EPA/625/R-05/003 I August 2007 I www.epa.gov/ord
United States
Environmental Protectio
Agency
Risk Communication in Action
THE RISK COMMUNICATION WORKBOO^
Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research '
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EPA/625/R-05/Q03
August 2007
in
Workbook
By
Christine Reckelhoff-Dangel, M.S., ASPH/EPA Fellow
Dan Petersen, Ph.D., DABT
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
26 West Martin Luther King Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45268
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Notice
This document has been reviewed in accordance with the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's peer and administrative review policies and approved for publication. Mention of
trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
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Foreword
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is charged by Congress with protecting
the Nation's land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national environmental laws,
the Agency strives lo formulate and implement actions leading lo a compatible balance be-
tween human activities and the ability of natural systems to support and nurture life. To meet
this mandate, EPA's research program is providing data and technical support for solving
environmental problems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage
our ecological resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and prevent or
reduce environmental risks in the future.
The National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL) is the Agency's center for
investigation of technological and management approaches for preventing and reducing risks
from pollution that threaten human health and the environment. The focus of the Laboratory's
research program is on methods and their cost-effectiveness for prevention and control of pol-
lution lo air, land, water, and subsurface resources; protection of water quality in public water
systems; remediation of contaminated sites, sediments, and ground water; prevention and
control of indoor air pollution; and restoration of ecosystems. NRMRL collaborates with both
public and private sector partners to foster technologies that reduce the cost of compliance
and lo anticipate emerging problems. NRMRL's research provides solutions to environmental
problems by developing and promoting technologies that protect and improve the environ-
ment; advancing scientific and engineering information to support regulatory and policy deci-
sions; and providing the technical support and information transfer to ensure implementation
of environmental regulations and strategies at the national, state, and community levels.
This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory's strategic long-term research
plan. It is published and made available by EPA's Office of Research and Development to
assist the user community and to link researchers with their clients.
Sally Gutierrez, Director
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
HI
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Abstract
Communicating information about environmental risk to the people most affected by it is one of
the major challenges faced by risk managers and community decision makers. Changing human
behavior is a far more complex task than designing water retention systems or managing storm wa-
ter overflows. On a personal level, many people resist warnings to stop smoking or wear a seatbelt,
reduce calorie intake, or practice sale sex. On a community-wide scale, people often resist programs
to improve traffic flow or lo preserve wetlands or limit construction in ecologically fragile areas.
The purpose of this workbook is to provide a better understanding of the elements of successful
risk communication to public health officials, local environmental managers and community deci-
sion makers. The workbook describes concepts of risk communication based on perceptions, value
differences, persuasion and presentation of data in new ways. EPA sample documents are included
to show a unique demonstration of communicating risk. Following these examples, this document
provides a section on communication tools and techniques. Case studies and workbook exercises are
included as well as an extensive bibliography.
IV
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of
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 What Is Risk Communication? 1
2.0 Basic Concepts of Risk [[[ 3
2.1 Background [[[ 3
2.2 Three Approaches to Managing Risks 3
2.3 Risk Analysis 4
3.0 Basic Concepts of Communication 5
3.1 How and Whal to Communicate to the Public .............................................. 5
4.0 Basic Concepts of Successful Risk Communication 9
4.1 Successful Risk Communication 9
4.2 Constraints[[[ 12
4.3 Perceptions 12
4.4 Value Differences 13
4.5 Objective Risks vs. Subjective Risks 13
4.6 Comparative Risk [[[ 14
4.7 Indexing [[[ 14
5.0 Adoption of Risk Prevention Behaviors 15
5.1 Reason for Innovation 15
5.2 Diffusion of Innovation [[[ 15
5.3 Process of Innovation [[[ 15
5.4 Speed of Innovation 15
5.5 Characteristics of Innovators 16
5.6 Spatial Distribution of Innovators 16
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7.0 Public Participation Tools and Techniques for Risk 19
7.1 Awareness Tools 19
7.2 Knowledge Tools 23
7.3 Decision-Making Tools [[[ 30
7.4 Implementation Tools [[[ 34
8.0 Workbook 39
8.1 Exercise 1 39
8.2 Exercise 2 [[[ 40
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1.0 Introduction
Communicating information about environmental risk to the
people most affected by it is one of the major challenges faced
by risk managers and community decision makers. Changing hu-
man behavior is a far more complex task than designing water
retention systems or managing storm water overflows. On a
personal level, many people resist warnings to stop smoking or
wear a seatbelt or reduce calorie intake or practice safe sex. On a
community-wide scale, people often resist programs to improve
traffic flow or to preserve wetlands or limit construction in eco-
logically fragile areas. The purpose of this workbook is to provide
a better understanding of the elements of successful risk commu-
nication to public health officials, local environmental manag-
ers and community decision makers. The workbook describes
concepts of risk communication based on perceptions, value dif-
ferences, persuasion, and presentation of factual material. EPA
sample documents are included to show a unique demonstration
of communicating risk. Following these examples, this document
provides a section on communication tools and techniques. Case
studies and workbook exercises are also included.
An act or phenomenon is said to pose a hazard when it has
the potential to produce harm or other undesirable conse-
quences to some person or thing (NRC 1989).
1.1 What Is Risk Communication?
Simply stated, risk communication is the process of inform-
ing people about potential hazards to their person, property, or
community. Scholars define risk communication as a science-
based approach for communicating effectively in situations of
high stress, high concern or controversy. From the risk manag-
er's perspective, the purpose of risk communication is to help
residents of affected communities understand the processes of
risk assessment and management, to form scientifically valid
perceptions of the likely hazards, and to participate in making
decisions about how risk should be managed.
Risk communication tools are written, verbal, or visual state-
ments containing information about risk. They should put a
particular risk in context, possibly add comparisons with other
risks, include advice about risk reduction behavior, and encour-
age a dialogue between the sender and receiver of the message.
The best risk communication occurs in contexts where the par-
ticipants are informed, the process is fair, and the participants
are free and able to solve whatever communication difficulties
arise. Figure 1 -1 is an example of a possible human health threat
(a landfill). Ideally, risk communication is a two-way conver-
sation in which an agency or organization informs, and is in-
formed by, affected community members.
Figure 1-1. A landfill that could pose a risk to local citizens.
Risk messages are developed to induce behavioral change.
*Ex. Mercury contamination in fish, alcohol and drug use,
radon testing.
In understanding risk communication, a basic understanding of
risk is necessary.
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2.0 Basic Concepts of Risk
2.1 Background
The goal of environmental and public health is to reduce the risks
associated with exposure to microbial, radiological and toxic
agents in the environment, and also to agents of injury. In this
workbook, risk is defined as judgments concerning the likeli-
hood, severity, or importance of a threatening event or condition,
such as Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1. Humans can be exposed to unknown chemicals from a
toxic dump site.
2.2 Three Approaches to Managing Risks
1. Control releases of the agent to the environment.
2. Control use of the agent.
3. Control exposure to the agent.
Sewage treatment systems, smokestack scrubbers, and other
"end-of-pipe" control systems are examples of the first approach.
The second approach is usually taken by pollution prevention
(P2) and "sustainability" advocates. The third approach of using
physical or behavioral barriers has been traditionally taken when
the first two are impractical, such as in the case of reducing the
risks of skin cancer for example, where controlling the sun has
proven difficult. This handbook fosters the idea that the third ap-
proach should also be applied to all problems of risk reduction,
including those traditionally managed by the first two methods.
Unlike the first two approaches mentioned previously, where
technology can be used as a solution, the problem of reduc-
ing exposures often relies on influencing human behavior. The
solution then is providing risk information to the public in such
a compelling way as to result in reductions in the exposures to
agents of morbidity, mortality, or injury.
Informing people of the risk is the first step. To be effective,
modern risk education programs must transcend barriers of lit-
eracy, language, and ethnicity to ensure acceptance or under-
standing. This may involve the use of pictograms, color-coded
icons, various indices of risk and other nonverbal methods.
The following are categories of concern related to risk: (Cov-
ello, Heartland Center 2003):
Health
Safety
Environment
Family
Community
Economic
Trust
Benefits
Control
Fairness
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Respect
Accountability
Some characteristics of a risk include:
Unknown
Uncertain
Unfair
Dreaded
Dangerous to children
Catastrophic
Immoral
Uncontrollable
Involuntary
Unfamiliar
Seven Cardinal Rules of Risk
Communication (Covello)
Accept and involve the public as a legitimate partner in the
decision-making process.
Listen to your audience.
Be truthful, honest, frank, and open.
Coordinate, collaborate, and partner with other credible
sources.
Meet the needs of the media.
Speak clearly and with compassion.
Prepare, plan carefully, and evaluate your communication
performance.
Designers of risk messages must be aware that a program that
addresses one source of conflict may fail to address another.
Messages addressed to resolve differential knowledge might
miss the mark because the issue may be different values, from
one individual to another, or mistrust of certain experts.
2.3 Risk Analysis
Risk analysts seek to determine the outcomes of various risks.
Figure 2-2 is a Superfund site that must be analyzed for any pos-
sible human health risks before a cleanup plan can be executed.
A risk analysis includes the recognition, evaluation, and control
of the risk of interest. A risk assessment is a logical approach to
analyze and interpret information with the purpose of estimat-
ing likelihood (probability) and severity (magnitude) of harm
to human health and/or environment under specific conditions.
Risk assessments comprise the fields of toxicology, engineering,
industrial hygiene, statistics, epidemiology, and economics, to
name a few. Risk assessments are used for compliance (regula-
tory requirements), standard/regulatory promulgation, priority
setting, site/location selection for hazardous industries, select
intervention/management strategies and/or technology, evalua-
tion impact or activity of product, and cost/benefit analysis.
Aside from understanding risks, various concepts of communi-
cation are described in Section 3.0.
Figure 2-2. The Clark River Superfund site in Montana.
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3.0 Basic Concepts of Communication
When communicating any form of communication, it is impor-
tant to note the content of the message. The following points
should be understood when one is communicating a message:
• Messages are usually designed for non-specialists.
• Simplify complex information.
• What does the audience know?
• What can the audience be expected to understand?
• What is the action or response the sender wants?
• Message content involves what you want to say.
• Message medium is how (in what format) you want to
say it.
• Message target is the person(s) you are trying to influence.
3.1 How and What to Communicate
to the Public
This section considers how and what types of data to commu-
nicate to the community. This is designed to help you develop
an approach for communicating pertinent information to people
in your community, or more specifically, your target audience.
Provided below is information to develop an outreach plan, and
also resources for presenting to the public.
Developing an Outreach Plan
Your outreach program will be most effective if you ask your-
self the following questions:
• Who do you want to reach? (i.e., Who is your target
audience?)
• What information do you want to distribute or
communicate?
• What are the most effective mechanisms to reach your
target audience?
Developing an outreach plan ensures that you have considered
all important elements of an outreach project before you begin.
The plan itself provides a blueprint for action. An outreach plan
does not have to be lengthy or complicated.
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when small particles are ingested.
Figure 3-3.
paint.
X-ray fluorescence detector assists the cleanup of lead
• Technical experts in the subject matter (both scientific and
policy).
• Someone who represents the target audience (i.e., the
people or groups you want to reach).
• Key individuals who will be involved in implementing the
outreach plan.
As you develop your outreach plan, consider whether you would
like to invite any organizations to partner with you in planning
or implementing the outreach effort. Potential partners might in-
clude: local businesses, environmental organizations, schools,
associations, local health departments, local planning and zon-
ing authorities, and other local or state agencies. Partners can
participate in planning, product development and review, and
distribution. Partnerships can be valuable mechanisms for le-
veraging resources while enhancing the quality, credibility, and
success of outreach efforts. Developing an outreach plan is a
creative and iterative process involving a number of interrelated
steps, as described below. As you move through each of these
steps, you might want to revisit and refine the decisions you
made in earlier steps until you have an integrated, comprehen-
sive, and achievable plan.
What Are Your Outreach Goals?
Defining your outreach goals is the initial step in developing an
outreach plan. Outreach goals should be clear, simple, action-
oriented statements about what you hope to accomplish through
outreach. Once you have established your goals, every other
element of the plan should relate to those goals.
Identifying Your Audience(s)
The next step in developing an outreach plan is to clearly iden-
tify the target audience or audiences for your outreach effort.
You might want to refine and add to your goals after you have
defined your target audience(s).
Target audiences for an outreach program might include, for ex-
ample, the general public, local decision makers, educators and
students (high school and college), and special interest groups
(e.g., homeowner associations). Some audiences, such as educa-
tors and special interest groups, might serve as conduits to help
disseminate information to other audiences you have identified,
such as the general public.
Consider whether you should divide the public into two or more
audience categories. For example: Will you be providing dif-
ferent information to certain groups, such as citizens and busi-
nesses? Does a significant portion of the public you are trying
to reach have a different cultural or linguistic background from
other members? If so, it likely will be most effective to consider
these groups as separate audience categories.
Profiling Your Audience(s)
Once you have identified your audiences, the next step is to de-
velop a profile of their situations, interests, and concerns. Out-
reach will be most effective if the type, content, and distribution
of outreach products are specifically tailored to the characteris-
tics of your target audiences. Developing a profile will help you
identify the most effective ways of reaching the audience. For
each target audience, consider:
• What is their current level of knowledge about the risk?
• What do you want them to know about the risk? What ac-
tions would you like them to take regarding the risk?
• What information is likely to be of greatest interest to the
audience? What information will they probably want to
know once they develop some awareness of the risk?
• How much time are they likely to give to receiving and as-
similating the information?
• How does this group generally receive information?
• In what professional, recreational, and domestic activities
does this group typically engage that might provide ave-
nues for distributing outreach products?
• Are there any organizations or centers that represent or
serve the audience and might be avenues for disseminating
your outreach products?
Profiling an audience essentially involves putting yourself "in
your audience's shoes." Ways to do this include consulting with
individuals or organizations that represent or are members of
the audience, consulting with colleagues who have successfully
developed other outreach products for the audience, and using
your imagination.
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Message Content: What Do You Want
to Communicate?
The next step in planning an outreach program is to think about
the contents you want to communicate. In particular at this stage,
think about the key points, or "messages," you want to commu-
nicate. Messages are the "bottom line" information you want
your audience to take away, even if they forget the details.
A message is usually phrased as a brief (often one-sentence)
statement. For example:
• The freshwater diversion this week had an effect on Lake
Salvador.
• Salinity levels at the sampling station in Lake Salvador
dropped below ppt.
• The Hydrowatch site allows you to track daily changes on
Lake Salvador.
Outreach products will often have multiple related messages.
Consider what messages you want to send to each target audi-
ence. You may have different messages for different audiences.
Message Medium: What Outreach Products
Will You Develop?
The next step in developing an outreach plan is to consider what
types of outreach products will be most effective for reaching
each target audience. Figure 3-4 demonstrates a public sign to
demonstrate outreach to an audience. There are many differ-
ent types of outreach: print, audiovisual, electronic, events, and
novelty items. Table 3-1 provides some examples of each type
of outreach product.
A communications professional can provide valuable guidance
in choosing the most appropriate products to meet your goals
within your resource and time constraints. Questions to con-
sider when selecting products include:
• How much information does your audience really need?
• How much does your audience need to know now? A sim-
ple, effective, straightforward product generally is most
effective. The table below demonstrates various outreach
products.
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How Will Your Products Reach Your Audience?
Effective distribution is essential to the success of an outreach
strategy. There are many avenues for distribution. Some ex-
amples are:
Your mailing list
Partner mailing lists
Phone/Fax
E-mail
Internet
TV
Radio
Print media
Hotline that distributes products
upon request
Journals or newsletters of part-
ner organizations
Meetings, events, or locations
(e.g., libraries, schools, marinas,
public beaches, tackle shops, and
sailing clubs) where products are
made available
You need to consider how each product will be distributed and
determine who will be responsible for distribution. For some
products, your organization might manage distribution. For oth-
ers, you might rely on intermediaries (such as the media or edu-
cators) or organizational partners who are willing to participate
in the outreach effort. Consult with an experienced communica-
tions professional to obtain information about the resources and
time required for the various distribution options. Some points
to consider in selecting distribution channels include:
• How does the audience typically receive information?
• What distribution mechanisms has your organization used
in the past for this audience? Were these mechanisms effec-
tive?
• Can you identify any partner organizations that might be
willing to assist in the distribution?
• Can the media play a role in distribution?
• Will the mechanism you are considering really reach the
intended audience? For example, the Internet can be an ef-
fective distribution mechanism, but certain groups might
have limited access to it.
• How many people is the product likely to reach through the
distribution mechanism you are considering?
• Are sufficient resources available to fund and implement
distribution via the mechanisms of interest?
What Follow-up Mechanisms Will You Establish?
Successful outreach may cause people to contact you with re-
quests for more information or expressing concern about issues
you have addressed. Consider whether and how you will handle
this interest. The following questions can help you develop this
part of your strategy:
• What types of reactions or concerns are audience members
likely to have in response to the outreach information?
• Who will handle requests for additional information?
• Do you want to indicate on the outreach product where peo-
ple can go for further information (e.g., provide a contact
name, number, or address, or establish a hotline)?
What Is the Schedule for Implementation?
