542F06001
                Revegetating Landfills and Waste
                Containment Areas Fact  Sheet
This Fact Sheet
Discusses the Following:

• It is possible to plant on
  landfill surfaces
• Native plants are recommended
  when revegeiating sites
• Technical factors to consider when
  revegetating
• References and additional
  resources
Keys to Success when
Revegetating Landfill
Surfaces:
• Ensure proper planning,
  design, and funding
• Provide adequate soil quality
  and depth
• Determine appropriate target
  habitat and native plant
  selection
• Allow for appropriate
  planting and establishment
• Conduct routine monitoring
  and management
                                       Introduction
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office
of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation
(OSRTI) is developing a series of fact sheets on ecological
restoration and revegetation of contaminated sites.
Former landfills, abandoned dumps, mines, and other
contaminated sites throughout the U.S. - once thought
to be of limited  or no value - are being reclaimed for a
variety of productive uses.  These new uses include
revegetation of land where plants and animals can once
again flourish.  For example, as of 2005, thousands of
acres of land on Brownfields, Superfund, and Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) sites have been
assessed or cleaned  up and revegetated. In particular,
more than 50 Superfund sites have been cleaned up
and returned to  ecological use. Aesthetic and final land
use considerations are becoming more common during
cover  design.  Some increasingly  common end uses
include parks, hiking trails, wildlife habitat, sports fields,
and golf courses. This fact sheet provides information
on revegetation of landfill surfaces for EPA site managers,
consultants, and others interested in the revegetation of
landfill surfaces.

Contaminated material may be left on the property in
containment systems designed to protect people and
the environment  from exposure and prevent
contaminant migration.  In deciding how to support
the revegetation of these sites, however, there are
questions about whether it is appropriate to plant on
the landfill surface.  Grasses are typically used to
help stabilize the landfill surface and prevent runoff,
but shrubs and trees are  selected less  frequently
because of concerns that the  root systems could
damage the surface.  Based on the location of the
containment area, site-specific approaches should be
used and a general  approach has been discussed in
this fact sheet.  Former landfills, abandoned dumps,
mines, and other waste containment areas will  be
referred to as landfill surfaces throughout the fact sheet.

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         Is  it Possible to Plant
         on  Landfill Surfaces?

         Yes, it is possible to plant trees, shrubs,
         and other types of vegetation on the
         containment system at many sites without
         affecting its integrity and  protectiveness.
         In fact, many sites have been
         revegetated with a variety  of
         plants on a containment system.
         For example, grains,  wild-
         flowers, and other carefully
         selected flora were planted at
         the Army Creek  Landfill  in
         Delaware to create a meadow
         to attract migratory  birds
         (http://www.epa.gov/
         superfund/prog rams/recycle/
         success/casestud/armycsi.htm).
         a result (Robinson and Handel 1995).  The
         key factors that affect the  feasibility of
         planting on a containment system include
         the characteristics of the landfill surface
         (such  as soil depth and soil quality), the
         desired  plant habitat,  and the  physical
         setting of the site (for example, topography
         and climate).
Why Use Native Plants?
 r
Native plants provide a beautiful,
hardy, low maintenance, and drought
resistant landscape
Native plants can develop into a self-
sustaining ecosystem, eliminating the
need for fertilizers, pesticides, and water
         The primary concern in planting
         on landfill  surfaces is ensuring
         the integrity of the containment system,
         particularly the potential for roots to
         penetrate and physically damage the cap,
         thereby creating entry points for water, or
         to open  fissures in the protective barrier
         by excessive moisture reduction.  However,
         ongoing research and a growing body of
         experience indicate that, if it is properly
         designed and implemented, the integrity
         of the landfill surface can be  maintained
         while it supports a variety of plants. Root
         growth depends on the characteristics of
         the soil, and the presence of  a clay liner
         or geomembrane  influences  its growth.
         Research at the Brookfield Sanitary Landfill
         in New York showed that roots,  including
         taproots, grow laterally once they reach
         the clay cap.  No  significant  damage to
         the  clay  cap   was  observed
 as
      Can Native  Plants be
      Used  on  a Landfill
      Surface?	

