Persistent
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
-------
About This Booklet
This booklet was created to raise awareness about the health
and environmental impacts of persistent organic pollutants
(POPs), to show what actions the United States and some
other countries have already taken to address these pollu-
tants, and to describe the actions set into motion by the
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants to
address this issue globally.The booklet explains the impor-
tance of the Stockholm Convention, a legally binding interna-
tional agreement finalized in 2001. Participating governments
agree to take actions to reduce or eliminate the production,
use, and/or release of certain of these pollutants.
Contents
2 What Are POPs?
4 What Domestic Actions Have Been Taken to Control POPs?
6 How Do POPs Affect People and Wildlife?
8 The Great Lakes: A Story of Trials and Triumphs
10 Alaska: POPs in America's Arctic
12 The Stockholm Convention
16 Table: The "Dirty Dozen"
18 What Has the United States Done to Address POPs Globally?
20 Resources
21 Timeline: A History of Global Action
Office of International Affairs
(261 OR)
EPA160-F-02-001
www.epa.gov/oia
April 2002
Printed on 100 percent recycled/recyclable paper with a minimum 50 percent postconsumer fiber using
' vegetable-based ink.
-------
A Global Issue
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are toxic chemicals that adversely affect human health and
the environment around the world. Because they can be transported by wind and water, most
POPs generated in one country can affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and
released.They persist for long periods of time in the environment and can accumulate and pass
from one species to the next through the food chain.
To address this global concern, the United States joined forces with 90 other countries and the
European Community to sign a groundbreaking United Nations treaty in Stockholm, Sweden, in
May 2001. Under the treaty, known as the Stockholm Convention, countries agree to reduce or
eliminate the production, use, and/or release of 12 key POPs (see box at right).The Convention
specifies a scientific review process that could lead to the addition of other POPs chemicals of
global concern.
Many of the POPs included in the Stockholm Convention are no longer produced in this country.
None of the intentionally produced pesticides, for example, are manufactured or registered for use in
the United States. However, U.S. citizens and habitats can still be at riskfrom POPs that have persisted
in the environment,from unintentionally produced POPs that are released in the United States,and
from POPs that are released elsewhere and then transported here (by wind or water, for example).
Although most developed nations have taken strong action to control the 12 POPs, a great number
of developing nations have only fairly recently begun to restrict their production, use,and release.
The Stockholm Convention will add an important global dimension to our national and regional
efforts to control POPs.
The "Dirty Dozen"
aldrin1
chlordane1
dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane
(DDT)1
dieldrin1
endrin1
heptachlor1
hexachlorobenzene12
mirex1
toxaphene1
polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs)12
polychlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins2
(dioxins)
polychlorinated
dibenzofurans2
(furans)
1-Intentionally Produced.
2-Unintentionally
Produced—Result from
some industrial processes
and combustion.
For more information, see
table on pages 16 and 17.
-------
The risks are great,
and the need for
action is clear. We
must work to elimi-
nate or at least
severely restrict the
release of these tox-
ins without delay.
— President George W. Bush,
in an address at the
White House Rose Garden,
April 19,2001
What Are POPs?
Many POPs were widely used during the boom
in industrial production after World War II, when
thousands of synthetic chemicals were intro-
duced into commercial use. Many of these
chemicals proved beneficial in pest and disease
control, crop production, and industry.These
same chemicals, however, have had unforeseen
effects on human health and the environment.
Many people are familiar with some of the most
well-known POPs, such as PCBs, DDT, and dioxins.
POPs include a range of substances that include:
• Intentionally produced chemicals currently
or once used in agriculture, disease control,
manufacturing, or industrial processes.
Examples include PCBs, which have been useful
in a variety of industrial applications (e.g., in
electrical transformers and large capacitors,as
hydraulic and heat exchange fluids,and as
additives to paints and lubricants) and DDT,
which is still used to control mosquitoes that
carry malaria in some parts of the world.
Unintentionally produced chemicals, such as
dioxins, that result from some industrial
processes and from combustion (for example,
municipal and medical waste incineration and
backyard burning of trash).
The DDT Dilemma
DDT is likely the most famous and controversial pesticide ever made. An
estimated 4 billion pounds of this inexpensive and historically effective
chemical have been produced and applied worldwide since 1940. In the
United States, DDT was used extensively on agricultural crops, particular-
ly cotton, from 1945 to 1972. DDT was also used to protect soldiers from
insect-borne diseases such as malaria and typhus during World War II, and it remains a valuable
public health tool in parts of the tropics.
The heavy use of this highly persistent chemical, however, led to widespread environmental con-
tamination and the accumulation of DDT in humans and wildlife—a phenomenon brought to
public attention by Rachel Carson in her 1962 book, Silent Spring. A wealth of scientific laboratory
and field data have now confirmed research from the 1960s that suggested, among other effects,
that high levels of DDE (a metabolite of DDT) in certain birds of prey caused their eggshells to thin
so dramatically they could not produce live offspring.
One bird species especially sensitive to DDE was the bald eagle. Public concern about the eagles'
decline and the possibility of other long-term harmful effects of DDT exposure to both humans and
wildlife prompted the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to cancel the registration of DDT in
1972.The bald eagle has since experienced one of the most dramatic species recoveries in our history.