Once you have decided on your goals, audiences, messages,
products, and distribution channels, you will need to develop an
implementation schedule. For each product, consider how much
time will be needed for development and distribution. Be sure to
factor in sufficient time for product review. Wherever possible,
build in time for testing and evaluation by members or repre-
sentatives of the target audience in focus groups or individual
sessions so that you can get feedback on whether you have ef-
fectively targeted your material for your audience.
Resources for Presenting to the Public
As you develop your various forms of communication materi-
als and begin to implement your outreach plan, you will want
to make sure that these materials present your information as
clearly and accurately as possible. There are resources on the
Internet to help you develop your outreach materials.
How Do You Present Technical Information
to the Public?
Environmental topics are often technical in nature and full of
jargon. Nonetheless, technical information can be conveyed in
simple, clear terms to those in the general public not familiar
with water quality. The following principles should be used
when conveying technical information to the public:
• Avoid using jargon.
• Translate technical terms (e.g., reflectance) into everyday
language the public can easily understand.
• Use active voice.
• Write short sentences.
• Use headings and other formatting techniques to provide a
clear and organized structure.
The following sites provide guidance regarding how to write
clearly and effectively for a general audience:
• The National Partnership for Reinventing Government has a
guidance document, Writing User-Friendly Documents, that
can be found on the Web at http://www.plainlanguage.gov.
• The American Bar Association has a site that provides
links to online writing labs (http://www.abanet.org/Ipm/
bparticlell463_front.html). The site discusses topics such
as handouts and grammar.
As you develop communication materials for your audience,
remember to tailor your information to consider what they are
already likely to know, what else you want them to know, and
what they are likely to understand. The most effective approach
is to provide information that is valuable and interesting to the
target audience. For example, the local fishers in the Lake Sal-
vador area, Louisiana, are concerned about some of the potential
effects (e.g., changes in salinity and algae blooms) of the Davis
Pond freshwater diversion. Also when developing outreach prod-
ucts, be sure to consider special needs of the target audience. For
example, ask yourself if your target audience has a large number
of people who speak little or no English. If so, you should pre-
pare communication materials in their native language.
Now that you have been provided with an understanding of risk
and communication, the basic concepts of successful risk com-
munication follows. This risk communication combines both
science and communicating.
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4.0 Basic Concepts of Successful Risk Communication
Risk communication can be a simple statement like "look-out!"
but in our context risk communication usually has a goal. The
goal may be instrumental, that is, transmission of information
by the sender so as to affect attitudes of behavior of the re-
ceiver. Another goal of risk communication is relational, that is,
to build and reinforce a climate of mutual trust and acceptance
between sender and receiver relative to the potentially threaten-
ing event of condition. The relational goal is important in that it
influences the likelihood of meeting the instrumental goal.
4.1 Successful Risk Communication
• Raises the level of understanding of relevant issues or
actions.
• Satisfies those involved that they are adequately informed
within the limits of available knowledge.
• Success is defined in terms of the information available to
the decision makers rather than in terms of the quality of
decisions.
• Successful risk communication does not always lead to
better decisions because risk communication is only part
of risk management.
• Successful risk communication need not result in consen-
sus about controversial issues or in uniform personal be-
havior.
• Recipient must be able to achieve as complete an under-
standing of the information as he or she desires.
• Messages about expert knowledge are necessary to the risk
communication process. They are not sufficient, however,
for the process to be successful.
Risk theorists have proposed four theories of risk communica-
tion (Covello, Heartland Center 2003):
Mental Noise Theory
When people are upset, angry, fearful, outraged, under high
stress, involved in conflict, or feel high concern, they often have
difficulty processing information.
Trust Determination Theory
When people are upset, angry, fearful, outraged, under high
stress, involved in conflict, or feel high concern, they often be-
come distrustful.
Negative Dominance Theory
When people are upset, angry, fearful, outraged, under high
stress, involved in conflict, or feel high concern, they often
give greater weight to negative information than to positive
information.
Risk Perception Theory
Perception equals reality. There is virtually no correlation be-
tween public perceptions of risk and scientific or technical ex-
perts. What matters most in determining risk perceptions and
public outrage are factors such as trust, benefits, familiarity,
voluntariness, control, dread, uncertainty, memorability, fair-
ness, and accountability.
According to Vincent Covello and the Heartland Center, effec-
tive risk communication encompasses:
• Enhance knowledge and understanding of subject.
• Build trust and credibility.
• Encourage constructive dialogue.
• Produce appropriate levels of concern.
• Provide guidance on protective behavior and actions.
Goal
The goal of risk communication is to produce an informed pub-
lic. The personal nature of risk issues and the uncertainty as-
sociated with estimating risk can provoke considerable anxiety
for the public. Citizens' fears, questions, and concerns must be
managed on their terms, not yours. You can best deliver the risk
message by selecting appropriate communication tools, address-
ing communication barriers, and managing difficult situations.
Your agency/organization can be involved in at least three roles
to ensure quality risk communication and community involve-
ment: 1) Project Team Coordinator; 2) Risk Translator; and
3) Community Involvement Liaison. Well-managed communi-
cation efforts will help ensure that risk messages are success-
fully formulated, communicated, and received, and that they
result in meaningful actions. Involve the media, and ensure that
they have sufficient information to portray the situation fairly.
Plan carefully, track your progress, and evaluate your efforts. It
is important to understand the factors which influence audience
response to a message: technical expertise and credibility.
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Set Realistic Goals
Set a realistic review of the political and legal context of the
communication effort and the risk management decision to
which it relates. Clarify motives for risk communication: one-
or two-way communication?
Analyze
Analyze the audience. Identify residents near the site who have
not received risk communication. Analyze what they want to
know and how they view the risks. Consider what information
will enable understanding and participation and what communi-
cation tools will be most effective. Earn trust and establish cred-
ibility. Listen to community fears; identify knowledge gaps;
provide consistent information; consider community proposals;
and acknowledge mistakes and problems. Be patient, honest,
compassionate, and empathetic.
Identify previous community involvement and communica-
tion activities. Review the Community Involvement Plan and
meet with interested community stakeholders to determine the
level of trust and credibility that has been established. Assess
the results and the public's perceptions of previous activities.
How did the media report on the situation? Did organized citi-
zen groups form? Then, classify the situation. Has the audi-
ence been hostile, apathetic, and interactive in response to the
communication?
Strategy
Incorporate risk communication into your Communication
Strategy. The risk communication strategy should be developed
around one overarching risk communication goal or message;
pipeline-specific interim messages will be developed and de-
livered to help achieve that goal. Each risk message should not
contain more than five points. The strategy should function as
a simple and dynamic guide that can be frequently revisited
and modified. Set realistic goals and measures of success for
risk communication. The goals will be influenced by activities
that are mandated by applicable laws and regulations. A ba-
sic template for developing the overall strategy should follow
the questions outlined in the Rutgers's University Center for
Environmental Communication document, "Ten Questions
Environmental Managers Should Ask." The ten questions are
summarized below:
• Why are we communicating?
• How will we listen?
• Who are our target audiences?
• How will we respond?
• What do our audiences want to know?
• Who will carry out the plans?
• When?
• What do we want to get across?
• What problems have we considered?
• How will we communicate?
• Have we succeeded?
Table 4-1 provides information on do's and don'ts for local
public health officials communicating risks.
The Old Concept of Risk Communication
• Defines success of risk communication from the point of
view of senders.
• If the message "gets across," the communication was a
success.
• Experts are considered to be enlightening or persuading the
uninformed public.
Table 4-1. Checklist of Do's and Don'ts for Spokespersons Communicating Risks (Covello, Heartland Center 2003)
Category
Do
Don't
Truthfulness
Absolutes
Jargon
Humor
Allegations
Negative words and phrases
Reliance on words
Temper
Clarity
Abstractions
Dress/Grooming
Attacks
Promises
Tell the truth.
Avoid absolutes.
Define all technical terms and acronyms.
Use cautiously, use sparingly, pretest, and direct it at
yourself.
Refute the allegation without repeating it.
Use positive or neutral terms.
Use visuals to emphasize key points.
Remain calm and bridge to key messages.
Ask whether you have made yourself clear.
Use examples, stories, narratives, metaphors, and
analogies to aid understanding and to establish a
strong emotive, effective impression.
Dress as your audience would expect you to dress at
your place of work or slightly less formal.
Attack the issue.
Promise only what you can deliver; set realistic
deadlines for follow up.
Lie or cloud the truth.
Never say never, always, or anything absolute or
equivalent without qualification.
Use language that may not be understood by a
significant portion of your audience.
Use in public settings, especially in relation to
sensitive or controversial topics.
Repeat the allegation.
Repeat or offer negative words with strong negative
connotations or negative imagery.
Rely entirely on words.
Let your feelings interfere with your ability to
communicate politely and positively.
Assume that you have been understood.
Speak theoretically with little clarifying information.
Wear clothing or accessories that are distracting
or that carry negative meaning to the audience.
Attack the person or the organization they represent,
especially if they have higher credibility than
you do.
Make promises that you can't keep or you can't
follow up on.
(Continued)
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Table 4-1. (Continued)
Category
Do
Don't
Guarantees
Speculation
Money
Organizational identity
Blame
"Off the record"
Risk/Benefit/Cost
comparisons
Risk comparisons
Risk numbers
Negative numbers
Technical details and
debates
Yes/No questions
Length of answers and
briefings in public
presentations
Emphasize achievements that you have made and
your ongoing efforts.
Provide information on what is being done and what
you know.
Acknowledge the priority that you assign to
protecting public health and safety.
Use plural and personal pronouns ("we," "us,"
"our," "I").
Take responsibility for your share of the problem.
Assume everything you say and do is part of
the public record.
Discuss risks and benefits in separate
communications.
Use tested comparison messages to help put risks
in perspective; cite credible third parties as
their source.
Recognize that how numbers are framed
will determine how they are perceived.
Emphasize performance, trends, and
achievements.
Be short, concise, and focused.
Respond to the underlying concern of yes/no
questions.
Limit answers to questions in public
presentations to less than 2 minutes; limit
briefings in public presentations to no more than
15-20 minutes; limit key messages to no more
than three or four messages that are stated briefly,
concisely, and clearly.
Offer guarantees or state that there are "no
guarantees in life."
Speculate recklessly about extreme worst cases,
about what could have been done, or about
unintended possible outcomes.
Refer to the amount of money being spent on an
issue at the same time that you are talking about
the importance of saving lives or avoiding injury
or harm.
Speak impersonally.
Shift blame or responsibility to others.
Make side comments, "confidential" remarks, or
assume that microphones, recording equipment,
or cameras are turned off.
Discuss your costs along with your discussion of
risk levels.
Compare unrelated risks or offer comparisons
that violate basic principles of risk perception.
Expect the lay public to readily understand
unfamiliar risk numbers.
Mention or repeat large negative numbers.
Provide excessive detail or take part in
protracted technical debates.
Feel required to say yes or no if you feel that it
will result in an inaccurate or misleading
response.
Exceed people's attention spans.
Problems with the Earlier Concept of Risk
Communication
• The costs and benefits are not equally distributed across
society.
• Some people may bear more than a proportionate share of
the costs.
• Risk communicators want to convince others that a par-
ticular alternative is unfair to them.
• People do not agree about which harms should be avoided.
• Values need to be debated and weighed.
• People in a democratic society want to participate in de-
bates about controversial issues.
Make Risk Communication Understandable
Guidelines for providing and explaining risk:
• Acknowledge and state the company's stake in the issue.
• Acknowledge why you are making comparisons.
• Don't expect to be trusted.
• Point out that there are other people to get information
from.
• The risk communicator needs to present information in
language and concepts that recipients already understand.
• Use magnitudes that are common in ordinary experience.
• Be sensitive to the psychological needs of recipients.
Risk Communication Versus Risk Education
Risk communication differs from risk education in that risk
communicators attempt to understand and manage the value
systems of the people from whom a behavioral change is de-
sired. This inherently assumes that the risk message is not be-
ing received in a vacuum, that there already exists, correctly or
not, some estimation of the risk by the public. The problem is
that the risk assigned by the public to a certain agent of mor-
bidity, mortality, or injury may be unrealistically clouded by
uncertainty unrelated to the magnitude of the risk. It is useful
to distinguish two risk frameworks, one used largely by the sci-
entific community and one largely used by the public, that we'll
call objective and subjective risk systems.
Current Problems of Risk Communication
While risk communication has come a long way, there is still
need for improvement to effectively reach the target audi-
ence. Areas of concern when communicating risks include the
following:
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Risk Message Research Gaps
• Little to no research on how community or other typical
recipient groups can express concern to government agen-
cies or corporations.
Problems of Risk Communication
• What can't we change?
Institutions and the political system.
• What can we change?
Problems of risk communicators and recipients.
Additional Problems with Messages
• Self-serving framing of messages.
• Contradictory messages from other sources.
• Actual or perceived professional incompetence and
impropriety.
Community Boundaries
It is important to know these boundaries when dealing with a
risk. According to the EPA's publication "Community Culture
and the Environment," there are various community boundaries
in which we are all encompassed. In each of these boundaries
there are risks. Community boundaries are the natural, physical,
administrative, social and economic characteristics that separate
one community from another (Community Culture and the En-
vironment: A Guide to Understanding a Sense of Place):
Natural Boundaries: might include geologic features (e.g.,
watershed, mountain range) and landscape features (e.g.,
estuary, river, plains, foothills).
Physical Boundaries: might include those which are created
by humans (e.g., major transportation corridors, bridges,
plazas) and are characterized by location or use (e.g.,
downtown, uptown, the waterfront, rural, urban).
Administrative Boundaries: are those created by government
entities for political jurisdiction (e.g., congressional districts,
town lines, school districts) and for providing public services
(e.g., waste disposal, drinking water supply).
Social Boundaries: refer to the ethnic complexion of a
certain place (e.g., Little Italy, Chinatown), and organized
social relationships around a place (e.g., civic associations,
Boy/Girl Scouts).
Economic Boundaries: refer to economic class (e.g., upper
class, working class).
These boundaries coexist at different scales; therefore, vari-
ous risks can overlap between the boundaries. It is important
to know about community boundaries in relation to risk under-
standing where various risks lie.
4.2 Constraints
Be honest about the constraints your agency/organization faces
on the project. Examples of such constraints are listed below.
Regulatory Requirements: Your agency/organization may
have limited authority to address a situation. In cases such
as this, your agency/organization should try to partner with
other agencies or organizations to address the situation.
Organizational Requirements: The amount or type of data
available to the public can be restricted. Do not promise to
release restricted information.
Audience Requirements: Certain audience characteristics
affect which communication tools can be used. Explain
the risk assessment process. Background information can
facilitate the community's understanding of risks. Risk as-
sessment estimates the "baseline risks" to human health and
the environment present at a site; it estimates the current
and possible future risks or risks if no action were taken at
the site. It is important to explain the inherent uncertainties
associated with assessing actual site risks. When presenting
risk assessment numbers, provide adequate background to
put the risk in perspective. Some important considerations
are listed below.
• Explain the risk assessment process before present-
ing the numbers. Consider holding a risk assessment
workshop to explain the process before the risk assess-
ment is started. Explain and graphically illustrate the
routes of exposure. The key to this issue is not whether a
dangerous substance exists in relatively high quantities,
but whether routes of exposure put people at risk. Put the
data in perspective. Avoid the tendency to see risks as
"safe" or "dangerous." Instead, explain risk numbers in
ranges: 1-10 ppb as "low risk," for example. Show the
relationship to similar data and provide a context for ref-
erence, such as the regulatory action level and the levels
found in other communities.
• Explain conservative assumptions in risk assessments
and standard setting. People are often not aware of the
extent to which buffers are built into the risk assess-
ments to ensure that they err on the side of caution.
• Explain the Reasonable Maximum Exposure (RME),
the highest exposure that is reasonably expected to oc-
cur at a site, to demonstrate the "conservative" nature
of the assessment. This technique also helps ensure that
the most sensitive, vulnerable individuals in society—
children, pregnant and nursing women, immune com-
promised individuals, and the elderly—are protected.
Evaluation
The effectiveness of risk communication can best be measured
by observed or noted changes in behavior. Where this might in-
volve the purchase of a product, like sunscreen to prevent skin
cancer, this evaluation is straightforward. In more difficult cases,
other assessment tools will be needed. These include stakehold-
er interviews, focus groups, panel surveys (where the same peo-
ple are interviewed at several different times to assess changes
through time). It will be important in assessment to address both
relational and instrumental aspects of the risk communication
process. Behavioral change will depend on both how compel-
ling the message is, and also how trusting the relationship is.
4.3 Perceptions
A risk perception is an influence of human values on risk. There
are various qualitative factors which affect risk perception. Along
with this, there are also conditions associated with increased or
decreased public concern.
Qualitative Factors Influencing Risk Perception
• Voluntary more accepted than imposed.
• Within your control vs. not within your control.
• Familiar risks vs. unfamiliar.
• Risk well distributed vs. unevenly distributed.
• Risk periodic or catastrophic.
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• Natural vs. man-made.
• Risks perceived to be generated by a trusted source more
acceptable than non-trustworthy source.
• Risks that affect adults vs. those risks that affect children.
Questions Associated with Increased or Decreased Public
Concern
• It is the safest of times.
• It is the riskiest of times.
• Understanding the difference.
It Is the Safest of Times
• Proponents of this view use average life expectancy to but-
tress arguments.
• Dramatic increases in life expectancy even though there
are more chemical hazards. (Increases high for men, wom-
en, blacks, and whites.)
• Declining infant mortality.
