542F06001
Revegetating Landfills and Waste
Containment Areas Fact Sheet
This Fact Sheet
Discusses the Following:
• It is possible to plant on
landfill surfaces
• Native plants are recommended
when revegeiating sites
• Technical factors to consider when
revegetating
• References and additional
resources
Keys to Success when
Revegetating Landfill
Surfaces:
• Ensure proper planning,
design, and funding
• Provide adequate soil quality
and depth
• Determine appropriate target
habitat and native plant
selection
• Allow for appropriate
planting and establishment
• Conduct routine monitoring
and management
Introduction
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office
of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation
(OSRTI) is developing a series of fact sheets on ecological
restoration and revegetation of contaminated sites.
Former landfills, abandoned dumps, mines, and other
contaminated sites throughout the U.S. - once thought
to be of limited or no value - are being reclaimed for a
variety of productive uses. These new uses include
revegetation of land where plants and animals can once
again flourish. For example, as of 2005, thousands of
acres of land on Brownfields, Superfund, and Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) sites have been
assessed or cleaned up and revegetated. In particular,
more than 50 Superfund sites have been cleaned up
and returned to ecological use. Aesthetic and final land
use considerations are becoming more common during
cover design. Some increasingly common end uses
include parks, hiking trails, wildlife habitat, sports fields,
and golf courses. This fact sheet provides information
on revegetation of landfill surfaces for EPA site managers,
consultants, and others interested in the revegetation of
landfill surfaces.
Contaminated material may be left on the property in
containment systems designed to protect people and
the environment from exposure and prevent
contaminant migration. In deciding how to support
the revegetation of these sites, however, there are
questions about whether it is appropriate to plant on
the landfill surface. Grasses are typically used to
help stabilize the landfill surface and prevent runoff,
but shrubs and trees are selected less frequently
because of concerns that the root systems could
damage the surface. Based on the location of the
containment area, site-specific approaches should be
used and a general approach has been discussed in
this fact sheet. Former landfills, abandoned dumps,
mines, and other waste containment areas will be
referred to as landfill surfaces throughout the fact sheet.
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Is it Possible to Plant
on Landfill Surfaces?
Yes, it is possible to plant trees, shrubs,
and other types of vegetation on the
containment system at many sites without
affecting its integrity and protectiveness.
In fact, many sites have been
revegetated with a variety of
plants on a containment system.
For example, grains, wild-
flowers, and other carefully
selected flora were planted at
the Army Creek Landfill in
Delaware to create a meadow
to attract migratory birds
(http://www.epa.gov/
superfund/prog rams/recycle/
success/casestud/armycsi.htm).
a result (Robinson and Handel 1995). The
key factors that affect the feasibility of
planting on a containment system include
the characteristics of the landfill surface
(such as soil depth and soil quality), the
desired plant habitat, and the physical
setting of the site (for example, topography
and climate).
Why Use Native Plants?
r
Native plants provide a beautiful,
hardy, low maintenance, and drought
resistant landscape
Native plants can develop into a self-
sustaining ecosystem, eliminating the
need for fertilizers, pesticides, and water
The primary concern in planting
on landfill surfaces is ensuring
the integrity of the containment system,
particularly the potential for roots to
penetrate and physically damage the cap,
thereby creating entry points for water, or
to open fissures in the protective barrier
by excessive moisture reduction. However,
ongoing research and a growing body of
experience indicate that, if it is properly
designed and implemented, the integrity
of the landfill surface can be maintained
while it supports a variety of plants. Root
growth depends on the characteristics of
the soil, and the presence of a clay liner
or geomembrane influences its growth.
Research at the Brookfield Sanitary Landfill
in New York showed that roots, including
taproots, grow laterally once they reach
the clay cap. No significant damage to
the clay cap was observed
as
Can Native Plants be
Used on a Landfill
Surface?
Although a variety of plant species can be
used on a landfill surface, native plants are
recommended when possible. While each
project is site-specific, plants are typically
selected based on the design of the landfill
surface, the role of the vegetative cover,
the depth of plant roots, irrigation and
drainage requirements, geographic and
atmospheric conditions, long-term
maintenance requirements, and costs to
acquire and install materials and plants.