      Although a variety of plant species can be
      used on a landfill surface, native plants are
      recommended when  possible.  While each
      project is site-specific, plants are typically
      selected based on the design of the landfill
      surface,  the role of  the vegetative cover,
      the depth of plant  roots, irrigation and
      drainage requirements, geographic and
      atmospheric  conditions,   long-term
      maintenance requirements, and  costs  to
      acquire and  install  materials  and plants.
      A  single species of  grass has commonly
      been planted as a monoculture to control
      erosion of landfill surfaces, but the species
For more information on the design of landfill caps, please visit the following Web sites:
•   http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/pubs/600r02099/600R02099.pdf
    http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/landfill/techman/subpartf.txt

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may or may  not be indigenous to  the
surrounding  habitat  and  are  more
vulnerable to disturbance (Harper 1987).
However, planting native species that have
been selected over thousands of years in
that area are best adapted to disturbances
and  climate  change (Waugh  1994).
Species diversity helps  reduce  disease
dispersal or blights and encourages wider
biological diversity in the restored habitat,
making it more like a  natural ecosystem, in
turn  reducing long-term operation and
maintenance (O&M)  and promoting a self-
sustaining ecosystem (Handel et al 1994).

Even sites that currently support monocultures
can be converted to diverse native plant
communities through  careful planning and
monitoring. The  site  can be prepared for
native seeding or planting by prescribed
burning, using  herbicide, or removing a thin
layer of soil along with the monoculture
vegetation. Native  plants  can  even be
seeded through existing cover with a no-till
drill; periodic  burning  would  also be
beneficial  in controlling the monoculture
vegetation. For example,  the Christian
County Landfill was converted from a sparse
monoculture with  eroding areas to a thriving
native prairie (http://www.epa.state.il.us/
environ men tal-progress/v2 5/nl /
abandoned-landfill.html).

A major consideration when selecting plants
for a site is Executive Order (EO) 13148,
which promotes  use  of native species on
revegetated sites. EPA defines native plants
as plants that have evolved over thousands of
years in a specific region and that have
 Native Plants - Ecological Values

 •  Native plants do  not require fertilizers
 •  Native plants do  not require pesticides
 •  Native plants require less water
    (no watering once established)
    than turf grass (lawns)
 •  Native plants provide shelter and food
    for wildlife
 •  Native plants are critical to a diverse
    number of pollinators
 •  Native plants reduce air pollution
 •  Native plants provide biodiversity and
    stewardship of our natural heritage
 •  Native plants save money
 •  Native plants can offer economic values
    (medicinal, herbals, landscaping
    and food)
adapted to the geography, hydrology, and
climate  (see   http://www.epa.gov/
greenacres/).  Native plants found in the
surrounding natural areas will have the most
chance of  success,  require  the  least
maintenance, and are the most cost-effective
in the long term.  Ideally, revegetation of a
site will create  natural  conditions that
encourage re-population by native animal
   For more information on plant types, please visit the following Web site:
   http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/Closure/Revegetate/.
   To  identify the type of general land use in your area, please visit the following
   Web site:  http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/tecrtnical/land/cover use.html.
   For examples of natural habitat restoration on landfills, please see page 63 of the
   following Web site: http://www.epa.gov/tio/tsp/download/dctechnical.pdf.

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Native Plants - Ecosystem Integrity

•  Native plants support a complex web of
   life, and provide a critical component to
   ensure balance in our ecosystems
•  Only  native plants can provide long-term
   sustainability of the landscape
Yet:
   •  more than 200 plants have become
     extinct since the early 1800's
   •  nearly 5,000 native plants
     are "at risk"
   •  one in ten plants face extinction
        species and  that are consistent with  the
        surrounding land.  Furthermore, using non-
        native plants  located close to native plant
        environments could displace the native plants;
        therefore, it is  important to check the invasive
        nature of the  proposed plants (EO  13112).
        Plant succession may occur; for example, the
        original species planted may not survive due
        to predation  or drought.  However, local
        wildlife, such  as  birds, may  aid in  the
        dispersion of  appropriate plant species and
        in the overall revegetation of the site (Robinson
        and Handel 1993).