It Is the Riskiest of Times
• Proponents of this view see modern technology as generat-
ing new threats to society.
• Life expectancy has slowed since 1950 and expectancy
would be greater with less risks.
• Long-term biological and ecological effects are still un-
known.
• Chemicals may be source of risk but some may reduce over-
all risk.
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons may cause cancer in animals and
man but these compounds are less flammable than non-
halogenated solvents.
• Water chlorination—more carcinogens but less typhoid
causing bacteria.
4.4 Value Differences
Understanding the Conflict
Each side has some valid viewpoints.
Conflict is not about evidence but about the kinds of risks
people want most to avoid, the kind of lives they want to
lead, and the relationship between humanity and nature.
Implications of Conflict for Communication
Differential Knowledge
Conflicts arising from differential information can be resolved
by sharing information.
Conflicts that are based on other factors—this won't help.
Vested Interests
When conflict has arisen from vested interests, communication
should clarify what different groups' interests are and how
options would affect them.
Values Differences
Identify values at stake.
Arguments about which values deserve most weight.
Analysis of how each option would affect different values.
Messages addressed to resolve differential knowledge might
miss the mark because the issue may be different values or
mistrust of certain experts.
4.5 Objective Risks vs. Subjective Risks
There are two basic "frameworks" used in the understanding
of risk. Here, we'll use the term "objective-risk" to define the
health risk of a toxic agent based upon peer-reviewed scientific
analysis of risks determined by interpolation of a dose-response
curve of the toxic agent in laboratory animals, or observed in
human populations through epidemiological methods. We'll
use the term "subjective-risk" to refer to a less technical ap-
proach that incorporates anecdotal information, non-peer re-
viewed journals such as the National Enquirer, and personal
preferences. Communicating at the neighborhood level often
involves other concerns besides the chemical risk. The number
of other issues often revolves around differences between ob-
jective risk and subjective risk.
Objective risk is the risk calculated by a scientist by extrapo-
lating from a dose-response curve. Subjective risk is the risk
the public perceives about a hazard, and it takes much more
into account. This may be the most important aspect to ad-
dress, resolve or explain an issue, as seen below.
Table 4-2 lists factors leading to large differences between ob-
jective and subjective risk. In general, when the disparity is
high, someone is mad. If the objective risk is higher, it will be
you who is mad. Conversely, if the subjective risk is higher,
then it will be the public that's outraged.
Table 4-2. Factors in Subjective Risk
Lower Subjective Risk
Higher Subjective Risk
Voluntary
Natural
Familiar
Moral
Fair
Involuntary
Man-made
Exotic
Immoral
Unfair
These factors can lead to subjective overestimates or underes-
timates of risk. Since, for example, smoking is voluntary; sub-
jective risk frameworks often underestimate its risk while air-
toxics (since you can't choose not to breathe the air, and thus
breathing is involuntary) are overestimated by subjective risk
frameworks.
Subjective Risks: Perceived risk is used here as a term to denote
the cumulative risk that the public attaches to a hazard, whether
it be a risk to morbidity, mortality, or injury. This risk estimate
is influenced by everything they have seen, heard or read about
the hazard, including reputable sources of scientific informa-
tion such as the National Enquirer and their Uncle Bob. Unlike
most scientists and engineers, the public at large is unlikely to
recall where a fact was presented, and will be unable to recall
whether the National Enquirer or the proceedings of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences presented the fact they recall. As
a result, equal weight will be given to data presented by each
of these sources, when perhaps one should be given more trust
than the other.
Differences Between Objective and Subjective Risks: Differ-
ences between how scientists and non-scientists rank risk is one
of the prime battlegrounds of risk communicators. In general, if
scientists and non-scientists are asked to rank a series of health
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risks, the rank orders of the lists are considerably different. At
best, there is a correlation coefficient of 0.3, which means that
about 10% of the variance in the differences can be ascribed
to science. Unfortunately, the pragmatic point of view, where
the greatest health benefits would be gained by spending the
most money on the greatest risks, is unrealized because national
health research spending correlates better with perceived risks
than scientifically supported risks.
The most important message of this section is that subjective
risks are just as manageable as objective risks. The methods are
educational and motivational rather than engineering based, and
this requires different skill-sets among health risk management
personnel in the future. Risk communication can be a simple
awareness-related informational statement like "speed kills,"
but in our context risk communication usually has a goal.
Figure 4-1. The terrorist attack on the World Trade Center was an
example of a low objective risk, but a very high subjective risk.
4.6 Comparative Risk
Risk Comparisons
• Comparing different risks can help people compare the
magnitude of risks.
• Risk comparisons can't be used to determine acceptable
levels of risk and minimize exposure.
• Comparison with other risks can't necessarily establish ac-
ceptable levels of risk in question.
Best Risk Comparison Approaches
• Comparison of same risk at two different times.
• Comparison with a standard.
• Comparison with different estimates of the same risk.
Changes in the Nature of Hazards
• There is constant change of knowledge about the nature of
hazards.
• Increased understanding of human influence on hazards.
• Awareness of man's influence on risks and benefits and life
and death issues.
Changing Portfolio of Hazards
• Hazards used to be short term: infectious agents.
• Modern hazards have latency periods: cancer.
• More knowledge about hazards that people have little con-
trol over.
• Uncertainty causes concerns to persist.
4.7 Indexing
According to Webster's dictionary, indexing is defined as a de-
vice (as the pointer on a scale or the gnomon of a sundial) that
serves to indicate a value or quantity. There are several benefits
to indexing. Indexing provides a powerful tool to communicate
complex information. Some real life examples include the con-
sumer price index and the stock market indices. At the EPA,
there are water-quality indices, a fish-quality index, an urban-
sprawl risk index, a heat index, and others.
Exposure Category
UVI Range
low
^^H
Moderate
High
3toS
6 to 7
Figure 4-2. The UVI index is a helpful tool for risk communicators as
UV exposure is a definite human health risk.
The exercise section in Chapter 8 provides an indexing example
with an in-depth description of the five steps to indexing. A
quick overview of the steps include:
• Identify the subject (the variable) of the risk or benefit or
benefit metric. This could also be a risk/benefit ratio.
• Measure the potential range of the metric.
• If using multiple metrics, decide weighting factors.
• Assign risk (benefit) ranges.
• Assign color-codes, icons.
The air quality index is a commonly referenced to source. The
percentage of the EPA Air Quality Standard was chosen as the
metric, so 100% of the regulatory standard is 100, double the
standard is 200, and half the standard is 50. For example, the
limit for ozone is SOppm, so a 40ppm reading would be 50%,
for an index score of 50. Appendix 10.1 shows the air quality
index indicator. Appendix 10.2 indicates the air quality index of
selected cities for November 4, 2003.
Risk communication's essential components include: constraints,
perceptions, value differences, comparisons, and indexing. Upon
an understanding of risk communication, one may effectively in-
teract with the public. In interacting with the public, it is also
important to understand risk prevention behaviors.
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5.0 Adoption of Risk Prevention Behaviors
There are varieties of process models that become useful in
thinking about promoting lower risk behaviors. The question of
how to get people to choose healthy behaviors: wearing a seat-
belt, a hardhat, a condom, a PFT in boats, sunscreens, getting
blood pressure checked, etc., is very much a sales and market-
ing job, and economics will be part of the story.
Several factors influence the rate of adoption of any healthy be-
havior. Here we describe the who, what, when, where, and why
people choose a new behavior. You can think of this change in
behavior as an "innovation" because it's new to them. One well-
established framework for understanding the process by which
the adoption of a new behavior "diffuses" through a population
is found in the "diffusion of innovations" (Rogers 1995). That
book defines diffusion as a process by which an innovation is
communicated through certain channels over time among mem-
bers of the social system. It presents a framework with four main
elements: 1) characteristics of the innovation, 2) communication
channels, 3) time, and 4) the concept of critical mass.
5.1 Reason for Innovation (why)
People choose a change in behavior or purchase a product be-
cause of a perceived or subjective benefit (opposite of perceived
or subjective risk). If the risk (or benefit) is poorly understood,
there will be little adoption of this innovation.
5.2 Diffusion of Innovation (what)
An adoption of innovation, whether it's technology or behav-
iors, is the "what." Studies on the adoption of innovations in
many case studies have revealed a stunning similarity. They all
differ on the speed or "when" adoption of the technology or be-
havior is implemented, but the pattern is clear. Figure 5-1 illus-
trates the pattern, which incorporates the following features: 1)
It follows an S-shaped curve, 2) an inflexion point is achieved,
3) the time frame is dependent on perceived benefit, and 4) ad-
vertising (risk communication) is very important to information
up to critical mass.
5.3 Process of Innovation (how)
There are several steps in the adoption of innovation that can
be described as the "how." First, there is knowledge or aware-
ness of a problem or a product; then, the formation of favorable
opinion; followed by decision; then implementation; and finally
continuation. All of these can occur in distinct time frames, and
information targeting one phase is common in advertising or
in risk communication processes. For example, the knowledge
or awareness phase is addressed with short messages of the
sort you'd find on billboards, refrigerator magnets, pens, and
pencils. Short messages like "speed kills" or "just say no" are
examples of messages targeting the awareness phase. Messages
designed to form a favorable impression can rank products or
offer testimonials. Examples might include a message like "fa-
vored three to one by physicians" or "ranked number 1 in con-
sumer reports."
5.4 Speed of Innovation (when)
The factors important to shape the adoption curve include the
relative advantage (benefit). This is the most important factor
that affects the rate of adoption. Preventative innovations (risks
averted) are adopted more slowly than benefits. Another fac-
tor is compatibility (familiarity), which is the ease of transition
from old to new behavior. This is the second most important
factor. An example of compatibility in easing the adoption of
new technology is a personal computer keyboard. Since the
interface (the keyboard) looked the same as the typewriter it
was replacing, the transition became less difficult (for some).
Other factors that can be important include crises, which can
often make the relative advantage of a new alternative stark
compared to old, or complexity (complicatedness), e.g.,: VCR
timers which always seem to be blinking 12:00. Another fac-
tor is observability, which means the benefit must be apparent
or perceived to be apparent. The last factor is reinventability,
which is how technology or the user can reshape behavior to fit
new situations or new uses.
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5.5 Characteristics of Innovators (who)
People can be separated into five groups based upon the rate of
adoption of new technology or behaviors. The first group can
be called the "innovators." They are a small part of the general
population (2 1/2%). These people have excess money, they
like to be first, they are risk takers, investors, they read national
papers, travel, are cosmopolitan in scope, and are self learners.
They know before you do. Note that since they read national
papers (like the New York Times) telemarketers and their ilk
can identify these people (by buying mailing lists) and target
them for their particular messages. The next group is called
"early adopters" and comprises about 13 1/2% of the popula-
tion. These people adopt technology or behaviors next; they are
opinion leaders; they and the innovators represent the critical
mass. The next group is the "early majority," followed by the
"late majority," followed by the "lasts." The last group includes
the luddites, holdouts, and other skeptics. (See graph below.)
Innovators Early Majority Laggards
Early Adopters Late Majority
Figure 5-1. Rate of adoption of new technology or behaviors.
5.6 Spatial Distributions of Innovators
(where)
Mass marketers can tell you what census tracts the innovators
live in, also the early adopters, etc. Since many of the charac-
teristics of the highly sought after early adopters are revealed
by what magazines they subscribe to, or what newspapers they
read, or what mail-order catalogs they get, this list of individuals
can be bought from mailing lists. Zip code or other geographic
feature can calculate the various percentages. If the zip code
90210, for example, seems to have three times the usual number
of early adopters compared to the population as a whole, then
this area would be a good place to target a message about new
products. The same information can be used to target your mes-
sage to reach different target groups during different phases of
the education campaign; i.e., you target innovators with knowl-
edge and awareness in early phases of your public information
campaign, then move to more a sales (opinion-based) focus in
different neighborhoods in a later phase.
5.7 Group Movements (organizations)
When large organizations (a company, school, governmental
unit, or group) adopt a new technology or behavior rather than
the individuals that make it up, things only change a little. In or-
ganizations, typically the group adopts all at once. A few topics
become more important. First, crises are much more important
in leading the curve out of the inflexion point in large organiza-
tions. Another important component is "champions" within the
organization. These innovators and early adopters within the
organization are important drivers in demonstrating the benefits
to the organization as a whole.
The above paragraph has given meaning to the various risk pre-
vention behaviors. The information in Section 6.0 provides ex-
amples of documents produced to inform the public of risks.
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6.0 Risk Communication in Action
The following publications are examples of outreach tools de-
signed to educate individuals with an awareness of various risks.
6.1 Community-Based UV Risk Education:
The SunWise Program Handbook
Community-Based UV Risk Education: The SunWise Program
Handbook is a user-friendly how-to guide on providing infor-
mation on how the SunWise project: 1) increased understanding
of the importance of ultraviolet light as a carcinogenic agent and
an agent of skin aging, 2) disseminated time-relevant informa-
tion on when (times of day, weather effects, etc.) UV exposure
should be minimized, and how this can be accomplished using
the UV Index as a risk communication tool, and 3) provided the
general public and specific target audiences with information
about risks of ultraviolet light and human health issues. In addi-
tion, the handbook contains descriptions of the SunWise Proj-
ect public outreach efforts, specifically addressing step-by-step
how to raise awareness in the community.
6.2 Risk Communication in Action:
The EMPACT Handbook
This handbook discusses a variety of data visualization and data
interpretation tools that municipal, state, and federal government
agencies and others have successfully used in environmental risk
communication programs. The handbook presents a variety of
tools used by several different EPA Environmental Monitoring
for Public Access and Community Tracking (EMPACT) proj-
ects, including maps, color-coding, icons, graphs, simulations,
indexes, and publications. The handbook also provides guidance
for using these tools and presents detailed case studies.
Each case study includes a project history, effective methods
used, and lessons learned. The information provided can help
municipalities, states, and others to effectively use visualization
and interpretation tools as they develop or expand their own
risk communication programs.
Figure 6-1. A picture of the Earth's ozone hole which allows higher UV
penetration to the Earth's surface.
6.3 Delivering Timely Water Quality
Information to Your Community:
Lake Access, Minneapolis Project
This technology transfer handbook (in print and CD-ROM for-
mats) demonstrates how to plan and implement a real-time wa-
ter quality monitoring, assessment, data visualization and out-
reach program for residential communities. The handbook will
provide guidance on 1) water-quality monitoring, 2) collecting,
transferring, and managing time-relevant water quality data, 3)
depicting time-relevant water-quality data, 4) communication of
time-relevant water-quality information, and 5) appendices for
technical information. The technology transfer handbook will
showcase the water-quality monitoring, data visualization tools,
and outreach programs developed for the EPA EMPACT (Envi
17
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ronmental Monitoring for Public Access and Community Track-
ing) Lake Access Project. The Lake Access Project, originally
piloted in the Minneapolis, Minnesota area, assists water-quality
management by providing education, water-quality data, inter-
pretation, and assistance in application of low-cost intervention
and risk reduction measures. This project was conceived as a
primary educational and intervention effort to reduce the risk of
further eutrophication in suburban lakes.
6.4 Delivering Timely Water Quality Data
to Your Community: The Boulder Area
Sustainability Information Network
(BASIN) Project
The Technology Transfer and Support Division of the EPA Of-
fice of Research and Development (ORD), National Risk Man-
agement Research Laboratory, in conjunction with the Boulder
Area Sustainability Information Network (BASIN), has devel-
oped a "how-to" handbook to allow other community organiza-
tions to plan and implement a project similar to BASIN. The
handbook provides instructions on how to:
• Establish partnerships with potential data providers.
• Collect and analyze water samples.
• Present timely and spatial environmental data on a Web site
using (Practical Extraction Report Language) PERL pro-
gramming.
• Develop an outreach plan to communicate timely environ-
mental information to the public.
This handbook was developed for EPA's Environmental Moni-
toring for Public Access and Community Tracking (BMPACT)
program. BMP ACT is working with the 150 largest metropoli-
tan areas of the country to help communities in these areas:
• Collect, manage, and distribute timely environmental
information.
• Provide their residents with easy-to-understand information
they can use in making informed, day-to-day decisions.
6.5 Environmental Curricula Handbook:
Tools in Your Schools (CD-ROM)
This handbook is designed to provide teachers and other educa-
tors with guidance on how to teach students about environmen-
tal issues related to air, water, and soil quality (see Figure 6-2).
It provides information to help educators incorporate environ-
mental education into the classroom. Environmental education
is a learning process that increases people's knowledge and
awareness about the environment and associated challenges,
develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the chal-
lenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to
make informed decisions and take responsible action.
Curri.ulo Handbook
T.oli i. Yaw
Figure 6-2. Environmental Curricula Handbook: Tools in Your
Schools.
This handbook can assist educators in designing lesson plans
and activities to teach the principles of environmental science.
It highlights a host of BMP ACT projects that have developed
or are developing curricula or other classroom materials to fos-
ter student learning. The highlighted projects cover a variety of
grade levels (see Appendix C of the BMP ACT book, Activi-
ties by Grade Level). Therefore, any teacher, from kindergarten
through grade 12, can use this handbook.
In addition, college-level materials have been developed for
some projects. Moreover, in most cases, the activities and les-
sons geared towards one particular grade can easily be adapted
for others. Teachers and educators can review the project de-
scriptions and read about the activities, lesson plans, and tools
they employ to develop ideas for their own classrooms. In addi-
tion, the handbook includes resources and contact information
and in some cases a Web site where lesson plans and activities
can be accessed directly.