A single species of grass has commonly
been planted as a monoculture to control
erosion of landfill surfaces, but the species
For more information on the design of landfill caps, please visit the following Web sites:
• http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/pubs/600r02099/600R02099.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/landfill/techman/subpartf.txt
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may or may not be indigenous to the
surrounding habitat and are more
vulnerable to disturbance (Harper 1987).
However, planting native species that have
been selected over thousands of years in
that area are best adapted to disturbances
and climate change (Waugh 1994).
Species diversity helps reduce disease
dispersal or blights and encourages wider
biological diversity in the restored habitat,
making it more like a natural ecosystem, in
turn reducing long-term operation and
maintenance (O&M) and promoting a self-
sustaining ecosystem (Handel et al 1994).
Even sites that currently support monocultures
can be converted to diverse native plant
communities through careful planning and
monitoring. The site can be prepared for
native seeding or planting by prescribed
burning, using herbicide, or removing a thin
layer of soil along with the monoculture
vegetation. Native plants can even be
seeded through existing cover with a no-till
drill; periodic burning would also be
beneficial in controlling the monoculture
vegetation. For example, the Christian
County Landfill was converted from a sparse
monoculture with eroding areas to a thriving
native prairie (http://www.epa.state.il.us/
environ men tal-progress/v2 5/nl /
abandoned-landfill.html).
A major consideration when selecting plants
for a site is Executive Order (EO) 13148,
which promotes use of native species on
revegetated sites. EPA defines native plants
as plants that have evolved over thousands of
years in a specific region and that have
Native Plants - Ecological Values
• Native plants do not require fertilizers
• Native plants do not require pesticides
• Native plants require less water
(no watering once established)
than turf grass (lawns)
• Native plants provide shelter and food
for wildlife
• Native plants are critical to a diverse
number of pollinators
• Native plants reduce air pollution
• Native plants provide biodiversity and
stewardship of our natural heritage
• Native plants save money
• Native plants can offer economic values
(medicinal, herbals, landscaping
and food)
adapted to the geography, hydrology, and
climate (see http://www.epa.gov/
greenacres/). Native plants found in the
surrounding natural areas will have the most
chance of success, require the least
maintenance, and are the most cost-effective
in the long term. Ideally, revegetation of a
site will create natural conditions that
encourage re-population by native animal
For more information on plant types, please visit the following Web site:
http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/Closure/Revegetate/.
To identify the type of general land use in your area, please visit the following
Web site: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/tecrtnical/land/cover use.html.
For examples of natural habitat restoration on landfills, please see page 63 of the
following Web site: http://www.epa.gov/tio/tsp/download/dctechnical.pdf.
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Native Plants - Ecosystem Integrity
• Native plants support a complex web of
life, and provide a critical component to
ensure balance in our ecosystems
• Only native plants can provide long-term
sustainability of the landscape
Yet:
• more than 200 plants have become
extinct since the early 1800's
• nearly 5,000 native plants
are "at risk"
• one in ten plants face extinction
species and that are consistent with the
surrounding land. Furthermore, using non-
native plants located close to native plant
environments could displace the native plants;
therefore, it is important to check the invasive
nature of the proposed plants (EO 13112).
Plant succession may occur; for example, the
original species planted may not survive due
to predation or drought. However, local
wildlife, such as birds, may aid in the
dispersion of appropriate plant species and
in the overall revegetation of the site (Robinson
and Handel 1993).
Landfills in arid environments pose additional
challenges because soil must be stabilized with
sparse vegetation. A variety of options are
available, however, to increase the likelihood
of successful restoration in these areas,
including adding compost blankets or other
organic amendments to the soil to increase
water-holding capacity and fertility, shaping
the ground to collect and retain water, and
using locally collected seeds of native species.
The species that are appropriate for local
habitat conditions can be selected with support
from EPA's regional Biological Technical
Assistance Groups, EPA's Environmental
Response Team (http://www.ert.org), the
Natural Resources Conservation Service
(NRCS) (http://www.nrcs.usda.gov). and
local native plant societies, such as the
following: http://michbotclub.org/links/
native plant society.htm.
What Types of Plants
Can be Used on a
Landfill Surface?
Each project has site-specific considerations,
and the plant types listed below are not
applicable to every site.