-------
Why Are POPs a Concern?
POPs are a concern because of the following four
characteristics:
1. Toxicity. POPs are toxic chemicals that labora-
tory, field, and health studies have linked to
certain adverse health effects in people and
wildlife.
2. Persistence. POPs are highly stable chemicals
that resist the natural processes of degrada-
tion. Once introduced into the environment,
they can persist for a long time.
3. Long-Range Transport. POPs released in one
part of the world can travel far from their origi-
nal source via wind, water, and, to a lesser
extent, migratory species.
4. Bioaccumulation. POPs are readily absorbed
in fatty tissue and accumulate in the body fat
of living organisms; these substances become
more concentrated as they move up the food
chain, especially into larger, longer-living
organisms.
Transboundary Travelers
A major impetus for the Stockholm Convention was the finding
of POPs contamination in relatively pristine Arctic regions—
thousands of miles from any known source.Tracing the movement
of most POPs in the environment is complex because these com-
pounds can exist in different phases (e.g., as a gas or attached to
airborne particles) and can be exchanged among environmental
media. For example, some POPs can be carried for many miles when
they evaporate from water or land surfaces into the air, or when
they adsorb to airborne particles.Then, they can return to Earth on
particles or in snow, rain, or mist. POPs also travel through oceans,
rivers, lakes, and, to a lesser extent, with the help of animal carriers,
such as migratory species.
Global Dust
APfl 17 TOO-
e.rth frata TQItt Jh.rp.g4 InoHi
Much of the evidence for long-range transport of airborne gaseous and paniculate
substances to the United States focuses on dust or smoke because they are visible in
satellite images. This figure shows a satellite image of the passage of a cloud of dust
across the Pacific Ocean to North America. This dust cloud was raised by a storm in
Asia in April 200 LAIso shown is a dust cloud from northern Africa traveling west over
the Atlantic Ocean.
-------
What Domestic Actions Have Been Taken to Control
The United States has taken strong domestic
action to reduce emissions of POPs. None of
the pesticide POPs listed in the Stockholm
Convention are registered for sale and distribu-
tion in the United States today. In 1978,
Congress prohibited the manufacture of PCBs
and severely restricted the use of remaining
PCB stocks.
Since 1987, EPA and the states have effectively
reduced environmental releases of dioxins and
furans to land, air, and water from U.S. sources.
These regulatory actions, along with voluntary
efforts by U.S. industry, resulted in a greater than
75 percent decline in total dioxin and furan
releases between 1987 and 1995 from known
industrial sources.Once all current regulatory
actions are fully implemented and enforced by
the year 2004, EPA anticipates that environmen-
tal dioxin and furan releases will be reduced by
more than 90 percent from 1987 levels.
To better understand the risks associated with
dioxin releases, EPA has been conducting a
comprehensive reassessment of dioxin science
and will be evaluating additional actions that
might further protect human health and the
environment.
-------
POPs?
Stopping DDT Use
Over the years, the United States has taken a number of steps to restrict the use of DDT:
1969: After studying the persistence of DDT residues in the environment, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) cancels the registration of certain uses of DDT
(on shade trees, on tobacco, in the home, and in aquatic environments).
1970: USDA cancels DDT applications on crops, commercial plants, and wood products,
as well as for building purposes.
1972: Under the authority of EPA, the registrations of the remaining DDT products are
canceled.
1989: The remaining exempted uses (public health use for controlling vector-borne
diseases, military use for quarantine, and prescription drug use for controlling
body lice) are voluntarily stopped.
Today: There is no U.S. registration for DDT, meaning that it cannot legally be sold or
distributed in the United States.
Controlling Dioxins
EPA has pursued regulatory control and management of dioxins and furans releases to air,
water, and soil.The Clean Air Act requires the application of maximum achievable control tech-
nology for hazardous air pollutants, including dioxins and furans. Major sources regulated
under this authority include municipal, medical, and hazardous waste incineration; pulp and
paper manufacturing; and certain metals production and refining processes. Dioxin releases to
water are managed through a combination of risk-based and technology-based tools estab-
lished under the Clean Water Act.The cleanup of dioxin-contaminated land is an important
part of the EPA Superfund and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Corrective Action
prog rams. Voluntary actions to control dioxins and furans include EPA's Persistent,
Bioaccumulative, and Toxics Program and the Dioxin Exposure Initiative, both of which gather
information to inform future actions and further reduce risks associated with dioxin exposure.
-------
How Do POPs Affect People and Wildlife?
Persistent organic
pollutants threaten
the health and well-
being of humans and
wildlife in every
region of the world.
— Klaus Topfer, Executive
Director of the United
Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP)
Studies have linked POPs exposures to declines,
diseases, or abnormalities in a number of
wildlife species, including certain kinds offish,
birds, and mammals. Wildlife also can act as
sentinels for human health: abnormalities or
declines detected in wildlife populations can
sound an early warning bell for people.
