the linear range for both time and protein. Cytochrome P-450IA1
will be measured by an ELISA utilizing rabbit antibodies to
cytochrome P-450c isolated from Atlantic cod (Goksoyr 1991).
3. Histopathology
Histopathological procedures to be followed are described in the
report from the Histopathology Technical Group for Oil Spill
Assessment Studies in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Briefly, the
procedures will involve the following: (a) tissues preserved in the
field will be routinely embedded in paraffin and sectioned at five
microns (Preece 1972); and (b) paraffin sections will be routinely
stained with Mayer's hematoxylin and eosin, and for further
characterization of specific lesions, additional sections will be
stained using standard special staining methods (Thompson 1966;
Preece 1972; Armed Forces Institute of Pathology 1968). All slides
will be examined microscopically without knowledge of where the
fish were captured. Hepatic lesions will be classified according
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to the previously described diagnostic criteria of Myers et al.
(1987). Ovarian lesions will be classified as described in Johnson
et al. (1988).
4. Reproductive Indicators
Reproductive activity will be assessed by examining the ovaries of
the sampled fish histologically to determine their developmental
stage, and for the presence of ovarian lesions that would be
indicative of oocyte resorption (Johnson et al. 1988). other
parameters associated with reproductive activity will also be
measured, including fecundity (Bagenal and Braum 1971), plasma
vitellogenin (Gamst and Try 1980; DeVlaming et al. 1984) and
estradiol (Sower and Schreck 1982) levels, and gonadosomatic index
(ovary wt/gutted body wt x 100). Relationships between ovarian
maturation, fecundity, plasma estradiol, plasma vitellogenin, and
petroleum hydrocarbon exposure will then be evaluated.
D. Quality Assurance and Control Plans
1. Bile Analytes
Quality assurance procedures for bile analyses will include NPH and
PHN calibration standards and the calibration standard will be
analyzed after every 6 samples and the RSD will be reported. In
addition, one blank sample and one reference material (control
material) will be analyzed daily. The concentrations of analytes
should be within 2 SD of the established concentrations in control
material. Replicate analyses will be performed on 10% of the
samples, if a sufficient amount exists.
2. AHH Activity and Cytochrome P-450IA1
Quality assurance procedures for AHH measurements include duplicate
zero-time and boiled enzyme blanks for each set of assays. Each
sample will be run in duplicate and those samples showing > 20%
absolute difference between duplicates and >10 units (pmoles
benzo[a]pyrene metabolized/mg microsomal protein/minute) difference
between duplicates will be repeated. ELISAs for cytochrome
P-450IA1 will be run in triplicate, and if the resulting
coefficient of variation (CV) is > 10%, the outlying replicate will
be omitted from the calculations. If the CV still exceeds 10%, the
analysis of that sample will be repeated.
3. Histopathology
Pathologists on this project will use consistent, standard
diagnostic criteria to be strictly adhered to by those who will
also be examining slides in this project. These criteria will be
established using color photographs of external lesions and
standard reference slides containing tissues with the major lesion
types expected in the study. Unusual or atypical lesions will be
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referred to specialists for confirmation. The accuracy of the
histopathologic diagnosis also will be assured by consulting with
and sending sections of tissues with representative lesion types to
the Registry of Tumors in Lower Animals, National Museum of Natural
History at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.
4. Reproductive Indicators
Quality assurance for the measurement of plasma estradiol and
vitellogenin include analysis of standards to confirm linearity and
calibrate the assays. Blank analyses will be conducted to
eliminate matrix effects. Analyses of pooled plasma from
vitellogenic female English sole and winter flounder containing
known levels of estradiol and vitellogenin will also be done.
Duplicate analyses of each sample to evaluate performance of the
assays will also be conducted. These quality checks are run daily
with each set of samples. Fecundity measurements will be done in
triplicate on each individual.
DATA ANALYSIS
A. Statistical Tests
The relative concentrations of contaminants in sediment and fish
tissues at the study sites will be compared statistically using the
Kruskal-Wallis test (ANOVA by ranks; see Sokal and Rohlf 1981, Zar
1984). Where significant differences among chemical concentrations
are found, the a-value will be understood to be < 0.05. To
determine whether the prevalence of histopathological effects noted
in each of the fish species is statistically uniform among the
sites, the G test for heterogeneity (Sokal and Rohlf 1981) will be
performed.
B. Analytical Methods
Where possible, non-parametric statistical tests will be employed
to avoid assumptions that the data are normally distributed.
Non-parametric tests give highly reliable results. The principal
non-parametric tests that will be used are Spearman rank
correlation, which has about 91% of the power of product-moment
correlation when the parametric assumptions are met (Zar 1984) , and
the heterogeneity-G statistic. Spearman rank correlation will be
used for estimating uptake and metabolism of petroleum hydrocarbons
from oiled and unoiled habitats when an independent measure of
contamination (e.g., levels of AHs in sediment) is available.
The heterogeneity-G statistic (Sokal and Rohlf 1981) will be used
to study prevalence of pathological conditions at oiled and unoiled
habitats. In addition, logistic regression (appropriate where the
outcome variable is binomial) will be used to model the prevalences
of pathological conditions in relation to contamination.
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The Kruskal-Wallis test (a non-parametric form of ANOVA) will be
used for supporting statistical analyses of variation in sediment
PAH levels at sites sampled. If the null hypothesis of no
differences among sites is rejected at a = 0.05, a non-parametric
multiple comparison test (Dunn 1964; Hollander and Wolfe 1973; Zar
1984) will be used to determine differences between sites at a =
0.05. Principal components analysis and LOWESS (Chambers et al.
1983) will also be employed for this purpose; both are methods of
exploratory data analysis rather than inferential statistical
methods. Cohen (1977) will be used for computations of statistical
power.
C. Products
Status reports will contain information on the distribution and
concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons and their metabolites in
fish tissues and in sediments obtained from sites in Alaska; the
hepatic activities of AHH and levels of cytochrome P-450IA1 in fish
from sites in Alaska; and the distribution and prevalence of
histopathological disorders and reproductive impairment among
selected species from those sites. Chemistry data will be
submitted in the form of data tables and distribution maps, and all
data will be stored in computerized data management programs. Fish
pathology data will be reported in the form of distribution maps,
tables describing disease frequencies of each species examined,
photographs of gross and microscopic properties of abnormalities,
figures representing various types of biological data (e.g.,
length-weight, age-weight) and discussions of the relative
importance of the types of abnormalities found. Comparisons of the
characteristics of these abnormalities will be made with similar
conditions previously reported in other marine areas of the world.
The data management formats were designed in cooperation with the
National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), and are compatible with
the NODC data storage systems. In addition, articles describing
the results of these studies will be published in peer-reviewed
scientific journals.
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National Academy of Sciences. 1985. Oil in the sea; Inputs, fates
and effects. National Academic Press, Washington, D. C. 601pp.
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Preece, A. 1972. A manual for histologic technicians. 3rd
edition. Little, Brown and Co., Boston, 428 pp.
Schaaf, W.E., D.S. Peters, D.S. Vaughan, L. Coston-Clements, and
C.W. Krouse. 1987. Fish population responses to chronic and
acute pollution: The influence of life history strategies.
Estuaries 10: 267-275.
Shum, S., N.M. Jensen and D.W. Nebert. 1979. The murine Ah locus:
in utero toxicity and teratogenisis associated with genetic
differences in benzo[a]pyrene metabolism. Teratology
20:365-376.
Sokal, R. and F. Rohlf. 1981. Biometry. (Second Ed.) W.H.
Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA, 859 pp.
Sower, S. A., and C. B. Schreck. 1982. Steroid and thyroid
hormones during sexual maturation of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus
kisutch) in seawater or freshwater. Gen. Comp Endocrin.
47:42-53.
Spies, R.B. and D.W. Rice, Jr. 1988. Effects of organic
contaminants on reproduction of the starry flounder
(Platichthys stellatus) in San Francisco Bay. II. Reproductive
success of fish captured in San Francisco Bay and spawned in
the laboratory. Mar. Biol. 98:191-200.
Stein, J.E., T. Horn, H.R. Sanborn, and U. Varanasi. 1991. Effects
of exposure to a contaminated-sediment extract on the
metabolism and disposition of 17/S-estradiol in English sole
(Parophrys vetulus). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. (in press).
Van Cantfort, J., J De Graeve, and J.E. Gielen. 1977. Radioactive
assay for aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase. Improved method and
biological importance. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.
79:505-511.
Varanasi, T.K. Collier, D.E. Williams and D.R. Buhler. 1986.
Hepatic cytochrome P-450 isozymes and aryl hydrocarbon
hydroxylase in English sole (Parophrys vetulus). Biochem.
Pharmacol. 35:2967-2971.
Varanasi, U., D.W. Brown, S-L. Chan, J.T. Landahl, B.B. McCain,
M.S. Myers, M.H. Schiewe, J.E. Stein, and Douglas D. Weber.
1987. Etiology of tumors in bottom-dwelling marine fish.
Final Report to the National Cancer Institute under
Interagency Agreement YO1 CP 40507.
Varanasi, U., S-L. Chan, R.C. Clark, Jr., T.K. Collier, W.D.
Gronlund, M.M. Krahn, J.T. Landahl, and J.E. Stein. 1990. Oil
Spill Progress Report. Shellfish and groundfish trawl
assessment outside Prince William Sound. 30 p.
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Varanasi, U., S-L. Chan, R.C. Clark, Jr., T.K. Collier, W.D.
Gronlund, J.L. Hagen, L.L. Johnson, M.M. Krahn, J.T. Landahl,
and M.S. Myers. 1991. Oil Spill Progress Report. Shellfish
and groundfish trawl assessment outside Prince William Sound.
49 p.
Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-Hall,
Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ, 620 pp.