• Grasses and Wildflowers are
generally herbaceous and are limited to
prairie-like habitats or appearances, with
wildflowers providing a broad selection
of plant heights, root depths, and aesthetic
choices. Considerations when selecting
these plants include the seeding cycle and
whether they require re-seeding, as well
as life span, resistance to invasive species,
and root depth.
Shrubs are woody perennials that range
from several inches to several feet high.
Considerations in selecting shrubs include
their size when fully grown (and the
resulting potential to obstruct gas vents,
wells, or cap maintenance), root depths,
irrigation requirements, and competition
with other desired plants (such as saplings).
Trees are the longest-lived plant group
and can have the greatest influence on
overall design of the vegetation.
Considerations for selecting trees include
root depths, size, irrigation requirements,
competition with other vegetation,
and debris.
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What are the Key
Considerations When
Planting on Landfill
Surfaces?
Each project is site-specific and depends on
a variety of factors based on its individual
requirements,including its location.
There are eight distinct Level I eco-regions
in the U.S., including Eastern Temperate
Forests, Great Plains, and North American
Deserts (http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/
ecoregions/na eco.htm#Level%20l).
Specific approaches for planting on landfill
surfaces should be based on the particular
eco-region. Information on planting in arid
areas such as California can be found at
http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/
closure/revegetate/. However, in general,
the final cover (erosion or vegetative layer)
should provide adequate soil depth to
support the desired plant habitat to properly
implement the revegetation of a site and help
ensure survival. In addition, soil conditions
and topographic features may be created
that closely duplicate the surrounding soil
types and geography. A revegetated site
should duplicate the local native plant profile
in terms of species selected and distribution
of these species across the site. General
factors to consider include:
• Soil and Root Depth. Soil and root
depth are key determinants for whether
and how a landfill surface can be
revegetated. In general, the high density,
low permeability, and poor aeration of
the landfill surface provide an effective
barrier to penetration by tree roots. Roots
might penetrate a small distance into the
landfill surface, but penetration through
the entire landfill surface is prevented by
The following link provides additional
information on tree planting and soil depth
at the Fresh Kills Landfill in New York:
http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/2005117tr2.asp
the slow upward diffusion of landfill
gases, which lowers the oxygen potential
of the soil and can be toxic to plants
(Flower et al 1981; Robinson and Handel
1995). Nonetheless, sufficient soil depth
(18 to 24 inches optimum) is
recommended to support the habitat
selected. Several approaches can be
taken in considering trees and shrubs with
substantial root systems, such as building
up berms or hillocks as areas for large
vegetation. Simply providing a thicker
erosion layer, even in small areas on the
landfill, will improve the options for
"naturalizing" the vegetation selected
and the location of plants on the final
landfill surface. Engineered soil and/or
organic soil amendments, such as
biosolids, can be used if sufficient amount
of suitable soil is not available. Some
examples of Superfund sites that used
biosolids during restoration include
Bunker Hill in Idaho; California Gulch in
Leadville, Colorado; the Jasper County
site in Joplin, Missouri; Palmerton Zinc in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and the Lead
Remediation Project in East St. Louis,
Illinois. Another approach to support
planting saplings in relatively shallow soil
layers involves trimming the taproot,
wnich encourages lateral root
development. The lateral roots, up to
three times the tree's canopy width, will
provide ample anchorage and nutrient
absorption for the tree. Indigenous tree
species that lack a taproot also
can be selected.
For additional information on land application of biosolids, please visit the
following Web sites:
• http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/land application.pdf
• http://faculty.washington.edu/clh/newwet/summary.pdf
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Soil Quality and Treatment. The
greatest cause of failure in revegetation,,
particularly with trees, is poor soil quality
through factors such as soil compaction,
water logging, drought, and insufficient
rooting depth (Dobson and Moffat 1993;
Watson and Hack 2000). Soil is an essential
medium for plant growth, providing physical
support for plants as well as access to water;
soil also is the main source for nutrients that
are necessary for plant growth. Soil needs
to: (1) have a healthy layer near the surface,
roughly equivalent to topsoil; (2) be tested
as necessary for pH, nitrogen, phosphorus,
conductivity, bulk density, organic matter,
and other nutrients; and (3) be treated as
necessary. (Soils with an acidic pH could
be treated with lime before they are spread
over the landfill surface.) Soils could be
amended by incorporating lime or organic
material into the top 6 inches of soil from
one to several weeks before planting. The
final soil surface should be loosely distributed
during landscaping and should not be
compacted with heavy equipment (Wong
and Bradshaw 2002).