Behavioral abnormalities and birth defects in
fish, birds, and mammals in and around the
Great Lakes,for example, led scientists to inves-
tigate POPs exposures in human populations
(see pages 8 and 9 for more information on the
Great Lakes).
In people, reproductive, developmental, behav-
ioral, neurologic, endocrine, and immunologic
adverse health effects have been linked to POPs.
People are mainly exposed to POPs through
contaminated foods. Less common exposure
routes include drinking contaminated water and
direct contact with the chemicals. In people and
other mammals alike, POPs can be transferred
through the placenta and breast milk to devel-
oping offspring. It should be noted, however,
that despite this potential exposure, the known
benefits of breast-feeding far outweigh the sus-
pected risks.
The Role of Science
Although scientists have more to learn about
POPs chemicals, decades of scientific research
have greatly increased our knowledge of POPs'
impacts on people and wildlife. For example,
laboratory studies have shown that low doses of
certain POPs adversely affect some organ sys-
tems and aspects of development. Studies also
have shown that chronic exposure to low doses
of certain POPs can result in reproductive and
immune system deficits. Exposure to high levels
of certain POPs chemicals—higher than normal-
ly encountered by humans and wildlife—can
cause serious damage or death.
Epidemiological studies of exposed human pop-
ulations and studies of wildlife might provide
more information on health impacts. However,
because such studies are less controlled than
laboratory studies,other stresses cannot be
ruled out as the cause of adverse effects.
As we continue to study POPs, we will learn more
about the risk of POPs exposure to the general
public, how much certain species (including peo-
ple) are exposed, and what effects POPs have on
these species and their ecosystems.
EPA has developed a report summarizing the sci-
ence on POPs (see Resources on page 20).
-------
A number of populations are at particular risk of
POPs exposure, including people whose diets
include large amounts offish, shellfish, or wild foods
that are high in fat and locally obtained. For example,
indigenous peoples may be particularly at risk
because they observe cultural and spiritual traditions
related to their diet.To them,fishing and hunting are
not sport or recreation, but are part of a traditional,
subsistence way of life, in which no useful part of the
catch is wasted. In remote areas of Alaska and else-
where, locally obtained subsistence food may be the
only readily available option for nutrition (see pages
10 and 11 for more information on the Arctic).
In addition, sensitive populations, such as children,
the elderly, and those with suppressed immune sys-
tems, are typically more susceptible to many kinds of
pollutants, including POPs. Because POPs have been
linked to reproductive impairments, men and
women of child-bearing age may also beat risk.
POPS and the Food Chain
POPs work their way through the food chain by accumu-
lating in the body fat of living organisms and becoming
more concentrated as they move from one creature to
another.This process is known as"biomagnification."
When contaminants found in small amounts at the bot-
tom of the food chain biomagnify, they can pose a significant haz-
ard to predators that feed at the top of the food chain.This means
that even small releases of POPs can have significant impacts.
Biomagnification in Action: A 1997 study by the Arctic
Monitoring and Assessment Programme, called Arctic Pollution
lssues:A State of the Arctic Environment Report, found that caribou
in Canada's Northwest Territories had as much as 10 times the
levels of PCBs as the lichen on which they grazed; PCB levels in
the wolves that fed on the caribou were magnified nearly 60
times as much as the lichen.
Reservoirs of POPs
POPs can be deposited in marine and freshwater
ecosystems through effluent releases, atmospheric
deposition, runoff, and other means. Because POPs
have low water solubility, they bond strongly to par-
ticulate matter in aquatic sediments. As a result, sedi-
ments can serve as reservoirs or "sinks"for POPs.
When sequestered in these sediments, POPs can be
taken out of circulation for long periods of time. If
disturbed, however, they can be reintroduced into
the ecosystem and food chain, potentially becoming
a source of local, and even global, contamination.
-------
Through these efforts,
we will steadily contin-
ue to reduce levels of
toxics in fish. Someday
we will answer the
question ...that,yes,
Great Lakes fish are
safe to eat by anyone,
anywhere.
— Tracy Mehan,
EPA Assistant Administrator
for the Office of Water,
October 20,2001,
Montreal, Canada
The Great Lakes: A Story of Trials and Triumphs
The Great Lakes—Superior, Michigan, Huron,
Erie, and Ontario—and their connecting chan-
nels make up the largest system of fresh sur-
face water in the world. A vital resource for the
United States and Canada, the Great Lakes are
used for fishing, swimming, boating, agriculture,
industry, and tourism; they are also a source of
drinking water and energy.
Despite their size, however, the Great Lakes are
vulnerable to pollution. Until the 1970s, a vari-
ety of POPs, heavy metals, and other agricultur-
al and industrial pollutants were routinely
discharged into the Great Lakes.Toxic sub-
stances also entered the Great Lakes Basin
through other avenues, including waste sites,
river runoff, and atmospheric deposition.These
pollutants existed in large enough quantities to
warrant concern regarding the effects on
human health and wildlife, including several
species offish and shellfish, bald eagles and
other birds of prey, and fish-eating mammals
such as mink.