BUDGET
NOAA ADF&G TOTAL
Salaries $122.7 $20.8 $143.5
Travel 10.5 3.5 14.0
Supplies 18.9 8.7 27.6
Equipment (disposable) 7.9 7.0 14.9
Vessel support 75.0 40.0 115.0
Total $235.0 $80.0 $315.0
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TECHNICAL SERVICES
The hydrocarbon analysis and mapping projects described in this
section are designed to provide high quality technical services to
studies described in other portions of the NRDA plan. Hydrocarbon
analytical services includes the generation, archival, and
retrieval of all chemical analytical data. Mapping includes
implementing and managing a geographic information system to record
and process data collected by NRDA studies.
Appropriate information on exposure of the resource to hydrocarbon
residues from the spill is required to determine and quantify
injury. Detailed information on the distribution and evolving
chemical composition of the spilled oil through time, in concert
with analyses of petroleum hydrocarbons or their metabolites in the
tissues of organisms will provide essential information to other
NRDA studies to demonstrate the relationship of injury to
hydrocarbon exposure.
Samples of water, sediments and tissues for chemical analysis are
being collected by individual studies throughout the entire region
impacted by the EVOS. Selected samples are being analyzed by a
team of participating laboratories in accordance with a centralized
QA/QC program (Appendix A) which will help ensure that all data are
of known, defensible, and verifiable quality and comparability.
The mapping project continues to develop the damage assessment
geographic information system. The primary data layers have been
collected and verified and large scale production and transmittal
of map products has begun. Specific data analyses and map product
will continue to be generated to support the analytical and
interpretive needs of NRDA studies.
Although the processing of histopathology samples and information
is no longer being supported by a separate technical service
program, samples, analyses, and data continue to be generated
within the context of specific NRDA studies. Oil-induced
histopathological data are required by many of the studies
described under Fish/Shellfish, Birds, Marine Mammals, and
Terrestrial Mammals. This information continues to be gathered
under strict quality assurance guidelines (Appendix B) by expert
histopathologists to ensure compatibility of results and
evaluations throughout the NRDA program.
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TECHNICAL SERVICES STUDY NUMBER 1
Study Title: Hydrocarbon Analytical Support Services and
Analysis of Distribution and Weathering of
Spilled Oil
Lead Agency: FWS, NOAA
INTRODUCTION
In order to document the exposure of natural resources in the PWS
and GOA ecosystems to spilled oil, NRDA projects are collecting
sediment, water and biota samples to be analyzed for petroleum
hydrocarbons. The data resulting from the analysis of these
samples is used to define the exposure of that resource to spilled
oil, to indicate the possible effect of the oil on the resource and
to produce an integrated synthesis of the distribution of the oil
in space and time. The analytical data must be accurate, precise
and comparable across projects and throughout the time of the NRDA
process. To this end, TS 1, a cooperative project between NOAA and
the FWS, coordinates the chemical analysis of all samples collected
by the NRDA projects. NOAA manages those samples from federal or
state studies involving water, sediment, fish, shellfish, marine
mammals - with the exception of sea otters, and intertidal areas.
FWS manages those samples from studies involving birds, sea otters
and terrestrial mammals. Samples are being analyzed at FWS-
contract Texas A&M University (TAMU), and at NOAA/NMFS
laboratories. NOAA has lead responsibility for implementing the
Quality Assurance programs, updating and maintaining the sample
inventory and analytical databases, and data interpretation and
synthesis. FWS bears the main responsibility for Quality Control
of the analytical data and assists in the maintenance of analytical
databases and interpretation and synthesis of data.
OBJECTIVES
A. Measure petroleum hydrocarbons, hydrocarbon metabolites and
other appropriate chemical/biochemical indicators of
hydrocarbon exposure in the water, sediment and biota
collected through the NRDA.
B. Assist Project Leaders and field personnel in implementing
appropriate sample collection, identification, shipping and
chain of custody procedures.
C. Manage sample tracking and archival.
D. Oversee a Quality Assurance program to assure and demonstrate
the accuracy, precision and comparability of all chemical
analytical data developed by the NRDA.
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E. Provide analytical data to the Project Leaders in a timely and
useful fashion. Assist in the interpretation of these data.
F. Develop an integrated synthesis of the distribution and
chemical composition of spilled oil, as it weathers through
time, to provide a detailed basis for final exposure
assessment.
METHODS
All measures of petroleum hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon metabolites
generated in support of the NRDA are being made in agreement with
the QA/QC plan. The majority of the samples are being analyzed by
TAMU through a FWS contract. The remainder of the analyses are
being preformed by NOAA/NMFS laboratories. NOAA and FWS are each
responsible for the analysis costs for their managed samples.
A field manual, "Analytical Chemistry: Collection and Handling of
Samples" written in cooperation with all of the Trustee agencies
has been provided to all identified project leaders and used by
NOAA and FWS in a series of training sessions. Copies of this
manual and continued training sessions will be available in 1991.
A centralized sample inventory and tracking system utilizing a
customized MS/DOS R-BASE program resides at NOAA/NMFS, Auke Bay
Laboratory. Each sample or subsample is assigned a unique
identification code, defined in terms of the material collected or
subsampled and documented to an exact field collection location and
time. The parent database is updated and maintained by NOAA. FWS
provides updated information on their samples and archives a read-
only copy of the parent database.
The quality of the analytical data developed for the NRDA is
assured and demonstrated through the mechanisms described in the QA
plan. For hydrocarbon analyses, laboratory performance is:
0 assisted through the provision of NIST calibration
standards, control materials and Standard Reference
Materials,
0 monitored through the inspection of the results of the
analysis of the QC samples (calibration standards,
blanks, matrix spikes, replicates, SRMs and control
materials) and
0 tested through the blind analysis of accuracy-based
fully-matrixed samples.
The program is similar for those laboratories measuring hydrocarbon
metabolites in bile with the exception that because this is a semi-
quantitative assay, there are no standards or reference materials.
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NOAA/NMFS, Northwest Center has developed calibration and control
materials and distributes them to participating laboratories for
this measurement.
All analytical data, bulk parameters and supporting QC data are
archived in a customized MS/DOS R-BASE program at NOAA/NMFS, Auke
Bay Laboratory. For NOAA and FWS-managed samples, the project
leader receives all data in hard copy accompanied by a simple
summary sheet indicating whether or not the sample contains
petroleum hydrocarbons. Programming has been completed to develop
a series of ratios and indices indicating the quantity and
composition of the oil in the samples. All data presently in the
database will be subjected to this review and the results provided
to the Project Leaders. All data are also available to Project
Leaders in electronic form.
Synthesis has been initiated with TS 3 using the recently completed
ratios and indices indicating the quantity and composition of the
oil in samples. It is anticipated that this cooperation will
result in a series of maps showing changes in the composition and
concentration of the oil with time. .
BUDGET
NOAA FWS TOTAL
Salaries $ 80.0 $ 85.0 $ 165.0
Travel 17.0 10.0 27.0
Contracts 1,868.0 430.0 2,298.0
Supplies 5.0 5.0 10.0
Equipment 30.0 20.0 50.0
Total $2,000.0 $ 550.0 $2,550.0
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TECHNICAL SERVICES STUDY NUMBER 3
Study Title: Implement and Manage a Geographic Information
System (GIS) to Record and Process NRDA Data
Lead Agency: DNR and FWS
Cooperating Agency: DEC
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of Technical Services No. 3 (TS 3) remains unchanged:
the group is charged with implementing and managing the geographic
information system (GIS) to record and process data collected in
NRDA studies. Primary data layers have been collected and
verified. Additionally, TS 3 has begun large scale production and
transmittal of NRDA map products.
OBJECTIVES
A. Produce and disseminate maps and analytical products for
participants in the NRDA process.
B. Create and maintain, throughout the NRDA process, a database
pertinent to the overall damage assessment process, which is
accessible to all participating agencies.
METHODS
Methods are the same as described in the 1990 study plan. In
addition to the data layers described in the 1990 study plan, data
layers have been or will be prepared for study site locations,
sampling locations, beach segment locations and multi-thematic
atlases of pre-spill data from various sources. Additional data
layers will be added as needed by investigators and the Trustee
Council to enable geographic-based compilation of study results and
other pertinent data.
BUDGET
DNR FWS TOTAL
Salaries $ 434.6 $ 185.0 $ 619.6
Travel 8.6 6.0 14.6
Contracts 84.7 16.0 100.7
Supplies 52.4 10.0 62.4
Equipment 76.0 83.0 159.0
Total $ 656.3 $ 300.0 $ 956.3
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DETERMINATION OF INJURY TO CULTURAL RESOURCES
Lead Agencies: USFS and DNR
Cooperating Agencies: ADF&G, FWS, NFS
INTRODUCTION
Holocene richness and diversity of resources resulted in the
development of the largest prehistoric populations in Alaska along
the Pacific mainland and island coasts. Kodiak Island had the
largest, most dense prehistoric population of Eskimo peoples in the
world. Similar ecological abundance suggests PWS and mainland
coasts also supported major human populations. The region of oiled
beaches includes large areas where few archaeological surveys have
been done. To determine injury, specific information is needed on
the location, number, and character of historic sites within the
EVOS area. This information is obtainable through intensive on-
the-ground sample surveys and direct testing.
OBJECTIVES
This study includes activities designed to identify and quantify
injury to cultural resources from a scientific standpoint and to
develop the foundation for a meaningful program to restore and
rehabilitate archaeological resources. To determine the injury
caused by the spill, the study will focus on the following:
A. Impacts on soil chemistry (pH, calcium, phosphate);
B. Impacts on soil structure and inclusions (stratigraphy;
charcoal);
C. Impacts on artifacts including petroglyphs, bone, wood,
ceramic, fiber and shell;
D. Impacts on vegetative cover of sites, including new or
increased erosion on the sites;
E. Occurrence of theft or vandalism on sites, including new or
increased incidences.
METHODS
1. Activities will be performed in a manner consistent with the
Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for
Archaeology and Historic Preservation (48 Fed. Reg. 44716-
44740, September 29, 1983).
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2. Through a literature search and in-field surveys, an estimate
of the number, type, character, and the significance of
archaeological sites in the area affected by the oil spill
will be determined.
3. Develop typologies based on site type, time period, and
location.