The unstated goal of risk communication is to manage the sub-
jective risk of the population. A variety of educational tools
lend themselves to this task.
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7.0 Public Participation Tools and Techniques for Risk
The following tools are useful when communicating risks to the
public. Some of these examples can fall under multiple catego-
ries depending on their use; however, each tool is mentioned
only in one category.
7.1 Awareness Tools
Data Visualization
What Is Data Visualization?
Data visualization is the process of converting raw data to im-
ages or graphs so that the data are easier to comprehend and un-
derstand. A common example of data visualization can be seen
when you watch the weather report on television. The electronic
pictures of cloud cover over an area or the location and path of
an impending hurricane are examples of satellite data that have
been visualized with computer software. Displaying data visu-
ally enables you to communicate results to a broader audience,
such as residents in your community. A variety of software tools
can be used to convert data to images. Figure 7-1 demonstrates
data visualization.
Such tools range from standard spreadsheet and statistical soft-
ware to more advanced analytical tools such as:
Satellite imaging software products
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Computer models
Statistical techniques
By applying such tools to data, you can help residents in your
community gain a better understanding of factors affecting the
risk of interest. Once you begin using satellite data visualiza-
tion tools, you will be impressed with their ability to model and
analyze your data. You can then use the visualized data for a
variety of purposes such as:
Exploring trends in lake elevation, chlorophyll concentration,
pH, dissolved oxygen concentration, salinity, specific con-
ductance, turbidity, and water temperature.
Studying spatial patterns of sea-surface temperature.
Studying spatial patterns of near-surface reflectance.
Making resource management decisions.
Supporting public outreach and education programs.
Figure 7-1. An example of data visualization: the elevation in a lake
color-coded by feature.
There are a number of commercially available data visualiza-
tion tools that allow you to graphically represent real-time sat-
ellite data (see Table 7-1).
Many computer users are familiar with Microsoft Access (a da-
tabase software) and Excel (a spreadsheet software).
Videos
Description
Videotape is an influential medium that increases the compre-
hension of a particular story, action, or message. Videos can
be used in several ways: as part of a presentation; to promote
understanding among the community; to record risk assess-
ment activities; to demonstrate products or ideas; or to share
professional ideas informally among other risk communicators
in your agency/organization.
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Table 7-1. Software Tools to Visualize Satellite Data
Tool Group Tools
Primary Uses
SeaSpace's TeraScan™
Software Suite
http://www.seaspace.com
Database and
Spreadsheet Software
TeraCapCon
TeraTrack
TeraMaster
TeraScan™ Product
Generation System
(TeraPGS)
TeraVision
Microsoft Access
Microsoft Excel
Enables the user to program the system for automatic capture, archiving, and
processing of the satellite data.
Reports the information related to a satellite pass capture; reports information that can
be used for diagnosing reception problems; insures quality control performance.
Views, creates, or modifies a data set that defines an area of the earth's surface in
terms of map projection (shape), extends, and pixel resolution.
Automatically generates and distributes products according to user specifications.
Displays and manipulates data images and overlays.
Displays raw data (parameters) from Lake Salvador in tables.
Creates 1 - to 7-day summary hydrographs of various Lake Salvador data.
Allows you to investigate correlations or trends in water-quality variables.
When and How to Use
Videos focus attention on important information, and they can
increase an audience's comprehension and retention of messages.
Video is extremely effective in situations in which you need
to deliver a comparison, consistent message, or overview be-
cause it can deliver that message repeatedly in exactly the same
way. Videos can be used when you need an icebreaker, difficult
technical topics need to be explained, or a particular situation
or experience visualized. Videos also can be used to deliver a
sincere message from a person who cannot appear personally,
and they can be shown at multiple events. Video is less effec-
tive when you only have a short period of time to conduct your
presentation and want to spend it directly with your audience,
or when the room is not set up for a video presentation. Often it
is more appropriate to establish credibility and respect by acting
one-on-one with your audience and answering specific ques-
tions rather than relying on a visual aid. Videos should be used
to enhance a presentation, not replace it. Videos of no more
than 15 to 20 minutes generally work best. Sustain credibility
with your audience by making sure the video is relevant to your
presentation and by responding to any issues or questions raised
by the video. Do not use a video that says more than you do,
that has poor image or sound quality, that gives your agency/
organization an unprofessional appearance, or is too long or too
complicated for the audience's level of understanding. Do not
use a video when the room or the audience is too large or the
lighting is too poor for effective viewing. While a video made
professionally is impressive, informal "homemade" videos can
be effective too, at a fraction of the cost. It is important to un-
derstand when to use each, and to always keep the financial and
image aspects of each clearly in mind.
Videos as Part of a Presentation
To enhance your community presentation using video, you
should know your audience's concerns and informational
needs. Decide whether an existing video will meet those con-
cerns and needs. Balance the video presentation with enough
time for specifics and questions and ensure that the room set up
will be conducive to showing a video. In addition, you need to
determine if you have access to appropriate video equipment. If
your audience is made up of 25 people or fewer, one television
should be enough. However, if the group is in the hundreds, you
should use a big screen or a projection device; otherwise, using
a video is probably not the best visual aid. Work with other
people in your agency/organization to start a library of exist-
ing videos—each of you can contribute the titles of videos you
have on hand, with capsule descriptions of each, their running
times, and other relevant information, such as ideas for use.
Possible Topics
Creating a new video usually involves a lot of expense. Start by
researching what already exists. If you decide there is a need
for a video on your topic, try to script it so it will be useful in a
variety of situations and usable by people in your agency/orga-
nization. Sample topics might include: Opportunities for Com-
munity Decision Making and Outreach, i.e., Getting Involved.
Making Your Own Video
Do not make a documentary with a hand-held camera; profes-
sionally produced presentations are usually expected. When
you are speaking for your agency/organization, you need to cre-
ate an aura of technical expertise, and this is conveyed by the
medium and the message. However, "home" video can work
well in certain situations. Such situations might include times
when you want to show residents' reactions, when you want to
reassure the community about an imagined risk, or when you
want to capture the proceedings at a focus group. Home vid-
eos should be used only when the presenter is able to explain,
much as in a slide presentation. Also, you must ensure that indi-
viduals who appear in the video have given their permission. A
home video of decent quality can be obtained by setting a video
camera on tripods in good lighting. Train a few volunteers to
help in this endeavor.
Getting Outside Assistance
Before you decide to work with a production house, determine
the purpose of the video, the cost, the time, and other produc-
tion logistics. Also, evaluate samples of their finished work.
Working with a production house can be affordable, if you do
the groundwork yourself. You can write the script, create the
slides, devise the situations, and coach the actors. The profes-
sionals will evaluate your script, make recommendations, and
shoot the video. You will have to pay to have the production
company edit the piece into shape, but if you know your mate-
rial well, you will be able to make quick decisions that will save
time and money. One thing to keep in mind as you plan a
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video is that you don't always have to use live footage. Some-
times, computer simulations, done properly, do the job just as
well as live action. Computer-generated images can be revised
when needed and can offer the viewer a better view than live
footage of the affected community or technology in some situa-
tions (e.g., an aerial shot or a Geographical Information System
map). Also, good scripting is essential—ask for a consultation
from someone who knows how to organize and write scripts.
Using "Experts" on Staff
There may be video "experts" within your agency/organization
who have years of experience working with video production or
television, so use them as a resource. These experts can offer
technical knowledge, and they can be helpful in brainstorming,
laying the groundwork, and producing the video. Homemade
videos may be used to share what you have learned as a site team
member with your colleagues. Shoot exhibits you have built,
ideas for outreach, and interviews with people who have pulled
great volunteer efforts together. Then send your video to other
people in your agency/organization to serve as a beta test.
It is important when making a product with photos included to
adhere to any requirements such as signed waivers from the peo-
ple featured in the video or getting in writing that the contents of
a home video can be shared at a meeting, on a Web site, etc.
Citizen Recognition
Description
Citizen recognition is a public "thank you" to acknowledge acts
of good citizenship by an individual or group. The methods of
recognition can be creative, but they should be meaningful to
the citizens who receive them.
Citizen recognition encourages good citizenship, demonstrates
a working relationship between your agency/organization and
the community, and reinforces your agency's/organization's
commitment to community.
Figure 7-2. Recognition and awards are important aspects of risk
communication. Here, the Peace Corps is an example of citizens who
deserve recognition for their good works.
When and How to Use
It is appropriate and beneficial to recognize any citizen, group,
school, or other entity that has demonstrated a high level of
involvement in a helpful manner, or assisted you in achieving
accomplishments.
Such recognition can be done at any appropriate time. For
instance, citizen recognition can occur at a special event cel-
ebrating a significant milestone. Recognition is best achieved
as part of a larger function with the individual's peer group in
attendance. The actual venue for the event can be anywhere: a
meeting hall, your agency's/organization's offices, or local gov-
ernment offices. Consider having a special event to recognize
several citizens at one time. The recognition should relate to the
project you are working on.
Tip: Check with an ethics officer to verify that creative recogni-
tion ideas coincide with your agency's/organization's policies.
Community Profile
Description
A community profile outlines local issues, events, and players.
A community profile helps fine tune your overall communica-
tion strategy, avoid obstacles, and communicate your agency's/
organization's message.
When and How to Use
Develop the community profile when you first begin work in a
community, and update the profile as necessary. A community
profile is effective to use in the development of your overall
communication strategy. It also can be used to help understand
local issues and people in diverse communities. To research the
local issues and people, consider characteristics of the area and
the community. Some examples are listed below:
Demographics, media contacts, ethnic backgrounds, previous
cleanup activity, languages and the need for translators, popu-
lar activities and hangouts, sensitive populations—the elderly,
pregnant, and children, accessible resources like computers, e-
mail, and fax machines.
Local Resources and contacts (e.g., leaders, store owners, activ-
ists, and long-time residents) can provide an insider's perspec-
tive on local issues. Involve yourself in local events to meet
stakeholders.
The Internet provides a mechanism to ask follow-up questions
and discover other community resources. It also is a powerful
research tool.
Research the area's and the community's history. Search local
publications for information, as well as the local library and city
hall for records and documents containing information on the
area and the community.
Geographic information systems (GIS) contain demographic
information regarding environmental and socio-economic char-
acteristics. For instance, some GIS programs track population
by race, population per square mile, population by age, percent-
age of minority households in the surrounding area, numbers of
households living in poverty, and community support programs.
Ask a librarian to help you find this information.
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Mailing List
Description
A mailing list is a tool that contains contact information regard-
ing interested parties. It is usually in an electronic format, such
as a database, and sorted in "fields" by last name, title, organi-
zation, city, state, region, or special interest. An organized and
updated mailing list that encompasses the entire community
can play an important role in communicating risk.
When and How to Use
The mailing list of interested parties should be developed at the
beginning of your involvement with the community. A mailing
list is most effective when it is: organized in an electronic data-
base format that allows sorting on any field; based on current,
verified, and standardized information; easily updated; expand-
able; and able to produce mailing labels. An extensive, formal
mailing list allows you to contact community residents and pro-
duce mass mailings.
You must identify whom to include on the mailing list. All peo-
ple within a certain radius of the affected area may be included,
but other relevant factors should also be considered. For ex-
ample, you may decide to include residents whose children at-
tend school within historical contaminant migration pathways,
even if the families live outside the predetermined radius. Since
the mailing list can be used as a tool to track interested parties,
informational fields can be included in addition to address and
telephone number.
Identify the group or groups of people that you want to reach,
and determine characteristics such as zip code, school district,
profession, and group memberships that could distinguish such
groups. Consider adding fields to your list to track the date the
mailing was sent, the date a response was received, and the
method of response (e.g., mail, e-mail, telephone, fax). The fol-
lowing fields should be included:
First name, telephone number, last name, fax number,
title, e-mail address, organization, special interests (e.g.,
local officials, state), address (may require two separate
fields), offices, distance from affected area), city, date of
last contact, state, zip code, region, issue discussed, action
items, and meetings attended.
Many resources exist to help you create mailing lists. Free mail-
ing lists may be available from the U.S. Postal Service, the IRS,
public interest groups, local governments, or other local organi-
zations such as the Chamber of Commerce. Certain companies
also specialize in renting or selling lists of names and addresses
of people grouped by specific characteristics. Private sector
printing and copying services and business centers operated by
the U.S. Postal Service can be used to create mailing lists and
produce mass mailings.
Spo/resperson
Description
The spokesperson is responsible for addressing citizen con-
cerns, answering their questions, and responding to inquiries
from the media about an affected community. The spokesper-
son is often the lead member of a risk communication team.
When and How to Use
Establishing a spokesperson early in the process gives the public
a direct link to the risk assessment events in the affected com-
munity before they get underway. The spokesperson has the op-
portunity to establish a strong foundation with the public early
in the risk assessment process. The spokesperson also provides
a source of consistent information to the public and the media.
However, when an issue arises that requires more specialized
information, the spokesperson should direct the audience to the
most appropriate contact.
A spokesperson should be personable, knowledgeable about
the affected community and willing to explain cleanup policies
and procedures, in tune with community concerns, and acces-
sible to the public. Always provide complete, accurate, and re-
spectful answers to the many frequently asked questions that
will be raised. If you know that your availability to the public
will be limited, have a second or even a third contact person to
help field questions regarding the affected community. To en-
sure that incoming requests are not forgotten, the spokesperson
should keep a logbook, which records citizen requests and the
response to each request. After assigning a spokesperson, all
agency/organization staff members and the community should
be informed. Use local newspapers and radio and television sta-
tions to announce who the contact person will be.
Telephone
Description
Using the telephone for conference calls and to establish toll-
free hotlines for community updates can be an effective tool for
promoting community involvement in the affected area.
When and How to Use
This tool is useful throughout the entire risk communication
process. Many factors will determine when this tool is used.
Conference calls can be used whenever you need to communi-
cate with or receive input from a large number of stakeholders.
Conference calls should not just be reserved for your internal
agency/organization meetings. The use of hotlines for updates
also is useful throughout the entire process.
Ten steps to set up a pre-recorded update for activities are listed
below:
1. Check with the communication strategy to find the appro-
priate message for the audience.
2. Get an 800 or 888 number with voicemail-type capabilities
from the phone company.
3. Work with the phone company to restrict access to the
number to a narrow target area.
4. Determine how frequently the citizens would like updates.
5. Determine the cost and procedure for updating your
message.
6. Decide on an update frequency you can support, and work
with the residents to reach an acceptable compromise. To-
gether, decide on a deadline for completing each update,
and commit to meeting that deadline.
7. Gain consensus among the members of your communica-
tions team on the contents of the message. Ensure that the
information is accurate.
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8. Record a clear, concise, and uncomplicated message. State
the date and time at the beginning of the update.
9. Promote the new service in the affected community. Con-
sider printing an ad or flyers.
10. Monitor the use of the hotline and use feedback to improve
it. Consider involving interested community members.
Example of Telephone Use at a Superfund Site
One Community Involvement Coordinator (CIC) used the tele-
phone to change a highly contentious site with years of contro-
versy into a site with an uncontested Record of Decision (ROD).
The CIC held regular conference calls with EPA representa-
tives, reporters, editors, local officials, and interested residents.
Twelve lines were dedicated for each call, with a set telephone
number reserved for all groups taking part in the call. The date
and time of the call were announced in advance, with the slots
filled on a first-come, first-serve basis. The calls started out as
quarterly then, as work intensified, became monthly, bi-weekly,
and then weekly. The CIC also placed weekly updates on a toll-
free hotline that citizens could call at their convenience. A fresh
update would be in place by a set time each week. This not only
informed affected residents, but also helped head off questions
and saved the CIC time each week tracking down and respond-
ing to individual messages.
Message Map
A message map is a roadmap for displaying detailed informa-
tion that can be used to respond to anticipated questions. Ac-
cording to risk communication expert Vincent Covello, there
are eight goals of a message map:
• Help identify stakeholders early in the communication pro-
cess.
• Help anticipate stakeholder questions and concerns before
they are raised.
• Help organize our thinking.
• Encourage us to develop messages within a clear, concise,
transparent, and accessible framework.
• Promote open dialogue about messages both inside and
outside the organization.
• Provide user-friendly guidance to spokespersons.
• Ensure a central repository of consistent messages.
• Encourage speaking with one voice.
7.2 Knowledge Tools
l/l/br/fshops
Description
Workshops are formal, participatory seminars used to explore
a subject, develop or improve citizens' involvement skills, or
carry out a defined project. They can be developed as mini-
courses on a discrete topic relevant to an affected community. A
technical expert can be invited to offer an inside perspective and
to increase the effectiveness of the workshop. Workshops are
powerful tools for formally educating small groups of citizens
on: 1) specific issues and activities, 2) participation opportuni-
ties (community group start-up), and 3) how to become contrib-
uting participants in the risk assessment process.