Extensive cleanup and pollution control efforts
were subsequently launched, and many contam-
inant levels have declined dramatically in the
Great Lakes as a result, illustrating the positive
outcomes that can be achieved when communi-
ties, government, and industry work together to
reduce pollution. Still, some POPs exist at signifi-
cant concentrations, indicating their persistence
-------
and the possibility of continued contamination from
other sources, particularly long-range atmospheric
transport of POPs from other areas.
In 1972, the United States and Canada signed the first
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, calling for the
two countries to clean up and control pollution of
these waters. In 1978, they signed a new agreement,
which added a commitment to work together to rid
the Great Lakes of persistent toxic chemicals, some of
which are POPs. As part of this agreement, both coun-
tries have been monitoring atmospheric loadings of
these chemicals to the Great Lakes since 1990.
In 1997, the United States and Canada signed the
Great Lakes Binational Toxics Strategy, an agreement
that aims to reduce several persistent toxic pollu-
tants, including certain POPs, in the Great Lakes
Basin over a 10-year period.The strategy provides a
guide for governments and stakeholders toward the
virtual elimination of identified substances through
cost-efficient and expedient pollution prevention
and other incentive-based actions.
Great Lakes Research
Today, much of our knowledge of POPs, populations at risk, and
possible health effects comes from research conducted in the
Great Lakes region. We have learned, for example, that a major
route of exposure is through contaminated food, particularly
fish. Studies conducted in the 1970s showed a correlation
between fish consumption and elevated POPs levels in blood,
leading researchers to conclude that people can be exposed to
POPs by eating contaminated fish.
Asa result, extensive fish contaminant monitoring programs
have been established in the Great Lakes states, and fish con-
sumption advisories are regularly released to help inform people
which fish are safe to eat and how much is safe to eat (see
Resources on p. 20).
We have also learned that currently some POPs primarily enter
the Great Lakes from the air and that urban areas are major
sources of airborne POPs.
-------
Alaska: POPs in America's Arctic
In the United States,
the treaty is of partic-
ular importance for
the people and envi-
ronment of Alaska,
which are impacted
by POPs transported
by air and water from
outside the state.This
is particularly true for
Alaskan Natives, who
rely heavily on tradi-
tional diets consisting
offish and wildlife.
— Christine Todd Whitman,
EPA Administrator,
May 23,2001,
Stockholm, Sweden
Alaskans are extraordinarily dependent upon the health of their fish
and wildlife resources. The seafood industry makes up almost half of
private sector jobs, and sport fishing and tourism generate significant
income for the state. These same resources are the heart of the
traditional subsistence way of life and are vitally important for the
nutrition, cultural integrity, and spiritual well-being of Alaskan Natives.
For many Americans, Alaska (much of which is
in the Arctic) conjures images of commanding
tundra, glaciers, and pure coastal waters—a
remote and wild land relatively untouched by
the human hand. But even here, POPs have
been found in the air, water, soil, plants,fish, and
other wildlife. Although POPs levels in Alaska
are generally low compared to the rest of the
United States, elevated levels in species such as
killer whales, sea otters, and bald eagles warrant
concern.
Some POPs have been used or released in
Alaska and other northern regions by military
sites, smelters, pulp and paper mills, power sta-
tions, mines,and other sources.Others have
rarely or never been used locally.
POPs can enter Alaska and the Arctic in several
ways, too.The first indication that Arctic pollu-
tion could originate elsewhere came during the
1950s, when pilots noticed a haze in the North
American Arctic that was eventually traced to
sources in the lower latitudes. Since then, scien-
tists have discovered that POPs can reach Arctic
regions via air, water, and, to a lesser extent,
migratory species.
Due to global wind patterns, Alaska can receive
POPs from both east Asia and northern Europe.
POPs can also travel in rivers from southeast and
central Asia into the Pacific Ocean, where water
currents flow into the Arctic Ocean.
10
-------
Alaska's expansive tundra and close proximity to
the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean make it a home
for a wide variety of wildlife, some of which are at
particular risk from POPs. During the long, cold
Alaskan winters, mammals metabolize fat, and
this process releases POPs that have accumulated
in the fat directly into their bodies.Then, in the
spring, a critical period of reproduction for
Alaskan wildlife, POPs that have accumulated in
the ice and snow can be released into the envi-
ronment and the food chain.
The Alaskan and Arctic ecosystems are fragile and
take a long time to recover from damage. In addi-
tion, slow-growing plants (and the animals that feed
on these plants) can be exposed to bioaccumulat-
ing contaminants such as POPs for a long time
before being consumed at the next level in the food
chain. For example, POPs accumulation in and on
lichen in Alaska may contribute to levels of contami-
nants found in caribou tissue.The caribou, in turn,
can then be exposed to these contaminants for a
long time before being consumed by predators
themselves.
Living Close to the Land
The traditional Alaskan Native's way of life is root-
ed in a close relationship with the land. For many
Native cultures, subsistence activities (such as
hunting seals, whales, and birds; fishing; and
gathering bird eggs) are the main methods of
procuring food. Alaskan Natives therefore con-
sume much more fish than the average American
and more often consume animals higher on the
food chain, including predator species such as
seals, sea lions, bears,
and toothed whales,
all of which have
potentially higher lev-
els of POPs.