4. Using the typologies developed, a representative sample of
archaeological site types and locations to be investigated for
impacts, will be selected. The sample will include sites in
unoiled areas to serve as control sites.
5. Conduct archaeological investigations at the selected sites
and locations.
6. Oil spill response workers and government employees will be
interviewed concerning impacts to archaeological resources.
7. A laboratory analysis of the effects of the oil on the
physical characteristics of the soil column will be performed.
Attention will be given to its component parts to determine
changes in preservation, soil compaction, stratification, and
obscuration of the stratigraphy, as well as leaching and the
chemical breakdown of organic materials.
8. Radiocarbon age determinations and soil sample analyses for
pH, calcium, and phosphate will be performed.
9. Pre- and post-spill vandalism and erosion data will be
compiled and evaluated to establish rates and effects of
vandalism and erosion.
DISCUSSION
To assess the potential injury to archaeological sites along the
coast, three physical zones can be established: submerged (below
the lowest low tide), intertidal (between the lowest low and the
highest high tides), and shore margin uplands (above the highest
high tide). The greatest potential for injury exists through
direct deposition of oil in the intertidal zone. Secondary
transport into adjacent submerged areas and uplands may also injure
archaeological sites. Upland archaeological sites are also subject
to contamination from transportation of oil by wind, storm tide
inundation, migration of contaminants in ground water, oiled bird
and animal movement from the feeding/travel corridor of the
intertidal zone, and their death and decomposition on
archaeological deposits. Theft of artifacts and vandalism to
archaeological resources are potential dangers in the intertidal
and upland zones. The intertidal zone contains archaeological
sites of great variety, numbers, and susceptibility to oil injury.
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Shipwrecks, eroded/scattered artifacts, inundated stratified
archaeological deposits, prehistoric rock art, prehistoric fish
weirs, and remnants of structures or objects deliberately placed in
the intertidal zone are among the site types known to exist. The
shore margin uplands may contain all the previously mentioned site
types, plus burials, above-ground structures, and recognizable
resource collection locations such as culturally modified trees.
In the two higher elevation zones, a major potential injury
resulting from oil contamination is interference with traditional
archaeological dating techniques. Radiocarbon dating depends on
comparison of the ratio of radioactive carbon 14 to carbon 12 in
the sample being analyzed. Because petroleum contains abundant
radioactively-inert carbon from organisms dead for millions of
years, and the use of radiocarbon dating for dates up to 35,000
years ago, contamination by even a small amount of ancient carbon
is expected to result in age determinations that are significantly
older than the archaeological event being dated. This would
seriously compromise radiocarbon dating as a technique for dating
human activities and paleoenvironmental events and conditions. The
potential for affecting age determination may be significant even
in areas where only a sheen exists and may be investigated in
assessing injury. In cases of oil contamination in stratified
archaeological deposits, masking of the visibility and alteration
of the chemical components of the microstratigraphy may also
affect archaeologists' ability to trace strata.
Both direct and indirect injuries to archaeological sites may have
occurred from response and treatment activities, as well as from
increased activities in the resource areas. Further, increased
access of personnel to remote areas may have increased the
knowledge of site locations and potentially may accelerate
vandalism, theft of heritage resources, and damage to the
scientific value of the sites.
Field study activities did not occur in 1990, but will be performed
during the 1991 field season. Funds to perform the study were
obligated but not spent. The budget described below reflects the
cost of including additional study sites and the anticipated cost
of completing follow-up work once data are received.
BUDGET
USFS DNR Total
Personnel $ 85.0 $157.3 $242.3
Travel 18.0 6.3 24.3
Contracts 0.0 522.4 522.4
Supplies 0.0 1.6 1.6
Equipment 0.0 1.0 1.0
TOTAL $ 103.0 $688.6 $791.6
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PART II: PEER REVIEWERS/CHIEF SCIENTIST
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SCIENTIFIC PEER REVIEWS/CHIEF SCIENTIST
Lead Agency: DOJ, DOA, DOI, NOAA
INTRODUCTION
Acceptable scientific procedures contemplate a process through
which study plans, methodologies and data supporting conclusions
are subjected to objective, rigorous review by peers. The
government has identified a number of biologists, ecologists,
chemists and statisticians to perform this function in connection
with the natural resource damage assessment studies described in
this plan. These scientists also may serve the government as
expert witnesses, testifying regarding damages resulting from the
EVOS.
OBJECTIVES
A. Ensure that the government's damage assessment studies follow
acceptable science procedures and produce valid conclusions
supported by accurate data.
B. Produce an integrated assessment of the damages resulting from
the EVOS based on the many individual and disparate science
and economic analyses.
METHODS
A Chief Scientist will be charged with coordination and direction
of all scientific damage assessment studies, including synthesis
and peer review efforts. Certain of the peer reviewers will focus
on the primary areas of scientific damage assessment, i.e., coastal
habitat, marine mammals, birds, fish, shellfish, terrestrial
mammals, air and water, subtidal areas and archaeologic sites.
Others, ecologists and biostatisticians, will compare and link data
and findings among the groups.
BUDGET
The federal trustee agencies will reimburse the Department of
Justice and NOAA in equal shares.
Department of Agriculture $772.0
Department of Interior 772.0
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 772.0
Total $2,316.0
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FART III: ECONOMICS
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ECONOMIC STUDIES
The studies in this section are federal studies designed to assess
the economic value of injury to natural resources associated with
the EVOS. The following study descriptions are very similar to
those for 1990 because the studies are ongoing. An additional
study, estimating the economic damages to consumers of petroleum
products, may be initiated if a relationship between the EVOS and
the observed petroleum market price increases can be established.
State studies designed to assess the economic value of injury to
natural resources resulting from the EVOS are not discussed in this
document. Litigation concerns continue to prevent disclosure of
detailed progress to date and preliminary results.
The federal studies cover eight major areas: (1) commercial
fishing, (2) public land values, (3) recreation, (4) subsistence,
(5) intrinsic values, (6) research programs, (7) archaeological
resources and (8) petroleum price impacts.
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ECONOMICS STUDY NUMBER 1
Study Title: Commercial Fisheries Losses Caused by the EVOS
INTRODUCTION
This study will continue to build upon the results of the previous
years' efforts.
The EVOS may have resulted in substantially reduced seafood
production at several ports including Cordova, Seward, Kodiak,
Kenai, and Homer, which are some of the most important commercial
fishing ports in the United States. Both short-term impacts,
through closure of certain fisheries, and long-term effects, such
as reductions in population that will not become apparent for
several years, may occur. These impacts may affect both the supply
of and demand for seafood.
For example, changes in quality (both real and perceived) may have
occurred, which could adversely affect seafood markets. In the
case of several important commercial salmon fisheries, the spill
resulted in harvests being confined to "terminal" areas, thus
restricting traditional fishing patterns and timing of the harvest.
Terminal area harvests occur in close proximity to the salmon's
spawning grounds. The result can be a significant reduction in
quality, as compared to salmon harvested in more typical
circumstances, i.e., more distant from, but en route to, spawning
sites. The reduction in quality may affect the salmon's overall
marketability and/or its appropriateness and acceptability for
specific product forms. In either case, seafood consumers at every
market level incur losses.
Salmon is one of several commercial species group which may have
been adversely affected. Others may include Pacific herring,
shellfish, and groundfish.
OBJECTIVES
Measure the economic loss to seafood consumers caused by the EVOS.
METHODS
The investigators are in the process of determining which species
were injured by the spill. Conceptual models of consumer
preferences and market characteristics for certain seafood products
are being developed. A methodology to assess statistically
significant changes in the level and quality of harvest is also
under development. Data collection and analyses will also
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continue. The models will be used to estimate the demand for
various seafood products, the price changes associated with the
spill/ and the effects of seafood quality and quantity changes on
consumers.
BUDGET
Total: $265.5
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ECONOMICS STUDY NUMBER 4
Study Title: Effects of the EVOS on the Value of Public Land
INTRODUCTION
The EVOS affected subtidal, intertidal, and uplands areas on the
shore of PWS and the GOA. This study will assess the lost market
value of publicly held lands attributable to the oil spill. It
will estimate market demand for leases and sales of land in the
impacted areas, and project changes in total value of public lands.
OBJECTIVES
Determine the change in market values of public lands.
METHODS
Land appraisals are a common method of assessing the market value
of land. Appraisers usually estimate the market value of land
parcels from the selling price of similar parcels. Because no two
parcels are identical, adjustments are required to achieve
comparability. For the purposes of appraisal, market value is
generally defined as the amount in cash, or in terms reasonably
equivalent to cash, for which, in all probability, the property
obligated to sell to a knowledgeable purchaser, who desires the
property but is not obligated to buy. Using this definition of
market value, the effect of the oil spill on land values will be
estimated as the difference between the pre- and post-spill selling
prices.
BUDGET
At present, no additional funds have been requested for this study.
There may not have been sufficient land transactions to employ as
the basis for determining any changes in the value of public lands
affected by the spill. If it is determined that there were
adequate land sales to support and economic valuation of the
impacted lands, then this study will be continued and funded with
the amount needed to determine the extent of the lost values to
public lands.
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ECONOMICS STUDY NUMBER 5
Study Title: Economic Damages to Recreation
INTRODUCTION
This study will continue to build upon the results of the previous
years' efforts.
The EVOS has impacted natural resources that support a wide range
of recreational activities including fishing, hunting, boating,
hiking, camping, and sightseeing. Because of their unique
attributes, these resources attract recreationists from throughout
the United States and other countries to PWS and the GOA coast.
The EVOS may result in economic damage to those resources'
recreational services in two principal ways: 1) some recreationists
who otherwise would have gone to the area choose a substitute
activity and/or area, thereby potentially suffering a loss in
personal satisfaction and possibly incurring increased costs; and
2) recreationists who visit the area may suffer reduced
satisfaction because of the oil spill's adverse impacts on
recreational services that the natural resources otherwise would
have provided. These types of losses may have been experienced by
sea kayakers, users of charterboat services/recreational fishers,
users of air charters, hunters, cruise ship patrons and general
tourists.