Terrain and Slope. Although the landfill
ideally could be contoured to match the
topography of the surrounding area, it
often is mound-shaped with steep slopes
that can impair plant establishment.
Biosolids with site-specific amendments
can be used on steeper slopes to help
prevent the surface soil from drying out
and hold the seed until it germinates and
establishes a vegetated surface.
In addition, compost berms, blankets, and
socks can be used to slow the rate of storm
water as well as reduce erosion along
steep slopes. The compost retains
water, aiding in revegetation and
filters the water, improving water
quality as it flows off-site.
• Moisture and Irrigation. Water
logging and drought stress are major
factors that limit plant growth and
revegetation on landfill sites and can
occur on the same site at different times
of the year in areas with low and erratic
rainfall (Wong and Bradshaw 2002).
Trees and shrubs can remove large
quantities of water from soil quickly and
efficiently, which can mitigate water
logging (Robinson and Handel 1995).
In addition, landfill surface material
typically includes a geomembrane or
clay layer that requires moisture in the
soil to safeguard against desiccation.
The need for moisture is seasonal and
depends on annual precipitation and
climate; moisture, however, also is
beneficial to support vegetative surface.
The moisture level must be monitored
to avoid compromising the surface layer
with saturated soils and must account
for the season and volume of annual
rainfall, the type of clay material used
in the barrier, and the plant community
to be grown.
• Landfill Gas. Landfill gases can
create a hostile environment where
vegetation cannot survive because of
the lack of oxygen in the root zone.
Gas collection systems can both
alleviate or aggravate this problem.
Exposure of vegetation to high gas
concentrations can lead to stunted
For additional information about planting on steep slopes, please visit the
following Web sites:
• http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/backyard/grndcovsl.html
• http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/idex.cfm
Search by keywords: Compost blanket, compost filter sock, and compost filter berm.
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growth, defoliation, or death, so that
me existing plant community requires
removal and replanting (Flower et al
1981). Methanotrophic bacteria in soil
may consume landfill gas; these
bacteria thrive symbiotically with plant
roots, existing in concentrations 10 to
100 times higher than in unplanted
soils. A well-established root zone can
consume vast quantities of landfill gas,
even when the plants are dormant.
• Pests and Invasive Species. The
federal government promotes
management of invasive plant species
during revegetation, as detailed in EO
13112. This order states that, to the
extent possible, federal agencies must
prevent the introduction of invasive
species, monitor and control existing
populations, and restore native species
and habitat of ecosystems in invaded
areas. Invasive plant species can quickly
disperse and invade disturbed land.
Close monitoring of the habitat during
establishment and control of invasive
species will be required. A variety of
methods can be used to control invasive
species, including prescribed burning,
cnemical (herbicides) or biological (such
as the purple loosestrife beetle) methods,
and hand pulling. Careful plant selection
can reduce the potential for disease from
insects, molds, and fungi, as well as from
burrowing animals such as gophers,
moles, ana other rodents, judgment may
be exercised in cleanup on a containment
system because removal of too much
material can jeopardize the nutritive
regeneration qualities of ground litter and
can remove an added means of soil
protection and moisture retention in the
natural soil surface.
Windthrow and surface integrity.
Windthrow (blowdown) of trees is a
potential problem on landfill sites
because it may jeopardize the integrity
of the landfill surface should the roots
peel away the soil layer with the toppled
tree. Still, the risk of windthrow should
be no greater than for conventional
forestea sites if there is an adequate
depth (14 to 18 inches) of rootable soil.
Monitoring for windthrow damage is
necessary. However, the risK of
windthrow can be reduced if trees are
harvested before they reach a height
where they might be more susceptible
to windthrow or species are planted that
remain relatively small (Dobson and
Moffat 1995). In addition, planting
shorter trees at the perimeter of a grove
around taller varieties or adult trees can
provide a windbreak by slowing the
wind and directing airflow over or
around the taller canopy layer. Single-
line, hedgerow-like plantings or isolated
individuals, especially at the edges of
top decks and maintenance roads,
leave adult trees vulnerable to strong
winds, encouraging windthrow.