Cooperation in the Arctic
In 1991, nations with territory in the Arctic developed the Arctic
Environmental Protection Strategy to protect,enhance, and
restore the Arctic ecosystems. In 1996, those same nations
established the Arctic Council, a high-level intergovernmental
forum, to address environmental protection and sustainable
development in the Arctic.The member nations of the Council
are Canada, Denmark, Finland, Norway, Russia, Iceland, Sweden,
and the United States.The Arctic Council Action Plan has
launched a number of projects to reduce the use and release of
POPs within the Arctic nations.The Arctic Council's Arctic
Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) provides mem-
ber nations with information on threats to the Arctic environ-
ment and scientific advice on remedial and preventive actions
to protect the environment from contaminants such as POPs.
11
-------
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants was negotiated under the
auspices of the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).The Convention will initial-
ly focus on 12 intentionally and unintentionally
produced chemicals (see list on page 1).
Intentionally Produced POPs
The Convention requires Parties to eliminate or
restrict the production and use of the inten-
tionally produced POPs, subject to specified
exemptions, with special provisions for DDT
and PCBs.
DDT is placed in the restriction annex, which
means that its production and use is restricted
to disease-vector control.The Convention also
establishes a public DDT registry of users and
producers, and it encourages the development
of safe, effective, affordable, and environmental-
ly friendly alternatives.
For PCBs, the Convention prohibits new PCB
production and envisages phasing out electri-
cal equipment that contains high concentra-
tions of PCBs by 2025.
The Convention prohibits trade in POPs chemi-
cals for which Parties have eliminated produc-
tion and use. Such POPs may be exported only
for environmentally sound disposal.
For those POPs that one or more Parties contin-
ue to produce or use pursuant to specific
exemptions, the Convention allows export of
such POPs only to those Parties that have an
allowed use exemption under the Convention
and those non-Parties that provide certification
that they will minimize or prevent environmen-
tal releases and destroy or dispose of the POPs
in an environmentally sound manner.
On May 23,2001, Christine Todd Whitman, EPA Administrator,
signed the Stockholm Convention on behalf of the United States
in Stockholm, Sweden.
12
-------
Exemptions/Exceptions for
Intentionally Produced POPs
The Convention generally exempts from the
previously described requirements those quanti-
ties of intentionally produced POPs that:
A. Are used for laboratory-scale research or
as a reference standard.
B. Occur as unintentional trace contaminants
in products and articles.
C. Are used in closed-system, site-limited
processes.
D. Exist in articles manufactured or already
in use on the date that the Convention
enters into force for that Party.
The Convention also allows Parties to register for
specific exemptions on a country-by-country
basis.These exemptions are subject to review and
expire after 5 years, unless extended by the
Conference of Parties (COP).
Coming to Terms With Treaties
Treaties are binding agreements concluded by
sovereign governments and governed by interna-
tional law.They can be called by different names,
such as a "treaty" or "convention." Once a treaty
has been negotiated, it is available for signature
by governments. Each country then takes the next
step toward implementing the treaty according to
its distinct legal requirements. In the United
States, treaties such as the Stockholm Convention
need to be submitted by the President to the
Senate for its advice and consent to ratification.
Once a government has completed its domestic legal requirements
for ratification, including the enactment of any necessary imple-
menting legislation, it deposits an instrument of ratification to the
treaty's depositary. A certain number of countries must deposit an
instrument of ratification before the treaty enters into force, at
which point it becomes effective and binding on those countries.
The Stockholm Convention will enter into force when 50 countries
have deposited an instrument of ratification.These countries then
become Parties to the treaty.
Some treaties set up an institutional framework.The Stockholm
Convention establishes a Conference of Parties (COP), which meets
at determined intervals and is assisted by a Secretariat, an entity
that provides support for COP activities.The COP is made up of rep-
resentatives from each government that has ratified the treaty.
13
-------
Unintentionally Produced
POPs
The Convention calls upon Parties to take cer-
tain specified measures to reduce releases of
unintentionally produced POPs with the goal of
their continuing minimization and, where feasi-
ble, ultimate elimination. It specifically requires
Parties to:
• Develop national action plans to address the
release of these POPs.
• Promote the development of preventative
measures.
• Apply best available techniques (BAT) for cer-
tain new pollution sources (e.g., municipal,
hospital, and hazardous waste incinerators)
within 4 years after the Convention enters
into force. Parties must also promote BAT and
best environmental practices for other new
and existing sources.
POPs Wastes
Among other things, the Convention requires
Parties to develop appropriate strategies for
identifying:
• Stockpiles consisting of or containing inten-
tionally produced POPs chemicals.
• Products and articles in use and wastes con-
sisting of, containing, or contaminated with
any POPs chemical.
• Sites contaminated with POPs.
It also requires Parties to take appropriate meas-
ures so that POPs wastes are managed in an
environmentally sound manner.This includes
both destruction and disposal techniques.
Although remediation of contaminated sites is
not required,any such remediation must be per-
formed in an environmentally sound manner.