        Landfills in arid environments pose additional
        challenges because soil must be stabilized with
        sparse vegetation.  A variety of options are
        available, however, to increase the likelihood
        of successful restoration in  these areas,
        including adding compost blankets or other
        organic amendments to the soil to  increase
        water-holding capacity and fertility, shaping
        the ground to collect and retain water, and
        using locally collected seeds of native species.
The species that are appropriate for local
habitat conditions can be selected with support
from EPA's regional  Biological Technical
Assistance Groups, EPA's Environmental
Response Team (http://www.ert.org), the
Natural Resources Conservation Service
(NRCS) (http://www.nrcs.usda.gov). and
local  native plant societies, such as the
following: http://michbotclub.org/links/
native plant society.htm.


What Types of Plants
Can be  Used  on  a
Landfill  Surface?	

Each project has site-specific considerations,
and the plant types listed below are not
applicable to every site.

•  Grasses and Wildflowers are
   generally herbaceous and are limited  to
   prairie-like habitats or appearances, with
   wildflowers providing a broad selection
   of plant heights, root depths, and aesthetic
   choices.  Considerations when selecting
   these plants include the seeding cycle and
   whether they require re-seeding, as well
   as life span, resistance to invasive species,
   and root depth.
   Shrubs are woody perennials that range
   from  several inches to several feet high.
   Considerations in selecting shrubs include
   their  size when fully grown (and the
   resulting potential to  obstruct gas vents,
   wells, or cap maintenance), root depths,
   irrigation requirements, and competition
   with other desired plants (such as saplings).
   Trees are the longest-lived plant group
   and can have the greatest influence on
   overall  design  of the  vegetation.
   Considerations for selecting trees include
   root depths, size, irrigation requirements,
   competition  with other vegetation,
   and debris.

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  What are the Key
  Considerations When
  Planting on  Landfill
  Surfaces?	

  Each project is site-specific and depends on
  a variety of factors based on its individual
  requirements,including  its  location.
  There are eight distinct Level I eco-regions
  in the  U.S., including Eastern Temperate
  Forests, Great Plains, and North American
  Deserts (http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/
  ecoregions/na  eco.htm#Level%20l).
  Specific approaches for planting on landfill
  surfaces should be based on the particular
  eco-region. Information on planting in arid
  areas such  as California can be found at
  http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/
  closure/revegetate/. However, in general,
  the final cover (erosion or vegetative layer)
  should provide adequate  soil  depth to
  support the desired plant habitat to properly
  implement the revegetation of a site and help
  ensure survival.  In addition, soil conditions
  and topographic features may be created
  that closely duplicate the surrounding  soil
  types  and geography.  A revegetated  site
  should duplicate the local native plant profile
  in terms of species selected and distribution
  of these species across the site.  General
  factors to consider include:

  •  Soil and Root Depth.  Soil and root
     depth are key determinants for whether
     and how  a  landfill  surface can be
     revegetated.  In general, the high density,
     low permeability,  and poor aeration of
     the  landfill surface provide an effective
     barrier to penetration by tree roots. Roots
     might penetrate a small distance into the
     landfill surface, but penetration through
     the entire landfill surface is prevented by
The following link provides additional
information on tree planting and soil depth
at the Fresh Kills Landfill in New York:
http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/2005117tr2.asp
    the slow upward diffusion of landfill
    gases, which lowers the oxygen potential
    of the soil  and can be toxic to plants
    (Flower et al 1981; Robinson and Handel
    1995). Nonetheless, sufficient soil depth
    (18   to  24  inches  optimum)   is
    recommended to support the  habitat
    selected.  Several approaches  can  be
    taken in considering trees and shrubs with
    substantial root systems, such as building
    up berms or hillocks as areas for  large
    vegetation.   Simply providing a thicker
    erosion layer, even in small areas on the
    landfill, will improve the options for
    "naturalizing"  the vegetation  selected
    and  the location of plants on  the final
    landfill surface.  Engineered soil and/or
    organic  soil amendments, such  as
    biosolids, can be used if sufficient amount
    of suitable  soil is not available.  Some
    examples of Superfund sites that used
    biosolids  during restoration include
    Bunker Hill  in Idaho; California Gulch  in
    Leadville, Colorado; the Jasper County
    site in Joplin, Missouri; Palmerton Zinc  in
    Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and the Lead
    Remediation Project in East St. Louis,
   Illinois.  Another approach to support
    planting saplings in relatively shallow soil
    layers involves trimming  the  taproot,
    wnich  encourages   lateral   root
    development.  The lateral  roots, up  to
    three times  the tree's canopy width, will
    provide  ample anchorage  and  nutrient
    absorption  for the tree.  Indigenous tree
    species  that  lack a  taproot  also
    can be selected.
 For additional information on land application of biosolids, please visit the
 following Web sites:
• http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/land application.pdf
• http://faculty.washington.edu/clh/newwet/summary.pdf