How Do I Establish
Plants on a
Landfill Surface?
While it may be difficult to establish native
plants in almost all areas in the U.S., site-
specific considerations will increase the
chances of success. A proper site-specific
planting plan is necessary in the
revegetation of a landfill or waste
containment area. It is most cost efficient
to combine the application of the nursery
crop and the native seed planting. In
addition, the success of the native seeding
is much higher and the reseeding potential
of the nursery crop lower. Once the site is
stable, appropriate species can be
introduced by hand. Planting clusters of
habitat can promote seed dispersal, such
as by birds and insects, and they will assist
in introducing local native species. In
general, options exist for restoring a
site, including:
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Planned planting of all plant
types/ such as grasses, shrubs/
and trees, at the very outset of
restoration. This approach may
require the most advanced planning but
should provide the greatest element of
control in the design and outcome of the
overall plant community. The final plant
community would be established and
maturing early in the revegetation and
post-closure maintenance program.
Some invasive volunteerism by outside
plants could occur if the operator does
not exercise aggressive control efforts.
Providing the proper environment
and soil conditions to encourage
plant growth volunteering by
local native plants. This approach
provides the lowest element of control
on the types of plants that may be
introduced to the site because it
depends on the unpredictable
phenomenon of natural plant
establishment and succession. Some
sort of initial soil stabilization by
planting with a rapid-growing annual
and perennial grass or ground cover
will still be reauired to prevent erosion
of the landfill surface. The plant
succession process occurs as the
selected area matures. Pioneer plants
(typically low-growing or prostrate
weeds and grasses with deep taproots,
most adapted to the harsh conditions of
bare, usually poor-quality soils) establish
first in the ruderal environment and begin
the process of soil nutrient construction
and softening. Taller grasses then gain
a foothold and establish themselves. In
time, legumes, herbaceous perennials,
and woody perennials begin the larger
plant occupation as soil quality and
nutrient content continues to improve.
Eventually, shrubs and the larger trees
assume the mature level on the location.
• Combining planned planting
with volunteering by adjacent
native species to create the final
vegetation cover. This approach
has a high potential for erosion and
the cost of controlling invasive species
is also high. Invasive species typically
thrive in early successional habitat and
once established will be difficult and
expensive to combat. Efforts may still
be required to control undesired
invasive species. An effective and cost-
efficient method to revegetation in the
woodland and shrubland habitat
includes planting islands of habitat to
attract wildlife, such as birds, that can
disperse seeds to expand the habitat.
What Maintenance and
Repair Should be
Expected?
Planting on landfill surfaces will require some
maintenance, but the use of native plants
should create a self-sustaining habitat that
minimizes the requirements. The following
maintenance and repair should be expected
to support revegetation of the landfill surface:
The following Web site provides information on management of invasive species:
http://www.invasivespecie$info.gov/council/actiond.shtml
The following Web site describes many monitoring and management techniques:
hftp://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/Closure/Revegetate/Part6.htm
The following Web site provides additional information on performance criteria:
http://www.ser.org/content/ecological restoration primer.asp#8
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Monitoring and Management of
Habitat at Initial Planting. When
plants are first established on the site,
monitoring and management could
consist primarily of re-seeding and
irrigating, if necessary, to ensure the
health of the plants and control of
invasive species. A program may be
needed to safeguard against disease,
insect pests, drought, windthrow, and
wildlife damage. Various control
methods can be used to control
invasive species on landfill surfaces,
including hand pulling, prescribed
burning, or use of herbicides; the most
appropriate method depends on the
final use of the site. This type of
program may be required only during
the first 5 years, may diminish over
time, and will cease as the plants
mature. In addition, guidelines on
mowing may need to be developed
and followed, particularly as forbs and
young trees will be effectively removed
if they are inadvertently mowed.
Maintaining Site Access.