Financial and Technical
Assistance
The Convention creates a flexible system of
technical and financial aid to help developing
countries and countries with economies in tran-
sition to meet their obligations. Although the
Convention does not create a new fund or
establish specific assessments, developed coun-
tries are to collectively provide new and addi-
tional financial resources.These funds will
enable developing country Parties to meet the
agreed full incremental costs of implementing
measures to fulfill their obligations under the
Convention.On an interim basis, the Convention
designates the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
14
-------
as the primary, but not exclusive,component
of the financial mechanism.The GEF is a
financial mechanism established to address
global environmental threats.
The Convention also specifies that developed
countries provide technical assistance and
capacity building to help developing coun-
tries and countries with economies in transi-
tion meet their obligations.
Process for Adding New
Chemicals
New chemicals can be added to the treaty
based on a scientific review procedure that
involves Parties and interested observers.The
basic steps of the process are as follows:
1. When a Party nominates a chemical, the
proposal is sent to a scientific review com-
mittee comprised of government-
designated experts, who apply the
Convention's screening criteria (for persist-
ence, bioaccumulation,toxicity,and long-
range transport).
2. If the chemical meets the screening crite-
ria, the committee prepares a risk profile
for the chemical.
3. If, on the basis of the risk profile, the com-
mittee finds that the'themical is likely,asa
result of its long-range environmental trans-
port to lead to significant adverse human
health and/or environmental effects such
that global action is warranted/'the com-
mittee prepares a risk management evalua-
tion that considers socio-economic factors.
4. Based on the risk profile and the risk man-
agement evaluation, the review commit-
tee makes a recommendation to the COP
whether the chemical should be listed or
not listed under the Convention.
5. The COP makes the final decision—by
three-fourths majority—as to whether the
chemical will be listed under the
Convention.
The decision of the COP to add a chemical to
the treaty is binding on all Parties 1 year later,
except for (a) Parties that "opt ouf'of this
decision within the 1-year period, or (b)
Parties that choose to invoke a separate "opt
in" procedure under which they are not
bound until they affirmatively accept a new
obligation.
Monitoring Process
The Convention provides for an effectiveness
evaluation, which will begin 4 years after the
Convention enters into force.This evaluation
will be based on a POPs monitoring and data
collection effort that will use existing moni-
toring programs and mechanisms to the
extent possible.
-------
POP
aldrin and dieldrin
The "Dirty Dozen"
Global Historical Use/Source Overview of U.S. Status
Insecticides used on crops such as
corn and cotton; also used for termite
control.
Insecticide used on crops, including
vegetables, small grains, potatoes,
sugarcane, sugar beets,fruits, nuts,
citrus, and cotton. Used on home
lawn and garden pests. Also used
extensively to control termites.
Insecticide used on agricultural crops,
primarily cotton, and insects that carry
diseases such as malaria and typhus.
Insecticide used on crops such as
cotton and grains; also used to control
rodents.
Insecticide used to combat fire ants,
termites, and mealybugs.
Also used as a fire retardant in plastics,
rubber,and electrical products.
Under FIFRA:
• No U.S. registrations; most uses canceled in
1969; all uses by 1987.
• All tolerances on food crops revoked in 1986.
No production, import, or export.
Priority toxic pollutants (CWA).
Under FIFRA:
• No U.S. registrations; most uses canceled in
1978; all uses by 1988.
• All tolerances on food crops revoked in 1986.
No production (stopped in 1997), import, or
export.
Regulated as a hazardous air pollutant (CAA).
Priority toxic pollutant (CWA).
Under FIFRA:
• No U.S. registrations; most uses canceled in
1972; all uses by 1989.
• Tolerances on food crops revoked in 1986.
No U.S. production, import, or export.
DDE (a metabolite of DDT) regulated as a haz-
ardous air pollutant (CAA).
Priority toxic pollutant (CWA).
Under FIFRA, no U.S. registrations; most uses
canceled in 1979;all uses by 1984.
No production, import, or export.
Priority toxic pollutant (CWA).
Under FIFRA, no U.S. registrations; all uses can-
celed in 1977.
No production, import, or export.
-------
POP
Global Historical Use/Source Overview of U.S. Status
heptachlor
hexachlorobenzene
PCBs
toxaphene
dioxinsand furans
Insecticide used primarily against soil
insects and termites. Also used against
some crop pests and to combat malaria.
Fungicide used for seed treatment.
Also an industrial chemical used to make
fireworks,ammunition, synthetic rubber,
and other substances.
Also unintentionally produced during
combustion and the manufacture of
certain chemicals.
Also an impurity in certain pesticides.
Used fora variety of industrial processes
and purposes, including in electrical
transformers and capacitors, as heat
exchange fluids,as paint additives, in
carbonless copy paper, and in plastics.
Also unintentionally produced during
combustion.
Insecticide used to control pests on
crops and livestock,and to kill unwanted
fish in lakes.
Unintentionally produced during most
forms of combustion, including burning
of municipal and medical wastes, back-
yard burning of trash,and industrial
processes.
Also can be found as trace contaminants
in certain herbicides, wood preservatives,
and in PCB mixtures.
Under FIFRA:
• Most uses canceled by 1978; registrant voluntarily
canceled use to control fire ants in underground
cable boxes in early 2000.