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    Soil Quality  and Treatment.  The
    greatest cause of failure in revegetation,,
    particularly with trees,  is poor soil  quality
    through factors  such as  soil  compaction,
    water logging,  drought, and insufficient
    rooting depth (Dobson and Moffat 1993;
    Watson and Hack 2000).  Soil is an essential
    medium for plant growth, providing physical
    support for plants as well as access to water;
    soil also is the main source for nutrients that
    are necessary for plant growth.  Soil needs
    to: (1) have a healthy layer near the surface,
    roughly equivalent to topsoil;  (2) be tested
    as necessary for pH,  nitrogen, phosphorus,
    conductivity, bulk density, organic  matter,
    and other nutrients; and  (3) be treated  as
    necessary.  (Soils with  an acidic pH could
    be treated with lime before they are  spread
    over the  landfill surface.)  Soils could  be
    amended by incorporating lime  or organic
    material into the  top 6 inches of soil  from
    one to several weeks before planting.  The
    final soil surface should be loosely distributed
    during landscaping and should  not  be
    compacted with heavy equipment  (Wong
    and Bradshaw 2002).


    Terrain and Slope. Although the  landfill
    ideally could be contoured to  match the
    topography of  the surrounding area,  it
    often is mound-shaped with steep  slopes
    that can  impair plant establishment.
    Biosolids  with site-specific amendments
    can be used on steeper slopes to  help
    prevent the surface  soil  from drying out
    and hold the seed until it germinates  and
    establishes  a   vegetated  surface.
    In addition, compost berms, blankets,  and
    socks can be used to slow the rate of storm
    water as  well as reduce erosion  along
  steep slopes.  The compost retains
  water, aiding  in  revegetation  and
  filters  the  water,  improving  water
  quality as it flows off-site.
• Moisture  and Irrigation.  Water
  logging and drought stress are  major
  factors that limit  plant growth and
  revegetation on landfill sites and can
  occur on the same site at different times
  of the year in areas with low and erratic
  rainfall (Wong and Bradshaw 2002).
  Trees and  shrubs  can remove  large
  quantities of water from soil quickly and
  efficiently,  which  can mitigate  water
  logging (Robinson and Handel 1995).
  In addition, landfill surface material
  typically includes  a geomembrane  or
  clay layer that requires moisture  in the
  soil to safeguard against desiccation.
  The need for moisture  is seasonal and
  depends on annual precipitation and
  climate; moisture,  however, also is
  beneficial to support vegetative surface.
  The moisture level  must be monitored
  to avoid compromising the surface layer
  with saturated  soils and must account
  for the  season and volume of annual
  rainfall, the type of clay material used
  in the barrier, and the plant community
  to be grown.


• Landfill  Gas.   Landfill  gases can
  create a hostile environment  where
  vegetation  cannot  survive  because  of
  the lack of oxygen in the root  zone.
  Gas  collection  systems can  both
  alleviate or aggravate this  problem.
  Exposure  of vegetation to  high gas
  concentrations can  lead to stunted
For additional information about planting on steep slopes, please visit the
following Web sites:
•  http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/backyard/grndcovsl.html

•  http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/idex.cfm

Search by keywords: Compost blanket, compost filter sock, and compost filter berm.