While relatively few in number, sea kayakers may have been
significantly affected by the oil spill. Kayaking trips are taken
from Valdez, Kodiak, Homer, Whittier and Seward to the western
portion of PWS and the bays along the Kenai peninsula and Kodiak
Island. A typical trip involves charter boat transportation to a
site some distance from port. Most trips last more than one day
and thus include both kayaking and wilderness camping.
Southcentral Alaska includes some of the premier kayaking areas in
the world.
The potential effect of the oil spill on kayakers could take
several forms:
beaches used for wilderness camping are oiled and unusable;
wilderness scenery is despoiled and sense of pristine
environment is lost;
- wildlife viewing opportunities are reduced;
unoiled areas suffer from increased congestion;
clean-up activities make boats for transport expensive or
impossible to charter; and
clean-up activities spoil the wilderness nature of the
experience.
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All of these potential effects may have occurred during the 1989
season and in subsequent years.
Recreational activities that use the services of charterboats and
other private boats for hire are typically less intense than sea
kayaking, but are far more numerous. Vessels for hire and
charterboats range from the standard six passenger charterboats to
large tour boats carrying over a hundred passengers. All types of
vessels for hire have been impacted by cleanup activity. For
brevity in this proposal, this entire group is referred to as
"charterboats". Charterboat related recreational activities
include salmon and halibut fishing, sightseeing and viewing marine
wildlife and ferrying for wilderness camping in the PWS, KP, and
Kodiak areas. Charterboats go out of Valdez, Whittier, Homer,
Kodiak, Seward and the smaller villages in southcentral Alaska.
Because access to the general area is not easy, there are
potentially substantial impacts which can be measured through a
careful study of the charter fleet. The purpose of such a study
would be to determine the reduction in the use of the PWS
environment through the charter fleet as a consequence of the oil
spill.
The level of participation in recreational fishing among the
residents of Alaska is far greater than among the residents of any
other state in the United States. Marine recreational fishing
originates in all major towns on the PWS as well as Cook Inlet,
Kodiak Island and the KP and the AP. Fishing trips are taken in
several ways - from shore, from private boats and from charter
vessels. Because access by car from Anchorage is relatively easy,
shore fishing and private boat fishing on the Kenai is quite
popular. All kinds of fishing draw large numbers of tourists to
Alaska.
The study of charterboats will address only part of the potential
recreational fishing effects. It is possible that the oil spill
had detrimental effects on shore and private boat recreational
fishing, as well. For example,
a) fishing trips in the potentially oiled areas may have declined
due to fear of contaminated fish and waters;
b) anglers may not have been able to find accommodations in areas
where they wanted to fish because of cleanup related
activities;
c) the value of particular fishing trips out of the potentially
oiled zones may have declined because sites became more
congested.
Each season, a number of cruise ships pass through PWS on their way
from Seattle or Juneau to Whittier where they discharge their
passengers for the train trip to Anchorage. The likelihood that
these individuals were directly affected by the oil spill is small,
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but many have canceled their trips because of fear that the oil
spill would spoil the experience.
The general tourist activity sub-component of the proposal differs
from the others in that it is not directed toward one specific
recreational activity. Here the goal is to determine, from
aggregate level data, the extent to which general tourist activity
in the area of the spill may have been dislocated because of clean-
up activities. There will have been losses to recreationists if
these activities were diverted away from areas thought to be
contaminated by the spill or affected by the congestion and lost
services associated with clean up. Some of the marine related part
of this damage will be captured in the investigation of the
charterboats and kayaking. However, those people who do not plan
to use boats but rather state parks or other facilities will not
have been covered.
OBJECTIVES
Develop estimates of economic damages to recreationists.
METHODS
The study will continue to look at the impact of the EVOS on
various consumptive and nonconsumptive recreational activities.
Sea kayaking: This study contains several stages: (1) the
relevant sea kayaking population will be identified; (2) a survey
instrument which will contribute to both recreational demand and
simple contingent valuation analysis will be created; (3) the
survey instrument will be pre-tested; (4) the survey will be
administered; and (5) the survey results will be analyzed.
Charterboat activities: Data for this study will also be collected
through a survey. After development of a theoretical framework for
damage measurement, the sample size will be defined. A survey will
be designed to determine the periodic recreational and cleanup
activities undertaken by each charter vessel, the number of
recreationists served, the extent of cancellations and the amount
of time the vessel was involved in clean up activity. Vessel
owners may also be interviewed in person. Finally, the data will
be analyzed.
Recreational fishing: There is an existing model for recreational
fishing in the KP area. This model will be investigated to
determine its applicability to the EVOS.
Cruise ship tours: Cruise ship firms will be contacted to
determine whether demand for cruise ship tours to PWS was affected
by the EVOS. If there is evidence of substantial reductions in
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demand, methods of estimating the actual losses to recreationists
will be explored.
General tourist activity: Assuming that aggregate effects on
tourism may be accurately estimated, this study will compare those
aggregate effects with the results of the activity-directed
substudies to determine whether important categories of losses have
been missed.
Additional substudies: The recreational losses study may be
revised to include economic analysis of the impacts of the EVOS on
other recreational activities such as hunting and use of air
charters to gain access to areas used for recreation.
BUDGET
Total: $ 390.4
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ECONOMICS STUDY NUMBER 6
Study Title: Losses to Subsistence Households
INTRODUCTION
This study will continue to build upon the results of the previous
years' efforts.
Several communities on the shores of PWS, LCI, KAP are highly
dependent upon noncommercial fishing, intertidal food gathering,
marine mammal hunting, and land mammal hunting for subsistence
uses. Among the small subsistence communities are Tatitlek,
Chenega Bay, English Bay, Port Graham, Ouzinkie, Port Lions, Larsen
Bay, Karluk, Akhiok, Old Harbor, and Chignik Bay. Larger
subsistence communities include Cordova, Valdez, Seldovia, and
Kodiak. Subsistence uses are defined as rural Alaska residents'
customary and traditional uses of wild, renewable resources for
direct personal or family consumption as food, shelter, fuel,
clothing, tools, or transportation; for the making and selling of
handicraft articles out of nonedible byproducts of fish and
wildlife resources taken for personal or family consumption; for
barter, or sharing for personal or family consumption; and for
customary trade. Those uses are designated as the priority public
consumptive use of wild resources.
Following the EVOS, subsistence harvests were reduced in several
communities. This could have important ramifications in the
economy and social order of the communities. Potentially important
economic losses to the communities include: (1) subsistence
losses; (2) local inflation affecting harvests and food
procurement; (3) damage to subsistence property; and (4) loss of
intrinsic value to subsistence users.
OBJECTIVES
A. Conduct a literature review and compile base-line information.
B. Document the extent of oil contact and clean-up on or near
historic harvest sites.
C. Document the changes in subsistence use through time (i.e.,
species selection; harvest timing, quantities, areas, methods,
and efficiency; and household participation rates in harvest,
use, sharing, barter, and exchange).
D. Document local social and economic changes that affect
subsistence use, including wage/labor patterns, income levels,
inflation rates in the villages for goods and services,
cleanup work, outside demands, and industry demands.
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E. Assign monetary values to losses to subsistence households.
METHODS
Field observations and interviews will be used to collect
information. Changes in subsistence use and socioeconomic patterns
will be determined by conducting systematic household surveys and
interviews, and comparing these data to historic information.
Where applicable, market prices and price imputation will be used
to estimate damages. For marketed goods, the cost of replacing the
goods injured by the spill will normally be the measure of economic
damage. However, the adverse effects of the spill extended beyond
marketed goods. A number of methodologies are being considered for
the estimation of economic damages to non-market goods and
services.
BUDGET
Total: $ 532.1
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ECONOMICS STUDY NUMBER 7
Study Title: Total Value of Natural Resources Injured by the
EVOS
INTRODUCTION
This study was formerly titled "Loss of Intrinsic Values Due to the
EVOS." The study title has been changed to reflect the scope of
this study more accurately. This study will assess both use and
intrinsic values of the injured natural resources. The study will
continue to build upon the results of the previous years' efforts.
Intrinsic values include existence value, option value, and bequest
value. These values are independent of the economic values arising
from direct use of natural resources and cannot be measured by
observing use of the area affected by the EVOS. Resources with
intrinsic values include fish, birds and mammals, along with the
wilderness character, ecological integrity and/or scenic quality of
certain areas. These values are only imperfectly captured by the
prices of goods traded in markets. Accordingly, non-market methods
must be used to calculate intrinsic values. This study is designed
to use the contingent valuation method to determine the loss in
both intrinsic and use values resulting from the oil spill.
OBJECTIVES
Determine the loss in the value of natural resources injured by the
EVOS.
METHODS
The contingent valuation method involves use of surveys to
determine the values that people place on goods. This study will
require development of a conceptual framework for contingent
valuation survey design and analysis of survey results. Next,
research will be conducted to determine the most accurate survey
instrument for assessing intrinsic values. This research will
involve consultation with economists and survey design experts.
Substantial preliminary testing of survey formats will be conducted
among small groups of people to verify the accuracy of the survey
instrument. A nationwide survey will be conducted using a
professional survey research firm. Econometric analysis will be
used to interpret the results of the survey.
BUDGET
Total: $1,964.6
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ECONOMICS STUDY NUMBER 8
Study Title: Economic Damage Assessment of Injury to Research
Programs Affected by the EVOS
INTRODUCTION
The EVOS affected research programs in the vicinity of the spill,
resulting in damage to or loss of various research and resource
monitoring studies. Opportunities to study natural resource
systems in the affected area may have been lost or diminished as a
result of the EVOS. Research studies underway before the spill and
conducted, permitted, cooperatively participated in, sponsored or
funded by the federal government likely were impacted. One example
is a study involving tagging of fish that was in progress in an
affected area of PWS. Determination of the set of studies affected
and the extent or degree of damage will require careful evaluation
and study.
OBJECTIVES
Assess damage to and economic loss of research investigations, and
account for the cost of resources expended in affected studies,
focusing on research-based expenditures made or committed to before
the oil spill.