• All pesticide tolerances on food crops revoked
in 1989.
No production, import, or export.
Regulated as a hazardous air pollutant (CAA).
Priority toxic pollutant (CWA).
Under FIFRA, no U.S. registrations; all uses canceled
by 1985.
No production, import, or export as a pesticide.
Manufacture and use for chemical intermediate (as
allowed under the Convention).
Regulated as a hazardous air pollutant (CAA).
Priority toxic pollutant (CWA).
Manufacture and new use prohibited in 1978 (TSCA).
Regulated as a hazardous air pollutant (CAA).
Priority toxic pollutant (CWA).
Under FIFRA:
• No U.S. registrations; most uses canceled in 1982;
all uses by 1990.
• All tolerances on food crops revoked in 1993.
No production, import, or export.
Regulated as a hazardous air pollutant (CAA).
Priority toxic pollutant (CWA).
Regulated as hazardous air pollutants (CAA).
Dioxin in the form of 2,3,7,8-TCDD is a priority
toxic pollutant (CWA).
Acronyms:
FIFRA:
Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act
TSCA:
Toxic Substances
Control Act
CAA:
Clean Air Act
CWA:
Clean Water Act
17
-------
What Has the United States Done to Address POPs
The United States has taken a leading role to reduce and/or
eliminate POPs and their releases on a regional and global
basis. In 1997,Canada and the United States signed an agree-
ment for the Virtual Elimination of Persistent Toxic Substances
in the Great Lakes.The strategy sets long-term goals to promote
emissions reductions of toxic substances.
In 1993, Canada, Mexico, and the United States established the
Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) under the
North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation
(NAAEC) to address regional environmental concerns, help pre-
vent potential trade and environmental conflicts, and promote
the effective enforcement of environmental law.The NAAEC
complements the environmental provisions of the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
Under the auspices of the NAAEC, Mexico, Canada, and the
United States have developed a regional initiative on the
sound management of chemicals, which was formally adopt-
ed in October 1995. Under this initiative, the CEC can develop
Regional Action Plans, which identify activities that reduce or
eliminate risks from chemicals of concern.The CEC has
already established such plans for PCBs, DDT, and chlordane
Connecting POPs Managers Via the Internet
In a partnership with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),the United States is providing
Internet access and training to chemical management officials and staff in Africa. Africa was chosen for
initial focus because it is the continent with the lowest Internet connectivity and the greatest need.
However, the project will expand to Central America in the near future. Internet access will assist imple-
mentation of the Stockholm Convention by providing POPs chemical information to decision-makers.
Internet access also will enable chemical and pesticide regulators, as well as health and safety ministries,
to access information on best practices and funding opportunities, and will allow them to promote
regional cooperation and action plan development.
18
K
-------
Globally?
and is developing an action plan for dioxins,
furans, and hexachlorobenzene.
In 1998, the United States signed the legally bind-
ing regional protocol with other member nations
(including European countries, Canada, and
Russia) of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) on POPs under
the Convention on Long-RangeTransboundary
Air Pollution (LRTAP).This agreement seeks to
eliminate production and reduce emissions of
POPs in the UNECE region and addresses the 12
Stockholm Convention POPs and 4 additional
chemicals (hexachlorocyclohexanes, hexabromo-
biphenyl,chlordecone,and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons). Elements from the LRTAP POPs
Protocol were used in negotiations for the
Stockholm Convention.
Other international work has addressed trade in
hazardous substances, some of which are POPs.The
United States,along with 71 other countries and the
European Community, have signed the Rotterdam
Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and
Pesticides in International Trade, building on a 10-
year-old voluntary program.The PIC Convention
identifies pesticides and industrial chemicals of con-
cern, facilitates information sharing about their risks,
and provides countries with an opportunity to
make informed decisions about whether they
should be imported. Some of the POP substances
are already on the PIC list.
The United States has also provided technical and
financial assistance for POPs-related activities to a
variety of countries and regions, including
Mexico, Centra I and South America, Russia, Asia,
and Africa. Examples of this assistance include
development of dioxin and furan release invento-
ries in Russia and Asia, the Chemicals Information
Exchange and Networking Project for chemicals
managers in targeted countries in Africa and
Central America, the destruction of pesticide
stockpiles in Africa and Russia, and the reduction
of PCB sources in Russia.
PCBs in Russia
The United States has funded a project in Russia to address environmental prob-
lems resulting from the manufacture and industrial use of PCBs. Partners in this
effort include Norway, Denmark, Sweden, the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), and the Arctic Council.The project aims to reduce emissions of PCBs and enable
Russia to meet the requirements of both the Stockholm Convention and the LRTAP POPs Protocol.
The project involved conducting a PCB inventory, the results of which were presented at an official cere-
mony at the Norwegian Embassy in Moscow in September 2000. It will also entail a demonstration project
to evaluate and showcase a selected PCB destruction technology.
19
-------
Resources
The following resources, many of which are referenced in this booklet, provide more information
on POPs, the Stockholm Convention, and the U.S. role in POPs reduction and elimination.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Search under the following key words (in bold):
Air: Office of Air and Radiation - Develops national pro-
grams, technical policies,and regulations for controlling
air pollution and radiation exposure.