Maintaining access to the site and
other components of the remedy is
necessary and includes pruning or
removing plants that could interfere
with access roads and trails that lead
to vents and other features of the
landfill surface. Signage may be used
to designate newly planted areas and
to restrict mowing.
• Long-Term Monitoring and
Management of Habitat.
Mechanical methods such as prescribed
burning, light disking, mowing, grazing,
chemical application, or a combination
of methods may be required during the
first five years to maintain early
successional habitat. Once native plants
are established, the habitat will require
minimal maintenance. Periodic removal
of plant affected by windthrow, disease,
drought, and frost also may be required.
After plant roots are established, the
frequency of maintenance can be
reduced, and natural processes will take
over. Highly invasive species may
continue to pose a problem after five
years and should be periodically
monitored. In addition, data on the
quantity and composition of leachate
generated within a landfill can be an
indicator of the integrity of the cover
system. While leachate generation
should be minimal with a properly
designed cover, leachate control should
be considered during the design phase
and monitored as necessary.
What are the Important
Things to be Aware of?
• The grass is not always greener -
especially during the first couple of
years. For the first couple of years,
native, warm-weather bunch grasses
spend their energy growing roots and
establishing themselves below ground.
Site-Specific Examples/Case Studies
Bower's Landfill, Ohio:
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/recycle/success/casestud/bowercsi.htm
Walsh Landfill, Pennsylvania
http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/super/sites/PAD980829527/index.htm
Woodlawn County Landfill, Maryland
http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/npl/MDD980504344.htm
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Therefore, it may initially appear as if
the seeding wasn't successful - as only
a little plant material will be visible
above ground. But most of the growth
is occurring below the surface.
A trained restoration ecologist familiar
with native plants can telfyou if the
planting was successful and will
become more manifest with time.
Technical performance measures used
for turf grasses (for example, 50 percent
growth within a measurement hoop) are
not appropriate. Unfortunately,
sometimes a planting will fail and will
need to be repeated.
To maximize success - or minimize
failure - note that native plant seeds
may be difficult to sow. They
require specialized equipment, such as
drill seeders, available from groups
familiar with native plant restoration
(such as the Fish and Wildlife Service;
state agencies; Park Service; local
native plant societies; and native plants
restoration ecologists). The keys are
timing (the time of year, which varies
by species and geographic location)
and maintaining soil contact (use of a
drill seeder is essential in this regard).
Do not expect to be able to measure
significant success in the first growing
season.
If the soil used as a borrow source for
the cover originally supported
vegetation, it can be expected to do so
after being moved to me site. If the
borrow source supported weeds, weed
seed will be present on the cover system
and weed growth will likely require
control methods.
Native plant materials - either seed or
growing stock - are best obtained with
as much lead time as possible.
Do not wait till the last minute to try to
purchase the plant materials. This long
lead time is dictated by both the limited
availability of the plant material from
10
reliable sources and the need to plant at
the most opportune time. The U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA)/NRCS
maintains Plant Material Centers that can
augment commercial nurseries, but these
centers need advanced notice. Many
native plants suppliers can provide healthy
material at a reasonable cost if awarded
a contract in advance for a specified
delivery time. The more time they have,
the better, especially for harvesting local
genotypes for planting in nearby
restoration projects. The seed must be
collected and then grown for planting,
which is time intensive. In addition, you
should assume you will have to save 10
percent of your budget to reseed or
replant.
Do not forget to post DO NOT MOW
signs after the planting. Some sites have
ongoing contracts with landscaping firms
- some with other agencies. Many a first
flush of growth was killed or severely
damaged by well-intended maintenance
workers. This caution also applies to
spraying herbicides.
Managing wildlife is often overlooked and
can be a problem. The biggest culprits
are deer. They can overbrowse a newly
planted site and leave it vulnerable to
invasive non-native species. In addition,
small mammals can debark trees causing
significant damage or killing the trees.
Wildlife control is difficult, however.
Options include repellents such as putrefied
egg solids and home-made soap.
Providing alternative food sources can
work, although they should not be located
near the new growth. Other options can
include constructing physical barriers (such
as tall fencing, cages, or nets), providing
access to hunters, and planting at a higher
density to compensate for expected loss.
The over planting approach applies to
seeding rates as well as stocking rates for
plants. Options should be explored with
the local community to ensure that they
are acceptable.