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  growth, defoliation, or death, so that
  me existing plant community requires
  removal and replanting (Flower et al
  1981). Methanotrophic bacteria in soil
  may  consume  landfill gas;  these
  bacteria thrive symbiotically with plant
  roots, existing in concentrations 10 to
  100 times higher than in  unplanted
  soils.  A well-established root zone can
  consume vast quantities of landfill gas,
  even when the plants are dormant.


• Pests  and Invasive  Species.  The
  federal    government    promotes
  management of invasive plant species
  during revegetation, as detailed in  EO
  13112.  This order states that, to  the
  extent  possible, federal agencies must
  prevent the introduction of  invasive
  species,  monitor and control existing
  populations, and restore native species
  and habitat of ecosystems  in invaded
  areas.  Invasive plant species can quickly
  disperse and invade disturbed land.
  Close monitoring of the  habitat during
  establishment and control of invasive
  species will be required.  A variety of
  methods can be used to control invasive
  species, including prescribed burning,
  cnemical (herbicides) or biological (such
  as the purple loosestrife beetle) methods,
  and hand pulling. Careful plant selection
  can reduce the potential for disease from
  insects, molds, and fungi, as well as from
  burrowing animals such as gophers,
  moles, ana other rodents, judgment may
  be exercised in cleanup on a containment
  system because  removal of too much
  material  can jeopardize the nutritive
  regeneration qualities of ground litter and
  can remove an added means of soil
  protection and moisture retention in  the
  natural soil surface.
  Windthrow and surface integrity.
  Windthrow  (blowdown) of trees  is a
  potential problem on  landfill  sites
  because it may jeopardize the integrity
  of the landfill  surface  should the  roots
  peel away the soil layer with the toppled
   tree. Still, the risk of windthrow should
   be no greater than for conventional
   forestea sites if there is an adequate
   depth (14 to 18 inches) of rootable soil.
   Monitoring  for windthrow damage is
   necessary.   However,  the  risK  of
   windthrow can be reduced if trees are
   harvested before they reach a height
   where they  might be more susceptible
   to windthrow or species are planted that
   remain relatively small  (Dobson and
   Moffat 1995).   In addition, planting
   shorter trees at the perimeter of a grove
   around taller varieties or adult trees can
   provide  a windbreak by slowing the
   wind and directing airflow over  or
   around the taller canopy layer.  Single-
   line, hedgerow-like plantings or isolated
   individuals, especially at the edges of
   top decks and maintenance  roads,
   leave adult trees vulnerable to strong
   winds, encouraging windthrow.
How Do  I  Establish
Plants  on  a
Landfill  Surface?	

While it may be difficult to establish native
plants in almost all areas in the U.S., site-
specific considerations will increase the
chances of success.  A proper site-specific
planting  plan  is necessary  in  the
revegetation of  a landfill or waste
containment area.  It is most cost efficient
to combine the application of the nursery
crop and  the native seed planting.  In
addition, the success of the native seeding
is much higher and the reseeding potential
of the nursery crop lower.  Once the  site is
stable, appropriate species can be
introduced by hand. Planting clusters of
habitat can promote seed dispersal, such
as by birds and insects, and they will assist
in introducing local native species.  In
general, options exist  for restoring a
site, including:

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       Planned  planting  of all  plant
       types/ such as  grasses, shrubs/
       and trees, at the very outset of
       restoration.  This approach  may
       require the most advanced planning but
       should provide the greatest element of
       control in the design and outcome of the
       overall plant community. The final plant
       community  would  be established and
       maturing early in the revegetation and
       post-closure  maintenance program.
       Some invasive volunteerism by  outside
       plants could occur if the operator does
       not exercise aggressive control efforts.