Cleanup: Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response - Conducts and supervises investigation and
cleanup actions at active and abandoned waste sites,
where oil or hazardous chemicals have been or are
threatened to be released into the environment, and
where aboveground and underground storage tanks
have leaked.
International: Office of International Affairs - Manages
EPA's involvement in international policies and pro-
grams; provides leadership and coordination on behalf
of the Agency; and acts as the focal point on interna-
tional matters.
Pesticides: Office of Pesticide Programs - Evaluates
potential new pesticides and use; reviews older pesti-
cides; promotes reduced-risk pesticides and pesticide
management alternatives;communicates safe practices.
Pollutants/Toxics: Office of Pollution Prevention and
Toxics - Promotes pollution prevention, safer chemicals,
risk reduction, and public understanding of risks.
Research: Office of Research and Development -
The office's National Center for Environmental
Assessment (NCEA) developed the Foundation for
Global Action on POPs: A United States Perspective, a
report on the current science of POPs.To view the
report, visit .
Waste: Office of Solid Waste - Operates under authority
of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act to pro-
tect human health and the environment by ensuring
responsible national management of hazardous and
nonhazardous waste.
Water: Office of Water - Protects U.S. waters and devel-
ops consumption advisories for fish and wildlife. To
review advisories, visit .
Great Lakes National Program Office - Based in
Chicago, works with Canada and EPA Regions 2,3, and 5
to address Great Lake issues; communicates informa-
tion about the Great Lakes ecosystem and human
health; and conducts monitoring and other activities.
EPA Region 2 -Serving New Jersey, New York, Puerto
Rico,and the U.S.Virgin Islands.
EPA Region 3 - Serving Delaware, Maryland,
Pennsylvania,Virginia,West Virginia,and the District of
Columbia.
EPA Region 5 - Serving Illinois, Indiana,Ohio, Michigan,
Minnesota,and Wisconsin.
EPA Region 10 - Serving Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and
Washington.
Other Resources
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Chemicals Programme:
United States Department of State, Bureau of Oceans
and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs:
Great Lakes
Great Lakes Information Net work:
International Joint Commission:
Alaska and the Arctic
Arctic Council:
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme:
20
-------
A History of Global Action
The Stockholm
Convention is not the first
international effort to
address transboundary
pollution or POPs. During
the past several decades,
many actions focusing on
POPs have been taken
around the globe.
1979
Recognizing the importance of addressing transboundary
pollution, member countries of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) sign the
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
(LRTAP). Initially directed at controlling sulfur and acid rain
pollution, LRTAP will later address POPs as well (see 1998).
The Basel Convention, designed
to reduce cross-border move-
ments of hazardous waste, is
adopted.The Convention also
focuses on improving controls on
the movement of waste, including
some POPs waste, preventing
1993
The Commission for
Environmental Cooperation
(CEC) is established under
the North American
Agreement on
Environmental
Cooperation
(NAAEC).
1995
The Washington Declaration on Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-Based Activities is passed.The Inter-
Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals
releases the POPs Assessment Report.
The Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) passes a
resolution on the sound management of chemicals, directing
the development of North American Regional Action Plans and
other actions to address certain POPs.
In Aarhus, Denmark, the United States and other member
countries of the UNECE sign the Persistent Organic
Pollutants Protocol under the Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP).
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed
Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade is signed.
-------
illegal traffic, and ensuring that
waste is disposed of as close as
possible to its source.
The eight Arctic countries (Canada, Denmark, Greenland,
Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Russian Federation, and the
United States) meet for the First Arctic Ministerial
Conference.The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy
is developed, and the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Programme (AMAP) is established.
1997
Rio Earth Summit convenes
and adopts Agenda 21, creat-
ing the Intergovernmental
Forum on Chemical Safety
(IFCS).
The Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS)
convenes in Canberra, Australia, and IFCS Experts Meeting on
POPs is held in Manila, Philippines, to discuss global actions.
The Arctic Council is established.
2000
United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) POPs
negotiations culminate in an
agreement reached in
Johannesburg, South Africa.
United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) Governing
Council organizes sessions and
workshops to develop international
strategies to reduce or eliminate POPs.
The Canada-United States Strategy for
the Virtual Elimination of Persistent
Toxic Substances in the Great Lakes is
established.
The United States, 90 other
countries, and the European
Community sign the
Stockholm Convention on
Persistent Organic
Pollutants in Stockholm,
Sweden.
-------
POPs chemicals threaten human health and the environment all
over the world. The United States is committed to addressing
POPs in cooperation with other countries. Together, we can find
global solutions for this global problem.
-------
£
LU
o
03
^
C
.0
i
CL
"CO 00
4—> *—
£ £>
03 it
E <
c -=
0 ™
i— C
> o
C '4=
LU CO
~: c
w ^
03 03
-F^ -^^
CO C
00^
"S 03
is o
c st
=) O
^
>
2
0"
13
C
0 O
5 CO
Q
>,
00 r-"
,11 i^
F °
C -i-j
^-^ 03 CD
CE CL c
o o ^z
SPl
------- |