When and How to Use
The educational, involvement, and empowerment values of
workshops make them a key component of the community
outreach and involvement process and your communication
strategy. Workshops offer knowledgeable, active citizens the
opportunity to gain in-depth understanding of activities, to com-
municate directly with you about issues, and to develop com-
munity organization and participation skills. Workshops also
enable you to identify and respond to citizen concerns and sug-
gestions. Workshops are most effective when they address spe-
cific issues; supplement public meetings, media briefings, and
presentations; employ other tools such as fact sheets and vid-
eos; and are conducted before formal public hearings. Consider
planning workshops to coincide with upcoming actions (e.g.,
the risk assessment). Workshops are unique because they pro-
vide small groups of citizens with an interactive environment
from which to learn. They are more focused than open houses or
public meetings and more participatory than media briefings and
presentations. Consider involving citizens in the development of
the workshop agenda and materials. Do not use workshops for
one-way transmittals of information from you when they do not
proceed from clearly defined objectives, or if participants are
likely to leave without new skills or action items.
To conduct a workshop, identify the purpose and objectives. In-
vite guest speakers or technical experts. Establish an appropriate
time and place, and consider any special needs your audience
may have (e.g., primary language other than English, disabil-
ity access to the facility). Advertise the workshop using local
media, flyers, and brochures. Compile presentation materials and
handouts for participants (e.g., fact sheets, process diagrams and
time lines, maps and photos, lists of frequently asked questions).
After the workshop, receive and respond to citizen feedback.
Technical Assistance
Description
Your agency/organization may provide technical assistance for
communities to help citizens understand and comment about the
project. In some cases, communities can benefit from the avail-
ability of independent technical advisers. Technical assistance
programs help communities understand and participate in deci-
sions affecting hazardous waste cleanup. Technical assistance
also comprises hands-on help for an issue, such as that shown
in Figure 7-3.
Figure 7-3.
capacity.
Experts perform water-sampling in a technical assistance
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When and How to Use
Because each community is unique and will require different
levels of education and assistance, you must tailor the technical
assistance program to the community. Determine the best meth-
od of informing the community of the availability of technical
assistance. Using community interviews, consult with the com-
munity to determine what type of technical assistance would be
most helpful and the best way to inform the community of its
availability. Let the community decide what it wants and help
them to obtain it. In some communities basic outreach may suf-
fice, while others may need workshops and technical training.
Some communities may demand independent technical assis-
tance programs.
Exhibits
Description
Visual displays are an effective way to present information be-
cause people learn more from seeing and touching than from
listening. Exhibits can be colorful, three-dimensional, hands-
on, interactive, and they can be created for any topic. A poster
board, a series of panels, a pictorial timeline, a freestanding
booth, or interactive computer games can be effective exhibits.
4. Thematic: to convey a message, such as a vision statement
(a video of a speech).
5. Promotional: to increase public access to your agency's/
organization's services (banners, photographs).
The topic or the audience is usually the starting point for an
exhibit. Regardless of the audience, the exhibit must be acces-
sible. Consider the space available, the level of interaction you
will have with people, and any special needs of the audience
(children, bilingual, etc.). There may be some locations where
you might always want to have an exhibit, such as the local
library. Exhibits should include your agency's/organization's
logo and feature a "Words You Should Understand" piece. It is
often useful to design an exhibit that can stand alone. Unstaffed
exhibits should include a contact phone number.
Resources are an important consideration because developing
and testing an exhibit can be expensive. Consider how much
time is needed, the cost, access to materials, and volunteer help.
You can optimize exhibits and information bulletin boards when
you plan to reuse the display or create a portable display for
public meetings or public availabilities. In addition to exhibits,
informal activities provide knowledge in communicating a risk.
Figure 7-4. Exhibits at conferences can be good risk communication
tools. One example is The International Conference on Energy and
Environmental Materials shown here.
Informal Activities
Description
Informal activities are unstructured visits to the community,
which allow residents to get to know you and discuss the issues
of concern in a relaxed atmosphere. Such activities demonstrate
concern for community members and their issues. Informal
meetings with small groups of people, especially when held in
someone's home, can help foster an honest dialogue that may be
lost in a forum such as a public meeting. Informal community
visits have five main purposes:
• Inform local residents about an affected area.
• Inform you about the cultural behaviors of the affected
community.
• Involve community members in the process.
• Provide access to your agency's/organization's personnel.
• Provide your agency/organization with feedback about
community activities and opinion.
When and How to Use
An exhibit or information bulletin board is an excellent way to
attract a new audience, create an additional presence within a
community, and present complex technical information in a sim-
plified, graphic manner. An exhibit also can provide additional
information during meetings or presentations, provide a pres-
ence at an event when you are not able to attend, and allow you
to gather feedback from community members. An exhibit is ef-
fective in a variety of settings. Some examples are listed below:
1. Educational: to introduce and explain a topic (maps, post-
ers, interactive games).
2. Accomplishments: to highlight success stories (awards/cer-
tificates, banners, quotes and personal testimony, newspa-
per articles).
3. Historical: timeline with photographs.
When and How to Use
Use small group sessions to keep in touch with the community,
not just to put out fires. Hold small group meetings frequently
to develop relationships and stay abreast of developing issues.
Informal meetings are useful if different factions within the
community have different opinions about an issue. By hold-
ing informal chats with small groups, you can elucidate each
group's position without the arguments that can occur at large
public meetings. Informal activities also are used when an as-
pect of risk is only relevant to a portion of the site community.
You can speak directly to affected community members without
alarming those who are not affected. For example, if there are
a small number of residences whose water must be tested, or
whose property may be disrupted by work by state or federal
agencies, consider asking one of them to invite the others into
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their home for a meeting of affected individuals. You should be
involved continually in the community from the beginning of the
risk assessment process because it is difficult to foster a sense of
community involvement and ownership once the assessment has
progressed; local residents may feel alienated. Periodic visits or
small group sessions allow residents to have continued access to
risk information and your agency/organization's personnel.
Regardless of the session's informality, always develop a mes-
sage for the audience. Know the residents' issues, and be pre-
pared to discuss all aspects; if the issues are technical, consider
bringing in someone who could answer those kinds of questions.
Inform residents of additional information sources or contacts.
Be clear about what your agency/organization can and cannot
do, and do not make promises that your agency/organization
cannot keep. If there is a resident who is especially interested
in the affected area, ask him or her to host a small meeting for
neighbors, either to present your information, or to answer ques-
tions. There are many informal activities that a creative person
can do; try to think of things outside the realm of formal, struc-
tured activities. To gain insight into local opinions and attitudes,
risk communicators have been known to play on community
softball teams, have regular lunches at a local diner, visit key
opinion leaders to keep them up to date, and visit key local of-
ficials. During all informal activities, always conduct yourself in
a professional manner.
Along with informal activities, an information library, known
as an information repository, provides folks with an opportu-
nity to get further education on a specific topic.
Information Repository
Description
An information repository is a record storage area that contains
general information and all correspondence, reports, and docu-
ments pertaining to a project. At an information repository,
people can research the project, learn how they can participate
in the process, and copy any of the repository's information.
When and How to Use
Your agency/organization should inform the public of the estab-
lishment of the information repository through the publication
of a public notice in a local newspaper of general circulation.
Your agency/organization also should publicize the repository's
location and hours of operation by notifying local government
officials, citizen groups, and the media.
Your agency/organization arranges for the locations of the in-
formation repositories. The number of repositories established
depends on the distance of the project to surrounding communi-
ties. The repository should be easily accessible during business
hours, and photocopying equipment should be available: a copy
machine may be purchased with site funds. Some common loca-
tions are public libraries, city halls, and public health offices.
Specific locations are often determined during community inter-
views. Documents are placed in the repository by your agency/
organization. Pertinent materials are mailed to the repository
with instructions on indexing and placement. Multiple copies
should be made to compensate for misplaced documents. The
documents should be organized, indexed, and updated regularly.
A custodian, who is responsible for maintaining the repository,
must be assigned when soliciting the facility's cooperation. Your
agency/organization should visit the repository regularly to en-
sure that all necessary materials are accessible and that docu-
ments clearly indicate a method for individual comment. Site
teams also must publicize the repository's location and hours of
operation by notifying local government officials, citizen groups,
and the media. Ensure that materials are in the repository before
the public is advised to access them. Electronic versions of the
information repository are in development. When operational,
they will be located with traditional repositories at standard re-
pository sites. Information will be accessible on personal com-
puters via CD-ROM, diskettes, and the Internet. Tip: The facility
housing the repository must meet the requirements of the Ameri-
cans with Disabilities Act (ADA).
Information repositories can also be found on the Internet. Be-
low provides a description of how the Internet serves as an ef-
fective knowledge tool.
Internet
Description
The Internet is an electronic gateway to a variety of multimedia
(audio, video, photographic), database, and textual resources
for searching and posting information. The Internet's powerful,
intuitive search technologies can help you find specific infor-
mation quickly, communicate with the public, and recommend
information resources to others. Note, however, that commu-
nity access to the Internet varies; it is recommended that you
take note of the affected community's access to this informa-
tion source during your initial research on the community. You
should be familiar with your agency/organization's legal re-
quirements for sending electronic mail (e-mail) to the public.
When and How to Use
The World Wide Web, "the Web," is a rapidly growing sub-
set of the Internet used for distributing interactive multimedia
documents. Because the Web is graphics-based and easy to use,
individuals, schools, companies, and other organizations are
setting up Web pages. The Internet can help you accomplish
the following tasks:
1. Research a specific topic: The Internet can lead you to sourc-
es of information from private, public, and academic sectors
about specific topics, such as community demographics.
2. Obtain information quickly from a variety of sources.
3. Obtain current information: Web site information is often
more current than hard copy information because it may be
updated easily.
4. Communicate with others: By using the attachment feature
you can send and receive drafts with other people. You can
share information with risk communicators.
5. Disseminate information: You can arrange to have perti-
nent files and general risk information made available to
the public through the Internet or electronic bulletin boards
in accordance with your agency's/organization's publish-
ing procedures for Internet use. The Internet should not be
used in the following situations:
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• You are unsure what type of information to look for—
you need to be able to narrow your search criteria to find
the most relevant information. A "clean," comprehen-
sive copy of a document is needed—not all Internet ver-
sions of documents include the layout and graphics seen
in the original paper copy, which are often critical in the
comprehension and readability of a document provided
to the public.
• A presentation tool is needed: The Internet is best used as
a research tool rather than as a presentation tool; there are
specific software programs designed for presentations.
• Check that the information you should expect to access,
actually comes up in a search.
Internet home pages have been used to post fact sheets, news
releases, pictures, and even video footage to help community
members understand risk. Advertise the Web address on all
hard copy documents, and announce the Web address at meet-
ings. Do not depend entirely on the Internet. You should provide
alternative forms of communication, such as paper copies, to
individuals who lack easy access to computers. You should en-
courage people without computers to use the Internet at a local
library. The Department of Housing and Urban Development's
Network Neighborhoods program provides Internet access to
selected communities. You should verify information retrieved
from the Internet because there are no safeguards on the accu-
racy of such information. Contacting the primary source of the
information is one way to ensure the accuracy and timeliness of
the information. Search engines identify Web sites that relate to
your chosen topic. To use a search engine, go to the search en-
gine's home page. When you find a useful site, you may book-
mark it for quick use next time. Numerous Web sites are avail-
able for you to use as primary sources of data. The following
are some ways to use the Internet as an educational source.
Posting Information on the Internet
To start the publishing process, determine if the Internet is the
appropriate distribution vehicle for your document. You also
should consider the following factors before publishing:
1. Potential audience: Consider the size of your audience and
how many individuals in that audience have easy access
to the Internet. It may be more cost-effective to distribute
large documents to an extremely small audience by some
means other than the Internet.
2. Preparation cost: In general, publishing documents on the
Internet is inexpensive. However, costs can vary depend-
ing on the time involved in preparing and formatting the
document. For example, reformatting documents with nu-
merous tables, charts, or graphics can be time-consuming,
and expensive.
3. Size of document: Distributing extremely large files (great-
er than 1.4 megabytes, the capacity of a 3.5-inch floppy) via
the Internet can be a problem. Avoid large graphics unless
they are absolutely necessary. A Web page should take no
more than 80K of memory.
4. Graphics: Documents that require a lot of graphics can
take a long time to download. Files posted on the Inter-
net can be in several formats: Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML); Portable Document Format (PDF); or word pro-
cessing applications. Consider which format will be best
for your audience. HTML and PDF formats are generally
recommended for most needs because they are the most
user-friendly and secure versions available.
Creating Web Site Files
HTML: HTML files are the cornerstones of Internet home pages.
They allow information to be read by any Internet browser soft-
ware, such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Explorer. They
also allow the user to link to other Web sites. HTML documents
may contain text only or text and graphics. Providing both ver-
sions is helpful to your audience because users with slow com-
puters generally prefer to view documents without graphics. If
you create a "text only" version, you may want to place critical
information from the graphics in text format.
PDF: PDF allows a file to appear exactly as it does on paper,
including complicated formatting, such as color, graphics, and
columns. Since it is a "read only" format, no other user can alter
the file. A user must download the PDF file to view it through
an application called Acrobat Reader, which is available for
downloading free from the Internet at http:/www.adobe.com.
Word Processing Applications: Files may be posted in their
original software format, such as Word Perfect or Microsoft
Word. Users can download the document onto a hard drive and
alter it in the appropriate word processing application.
Who to Contact About the Internet
Your agency/organization should have at least one Internet con-
tact who can help you with specific Internet policies or guide-
lines. Internet contacts also can help you set up home pages,
post information, and find information. Your local area network
(LAN) administrator can help you avoid computer viruses.
Tip: Follow your agency/organization procedures for upload-
ing, maintaining, and downloading information on Web pages.
The above provided a way to effectively utilize the Internet. The
following is an understanding of maps and aerial photographs.
Maps and Aerial Photographs
Description
Maps and aerial photographs are visual aids that facilitate the
communication of complex issues, such as contamination and
risk factors. They can be used at community involvement ac-
tivities, such as public meetings and public availabilities/poster
sessions.
When and How to Use
Maps and aerial photographs can be used throughout the risk
communication process to communicate with the public and to
enhance your knowledge of the affected area and the commu-
nity. Some suggested uses are listed below:
1. Display current contamination and predict paths of migra-
tion.
2. Indicate where residences, schools, playgrounds, and hos-
pitals are located.
3. Show how many citizens may be at risk.
4. Illustrate environmental receptors and natural resource
damage.
5. Plan where to conduct interviews or determine whom to
include on a mailing list.
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6. Predict community concern about an affected area by lo-
cating nearby schools, residences, and farmland.
Decide which type of map and scale is most appropriate for
each activity. For presentations, ensure that the map is large
enough to be read by people in the back of the room. Label all
areas that you will refer to in your presentation, and include
clearly labeled out of area reference points. Try to use overlays.
For a base map that shows the affected area and community,
overlays could show nearby habitats, wetlands, or watersheds.
Consult with any state or federal agencies involved for informa-
tion on the affected area and for the most recent and complete
maps and aerial photographs. To obtain additional information,
consult the Internet (see below).
Additional Internet Resources
The Environmental Protection Agency's Maps on Demand
(MOD) homepage (http://www.epa.gov/enviro/html) lists World
Wide Web-based mapping applications that generate maps dis-
playing environmental information for the entire United States.
There are three different applications:
1. Site Info creates reports and map displays of EPA manage-
ment concerns, regulated sources, human health, and eco-
system information.
2. Basin Info allows users to map watersheds and select
certain criteria to display on the map. Information about
EPA-regulated facilities within the hydrogeologic unit is
provided in a text report.
3. Facility Density Mapper allows users to map and assess
the concentration of EPA-regulated facilities identified by
a valid EPA Facility Indexing System (FINDS) identifica-
tion number.
As photographs reach a vast audience, the media has the capa-
bility of catching an even larger audience.
Media
Description
The media is a tool used to reach a large audience quickly, but
only the media decides what it will cover and how unless the
message is submitted in a paid advertisement. You can influ-
ence the media's decisions by fostering a relationship with me-
dia representatives and by using carefully defined messages that
are delivered consistently and repeatedly to the media.
When and How to Use
In general, you should deliver initial messages directly to the
target audiences. The media can be used to publicize, distribute,
and reinforce information about upcoming meetings or changes
in schedule. In emergency situations, however, you should con-
tact the media immediately to enlist their help in alerting the
community. It is best to use a combination of the following two
approaches to media coverage:
1. Paid media: You purchase space or time from a media out-
let. This is advertising, and it is the only way to guarantee
total control of your message.
2. Unpaid media: The media wants you to provide informa-
tion about a crisis or a story that directly or indirectly re-
lates to the affected community. You have no control over
which of your quotes are used. Your two main tools for
working with the media will be your news release and your
media log. Meet with the environmental reporter for each
media outlet and use each media outlet's "community bul-
letin board" to access lists of community events. Involve
your public affairs specialists if your agency/organization
has them.
When you want the media to distribute information for you,
the news release is considered a publicity release, not news.
By definition, "news" is something that is different, dangerous,
unexpected, or controversial. In addition to providing public-
ity, expect the media to cover events in the hopes of develop-
ing news (i.e., public reaction or controversy). When you pro-
vide information to the media for a news story, understand that
news is rarely objective. Learn how the news is gathered and
presented in each medium, and customize your news releases.
Anticipate questions and repeat carefully designed messages to
present your angle. Always be aware of the media's deadlines.
You will be most effective if you are an accessible source of
timely, reliable, and verifiable information, regardless of wheth-
er the news is good or bad. By dealing candidly and immediately
with bad news, you can minimize the coverage it receives. Do
not be evasive or refuse to comment. Instead, explain why you
cannot comment. Focus on positive messages instead of long
explanations. Do not be afraid of working with the media, but
do not let your guard down. Remember that a reporter is never
off duty. Do not offer exclusives for news events, do not make
off-the-record comments, and never lie to reporters.