       Providing  the proper environment
       and soil conditions to encourage
       plant growth volunteering  by
       local native plants. This approach
       provides the lowest element of control
       on the types of plants  that may be
       introduced to the site because  it
       depends  on  the  unpredictable
       phenomenon  of  natural  plant
       establishment and succession.  Some
       sort of initial soil  stabilization by
       planting  with a rapid-growing  annual
       and perennial grass or ground cover
       will still be  reauired to  prevent erosion
       of the landfill surface.  The plant
       succession process occurs  as  the
       selected  area matures. Pioneer plants
       (typically low-growing  or prostrate
       weeds and  grasses with deep taproots,
       most adapted to the harsh conditions of
       bare, usually poor-quality soils) establish
       first in the ruderal environment and begin
       the process of soil nutrient construction
       and softening. Taller grasses then  gain
  a foothold and establish themselves.  In
  time, legumes, herbaceous perennials,
  and woody perennials begin the larger
  plant occupation as soil quality and
  nutrient content continues to improve.
  Eventually, shrubs and the larger trees
  assume the mature level on the location.

• Combining planned  planting
  with volunteering by adjacent
  native species to create the final
  vegetation cover.  This approach
  has a  high potential for erosion and
  the cost of controlling invasive species
  is also  high. Invasive species typically
  thrive in early successional habitat and
  once established will  be difficult and
  expensive to combat.  Efforts may still
  be  required to  control  undesired
  invasive species. An effective and cost-
  efficient method to revegetation in the
  woodland  and  shrubland  habitat
  includes planting islands of habitat to
  attract  wildlife, such as birds, that can
  disperse seeds to expand the habitat.


What  Maintenance and
Repair Should be
Expected?	

Planting on landfill surfaces will require some
maintenance, but the use of native plants
should create a self-sustaining  habitat that
minimizes the requirements.  The following
maintenance and repair should be expected
to support  revegetation of the landfill surface:
The following Web site provides information on management of invasive species:
http://www.invasivespecie$info.gov/council/actiond.shtml

The following Web site describes many monitoring and management techniques:
hftp://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/Closure/Revegetate/Part6.htm

The following Web site provides additional information on performance criteria:
http://www.ser.org/content/ecological  restoration primer.asp#8

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     Monitoring and Management of
     Habitat at Initial Planting. When
     plants are first established on the site,
     monitoring  and management could
     consist primarily of re-seeding and
     irrigating, if necessary, to ensure the
     health of the plants and control of
     invasive  species. A program may be
     needed to safeguard against disease,
     insect pests, drought, windthrow, and
     wildlife  damage.  Various control
     methods can  be used  to control
     invasive  species on landfill  surfaces,
     including hand pulling,  prescribed
     burning, or use of herbicides; the most
     appropriate method  depends on the
     final use of the site.  This type of
     program may be required only during
     the  first  5 years, may  diminish  over
     time,  and will cease  as the plants
     mature.  In addition,  guidelines on
     mowing  may  need  to  be developed
     and followed, particularly as forbs and
     young trees will be effectively removed
     if they are inadvertently mowed.
     Maintaining    Site   Access.
     Maintaining  access to the site and
     other components of the  remedy is
     necessary and includes  pruning  or
     removing plants that could interfere
     with access roads and trails that lead
     to  vents  and other features of the
     landfill surface. Signage may be used
     to designate newly planted areas and
     to restrict mowing.
• Long-Term  Monitoring   and
  Management   of    Habitat.
  Mechanical methods such as prescribed
  burning, light disking, mowing, grazing,
  chemical application, or a combination
  of methods may be required during the
  first five  years to maintain early
  successional habitat. Once native plants
  are established, the  habitat will require
  minimal maintenance. Periodic removal
  of plant affected by windthrow, disease,
  drought, and frost also may be required.
  After plant roots are established,  the
  frequency  of maintenance can be
  reduced, and natural processes will take
  over.   Highly invasive  species  may
  continue to pose a  problem after five
  years  and should be  periodically
  monitored.   In addition, data on the
  quantity and composition of leachate
  generated  within a  landfill can be an
  indicator of the  integrity of the cover
  system. While leachate  generation
  should be  minimal with a properly
  designed cover, leachate control should
  be considered during the design phase
  and monitored as necessary.