METHODS
The first step in this study is to identify the universe of studies
that were underway in the affected area at the time of the spill.
The next step requires a determination of which studies were
negatively impacted by the spill. Some of those impacts may have
been so significant that the entire study was discontinued. Other
studies may have been able to continue, but only at an increased
cost caused by the impacts of the spill. For example, sample sets
may have been destroyed or the study may have been moved to another
area. Once the universe of affected research programs is
identified, this study will value the destroyed and damaged
research studies by looking first to total project costs, extra
funds expended and amounts spent on each study prior to being
impacted by the spill.
BUDGET
Total: $104.9
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ECONOMICS STUDY NUMBER 9
Study Title: Quantification of Damage to Archaeological Resources
INTRODUCTION
Archaeological sites along the many miles of oiled coastline and
intertidal zones may have been physically injured by oil. Upland
sites may have been injured by erosion caused by destruction of
site vegetation or transportation of the oil inland. Loss to
archaeological resources includes direct and indirect oiling.
Determination of the number of cultural resources impacted by the
oil spill as well as the type and extent of injury to the
archaeological sites has been moved to a separate science study.
The economics study is now limited to quantifying the loss to
archaeological resources.
OBJECTIVES
Assess the economic damages to archaeological sites.
METHODS
The archaeological science study will create a database containing
listings of the oil impacted areas and a model for the kinds of
cultural resources impacted, the degree of the impact and the
physical setting of the injured resource. Both use and intrinsic
values of archaeological resources may have been impacted.
Use Value
1. Effects of the scientific value of the archaeological
resource. The magnitude of this damage depends on the
uniqueness of the affected site, the original quality of
information available at the site, the nature of the impacts,
and the willingness of the scientific community to pay for the
lost information. If the site is unique and substitute
sources of similar information do not exist, the value of the
damage may be large.
2. Loss of value as tourist and educational attractions. Unique
or spectacular archaeological sites have value as tourist
attractions. All significant archaeological sites have
educational value as the focus of field trips and published
descriptions. Archaeological information and artifacts have
value for museum interpretation and display. Oil impacts
could substantially reduce these values.
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Intrinsic Value
1. Impacts on the religious, cultural or symbolic values for
native groups.
2. Loss of intrinsic value for the general, non-native
population.
BUDGET
This study has not yet begun due to the delay in receiving results
from the archaeological science study. At present, no additional
funds have been requested for this study. When results from the
archaeological resources science study are received, this study
will be continued and funded with the amount needed to determine
the extent of both the lost use and intrinsic values of
archaeological resources.
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ECONOMIC STUDY NUMBER 10
Study Title: Petroleum Products Price Impacts
INTRODUCTION
Retail prices for gasoline on the West Coast of the United States
increased immediately after the EVOS. This increase is observed
both relative to earlier periods in 1989 and relative to prices in
other parts of the country immediately after the spill. Similar
increases in other petroleum products may also have occurred.
OBJECTIVES
Estimate economic damages to consumers of petroleum products.
METHODS
This study will conduct a statistical analysis of the relationship
between the EVOS and the observed petroleum market price increases.
If it appears that a connection between the two events can be
shown, the damage to consumers of petroleum products will be
estimated. Investigators will use existing data and models as well
as improved data and methods they develop to value the injury.
BUDGET
Total: $ 271.3
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PART IV: OIL SPILL PUBLIC INFORMATION SUPPORT
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OIL SPILL PUBLIC INFORMATION SUPPORT
Lead Agency: DOJ, DOA, DOI, NOAA
INTRODUCTION
The Federal trustee agencies are committed to making as much
information about the EVOS available to the public as possible.
OBJECTIVES
A. Provide a central facility for collecting information about
oil spills in general and the EVOS in particular.
B. Gather scientific data from each of the government agencies
involved in the spill response or natural resource damage
assessment.
C. Answer Freedom of Information Act requests from the public
about the EVOS.
METHODS
The Oil Spill Public Information Center (OSPIC) is located in
Anchorage, Alaska, and was opened on September 27, 1990. The OPSIC
serves the public by providing access to information about oil
spills in general and the Exxon Valdez oil spill in particular.
The current collection includes technical reports, newspaper
clippings, maps, slides, photographs, books, periodicals, audio
recordings, and video tapes. The OSPIC has received requests from
corporate entities, students, college faculty, the legal community,
and members of the public. The OPSIC will begin to catalog
scientific data from the EVOS during 1991. OSPIC staff will also
continue to process documents collected in response to Freedom of
Information Act (FOIA) requests for inclusion in the OSPIC
collection.
BUDGET
The trustee agencies will reimburse the Department of Justice in
equal shares for the operation'of the OSPIC and according to agency
activity for FOIA processing.
Department of Agriculture $ 614.0
Department of Interior 1,739.0
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 599.0
Total $2,952.0
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FART V: RESTORATION PLANNING
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RESTORATION PLANNING
OBJECTIVES
The goal of the restoration planning effort is to identify
appropriate measures that can be taken to restore natural resources
injured by the EVOS. Specific objectives are:
A. Identify or develop technically feasible restoration options
for natural resources and services potentially injured by the
EVOS;
B. Determine the nature and pace of natural recovery of injured
resources, and identify where direct restoration measures may
be appropriate;
C. Incorporate an approach to restoration that where appropriate,
focuses on recovery of ecosystems rather than on the
individual components of those systems;
D. Identify costs associated with implementing restoration
activities, in support of the overall natural resource damage
assessment process; and
E. Encourage, provide for, and be responsive to public
participation and review during the restoration planning
process.
DEFINITION
For any injury, there are three types of possible restoration
activities:
1. direct restoration refers to measures in addition to response
actions, usually taken on site, to directly rehabilitate an
injured, lost, or destroyed resource;
2. replacement refers to substituting one resource for an
injured, lost, or destroyed resource of the same or similar
type; and
3. acquisition of ecfuivalent resources means to compensate for an
injury to a resource by substituting another resource that
provides the same or substantially similar services as the
resource injured, lost, or destroyed.
Determining the adequacy of natural recovery is fundamental to
the choice of a restoration activity. In some cases the
Trustees maydetermine that it is most appropriate to allow
natural recovery to proceed without further intervention.
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1990 RESTORATION ACTIVITIES
The Trustee agencies and EPA initiated several small-scale field
studies to evaluate the feasibility of restoration techniques.
Results from these studies will help to determine the costs and
effectiveness of full-scale restoration projects. Several
technical support studies were also initiated to provide
information needed to evaluate or carry out some potential
restoration activities. These studies were described in the 1990
State/Federal Natural Resources Damage Assessment and Restoration
Plan for the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. August 1990 (available at the
OSPIC) and preliminary results are summarized below.
1990 RESTORATION FEASIBILITY STUDIES
1. Reestablishment of Fucus in Rocky Intertidal Ecosystems
Lead Agency: EPA
Early observations indicated that Fucus, a marine plant (rockweed)
found on rocky shorelines in the intertidal zone throughout the oil
spill area, was extensively damaged by both the spilled oil and
cleanup efforts. If the natural recovery of Fucus could be
significantly accelerated or enhanced, it would benefit the
recovery of associated flora and fauna on intertidal rocky shores.
Specific objectives of this study were to identify the causes of
variation in Fucus recovery at and near Herring Bay, Knight Island
in PWS; to document the effects of alternative cleaning methods on
Fucus; and to test the feasibility of enhancing the reestablishment
of Fucus. Although results are preliminary it appears that Fucus
recovers most slowly at intensively cleaned sites and almost no
recovery occurs where tar cover persists.
2. Reestablishment of Critical Fauna in Rocky Intertidal
Ecosystems
Lead Agency: USFS
This feasibility study was designed to compare the rates of faunal
recovery in rocky intertidal communities, and to demonstrate the
feasibility of restoration of these communities by enhancing
recolonization rates for such key species as limpets and starfish.
Recolonization rates for these organisms and for the rockweed,
Fucus, may limit the natural rates of recovery for the entire
community. Parameters examined included the presence or absence
ofcommon intertidal species on impacted and reference sites,
population dynamics of several species of invertebrates, larval
settlement on oiled versus unoiled surfaces, and differences in
algal grazing by limpets between oiled and reference sites. One of
the preliminary results indicates that heavy predation of several
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species of transplanted invertebrates was probably due to the lack
of cover usually provided by Fucus.
3. Identification of Potential Sites for Stabilization and
Restoration with Beach Wildrye
Lead Agency: DNR
This study was designed to identify sites with injury to beach
wildrye grass and to recommend restoration measures. Beach wildrye
grass is important in the prevention of erosion in the coastal
environment and is a key component of supratidal habitats in
locations throughout the oil spill area. Erosion resulting from
loss of beach wildrye can lead to the destabilization and
degradation of wildlife habitats and of cultural and recreational
sites. Results from survey work conducted in 1990 in PWS indicate
injury to several beach wildrye communities.
4. Identification of Upland Habitats Used by Wildlife Affected by
the Oil Spill
Lead Agency: FWS, ADF&G
A diversity of birds, mammals, and other animals were killed by the
spill or injured by contamination of prey and habitats. Many of
these species are dependent on aquatic or intertidal habitats for
activities such as feeding and resting, buy many also use upland
habitats. Protection of upland habitats from further degradation
may reduce the effects of the oil on injured fish and wildlife
populations, and thereby speed their recovery. This study focused
specifically on marbled murrelets and harlequin ducks, two species
known to have been affected by the spill and known to use upland
habitats.
Based on surveys of 140 streams, preliminary results of the
harlequin duck study indicate that this species nests along larger-
than-average anadromous fish streams, with moderate gradients and
clear waters. Preliminary results on murrelets suggest that
murrelets use north facing slopes, and inland areas at the heads of
bays. Open bog meadows, especially at the heads of bays, appear to
be used as flight corridors to upper wooded areas.