The role of the media is to:
1. Draw attention to issues.
2. Set public agendas.
3. Influence public opinion.
4. Deliver core messages.
5. Report messages as they were stated.
Some background questions to ask to the media when being
interviewed include (Covello, Heartland Center 2003):
1. Who is the reporter and what is their affiliation?
2. What is the reporter's telephone number or e-mail address?
3. What stories has the reporter covered?
4. Who does the reporter work for?
5. Who is the audience for the publication or program?
Some logistical questions to ask the reporter include (Covello,
Heartland Center 2003):
1. When and where will the story appear?
2. What is the reporter's deadline for the story?
3. Where will the interview take place?
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4. How long will the interview take?
5. How long will the story be?
6. Does the reporter verify the accuracy of specific quotes?
7. What is the format for the interview?
Topical questions to ask the media include (Covello, Heartland
Center 2003):
1. What is the theme or focus of the study?
2. What topics or subjects does the reporter expect to cover?
3. What types of questions will be asked?
4. Has the reporter done any background research?
5. Would the reporter like background material?
6. Who else has been interviewed and what did they say?
7. Who else will be interviewed?
8. Would the reporter like suggestions about others to inter-
view?
9. How will your point of view fit into the story?
10. Are you the right person to interview or should others be
suggested?
Tips: Your agency/organization should have guidelines for
working with the media. It is recommended that you review
those guidelines before you begin and/or coordinate with your
agency's/organization's Public Affairs/Press Office working
with the media.
In addition to media, presentations are a significant education
tool.
Presenfaf/ons
Description
A presentation is an organized oral communication to an audi-
ence. Presentations can be enhanced with visual aids and ques-
tion-answer sessions.
When and How to Use
The timing of the presentation is critical. For example, holding
a briefing for the media prior to a controversial decision is far
more effective than having one after the fact. Presentations are
most effective when they are planned around major events or
decision points and are supported with visual aids. Use this tool
to make a formal announcement or to keep the community up
to date about activities or milestones. Presentations also can be
used to prepare the community for significant events or deci-
sions. Presentations should be scheduled at a convenient time
and an accessible location.
Below are ways to create a sound presentation.
Choosing a Format
Presentations can take a variety of formats. A few examples are
listed below:
1. Stand-up speech at a podium
2. Panel discussion
3. Presentation at a technical meeting
4. Informal session
Preparing
Decide on the purpose of the presentation and identify the key
messages and audiences; only address three messages per pre-
sentation. Research material for the presentation, anticipate fre-
quently asked questions, and consider using visual aids (e.g.,
handouts, charts, exhibits, photographs). Choose a primary
speaker and rehearse the presentation. Promote the event with
flyers, ads, and articles. Personalize the event by greeting people
at the door, handing out nametags, or making a sign-in sheet.
Before the presentation, ask the audience if there are specific
topics that should be addressed.
Delivering the Presentation
Focus on the key messages: tell them what you are going to tell
them; tell them; then tell them what you told them. Establish
a positive, knowledgeable tone, and avoid sounding defensive
or condescending. Keep the presentation brief—20 minutes for
delivery and five minutes for questions. Repeat questions to
ensure that the entire audience hears them. Limit the time per
question, and provide short and direct answers. Defuse hostile
questions by expressing genuine empathy before providing an
answer. If you do not know an answer, be honest and follow up.
Following Up
Ask the audience to fill out an evaluation about the effective-
ness of the presentation, and ask for their suggestions. Hold a
de-briefing with the entire presentation team to review the ses-
sion and make improvements. Use the sign-in sheet to add to a
mailing list. Also, provide copies of presentation materials to
the media, including speeches.
Tips: The location should meet the requirements of the Ameri-
cans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Sign-in sheets for public
meetings are not proprietary and must be released if requested.
In addition to presentations, public availabilities and poster ses-
sions provide two-way communication.
Public Availabilities/Poster Sessions
Description
Poster sessions and public availabilities are less structured alter-
natives to public meetings. These informal forums are preferred
in situations where public meetings are not required. Poster ses-
sions are a refinement of public availabilities; posters are prom-
inently displayed and guided by an expert who discusses the
topic specified in the poster.
When and How to Use
In general, use this tool to present detailed, compartmentalized
information or to cover special topics that are likely to gen-
erate concern. This tool also is useful for providing periodic
updates, maintaining continued contact with the community,
obtaining feedback, and clarifying misunderstandings to dem-
onstrate your agency's/organization's commitment to provide
information throughout the process. Public availability/poster
sessions are commonly used to reassure people and to answer
questions about risk assessment. These sessions can be used to
develop a public meeting agenda. Finally, you may schedule
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a session before your agency/organization leaves the affected
community to bring closure for the residents and provide the
last opportunity for citizens to question what your agency/or-
ganization has accomplished for them. Do not use this tool as
the first communication effort for a specific topic or to make
major or controversial announcements. These forums are most
useful for answering questions regarding information that has
already been distributed. Below are steps to take for proper
public availabilities/poster sessions:
Set-up
Determine the purpose of the session and choose the message.
Decide whether to have a poster session or a public availability.
The event should be held during hours that are convenient for
community members and provide access during day and eve-
ning hours or weekend afternoons. Do not schedule sessions
during national holidays or special community events.
Content and Format
Decide which topics to cover, and schedule a knowledgeable
expert to discuss each topic. Include children as a target au-
dience. Ensure that all members of your risk communication
group are in complete agreement about what information will
be distributed to avoid inconsistencies. Offer residents the
opportunity to express their concerns and comments. This im-
plies that your agency/organization will take what they say into
consideration.
Response to Questions
Take every opportunity to make your points, especially about
the community's safety. If the same comments are repeated, ad-
ditional outreach might be necessary. Limit the amount of time
per question.
Follow-up
Meet with the members of your risk communication group to
discuss lessons learned. Keep a list of, and follow through on,
your promises.
Tip: The facility should meet the requirements of the Ameri-
cans with Disabilities Act (ADA).
In addition to poster sessions, public notices are used to inform
the public.
Public Notices
Description
Public notices are advertisements that announce public com-
ment periods for agency/organization decisions and major
project milestones. They can be published in local newspapers,
broadcast on local radio, or sent as mailings. The public notice
is one of the methods that your agency/organization may use to
solicit community participation. The goal of publishing a pub-
lic notice is to communicate an important announcement to as
many people as possible in the affected community.
When and How to Use
In addition to meeting the specific legal and regulatory require-
ments for publishing public notices, a public notice can be used
to announce the beginning of your agency's/organization's in-
volvement with a project, the availability of fact sheets, and
scheduling of public comment periods and public meetings.
Public notices should not be used to provide updates on site
progress or to inform or educate the public about specific site
activities. Public notices are only effective if they reach the in-
tended audience. They must present a simple, clear message in
a conspicuous place. Follow the steps listed below to prepare
and publish an effective notice.
Identify the Community to Reach
Define the size and character of the community you are trying
to reach before deciding how to communicate your message.
Identify Best Ways to Reach the Community
Identify the methods to reach your target audience by asking
how people usually get information.
Community Interviews
Include questions on media consumption habits in your initial
community interviews. Consult local leaders for suggestions
about the most effective publications in which to place public
notices.
Choose Appropriate Media Outlets
While the law requires public notices be published in a major
newspaper, large city newspapers may not appeal to segments
of the population. Small communities or neighborhoods may
have their own newspapers that are more widely read. Foreign-
language radio can be a particularly effective method for reaching
non-English speaking communities. Choose the outlets that are
most widely consulted by members of your intended audience.
Notices also can be published in church bulletins, community
and homeowner association newsletters, and weekly newspa-
pers and shopping guides. They can be placed in grocery stores,
libraries, and other frequently visited locations in the communi-
ty. Radio and television can broadcast announcements. In some
cases, a mailing to everyone on the site mailing list can be the
most effective way to notify people of an event.
Provide Ample Notice
Provide at least a one-week notice to ensure the greatest level
of participation. Two weeks notice is recommended for public
comment periods. Try to run multiple advertisements.
Prepare the Notice
Use a simple message stated in easily understood language.
Make sure dates, times, and locations are prominently and
clearly displayed. To capture attention, use an attractive design
and place the notice in well-read sections of newspapers. Trans-
late the notice if necessary.
Meet Publication or Broadcast Schedules
Many newspapers are published on a weekly basis, so plan
ahead to coordinate the publication of the notice with the event.
Local radio stations may run free public service announcements
if they are submitted in advance. Broadcast (radio or television)
the notice at appropriate times of the day.
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Provide Name, Address, and Telephone Number of
Contact Person
A clip-out coupon may be added for people to send their names
and addresses to your agency/organization to be placed on the
mailing list.
Along with public notices, a resource book may provide a broad
range of information.
tions and an annotated table of contents enables easy access to
information. Divide information into separate volumes or create
summaries of key documents to reduce notebook size. Design
a cover for the resource book that is tailored to the community,
for example, a local landmark.
As the resource book provides a summary, responsiveness sum-
maries will seek to address public concerns.
Resource Book
Description
A resource book is a notebook that presents general risk assess-
ment and affected area information for citizens, media repre-
sentatives, and new members of your team. A resource book is
a broad collection of introductory materials about the affected
community, and it provides a concise summary of activities to
date.
When and How to Use
A resource book can be used to educate community leaders,
citizens, and the media about the overall risk assessment pro-
cess and activities. The book is often provided to residents at
outreach activities or to the media at press events. A resource
book also can provide information for briefings and can serve as
an archive of information about risk assessment progress. The
book is most effective when used as a community document in
combination with other resources (e.g., public availabilities, lo-
cal library resources, your agency's/organization's information
hotlines, and Internet). The resource book can be stored at the
local library to ensure easy access for the public.
To construct a resource book, condense and summarize infor-
mation. Consult community representatives to gather informa-
tion about the affected community. Include local information
developed about the affected community, including stories
on community participation to date. Existing local informa-
tion often provides the most approachable, understandable,
and contextual introductory resources for someone new to the
community. Use non-technical language whenever possible.
Your agency's/organization's management should review all
information internally, and publication restrictions must be ob-
served. Provide a date and citation for each resource. Also in-
clude a comprehensive list of the contact information for people
directly involved with the affected community, including com-
munity leaders, and other federal, state, and local agency offi-
cials. Some additional content suggestions are listed below:
1. Generic information about the risk assessment process
(e.g., pipeline steps, glossary).
2. Fact sheets presenting general or specific information about
risk assessment.
3. Community involvement information, such as scheduled
events for community participation and locally issued area
information.
4. Timeline of past/planned affected community activities.
The resource book should be brief, regularly updated, user-
friendly, accessible, and well organized. A three-ring binder
allows for easy addition or removal of documents; tabbed sec-
Responsiveness Summaries
Description
Responsiveness summaries address public comments, criticisms,
and new data. Responsiveness summaries provide a comprehen-
sive response to all major comments, issues, and concerns raised
by the community. These comments include oral or written
citizen input submitted at public meetings and public hearings.
Your agency/organization and the public can use responsive-
ness summaries. Your agency/organization can use information
about community preferences and general concerns to commu-
nicate risk better to the community. Members of the public may
use the responsiveness summaries to determine how their com-
ments were considered by your agency/organization.
When and How to Use
It is recommended that you consider all significant comments,
regardless of when they are received. Your response to those
comments may be grouped into general topical areas to simpli-
fy your response. The responsiveness summary should not be
viewed as a substitute for other community relations techniques
and should not be a point-by-point recitation of each comment.
Use fact sheets and other methods to distribute information on
community concerns and your agency's/organization's respons-
es to the public.
Responsiveness summaries usually contain three sections:
1) overview, 2) background on community involvement, and
3) summary of comments received and agency/organization re-
sponses (topics of comments). The summaries document major
community concerns and your agency's/organization's response
to the comments. Responsiveness summaries are intended to be
concise, complete reports that the public can understand. The
national average reading level is considered to be at an eighth-
grade level. Your agency's/organization's technical and legal
staff may be needed to respond to some comments. However,
laypersons must be able to understand all technical information.
Be sure to maintain good records of all comments.
The tools just mentioned are used as educational devices in un-
derstanding a risk of concern. Below is a listing and description
of various decision-making tools.
7.3 Decision-Making Tools
Fact Sheets
Description
The fact sheet is a brief document written in plain English to
help residents understand highly technical laws, concepts, and
information. The purpose of fact sheets is to provide informa-
tion to affected communities. Two types of fact sheets are rel-
evant to risk communication:
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1. Basic information fact sheets that provide community resi-
dents with general information and keep them abreast of
current activities by your agency/organization.
2. Special purpose fact sheets that convey information about
only one issue or event.
When and How to Use
Fact sheets are appropriate to use throughout the risk communi-
cation process. Do not use fact sheets to break bad news to the
community. There are more effective tools to convey upsetting
information. Also, do not rely solely on fact sheets to inform
residents because many people do not read them and not every-
one will receive one.
Focus groups have shown that several single-page fact sheets
spread out over time are more effective than one long fact sheet.
Many people agreed that fact sheets are reassuring even if they
announce nothing other than the fact that your agency/organi-
zation is still involved in the affected community. The focus
groups have also indicated that many citizens would be more
inclined to read something called an "update" rather than a "fact
sheet."
Below provides information pertaining to fact sheets.
Message
Before writing, identify your message. Most people cannot re-
tain more than three primary messages from a document.
FYI Content
Include special information, such as dates of upcoming meet-
ings, and the names, addresses, local and toll-free phone
numbers, fax numbers, and e-mail addresses of your agency/
organization and yourself. Always put special information in
a text box in the lower right corner. Include the fact sheet date
and number.
Format
The font should be easy to read (10 to 12 point typeface with
serif). Make fact sheets visually interesting by using pictures,
graphs, or diagrams to accompany textual information. Too
much text and too little white space make the page appear gray
and daunting. Place pertinent facts in text boxes, or highlight
them some other way.
Presentation
Make the affected community name and your agency/organi-
zation name prominent in the banner. Always start with the
primary message in the upper left comer. Put it in a box or
highlight it. Use a catchy headline, and vary the color of new
fact sheets.
Writing
Material prepared for the general public usually should be writ-
ten at a level of someone who has achieved eighth grade educa-
tion. However, check site demographics and write at the grade
level indicated (the U.S. Census Bureau, among other sources,
provides demographic information through local libraries and
over the Internet). Use the grammar function available in most
word processing programs to check for readability. Avoid bu-
reaucratic jargon or highly technical language. Contaminant
information should contain the chemical name, media contami-
nated, and contaminant concentration in the affected commu-
nity versus the normal range. If necessary, translate fact sheets
into alternative languages to serve large populations in the com-
munity (i.e., Spanish, Vietnamese).
Distribution
Mail fact sheets to all residences within the affected communi-
ty area. Use press releases, public service announcements, and
public TV and radio to announce when fact sheets are avail-
able. State where fact sheets are available and include a contact
name, address, and phone number. Ask permission to distribute
fact sheets at meetings, churches, libraries, and schools, and
encourage people to take copies to friends. Hand fact sheets
to residents during community visits. Distribute door-to-door
with door hangers; never use a mailbox for anything but mail.
Pay to have the fact sheet printed in the local paper or offer fact
sheets as inserts in neighborhood association newsletters. Also,
consider adding fact sheets to an appropriate Web page.
Message, FYI content, format, presentation, writing, and distri-
bution are all important areas of fact sheets. Fact sheets are an
important decision-making tool and can be used with several
other types of tools when dealing with risk communication is-
sues. Fact sheets can be used in community groups.
In addition to fact sheets, community groups can enhance un-
derstanding of a specific concern.
Community Groups
Description
Community groups include familiar organizations, such as
the Lions, Kiwanis Club, Rotary, Parent Teacher Associations
(PTA), church-sponsored groups, Boys and Girls Clubs, envi-
ronmental groups, and Neighborhood Watch groups. Commu-
nity groups also include less-familiar organizations, such as
local home-owner associations, tenant organizations, gardening
clubs, arts groups, and beautification committees. While these
groups may not focus specifically on environmental or hazard-
ous, waste issues, they can provide you with early insight into
community dynamics.
Working with a variety of community groups is an effective
way to encourage discussions about the needs of diverse com-
munity populations. The involvement of community groups can
help you reach particular segments of the population and obtain
important site-related information.
When and How to Use
Involvement of community groups is particularly useful in af-
fected communities with significant environmental concerns and
diverse community perspectives. Reaching out to community
groups during the community information-gathering phase will
help you obtain information about community issues, concerns,
and needs in order for you to produce outreach and risk com-
munication products for the community. Work with community
groups before important decisions are made, even if only a few
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groups are involved. Community groups can be effective com-
munication vehicles for obtaining and disseminating informa-
tion. To work most effectively with community groups, a broad
range of groups should be contacted early and kept informed
and involved throughout the risk communication process. By
making a long-term commitment to work each group and by
respecting each organization's communication process, you can
establish necessary trust and credibility. Church groups often
reach a variety of groups in the community. Groups such as com-
munity health clinics, English-as-a-Second-Language programs,
Boys and Girls Clubs, senior centers, and Head Start programs
can provide outreach to low-income and disadvantaged resi-
dents who can be hard to reach through traditional community
involvement channels. If there is a significant foreign-language
population in the community, there may be community-based
organizations that work on issues affecting these residents. Con-
tact these groups to receive input, reviews, and possibly transla-
tion support for your materials. Include research on community
groups in each phase of the information-gathering process. For
instance, during community interviews, ask residents to identify
community groups they belong to and groups that they consider
to be influential in their community. Contact community groups
to learn about their activities and how you can participate in
them. Consider holding a special meeting to explain your agen-
cy's/organization's activities. Set up a table at a civic associa-
tion function or make a presentation to the PTA.