What  are the  Important
Things to  be Aware  of?

• The grass is not always greener -
  especially during  the first couple  of
  years.  For the  first couple of  years,
  native, warm-weather bunch grasses
  spend their energy growing roots and
  establishing themselves below ground.
Site-Specific Examples/Case Studies

Bower's Landfill, Ohio:
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/recycle/success/casestud/bowercsi.htm

Walsh Landfill, Pennsylvania
http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/super/sites/PAD980829527/index.htm

Woodlawn  County Landfill, Maryland
http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/npl/MDD980504344.htm

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Therefore, it may initially appear as if
the seeding wasn't successful - as only
a  little plant material will  be visible
above ground.  But most of the growth
is occurring  below  the  surface.
A trained restoration ecologist familiar
with native plants can telfyou  if the
planting  was  successful and will
become more manifest with  time.
Technical performance measures used
for turf grasses (for example, 50 percent
growth within a  measurement hoop) are
not  appropriate.  Unfortunately,
sometimes a planting will fail and will
need to be repeated.
To maximize  success  - or minimize
failure - note that native plant seeds
may be difficult to sow.   They
require specialized equipment, such as
drill seeders,  available from groups
familiar with native plant restoration
(such as the Fish and Wildlife Service;
state agencies; Park  Service;  local
native plant societies; and native plants
restoration ecologists).   The keys are
timing (the time of year, which  varies
by  species and geographic location)
and maintaining soil contact (use of a
drill seeder is essential  in this regard).
Do  not expect  to be able to  measure
significant success in the first  growing
season.
If the soil used as a borrow source for
the  cover  originally  supported
vegetation, it can be expected to do so
after being moved  to me site.  If the
borrow source supported weeds, weed
seed will be present on the cover system
and weed growth  will  likely  require
control methods.
Native plant materials - either seed or
growing stock - are best obtained with
as  much lead time  as possible.
Do not wait till the last minute to try to
purchase the plant materials. This long
lead time is dictated by both the limited
availability  of the  plant material from
                               10
reliable sources and the need to plant at
the most opportune time.   The U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA)/NRCS
maintains Plant Material Centers that can
augment commercial nurseries, but these
centers need advanced  notice.   Many
native plants suppliers can provide healthy
material at a reasonable cost if awarded
a contract in  advance  for  a  specified
delivery time.  The more time they have,
the better, especially for harvesting local
genotypes  for  planting  in  nearby
restoration  projects.  The seed must be
collected and then  grown for planting,
which is time intensive.  In addition, you
should assume you will have to save 10
percent  of  your budget to reseed or
replant.
Do  not forget to post DO NOT MOW
signs after the planting.  Some sites have
ongoing contracts with landscaping firms
- some with other agencies. Many a first
flush of growth was killed or  severely
damaged  by well-intended maintenance
workers.  This  caution  also  applies  to
spraying herbicides.


Managing wildlife is often overlooked and
can be a  problem.  The biggest culprits
are deer.  They can overbrowse a newly
planted site and  leave  it  vulnerable  to
invasive non-native species. In addition,
small mammals  can debark trees causing
significant damage or killing the trees.
Wildlife control  is difficult, however.
Options include repellents such  as putrefied
egg  solids  and home-made soap.
Providing  alternative  food sources can
work, although they should  not be located
near the new growth.  Other options can
include constructing physical barriers (such
as tall fencing, cages, or nets), providing
access to hunters, and planting at a higher
density to  compensate for  expected loss.
The over  planting approach  applies  to
seeding rates as well as stocking rates for
plants. Options should be  explored with
the local community to  ensure that they
are acceptable.

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Additional  Information
Resources
References used to prepare this fact
sheet include the following:

  Dobson, M.C. and A. J. Moffat.  1 993.
  "Woodland Establishment on Landfill Sites:
  Site Monitoring.";
  http://www.odpm .gov.uk/
  index.asp?id=l 145641

  Dobson, M.C. and A. J. Moffat.  1995. "A
  Re-Evaluation of Objections to Tree Planting
  on Containment Landfills."
  Waste Management & Research.  Volume
  13. Pages 579 through 600.