5. Land Status, Uses, and Management Plans in Relation to Natural
Resources and Services
Lead Agency: DNR
The objective of this study is to locate, categorize, evaluate, and
determine the availability of maps, management plans, and other
resource documents relevant to restoration planning throughout the
oil spill region. Resource materials identified will assist in
planning for implementing site-specific restoration activities,
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including direct restoration, replacement, and the acquisition of
equivalent resources.
To date, a variety of documents, maps, and management plans have
been identified and are being evaluated; other resource materials
are being located. This preliminary project will be completed in
Spring 1991. A second phase is under consideration.
1990 Technical Support Projects
1. Peer Reviewer Process for Restoration Feasibility Studies
Lead Agencies: ADF&G, DEC, DNR, DOI, DOA, NOAA, EPA
This project provided funds to ensure that scientists with
expertise on natural resource restoration were available to provide
peer review of restoration feasibility projects and other
restoration planning studies and activities.
2. Assessment of Beach Segment Survey Data
Lead Agency: DNR
The objective of this project is to review and summarize beach
survey information (obtained through oil spill response activities)
to assist in planning for and implementing site-specific
restoration activities, particularly in the area of direct
restoration. This study was initiated late in 1990 and continues.
A master database is being created from that portion of the beach
surveys relevant to restoration. The primary sources of this
information are DNR and DEC. Data from local and regional
governments as well as non-governmental sources will also be
reviewed and integrated into the system as appropriate. This
preliminary project will be completed in Spring 1991.
3. Development of Potential Feasibility Studies for 1991
Lead Agencies: ADF&G, EPA
This project provided for the orderly development of additional
feasibility studies including: a) monitoring "natural" recoveries;
b) pink salmon stock identification; c) herring stock
identification/spawning site inventory; d) artificial reefs for
fish and shellfish; e) alternative recreation sites and facilities;
f) historic sites and artifacts; and g) availability of forage
fish. Feasibility study proposals are currently under
consideration including the above topics.
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1991 RESTORATION PLANNING ACTIVITIES
The fundamental purpose of restoration planning is to identify,
evaluate, and then recommend potential restoration implementation
activities, in consultation with technical experts and the public.
The NRDA studies and other sources (e.g., Shoreline Assessment
Program, and other agency surveys not connected with the oil spill)
provide information on species, habitats, and ecosystems in need of
restoration. In 1991, as damage assessment results are
synthesized, the RPWG will consult with the principal
investigators, agency experts, and outside peer reviewers to review
the nature and extent of oil spill injuries in relation to the
biology and ecology of the injured resources. A key goal in this
process will be to identify life history requirements, limiting
factors, and environmental processes that are especially sensitive
or that may be enhanced. In turn, this will lead to the
identification of potential restoration activities.
Once potential restoration implementation activities have been
identified, they must be evaluated in terms of technical
feasibility, environmental benefit, cost, and other factors. In
1991, the RPWG will continue to evaluate the restoration options
identified thus far (e.g., those presented in RPWG's Restoration
Planning Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill; August 1990 Progress
Report), as well as new options that are suggested through public
and technical consultations.
While some potential restoration implementation activities are
readily evaluated, others require more detailed review and study.
In some cases, the RPWG will recommend that restoration science
studies (feasibility, monitoring, or technical support) be
conducted to test the efficacy of particular options or to gather
basic information necessary to evaluate or implement an option
(e.g., biological or resource assessment data). Several such
studies were carried out in 1990. Subject to additional technical
review and availability of funds, some restoration science studies
and implementation projects are being considered in 1991. If these
studies or projects are carried forward they will be outlined in a
Federal Register notice later this spring. Additional information
on the Trustees' plan to implement restoration projects in 1991 was
provided in the March 1, 1991, Federal Register. (56 FR 8898) .
The RPWG also expects to further evaluate restoration approaches.
For example, the RPWG will review different management systems for
protecting marine habitats (e.g., National Marine Sanctuary
Program, Alaska Marine Parks). Another example would be to carry
out economic and environmental analyses of restoration
alternatives.
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As information about injuries becomes available, and as potential
restoration actions are evaluated, further implementation
activities may be recommended.
Literature Review
The scientific literature and information from other oil spills
will provide background information that is helpful in restoration
planning. In 1991, the RPWG expects to synthesize previously
identified literature on restoration (see Appendix B, August 1990
Progress Report). The RPWG will also complete previously initiated
syntheses of literature on species and ecosystem recoveries
following natural and human-induced environmental disturbances.
Monitoring
Information on the adequacy of natural recovery is central to
determining whether to implement restoration activities or to allow
injured resources to recover on their own. The literature reviews
described above will provide background information for such
considerations, while damage assessment studies will provide
current data on the status of resources injured by the EVOS. In
1991 the RPWG expects to recommend several monitoring studies to be
carried out in the field in 1991 and to develop protocols for
evaluating the effectiveness of any restoration projects that are
implemented. The RPWG also will continue efforts to develop a
comprehensive plan for long-term ecological monitoring that could
be implemented in the oil spill environment following resolution of
damage claims.
Public Participation
In 1990, the RPWG emphasized broad scoping activities to invite
suggestions from the public about potential restoration activities
and priorities. Public participation will continue to be important
in 1991, with increased emphasis on evaluating and determining the
importance of restoration alternatives. The RPWG is interested in,
and available for, meetings with individuals or constituency
groups. There also will be consideration of additional activities,
such as publications and workshops in 1991. Requests and
suggestions from the public are invited.
Scientific Review
Technical review is essential to the scientific integrity of the
restoration planning process. As needed, the RPWG draws upon
experts from academic institutions, public agencies, and private
organizations (e.g., consulting firms, non-profit organizations) as
sources of advice and criticism in planning feasibility and
technical support studies, and in evaluating and recommending
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restoration activities. In 1991, the RPWG will continue to place
emphasis on scientific review, including participation by peer
reviewers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Trustee Council. 1990. 1990 State/Federal Natural Resource Damage
Assessment and Restoration Plan for the Exxon Valdez Oil
Spill; August, 1990. 360pp plus appendices.
Restoration Planning Work Group. 1990. Restoration Planning
Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill; August 1990 Progress
Report. 80 pp.
BUDGET
The following restoration planning budget does not include the 1991
costs of any potential restoration implementation projects.
Salaries: $835.0
Travel: 250.0
Supplies: 20.0
Equipment/Office: 75.0
Contractual Services:
Literature Review 125.0
Scientific Review 100.0
Public Participation 30.0
Restoration Options Analysis 200.0
Report Publications 25.0
Restoration Science Studies: 3.875.0
Total Planning Activities Budget: $5,485.0
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PART VI: BUDGET
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Budget Summary for the Exxon Valdez Oil
Budgeted costs for projects from 3-
Spill Damage Assessment - 1991
1-91 through 2-29-92.
STUDY
NO.
Marine
2
4
5
6
STUDY TITLE
Mammals
Killer Whale
Sea Lion
Harbor Seal
Sea Otter Injury
LEAD AGENCY
NOAA
ADF&G
ADF&G
DOI
subtotal
BUDGET
$186,000
24,000*
94,200
810,800
$1,115,000
Terrestrial Mammals
3
4
6
Birds
1
2
3
4
11
River Otter & Mink
Brown Bear
Mink Reproduction
Beached Bird Survey
Census/Seasonal
Distribution
Seabird Colony Surveys
Bald Eagles
Sea Ducks
ADF&G
ADF&G
ADF&G
subtotal
DOI
DOI
DOI
DOI
DOI
subtotal
$377,300
76,000
8,500*
$461,800
$313,000
220,000
530,000
255,000
178,900
$1,496,900
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Budget Summary for the Exxon Valdez oil Spill Damage Assessment - 1991
(continued)
Budgeted costs for projects from 3-1-91 through 2-29-92.
STUDY
NO.
STUDY TITLE
LEAD AGENCY
BUDGET
Fish/Shellfish
1
2
3
4
5
7
Salmon Spawning Area Injury
Eggs /Pr e-emergent Fry Sampling
Coded-wire Tagging
Early Marine Salmon Injury
Dolly Varden Injury
Salmon Spawning Area
ADF&G
ADF&G
ADF&G
ADF&G
NOAA
ADF&G
ADF&G
$288,000
259,000
1,075,000
136,400
172,000
325,100
15,000*
8
11
13
15
17
18
24
27
28
30
Injury, Outside PWS
Egg & Pre-emergent Fry
Sampling, Outside PWS
Herring Injury
Clam Injury
Injury to Shrimp
Injury to Rockfish
Trawl Assessment
Injury to Demersal Fish
Sockeye Salmon Overescapement
Run Reconstruction
Database Management
ADF&G
ADF&G
ADF&G
ADF&G
ADF&G
NOAA
NOAA
ADF&G
ADF&G
ADF&G
subtotal
15,000*
558,000
147,000
moved to Subtidal
moved to Subtidal
40,000*
moved to Subtidal
334,300
175,100
175,800
$3,715,700
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Budget Summary for the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Damage Assessment - 1991
(continued)
Budgeted costs for projects from 3-1-91 through 2-29-92.
STUDY
NO. STUDY TITLE
LEAD AGENCY BUDGET
Coastal Habitat
1A
IB
Intertidal Studies
Intertidal Studies
Air/Water
2a
2b
3
6
Injury to Subtidal
Deep Water Benthos
Hydrocarbon in Water
Oil Fate and Toxicity
USFS
NOAA
subtotal
DEC
NOAA
ADF&G
DEC
NOAA
NOAA
$5,100,000
68,000
$5,168,000
moved to Subtidal
moved to Subtidal
moved to Subtidal
moved to Subtidal
moved to Subtidal
moved to Subtidal
Subtidal
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Hydrocarbon Exposure, Microbial
and Meiofaunal Community Effects
(A/W 2a)
Injury to Benthic Communities:
Bio-availablity and transport
of hydrocarbons (A/W 3)
Sediment Toxicity Bioassays (A/W 6)
Injury to Shrimp (F/S 15)
Injury to Rockfish (F/S 17)
Injury to Demersal Fish (F/S 24)
DEC
NOAA
ADF&G
DEC
NOAA
NOAA
ADF&G
ADF&G
ADF&G
NOAA
$139,800
295,000
592,500
196,200
150,000
125,000
50,000
120,000
80,000
235,000
subtotal
$1,983,500
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Budget Summary for the Exxon Valdez oil spill Damage Assessment - 1991
(continued)
Budgeted costs for projects from 3-1-91 through 2-29-92.