Then, include representatives of key community organizations
in focus groups to obtain stakeholders' views and to gather
community input. Community groups provide communication
vehicles that have established trust in the community. To dis-
seminate information via a community group, use community
groups' existing communications vehicles—newsletters, bul-
letin boards, meetings, and mailing lists. Information received
from a trusted community organization has instant credibility;
the same information received from a stranger may not.
As mentioned, along with community groups, interviews are an
important decision-making tool.
Community Interviews
Description
Community interviews are formal information gathering ses-
sions. Typically, they are one-on-one interviews conducted in
the citizen's home or office; occasionally, however, phone inter-
views or focus groups may also be appropriate.
Community interviews allow you to gather valuable informa-
tion about the community in the affected area and to learn what
information the community wants from your agency/organiza-
tion. Community interviews also can establish a positive rela-
tionship with the community.
When and How to Use
Meet with the representatives of any state or federal agencies
already involved with the community as a first step. They can
provide community insight; suggest potential interviewees,
and request specific questions to be asked during the interview.
Second, acquire background information about the community.
Demographic information can be obtained from the U.S. Cen-
sus Bureau via their Internet Web site: www.census.gov. Com-
munity information can also be found in online databases such
as Envirofacts, Surf Your Watershed, and the Department of
Housing and Urban Development's database maps. It is rec-
ommended that you conduct interviews personally. You should
bring another person to the interview to take notes, clarify is-
sues, ensure completeness, and prepare written summaries.
When conducting an interview, it is important to clarify the fol-
lowing information:
Who
• Use as large a sample of interviewees as possible—25 is the
minimum for most sites. If resources are limited, consider
using focus groups to supplement the initial 25 interviews.
• Make sure that all segments of the community are included.
Consider conducting interviews with local officials, public
interest groups, or other interested or affected parties, as
appropriate.
When
• Plan on at least three days to complete the interviews. Al-
low an hour for each interview, plus travel time between
appointments, time to review each session, time for meals,
etc.
• Create a schedule and make the appointments two weeks
before your trip.
• Do interviews in people's homes unless they express an-
other preference.
• Interviews should not be scheduled during national or reli-
gious holidays.
How
• Interviews should be limited to the individual and perhaps
other members of the immediate household.
• Be on time, and dress professionally with cognizance of
community standards.
• Avoid forming pre-conceptions of the people, the neigh-
borhood, or the homes.
• Do not use a recording device.
• Be prepared and be flexible. Know what information you
need and what questions you will ask.
• Know something about the interviewee and as much about
the community as possible.
• Plan and manage the interview to acquire the necessary in-
formation, but be prepared to alter the agenda based on the
individual's responses.
• Spend at least five minutes to establish a relaxed atmo-
sphere. To put the interviewee at ease, mirror the tone and
attitude of the interviewee. Also, be aware of your body
language. Sitting back, slumping, folding your arms across
your chest all may convey lack of interest or a closed mind.
Smile and maintain eye contact.
• Consider cross-cultural issues. Examine the cultural behav-
ioral expectations of the community and the interviewee,
and modify your behavior accordingly.
• Be careful not to misinterpret the interviewee's response.
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Restating the answer ensures that you heard it correctly
and demonstrates to the interviewee that you are interested
in understanding the issues.
• Remain impartial and never be defensive. You are not
there to justify, defend, or explain your agency's/organi-
zation's position. Remember, your goal is to gather infor-
mation about the community.
• Assure anonymity. Tell interviewees that their informa-
tion will be combined with all other interviews and will
be made public. However, the information will not be at-
tributed to any individual, and the list of interviewees and
the interview schedule are not released.
• When finished, thank the interviewee in person. Follow up
with a thank you note.
• Review each session with those who assisted you. Upon
returning from the community, prepare a summary. Con-
sider using focus groups rather than interviews for any
other information needs that may arise.
• Whether a community group is formed, or whether or not
interviews are conducted, a community visioning process
will help assist in the area's goals and ambitions toward a
public health risk.
Community Visioning Process
Description
The community visioning process enables citizens to realize
their vision for the future of their community. This process en-
courages the full participation of all community members in
goal development, action planning, and implementation. By
considering a community's vision, your agency/organization
can tailor its work to fit community goals. The enthusiasm,
broad-based support, and commitment that are often gener-
ated through the visioning process can enable communities to
implement projects without the opposition often seen in com-
munity change projects.
Through early community involvement, your agency/organi-
zation can motivate citizens to work actively towards the fu-
ture they desire, while demonstrating your agency's/organiza-
tion's willingness to work with the community. Visioning is
best used for projects that are large in scope. Your agency/
organization should begin the process in the earliest stages. For
instance, you may begin with a set of questions to ask dur-
ing the community interviews. Most importantly, the vision-
ing process should be implemented before decisions are made.
The overall goal of the visioning process is to empower com-
munities and provide them with a method of comprehensive
goal setting. There are four steps generally identified with the
visioning process:
Step 1: Community Brainstorming and Suggestions.
Step 2: Establishing Goals and Developing a Vision.
Step 3: Bringing Commitment to the Vision.
Step 4: Implementing the Vision.
A visioning process can last one day, several days, or months
depending on the complexity of issues facing the community.
An independent facilitator may be used to help the community
through the visioning process. Before beginning the visioning
process, invite media representatives, key community lead-
ers, and the public to a 30- to 45-minute presentation on the
cleanup. For a formal project kickoff, hold a public meeting to
introduce the visioning initiative. During the project, conduct
surveys and focus groups to gather feedback from community
members to refine the process. Use accurate and succinct press
releases to maintain contact with the media. Also, provide for
neighborhood or town meetings when planners can inform the
public about the project and receive feedback.
In conducting a vision for the community, focus groups may
be necessary to help narrow down issues at hand.
Focus Groups
Description
In focus groups, small groups of stakeholders participate in fa-
cilitated discussions about the affected area and the community.
A focus group usually consists of seven to 12 individuals who
meet for three group sessions. Each group is somewhat ho-
mogenous (e.g., one group may contain residents living near
the site with children at home). Focus group discussions are
structured around a series of questions carefully designed to
help people talk freely. Focus groups help you understand
stakeholders' knowledge, motivations, needs, expectations,
and opinions. By holding separate focus group sessions with
different groups, you can find out exactly how different groups
feel and why. This information helps you address group con-
cerns and find common ground to unify the community.
When and How to Use
Focus groups foster communication better than large public
meetings where individual discussion is not practical. They
also may provide feedback to improve outreach tools. If a par-
ticular group of stakeholders is unhappy, a focus group is an
excellent way to begin a meaningful dialogue without expos-
ing the entire community to issues that only pertain to a small
group. Identify and invite potential focus group participants
who will contribute to the process, who may have something
thought provoking to say, who won't be intimidated, and who
won't argue for argument's sake. The facility should comfort-
ably accommodate up to 13 people (the facilitator plus 12 par-
ticipants) around one table. There should also be room for an
additional desk and chair for the assistant moderator, and sev-
eral additional chairs to accommodate observers, such as you.
Select a place, date, and time that is convenient. Focus group
meetings usually last about two hours.
Use a trained, objective, third party facilitator or moderator.
Meet with the facilitator to clarify objectives and to choreo-
graph the session—help the facilitator develop questions to
elicit information that you want. If you plan to attend the ses-
sions, restrict your role to non-reactive observation and do
not participate; your involvement could affect participants'
reactions. Have the moderator tape record the entire session,
and announce during the scripted introduction that the meet-
ing will be recorded. Inform participants that the purpose is to
gather information, not to reach consensus. Ask participants to
complete an evaluation form before they leave, and respond
to any information requests.
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Since it is important to know the community's needs, focus
groups could help understand these needs among a specific
group of folks. Public comment periods, however, provide an
opportunity for the entire community to voice their opinion.
Public Comment Periods
Description
The public comment period is the time during which your agen-
cy/organization accepts comments from the public on proposed
actions and decisions. Public comment periods enable citizens
to communicate their concerns, and participate formally in the
administrative decision-making process.
When and How to Use
To effectively use the public comment period as a tool for com-
munity involvement, ensure that community members know
when comments will be accepted, how long they will be accept-
ed, and how to submit them. For formal comment periods, you
can use Public Notices Find Fact Sheets to inform the public of
when and how to direct comments to your agency/organization.
In some cases, it is best to put a small legal notice in some news-
papers and buy a display ad in more popular local publications.
For comments on proposed actions, make sure that residents
understand that decisions have not been reached. For ad hoc or
informal comment periods, consider an appropriate use of com-
munications tools for the community. Develop an organized
system to receive, catalogue, and respond to comments. In the
responses, provide the interpretation of the comment and the de-
cision about the comment (i.e., whether the comment was use-
able as submitted, useable with some modifications [explain],
or not useable). Although public comment periods have an end
date after which the period is closed, some agencies receive
public comments after the close of the comment period.
Tip: Try to receive comments from the public throughout the
time your agency/organization is involved in an action.
Described above were several tools, which can be used when
making a decision about a specific risk of concern. Upon mak-
ing a decision, further action may be taken in regard to the con-
cern. One other area of tools are the implementation tools used
to effectively communicate a problem and its needs.
7.4 Implementation Tools
Cross-Cultural Communication
Description
Cultural differences can affect cross-cultural communication.
Certain behaviors may be interpreted in opposite ways by differ-
ent cultures. This tool provides general information and specific
resources to help you observe and understand the behaviors of
different cultures identified by demographic research. This tool
also is designed to help you communicate verbally and non-ver-
bally with different cultures and to avoid cultural conflict.
When and How to Use
Please note the sensitive nature of this endeavor; it is recom-
mended that you eschew even the appearance of stereotyping
and reach out to all people individually. It is best to observe the
behaviors of different groups and follow their lead.
Effective cross-cultural communication is an important part of
an overall communication strategy for each affected commu-
nity. It is recommended that you track demographic trends in
the affected community and develop understandable messages
for all groups in the community. As soon as you are assigned
an affected community to work with, you should research de-
mographics and recognize differences in behavior, such as lan-
guage, religion, family patterns, gender roles, education, and
aspirations that can affect behavior. You should also examine
your own cultural behaviors and make adjustments that will fa-
cilitate your interaction with the community. This research will
help you adapt your message and avoid cultural conflict. Cul-
tural conflict can occur when two or more groups with different
cultural behaviors clash. The results of cultural conflict vary in
degree of intensity, from initial miscommunication to reinforce-
ment of false perceptions and hostile eruptions.
Your demographic research should identify the cultural groups
in your community. Each affected community, and the cultures
of which it is comprised, must be considered individually. Even
among immigrant groups from the same country, there are sig-
nificant cultural variations arising from differences in educa-
tion, degree of assimilation, and socio-economic status. Note
that hidden cultures of poverty and illiteracy also exist within
nearly all communities and must be addressed when planning
community interviews and preparing for public meetings. Ev-
ery effort must be made to reach these neglected segments of
affected communities.
The following are some forms of cross-cultural communication:
High- and Low-Context Cultures
Communication in high-context cultures depends heavily on the
context, or non-verbal aspects of communication; whereas low-
context cultures depend more on explicit, verbally expressed
communication. A highly literate, well read culture is consid-
ered a low-context culture, as it relies heavily on information
communicated explicitly by words.
Non-verbal Communication
In low-context cultures, such as in academic communities, com-
munication is mostly verbal and written. Very little information
in this culture is communicated non-verbally. In high-context
cultures, much of the communication process occurs non-
verbally. Body language, status, tonality, relationships, the use
of silence, and other factors communicate meaning. Studies
show that more than 60% of communication is non-verbal and
will be remembered long after your actual words. Many cul-
tures determine the seriousness of your message by your ac-
tions and emotions during your delivery.
Eye Contact
Most U.S. children are taught to look at the teacher or parent
when they are being scolded, and during interpersonal commu-
nication. However, in some cultures, looking down is consid-
ered a sign of respect for the person who is scolding. Many adult
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Americans regard someone who does not look them in the eye
as untrustworthy. However, some cultures may regard direct eye
contact as confrontational. It is often considered rude or aggres-
sive to look into someone's eyes for more than 4-5 seconds.
Smiling
Rather than being a sign of friendliness, some cultures regard
smiling as false or overbearing.
Smiles may disguise embarrassment, mask bereavement, or
conceal rage, while happiness may hide behind a straight face.
Do not define the acceptance of a presentation to a group that
seems inexpressive as being a failure. Audiences from different
cultures express acceptance in unfamiliar ways (e.g., straight
faced, eyes closed, heads bowed). A smile and a head nod may
not indicate acceptance or agreement. It is often a polite ges-
ture, and not one of agreement or understanding.
Laughing
In some cultures, laughing is an expression of concern, embar-
rassment, or distress. Do not assume someone is laughing at
you; it may be an expression of distress regarding the situation.
Touching
In many cultures, it is considered improper to touch a stranger.
When in doubt, do not touch, other than a formal handshake. Do
not touch with the left hand, which in many cultures is consid-
ered taboo.
Space
In the United States, many people unconsciously stand an arm's
length apart. In some Asian cultures, people stand even farther
apart. In some Hispanic or Latino cultures, people are comfort-
able standing closer to each other than arm's length. As always,
you should observe the behaviors of the group and follow their
lead.
Time
Different cultures have different concepts of punctuality. When
some people agree to meet at a certain time, 8:00 for example,
they see 8:00 as a displacement in time when the meeting is
scheduled to begin, and anyone who arrives after 8:00 is con-
sidered late. Other cultures see the meeting time as a discreet
point in time, and anyone who arrives between 8:00 and 8:30 is
considered punctual. You always must be on time, but you must
also be prepared to be delayed.
Verbal Communication
Avoid technical phrases, jargon, and acronyms. Explain the
meaning of technical language and acronyms throughout your
conversation or presentation. Pause between sentences and ask,
"Any questions so far?" Facial expressions, body language, and
other signs of emotion will enhance your message.
Emotional Responses
Emotional responses will vary among different cultures. Do not
become concerned if there are emotional outbursts during your
presentation. Be prepared to compassionately acknowledge the
emotional impact that your message may have on individuals.
Figure 7-5. The thumbs-up sign is a non-verbal communication that
can be misinterpreted.
Interpreters
Get to know the interpreter in advance. Your phrasing, accent,
pace, and idioms are important to a good interpreter. Ensure
a shared understanding of your general message and any par-
ticular terms before you speak. Speak slowly and clearly, and
phrase your thoughts into single ideas of two sentences. Write
out important numbers to assure understanding. Be aware of
your body language while your words are being translated. The
interpreter cannot transmit your inflections or tone, so you must
find other ways to underscore your message. Watch the audi-
ence to see if the interpreter's words seem to register with them.
Avoid humor or jokes since American humor often depends on
word plays that do not translate well. Rely on a pleasant facial
expression. Use visuals where possible—the language of pic-
tures is universal. Allow the interpreter to become acquainted
with your visual material.
General Reminders
Observe the behaviors of different groups and follow their lead.
Communicate respect; judge not; value diversity; tolerate am-
biguity; recognize your assumptions; show empathy; and dem-
onstrate flexibility.
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Cross-cultural communication is an important tool when com-
municating to the public. Facilitation is also important when
working with various cultures.
Facilitation
Description
Facilitation is used to guide meetings, mediate conflicts, and
deal with contentious situations. A facilitator is a neutral party
who moderates discussions, monitors speaking time, records
key discussion points, periodically summarizes the discussion,
and provides constructive feedback. Facilitators help create an
atmosphere of trust and fairness by ensuring that all groups
have equal say in the discussion and that everyone understands
each other. In contentious situations, the facilitator maintains
civility and keeps the discussion focused.
When and How to Use
Risk communicators are often required to assume a facilitative
role in meetings to help community groups define goals, avoid
or resolve conflict, and make decisions without actually partici-
pating in the discussions. Because a facilitator must be accepted
as objective and neutral, you sometimes need outside facilita-
tors; neutral facilitation is appropriate in affected communities
with contentious issues or high-conflict situations. The Region-
al Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Specialist can provide
information about when to use facilitation or other ADR tech-
niques, and they can help site teams obtain third-party neutral
facilitation or mediation services.
You may play a facilitative role by planning and conducting
public meetings or informal community meetings. You may help
plan meeting arrangements, develop an agenda, and play a role
in conducting and recording the meeting. The facilitator's role
is different from that of group leader, who often has a stake in
the outcome of the meeting. At meetings where the primary pur-
pose is to share information, generate ideas, or make decisions
and there is minimal potential for conflict within the group, the
facilitator can assist the leader of a community group. While the
leader retains authority and conducts the meeting, the facilitator
reinforces the group leader's efforts and acts as an observer and
provides constructive feedback on the process. At other times,
the facilitator acts as an objective mediator so the group's leader
can actively participate in the proceedings. This is especially
useful when the leader has a vested interest in the outcome, or
when there is a potential for conflict to arise. Facilitators in any
situation should:
1. Explain the facilitator's role and responsibilities to partici-
pants up front.