  Flower, F.B. et al. 1981.  "Landfill Gas, What It
  Does to Trees and How It's Injurious Effects May
  Be Prevented." Journal of Agriculture. Volume
  7.  Pages 43 through 52.

  Handel, S.N. etal. 1994. "Biodiversity
  Resources for Restoration Ecology."
  Restoration Ecology. Volume 2, Number 4.
  Pages 230 through 241.

  Harper, J.L.  1987. "The Heuristic Value of
  Ecological Restoration." Restoration Ecology:
  A Synthetic Approach to Ecological
  Research. Cambridge University Press. New
  York,  NY.  Pages 35 through 45.

  Robinson,  G.R.,  and S.N. Handel.  1993.
  "Forest Restoration on a Closed Landfill:  Rapid
  Addition of New Species by Bird Dispersal."
  Conservation Biology.
  Volume 7, Number 2.  Pages 271 through
  278.

  Robinson, G.R., and S.N. Handel.  1995.
  "Woody Plant Roots Fail to Penetrate a Clay-
  Lined Landfill: Management Implications."
  Environmental Management.
  Volume 19, Number 1. Pages 57 through 64.
  Watson, D. and Valerie Hack.  2000.  Wildlife
  Management and Habitat Creation on Landfill
  Sites - A Manual of Best Practice.
  Ecoscope Applied Ecologists. UK.

  Waugh, WJ.  1994. "Paleoclimatic Data
  Application: Long-Term Performance of Uranium
  Mill Tailings Repositories."
  Workshop Proceedings: Climate Change in the
  Four Corners and Adjacent Regions.
  Grand Junction, CO. September 12-14.

  Wong,  M.H. and A.D. Bradshaw. 2002.
  The Restoration and Management of Derelict
  Land - Modern Approaches.
  World Scientific Publishing Co.  NJ.
Web sites to obtain additional information
include the following:

  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Land
  Revitalization Offices and Programs
  http://www.epa.gov/swerrims/
  landrevitalization/index.htm

  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Green
  Landscaping
  http://www.epa.gov/greenacres

  U.S. Department of Agriculture Beltsville
  Agricultural Research Center (BARC)
  http://www.barc.usda.gov

  U.S. Department of Agriculture - PLANTS
  Database
  http://plants.usda.gov/index.html

  U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
  Resource Conservation Service
  http://soils.usda.gov/survey/printed_surveys

  Center for Plant Conservation
  http://www.centerforplantconservation.org
                                        11

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        Plant Conservation Alliance (PCA)
        http://www.nps.gov/plants

        Society for Ecological Restoration
        International
        http://www.ser.org

        State of California Guide to
        Revegetation and Environmental
        Restoration on Closed Landfills
        http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/
        Closure/Revegetate/
        Wild Ones: Native Plants, Natural
        Landscapes
        http://www.for-wild.org

        Wildlife Habitat Council
        http://www.wildlifehc.org/

        Internet Seminars on Ecological
        Restoration
        http://www.clu-in.org/studio/
        seminar.cfm
         Interstate Technology and Regulatory
         Council (ITRC): Ecological Enhancements.
         http://www.itrcweb.org/gd_EE.asp
                >ther Guidance,
                'olicies,  and  Executive
                • rders
Office of Superfund Remediation
and Technology Innovation
(5102P)
                EPA Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
                Regulations
                http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-
                hw/muncpl/landfill/msw_regs.htm

                EO 13148 Greening the Government
                through Leadership in Environmental
                Management
                http://www.epa.gov/greenacres/
                EO13148.pdf
                EO131 12 Invasive Species
                http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/
                laws/execorder. shtm I

                Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations
                Parts 60, 62, 258, and 445
                http://www.epa.gov/docs/epacfr40/
                chapt-l.info/
                Contact  Us	

                If you have any questions or comments
                on this fact sheet, please contact:

                Ellen Rubin
                (703)603-0141
                rubin.ellen@epa.gov
EPA542-F-06-001
October 2006
www.epa.

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