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Additional Information
Resources
References used to prepare this fact
sheet include the following:
Dobson, M.C. and A. J. Moffat. 1 993.
"Woodland Establishment on Landfill Sites:
Site Monitoring.";
http://www.odpm .gov.uk/
index.asp?id=l 145641
Dobson, M.C. and A. J. Moffat. 1995. "A
Re-Evaluation of Objections to Tree Planting
on Containment Landfills."
Waste Management & Research. Volume
13. Pages 579 through 600.
Flower, F.B. et al. 1981. "Landfill Gas, What It
Does to Trees and How It's Injurious Effects May
Be Prevented." Journal of Agriculture. Volume
7. Pages 43 through 52.
Handel, S.N. etal. 1994. "Biodiversity
Resources for Restoration Ecology."
Restoration Ecology. Volume 2, Number 4.
Pages 230 through 241.
Harper, J.L. 1987. "The Heuristic Value of
Ecological Restoration." Restoration Ecology:
A Synthetic Approach to Ecological
Research. Cambridge University Press. New
York, NY. Pages 35 through 45.
Robinson, G.R., and S.N. Handel. 1993.
"Forest Restoration on a Closed Landfill: Rapid
Addition of New Species by Bird Dispersal."
Conservation Biology.
Volume 7, Number 2. Pages 271 through
278.
Robinson, G.R., and S.N. Handel. 1995.
"Woody Plant Roots Fail to Penetrate a Clay-
Lined Landfill: Management Implications."
Environmental Management.
Volume 19, Number 1. Pages 57 through 64.
Watson, D. and Valerie Hack. 2000. Wildlife
Management and Habitat Creation on Landfill
Sites - A Manual of Best Practice.
Ecoscope Applied Ecologists. UK.
Waugh, WJ. 1994. "Paleoclimatic Data
Application: Long-Term Performance of Uranium
Mill Tailings Repositories."
Workshop Proceedings: Climate Change in the
Four Corners and Adjacent Regions.
Grand Junction, CO. September 12-14.
Wong, M.H. and A.D. Bradshaw. 2002.
The Restoration and Management of Derelict
Land - Modern Approaches.
World Scientific Publishing Co. NJ.
Web sites to obtain additional information
include the following:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Land
Revitalization Offices and Programs
http://www.epa.gov/swerrims/
landrevitalization/index.htm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Green
Landscaping
http://www.epa.gov/greenacres
U.S. Department of Agriculture Beltsville
Agricultural Research Center (BARC)
http://www.barc.usda.gov
U.S. Department of Agriculture - PLANTS
Database
http://plants.usda.gov/index.html
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
Resource Conservation Service
http://soils.usda.gov/survey/printed_surveys
Center for Plant Conservation
http://www.centerforplantconservation.org
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Plant Conservation Alliance (PCA)
http://www.nps.gov/plants
Society for Ecological Restoration
International
http://www.ser.org
State of California Guide to
Revegetation and Environmental
Restoration on Closed Landfills
http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/LEACentral/
Closure/Revegetate/
Wild Ones: Native Plants, Natural
Landscapes
http://www.for-wild.org
Wildlife Habitat Council
http://www.wildlifehc.org/
Internet Seminars on Ecological
Restoration
http://www.clu-in.org/studio/
seminar.cfm
Interstate Technology and Regulatory
Council (ITRC): Ecological Enhancements.
http://www.itrcweb.org/gd_EE.asp
>ther Guidance,
'olicies, and Executive
• rders
Office of Superfund Remediation
and Technology Innovation
(5102P)
EPA Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
Regulations
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-
hw/muncpl/landfill/msw_regs.htm
EO 13148 Greening the Government
through Leadership in Environmental
Management
http://www.epa.gov/greenacres/
EO13148.pdf
EO131 12 Invasive Species
http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/
laws/execorder. shtm I
Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations
Parts 60, 62, 258, and 445
http://www.epa.gov/docs/epacfr40/
chapt-l.info/
Contact Us
If you have any questions or comments
on this fact sheet, please contact:
Ellen Rubin
(703)603-0141
rubin.ellen@epa.gov
EPA542-F-06-001
October 2006
www.epa.
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