STUDY
NO. STUDY TITLE LEAD AGENCY BUDGET
Technical Services
1 Hydrocarbon Analysis DOI $550,000
NOAA 2,000,000
3 Mapping DOI 300,000
ADNR 656,300
subtotal $3,506,300
Archaeology
1 Archaeological ADNR $688,600
USFS 103,000
subtotal $791,600
SUBTOTAL FOR SCIENCE PROJECTS $18,238,800
Peer Reviewers/Chief Scientist
Department of Agriculture $772,000
Department of Interior 772,000
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 772,000
SUBTOTAL FOR PEER REVIEWERS/CHIEF SCIENTIST $2,316,000
Economics
1 Commercial Fisheries Losses FEDERAL $265,500
5 Recreation Uses Damage FEDERAL 390,400
6 Subsistence Losses FEDERAL 532,100
7 Intrinsic Value Loss FEDERAL 1,964,600
8 Research Program Damage FEDERAL 104,900
10 Petroleum Products Price FEDERAL 271,300
SUBTOTAL FOR ECONOMICS $3,528,800
Restoration Planning
State of Alaska $2,968,000
Environmental Protection Agency 1,267,000
Department of Interior 300,000
Department of Agriculture 525,000
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration 425,000
SUBTOTAL FOR RESTORATION $5,485,000**
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Budget Summary for the Exxon Valdez oil Spill Damage Assessment - 1991
(continued)
Budgeted costs for projects from 3-1-91 through 2-29-92.
STUDY
NO. STUDY TITLE LEAD AGENCY BUDGET
Oil Spill Public Information Support
Department of Agriculture $614,000
Department of Interior 1,739,000
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 599,000
SUBTOTAL FOR OIL SPILL PUBLIC INFORMATION SUPPORT $2,952/000
Overhead
State of Alaska $1,037,200
Department of Agriculture 600,000
Department of Interior 300,000
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 900,000
Environmental Protection Agency 200,000
SUBTOTAL FOR OVERHEAD $3,037,200
GRAND TOTAL $35,557,800
* These studies are being funded for the completion of data analysis and
final report preparation.
** Restoration implementation projects may be conducted this summer
depending on resource availability. (See FR 88, 98, March 1, 1991.)
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BUDGET SUMMARY FOR THE EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL BY AGENCY
State of Alaska $10,612,300
Department of Agriculture 7,714,000
Department of Interior 6,268,700
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 5,967,000
Environmental Protection Agency 1,467,000
All Federal Agencies (Economics) 3,528,800
GRAND TOTAL $35,557,800
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APPENDICES A, B AND C
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APPENDIX A
STATE/FEDERAL DAMAGE ASSESSMENT PLAN
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL
This document describes the Quality Assurance for the analytical
chemistry portions of the Exxon Valdez Damage Assessment Process.
It is to be used in conjunction with the Analytical Chemistry
Quality Assurance Programs of the Trustee Agencies. It describes
only those minimum requirements necessary to validate the data
generated by analytical chemistry laboratories. Quality assurance
requirements for other types of measurements are not addressed.
For instructions in meeting the requirements described in this
document, please consult "Collection and Handling of Samples",
which was prepared by the Analytical Chemistry Group for use in
training field personnel or the following Agency representatives:
Carol-Ann Manen, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Everett Robinson-Wilson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
1.1 Study-Specific QA Plans
1.2 Technical System Audits
1.3 Standards and Quality Control Materials
1.4 Analytical Performance Evaluations
1.5 Data Reporting and Deliverables
2. MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS: SAMPLING AND SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
2.1 Sample Identification and Labelling
2.2 Sample Field Chain-of-Custody
3. MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS: ANALYSIS
4. MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS: REPORTING AND DATA DELIVERABLES
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1. Quality Assurance for Analytical Chemistry
Each Trustee agency through their individual standard documented QA
programs and guidances shall ensure that all data generated by or
for that agency and their contractors, in support of the Exxon
Valdez Damage Assessment, are of known, defensible, and verifiable
quality.
These documented QA programs and guidances include but are not
limited to:
NOAA National Status and Trends Program, Mussel Watch Phase
4 Work/QA Project Plan
Quality Assurance of Chemical Analyses Performed Under
Contract With the USFWS
EPA SW-846, Chpt. 1, QA/QC Requirements
EPA Guidelines and Specification for Preparing Quality
Assurance Project Plans, QAMS-005
EPA Handbook for Sampling and Sample Preservation of Water
and Wastewater
The principal investigators for Technical Services Study 1, in
consultation with expert scientists developed and oversee a
centralized program to demonstrate the quality and comparability of
the chemical data obtained by the Trustee agencies.
The major components of this centralized QA program will be:
1. Development of study-specific analytical chemistry QA plans.
2. Technical on-site system audits of field and laboratory data
collection activities.
3. Development and provision of appropriate instrument
calibration standards and control materials.
4. Laboratory performance evaluations by means of intercomparison
exercises.
5. Review of data deliverables and all supportive documentation
to evaluate data quality.
1.1 Study-Specific Quality Assurance Plans
Prior to the initiation of each study, the principal investigator
must prepare and submit a study-specific analytical chemistry QAP
to Technical Services 1 principal investigators and scientific
experts for review and concurrence. This plan shall specify each
study's goals, sampling procedures, analytical procedures, and all
quality control measures and acceptance criteria associated with
those procedures.
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The QAP must be study-specific, however any documented QA guidance
and/or appropriate Standard Operating Procedures (SOP's) used by
the Trustee agencies may form the basis of individual study QA
plans.
A Quality Assurance Plan must address the following:
* Title Page - Includes the signatures of the individuals
responsible for the project and Technical Services 1
concurrence.
* Project Description and Sampling Objectives - Briefly
describes the what, where, and why of the project.
* Data Needs - Describes what elements, compounds, classes of
compounds, and/or physical data are required. Must
describe the desired detection limits, precision and
accuracy of the data for the study.
* Sampling and Labelling Procedures - Describes sample
collection, including field QC and preservation. Estimates
the number and kind of samples to be collected. Minimum
requirements for sample collection are described in
Section 2.
* Chain of Custody - Describes Chain-of-Custody and
documentation procedures. Minimum requirements are
described in Section 2.
* Analytical Procedures - References or describes in detail
proposed method(s).
* Internal Quality Control - Describes type and frequency of
internal quality control. Minimum requirements are
described in Section 3.
* Calibration Procedures and Frequency - Describes the
methods and frequency for calibrating field and laboratory
instruments. These must be specified in SOP's.
* Data Verification - Describes the data verification in SOP
form and includes; (1) the methods used to identify and
treat outliers, and (2) the data flow from generation of
raw data through storage of verified results.
* Data Deliverables - Specifies reporting needs additional to
the minimum requirements described in Section 4.
* Technical System and Performance Audits - Specifies field
or intra-laboratory audits planned by the responsible
agency.
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1.2 Technical System Audits
On-site system audits may be performed without prior notification
by the Technical Services l principal investigators after
consultation with the responsible agency.
1.3 Standards and Quality Control Materials
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will
develop and provide appropriate standards and quality control
materials.
1.4 Analytical Performance Evaluations
Prior to the initiation of work, each analytical laboratory will be
required to demonstrate its capability. This will be accomplished
by providing laboratory documentation on the performance of the
proposed methods and through the analysis of an accuracy based
material. The results of this analysis must be within +/- 15% of
the value of each analyte or measurement parameter.
Any changes in analytical methodology from that proposed in the
original QA plan shall be validated under agency procedures and
documented to the Technical Services 1 principal investigators and
expert scientists.
A series of three intercomparison exercises, utilizing the blind
analysis of gravimetrically prepared materials, extracts of
environmental matrices (tissue, sediment and water) or the matrices
themselves, will be conducted annually. Participation in these
exercises is mandatory. Materials will be prepared by, and data
returned to the NIST for statistical analysis. The NIST will
report to the Technical Services 1 principal investigators.
Unacceptable performance will result in the discarding of the
associated data.
The Technical Services 1 principal investigators will review and
provide written reports on the results of intercomparison studies
to the Management Team.
1.5 Data Reporting and Deliverables
Data deliverables will be reviewed by the generating agency to
verify the quality and usability of the data. A QC report on each
data set will be provided to the Technical Services 1 principal
investigators for review.
All data and associated documentation will be held in a secure
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place under chain-of-custody procedures until the Trustees indicate
otherwise.
2. Minimum Requirements; Sampling and Sampling Equipment
Sample collection activities must be described in SOP's.
References to existing documents are acceptable.
The method of collection should not alter the samples.
Sample collection and storage devices shall not alter the sample.
Samples shall be held in a secure place under appropriate
conditions and under chain-of-custody until the Trustees indicate
otherwise.
2.1 Sampling Identification and Labelling
An SOP will be in place for each study which describes procedures
for the unique identification of each sample. A sample tag or
label will be attached to the sample container. A waterproof
(indelible) marker must be used on the tag or label. Included on
the tag are the sample identification number, the location of the
collection site, the date of collection and signature of the
collector.
The information above will also be recorded in a field notebook
along with other pertinent information about the collection and
signed by the collecting scientist.
2.2 Field Chain-of-Custody
The field sampler will be personally responsible for the care and
custody of the samples collected until they are transferred to
another responsible party.
Samples will be accompanied by a chain-of-custody record or field
sample data record. When samples are transferred from one
individual's custody to another's, the individuals relinquishing
and receiving will sign, date and note the time on the record.
Shipping containers will be custody-sealed for shipment. Whenever
samples are split, a separate chain-of-custody record will be
prepared for those samples and marked to indicate with whom the
samples are being split.
Samples shall be maintained in a manner that preserves their
chemical integrity from collection through final analysis.