2. Remain neutral.
3. Ask participants to reserve judgement.
4. Direct the focus from personalities to process and results.
5. Set a positive tone for finding solutions.
6. Pose open-ended questions to generate participation.
7. "Listen as an ally"—build empathy, increase comfort level,
repeat speaker's words to confirm understanding.
8. Share observations about the effectiveness of the process.
9. Suggest alternative procedures to help the group accom-
plish its goals.
10. Designate a recorder to write down key points on a black-
board or flip chart to focus attention on what has been ac-
complished.
The following are various avenues of facilitation:
Planning the Meeting
The facilitator must determine the purpose and context of the
meeting and choose an appropriate method for decision-making
as well as assist in the meeting logistics.
Building an Agenda
The agenda guides the meeting through sequential steps to reach
a desired outcome. Follow these basic steps to develop an effec-
tive meeting agenda:
1. Explain the purpose of the meeting.
2. Outline the desired outcomes.
3. List and order topics that must be covered to reach desired
outcomes.
4. Define participants' roles.
5. Determine the time necessary to complete each step or
topic.
6. Identify potential problems and solutions.
Solving Problems
Guide participants through a sequence of steps that requires
them to take responsibility for addressing the following ques-
tions: What is the problem and why does it exist? What is the
ideal state related to this issue? What are the best solutions to
this problem? How will we implement these solutions? Build
upon small agreements and focus on collaborating to reach mu-
tual gains.
Mediating Conflict
Conflict occurs when participants are not willing to move from
positions based on a win/lose mentality. When there is potential
for serious conflict, skilled mediation may be necessary. One
useful technique for mediating minor conflicts consists of the
following steps:
1. Restate points made to empathize with each party's situa-
tion.
2. Paraphrase what is said to compare your perception with
that of the speaker.
3. Discover underlying issues without assuming you know
anything: ask probing questions and listen attentively. Veri-
fy your perceptions of unspoken assumptions, feelings, and
thoughts.
4. Encourage disputing parties to propose options without ask-
ing them to make commitments. Ask for and propose ideas
for how to resolve parts or all of each issue in dispute. Ex-
plore options without pressuring movement toward agree-
ment. Try not to move too quickly to the solution.
5. Address one idea at a time. Concentrate on areas of agree-
ment, not on disagreements. Search for additional opportu-
nities for agreement.
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6. If all else fails, agree to disagree, but do not move to this
option until all opportunities for reaching agreement have
been explored and exhausted.
Getting to a Decision
Decision making requires participants to identify problems,
process possible solutions, and develop action plans. Two com-
mon decision-making methods are majority rule and consensus.
When choosing a method, consider that the degree to which in-
dividuals "buy into" an agreement depends on how much own-
ership they have in the decision-making process.
Majority Rule
Majority rule requires group members to consider options, dis-
cuss pros and cons, and vote. Participants agree that the group
will adopt the option that receives a plurality or majority of
votes cast. Majority rule works best when the group has demon-
strated a willingness to work together cooperatively, and when
no one is so heavily invested in one or more options that they
will not abide by the group's collective decision.
Consensus
Consensus requires the group to reach agreement. The facili-
tator creates a safe atmosphere for discussion and information
exchange, identifies areas of agreement, fosters collaboration,
and helps the group move through the steps necessary to reach
agreement. Agreement is reached after group members talk
freely and at length, listen to each other's views, and thoroughly
review all ideas. This method is very time consuming, and a
series of meetings is often necessary. A back-up method should
be available to use if the group cannot reach consensus. Con-
sensus gives each participant ownership in the decision-making
process, and it works best when stakeholders are heavily invest-
ed in the outcome and the cooperation of all parties is necessary
to achieve goals.
In addition to facilitation, on-site activities serve as an imple-
mentation tool.
On-site Activities
Description
On-site activities, such as site tours and observation decks, help
people understand the project.
When and How to Use
Anxiety and frustration over agency/organization actions often
result because people feel intimidated by the technical nature
of the activities and do not see progress being made. On-site
activities can be used at any point in your project to explain site
activities, educate residents, present technical information, or
highlight progress. Use celebrations or special events to involve
your public. For example, you may wish to hold an on-site ac-
tivity when a particular phase of work gets underway.
Plan on-site activities with a specific goal or purpose in mind.
On-site activities should not mean a lot of extra work for your
agency/organization. You can schedule activities on-site that
you would normally hold off-site, or you can design creative
activities that address community concerns. You may ask the
community for activity suggestions. Coordinate your activities
so that the person in charge of the project can be present to
explain what is happening with the project and be accessible
to community members. For example, if an observation deck
is built at the site, be available on the deck for an afternoon to
meet with local residents. Site tours can include walking tours
through areas where your agency/organization is conducting
activities. During site tours, distribute written materials such as
background information, a chronology of your agency's/orga-
nization's activities, or a fact sheet to summarize the aspects of
the site activity being addressed. Also, invite the local media to
tour the site with you, and take advantage of on-site activities
to highlight site successes. Set up an on-site information center
if the site is centrally located in the community. Try to include
activities for children. Always be aware of the site's safety pre-
cautions.
Special events may also take place at on-site activities, or sim-
ply serve alone as an implementation tool.
Special Events
Description
Special events are activities near the affected community that
celebrate the accomplishment of key milestones. Special events
educate people about risk assessment activities while high-
lighting the progress made. Moreover, special events can add a
sense of closure for you and the community. Special events are
an excellent way to involve community members in a positive
activity surrounding the affected community.
When and How to Use
Special events can be planned to mark the beginning or the com-
pletion of major milestones. Special events can also be used to
educate the community about a particular topic. Be creative in
determining when such an event might be appropriate.
The activities at the special events should be tailored to a given
community's interests or concerns. Consider creative activities
for a variety of audiences, including children. Fact sheets and
media packages can be used at special events. Involve local res-
idents in the design and planning so the community will have
ownership of the event. Community members may form panels
to organize games and refreshments; or local businesses may
sponsor the event by donating supplies, services, printing, or
food and beverages. Also contact the media. In addition to pro-
viding publicity, they may co-sponsor the event. Think about
the pictures, graphics, and message that you can give the me-
dia to highlight your event. If you are planning a large special
event, consider inviting a local news anchorperson, the regional
administrator, or a local congressional representative to be mas-
ter of ceremonies. Promote the event well in advance.
Example of a Special Event by a Superfund Site
Team
At one Superfund site, the metal, lead, was a major threat to
children. The site team borrowed a program called "Get the
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Lead Out" from the State of New Jersey and held a special event
at the local firehouse to educate kids and their families on the
dangers of lead. Parents of the children who attended provided
refreshments. There was a coloring contest for the children
(children received pages from the coloring book that accom-
panies the Superfund slide show, and they brought the colored
pages to the event for judging). Lots of prizes were provided for
the winners, the local newspaper agreed to publish the winning
entries, and the firehouse was decorated with all the children's
artwork. The Superfund slide show for kids was shown at the
event, and narrated in terms they could understand. The site Re-
medial Project Manager also attended and described his job in
simple terms. He also brought two protective suits with masks,
respirators, and gloves and explained their uses. Children took
turns putting on the gear and explaining what it did, and EPA
took Polaroid pictures for them to keep.
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8.0 Workbook
This section is designed to enhance your hands-on experience
with relaying risks to the public. There will be two exercises to
work through. The first exercise involves an opportunity to see
how indexing can be a powerful tool when portraying facts.
8.1 Exercise 1
Indexing
Indexing techniques are powerful tools to communicate complex
information. We are all familiar with many indices that are used
in daily life: the various economic indices, such as the consumer
price index, the stock market indices, etc. Most of these tools
compress complicated multivariate analyses into a single num-
ber. With respect to the environment, there are air-quality indi-
ces, water-quality indices, a fish-quality index, an urban-sprawl
risk index, a heat index, and a host of others. In this exercise, we
will create a variety of new indices to illustrate the process. In
your work, if you are routinely asked to communicate similar
information that is difficult to explain, development of an index
might serve as a marked asset.
First Step
Identify the potential subject of the index and the metric that
captures the risk(s) or benefit(s). For a water-quality index, the
subject is water and the risk-related metric might be the concen-
tration of a chemical or biological contaminant.
Second Step
Measure the potential range of the risk- or benefit-related met-
ric. If the range is potentially huge, such as the case in a biologic
agent like bacteria, then this range may need to be compressed.
For bacteria, which could range from one to ten billion quite
easily, that range will be difficult to communicate since people
don't readily understand such large numbers. One way to com-
press these ranges is to use the logarithm of the number, so that
the range mentioned previously (one to ten billion) becomes
zero to ten. If you wished, you could take the log and multiply
it by ten to give you a range from 0-100. These scales, like 1-5,
1-10, or 1-100, are the easiest for people to understand.
Third Step
Assign risk (benefit) ranges. This could establish simple safe/
not-safe ranges, where there is a cut-off for which risk is below
some safety threshold. If there are ranges to risk (or benefit)
the range of potential values of the index could be subdivid-
ed further. You could use a three-tier system like good, bad,
and ugly, or a five-tier system of good, moderate, unhealthy,
very unhealthy, hazardous. The choice of how many tiers to
use depends mostly on whether you need to communicate safe
or unsafe, or whether there are big ranges of risk values that
demand a finer shading of risk.
Fourth Step
Color-coding and iconizing. These tools put a user-friendly
public face to the index. For a two-tier system, red (for bad)
and green (for good) might be sufficient; for a three-tier system
the stoplight metaphor works well (green for good, red for bad,
yellow for in-between). For a five-tier system, a variation on the
stoplight that uses orange for the range between red and yellow,
and chartreuse for the range between green and yellow works
well. People don't understand the visible-light color spectrum
and using that metaphor (where blue is better than green) con-
fuses people (just think about the terrorist threat index, where
blue is the good range). For icons, you can use the outline of
the subject. For example, a heat index might use a stylized ther-
mometer icon. An air-quality index might use a color-coded
cloud, for example.
Some examples for creating a risk index could be:
• Bottled Water Quality Index
• Restaurant Quality Index
• Turkey Quality Index
• Leaf Color Index
• Wine Index
Examples of indices can be found at Appendix 10.1 and Appen-
dix 10.2. Both describe the air quality index. 10.1 demonstrates
the color-coding and values of the system. Figure 10-1 is an
example of air quality on a specific day in the United States.
Figure 10-2 is a common index, which can be found in many
newspapers.
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In addition to risk indices, risk comparisons provide a sound
way of understanding the magnitude of a specific risk.
8.2 Exercise 2
Risk Comparisons
The goal of this exercise is to develop an understanding of how
comparing risks can help determine the level of concern of that
specific risk.
The best risk comparisons are of the same risk at two time points
(an example would be 1990 and 2000) or a comparison with a
recognized standard (e.g., a regulatory standard). Another good
comparison is of different estimates of the same risk-(EPA says
the risk is .0005%; Sierra Club says .001%).
Some ineffective comparisons are comparisons between local
risk and risk in another state or city and comparisons between
two different risk management alternatives (there could be one
you haven't mentioned that's even better).
Other ineffective comparisons:
• Comparisons between peak levels at an incident with nor-
mal levels.
• Additive risk: The pollutant only adds .001 % to the normal
cancer rates.
• Risk/benefit tradeoff comparisons, e.g., the facility brings
in a million dollars in tax revenue.. .if you shut us down the
city will lose hundreds of jobs.
• Comparisons between risks from the same source.
Note: Tell people at a public meeting that the risk of toxic X is
less than the risk they took driving to the meeting or smoking a
cigarette during the break.
Exercise—Rank the Comparisons
• Smoking 1.4 cigarettes—living 20 years by a PVC plant.
• Eating 40 TBS of peanut butter—living 50 years within 5
miles of a nuclear power plant.
• Drinking 30 cans of soda—living two days in a big city (air
pollution).
More Comparisons
• Traveling 300 miles by car—traveling 1000 miles by jet.
• Traveling 10 miles by bicycle—traveling 1000 miles by jet.
• Eating 100 charcoal-broiled pieces of meat—getting a chest
X-ray.
• Getting struck by lightning (in one year)—living 2 years
with a smoker.
By taking a chance to look at these risk comparisons, various
risks can be assessed.
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9.0 Summary
This workbook has been designed to help local public health
officials in dealing with various risks. Since there is a diverse
number of risks that can occur, it is important officials have
an understanding of how to communicate information to the
public. A basic understanding of risk was outlined so officials
may know how much of a risk an issue may be. The communi-
cation section showed how to creatively communicate in vari-
ous manners to the public. The successful risk communication
section combined the understanding of risk and communication
and showed how communication is essential when dealing with
various risks. Examples were provided, such as the Sun Wise
program, to lend ideas to reach an audience. The public partici-
pation tools and techniques brought light to the various ways in
which risks can be understood and dealt with. Upon an explana-
tion of risk communication, two brief exercises were presented
to provide a hands-on opportunity for local public health of-
ficials to think of how they would deal with a risk situation. The
bibliography is an extensive source to allow the opportunity for
further research into the field of risk communication. This work-
book has been designed as a risk communication tool to help
others understand the need for successful risk communication.
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42
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10.0 Appendix
10.1 Air Quality Index
Air Quality Index (AQI)
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is an index for reporting daily air
quality. It lets you know how clean or polluted the air is and
what the potential health effects might be. The AQI focuses on
health effects you may experience within a few hours or days
after breathing polluted air. EPA calculates the AQI for the so-
called "criteria pollutants," which are air pollutants regulated
by the Clean Air Act: ground-level ozone, particle pollution
(abbreviated PM10 and PM2.5), carbon monoxide, sulfur diox-
ide, and nitrogen dioxide. For each of these pollutants, EPA has
established health-based national air quality standards. Ground-
level ozone and airborne particles are the two pollutants that
pose the greatest threat to human health in the United States.
The AQI is a scoring system for air quality. The higher the AQI
value, the greater the level of air pollution and the worse the
health concern. For example, an AQI value of 50 represents
good air quality with little potential to affect public health,
while an AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality.
An AQI value of 100 generally corresponds to the national air
quality standard for the pollutant, which is the level EPA has
set to protect public health. AQI values below 100 are gener-
ally thought of as satisfactory. When AQI values are above 100,
air quality is considered to be unhealthy — at first for certain
sensitive groups of people and then for everyone as AQI val-
ues increase. Many AQI maps show color codes for the various
ranges of scores. Areas of good air quality (AQI scores from
0-50) are colored green, moderate areas (51-100) are yellow,
areas unhealthy for sensitive groups (101-150) are orange,
while unhealthy areas (151-200) are red. AQI scores above 200
are now uncommon.
• Good (green):
When the AQI value for your community is between 0 and 50,
air quality is considered satisfactory in your area.
• Moderate (yellow):
When the AQI value for your community is between 51 and
100, air quality is acceptable in your area. (However, people
who are extremely sensitive to ozone may experience respira-
tory symptoms.)
• Unhealthy for sensitive groups (orange):
Some people are particularly sensitive to the harmful effects of
certain air pollutants. For example, people with asthma may be
sensitive to sulfur dioxide and ozone, while people with heart
disease may be sensitive to carbon monoxide. Some groups of
people may be sensitive to more than one pollutant. When AQI
values are between 101 and 150, members of sensitive groups
may experience health effects. Members of the general public
are not likely to be affected when the AQI is in this range.
• Unhealthy (red):
When AQI values are between 151 and 200, everyone may be-
gin to experience health effects. Members of sensitive groups
may experience more serious health effects.
• Very unhealthy (purple):
AQI values between 201 and 300 trigger a health alert for
everyone.
• Hazardous (maroon):
AQI values over 300 trigger health warnings of emergency con-
ditions. Such values rarely occur in the United States.
10.2 AQI—Selected Cities
November 4, 2003
Figure 10-1. Smog in the L.A. basin results in poor air quality in the
Air Quality Index.
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M*fogi.inii. per Cubic Mel«
••20
•13-20
012 IS
•« 12
Q Do not met t minimum data rornpVU
Minimum 11 «mpl«l\ per tikcnilK qujrlct ri^quircd
O DiU uru
Sunddid (dnnudl drilhrnelk mean} it 1 5
Figure 10-2. Particulate matter concentrations in the atmosphere also affect air quality and produce negative health effects.
44
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11.0 Glossary
The following are definitions to help understand risk commu-
nication.
Risk:
• Judgment concerning the likelihood, severity, or importance
of a threatening event or condition.
• Adds to the hazard and its magnitude the probability that
the potential harm or undesirable consequence will be
realized.
• =Hazard x Exposure
• The probability of loss of which people value.
Communication:
• An exchange between two or more people for the purpose
of creating or sharing meaning. The conveyance of ideas,
concepts of information to others.
Risk Communication:
• An exchange among two or more people for the purpose of
sharing or creating meaning relative to a threatening event
or condition.
Risk Message:
• Written, verbal, or visual statement containing information
about risk.
• May or may not include advice about risk reduction
behavior.
• A formal risk message is a structured package with the
express purpose of presenting information about risk.
Objective Risk:
• The probability of an adverse health impact, based on an
interpolation of a dose-response curve.
Subjective Risk:
• The probability of the same event, based upon intuition.
Backside Risk:
• The risk to your backside, by assuming the public is using
the first definition.
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46
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