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Sample shipper will arrange for sample receipt.
After analysis, any remaining sample and all sample tags, labels
and containers shall be held under chain-of-custody procedure until
the Trustees indicate otherwise.
3. Minimum Requirements; Analysis
The applicable methodology shall be referenced or described in
detail in the SOP's for each measurement parameter.
Method limits of detection shall be calculated by matrix and
analyte.
Control of the analytical method in terms of accuracy and precision
shall be demonstrated.
Calibration shall be verified at the end of each analysis sequence.
Samples shall be quantified within the demonstrated linear working
range for each analyte.
Standard curves shall be established with at least 3 points besides
0.
Field blanks, procedural blanks, reference materials, replicates
and analyte recovery samples shall be run at a minimum frequency of
5 percent each per sample matrix batch.
A minimum list of the petroleum hydrocarbon compounds which are to
be considered for identification and quantification in water,
tissue and sediment include the volatiles, i.e., benzene, toluene,
xylene and the polynuclear aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons
listed below:
Naphthalene n-dodecane
2-Methylnaphthalene n-tridecane
1-Methylnaphthalene n-tetradecane
Biphenyl n-pentadecane
2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene n-hexadecane
Acenaphthylene n-heptadecane
Acenaphthene pristane
2,3,5-Trimethylnaphthalene n-octadecane
Fluorene phytane
Phenanthrene n-nonadecane
Anthracene n-eicosane
1-Methylphenanthrene
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
Benz(a)anthracene
Chrysene
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Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(k)fluoranthene
Benzo(a)pyrene Benzo(e)pyrene
Indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene Perylene
Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
Benzo(g,h,ijperylene
4. Minimum Requirements; Reporting and Data Deliverables
Measurement results, including negative results, as if three
figures were significant shall be reported.
Results of quality control samples analyzed in conjunction with the
study samples shall be reported.
Documentation demonstrating analytical control of precision and
accuracy on an analyte and matrix specific basis shall be reported.
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APPENDIX B
EVOS DAMAGE ASSESSMENT PLAN
HISTOPATHOLOGY GUIDELINES
Histopathology is an important tool used in determining mechanisms
of death and sublethal effects caused by infectious agents and
toxic substances. A definitive diagnosis often does not result
from histological examination, but can give strong support to other
positive measurements. Tissues deteriorate (autolyze) rapidly
after an animal dies; therefore, to be of value, any samples taken
for histological evaluation as part of the damage assessment of the
EVOS shall be collected, preserved, and processed under strict
guidelines.
Sample Collection and Preservation Protocols
Standard protocols for necropsy and preservation of tissue samples
for histopathology shall be used throughout the NRDA studies.
Different protocols have been designed to accommodate the different
groups of animals to be encountered in the assessment studies.
Necropsy procedures have been established and provided to study
managers under separate cover for a variety of different animal
groups including finfish, bivalve mollusks, brachyuran and crab-
like anomurans (i.e., king crabs), shrimp, marine and terrestrial
mammals, and migratory and nonmigratory waterfowl.
Paired sampling of animals from oiled versus unoiled sites will be
done for comparative purposes. Histopathological sampling should
be done during any observed acute episodes of mortality or
morbidity to determine the cause of death or abnormality. These
types of samples are the most valuable in assessing acute toxicity
affects and will be the most likely samples collected for birds and
mammals due to their high visibility in the impacted areas.
Because of the low visibility of fish and shellfish, many histology
samples will consist of random collections in impacted and control
areas with little prior obvious indication of morbidity or
mortality.
Any histological processing of samples collected from apparently
normal shellfish will be performed after, results of parallel
hydrocarbon sampling are known; i.e., positive hydrocarbon results
may merit further histopathology studies. This would not be
advisable for fish and other higher animals that possess an active
mixed function oxidase (MFO) liver enzyme system which could
metabolize hydrocarbons to other compounds providing negative
hydrocarbon results, while potentially still exhibiting
toxicological lesions. Analyses of enzyme function may show an
activated MFO system in exposed fish and higher animals.
Consequently, histology and hydrocarbon samples, as well as other
appropriate samples, such as liver and bile, will be taken from the
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same animal when possible for analyses of metabolites and enzyme
function. If certain fish and shellfish are too few or small,
subsampling other animals from the same site at the same time will
be necessary.
Processing and Interpretation Protocols
Histopathology assessment of birds and mammals will be done
primarily on tissues from clinically affected animals using
established criteria of cellular degenerative and necrotic changes
recognized by a board certified veterinary pathologist.
Histopathological analysis of finfish and shellfish tissues will
include the criteria above as well as indices established in the
Amoco Cadiz oil spill studies (Haensly et al. 1982; Berthou et al.
1987) to allow some quantification of potentially subtle
degenerative changes in tissue histology of otherwise clinically
normal animals. Briefly, these indices include mean concentration
of mucus cells per mm2 of gill lamellae (fish); mean concentration
of mucus cells per mm of epidermis in 10 fields (fish) ; mean
concentration of macrophage centers per mm of liver; mean
concentration of hepatocellular vacuolation due to fatty
degeneration (fish); a mean and total tissue necrosis index
(invertebrates); histological gonadal index (invertebrates); and
differences in prevalences and intensities of incidental lesions
caused by infectious agents (fish and invertebrates).
Quality Assurance in Field Collection of Samples and in
Interpretation of Results
Field Collection:
Veterinary personnel trained in sample taking will be utilized for
onsite necropsies of birds and mammals in order to ensure adequate
quality control and standardized sample collection. The same high
standards will be attainable in fish and invertebrates in that
sample collection will be done by trained finfish and shellfish
biologists. A fish pathologist and technician are available to
train field personnel and assist in necropsy and preservation of
finfish and shellfish samples at collection sites.
Finfish and shellfish samples can be coordinated through an ADF&G
fish pathologist, Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement and
Development Division.
Interpretation of Results:
Quality control of all processed work will require independent
blind reading of subsampled histology slides by two different
laboratories. Tissues with known lesions will be included
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periodically in groups of tissue samples for blind reading and
determination of competency in interpretation.
Chain-of-Custody Guidelines
Due to the evidentiary nature of sample collecting investigations,
the possession of samples will be traceable from the time the
samples are collected until they are introduced as evidence in
legal proceedings. To maintain and document sample possession,
chain-of-custody procedures will be followed.
The field sampler will be personally responsible for the care and
custody of the samples collected until they are transferred. All
samples will be accompanied by a chain-of-custody record and will
be custody-sealed. This procedure includes use of a custody seal
such that the only access to the package is breaking the seal.
When samples are transferred from one individual's custody to
another's, the individuals relinquishing and receiving will sign,
date, and note the time on the record. This record documents the
transfer of custody of samples from the sampler to another person
and, ultimately, to a specified analytical laboratory.
Shipping containers will also be custody-sealed for shipment. The
seal shall be signed before the sample is shipped. The chain-of-
custody record will be dated and signed to indicate transfer. The
original record will accompany the shipment and a copy will be
retained by the sample collector. Whenever samples are split, a
separate chain-of-custody record will be prepared for those samples
and marked to indicate with whom the samples are being split. If
samples are being sent by common carrier, copies of all bills of
lading or air bills must be retained as part of the permanent
documentation.
References
Bell, T.A., and D.V. Lightner. 1988. A Handbook of normal/
penaeid shrimp histology. The World Aquaculture Society,
Baton Rouge, LA.
Berthou, F., G. Balouet, G. Bodennec, and M. Marchand. 1987. The
occurrence of hydrocarbons and histophatological abnormalities
in oysters for seven years following the wreck of the Amoco
Cadiz in Brittany (France). Mar. Environ. Res. 23:103-133.
CERCLA. 1988. Natural Resource Damage Assessments. 53 Federal
Regulation 5166 and 9769.
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Haensly, W.E., J.M. Neff, J.R. Sharp, A.C. Morris, M.F. Bedgood,
and P.D. Boem. 1982. Histopathology of Pleuronectes platessa
L. from Aber Wrac'h and Aber Benoit, Brittany, France: long-
term effects of the Amoco Cadiz crude oil spill. J. Fish Dis.
5:365-391.
Sparks, A.K. 1985. Synopsis of invertebrate pathology excluding
insects. Elsevier Publ., New York.
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APPENDIX C
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ADF&G Alaska Department of Fish and Game
AFK Armin F. Koernig Fish Hatchery
AHs Aromatic Hydrocarbons
AHH Aryl Hydrocarbon Hydroxylase
ANOVA Analysis of variance
AP Alaska Peninsula
A/W Air/Water
AWL Age, Weight, Length
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act
CH Coastal Habitat
CI Cook Inlet
CIK Cook Inlet/Kenai
CTD Conductivity/temperature/depth
CWA Clean Water Act
CWT Coded wire tag
DEC Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
DNR Alaska Department of Natural Resources
DOA Department of Agriculture
DOC Department of Commerce
DOI Department of the Interior
DOJ Department of Justice
DBMS Database Management System
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ES Economic Study
EVOS Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
FRED Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement and Development
Division, ADF&G
F/S Fish/Shellfish
FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
GC-MS Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
GOA Gulf of Alaska
KAP Kodiak Archipelago/Alaska Peninsula
KP Kenai Peninsula
LCI Lower Cook Inlet
LKP Lower Kenai Peninsula
MFO Mixed function oxidase
MLLW Mean lower low water
MM Marine Mammal
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPH Naphthalene
NPS National Park Service
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APPENDIX C
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
NRDA Natural Resource Damage Assessment
NSO Nitrogen-sulphur-oxygen
OSSM On-Scene Spill Model
PED Potential egg deposition
PHN Phenanthrene
PI Principal Investigator(s)
PWS Prince William Sound
PWSAC Prince William Sound Aquaculture
QA/QC Quality Assurance/Quality Control
RPWG Restoration Planning Work Group
SCAT Shoreline Cleanup Advisory Team
SSAT Spring Shoreline Assessment Team
TM Terrestrial Mammals
TS Technical Services
USFS United States Forest Service
VFDA Valdez Fisheries Development Association
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